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diff --git a/40009.txt b/40009.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b0b3686..0000000 --- a/40009.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18986 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 14, Slice 5, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 14, Slice 5 - "Indole" to "Insanity" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: June 16, 2012 [EBook #40009] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [oo] for infinity; [Pd] for - Partial derivative; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE INDULGENCE: "... his standpoint is frankly non-Catholic, - but he gives ample materials for judgment." 'is' amended from 'in'. - - ARTICLE INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS: "... for himself by the aid of a - diagram drawn by Pascal in a demonstration of the formula for the - area of a spherical surface." 'demonstration' amended from - 'demonstation'. - - ARTICLE INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS: "... The discoveries 543 of Brook - Taylor and Colin Maclaurin were absorbed into the rapidly growing - continental analysis" 'Colin' amended from 'Colon'. - - ARTICLE INSANITY: "... the suggestion of utterly absurd commercial - schemes, or attempts at feats beyond his physical powers." - 'commercial' amended from 'commerical'. - - ARTICLE INSANITY: "Finally, chronic morphia intoxication produces - mental symptoms very similar to those of chronic alcoholism." - 'symptoms' amended from 'symptons'. - - ARTICLE INSANITY: "... and wherein the percentage of recoveries - will be larger than in asylums and hospitals as now conducted." - 'percentage' amended from 'precentage'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XIV, SLICE V - - Indole to Insanity - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - INDOLE INGEMANN, BERNHARD SEVERIN - INDONESIAN INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN - INDORE INGERSOLL - INDORSEMENT INGHAM, CHARLES CROMWELL - INDO-SCYTHIANS INGHIRAMI - INDRA INGLEBY, CLEMENT MANSFIELD - INDRE INGLEFIELD, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS - INDRE-ET-LOIRE INGLE-NOOK - INDRI INGLIS, SIR JOHN EARDLEY WILMOT - INDUCTION INGLIS, SIR WILLIAM - INDUCTION COIL INGOLSTADT - INDULGENCE INGOT - INDULINES INGRAM, JAMES - INDULT INGRAM, JOHN KELLS - INDUNA INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE - INDUS INGRESS - INDUSTRIA INHAMBANE - INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL INHERITANCE - INDUSTRY INHIBITION - INE INISFAIL - INEBOLI INITIALS - INEBRIETY, LAW OF INITIATION - INFALLIBILITY INJECTOR - INFAMY INJUNCTION - INFANCY INK - INFANT INKERMAN, BATTLE OF - INFANTE INLAYING - INFANTICIDE INMAN, HENRY - INFANTRY INN (river of Europe) - INFANT SCHOOLS INN and INNKEEPER - INFINITE INNERLEITHEN - INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS INNESS, GEORGE - INFINITIVE INNOCENT - INFLEXION INNOCENTS' DAY - INFLUENCE INNSBRUCK - INFLUENZA INNS OF COURT - IN FORMA PAUPERIS INNUENDO - INFORMATION INOUYE, KAORU, MARQUESS - INFORMER INOWRAZLAW - INFUSORIA INQUEST - INGEBORG INQUISITION, THE - INGELHEIM INSANITY - INGELOW, JEAN - - - - -INDOLE, or BENZOPYRROL, C8H7N, a substance first prepared by A. Baeyer -in 1868. It may be synthetically obtained by distilling oxindole -(C8H8NO) with zinc dust; by heating ortho-nitrocinnamic acid with potash -and iron filings; by the reduction of indigo blue; by the action of -sodium ethylate on ortho-aminochlorstyrene; by boiling aniline with -dichloracetaldehyde; by the dry distillation of ortho-tolyloxamic acid; -by heating aniline with dichloracetal; by distilling a mixture of -calcium formate and calcium anilidoacetate; and by heating pyruvic acid -phenyl hydrazone with anhydrous zinc chloride. It is also formed in the -pancreatic fermentation of albumen, and, in small quantities, by passing -the vapours of mono- and dialkyl-anilines through a red-hot tube. It -crystallizes in shining leaflets, which melt at 52 deg. C. and boil at -245 deg. C. (with decomposition), and is volatile in a current of steam. -It is a feeble base, and gives a cherry-red coloration with a pine -shaving. Many derivatives of indole are known. B-methylindol or skatole -occurs in human faeces. - - - - -INDONESIAN, a term invented by James Richardson Logan to describe the -light-coloured non-Malay inhabitants of the Eastern Archipelago. It now -denotes all those peoples of Malaysia and Polynesia who are not to be -classified as Malays or Papuans, but are of Caucasic type. Among these -are the Battaks of north Sumatra; many of the Bornean Dyaks and -Philippine Islanders, and the large brown race of east Polynesia which -includes Samoans, Maoris, Tongans, Tahitians, Marquesas Islanders and -the Hawaiians. - - See J. Richardson Logan, _The Languages and Ethnology of the Indian - Archipelago_ (1857). - - - - -INDORE, a native state of India in the central India agency, comprising -the dominions of the Maharaja Holkar. Its area, exclusive of guaranteed -holdings on which it has claims, is 9500 sq. m. and the population in -1901 was 850,690, showing a decrease of 23% in the decade, owing to the -results of famine. As in the case of most states in central India the -territory is not homogeneous, but distributed over several political -charges. It has portions in four out of the seven charges of central -India, and in one small portion in the Rajputana agency. The Vindhya -range traverses the S. division of the state in a direction from east to -west, a small part of the territory lying to the north of the mountains, -but by much the larger part to the south. The latter is a portion of the -valley of the Nerbudda, and is bounded on the south by the Satpura -hills. Basalt and other volcanic formations predominate in both ranges, -although there is also much sandstone. The Nerbudda flows through the -state; and the valley at Mandlesar, in the central part, is between 600 -and 700 ft. above the sea. The revenue is estimated at L350,000. The -metre gauge railway from Khandwa to Mhow and Indore city, continued to -Neemuch and Ajmere, was constructed in 1876. - -The state had its origin in an assignment of lands made early in the -18th century to Malhar Rao Holkar, who held a command in the army of the -Mahratta Peshwa. Of the Dhangar or shepherd caste, he was born in 1694 -at the village of Hol near Poona, and from this circumstance the family -derives its surname of Holkar. Before his death in 1766 Malhar Rao had -added to his assignment large territorial possessions acquired by his -armed power during the confusion of the period. By the end of that -century the rulership had passed to another leader of the same clan, -Tukoji Holkar, whose son, Jaswant Rao, took an important part in the -contest for predominance in the Mahratta confederation. He did not, -however, join the combined army of Sindha and the raja of Berar in their -war against the British in 1803, though after its termination he -provoked hostilities which led to his complete discomfiture. At first he -defeated a British force that had marched against him under Colonel -Monson; but when he made an inroad into British territory he was -completely defeated by Lord Lake, and compelled to sign a treaty which -deprived him of a large portion of his possessions. After his death his -favourite mistress, Tulsi Bai, assumed the regency, until in 1817 she -was murdered by the military commanders of the Indore troops, who -declared for the peshwa on his rupture with the British government. -After their defeat at Mehidpur in 1818, the state submitted by treaty to -the loss of more territory, transferred to the British government its -suzerainty over a number of minor tributary states, and acknowledged the -British protectorate. For many years afterwards the administration of -the Holkar princes was troubled by intestine quarrels, misrule and -dynastic contentions, necessitating the frequent interposition of -British authority; and in 1857 the army, breaking away from the chief's -control, besieged the British residency, and took advantage of the -mutiny of the Bengal sepoys to spread disorder over that part of central -India. The country was pacified after some fighting. In 1899 a British -resident was appointed to Indore, which had formerly been directly under -the agent to the governor-general in central India. At the same time a -change was made in the system of administration, which was from that -date carried on by a council. In 1903 the Maharaja, Shivaji Rao Holkar, -G.C.S.I., abdicated in favour of his son Tukoji Rao, a boy of twelve, -and died in 1908. - -The CITY OF INDORE is situated 1738 ft. above the sea, on the river -Saraswati, near its junction with the Khan. Pop. (1901) 86,686. These -figures do not include the tract assigned to the resident, known as "the -camp" (pop. 11,118), which is under British administration. The city is -one of the most important trading centres in central India. - -INDORE RESIDENCY, a political charge in central India, is not -co-extensive with the state, though it includes all of it except some -outlying tracts. Area, 8960 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 833,410. (J. S. Co.) - - - - -INDORSEMENT, or ENDORSEMENT (from Med. Lat. _indorsare_, to write upon -the _dorsum_, or back), anything written or printed upon the back of a -document. In its technical sense, it is the writing upon a bill of -exchange, cheque or other negotiable instrument, by one who has a right -to the instrument and who thereby transmits the right and incurs certain -liabilities. See BILL OF EXCHANGE. - - - - -INDO-SCYTHIANS, a name commonly given to various tribes from central -Asia, who invaded northern India and founded kingdoms there. They -comprise the Sakas, the Yue-Chi or Kushans and the Ephthalites or Hunas. - - - - -INDRA, in early Hindu mythology, god of the clear sky and greatest of -the Vedic deities. The origin of the name is doubtful, but is by some -connected with _indu_, drop. His importance is shown by the fact that -about 250 hymns celebrate his greatness, nearly one-fourth of the total -number in the Rig Veda. He is represented as specially lord of the -elements, the thunder-god. But Indra was more than a great god in the -ancient Vedic pantheon. He is the patron-deity of the invading Aryan -race in India, the god of battle to whose help they look in their -struggles with the dark aborigines. Indra is the child of Dyaus, the -Heaven. In Indian art he is represented as a man with four arms and -hands; in two he holds a lance and in the third a thunderbolt. He is -often painted with eyes all over his body and then he is called -Sahasraksha, "the thousand eyed." He lost much of his supremacy when the -triad Brahma, Siva and Vishnu became predominant. He gradually became -identified merely with the headship of Swarga, a local vice-regent of -the abode of the gods. - - See A. A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_ (Strassburg, 1897). - - - - -INDRE, a department of central France, formed in 1790 from parts of the -old provinces of Berry, Orleanais, Marche and Touraine. Pop. (1906) -290,216. Area 2666 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of -Loir-et-Cher, E. by Cher, S. by Creuse and Haute-Vienne, S.W. by Vienne -and N.W. by Indre-et-Loire. It takes its name from the river Indre, -which flows through it. The surface forms a vast plateau divided into -three districts, the Boischaut, Champagne and Brenne. The Boischaut is a -large well-wooded plain comprising seven-tenths of the entire area and -covering the south, east and centre of the department. The Champagne, a -monotonous but fertile district in the north, produces abundant cereal -crops, and affords excellent pasturage for large numbers of sheep, -celebrated for the fineness of their wool. The Brenne, which occupies -the west of the department, was formerly marshy and unhealthy, but -draining and afforestation have brought about considerable improvement. - -The department is divided into the arrondissements of Chateauroux, Le -Blanc, La Chatre and Issoudun, with 23 cantons and 245 communes. At -Neuvy-St-Sepulchre there is a circular church of the 11th century, to -which a nave was added in the 12th century, and at Mezieres-en-Brenne -there is an interesting church of the 14th century. At Levroux there is -a fine church of the 13th century and the remains of a feudal fortress, -and there is a magnificent chateau in the Renaissance style at Valencay. - - - - -INDRE-ET-LOIRE, a department of central France, consisting of nearly the -whole of the old province of Touraine and of small portions of -Orleanais, Anjou and Poitou. Pop. (1906) 337,916. Area 2377 sq. m. It is -bounded N. by the departments of Sarthe and Loir-et-Cher, E. by -Loir-et-Cher and Indre, S. and S.W. by Vienne and W. by Maine-et-Loire. -It takes its name from the Loire and its tributary the Indre, which -enter it on its eastern border and unite not far from its western -border. The other chief affluents of the Loire in the department are the -Cher, which joins it below Tours, and the Vienne, which waters the -department's southern region. Indre-et-Loire is generally level and -comprises the following districts: the Gatine, a pebbly and sterile -region to the north of the Loire, largely consisting of forests and -heaths with numerous small lakes; the fertile Varenne or valley of the -Loire; the Champeigne, a chain of vine-clad slopes, separating the -valleys of the Cher and Indre; the Veron, a region of vines and -orchards, in the angle formed by the Loire and Vienne; the plateau of -Sainte-Maure, a hilly and unproductive district in the centre of which -are found extensive deposits of shell-marl; and in the south the Brenne, -traversed by the Claise and the Creuse and forming part of the marshy -territory which extends under the same name into Indre. - -Indre-et-Loire is divided into the arrondissements of Tours, Loches and -Chinon, with 24 cantons and 282 communes. The chief town is Tours, which -is the seat of an archbishopric; and Chinon, Loches, Amboise, -Chenonceaux, Langeais and Azay-le-Rideau are also important places with -chateaus. The Renaissance chateau of Usse, and those of Luynes (15th and -16th centuries) and Pressigny-le-Grand (17th century) are also of note. -Montbazon possesses the imposing ruins of a square donjon of the 11th -and 12th centuries. Preuilly has the most beautiful Romanesque church in -Touraine. The Sainte Chapelle (16th century) at Champigny is a survival -of a chateau of the dukes of Bourbon-Montpensier. The church of -Montresor (1532) with its mausoleum of the family of Montresor; that of -St Denis-Hors (12th and 16th century) close to Amboise, with the curious -mausoleum of Philibert Babou, minister of finance under Francis I. and -Henry II.; and that of Ste Catherine de Fierbois, of the 15th century, -are of architectural interest. The town of Richelieu, founded 1631 by -the famous minister of Louis XIII., preserves the enceinte and many of -the buildings of the 17th century. Megalithic monuments are numerous in -the department. - - - - -INDRI, a Malagasy word believed to mean "there it goes," but now -accepted as the designation of the largest of the existing Malagasy (and -indeed of all) lemurs. Belonging to the family _Lemuridae_ (see -PRIMATES) it typifies the subfamily _Indrisinae_, which includes the -avahi and the sifakas (q.v.). From both the latter it is distinguished -by its rudimentary tail, measuring only a couple of inches in length, -whence its name of _Indris brevicaudatus_. Measuring about 24 in. in -length, exclusive of the tail, the indri varies considerably in colour, -but is usually black, with a variable number of whitish patches, chiefly -about the loins and on the fore-limbs. The forests of a comparatively -small tract on the east coast of Madagascar form its home. Shoots, -flowers and berries form the food of the indri, which was first -discovered by the French traveller and naturalist Pierre Sonnerat in -1780. (R. L.*) - - - - -INDUCTION (from Lat. _inducere_, to lead into; cf. Gr. [Greek: -epagoge]), in logic, the term applied to the process of discovering -principles by the observation and combination of particular instances. -Aristotle, who did so much to establish the laws of deductive reasoning, -neglected induction, which he identified with a complete enumeration of -facts; and the schoolmen were wholly concerned with syllogistic logic. A -new era opens with Bacon, whose writings all preach the principle of -investigating the laws of nature with the purpose of improving the -conditions of human life. Unluckily his mind was still enslaved by the -formulae of the quasi-mechanical scholastic logic. He supposed that -natural laws would disclose themselves by the accumulation and due -arrangement of instances without any need for original speculation on -the part of the investigator. In his _Novum Organum_ there are -directions for drawing up the various kinds of lists of instances. For -two hundred years after Bacon's death little was done towards the theory -of induction; the reason being, probably, that the practical scientists -knew no logic, while the university logicians, with their conservative -devotion to the syllogism, knew no science. Whewell's _Philosophy of the -Inductive Sciences_ (1840), the work of a thoroughly equipped scientist, -if not of a great philosopher, shows due appreciation of the cardinal -point neglected by Bacon, the function of theorizing in inductive -research. He saw that science advances only in so far as the mind of the -inquirer is able to suggest organizing ideas whereby our observations -and experiments are colligated into intelligible system. In this respect -J. S. Mill is inferior to Whewell: throughout his _System of Logic_ -(1843) he ignores the constitutive work of the mind, and regards -knowledge as the merely passive reception of sensuous impressions. His -work was intended mainly to reduce the procedure of induction to a -regular demonstrative system like that of the syllogism; and it was for -this purpose that he formulated his famous Four Methods of Experimental -Inquiry. His work has contributed greatly to the systematic treatment of -induction. But it must be remarked that his Four Methods are not methods -of formal proof, as their author supposed, but methods whereby -hypotheses are suggested or tested. The actual proof of an hypothesis is -never formal, but always lies in the tests of experiment or observation -to which it is subjected. - -The current theory of induction as set forth in the standard works is so -far satisfactory that it combines the merit of Whewell's treatment with -that of Mill's; and yet it is plain that there is much for the logician -of the future to accomplish. The most important faculty in scientific -inquiry is the faculty of suggesting new and valuable hypotheses. But no -one has ever given any explanation how the hypotheses arise in the mind: -we attribute it to "genius," which, of course, is no explanation at all. -The logic of discovery, in the higher sense of the term, simply has no -existence. Another important but neglected province of the subject is -the relation of scientific induction to the inductions of everyday life. -There are some who think that a study of this relation would quite -transform the accepted view of induction. Consider such a piece of -reasoning as may be heard any day in a court of justice, a detective who -explains how in his opinion a certain burglary was effected. If all -reasoning is either deductive or inductive, this must be induction. And -yet it does not answer to the accepted definition of induction, "the -process of discovering a general principle by observation of particular -instances": what the detective does is to reconstruct a particular -crime; he evolves no general principle. Such reasoning is used by every -man in every hour of his life: by it we understand what people are doing -around us, and what is the meaning of the sense-impressions which we -receive. In the logic of the future it will probably be recognized that -scientific induction is only one form of this universal constructive or -reconstructive faculty. Another most important question closely akin to -that just mentioned is the true relation between these reasoning -processes and our general life as active intelligent beings. How is it -that the detective is able to understand the burglar's plan of -action?--the military commander to forecast the enemy's plan of -campaign? Primarily, because he himself is capable of making such plans. -Men as active creatures co-operating with their fellow-men are -incessantly engaged in forming plans and in apprehending the plans of -those around them. Every plan may be viewed as a form of induction; it -is a scheme invented to meet a given situation, an hypothesis which is -put to the test of events, and is verified or refuted by practical -success or failure. Such considerations widen still farther our view of -scientific induction and help us to understand its relation to ordinary -human thought and activity. The scientific investigator in his inductive -stage is endeavouring to make out the plan on which his material is -constructed. The phenomena serve as indications to help him in framing -his hypothesis, generally a guess at first, which he proceeds to verify -by experiment and the collection of additional facts. In the deductive -stage he assumes that he has made out the plan and can apply it to the -discovery of further detail. He has the capacity of detecting plans in -nature because he is wont to form plans for practical purposes. - - There are good recent accounts of induction in Welton's _Manual of - Logic_, ii., in H. W. B. Joseph's _Introduction to Logic_, and in W. - R. Boyce Gibson's _Problem of Logic_; see also LOGIC. (H. St.) - - - - -INDUCTION COIL, an electrical instrument consisting of two coils of wire -wound one over the other upon a core consisting of a bundle of iron -wires. One of these circuits is called the primary circuit and the other -the secondary circuit. If an alternating or intermittent continuous -current is passed through the primary circuit, it creates an alternating -or intermittent magnetization in the iron core, and this in turn creates -in the secondary circuit a secondary current which is called the induced -current. For most purposes an induction coil is required which is -capable of giving in the secondary circuit intermittent currents of very -high electromotive force, and to attain this result the secondary -circuit must as a rule consist of a very large number of turns of wire. -Induction coils are employed for physiological purposes and also in -connexion with telephones, but their great use at the present time is in -connexion with the production of high frequency electric currents, for -Rontgen ray work and wireless telegraphy. - - - Early history. - -The instrument began to be developed soon after Faraday's discovery of -induced currents in 1831, and the subsequent researches of Joseph Henry, -C. G. Page and W. Sturgeon on the induction of a current. N. J. Callan -described in 1836 the construction of an electromagnet with two separate -insulated wires, one thick and the other thin, wound on an iron core -together. He provided the primary circuit of this instrument with an -interrupter, and found that when the primary current was rapidly -intermitted, a series of secondary currents was induced in the fine -wire, of high electromotive force and considerable strength. Sturgeon in -1837 constructed a similar coil, and provided the primary circuit with a -mercury interrupter operated by hand. Various other experimentalists -took up the construction of the induction coil, and to G. H. Bachhoffner -is due the suggestion of employing an iron core made of a bundle of fine -iron wires. At a somewhat later date Callan constructed a very large -induction coil containing a secondary circuit of very great length of -wire. C. G. Page and J. H. Abbot in the United States, between 1838 and -1840, also constructed some large induction coils.[1] In all these cases -the primary circuit was interrupted by a mechanically worked -interrupter. On the continent of Europe the invention of the automatic -primary circuit interrupter is generally attributed to C. E. Neeff and -to J. P. Wagner, but it is probable that J. W. M'Gauley, of Dublin, -independently invented the form of hammer break now employed. In this -break the magnetization of the iron core by the primary current is made -to attract an iron block fixed to the end of a spring, in such a way -that two platinum points are separated and the primary circuit thus -interrupted. It was not until 1853 that H. L. Fizeau added to the break -the condenser which greatly improved the operation of the coil. It 1851 -H. D. Ruhmkorff (1803-1877), an instrument-maker in Paris, profiting by -all previous experience, addressed himself to the problem of increasing -the electromotive force in the secondary circuit, and induction coils -with a secondary circuit of long fine wire have generally, but -unnecessarily, been called Ruhmkorff coils. Ruhmkorff, however, greatly -lengthened the secondary circuit, employing in some coils 5 or 6 m. of -wire. The secondary wire was insulated with silk and shellac varnish, -and each layer of wire was separated from the next by means of varnished -silk or shellac paper; the secondary circuit was also carefully -insulated from the primary circuit by a glass tube. Ruhmkorff, by -providing with his coil an automatic break of the hammer type, and -equipping it with a condenser as suggested by Fizeau, arrived at the -modern form of induction coil. J. N. Hearder in England and E. S. -Ritchie in the United States began the construction of large coils, the -last named constructing a specially large one to the order of J. P. -Gassiot in 1858. In the following decade A. Apps devoted great attention -to the production of large induction coils, constructing some of the -most powerful coils in existence, and introduced the important -improvement of making the secondary circuit of numerous flat coils of -wire insulated by varnished or paraffined paper. In 1869 he built for -the old Polytechnic Institution in London a coil having a secondary -circuit 150 m. in length. The diameter of the wire was 0.014 in., and -the secondary bobbin when complete had an external diameter of 2 ft. and -a length of 4 ft. 10 ins. The primary bobbin weighed 145 lb., and -consisted of 6000 turns of copper wire 3770 yds. in length, the wire -being .095 of an inch in diameter. Excited by the current from 40 large -Bunsen cells, this coil could give secondary sparks 30 in. in length. -Subsequently, in 1876, Apps constructed a still larger coil for William -Spottiswoode, which is now in the possession of the Royal Institution. -The secondary circuit consisted of 280 m. of copper wire about 0.01 of -an inch in diameter, forming a cylinder 37 in. long and 20 in. in -external diameter; it was wound in flat disks in a large number of -separate sections, the total number of turns being 341,850. Various -primary circuits were employed with this coil, which when at its best -could give a spark of 42 in. in length. - - - Construction. - -A general description of the mode of constructing a modern induction -coil, such as is used for wireless telegraphy or Rontgen ray apparatus, -is as follows: The iron core consists of a bundle of soft iron wires -inserted in the interior of an ebonite tube. On the outside of this tube -is wound the primary circuit, which generally consists of several -distinct wires capable of being joined either in series or parallel as -required. Over the primary circuit is placed another thick ebonite tube, -the thickness of the walls of which is proportional to the -spark-producing power of the secondary circuit. The primary coil must be -wholly enclosed in ebonite, and the tube containing it is generally -longer than the secondary bobbin. The second circuit consists of a -number of flat coils wound up between paraffined or shellaced paper, -much as a sailor coils a rope. It is essential that no joints in this -wire shall occur in inaccessible places in the interior. A machine has -been devised by Leslie Miller for winding secondary circuits in flat -sections without any joints in the wire at all (British Patent, No. -5811, 1903). A coil intended to give a 10 or 12 in. spark is generally -wound in this fashion in several hundred sections, the object of this -mode of division being to prevent any two parts of the secondary circuit -which are at great differences of potential from being near to one -another, unless effectively insulated by a sufficient thickness of -shellaced or paraffined paper. A 10-in. coil, a size very commonly used -for Rontgen ray work or wireless telegraphy, has an iron core made of a -bundle of soft iron wires No. 22 S.W.G., 2 in. in diameter and 18 in. in -length. The primary coil wound over this core consists of No. 14 S.W.G. -copper wire, insulated with white silk laid on in three layers and -having a resistance of about half an ohm. The insulating ebonite tube -for such a coil should not be less than 1/4 in. in thickness, and should -have two ebonite cheeks on it placed 14 in. apart. This tube is -supported on two hollow pedestals down which the ends of the primary -wire are brought. The secondary coil consists of No. 36 or No. 32 -silk-covered copper wire, and each of the sections is prepared by -winding, in a suitable winding machine, a flat coiled wire in such a way -that the two ends of the coil are on the outside. The coil should not be -wound in less than a hundred sections, and a larger number would be -still better. The adjacent ends of consecutive sections are soldered -together and insulated, and the whole secondary coil should be immersed -in paraffin wax. The completed coil (fig. 1) is covered with a sheet of -ebonite and mounted on a base board which, in some cases, contains the -primary condenser within it and carries on its upper surface a hammer -break. For many purposes, however, it is better to separate the -condenser and the break from the coil. Assuming that a hammer break is -employed, it is generally of the Apps form. The interruption of the -primary circuit is made between two contact studs which ought to be of -massive platinum, and across the break points is joined the primary -condenser. This consists of a number of sheets of paraffined paper -interposed between sheets of tin foil, alternate sheets of the tin foil -being joined together (see Leyden Jar). This condenser serves to quench -the break spark. If the primary condenser is not inserted, the arc or -spark which takes place at the contact points prolongs the fall of -magnetism in the core, and since the secondary electromotive force is -proportional to the rate at which this magnetism changes, the secondary -electromotive force is greatly reduced by the presence of an arc-spark -at the contact points. The primary condenser therefore serves to -increase the suddenness with which the primary current is interrupted, -and so greatly increases the electromotive force in the secondary -circuit. Lord Rayleigh showed (_Phil. Mag._, 1901, 581) that if the -primary circuit is interrupted with sufficient suddenness, as for -instance if it is severed by a bullet from a gun, then no condenser is -needed. No current flows in the secondary circuit so long as a steady -direct current is passing through the primary, but at the moments that -the primary circuit is closed and opened two electromotive forces are -set up in the secondary; these are opposite in direction, the one -induced by the breaking of the primary circuit being by far the -stronger. Hence the necessity for some form of circuit breaker, by the -continuous action of which there results a series of discharges from one -secondary terminal to the other in the form of sparks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - - - Interrupters or Breaks. - -The hammer break is somewhat irregular in action and gives a good deal -of trouble in prolonged use; hence many other forms of primary circuit -interrupters have been devised. These may be classified as (1) hand- or -motor-worked dipping interrupters employing mercury or platinum -contacts; (2) turbine mercury interrupters; (3) electrolytic -interrupters. In the first class a steel or platinum point, operated by -hand or by a motor, is periodically immersed in mercury and so serves to -close the primary circuit. To prevent oxidation of the mercury by the -spark and break it must be covered with oil or alcohol. In some cases -the interruption is caused by the continuous rotation of a motor either -working an eccentric which operates the plunger, or, as in the -Mackenzie-Davidson break, rotating a slate disk having a metal stud on -its surface, which is thus periodically immersed in mercury in a vessel. -A better class of interrupter is the mercury turbine interrupter. In -this some form of rotating turbine pump pumps mercury from a vessel and -squirts it in a jet against a copper plate. Either the copper plate or -the jet is made to revolve rapidly by a motor, so that the jet by turns -impinges against the plate and escapes it; the mercury and plate are -both covered with a deep layer of alcohol or paraffin oil, so that the -jet is immersed in an insulating fluid. In a recent form the chamber in -which the jet works is filled with coal gas. The current supplied to the -primary circuit of the coil travels from the mercury in the vessel -through the jet to the copper plate, and hence is periodically -interrupted when the jet does not impinge against the plate. Mercury -turbine breaks are much employed in connexion with large induction coils -used for wireless telegraphy on account of their regular action and the -fact that the number of interruptions per second can be controlled -easily by regulating the speed of the motor which rotates the jet. But -all mercury breaks employing paraffin or alcohol as an insulating medium -are somewhat troublesome to use because of the necessity of periodically -cleaning the mercury. Electrolytic interrupters were first brought to -notice by Dr A. R. B. Wehnelt in 1898 (_Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift_, -January 20th, 1899). He showed that if a large lead plate was placed in -dilute sulphuric acid as a cathode, and a thick platinum wire protruding -for a distance of about one millimetre beyond a glass or porcelain tube -into which it tightly fitted was used as an anode, such an arrangement -when inserted in the circuit of a primary coil gave rise to a rapid -intermittency in the primary current. It is essential that the platinum -wire should be the anode or positive pole. The frequency of the Wehnelt -break can be adjusted by regulating the extent to which the platinum -wire protrudes through the porcelain tube, and in modern electrolytic -breaks several platinum anodes are employed. This break can be employed -with any voltage between 30 and 250. The Caldwell interrupter, a -modification of the Wehnelt break, consists of two electrodes immersed -in dilute sulphuric acid, one of them being enclosed by a glass vessel -which has a small hole in it capable of being more or less closed by a -tapered glass plug. It differs from the Wehnelt break in that there is -no platinum to wear away and it requires less current; hence finer -regulation of the coil to the current can be obtained. It will also work -with either direct or alternating currents. The hammer and mercury -turbine breaks can be arranged to give interruptions from about 10 per -second up to about 50 or 60. The electrolytic breaks are capable of -working at a higher speed, and under some conditions will give -interruptions up to a thousand per second. If the secondary terminals of -the induction coils are connected to spark balls placed a short distance -apart, then with an electrolytic break the discharge has a flame-like -character resembling an alternating current arc. This type of break is -therefore preferred for Rontgen ray work since it makes less flickering -upon the screen, but its advantages in the case of wireless telegraphy -are not so marked. In the Grisson interrupter the primary circuit of the -induction coil is divided into two parts by a middle terminal, so that a -current flowing in at this point and dividing equally between the two -halves does not magnetize the iron. This terminal is connected to one -pole of the battery, the other two terminals being connected alternately -to the opposite pole by means of a revolving commutator which (1) passes -a current through one half of the primary, thus magnetizing the core; -(2) passes a current through both halves in opposite directions, thus -annulling the magnetization; (3) passes a current through the second -half of the primary, thus reversing the magnetization of the core; and -(4) passes a current in both halves through opposite directions, thus -again annulling the magnetization. As this series of operations can be -performed without interrupting a large current through the inductive -circuit there is not much spark at the commutator, and the speed of -commutation can be regulated so as to obtain the best results due to a -resonance between the primary and secondary circuits. Another device due -to Grisson is the electrolytic condenser interrupter. If a plate of -aluminium and one of carbon or iron is placed in an electrolyte yielding -oxygen, this aluminium-carbon or aluminium-iron cell can pass current in -one direction but not in the other. Much greater resistance is -experienced by a current flowing from the aluminium to the iron than in -the opposite direction, owing to the formation of a film of aluminic -hydroxide on the aluminium. If then a cell consisting of a number of -aluminium plates alternating with iron plates or carbon in alkaline -solution is inserted in the primary circuit of an induction coil, the -application of an electromotive force in the right direction will cause -a transitory current to flow through the coil until the electrolytic -condenser is charged. By the use of a proper commutator the position of -the electrolytic cell in the circuit can be reversed and another -transitory primary current created. This interrupted flow of electricity -through the primary circuit provides the intermittent magnetization of -the core necessary to produce the secondary electromotive force. This -operation of commutation can be conducted without much spark at the -commutator because the circuit is interrupted at the time when there is -no current in it. In the case of the electrolytic condenser no -supplementary paraffined paper condenser is necessary as in the case of -the hammer or mercury interrupters. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Arrangements for producing High Frequency -Currents. - - T, Transformer or induction coil. - Q, Q, Choking coils. - D, Spark balls. - C, Condenser. - L, Inductance. - P, Primary circuit of high frequency coil. - S, Secondary circuit.] - - - High Frequency Coils. - -An induction coil for the transformation of alternating current is -called a transformer (q.v.). One type of high frequency current -transformer is called an _oscillation transformer_ or sometimes a _Tesla -coil_. The construction of such a coil is based on different principles -from that of the coil just described. If the secondary terminals of an -ordinary induction coil or transformer are connected to a pair of spark -balls (fig. 2), and if these are also connected to a glass plate -condenser or Leyden jar of ordinary type joined in series with a coil of -wire of low resistance and few turns, then at each break of the primary -circuit of the ordinary induction coil a secondary electromotive force -is set up which charges the Leyden jar, and if the spark balls are set -at the proper distance, this charge is succeeded by a discharge -consisting of a movement of electricity backwards and forwards across -the spark gap, constituting an oscillatory electric discharge (see -ELECTROKINETICS). Each charge of the jar may produce from a dozen to a -hundred electric oscillations which are in fact brief electric currents -of gradually decreasing strength. If the circuit of few turns and low -resistance through which this discharge takes place is overlaid with -another circuit well insulated from it consisting of a large number of -turns of finer wire, the inductive action between the two circuits -creates in the secondary a smaller series of electric oscillations of -higher potential. Between the terminals of this last-named coil we can -then produce a series of discharges each of which consists in an -extremely rapid motion of electricity to and fro, the groups of -oscillations being separated by intervals of time corresponding to the -frequency of the break in the primary circuit of the ordinary induction -coil charging the Leyden jar or condenser. These high frequency -discharges differ altogether in character from the secondary discharges -of the ordinary induction coil. Theory shows that to produce the best -results the primary circuit of the oscillation transformer should -consist of only one thick turn of wire or, at most, but of a few turns. -It is also necessary that the two circuits, primary and secondary, -should be well insulated from one another, and for this purpose the -oscillation transformer is immersed in a box or vessel full of highly -insulating oil. For full details N. Tesla's original Papers must be -consulted (see _Journ. Inst. Elect. Eng._ 21, 62). - -In some cases the two circuits of the Tesla coil, the primary and -secondary, are sections of one single coil. In this form the arrangement -is called a _resonator_ or _auto transformer_, and is much used for -producing high frequency discharges for medical purposes. The -construction of a resonator is as follows: A bare copper wire is wound -upon an ebonite or wooden cylinder or frame, and one end of it is -connected to the outside of a Leyden jar or battery of Leyden jars, the -inner coating of which is connected to one spark ball of the ordinary -induction coil. The other spark ball is connected to a point on the -above-named copper wire not very far from the lower end. By adjusting -this contact, which is movable, the electric oscillations created in the -short section of the resonator coil produce by resonance oscillations in -the longer free section, and a powerful high frequency electric brush or -discharge is produced at the free end of the resonator spiral. An -electrode or wire connected with this free end therefore furnishes a -high frequency glow discharge which has been found to have valuable -therapeutic powers. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3. - - C1, Condenser in primary circuit. - C2, Condenser in secondary circuit. - L1, Inductance in primary circuit. - L2, Inductance in secondary circuit.] - - - Theory of Oscillation Transformers. - - The general theory of an oscillation transformer containing capacity - and inductance in each circuit has been given by Oberbeck, Bjerknes - and Drude.[2] Suppose there are two circuits, each consisting of a - coil of wire, the two being superimposed or adjacent, and let each - circuit contain a condenser or Leyden jar in series with the circuit, - and let one of these circuits contain a spark gap, the other being - closed (fig. 3). If to the spark balls the secondary terminals of an - ordinary induction coil are connected, and these spark balls are - adjusted near one another, then when the ordinary coil is set in - operation, sparks pass between the balls and oscillatory discharges - take place in the circuit containing the spark gap. These oscillations - induce other oscillations in the second circuit. The two circuits have - a certain mutual inductance M, and each circuit has self inductance L1 - and L2. If then the capacities in the two circuits are denoted by C1 - and C2 the following simultaneous equations express the relation of - the currents, i1 and i2, and potentials, v1, and v2, in the primary - and secondary circuits respectively at any instant:-- - - di1 di2 - L1 --- + M --- + R1 i1 + v1 = 0, - dt dt - - di2 di1 - L2 --- + M --- + R2 i2 + v2 = 0, - dt dt - - R1 and R2 being the resistances of the two circuits. If for the moment - we neglect the resistances of the two circuits, and consider that the - oscillations in each circuit follow a simple harmonic law i = I sin pt - we can transform the above equations into a biquadratic - - L1C1 + L2C2 1 - p^4 + p^2 --------------- + ----------------- = 0. - C1C2(L1L2 - M^2) C1C2(L1L2 - M^2) - - The capacity and inductance in each circuit can be so adjusted that - their products are the same number, that is C1L1 = C2L2 = CL. The two - circuits are then said to be in resonance or to be tuned together. In - this particular and unique case the above biquadratic reduces to - - 1 1 [+-] k - p^2 = -- . --------, - CL 1 - k^2 - - where k is written for M [root](L1L2) and is called the _coefficient - of coupling_. In this case of resonant circuits it can also be shown - that the maximum potential differences at the primary and secondary - condenser terminals are determined by the rule V1/V2 = - 2[root]C2/[root]C1. Hence the transformation ratio is not determined - by the relative number of turns on the primary and secondary circuits, - as in the case of an ordinary alternating current transformer (see - TRANSFORMERS), but by the ratio of the capacity in the two oscillation - circuits. For full proofs of the above the reader is referred to the - original papers. - - Each of the two circuits constituting the oscillation transformer - taken separately has a natural time period of oscillation; that is to - say, if the electric charge in it is disturbed, it oscillates to and - fro in a certain constant period like a pendulum and therefore with a - certain frequency. If the circuits have the same frequency when - separated they are said to be isochronous. If n stands for the natural - frequency of each circuit, where n = p/2[pi] the above equations show - that when the two circuits are coupled together, oscillations set up - in one circuit create oscillations of two frequencies in the secondary - circuit. A mechanical analogue to the above electrical effect can be - obtained as follows: Let a string be strung loosely between two fixed - points, and from it let two other strings of equal length hang down at - a certain distance apart, each of them having a weight at the bottom - and forming a simple pendulum. If one pendulum is set in oscillation - it will gradually impart this motion to the second, but in so doing it - will bring itself to rest; in like manner the second pendulum being - set in oscillation gives back its motion to the first. The graphic - representation, therefore, of the motion of each pendulum would be a - line as in fig. 4. Such a curve represents the effect in music known - as beats, and can easily be shown to be due to the combined effect of - two simple harmonic motions or simple periodic curves of different - frequency superimposed. Accordingly, the effect of inductively - coupling together two electrical circuits, each having capacity and - inductance, is that if oscillations are started in one circuit, - oscillations of two frequencies are found in the secondary circuit, - the frequencies differing from one another and differing from the - natural frequency of each circuit taken alone. This matter is of - importance in connexion with wireless telegraphy (see TELEGRAPH), as - in apparatus for conducting it, oscillation transformers as above - described, having two circuits in resonance with one another, are - employed. - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.] - - REFERENCES.--J. A. Fleming, _The Alternate Current Transformer_ (2 - vols., London, 1900), containing a full history of the induction coil; - id., _Electric Wave Telegraphy_ (London, 1906), dealing in chap. i., - with the construction of the induction coil and various forms of - interrupter as well as with the theory of oscillation transformers; A. - T. Hare, _The Construction of Large Induction Coils_ (London, 1900); - J. Trowbridge, "On the Induction Coil," _Phil. Mag._ (1902), 3, p. - 393; Lord Rayleigh, "On the Induction Coil," _Phil. Mag._ (1901), 2, - p. 581; J. E. Ives, "Contributions to the Study of the Induction - Coil," _Physical Review_ (1902), vols. 14 and 15. (J. A. F.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] For a full history of the early development of the induction coil - see J. A. Fleming, _The Alternate Current Transformer_, vol. ii., - chap. i. - - [2] See A. Oberbeck, _Wied. Ann._ (1895), 55, p. 623; V. F. R. - Bjerknes, d. (1895), 55, p. 121, and (1891), 44, p. 74; and P. K. L. - Drude, _Ann. Phys._ (1904), 13, p. 512. - - - - -INDULGENCE (Lat. _indulgentia_, _indulgere_, to grant, concede), in -theology, a term defined by the official catechism of the Roman Catholic -Church in England as "the remission of the temporal punishment which -often remains due to sin after its guilt has been forgiven." This -remission may be either total (_plenary_) or partial, according to the -terms of the Indulgence. Such remission was popularly called a _pardon_ -in the middle ages--a term which still survives, e.g. in Brittany. - -The theory of Indulgences is based by theologians on the following -texts: 2 Samuel (Vulgate, 2 Kings) xii. 14; Matt. xvi. 19 and xviii. 17, -18; 1 Cor. v. 4, 5; 2 Cor. ii. 6-11; but the practice itself is -confessedly of later growth. As Bishop Fisher says in his Confutation of -Luther, "in the early church, faith in Purgatory and in Indulgences was -less necessary than now.... But in our days a great part of the people -would rather cast off Christianity than submit to the rigour of the -[ancient] canons: wherefore it is a most wholesome dispensation of the -Holy Ghost that, after so great a lapse of time, the belief in purgatory -and the practice of Indulgences have become generally received among the -orthodox" (_Confutatio_, cap. xviii.; cf. Cardinal Caietan, _Tract. XV. -de Indulg._ cap. i.). The nearest equivalent in the ancient Church was -the local and temporary African practice of restoring lapsed Christians -to communion at the intercession of confessors and prospective martyrs -in prison. But such reconciliations differed from later Indulgences in -at least one essential particular, since they brought no remission of -ecclesiastical penance save in very exceptional cases. However, as the -primitive practice of public penance for sins died out in the Church, -there grew up a system of equivalent, or nominally equivalent, private -penances. Just as many of the punishments enjoined by the Roman criminal -code were gradually commuted by medieval legislators for pecuniary -fines, so the years or months of fasting enjoined by the earlier -ecclesiastical codes were commuted for proportionate fines, the -recitation of a certain number of psalms, and the like. "Historically -speaking, it is indisputable that the practice of Indulgences in the -medieval church arose out of the authoritative remission, in exceptional -cases, of a certain proportion of this canonical penalty." At the same -time, according to Catholic teaching, such Indulgence was not a mere -permission to omit or postpone payment, but was in fact a _discharge_ -from the debt of temporal punishment which the sinner owed. The -authority to grant such discharge was conceived to be included in the -power of binding and loosing committed by Christ to His Church; and when -in the course of time the vaguer theological conceptions of the first -ages of Christianity assumed scientific form and shape at the hands of -the Schoolmen, the doctrine came to prevail that this discharge of the -sinner's debt was made through an application to the offender of what -was called the "Treasure of the Church" (Thurston, p. 315). "What, then, -is meant by the 'Treasure of the Church'?... It consists primarily and -completely of the merit and satisfaction of Christ our Saviour. It -includes also the superfluous merit and satisfaction of the Blessed -Virgin and the Saints. What do we mean by the word 'superfluous'? In one -way, as I need not say, a saint has no superfluous merit. Whatever he -has, he wants it all for himself, because, the more he merits on earth -(by Christ's grace) the greater is his glory in heaven. But, speaking of -mere satisfaction for punishment due, there cannot be a doubt that some -of the Saints have done more than was needed in justice to expiate the -punishment due to their own sins.... It is this 'superfluous' expiation -that accumulates in the Treasure of the Church" (Bp. of Newport, p. -166). It must be noted that this theory of the "Treasure" was not -formulated until some time after Indulgences in the modern sense had -become established in practice. The doctrine first appeared with -Alexander of Hales (c. 1230) and was at once adopted by the leading -schoolmen. Clement VI. formally confirmed it in 1350, and Pius VI. still -more definitely in 1794. - -The first definite instance of a _plenary_ Indulgence is that of Urban -II. for the First Crusade (1095). A little earlier had begun the -practice of _partial_ Indulgences, which are always expressed in terms -of days or years. However definite may have been the ideas originally -conveyed by these notes of time, their first meaning has long since been -lost. Eusebius Amort, in 1735, admits the gravest differences of -opinion; and the Bishop of Newport writes (p. 163) "to receive an -Indulgence of a year, for example, is to have remitted to one so much -temporal punishment as was represented by a year's canonical penance. If -you ask me to define the amount more accurately, I say that it cannot be -done. No one knows how severe or how long a Purgatory was, or is, -implied in a hundred days of canonical penance." The rapid extension of -these time-Indulgences is one of the most remarkable facts in the -history of the subject. Innocent II., dedicating the great church of -Cluny in 1132, granted as a great favour a forty days' Indulgence for -the anniversary. A hundred years later, all churches of any importance -had similar indulgences; yet Englishmen were glad even then to earn a -pardon of forty days by the laborious journey to the nearest cathedral, -and by making an offering there on one of a few privileged feast-days. A -century later again, Wycliffe complains of Indulgences of two thousand -years for a single prayer (ed. Arnold, i. 137). In 1456, the recitation -of a few prayers before a church crucifix earned a Pardon of 20,000 -years for every such repetition (Glassberger in _Analecta Franciscana_, -ii. 368): "and at last Indulgences were so freely given that there is -now scarcely a devotion or good work of any kind for which they cannot -be obtained" (Arnold & Addis, _Catholic Dictionary_, s.v.). To quote -again from Father Thurston (p. 318): "In imitation of the prodigality of -her Divine Master, the Church has deliberately faced the risk of -depreciation to which her treasure was exposed.... The growing -effeminacy and corruption of mankind has found her censures unendurable -... and the Church, going out into the highways and the hedges, has -tried to entice men with the offer of generous Indulgence." But it must -be noted that, according to the orthodox doctrine, not only can an -Indulgence not remit future sins, but even for the past it cannot take -full effect unless the subject be truly contrite and have confessed (or -intend shortly to confess) his sins. - -This salutary doctrine, however, has undoubtedly been obscured to some -extent by the phrase _a poena et a culpa_, which, from the 13th century -to the Reformation, was applied to Plenary Indulgences. The prima-facie -meaning of the phrase is that the Indulgence itself frees the sinner not -only from the temporal penalty (_poena_) but also from the guilt -(_culpa_) of all his sins: and the fact that a phrase so misleading -remained so long current shows the truth of Father Thurston's remark: -"The laity cared little about the analysis of it, but they knew that the -_a culpa et poena_ was the name for the biggest thing in the nature of -an Indulgence which it was possible to get" (_Dublin Review_, Jan. -1900). The phrase, however, was far from being confined to the -unlearned. Abbot Gilles li Muisis, for instance, records how, at the -Jubilee of 1300, all the Papal Penitentiaries were in doubt about it, -and appealed to the Pope. Boniface VIII. did indeed take the occasion of -repeating (in the words of his Bull) that confession and contrition were -necessary preliminaries; but he neither repudiated the misleading words -nor vouchsafed any clear explanation of them. (_Chron. Aegidii li -Muisis_ ed. de Smet, p. 189.) His predecessor, Celestine V., had -actually used them in a Bull. - -The phrase exercised the minds of learned canonists all through the -middle ages, but still held its ground. The most accepted modern theory -is that it is merely a catchword surviving from a longer phrase which -proclaimed how, during such Indulgences, ordinary confessors might -absolve from sins usually "reserved" to the Bishop or the Pope. Nobody, -however, has ventured exactly to reconstitute this hypothetical phrase; -nor is the theory easy to reconcile with (i.) the uncertainty of -canonists at the time when the locution was quite recent, (ii.) the fact -that Clement V. and Cardinal Cusanus speak of absolution _a poena et a -culpa_ as a separate thing from (a) plenary absolution and (b) -absolution from "reserved" sins (Clem. lib. v. tit. ix. c. 2, and Johann -Busch (d. c. 1480) _Chron. Windeshemense_, cap. xxxvi.). But, however it -originated, the phrase undoubtedly contributed to foster popular -misconceptions as to the intrinsic value of Indulgences, apart from -repentance and confession; though Dr Lea seems to press this point -unduly (p. 54 ff.), and should be read in conjunction with Thurston (p. -324 ff.). - -These misconceptions were certainly widespread from the 13th to the 16th -century, and were often fostered by the "pardoners," or professional -collectors of contributions for Indulgences. This can best be shown by a -few quotations from eminent and orthodox churchmen during those -centuries. Berthold of Regensburg (c. 1270) says, "Fie, penny-preacher! -... thou dost promise so much remission of sins for a mere halfpenny or -penny, that thousands now trust thereto, and fondly dream to have atoned -for all their sins with the halfpenny or penny, and thus go to hell" -(ed. Pfeiffer, i. 393).[1] A century later, the author of _Piers -Plowman_ speaks of pardoners who "give pardon for pence poundmeal about" -(i.e. wholesale; B. ii. 222); and his contemporary, Pope Boniface IX., -complained of their absolving even impenitent sinners for ridiculously -small sums (_pro qualibet parva pecuniarum summula_, Raynaldus, _Ann. -Ecc._ 1390). In 1450 Thomas Gascoigne, the great Oxford Chancellor, -wrote: "Sinners say nowadays 'I care not how many or how great sins I -commit before God, for I shall easily and quickly get plenary remission -of any guilt and penalty whatsoever (_cujusdam culpae et poenae_) by -absolution and indulgence granted to me from the Pope, whose writing and -grant I have bought for 4d. or 6d. or for a game of tennis'"--or -sometimes, he adds, by a still more disgraceful bargain (_pro actu -meretricio_, _Lib._ Ver. p. 123, cf. 126). In 1523 the princes of -Germany protested to the Pope in language almost equally strong (Browne, -_Fasciculus_, i. 354). In 1562 the Council of Trent abolished the office -of "pardoner." - -The greatest of all Plenary Indulgences is of course the Roman Jubilee. -This was instituted in 1300 by Boniface VIII., who pleaded a popular -tradition for its celebration every hundredth year, though no written -evidence could be found. Clement VI. shortened the period to 50 years -(1350): it was then further reduced to 33, and again in 1475 to 25 -years. - - See also the article on LUTHER. The latest and fullest authority on - this subject is Dr H. C. Lea, _Hist, of Auricular Confession and - Indulgences in the Latin Church_ (Philadelphia, 1896); his standpoint - is frankly non-Catholic, but he gives ample materials for judgment. - The greatest orthodox authority is Eusebius Amort, _De Origine, &c., - indulgentiarum_ (1735). More popular and more easily accessible are - Father Thurston's _The Holy Year of Jubilee_ (1900), and an article by - the Bishop of Newport in the _Nineteenth Century_ for January 1901, - with a reply by Mr Herbert Paul in the next number. (G. G. Co.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Equally strong assertions were made by the provincial council of - Mainz in 1261; and Lea (p. 287) quotes the complaints of 36 similar - church councils before 1538. - - - - -INDULINES, a series of dyestuffs of blue, bluish-red or black shades, -formed by the interaction of para-amino azo compounds with primary -monamines in the presence of a small quantity of a mineral acid. They -were first discovered in 1863 (English patent 3307) by J. Dale and H. -Caro, and since then have been examined by many chemists (see O. N. -Witt, _Ber._, 1884, 17, p. 74; O. Fischer and E. Hepp, _Ann._, 1890, -256, pp. 233 et seq.; F. Kehrmann, _Ber._, 1891, 24, pp. 584, 2167 et -seq.). They are derivatives of the eurhodines (aminophenazines, -aminonaphthophenazines), and by means of their diazo derivatives can be -de-amidated, yielding in this way azonium salts; consequently they may -be considered as amidated azonium salts. The first reaction giving a -clue to their constitution was the isolation of the intermediate -_azophenin_ by O. Witt (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1883, 43, p. 115), which was -proved by Fischer and Hepp to be dianilidoquinone dianil, a similar -intermediate compound being found shortly afterwards in the naphthalene -series. _Azophenin_, C30H24N4, is prepared by warming quinone dianil -with aniline; by melting together quinone, aniline and aniline -hydrochloride; or by the action of aniline on para-nitrosophenol or -para-nitrosodiphenylamine. The indulines are prepared as mentioned above -from aminoazo compounds: - - // N------\ - NH2.C6H4N2.C6H5 + C5H5NH2 -> HN:C6H3 // \ C6H4, - \ N.C6H5 / - - (aposafranine) - -or by condensing oxy- and amido-quinones with phenylated ortho-diamines -(F. Kehrmann, _Ber._, 1895, 28, p. 1714): - - HO\ // O H2N \ - \ C6H2 // + \ C6H4 = - O// \ OH C6H5NH / - - O \\ / N.C6H5 \ - 2H2O + \\ C6H2 / \ C6H4. - HO / \\ N------// - - The indulines may be subdivided into the following groups:-- (1) - benzindulines, derivatives of phenazine; (2) isorosindulines; and (3) - rosindulines, both derived from naphthophenazine; and (4) - naphthindulines, derived from naphthazine. - - // N------\ // N------\ - NH:C6H3 // \ C6H4 NH:C6H3 // \ C10H6 - \ N.C6H5 / \ N.C6H5 / - - I. Benzindulines. II. Isorosindulines. - - // N------\ // N------\ - NH:C10H5 // \ C6H4 NH:C10H5 // \ C10H6 - \ N.C6H5 / \ N.C6H5 / - - III. Rosindulines. IV. Naphthindulines. - - The rosindulines and naphthindulines have a strongly basic character, - and their salts possess a marked red colour and fluorescence. - _Benzinduline_ (aposafranine), C18H13N3, is a strong base, but cannot - be diazotized, unless it be dissolved in concentrated mineral acids. - When warmed with aniline it yields anilido-aposafranine, which may - also be obtained by the direct oxidation of ortho-aminodiphenylamine. - _Isorosinduline_ is obtained from quinone dichlorimide and - phenyl-[beta]-naphthylamine; _rosinduline_ from - benzene-azo-[alpha]-naphthylamine and aniline and _naphthinduline_ - from benzene-azo-[alpha]-naphthylamine and naphthylamine. - - - - -INDULT (Lat. _indultum_, from _indulgere_, grant, concede, allow), a, -papal licence which authorizes the doing of something not sanctioned by -the common law of the church; thus by an indult the pope authorizes a -bishop to grant certain relaxations during the Lenten fast according to -the necessities of the situation, climate, &c., of his diocese. - - - - -INDUNA, a Zulu-Bantu word for an officer or head of a regiment among the -Kaffir (Zulu-Xosa) tribes of South Africa. It is formed from the -inflexional prefix _in_ and _duna_, a lord or master. Indunas originally -obtained and retained their rank and authority by personal bravery and -skill in war, and often proved a menace to their nominal lord. Where, -under British influence, the purely military system of government among -the Kaffir tribes has broken down or been modified, indunas are now -administrators rather than warriors. They sit in a consultative -gathering known as an indaba, and discuss the civil and military affairs -of their tribe. - - - - -INDUS, one of the three greatest rivers of northern India. - - - In the Himalaya. - - The Shyok affluent. - - The Gilgit affluent. - -A considerable accession of exact geographical knowledge has been gained -of the upper reaches of the river Indus and its tributaries during those -military and political movements which have been so constant on the -northern frontiers of India of recent years. The sources of the Indus -are to be traced to the glaciers of the great Kailas group of peaks in -32 deg. 20' N. and 81 deg. E., which overlook the Mansarowar lake and -the sources of the Brahmaputra, the Sutlej and the Gogra to the -south-east. Three great affluents, flowing north-west, unite in about 80 -deg. E. to form the main stream, all of them, so far as we know at -present, derived from the Kailas glaciers. Of these the northern -tributary points the road from Ladakh to the Jhalung goldfields, and the -southern, or Gar, forms a link in the great Janglam--the Tibetan trade -route--which connects Ladakh with Lhasa and Lhasa with China. Gartok -(about 50 m. from the source of this southern head of the Indus) is an -important point on this trade route, and is now made accessible to -Indian traders by treaty with Tibet and China. At Leh, the Ladakh -capital, the river has already pursued an almost even north-westerly -course for 300 m., except for a remarkable divergence to the south-west -which carries it across, or through, the Ladakh range to follow the same -course on the southern side that had been maintained on the north. This -very remarkable instance of transverse drainage across a main mountain -axis occurs in 79 deg. E., about 100 m. above Leh. For another 230 m., -in a north-westerly direction, the Indus pursues a comparatively gentle -and placid course over its sandy bed between the giant chains of Ladakh -to the north and Zaskar (the main "snowy range" of the Himalaya) to the -south, amidst an array of mountain scenery which, for the majesty of -sheer altitude, is unmatched by any in the world. Then the river takes -up the waters of the Shyok from the north (a tributary nearly as great -as itself), having already captured the Zasvar from the south, together -with innumerable minor glacier-fed streams. The Shyok is an important -feature in Trans-Himalayan hydrography. Rising near the southern foot of -the well-known Karakoram pass on the high road between Ladakh and -Kashgar, it first drains the southern slopes of the Karakoram range, and -then breaks across the axis of the Muztagh chain (of which the Karakoram -is now recognized as a subsidiary extension northwards) ere bending -north-westwards to run a parallel course to the Indus for 150 m. before -its junction with that river. The combined streams still hold on their -north-westerly trend for another 100 m., deep hidden under the shadow of -a vast array of snow-crowned summits, until they arrive within sight of -the Rakapushi peak which pierces the north-western sky midway between -Gilgit and Hunza. Here the great change of direction to the south-west -occurs, which is thereafter maintained till the Indus reaches the ocean. -At this point it receives the Gilgit river from the north-west, having -dropped from 15,000 to 4000 ft. (at the junction of the rivers) after -about 500 m. of mountain descent through the independent provinces of -northern Kashmir. (See GILGIT.) A few miles below the junction it passes -Bunji, and from that point to a point beyond Chilas (50 m. below Bunji) -it runs within the sphere of British interests. Then once again it -resumes its "independent" course through the wild mountains of Kohistan -and Hazara, receiving tribute from both sides (the Buner contribution -being the most noteworthy) till it emerges into the plains of the Punjab -below Darband, in 34 deg. 10' N. All this part of the river has been -mapped in more or less detail of late years. The hidden strongholds of -those Hindostani fanatics who had found a refuge on its banks since -Mutiny days have been swept clean, and many ancient mysteries have been -solved in the course of its surveying. - - - Indus of the plains. - -From its entrance into the plains of India to its disappearance in the -Indian Ocean, the Indus of to-day is the Indus of the 'fifties--modified -only in some interesting particulars. It has been bridged at several -important points. There are bridges even in its upper mountain courses. -There is a wooden pier bridge at Leh of two spans, and there are native -suspension bridges of cane or twig-made rope swaying uneasily across the -stream at many points intervening between Leh and Bunji; but the first -English-made iron suspension bridge is a little above Bunji, linking up -the highroad between Kashmir and Gilgit. Next occurs the iron girder -railway bridge at Attock, connecting Rawalpindi with Peshawar, at which -point the river narrows almost to a gorge, only 900 ft. above sea-level. -Twenty miles below Attock the river has carved out a central trough -which is believed to be 180 ft. deep. Forty miles below Attock another -great bridge has been constructed at Kushalgarh, which carries the -railway to Kohat and the Kurram valley. At Mari, beyond the series of -gorges which continue from Kushalgarh to the borders of the Kohat -district, on the Sind-Sagar line, a boat-bridge leads to Kalabagh (the -Salt city) and northwards to Kohat. Another boat-bridge opposite Dera -Ismail Khan connects that place with the railway; but there is nothing -new in these southern sections of the Indus valley railway system except -the extraordinary development of cultivation in their immediate -neighbourhood. The Lansdowne bridge at Sukkur, whose huge cantilevers -stand up as a monument of British enterprise visible over the flat -plains for many miles around, is one of the greatest triumphs of Indian -bridge-making. Kotri has recently been connected with Hyderabad in Sind, -and the Indus is now one of the best-bridged rivers in India. The -intermittent navigation which was maintained by the survivals of the -Indus flotilla as far north as Dera Ismail Khan long after the -establishment of the railway system has ceased to exist with the -dissolution of the fleet, and the high-sterned flat Indus boats once -again have the channels and sandbanks of the river all to themselves. - - - Lower Indus and delta. - -Within the limits of Sind the vagaries of the Indus channels have -necessitated a fresh survey of the entire riverain. The results, -however, indicate not so much a marked departure in the general course -of the river as a great variation in the channel beds within what may be -termed its outside banks. Collaterally much new information has been -obtained about the ancient beds of the river, the sites of ancient -cities and the extraordinary developments of the Indus delta. The -changing channels of the main stream since those prehistoric days when a -branch of it found its way to the Runn of Cutch, through successive -stages of its gradual shift westwards--a process of displacement which -marked the disappearance of many populous places which were more or less -dependent on the river for their water supply--to the last and greatest -change of all, when the stream burst its way through the limestone -ridges of Sukkur and assumed a course which has been fairly constant for -150 years, have all been traced out with systematic care by modern -surveyors till the medieval history of the great river has been fully -gathered from the characters written on the delta surface. That such -changes of river bed and channel should have occurred within a -comparatively limited period of time is the less astonishing if we -remember that the Indus, like many of the greatest rivers of the world, -carries down sufficient detritus to raise its own bed above the general -level of the surrounding plains in an appreciable and measurable degree. -At the present time the bed of the Indus is stated to be 70 ft. above -the plains of the Sind frontier, some 50 m. to the west of it. - - - Statistics. - - The total length of the Indus, measured directly, is about 1500 m. - With its many curves and windings it stretches to about 2000 m., the - area of its basin being computed at 372,000 sq. m. Even at its lowest - in winter it is 500 ft. wide at Iskardo (near the Gilgit junction) and - 9 or 10 ft. deep. The temperature of the surface water during the cold - season in the plains is found to be 5 deg. below that of the air (64 - deg. and 69 deg. F.). At the beginning of the hot season, when the - river is bringing down snow water, the difference is 14 deg. (87 deg. - and 101 deg. June). At greater depths the difference is still greater. - At Attock, where the river narrows between rocky banks, a height of 50 - ft. in the flood season above lowest level is common, with a velocity - of 13 m. per hour. The record rise (since British occupation of the - Punjab) is 80 ft. At its junction with the Panjnad (the combined - rivers of the Punjab east of the Indus) the Panjnad is twice the width - of the Indus, but its mean depth is less, and its velocity little more - than one-third. This discharge of the Panjnad at low season is 69,000 - cubic ft. per second, that of the Indus 92,000. Below the junction the - united discharge in flood season is 380,000 cubic ft., rising to - 460,000 (the record in August). The Indus after receiving the other - rivers carries down into Sind, in the high flood season, turbid water - containing silt to the amount of 1/229 part by weight, or 1/410 by - volume--equal to 6480 millions of cubic ft. in the three months of - flood. This is rather less than the Ganges carries. The silt is very - fine sand and clay. Unusual floods, owing to landslips or other - exceptional causes, are not infrequent. The most disastrous flood of - this nature occurred in 1858. It was then that the river rose 80 ft. - at Attock. The most striking result of the rise was the reversal of - the current of the Kabul river, which flowed backwards at the rate of - 10 m. per hour, flooding Nowshera and causing immense damage to - property. The prosperity of the province of Sind depends almost - entirely on the waters of the Indus, as its various systems of canals - command over nine million acres out of a cultivable area of twelve and - a half million acres. - - See Maclagan, _Proceedings R.G.S._, vol. iii.; Haig, _The Indus Delta - Country_ (London, 1894); Godwin-Austen, _Proceedings R.G.S._ vol. vi. - (T. H. H.*) - - - - -INDUSTRIA (mod. Monteu da Po), an ancient town of Liguria, 20 m. N.E. of -Augusta Taurinorum. Its original name was Bodincomagus, from the -Ligurian name of the Padus (mod. Po), Bodincus, i.e. bottomless (Plin. -_Hist. Nat._ iii. 122), and this still appears on inscriptions of the -early imperial period. It stood on the right bank of the river, which -has now changed its course over 1 m. to the north. It was a flourishing -town, with municipal rights, as excavations (which have brought to light -the forum, theatre, baths, &c.) have shown, but appears to have been -deserted in the 4th century A.D. - - See A. Fabietti in _Atti della Societa di Archeologia di Torino_, iii, - 17 seq.; Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ v. (Berlin, 1877), p. - 845; E. Ferrero in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1903), p. 43. - - - - -INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, in England a school, generally established by -voluntary contributions, for the industrial training of children, in -which children are lodged, clothed and fed, as well as taught. -Industrial schools are chiefly for vagrant and neglected children and -children not convicted of theft. Such schools are for children up to the -age of fourteen, and the limit of detention is sixteen. They are -regulated by the Children Act 1908, which repealed the Industrial -Schools Act 1866, as amended by Acts of 1872, 1891 and 1901, and -parallel legislation in the various Elementary Education Acts, besides -some few local acts. The home secretary exercises powers of supervision, -&c. See JUVENILE OFFENDERS. - - - - -INDUSTRY (Lat. _industria_, from _indu_-, a form of the preposition -_in_, and either _stare_, to stand, or _struere_, to pile up), the -quality of steady application to work, diligence; hence employment in -some particular form of productive work, especially of manufacture; or a -particular class of productive work itself, a trade or manufacture. See -LABOUR LEGISLATION, &c. - - - - -INE, king of the West Saxons, succeeded Ceadwalla in 688, his title to -the crown being derived from Ceawlin. In the earlier part of his reign -he was at war with Kent, but peace was made in 694, when the men of Kent -gave compensation for the death of Mul, brother of Ceadwalla, whom they -had burned in 687. In 710 Ine was fighting in alliance with his kinsman -Nun, probably king of Sussex, against Gerent of West Wales and, -according to Florence of Worcester, he was victorious. In 715 he fought -a battle with Ceolred, king of Mercia, at Woodborough in Wiltshire, but -the result is not recorded. Shortly after this time a quarrel seems to -have arisen in the royal family. In 721 Ine slew Cynewulf, and in 722 -his queen Aethelburg destroyed Taunton, which her husband had built -earlier in his reign. In 722 the South Saxons, previously subject to -Ine, rose against him under the exile Aldbryht, who may have been a -member of the West Saxon royal house. In 725 Ine fought with the South -Saxons and slew Aldbryht. In 726 he resigned the crown and went to Rome, -being succeeded by Aethelheard in Wessex. Ine is said to have built the -minster at Glastonbury. The date of his death is not recorded. He issued -a written code of laws for Wessex, which is still preserved. - - See Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ (Plummer), iv. 15, v. 7; _Saxon Chronicle_ - (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 688e, 694, 710, 715, 721, 722, 725, 728; - Thorpe, _Ancient Laws_, i. 2-25; Sehmid, _Gesetze der Angelsachsen_ - (Leipzig, 1858); Liebermann, _Gesetzeder Angelsachsen_ (Halle, - 1898-99). - - - - -INEBOLI, a town on the north coast of Asia Minor, 70 m. W. of Sinub -(Sinope). It is the first place of importance touched at by mercantile -vessels plying eastwards from Constantinople, being the port for the -districts of Changra and Kastamuni, and connected with the latter town -by a carriage road (see KASTAMUNI). The roadstead is exposed, having no -protection for shipping except a jetty 300 ft. long, so that in rough -weather landing is impracticable. The exports (chiefly wool and mohair) -are about L248,000 annually and the imports L200,000. The population is -about 9000 (Moslems 7000, Christians 2000). Ineboli represents the -ancient _Abonou-teichos_, famous as the birthplace of the false prophet -Alexander, who established there (2nd century A.D.) an oracle of the -snake-God Glycon-Asclepius. This impostor, immortalized by Lucian, -obtained leave from the emperor Marcus Aurelius to change the name of -the town to _Ionopolis_, whence the modern name is derived (see -ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAGONIAN). - - - - -INEBRIETY, LAW OF. The legal relations to which inebriety (Lat. _in_, -intensive, and _ebrietas_, drunkenness) gives rise are partly civil and -partly criminal. - -I. _Civil Capacity._--The law of England as to the civil capacity of the -drunkard is practically identified with, and has passed through -substantially the same stages of development as the law in regard to the -civil capacity of a person suffering from mental disease (see INSANITY). -Unless (see III. _inf._) a modification is effected in his condition by -the fact that he has been brought under some form of legal control, a -man may, in spite of intoxication, enter into a valid marriage or make a -valid will, or bind himself by a contract, if he is sober enough to know -what he is doing, and no improper advantage of his condition is taken -(cf. _Matthews_ v. _Baxter_, 1873, L.R. 8 Ex. 132; _Imperial Loan Co._ -v. _Stone_, 1892, 1 Q.B. 599). The law is the same in Scotland and in -Ireland; and the Sale of Goods Act 1893 (which applies to the whole -United Kingdom) provides that where necessaries are sold and delivered -to a person who by reason of drunkenness is incompetent to contract, he -must pay a reasonable price for them; "necessaries" for the purposes of -this provision mean goods suitable to the condition in life of such -person and to his actual requirements at the time of the sale and -delivery. - -Under the Roman law, and under the Roman Dutch law as applied in South -Africa, drunkenness, like insanity, appears to vitiate absolutely a -contract made by a person under its influence (_Molyneux_ v. _Natal Land -and Colonization Co._, 1905, A.C. 555). - -In the United States, as in England, intoxication does not vitiate -contractual capacity unless it is of such a degree as to prevent the -person labouring under it from understanding the nature of the -transaction into which he is entering (Bouvier, _Law Dict._, s.v. -"Drunkenness"; and cf. _Waldron_ v. _Angleman_, 1004, 58 Atl. 568; -_Fowler_ v. _Meadow Brook Water Co._, 1904, 57 Atl. 959; 208 Penn., -473). The same rule is by implication adopted in the Indian Contract Act -(Act ix. of 1872), which provides (s. 12) that "a person is ... of sound -mind for the purpose of making a contract if, at the time when he makes -it, he is capable of understanding it and of forming a rational judgment -as to its effect upon his interests." In some legal systems, however, -habitual drunkenness is a ground for divorce or judicial separation -(Sweden, Law of the 27th of April 1810; France, Code Civil, Art. 231, -_Hirt_ v. _Hirt_, Dalloz, 1898, pt. ii., p. 4, and n. 4). - -II. _Criminal Responsibility._--In English law, drunkenness, unlike -insanity, was at one time regarded as in no way an excuse for crime. -According to Coke (Co. Litt., 247) a drunkard, although he suffers from -acquired insanity, _dementia affectata_, is _voluntarius daemon_, and -therefore has no privilege in consequence of his state; "but what hurt -or ill soever he doth, his drunkenness doth aggravate it." Sir Matthew -Hale (P.C. 32) took a more moderate view, viz. that a person under the -influence of this voluntarily contracted madness "shall have the same -judgment as if he were in his right senses"; and admitted the existence -of two "allays" or qualifying circumstances: (1) _temporary_ frenzy -induced by the unskilfulness of physicians or by drugging; and (2) -_habitual_ or fixed frenzy. Those early authorities have, however, -undergone considerable development and modification. - -Although the general principle that drunkenness is not an excuse for -crime is still steadily maintained (see Russell, _Crimes_, 6th ed., i. -144; Archbold, _Cr. Pl._, 23rd ed., p. 29), it is settled law that where -a particular intent is one of the constituent elements of an offence, -the fact that a prisoner was intoxicated at the time of its commission -is relevant evidence to show that he had not the capacity to form that -intent. Drunkenness is also a circumstance of which a jury may take -account in considering whether an act was premeditated, or whether a -prisoner acted in self-defence or under provocation, when the question -is whether the danger apprehended or the provocation was sufficient to -justify his conduct or to alter its legal character. Moreover, _delirium -tremens_, if it produce such a degree of madness as to render a person -incapable of distinguishing right from wrong, relieves him from criminal -responsibility for any act committed by him while under its influence; -and in one case at _nisi prius_ (_R._ v. _Baines_, _The Times_, 25th -Jan. 1886) this doctrine was extended by Mr Justice Day to temporary -derangement occasioned by drink. The law of Scotland accepts, if it does -not go somewhat beyond, the later developments of that of England in -regard to criminal responsibility in drunkenness. Indian law on the -point is similar to the English (Indian Penal Code, Act. xlv. of 1860, -ss. 85, 86; Mayne, _Crim. Law of India_, ed. 1896, p. 391). In the -United States the same view is the prevalent legal doctrine (see Bishop, -_Crim. Law_, 8th ed., i, ss. 397-416). The Criminal Code of Queensland -(No. 9 of 1899, Art. 28) provides that a person who becomes intoxicated -intentionally is responsible for any crime that he commits while so -intoxicated, whether his voluntary intoxication was induced so as to -afford an excuse for the commission of an offence or not. As in England, -however, when an intention to cause a specific result is an element of -an offence, intoxication, whether complete or partial, and whether -intentional or unintentional, may be regarded for the purpose of -ascertaining whether such intention existed or not. There is a similar -provision in the Penal Code of Ceylon (No. 2 of 1883, Art. 79). The -Criminal Codes of Canada (1892, c. 29, ss. 7 et seq.) and New Zealand -(No. 56 of 1893, ss. 21 et seq.) are silent on the subject of -intoxication as an excuse for crime. The Criminal Code of Grenada (No. 2 -of 1897, Art. 51) provides that "a person shall not, on the ground of -intoxication, be deemed to have done any act involuntarily, or be exempt -from any liability to punishment for any act: and a person who does an -act while in a state of intoxication shall be deemed to have intended -the natural and probable consequences of his act." There is a similar -provision in the Criminal Code of the Gold Coast Colony (No. 12 of 1892, -s. 54). Under the French Penal Code (Art. 64), "_il n'y a ni crime, ni -delit, lorsque le prevenu etait en etat de demence au temps de l'action -ou lorsqu'il aura ete contraint par une force a laquelle il n' a pu -resister_." According to the balance of authority (Dalloz, _Rep._ tit., -Peine, ss. 402 et seq.) intoxication is not assimilated to insanity, -within the meaning of this article, but it may be and is taken account -of by juries as an extenuating circumstance (Ortolan, _Droit Penal_ i. -s. 323: Chauveau et Helie i. s. 360). A provision in the German Penal -Code (Art. 51) that an act is not punishable if its author, at the time -of committing it, was in a condition of unconsciousness, or morbid -disturbance of the activity of his mind which prevented the free -exercise of his will, has been held not to extend to intoxication -(Clunet, 1883, p. 311). But in Germany as in France, intoxication may -apparently be an extenuating circumstance. Under the Italian Penal Code -(Arts. 46-49) intoxication--unless voluntarily induced so as to afford -an excuse for crime--may exclude or modify responsibility. - -So far only the question whether drunkenness is an excuse for offences -committed under its influence has been dealt with. There remains the -question how far drunkenness itself is a crime. Mere private -intoxication is not, either in England or in the United States (Bishop, -_Crim. Law_, 8th ed., i. s. 399) indictable as an offence at common law; -but in all civilized countries public drunkenness is punishable when it -amounts to a breach of the peace (see LIQUOR LAWS) or contravention of -public order; and modern legislation in many countries provides for -deprivation of personal liberty for long periods in case of a frequent -repetition of the offence. Reference may be made in this connexion to -the Inebriates Acts 1898, 1899 and 1900 (see iii. _inf._), and also to -similar legislation in the British colonies and in foreign legal systems -(e.g. Cape of Good Hope, No. 32 of 1896; Ceylon, Licensing Ordinance -1891, ss. 23, 24, 29; New South Wales, Vagrants Punishment Act 1866; -Massachusetts, Acts of 1891, c. 427, 1893, cc. 414, 44; France, Law of -23rd of Jan. 1873, Art. 6). - -III. _State Action in Regard to Inebriety._--This assumes a variety of -forms. (a) Measures regulating the punishment of occasional or habitual -drunkenness by fines or short terms of imprisonment. (b) Control in -_penal_ establishments for lengthened periods. (c) Laws prohibiting the -sale of liquor to persons who are known inebriates: e.g. in England -(Licensing Act 1902); Ontario (Rev. Stats. 1897, c. 245, ss. 124, 125); -New South Wales (Liquor Act 1898, ss. 52, 53); Cape of Good Hope (No. 28 -of 1883, s. 89); New York (Rev. Stats. 1889-1892, c. 20, Title iv.); -California (Act to prevent sale of liquor to drunkards, 1889); -Massachusetts (Pub. Stats., ed. 1902, c. 100, s. 9). (d) Laws regulating -the appointment of some person or persons to act as guardian or -guardians, or who may be endowed with legal powers over the person and -estate of an inebriate. Thus in France (Code Civil, Arts. 489 et seq.), -Germany (Civil Code, Art. 6 (39)) and Austria-Hungary (_Burgerliches -Gesetz-Buch_, ss. 21, 269, 270, 273), an inebriate may be judicially -interdicted if he is squandering his property and thereby exposing his -family to future destitution. Provision is also made for the -interdiction of inebriates by the laws of Nova Scotia (Rev. Stats. 1900, -c. 126, s. 2), Manitoba (Rev. Stat. 1902, c. 103, ss. 30 et seq.), -British Columbia (Rev. Stat. 1897, c. 66), New South Wales (Inebriates -Act 1900, s. 5), Tasmania (Inebriates Act 1885, No. 17, s. 23); Canton -of Bale (Trustee Law of the 23rd of Feb. 1880, s. 11), Orange River -Colony (Code Laws, c. 108, s. 30), Maryland (Code General Laws, c. 474, -s. 47). (e) Control for the purpose of reformation. Legislation of this -character provides reformatory treatment: (1) for the inebriate who -makes a voluntary application for admission; (2) by compulsory seclusion -for the inebriate who refuses consent to treatment and yet manages to -keep out of the reach of the law; (3) for the inebriate who is a -police-court recidivist, or who has committed crime, caused or -contributed to by drink. The legislation of the Cape of Good Hope -(Inebriates Act 1896) and of North Dakota (Habitual Drunkards Act 1895) -provides for the first of these methods of treatment alone. Compulsory -detention for ordinary inebriates only is provided for by the laws of -Delaware (Act of 1898), Massachusetts (Rev. Laws, c. 87), and of the -Cantons of Berne (Law of the 24th of Nov. 1883) and Bale (Law of the -21st of Feb. 1901). All three methods of treatment are in force in New -South Wales (Inebriates Act 1900), Queensland (Inebriates Institutions -Act 1896) and South Australia (Inebriates Act 1881). Provision is made -only for voluntary application and compulsory detention of ordinary -inebriates in Victoria (Inebriates Act 1890), Tasmania (Inebriates Act -1885; Inebriates Hospitals Act 1892) and New Zealand (Inebriates -Institutions Act 1898). The legislation of the United Kingdom -(Inebriates Acts 1879-1900) deals both with voluntary application and -with the committal of criminal inebriates or of police-court -recidivists. A brief sketch of the English system must suffice. - -The Inebriates Acts of 1870-1900 deal in the first place with -non-criminal, and in the second place with criminal, habitual drunkards. - -For the purposes of the acts the term "habitual drunkard" means "a -person who, not being amenable to any jurisdiction in lunacy, is -notwithstanding, by reason of habitual intemperate drinking of -intoxicating liquor, at times dangerous to himself or herself, or -incapable of managing himself or herself and his or her affairs." A -person would become amenable to the lunacy jurisdiction not only where -habitual drunkenness made him a "lunatic" in the legal sense of the -term, but where it created, such a state of disease and consequential -"mental infirmity" as to bring his case within section 116 of the Lunacy -Act 1890, the effect of which is explained in the article Insanity. Any -"habitual drunkard" within the above definition may obtain admission to -a "licensed retreat" on a written application to the licensee, stating -the time (the maximum period is two years) that he undertakes to remain -in the retreat. The application must be accompanied by the statutory -declaration of two persons that the applicant is an habitual drunkard, -and its signature must be attested by a justice of the peace who has -satisfied himself as to the fact, and who is required to state that the -applicant understood the nature and effect of his application. Licences -(each of which is subject to a duty and is impressed with a stamp of L5, -and 10s. for every patient above ten in number) are granted for retreats -by the borough council and the town clerk in boroughs, and elsewhere by -the county council and the clerk of the county council. The maximum -period for which a licence may be granted is two years, but licences may -be renewed by the licensing authority on payment of a stamp duty of the -same amount as on the original grant. When an habitual drunkard has once -been committed to a retreat, he must remain in the retreat for the time -that he has fixed in his application, subject to certain statutory -provisions similar to those prescribed by the Lunacy Acts for asylums as -to leave of absence and discharge; and he may be retaken and brought -back to the retreat under a justice's warrant. The term of detention may -be extended on its expiry, or an inebriate may be readmitted, on a fresh -application, without any statutory declaration, and without the -attesting justice being required to satisfy himself that the applicant -is an habitual drunkard. Licensed retreats are subject to inspection by -an Inspector of Retreats appointed by the Home Secretary, to whom he -makes an annual report. The Home Secretary is empowered to make rules -and regulations for the management of retreats, and "regulations and -orders," not inconsistent with such rules, are to be prepared by the -licensee within a month after the granting of his licence, and submitted -to the inspector for approval. The rules now in force are dated as -regards (a) England, 28th Feb. 1902; (b) Scotland, 14th April 1902; (c) -Ireland, 3rd Feb. 1903. There are also statutory provisions, similar to -those of the Lunacy Acts, as to offences--(i.) by licensees failing to -comply with the requirements of the acts; (ii) by persons ill-treating -patients, or helping them to escape, or unlawfully supplying them with -intoxicating liquor; (iii.) by patients refusing to comply with the -rules. The Home Secretary may (i.) authorize the establishment of "State -Inebriate Reformatories," to be paid for out of moneys provided by -parliament; and (ii.) sanction "Certified Inebriates' Reformatories" on -the application of any borough or county council, or any person -whatever, if satisfied concerning the reformatory and the persons -proposing to maintain it. An Inspector of Certified Inebriate -Reformatories has been appointed. Regulations for State Inebriate -Reformatories and for Certified Inebriate Reformatories have been made, -dated as follows: _State Inebriate Reformatories_:--England, 21st of -June 1901, 29th of Dec. 1903, 29th of April 1904; Scotland, 9th of March -1900; Ireland, 16th of March 1899, 16th of April 1901, 10th of Feb. -1904. _Certified Inebriate Reformatories_:--England, Model Regulations, -17th of Dec. 1898; Scotland, Regulations, 14th of Feb. 1899; Ireland, -Model Regulations, 29th of April 1899. - -Any person convicted on indictment of an offence punishable with -imprisonment or penal servitude (i.e. of any non-capital felony and of -most misdemeanours), if the court is satisfied from the evidence that -the offence was committed under the influence of drink, or that drink -was a contributing cause of the offence, may, if he admits that he is, -or is found by the jury to be, an habitual drunkard, in addition to or -in substitution for any other sentence, be ordered to be detained in a -state or certified inebriate reformatory, the managers of which are -willing to receive him. Again, any habitual drunkard who is found drunk -in any public place, or who commits any other of a series of similar -offences under various statutes, after having within twelve months been -convicted at least three times of a similar offence, may, on conviction -on indictment, or, if he consent, on summary conviction, be sent for -detention in any certified inebriate reformatory. The expenses of -prosecuting habitual drunkards under the above provisions are payable -out of the local rates upon an order to that effect by the judge of -assize or chairman of quarter-sessions if the prosecution be on -indictment, or by a court of summary jurisdiction if the offence is -dealt with summarily. - - AUTHORITIES.--As to the history of legislation on the subject see - Parl. Paper No. 242 of 1872; 1893 C. 7008. See also Wyatt Paine, - _Inebriate Reformatories and Retreats_ (London, 1899); Blackwell, - _Inebriates Acts_, 1879-1898 (London, 1899); Wood Renton, _Lunacy_ - (London and Edinburgh, 1896); Kerr, _Inebriety_ (3rd ed., London, - 1894). An excellent account of the systems in force in other countries - for the treatment of inebriates will be found in Parl. Pap. (1902), - cd. 1474. (A. W. R.) - - - - -INFALLIBILITY (Fr. _infaillibilite_ and _infallibilite_, the latter now -obsolete, Med. Lat. _infallibilitas_, _infallibilis_, formed from -fallor, to make a mistake), the fact or quality of not being liable to -err or fail. The word has thus the general sense of "certainty"; we may, -e.g., speak of a drug as an infallible specific, or of a man's judgment -as infallible. In these cases, however, the "infallibility" connotes -certainty only in so far as anything human can be certain. In the -language of the Christian Church the word "infallibility" is used in a -more absolute sense, as the freedom from ail possibility of error -guaranteed by the direct action of the Spirit of God. This belief in the -infallibility of revelation is involved in the very belief in revelation -itself, and is common to all sections of Christians, who differ mainly -as to the kind and measure of infallibility residing in the human -instruments by which this revelation is interpreted to the world. Some -see the guarantee, or at least the indication, of infallibility in the -consensus of the Church (_quod semper, ubique, et ab omnibus_) expressed -from time to time in general councils; others see it in the special -grace conferred upon St Peter and his successors, the bishops of Rome, -as heads of the Church; others again see it in the inspired Scriptures, -God's Word. This last was the belief of the Protestant Reformers, for -whom the Bible was in matters of doctrine the ultimate court of appeal. -To the translation and interpretation of the Scriptures men might bring -a fallible judgment, but this would be assisted by the direct action of -the Spirit of God in proportion to their faith. As for infallibility, -this was a direct grace of God, given only to the few. "What ever was -perfect under the sun," ask the translators of the Authorized Version -(1611) in their preface, "where apostles and apostolick men, that is, -men endued with an extraordinary measure of God's Spirit, and privileged -with the privilege of infallibility, had not their hand?" In modern -Protestantism, on the other hand, the idea of an infallible authority -whether in the Church or the Bible has tended to disappear, religious -truths being conceived as valuable only as they are apprehended and made -real to the individual mind and soul by the grace of God, not by reason -of any submission to an external authority. (See also INSPIRATION.) - -At the present time, then, the idea of infallibility in religious -matters is most commonly associated with the claim of the Roman Catholic -Church, and more especially of the pope personally as head of that -Church, to possess the privilege of infallibility, and it is with the -meaning and limits of this claim that the present article deals. - -The substance of the claim to infallibility made by the Roman Catholic -Church is that the Church and the pope cannot err when solemnly -enunciating, as binding on all the faithful, a decision on a question of -faith or morals. The infallibility of the Church, thus limited, is a -necessary outcome of the fundamental conception of the Catholic Church -and its mission. Every society of men must have a supreme authority, -whether individual or collective, empowered to give a final decision in -the controversies which concern it. A community whose mission it is to -teach religious truth, which involves on the part of its members the -obligation of belief in this truth, must, if it is not to fail of its -object, possess an authority capable of maintaining the faith in its -purity, and consequently capable of keeping it free from and condemning -errors. To perform this function without fear of error, this authority -must be infallible in its own sphere. The Christian Church has expressly -claimed this infallibility for its formal dogmatic teaching. In the very -earliest centuries we find the episcopate, united in council, drawing up -symbols of faith, which every believer was bound to accept under pain of -exclusion, condemning heresies, and casting out heretics. From Nicaea -and Chalcedon to Florence and Trent, and to the present day, the Church -has excluded from her communion all those who do not profess her own -faith, i.e. all the religious truths which she represents and imposes as -obligatory. This is infallibility put into practice by definite acts. - -The infallibility of the pope was not defined until 1870 at the Vatican -Council; this definition does not constitute, strictly speaking, a -dogmatic innovation, as if the pope had not hitherto enjoyed this -privilege, or as if the Church, as a whole, had admitted the contrary; -it is the newly formulated definition of a dogma which, like all those -defined by the Councils, continued to grow into an ever more definite -form, ripening, as it were, in the always living community of the -Church. The exact formula for the papal infallibility is given by the -Vatican Council in the following terms (Constit. _Pastor aeternus_, cap. -iv.); "we teach and define as a divinely revealed dogma, that the Roman -Pontiff, when he speaks _ex cathedra_--i.e. when, in his character as -Pastor and Doctor of all Christians, and in virtue of his supreme -apostolic authority, he lays down that a certain doctrine concerning -faith or morals is binding upon the universal Church,--possesses, by the -Divine assistance which was promised to him in the person of the blessed -Saint Peter, that same infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer -thought fit to endow His Church, to define its doctrine with regard to -faith and morals; and, consequently, that these definitions of the Roman -Pontiff are irreformable in themselves, and not in consequence of the -consent of the Church." A few notes will suffice to elucidate this -pronouncement. - -(a) As the Council expressly says, the infallibility of the pope is not -other than that of the Church; this is a point which is too often -forgotten or misunderstood. The pope enjoys it in person, but solely -_qua_ head of the Church, and as the authorized organ of the -ecclesiastical body. For this exercise of the primacy as for the others, -we must conceive of the pope and the episcopate united to him as a -continuation of the Apostolic College and its head Peter. The head of -the College possesses and exercises by himself alone the same powers as -the College which is united with him; not by delegation from his -colleagues, but because he is their established chief. The pope when -teaching _ex cathedra_ acts as head of the whole episcopal body and of -the whole Church. - -(b) If the Divine constitution of the Church has not changed in its -essential points since our Lord, the mode of exercise of the various -powers of its head has varied; and that of the supreme teaching power as -of the others. This explains the late date at which the dogma was -defined, and the assertion that the dogma was already contained in that -of the papal primacy established by our Lord himself in the person of St -Peter. A certain dogmatic development is not denied, nor an evolution in -the direction of a centralization in the hands of the pope of the -exercise of his powers as primate; it is merely required that this -evolution should be well understood and considered as legitimate. - -(c) As a matter of fact the infallibility of the pope, when giving -decisions in his character as head of the Church, was generally admitted -before the Vatican Council. The only reservation which the most advanced -Gallicans dared to formulate, in the terms of the celebrated declaration -of the clergy of France (1682), had as its object the irreformable -character of the pontifical definitions, which, it was claimed, could -only have been acquired by them through the assent of the Church. This -doctrine, rather political than theological, was a survival of the -errors which had come into being after the Great Schism, and especially -at the council of Constance; its object was to put the Church above its -head, as the council of Constance had put the ecumenical council above -the pope, as though the council could be ecumenical without its head. In -reality it was Gallicanism alone which was condemned at the Vatican -Council, and it is Gallicanism which is aimed at in the last phrase of -the definition we have quoted. - -(d) Infallibility is the guarantee against error, not in all matters, -but only in the matter of dogma and morality; everything else is beyond -its power, not only truths of another order, but even discipline and the -ecclesiastical laws, government and administration, &c. - -(e) Again, not all dogmatic teachings of the pope are under the -guarantee of infallibility; neither his opinions as private instructor, -nor his official allocutions, however authoritative they may be, are -infallible; it is only his _ex cathedra_ instruction which is -guaranteed; this is admitted by everybody. - -But when does the pope speak _ex cathedra_, and how is it to be -distinguished when he is exercising his infallibility? As to this point -there are two schools, or rather two tendencies, among Catholics: some -extend the privilege of infallibility to all official exercise of the -supreme _magisterium_, and declare infallible, e.g. the papal -encyclicals.[1] Others, while recognizing the supreme authority of the -papal _magisterium_ in matters of doctrine, confine the infallibility to -those cases alone in which the pope chooses to make use of it, and -declares positively that he is imposing on all the faithful the -obligation of belief in a certain definite proposition, under pain of -heresy and exclusion from the Church; they do not insist on any special -form, but only require that the pope should clearly manifest his will to -the Church. This second point of view, as clearly expounded by Mgr -Joseph Fessler (1813-1872), bishop of St Polten, who was secretary to -the Vatican Council, in his work _Die wahre und die falsche -Unfehlbarkeit der Papste_ (French trans. _La vraie et la fausse -infaillibilite_, Paris, 1873), and by Cardinal Newman in his "Letter to -the Duke of Norfolk," is the correct one, and this is clear from the -fact that it has never been blamed by the ecclesiastical authority. -Those who hold the latter opinion have been able to assert that since -the Vatican Council no infallible definition had yet been formulated by -the popes, while recognizing the supreme authority of the encyclicals of -Leo XIII. - -It is remarkable that the definition of the infallibility of the pope -did not appear among the projects (_schemata_) prepared for the -deliberations of the Vatican Council (1869). It doubtless arose from the -proposed forms for the definitions of the primacy and the pontifical -_magisterium_. The chapter on the infallibility was only added at the -request of the bishops and after long hesitation on the part of the -cardinal presidents. The proposed form, first elaborated in the -conciliary commission _de fide_, was the object of long public -discussions from the 50th general congregation (May 13th, 1870) to the -85th (July 13th); the constitution as a whole was adopted at a public -session, on the 18th, of the 535 bishops present, two only replied "_Non -placet_"; but about 50 had preferred not to be present. The -controversies occasioned by this question had started from the very -beginning of the Council, and were carried on with great bitterness on -both sides. The minority, among whom were prominent Cardinals Rauscher -and Schwarzenberg, Hefele, bishop of Rotterdam (the historian of the -councils) Cardinal Mathieu, Mgr Dupanloup, Mgr Maret, &c., &c., did not -pretend to deny the papal infallibility; they pleaded the -inopportuneness of the definition and brought forward difficulties -mainly of an historical order, in particular the famous condemnation of -Pope Honorius by the 6th ecumenical council of Constantinople in 680. -The majority, in which Cardinal Manning played a very active part, took -their stand on theological reasons of the strongest kind; they invoked -the promises of Our Lord to St Peter: "Thou art Peter, and upon this -rock will I build my Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail -against her"; and again, "I have prayed for thee, Peter, that thy faith -fail not; and do thou in thy turn confirm thy brethren"; they showed the -popes, in the course of the ages, acting as the guardians and judges of -the faith, arousing or welcoming dogmatic controversies and -authoritatively settling them, exercising the supreme direction in the -councils and sanctioning their decisions; they explained that the few -historical difficulties did not involve any dogmatic defect in the -teaching of the popes; they insisted upon the necessity of a supreme -tribunal giving judgment in the name of the whole of the scattered -Church; and finally, they considered that the definition had become -opportune for the very reason that under the pretext of its -inopportuneness the doctrine itself was being attacked. - -The definition once proclaimed, controversies rapidly ceased; the -bishops who were among the minority one after the other formulated their -loyal adhesion to the Catholic dogma. The last to do so in Germany was -Hefele, who published the decrees of the 10th of April 1871, thus -breaking a long friendship with Dollinger; in Austria, where the -government had thought good to revive for the occasion the royal -_placet_, Mgr Haynald and Mgr Strossmayer delayed the publication, the -former till the 15th of September 1871, the latter till the 26th of -December 1872. In France the adhesion was rapid, and the publication was -only delayed by some bishops in consequence of the disastrous war with -Prussia. Though no bishops abandoned it, a few priests, such as Father -Hyacinthe Loyson, and a few scholars at the German universities refused -their adhesion. The most distinguished among the latter was Dollinger, -who resisted all the advances of Mgr Scherr, archbishop of Munich, was -excommunicated on the 17th of April 1871, and died unreconciled, though -without joining any separate group. After him must be mentioned -Friedrich of Munich, several professors of Bonn, and Reinkens of -Breslau, who was the first bishop of the "Old Catholics." These -professors formed the "Committee of Bonn," which organized the new -Church. It was recognized and protected first in Bavaria, thanks to the -minister Freiherr Johann von Lutz, then in Saxony, Baden, Wurttemberg, -Prussia, where it was the pretext for, if not the cause of, the -Kulturkampf, and finally in Switzerland, especially at Geneva. - - For the theological aspects of the dogma of infallibility, see, among - many others, L. Billot, S.J., _De Ecclesia Christi_ (3 vols., Rome, - 1898-1900); or G. Wilmers, S.J., _De Christi Ecclesia_ (Regensburg, - 1897). The most accessible popular work is that of Mgr Fessler already - mentioned. For the history of the definition see VATICAN COUNCIL; also - PAPACY, GALLICANISM, FEBRONIANISM, OLD CATHOLICS, &c. (A. Bo.*) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] It was in this sense that it was understood by Dollinger, who - pointed out that the definition of the dogma would commit the Church - to all past official utterances of the popes, e.g. the Syllabus of - 1864, and therefore to a war _a outrance_ against modern - civilization. This view was embodied in the circular note to the - Powers, drawn up by Dollinger and issued by the Bavarian prime - minister Prince Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst on April 9, 1869. It was - also the view universally taken by the German governments which - supported the _Kulturkampf_ in a greater or less degree.--ED. - - - - -INFAMY (Lat. _infamia_), public disgrace or loss of character. Infamy -(_infamia_) occupied a prominent place in Roman law, and took the form -of a censure on individuals pronounced by a competent authority in the -state, which censure was the result either of certain actions which they -had committed or of certain modes of life which they had pursued. Such a -censure involved disqualification for certain rights both in public and -in private law (see A. H. J. Greenidge, _Infamia, its Place in Roman -Public and Private Law_, 1894). In English law infamy attached to a -person in consequence of conviction of some crime. The effect of infamy -was to render a person incompetent to give evidence in any legal -proceeding. Infamy as a cause of incompetency was abolished by an act of -1843 (6 & 7 Vict. c. 85). - -The word "infamous" is used in a particular sense in the English Medical -Act of 1858, which provides that if any registered medical practitioner -is judged by the General Medical Council, after due inquiry, to have -been guilty of infamous conduct in any professional respect, his name -may be erased from the Medical Register. The General Medical Council are -the sole judges of whether a practitioner has been guilty of conduct -infamous in a professional respect, and they act in a judicial capacity, -but an accused person is generally allowed to appear by counsel. Any -action which is regarded as disgraceful or dishonourable by a man's -professional brethren--such, for example, as issuing advertisements in -order to induce people to consult him in preference to other -practitioners--may be found infamous. - - - - -INFANCY, in medical practice, the nursing age, or the period during -which the child is at the breast. As a matter of convenience it is usual -to include in it children up to the age of one year. The care of an -infant begins with the preparations necessary for its birth and the -endeavour to ensure that taking place under the best possible sanitary -conditions. On being born the normal infant cries lustily, drawing air -into its lungs. As soon as the umbilical cord which unites the child to -the mother has ceased to pulsate, it is tied about 2 in. from the -child's navel and is divided above the ligature. The cord is wrapped in -a sterilized gauze pad and the dressing is not removed until the seventh -to the tenth day, when the umbilicus is healed. - -The baby is now a separate entity, and the first event in its life is -the first bath. The room ready to receive a new-born infant should be -kept at a temperature of 70 deg. F. The temperature of the first bath -should be 100 deg. F. The child should be well supported in the bath by -the left hand of the nurse, and care should be taken to avoid wetting -the gauze pad covering the cord. In some cases infants are covered with -a white substance termed "vernix caseosa," which may be carefully -removed by a little olive oil. Sponges should never be used, as they -tend to harbour bacteria. A soft pad of muslin or gauze which can be -boiled should take its place. After the first ten days 94 deg. F. is the -most suitable temperature for a bath. When the baby has been well dried -the skin may be dusted with pure starch powder to which a small quantity -of boric acid has been added. The most important part of the toilet of a -new-born infant is the care of the eyes, which should be carefully -cleansed with gauze dipped in warm water and one drop of a 2% solution -of nitrate of silver dropped into each eye. The clothes of a newly born -child should consist exclusively of woollen undergarments, a soft -flannel binder, which should be tied on, being placed next the skin, -with a long-sleeved woven wool vest and over this a loose garment of -flannel coming below the feet and long enough to tuck up. Diapers should -be made of soft absorbent material such as well-washed linen and should -be about two yards square and folded in a three-cornered shape. An -infant should always sleep in a bed or cot by itself. In 1907, of 749 -deaths from violence in England and Wales of children under one month, -445 were due to suffocation in bed with adults. A healthy infant should -spend most of its time asleep and should be laid into its cot -immediately after feeding. - -The normal infant at birth weighs about 7 lb. During the two or three -days following birth a slight decrease in weight occurs, usually 5 to 6 -oz. When nursing begins the child increases in weight up to the seventh -day, when the infant will have regained its weight at birth. From the -second to the fourth week after birth (according to Camerer) an infant -should gain 1 oz. daily or 1(1/2) to 2 lb. monthly, from the fourth to -the sixth month (1/2) to 2/3 of an oz. daily or 1 lb. monthly, from the -sixth to the twelfth month (1/2) oz. daily or less than 1 lb. monthly. -At the sixth month it should be twice the weight at birth. The average -weight at the twelfth month is 20 to 21 lb. The increase of weight in -artificially fed is less regular than in breast-fed babies. - -_Food._--There is but one proper food for an infant, and that is its -mother's milk, unless when in exceptional circumstances the mother is -not allowed to nurse her child. Artificially fed children are much more -liable to epidemic diseases. The child should be applied to the breast -the first day to induce the flow of milk. The first week the child -should be fed at intervals of two hours, the second week eight to nine -times, and the fourth week eight times at intervals of two and a half -hours. At two months the child is being suckled six times daily at -intervals of three hours, the last feed being at 11 P.M. Where a mother -cannot nurse a child the child must be artificially fed. Cow's milk must -be largely diluted to suit the new-born infant. Armstrong gives the -following table of dilution:-- - - 1st week, milk 1 tablespoonful, water 2 tablespoonfuls - at 3 months, " 3(1/2) tablespoonfuls, " 3 " \ added - at 6 months, " 9 " " 3 " > with - at 9 months, " 12 " " 3 " / sugar. - -Koplik has drawn out a table of the amounts to be given as follows:-- - - 1st day 3 feeds of 10 cc total 1 oz. in 24 hours - 2nd day 8 " 20 cc " 5(1/2) " - 3rd day 8 " 30 cc (1 oz.) " 8 " - 7th day 9 " 50 cc " 13(1/2) " - 4th week 8 " 60 cc (2 oz.) " 16 " - 3 months 7 " 4 oz. " 28 " - 6 months 6 " 7 oz. " 42 " - 9 months 6 " 8(1/2) oz. " 50 " - -In cities it is advisable that milk should be either sterilized by -boiling or pasteurized, i.e. subjected to a form of heating which, while -destroying pathogenic bacteria, does not alter the taste. The milk in a -suitable apparatus is subjected to a temperature of 65 deg. C. (149 deg. -F.) for half an hour and is then rapidly cooled to 20 deg. C. (68 deg. -F.). Children fed on pasteurized milk should be given a teaspoonful of -fresh orange juice daily to supply the missing acid and salts. - -Artificial feeding is given by means of a bottle. In France all bottles -with rubber tubes have been made illegal. They are a fruitful source of -infection, as it is impossible to keep them clean. The best bottle is -the boat-shaped one, with a wide mouth at one end, to which is attached -a rubber teat, while the other end has a screw stopper. This is readily -cleansed and a stream of water can be made to flow through it. All -bottle teats should be boiled at least once a day for ten minutes with -soda and kept in a glass-covered jar until required. A feed should be -given at the temperature of 100 deg. F. - -At the ninth month a cereal may be added to the food. Before that the -infant is unable to digest starchy foods. Much starch tends to -constipation, and it is rarely wise to give starchy preparations in a -proportion of more than 3% to children under a year old. A child who is -carefully fed in a cleanly manner should not have diarrhoea, and its -appearance indicates carelessness somewhere. The English -registrar-general's returns for 1906 show that in the seventy-six -largest towns in England and Wales 14,306 deaths of infants under one -year from diarrhoea took place in July, August and September alone. -These deaths are largely preventable; when Dr Budin of Paris established -his "Consultations de Nourissons" the infant mortality of Paris amounted -to 178 per 1000, but at the consultation the rate was 46 per 1000. At -Varengeville-sur-mer a consultation for nurslings was instituted under -Dr Poupalt of Dieppe in 1904. During the seven previous years the infant -mortality had averaged 145 per 1000. In 1904-1905 not one infant at the -consultation died, though it was a summer of extreme heat, and in 1898 -when similar heat had prevailed the infant mortality was 285 per 1000. -The deaths of infants under one year in England and Wales, taken from -the registrar-general's returns for 1907, amounted to 117.62 per 1000 -births, an alarming sacrifice of life. France has been turning her -attention to the establishment of infant consultations on the lines of -Dr Budin's, and similar dispensaries under the designation "Gouttes de -lait" have been widely established in that country; gratifying results -in the fall in infant mortality have followed. At the Fecamp dispensary -the mortality from diarrhoea has fallen to 2.8, while that in -neighbouring towns is from 50 to 76 per 1000 (Sir A. Simpson). It has -been left to private enterprise in England to deal with this problem. -The St Pancras "School for Mothers" was established in 1907 in -north-west London. Though started by private persons it was in 1909 -worked in connexion with the Health Department of the Borough Council, -but was supported by charitable subscriptions and by a small -contribution from the student mothers. There are classes for mothers on -the care of their health during pregnancy, infant feeding, home nursing, -cooking and needlework. Poor mothers unable to contribute get free -dinners for three months previous to the birth of their child and for -nine months after if the child is breast-fed. Two doctors are in -attendance, and mothers are encouraged to bring their children -fortnightly to be weighed, and receive advice. The average attendance is -ninety. A baby is said to have "graduated" when it is a year old. An -interesting development in connexion with the scheme is a class for -fathers at which the medical officer of health for the district lectures -on the duties of fatherhood. Similar schools for mothers are now -established in Fulham and Stepney. Weighing centres have been -established at Dundee, Sheffield, Nottingham, Birmingham, Aberdeen, -Bolton, Belfast, and Newcastle-on-Tyne. An infants' milk depot has been -established at Finsbury, and effort is being made to establish milk -laboratories where separate nursing portions of sterile milk could be -supplied to poor mothers. The Walker-Gordon milk laboratories in the -United States are a step in this direction. - -The average length of a child at birth is 19(1/2) in. and during the -first year the average increase is 7(7/8) in. A new-born infant is deaf -(Koplik). This is supposed to be due to the blocking of the eustachian -tubes with mucus. On the fourth day there is some evidence of hearing, -and at the fifth week noises in the room disturb it. A healthy infant -may be taken out of doors when a fortnight old in summer, after which it -should have a daily outing, the eyes being protected from the direct -rays of the sun. On the second day the eyes are sensitive to light, in -the second month the infant notices colours, at the sixth month it knows -its parents, and should be able to hold its head up. At the sixth month -the baby begins to cut its temporary teeth. After their appearance they -should be cleaned once a day by a piece of gauze moistened in boric acid -solution. Attempts to stand are made about the tenth month, and walking -begins about the fourteenth month. By this time the intelligence should -be developed and memory is observed. A child a year old should be able -to articulate a few small words. With the advent of walking and speech -the period of infancy may be said to end. - - See Pierre Budin, The Nursling (1907); Henry Koplik, _Disease of - Infancy and Childhood_ (1906); Eric Pritchard, _The Physiological - Feeding of Infants_ (1904); Eric Pritchard, _Infant Education_ (1907); - John Grimshaw, _Your Child's Health_ (1908). (H. L. H.) - - - - -INFANT (in early forms _enfaunt_, _enfant_, through the Fr. _enfant_, -from Lat. _infans_, _in_, not, and _fans_, the present participle of -_fari_, to speak), a child; in non-legal use, a very young child, a -baby, or one of an age suitable to be taught in an "infant school"; in -law, a person under full age, and therefore subject to disabilities not -affecting persons who have attained full age. - -This article deals with "infants" in the last sense; for the more -general sense see INFANCY and CHILD. The period of full age varies -widely in different systems, as do also the disabilities attaching to -nonage (non-age). In Roman law, the age of puberty, fixed at fourteen -for males and twelve for females, was recognized as a dividing line. -Under that age a child was under the guardianship of a tutor, but -several degrees of infancy were recognized. The first was absolute -infancy; after that, until the age of seven, a child was _infantiae -proximus_; and from the eighth year to puberty he was _pubertati -proximus_. An infant in the last stage could, with the assent of his -tutor, act so as to bind himself by stipulations; in the earlier stages -he could not, although binding stipulations could be made to him in the -second stage. After puberty, until the age of twenty-five years, a -modified infancy was recognized, during which the minor's acts were not -void altogether, but voidable, and a curator was appointed to manage his -affairs. The difference between the tutor and the curator in Roman law -was marked by the saying that the former was appointed for the care of -the person, the latter for the estate of the pupil. These principles -apply only to children who are _sui juris_. The _patria potestas_, so -long as it lasts, gives to the father the complete control of the son's -actions. The right of the father to appoint tutors to his children by -will (_testamentarii_) was recognized by the Twelve Tables, as was also -the tutorship of the _agnati_ (or legal as distinct from natural -relations) in default of such an appointment. Tutors who held office in -virtue of a general law were called _legitimi_. Besides and in default -of these, tutors _dativi_ were appointed by the magistrates. These terms -are still used in much the same sense in modern systems founded on the -Roman law, as may be seen in the case of Scotland, noticed below. - -By the law of England full age is twenty-one, and all minors alike are -subject to incapacities. The period of twenty-one years is regarded as -complete at the beginning of the day before the birthday: for example, -an infant born on the first day of January attains his majority at the -first moment of the 31st of December. The incapacity of an infant is -designed for his own protection, and its general effect is to prevent -him from binding himself absolutely by obligations. Of the contracts of -an infant which are binding _ab initio_, the most important are those -relating to "necessaries." By the Sale of Goods Act 1893, an infant -liable on a contract for necessaries can be sued only for a reasonable -price, not necessarily the price he agreed to pay. The same statute -declares "necessaries" to mean "goods suitable to the condition in life -of the infant, and to his actual requirements at the time of the sale -and delivery." In the case of goods having a market price, the market -price is reasonable. In all other cases the question is one of fact for -the jury. The protection of infants extends sometimes to transactions -completed after full age; the relief of heirs who have been induced to -barter away their expectations is an example. "Catching bargains," as -they are called, throw on the persons claiming the benefit of them the -burden of proving their substantial righteousness. - -At common law a bargain made by an infant might be ratified by him after -full age, and would then become binding. Lord Tenterden's act required -the ratification to be in writing. But now, by the Infants' Relief Act -1874, "all contracts entered into by infants for the repayment of money -lent or to be lent, or for goods supplied or to be supplied (other than -contracts for necessaries), and all accounts stated, shall be absolutely -void," and "no action shall be brought whereby to charge any person upon -any promise made after full age to pay any debt contracted during -infancy, or upon any ratification made after full age of any promise or -contract made during infancy, whether there shall or shall not be any -new consideration for such promise or ratification after full age." For -some years after the passage of this statute highly conflicting views -were held as to the meaning of the part of section 2 whereby it was -enacted that "no action shall be brought whereby to charge any person -... upon any ratification made after full age of any promise or contract -made during infancy." Some authorities were of opinion that the section -only applied to the three classes of contract made void by the previous -section, viz. for goods supplied, money lent and on account stated. -Others thought the effect to be that no contract, except for -necessaries, made during infancy could be enforced after the infant came -to full age. After several conflicting decisions it has been settled -that both these views were wrong. Of the infant's contracts voidable at -common law there were two kinds. The first kind became void at full age, -unless expressly ratified. The second kind were valid, unless repudiated -within a reasonable time after full age was attained by the infant. The -Infants' Relief Act (section 2) strikes only at the first class and -leaves the second untouched. Thus a promise of marriage made during -infancy cannot be ratified so as to become actionable: but an infant's -marriage settlement, being of the second class, is valid, unless it is -repudiated within a reasonable time after the infant attains full age. -What is a reasonable time depends on all the circumstances of the case. -In a case decided in 1893 a settlement made by a female infant was -allowed to be repudiated thirty years after she attained full age, but -the circumstances were exceptional. A contract of marriage may be -lawfully made by persons under age. Marriageable age is fourteen in -males and twelve in females. So, generally, an infant may bind himself -by contract of apprenticeship or service. Since the passing of the Wills -Act, an infant, except he be a soldier in actual military service or a -seaman at sea, is unable to make a will. Infancy is in general a -disqualification for public offices and professions, e.g. to be a member -of parliament or an elector, a mayor or burgess, a priest or deacon, a -barrister or solicitor, &c. - -Before 1886 the custody of an infant belonged in the first place, and -against all other persons, to the father, who was said to be "the -guardian of his children by nature and nurture"; and the father might by -deed or will dispose of the custody or tuition of his children until the -age of twenty-one. - -The Guardianship of Infants Act 1886 placed the mother almost on the -same footing as the father as to guardianship of infants. On the death -of the father the mother becomes guardian under the statute, either -alone when no guardian has been appointed by the father, or jointly with -any guardian appointed by him under 12 Chas. II. c. 24. A change of the -law even more important is that whereby the mother may by deed or will -appoint a guardian or guardians of her infant children to act after her -death. If the father survives the mother, the mother's guardian can only -act if it be shown to the satisfaction of the court that the father is -unfitted to be the sole guardian. On the death of the father, the -guardian so appointed by the mother acts jointly with any guardian -appointed by the father. The Guardianship of Infants Act 1886 also gives -power to the high court and to county courts to make orders, upon the -application of the mother, regarding the custody of an infant, and the -right of access thereto of either parent. The court must take into -consideration "the welfare of the infant, and ... the conduct of the -parents, and ... the wishes as well of the mother as of the father." The -same statute also empowers the high court of justice, "on being -satisfied that it is for the welfare of the infant," to "remove from his -office any testamentary guardian or any guardian appointed or acting by -virtue of this act," and also to appoint another in place of the -guardian so removed. - -The same statute gives power to a court sitting in divorce practically -to take away from a parent guilty of a matrimonial offence all rights of -guardianship. When a decree for judicial separation or divorce is -pronounced, the court pronouncing it may at the same time declare the -parent found guilty of misconduct to be unfit to have the custody of the -children of the marriage. "In such case the parent so declared to be -unfit shall not, upon the death of the other parent, be entitled as of -right to the custody or guardianship of such children." The court -exercises this power very sparingly. When the declaration of unfitness -is made, the practical effect is to give to the innocent parent the sole -guardianship, as well as power to appoint a testamentary guardian to the -exclusion of the guilty parent. - -Another radical change has been made in the rights of parents as to -guardianship of their children. In consequence of several cases where, -after children had been rescued by philanthropic persons from squalid -homes and improper surroundings, the courts had felt bound by law to -redeliver them to their parents, the Custody of Children Act 1891 was -passed. It provides that when the parent of a child applies to the court -for a writ or order for the production of the child, and the court is of -opinion that the parent has abandoned or deserted the child, or that he -has otherwise so conducted himself that the court should refuse to -enforce his right to the custody of the child, the court may, in its -discretion, decline to issue the writ or make the order. If the child, -in respect of whom the application is made, is being brought up by -another person ("person" includes "school or institution"), or is being -boarded out by poor-law guardians, the court may, if it orders the child -to be given up to the parent, further order the parent to pay all or -part of the cost incurred by such person or guardians in bringing up the -child. - -A parent who has abandoned or deserted his child is, prima facie, unfit -to have the custody of the child. And before the court can make an order -giving him the custody, the onus lies on him to prove that he is fit. -The same rule applies where the child has been allowed by the parent "to -be brought up by another person at that person's expense, or by the -guardians of a poor-law union, for such a length of time and under such -circumstances as to satisfy the court that the parent was unmindful of -his parental duties." - -The 4th section of the Custody of Children Act 1891 preserves the right -of the parent to control the religious training of the infant. The -father, however unfit he may be to have the custody of his child, has -the legal right to require the child to be brought up in his own -religion. If the father is dead, and has left no directions on the -point, the mother may assert a similar right. But the court may consult -the wishes of the child; and when an infant has been allowed by the -father to grow up in a faith different from his own, the court will not, -as a rule, order any change in the character of religious instruction. -This is especially the case where the infant appears to be settled in -his convictions. - -In the same direction as the Custody of Children Act 1891 is the -Children Act 1908, whereby considerable powers have been conferred on -courts of summary jurisdiction (see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO). - -There is not at common law any corresponding obligation on the part of -either parent to maintain or educate the children. The legal duties of -parents in this respect are only those created by the poor laws, the -Education Acts and the Children Act 1908. - -An infant is liable to a civil action for torts and wrongful acts -committed by him. But, as it is possible so to shape the pleadings as to -make what is in substance a right arising out of contract take the form -of a right arising from civil injury, care is taken that an infant in -such a case shall not be held liable. With respect to crime, mere -infancy is not a defence, but a child under seven years of age is -presumed to be incapable of committing a crime, and between seven and -fourteen his capacity requires to be affirmatively proved. After -fourteen an infant is _doli capax_. - - The law of Scotland follows the leading principles of the Roman law. - The period of minority (which ends at twenty-one) is divided into two - stages, that of absolute incapacity (until the age of fourteen in - males, and twelve in females), during which the minor is in - pupilarity, and that of partial incapacity (between fourteen and - twenty-one), during which he is under curators. The guardians (or - tutors) of the pupil are either tutors-nominate (appointed by the - father in his will); tutors-at-law (being the next male agnate of - twenty-five years of age), in default of tutors-nominate; or - tutors-dative, appointed by royal warrant in default of the other two. - No act done by the pupil, or action raised in his name, has any effect - without the interposition of a guardian. After fourteen, all acts done - by a minor having curators are void without their concurrence. Every - deed in nonage, whether during pupilarity or minority, and whether - authorized or not by tutors or curators, is liable to reduction on - proof of "lesion," i.e. of material injury, due to the fact of nonage, - either through the weakness of the minor himself or the imprudence or - negligence of his curators. Damage in fact arising on a contract in - itself just and reasonable would not be lesion entitling to - restitution. Deeds in nonage, other than those which are absolutely - null _ab initio_, must be challenged within the _quadriennium utile_, - or four years after majority. - - The Guardianship of Infants Act 1886, the Custody of Children Act 1891 - and the Children Act 1908, mentioned above, all apply to Scotland. - - In the United States, the principles of the English common law as to - infancy prevail, generally the most conspicuous variations being those - affecting the age at which women attain majority. In many states this - is fixed at eighteen. There is some diversity of practice as to the - age at which a person can make a will of real or personal estate. - - - - -INFANTE (Spanish and Portuguese form of Lat. _infans_, young child), a -title of the sons of the sovereign of Spain and Portugal, the -corresponding _infanta_ being given to the daughters. The title is not -borne by the eldest son of the king of Spain, who is prince of Asturias, -_Il principe de Asturias_. Until the severance of Brazil from the -Portuguese monarchy, the eldest son was prince of Brazil. While a son or -daughter of the sovereign of Spain is by right infante or infanta of -Spain, the title, alone, is granted to other members of the blood royal -by the sovereign. - - - - -INFANTICIDE, the killing of a newly-born child or of the matured foetus. -When practised by civilized peoples the subject of infanticide concerns -the criminologist and the jurist; but its importance in anthropology, as -it involves a widespread practice among primitive or savage nations, -requires more detailed attention. J. F. McLennan (_Studies in Ancient -History_, pp. 75 et seq.) suggests that the practice of female -infanticide was once universal, and that in it is to be found the origin -of exogamy. Much evidence, however, has been adduced against this -hypothesis by Herbert Spencer and Edward Westermarck. Infanticide, both -of males and females, is far less widespread among savage races than -McLennan supposed. It certainly is common in many lands, and more -females are killed than males; but among many fierce and savage peoples -it is almost unknown. Thus among the Tuski, Ahts, Western Eskimo and the -Botocudos new-born children are killed now and then, if they are weak -and deformed, or for some other reason (such as the superstition -attaching to birth of twins) but without distinction of sex. Among the -Dakota Indians and Crees female infanticide is rare. The Blackfoot -Indians believe that a woman guilty of such an act will never reach "the -Happy Mountain" after death, but will hover round the scene of her -misdeed with branches of trees tied to her legs. The Aleutians hold that -child-murder brings misfortune on the whole village. Among the Abipones -it is common, but the boys are usually the victims, because it is -customary to buy a wife for a son, whereas a grown daughter will always -command a price. In Africa, where a warm climate and abundance of food -simplify the problem of existence, the crime is not common. Herr Valdau -relates that a Bakundu woman, accused of it, was condemned to death. In -Samoa, in the Mitchell and Hervey Islands, and in parts of New Guinea, -it was unheard of; while among the cannibals, the Solomon Islanders, it -occurred rarely. A theory has been advanced by L. Fison (_Kamilaroi and -Kurnai_, 1880) that female infanticide is far less common among the -lower savages than among the more advanced tribes. Among some of the -most degraded of human beings, such as the Yahgans of Tierra del Fuego, -the crime was unknown, except when committed by the mother "from -jealousy or hatred of her husband or because of desertion and -wretchedness." It is said that certain Californian Indians were never -guilty of child-murder before the arrival of the whites; while Wm. Ellis -(_Polynesian Researches_, i. 249) thinks it most probable that the -custom was less prevalent in earlier than later Polynesian history. The -weight of evidence tends to support Darwin's theory that during the -earliest period of human development man did not lose that strong -instinct, the love of his young, and consequently did not practice -infanticide; that, in short, the crime is not characteristic of -primitive races. - -Infanticide may be said to arise from four reasons. It may be (1) an act -of callous brutality or to satisfy cannibalistic cravings. A Fuegian, -Darwin relates, dashed his child's brains out for upsetting a basket of -fish. An Australian, seeing his infant son ill, killed, roasted and ate -him. In some parts of Africa the negroes bait lion-traps with their own -children. Some South American Indians, such as the Moxos, abandon or -kill them without reason; while African and Polynesian cannibals eat -them without the excuse of the periodic famines which made the -Tasmanians regard the birth of a child as a piece of good fortune. - -2. Or infanticide may be the result of the struggle for existence. Thus -in Polynesia, while the climate ensures food in plenty, the relative -smallness of the islands imposed the custom on all families without -distinction. In the Hawaiian Islands all children, after the third or -fourth, were strangled or buried alive. At Tahiti fathers had the right -(and used it) of killing their newly-born children by suffocation. The -chiefs were obliged by custom to kill all their daughters. The society -of the Areois, famous in the Society Islands, imposed infanticide upon -the women members by oath. In other islands all girl-children were -spared, but only two boys in each family were reared. The difficulties -of suckling partly explain the custom of killing twins. For the same -reason the Eskimo and Red Indians used to bury the infant with the -mother who died in childbirth. Among warrior and hunter tribes, where -women could not act as beasts of burden as in agricultural communities, -and where a large number of girls were likely to attract the hostile -attentions of neighbouring tribesmen, girl-babies were murdered. Arabs, -in ancient times, buried alive the majority of female children. In many -lands infanticide was regarded as a meritorious act on the part of a -parent, done, as a precaution against famine, in the interests of the -tribe. In other parts of the world, infanticide results from customs -which impose heavy burdens on child-rearing. Of these artificial -hardships the best example is afforded by India. There the practice, -though forbidden by both the Vedas and the Koran, prevailed among the -Rajputs and certain aboriginal tribes. Among the aristocratic Rajputs, -it was thought dishonourable that a girl should remain unmarried. -Moreover, a girl may not marry below her caste; she ought to marry her -superior, or at least her equal. This reasoning was most powerful with -the highest castes, in which the disproportion of the sexes was -painfully apparent. But, assuming marriage to be possible, it was -ruinously expensive to the bride's father, the cost in the case of some -rajahs having been known to exceed L100,000. To avoid all this, the -Rajput killed a proportion of his daughters--sometimes in a very -singular way. A pill of tobacco and bhang might be given to the new-born -child; or it was drowned in milk;[1] or the mother's breast was smeared -with opium or the juice of the poisonous _datura_. A common method was -to cover the child's mouth with a plaster of cow-dung, before it drew -breath. Infanticide was also practised to a small extent by some sects -of the aboriginal Khonds and by the poorer hill-tribes of the Himalayas. -Where infanticide occurs in India, though it really rests on the -economic facts stated, there is usually some poetical tradition of its -origin. Infanticide from motives of prudence was common among some -American Indian tribes of the north-west, with whom the "potlatch" was -an essential part of their daughter's marriage ceremonies. - -3. Or infanticide may be in the nature of a religious observance. The -gods must be appeased with blood, and it is believed that no sacrifice -can be so pleasing to them as the child of the worshipper. Such were the -motives impelling parents to the burning of children in the worship of -Moloch. In India children were thrown into the sacred river Ganges, and -adoration paid to the alligators who fed on them. Where the custom -prevails as a sacrifice the male child is usually the victim. - -4. Or, finally, infanticide may have a social or political reason. Thus -at Sparta (and in other places in early Greek and Roman history) weakly -or deformed children were killed by order of the state, a custom -approved in the ideal systems of Aristotle and Plato, and still observed -among the Eskimo and the Kamchadales. - - AUTHORITIES.--Herbert Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i. 614-619; - McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_, pp. 75 et seq.; McLennan, - "Exogamy and Endogamy" in the _Fortnightly Review_, xxi. 884 et seq.; - Darwin, Descent of Man, ii. 400 et seq.; L. Fison, and A. W. Howitt, - _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_ (1880); Westermarck, _History of Human - Marriage_ (1894); Browne, _Infanticide: Its Origin, Progress and - Suppression_ (London, 1857); Lord Avebury, _Prehistoric Times_ (1900), - and _Origin of Civilization_ (1902). - -_Law._--The crime of infanticide among civilized nations is still -frequent. It is however due in most cases to abnormal causes, such as a -sudden access of insanity, privation, unreasoning dislike to the child, -&c. It is most closely connected with illegitimacy in the class of farm -and domestic servants, the more common motive being the terror of the -mother of incurring the disgrace with which society visits the more -venial offence. Often, however, it is inspired by no better motive than -the wish to escape the burden of the child's support. The granting of -affiliation orders thus tends to save the lives of many children, though -it provides a motive for the paramour sometimes to share in the crime. -The laws of the European states differ widely on this subject--some of -them treating infanticide as a special crime, others regarding it merely -as a case of murder of unusually difficult proof. In the law of England -infanticide is murder or manslaughter according to the presence or -absence of deliberation. The infant must be a human being in the legal -sense; and "a child becomes a human being when it has completely -proceeded in a living state from the body of its mother, whether it has -breathed or not, and whether it has an independent circulation or not, -and whether the navel-string is severed or not; and the killing of such -a child is homicide when it dies after birth in consequence of injuries -received before, during or after birth." A child in the womb or in the -act of birth, though it may have breathed, is therefore not a human -being, the killing of which amounts to homicide. The older law of child -murder under a statute of James I. consisted of cruel presumptions -against the mother, and it was not till 1803 that trials for that -offence were placed under the ordinary rules of evidence. The crown now -takes upon itself the onus of proving in every case that the child has -been alive. This is often a matter of difficulty, and hence a frequent -alternative charge is that of concealment of birth (see BIRTH), or -concealment of pregnancy in Scotland. It is the opinion of the most -eminent of British medical jurists that this presumption has tended to -increase infanticide. Apart from this, the technical definition of human -life has excited a good deal of comment and some indignation. The -definition allows many wicked acts to go unpunished. The experience of -assizes in England shows that many children are killed when it is -impossible to prove that they were wholly born. The distinction taken by -the law was probably comprehended by the minds of the class to which -most of the unhappy mothers belong. Partly to meet this complaint it was -suggested to the Royal Commission of 1866 that killing during birth, or -within seven days thereafter, should be an offence punishable with penal -servitude. The second complaint is of an opposite character--partly that -infanticide by mothers is not a fit subject for capital punishment, and -partly that, whatever be the intrinsic character of the act, juries will -not convict or the executive will not carry out the sentence. Earl -Russell gave expression to this feeling when he proposed that no capital -sentence should be pronounced upon mothers for the killing of children -within six months after birth. When there has been a verdict of murder, -sentence of death must be passed, but the practice of the Home Office, -as laid down in 1908, is invariably to commute the death sentence to -penal servitude for life. The circumstances of the case and the -disposition and general progress of the prisoners under discipline in a -convict prison are then determining factors in the length of subsequent -detention, which rarely exceeds three years. After release, the -prisoner's further progress is carefully watched, and if it is seen to -be to her advantage the conditions of her release are cancelled and she -is restored to complete freedom. - -In India measures against the practice were begun towards the end of the -18th century by Jonathan Duncan and Major Walker. They were continued by -a series of able and earnest officers during the 19th century. One of -its chief events, representing many minor occurrences, was the Amritsar -durbar of 1853, which was arranged by Lord Lawrence. At that meeting the -chiefs residing in the Punjab and the trans-Sutlej states signed an -agreement engaging to expel from caste every one who committed -infanticide, to adopt fixed and moderate rates of marriage expenses, and -to exclude from these ceremonies the minstrels and beggars who had so -greatly swollen the expense. According to the present law, if the female -children fall below a certain percentage in any tract or among any tribe -in northern India where infanticide formerly prevailed, the suspected -village is placed under police supervision, the cost being charged to -the locality. By these measures, together with a strictly enforced -system of reporting births and deaths, infanticide has been almost -trampled out; although some of the Rajput clans keep their female -offspring suspiciously close to the lowest average which secures them -from surveillance. - -It is difficult to say to what extent infanticide prevails in the United -Kingdom. At one time a large number of children were murdered in England -for the purpose of obtaining the burial money from a benefit club,[2] -but protection against this risk has been provided for by the Friendly -Societies Act 1896, and the Collecting Societies Act 1896. The neglect -or killing of nurse-children is treated under BABY-FARMING, and -CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO. - -In the United States, the elements of this offence are practically the -same as in England. The wilful killing of an unborn child is not -manslaughter unless made so by statute. To constitute manslaughter under -Laws N.Y. 1869, ch. 631, by attempts to produce miscarriage, the -"quickening" of the child must be averred and proved (_Evans_ v. -_People_, 49 New York Rep. 86; see also _Wallace_ v. _State_, 7 Texas -app. 570). - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] In Baluchistan, where children are often drowned in milk, there - is a euphemistic proverb: "The lady's daughter died drinking milk." - - [2] See _Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Classes_, - "Supplementary Report on Interment in Towns," by Edwin Chadwick - (_Parl. Papers_, 1843, xii. 395); and _The Social Condition and - Education of the People_, by Joseph Kay (1850). - - - - -INFANTRY, the collective name of soldiers who march and fight on foot -and are armed with hand-weapons. The word is derived ultimately from -Lat. _infans_, infant, but it is not clear how the word came to be used -to mean soldiers. The suggestion that it comes from a guard or regiment -of a Spanish infanta about the end of the 15th century cannot be -maintained in view of the fact that Spanish foot-soldiers of the time -were called _soldados_ and contrasted with French _fantassins_ and -Italian _fanteria_. The _New English Dictionary_ suggests that a -foot-soldier, being in feudal and early modern times the varlet or -follower of a mounted noble, was called a boy (cf. _Knabe_, _garcon_, -footman, &c., and see VALET). - - -HISTORICAL SKETCH - -The importance of the infantry arm, both in history and at the present -time, cannot be summed up better and more concisely than in the phrase -used by a brilliant general of the Napoleonic era, General -Morand--"_L'infanterie, c'est l'armee_." - -It may be confidently asserted that the original fighting man was a -foot-soldier. But infantry was differentiated as an "arm" considerably -later than cavalry; for when a new means of fighting (a chariot or a -horse) presented itself, it was assimilated by relatively picked men, -chiefs and noted warriors, who _ipso facto_ separated themselves from -the mass or reservoir of men. How this mass itself ceased to be a mere -residue and developed special characteristics; how, instead of the -cavalry being recruited from the best infantry, cavalry and infantry -came to form two distinct services; and how the arm thus constituted -organized itself, technically and tactically, for its own work--these -are the main questions that constitute the historical side of the -subject. It is obvious that as the "residue" was far the greatest part -of the army, the history of the foot-soldier is practically identical -with the history of soldiering. - -It was only when a group of human beings became too large to be -surprised and assassinated by a few lurking enemies, that proper -fighting became the normal method of settling a quarrel or a rivalry. -Two groups, neither of which had been able to surprise the other, had to -meet face to face, and the instinct of self-preservation had to be -reconciled with the necessity of victory. From this it was an easy step -to the differentiation of the champion, the proved excellent fighting -man, and to providing this man, on whom everything depended, with all -assistance that better arms, armour, horse or chariot could give him. -But suppose our champion slain, how are we to make head against the -opposing champion? For long ages, we may suppose, the latter, as in the -_Iliad_, slaughtered the sheep who had lost their shepherd, but in the -end the "residue" began to organize itself, and to oppose a united front -to the enemy's champions--in which term we include all selected men, -whether horsemen, charioteers or merely specially powerful axemen and -swordsmen. But once the individual had lost his commanding position, the -problem presented itself in a new form--how to ensure that every member -of the group did his duty by the others--and the solution of this -problem for the conditions of the ancient hand-to-hand struggle marks -the historical beginning of infantry tactics. - - - The phalanx and the legion. - -Gallic warriors bound themselves together with chains. The Greeks -organized the city state, which gave each small army solidarity and the -sense of duty to an ideal, and the phalanx, in which the file-leaders -were in a sense champions yet were made so chiefly by the unity of the -mass. But the Romans went farther. Besides developing solidarity and a -sense of duty, they improved on this conception of the battle to such a -degree that as a nation they may be called the best tacticians who ever -existed. Giving up the attempt to make all men fight equally well, they -dislocated the mass of combatants into three bodies, of which the first, -formed of the youngest and most impressionable men, was engaged at the -outset, the rest, more experienced men, being kept out of the turmoil. -This is the very opposite of the "champion" system. Those who would have -fled after the fall of the champions are engaged and "fought out" before -the champions enter the area of the contest, while the champions, who -possess in themselves the greatest power of resisting and mastering the -instinct of self-preservation, are kept back for the moment when -ordinary men would lose heart. - -It might be said with perfect justice that without infantry there would -never have been discipline, for cavalry began and continued as a crowd -of champions. Discipline, which created and maintained the intrinsic -superiority of the Roman legion, depended first on the ideal of -patriotism. This was ingrained into every man from his earliest years -and expressed in a system of rewards and punishments which took effect -from the same ideal, in that rewards were in the main honorary in -character (mural crowns, &c.), while no physical punishment was too -severe for the man who betrayed, by default or selfishness, the cause of -Rome. Secondly, though every man knew his duty, not every man was equal -to doing it, and in recognition of this fact the Romans evolved the -system of three-line tactics in which the strong parts of the machine -neutralized the weak. The first of these principles, being psychological -in character, rose, flourished and decayed with the _moral_ of the -nation. The second, deduced from the first, varied with it, but as it -was objectively expressed in a system of tactics, which had to be -modified to suit each case, it varied also in proportion as the combat -took more or less abnormal forms. So closely knit were the parts of the -system that not only did the decadence of patriotism sap the legionary -organization, but also the unsuitability of that organization to new -conditions of warfare reacted unfavourably, even disastrously, on the -moral of the nation. Between them, the Roman infantry fell from its -proud place, and whereas in the Republic it was familiarly called the -"strength" (_robur_), by the 4th century A.D. it had become merely the -background for a variety of other arms and corps. Luxury produced -"egoists," to whom the rewards meant nothing and the punishments were -torture for the sake of torture. When therefore the Roman _imperium_ -extended far enough to bring in silks from China and ivory from the -forests of central Africa, the citizen-army ceased to exist, and the -mere necessity for garrisoning distant savage lands threw the burden of -service upon the professional soldier. - - - The Roman Imperial Army. - -The natural consequence of this last was the uniform training of every -man. There were no longer any primary differences between one cohort and -another, and though the value of the three-line system in itself ensured -its continuance, any cohort, however constituted, might find itself -serving in any one of the three lines, i.e. the _moral_ of the last line -was no better than that of the first. The best guarantee of success -became _uniform_ regimental excellence, and whereas Camillus or Scipio -found useful employment in battle for every citizen, Caesar complained -that a legion which had been sent him was too raw, though it had been -embodied for nine years. The conditions which were so admirably met by -the old system never reappeared; for before armies resumed a "citizen" -character the invention of firearms had subjected all ranks and lines -alike to the same ordeal of facing unseen death, and the old soldiers -were better employed in standing shoulder to shoulder with the young. In -brief, the old Roman organization was based on patriotism and -experience, and when patriotism gave place to "egoism," and the -experience of the citizen who spent every other summer in the field of -war gave place to the formal training of the paid recruit, it died, -unregretted either by the citizen or by the military chieftain. The -latter knew how to make the army his devoted servant, while the former -disliked military service and failed to prepare himself for the day when -the military chief and the mercenary overrode his rights and set up a -tyranny, and ultimately the inner provinces of the empire came to be -called _inermes_--unarmed, defenceless--in contrast to the borderland -where the all-powerful professional legions lay in garrison. - -In these same frontier provinces the tactical disintegration of the -legion slowly accomplished itself. Originally designed for the -exigencies of the normal pitched battle on firm open fields, and even -after its professionalization retaining its character as a large battle -unit, it was soon fragmented through the exigencies of border warfare -into numerous detachments of greater or less size, and when the military -frontier of the empire was established, the legion became an almost -sedentary corps, finding the garrisons for the blockhouses on its own -section of the line of defence. Further, the old heavy arms and armour -which had given it the advantage in wars of conquest--in which the -barbarians, gathering to defend their homes, offered a target for the -blow of an army--were a great disadvantage when it became necessary to -police the conquered territory, to pounce upon swiftly moving bodies of -raiders before they could do any great harm. Thus gradually cavalry -became more numerous, and light infantry of all sorts more useful, than -the old-fashioned linesman. To these corps went the best recruits and -the smartest officers, the opportunities for good service and the -rewards for it. The legion became once more the "residue." Thus when the -"champion" reappeared on the battlefield the solidarity that neutralized -his power had ceased to exist. - -The battle of Adrianople, the "last fight of the legion," illustrates -this. The frontal battle was engaged in the ordinary way, and the -cohorts of the first line of the imperial army were fighting man to man -with the front ranks of the Gothic infantry (which had indeed a -solidarity of its own, unlike the barbarians of the early empire, and -was further guaranteed against moral over-pressure by a wagon laager), -when suddenly the armoured heavy cavalry of the Goths burst upon their -flank and rear. There were no longer _Principes_ and _Triarii_ of the -old Republican calibre, but only average troops, in the second and third -lines, and they were broken at once. The first line felt the battle in -rear as well as in front and gave way. Thereafter the victors, horse and -foot, slaughtered unresisting herds of men, not desperate soldiers, and -on this day the infantry arm, as an arm, ceased to exist. - - - The Dark Ages. - -Of course, not every soldier became a horseman, and still fewer could -provide themselves with armour. Regular infantry, too, was still -maintained for siege, mountain and forest warfare. But the _robur_, the -kernel of the line of battle, was gone, and though a few of the peoples -that fought their way into the area of civilization in the dark ages -brought with them the natural and primitive method of fighting on foot, -it was practically always a combination of mighty champions and -"residue," even though the latter bound themselves together by locked -shields, as the Gauls had bound themselves long before with chains, to -prevent "skulking." These infantry nations, without any infantry system -comparable to that of the Greeks and Romans, succumbed in turn to the -crowd of mounted warriors--not like the Greeks and Romans for want of -good military qualities, but for want of an organization which would -have distributed their fighting powers to the best advantage. One has -only to study the battle of Hastings to realize how completely the -infantry masses of the English slipped from the control of their leaders -directly the front ranks became seriously engaged. For many generations -after Hastings there was no attempt to use infantry as the kernel of -armies, still less to organize it as such beforehand. Indeed, except in -the Crusades, where men of high and of low degree alike fought for their -common faith, and in sieges, where cavalry was powerless and the -services of archers and labourers were at a premium, it became quite -unusual for infantry to appear on the field at all. - - - Bouvines. - - The tactics of feudal infantry at its best were conspicuously - illustrated in the battle of Bouvines, where besides the barons, - knights and sergeants, the Brabancon mercenaries (heavy foot) and the - French communal militia opposed one another. On the French right wing, - the opportune arrival of a well-closed mass of cavalry and infantry in - the flank of a loose crowd of men-at-arms which had already been - thoroughly engaged, decided the fight. In the centre, the respective - infantries were in first line, the nobles and knights, with their - sovereigns, in second, yet it was a mixed mass of both that, after a - period of confused fighting, focussed the battle in the persons of the - emperor and the king of France, and if the personal encounters of the - two bodies of knights gave the crowded German infantry a momentary - chance to strike down the king, the latter was soon rescued by a - half-dozen of heavy cavalrymen. On the left wing, the count of - Boulogne made a living castle of his Brabancon pikes, whence with his - men-at-arms he sallied forth from time to time and played the - champion. Lastly, the Constable Montmorency brought over what was - still manageable of the corps that had defeated the cavalry on the - right (nearly all mounted men) and gave the final push to the allied - centre and right in succession. Then the imperial army fled and was - slaughtered without offering much resistance. Of infantry in this - battle there was enough and to spare, but its only opportunities for - decisive action were those afforded by the exhaustion of the armoured - men or by the latter becoming absorbed in their own single combats to - the exclusion of their proper work in the line of battle. As usual the - infantry suffered nine-tenths of the casualties. For all their numbers - and apparent tactical distribution on this field, they were "residue," - destitute of special organization, training or utility; and the only - suggestion of "combined tactics" is the expedient adopted by the count - of Boulogne, rings of spearmen to serve as pavilions served in the - tournament--to secure a decorous setting for a display of knightly - prowess. - -In those days in truth the infantry was no more the army than to-day the -shareholders of a limited company are the board of directors. They were -deeply, sometimes vitally, interested in the result, but they -contributed little or nothing to bringing it about, except when the -opposing cavalries were in a state of moral equilibrium, and in these -cases anything suffices--the appearance of camp followers on a "Gillies -Hill," as at Bannockburn or the sound of half-a-dozen trumpets--to turn -the scale. Once it turned, the infantry of the beaten side was cut down -unresistingly, while the more valuable prisoners were admitted to -ransom. Thereafter, feudal tactics were based principally on the ideas -of personal glory--won in single combat, champion against champion, and -of personal profit--won by the knight in holding a wealthy and -well-armed baron to ransom and by the foot-soldier in plundering while -his masters were fighting. In the French army, the term _bidaux_, -applied in the days of Bouvines to all the infantry other than archers -and arblasters, came by a quite natural process to mean the laggards, -malingerers and skulkers of the army. - - - Revival of infantry. - -But even this infantry contained within itself two half-smothered sparks -of regeneration, the idea of _archery_ and the idea of _communal -militia_. Archery, in whatever form practised, was the one special form -of military activity with which the heavy _gendarme_ (whether he fought -on horseback or dismounted) had no concern. Here therefore infantry had -a special function, and in so far ceased to be "residue." The communal -militia was an early and inadequate expression of the town-spirit that -was soon to produce the solid burgher-militia of Flanders and Germany -and after that the trained bands of the English cities and towns. It -therefore represented the principles of solidarity, of combination, of -duty to one's comrade and to the common cause--principles which had -disappeared from feudal warfare.[1] It was under the influence of these -two ideas or forces that infantry as an arm began once again, though -slowly and painfully, to differentiate itself from the mass of _bidaux_ -until in the end the latter practically contained only the worthless -elements. - - - Courtrai. - - The first true infantry battle since Hastings was fought at Courtrai - in 1302, between the burghers of Bruges and a feudal army under Count - Robert of Artois. The citizens, arrayed in heavy masses, and still - armed with miscellaneous weapons, were careful to place themselves on - ground difficult of access--dikes, pools and marshes--and to fasten - themselves together, like the Gauls of old. Their van was driven back - by the French communal infantry and professional crossbowmen, - whereupon Robert of Artois, true feudal leader as he was, ordered his - infantry to clear the way for the cavalry and without even giving them - time to do so pushed through their ranks with a formless mass of - gendarmerie. This, in attempting to close with the enemy, plunged into - the canals and swamped lands, and was soon immovably fastened in the - mud. The citizens swarmed all round it and with spear, cleaver and - flail destroyed it. Robert himself with a party of his gendarmerie - strove to break through the solid wall of spears, but in vain. He was - killed and his army perished with him, for the citizens did not regard - war as a game and ransom as the loser's forfeit. As for the communal - infantry which had won the first success, it had long since - disappeared from the field, for when count Robert ordered his heavy - cavalry forward, they had thought themselves attacked in rear by a - rush of hostile cavalry--as indeed they were, for the gendarmerie rode - them down--and melted away. - -Crecy (q.v.) was fought forty-four years after Courtrai. Here the -knights had open ground to fight on, and many boasted that they would -revenge themselves. But they encountered not merely infantry, but -infantry tactics, and were for the second, and not the last, time -destroyed. The English army included a large feudal element, but the -spirit of indiscipline had been crushed by a series of iron-handed -kings, and for more than a century the nobles, in so far as they had -been bad subjects, had been good Englishmen. The English yeomen had -reached a level of self-discipline and self-respect which few even of -the great continental cities had attained. They had, lastly, made the -powerful long-bow (see ARCHERY) their own, and Edward I. had _combined_ -the shock of the heavy cavalry with the slow searching preparatory rain -of arrows (see FALKIRK). That is, infantry tactics and cavalry tactics -were co-ordinated by a _general_, and the special point of this for the -present purpose is that instead of being, as in France, the unstable -base of the so-called "feudal pyramid," infantry has become an _arm_, -capable of offence and defence and having its own special organization, -function in the line of battle and tactical method. This last, indeed, -like every other tactical method, rested ultimately on the _moral_ of -the men who had to put it into execution. Archer tactics did not serve -against the disciplined rush of Joan of Arc's gendarmerie, for the -solidarity of the archer companies that tried to stop it had long been -undermined. - - - The English archer. - -Yet we cannot overrate the importance of the archer in this period of -military history. In the city militias solidarity had been obtained -through the close personal relationship of the trade gilds and by the -elimination of the champion. Therefore, as every offensive in war rests -upon boldness, these militias were essentially defensive, for they could -only hope to ward off the feudal champion, not to outfight him (Battle -of Legnano, 1176. See Oman, p. 442). England, however, had evolved a -weapon which no armour could resist, and a race of men as fully trained -to use it as the gendarme was to use the lance.[2] This weapon gave them -the power of killing without being killed, which the citizens' spears -and maces and voulges did not. But like all missiles, arrows were a poor -stand-by in the last resort if determined cavalry crossed the "beaten -zone" and closed in, and besides pavises and pointed stakes the English -archers were given the support of the knights, nobles and sergeants--the -armoured champions--whose steady lances guaranteed their safety. Here -was the real forward stride in infantry tactics. Archery had existed -from time immemorial, and a mere technical improvement in its weapon -could hardly account for its suddenly becoming the queen of the -battlefield. The defensive power of the "dark impenetrable wood" of -spears had been demonstrated again and again, but when the cavalry had -few or no preliminary difficulties to face, the chances of the infantry -mass resisting long-continued pressure was small. It was the combination -of the two elements that made possible a Crecy and a Poitiers, and this -combination was the result of the English social system which produced -the _camaraderie_ of knight and yeoman, champion and plain soldier. -Fortified by the knight's unshakeable steadiness, the yeoman handled his -bow and arrows with cool certainty and rapidity, and shot down every -rush of the opposing champions. This was _camaraderie de combat_ indeed, -and in such conditions the offensive was possible and even easy. The -English conquered whole countries while the Flemish and German spearmen -and vougiers merely held their own. For them, decisive victories were -only possible when the enemy played into their hands, but for the -English the guarantee of such victories was the specific character of -their army itself and the tactical methods resulting from and expressing -that character. - - - The Hundred Years' War. - -But the war of conquest embodied in these decisive victories dwindled in -its later stages to a war of raids. The feudal lord, like the feudal -vassal, returned home and gave place to the professional man-at-arms and -the professional captain. Ransom became again the chief object, and -except where a great leader, such as Bertrand Du Guesclin, compelled the -mercenaries to follow him to death or victory, a battle usually became a -melee of irregular duels between men-at-arms, with all the selfishness -and little of the chivalry of the purely feudal encounter. The war went -on and on, the gendarmes thickened their armour, and the archers found -more difficulty in penetrating it. Moreover, in raids for devastation -and booty, the slow-moving infantryman was often a source of danger to -his comrades. In this _guerrilla_ the archer, though he kept his place, -soon ceased to be the mainstay of battle. It had become customary since -Crecy (where the English knights and sergeants were dismounted to -protect the archers) for all mounted men to send away their horses -before engaging. Here and there cavalry masses were used by such -energetic leaders as the Black Prince and Du Guesclin, and more often a -few men remained mounted for work requiring exceptional speed and -courage,[3] but as a general rule the man-at-arms was practically a -mounted infantryman, and when he dismounted he stood still. Thus two -masses of dismounted lances, mixed with archers, would meet and engage, -but the archers, the offensive element, were now far too few in -proportion to the lances, the purely defensive element, and battles -became indecisive skirmishes instead of overwhelming victories. - -Cavalry therefore became, in a very loose sense of the word, infantry. -But we are tracing the history not of all troops that stood on their -feet to fight, but of infantry and the special tactics of infantry, and -the period before and after 1370, when the moral foundations of the new -English tactics had disappeared, and the personality of Du Guesclin gave -even the bandits of the "free companies" an intrinsic, if slight, -superiority over the invaders, is a period of deadlock. Solidarity, such -as it was, had gone over to the side of the heavy cavalry. But the -latter had deliberately forfeited their power of forcing the decision by -fighting on foot, and the English archer, the cadre of the English -tactical system, though diminished in numbers, prestige and importance, -held to existence and survived the deadlock. Infantry of that type -indeed could never return to the "residue" state, and it only needed a -fresh moral impetus, a Henry V., to set the old machinery to work again -for a third great triumph. But again, after Agincourt, the long war -lapsed into the hands of the soldiers of fortune, the basis of Edward's -and Henry's tactics crumbled, and, led by a greater than Du Guesclin, -the knights and the nobles of France, and the mercenary captains and -men-at-arms as well, _rode down_ the stationary masses of the English, -lances and bowmen alike. - -The net result of the Hundred Years' War therefore was to re-establish -the two arms, cavalry and infantry, side by side, the one acting by -shock, and the other by fire. The lesson of Crecy was "prepare your -charge before delivering it," and for that purpose great bodies of -infantry armed with bows, arblasts and handguns were brought into -existence in France. When the French king in 1448 put into force the -"lessons of the war" and organized a permanent army, it consisted in the -main of heavy cavalry (knights and squires in the "ordonnance" -companies, soldiers of fortune in the paid companies) and archers and -arblasters (_francs-archers_ recruited nationally, arblasters as a rule -mercenaries, though largely recruited in Gascony). To these _armes de -jet_ were added, in ever-increasing numbers, hand firearms. Thus the -"fire" principle of attack was established, and the defensive principle -of "mass" relegated to the background. In such circumstances cavalry was -of course the decisive arm, and the reputation of the French gendarmerie -was such as to justify this bold elimination of the means of passive -defence.[4] - - - Burgher militias. - -The foot-soldier of Germany and the Low Countries had followed a very -different line of development. Here the rich commercial cities scarcely -concerned themselves with the quarrels or revolts of neighbouring -nobles, but they resolutely defended their own rights against feudal -interference, and enforced them by an organized militia, opposing the -strict solidarity of their own institutions to the prowess of the -champion who threatened them. The struggle was between "you shall" on -the part of the baron and "we will not" on the part of the citizens, the -offensive _versus_ the defensive in the simplest and plainest form. The -latter was a policy of unbreakable squares, and wherever possible, -strong positions as well. Sometimes the citizens, sometimes the nobles -gained the day, but the general result was that steady infantry in -proper formation could not be ridden down, and as yeomen-archers of the -English type to "prepare" the charge were not obtainable from amongst -the serf populations of the countryside, the problem of the attack was, -for Central Europe, insoluble. - - - The Wagenburg. - -The unbreakable square took two forms, the _wagenburg_ with artillery, -and the infantry mass with pikes. The first was no more, in the -beginning, than an expedient for the safe and rapid crossing of wider -stretches of open country than would have been possible for dismounted -men, whom the cavalry headed off as soon as they ventured far enough -from the shelter of walls. The men rode not on horses but on carriages, -and the carriages moved over the plains in laager formation, the -infantrymen standing ready with halbert and voulge or short stabbing -spear, and the gunners crouching around the long barrelled two-pounders -and the "ribaudequins"--the early machine guns--which were mounted on -the wagons. These _wagenburgen_ combined in themselves the due -proportions of mobility and passive defence, and in the skilled hands of -Ziska they were capable of the boldest offensive. But such a tactical -system depended first of all on drill, for the armoured cavalry would -have crowded through the least gap in the wagon line, and the necessary -degree of drill in those days could only be attained by an army which -had both a permanent existence and some bond of solidarity more powerful -than the incentive to plunder--that is, in practice, it was only -attained in full by the Hussite insurgents. The cavalry, too, learned -its lesson, and pitted mobile three-pounders against the foot-soldiers' -one- and two-pounders, and the _wagenburg_ became no more than a -helpless target. Thus when, not many years after the end of the Hussite -wars, the Wars of the Roses eliminated the English model and the English -tactics from the military world of Europe, the French system of fire -tactics--masses of archers, arblasters and handgun-men, with some -spearmen and halberdiers to stiffen them--was left face to face with -that of the Swiss and Landsknechts, the system of the "long pike." - - - The Swiss. - - A series of victories ranging from Morgarten (1315) to Nancy (1477) - had made the Swiss the most renowned infantry in Europe. Originally - their struggles with would-be oppressors had taken the form, often - seen elsewhere, of arraying solid masses of men, united in purpose and - fidelity to one another rather than by any material or tactical - cohesion. Like the men of Bruges at Courtrai, the Swiss had the - advantage of broken ground, and the still greater advantage of being - opposed by reckless feudal cavalry. Their armament at this stage was - not peculiar--voulges, gisarmes, halberts and spears--though they were - specially adept in the use of the two-handed sword. But as time went - on the long pike (said to have originated in Savoy or the Milanese - about 1330) became more and more popular until at last on the verge of - their brief ascendancy (about 1475-1515) the Swiss armed as much as - one quarter of their troops with it. The use of firearms made little - or no progress amongst them, and the Swiss mercenaries of 1480, like - their forerunners of Morgarten and Sempach, fought with the _arme - blanche_ alone. But in a very few years after the Swiss nation had - become soldiers of fortune _en masse_, the more open lands of Swabia - entered into serious and bitter competition with them. From these - lands came the Landsknechts, whose order was as strong as, and far - less unwieldy than, that of the Swiss, whose armament included a far - greater proportion of firearms, and who established a regimental - system that left a permanent mark on army organization. The - Landsknecht was the prototype of the infantryman of the 16th and 17th - centuries, but his right to indicate the line of evolution had to be - wrung from many rivals. - - - The long pike. - -The year 1480 indeed was a turning-point in military history. Within the -three years preceding it the battles of Nancy and Guinegate had -destroyed both the old feudalism of Charles the Bold and the new cavalry -tactics of the French gendarmerie. The former was an anachronism, while -the latter, when the great wars came to an end and there was no longer -either a national impulse or a national leader, had lapsed into the old -vices of ransom and plunder. With these, on the same fields, the -_franc-archer_ system of infantry tactics perished ignominiously. It -rested, as we know, on the principle that the fire of the infantry was -to be combined with and completed by the shock of the gendarmerie, and -when the latter were found wanting as at Guinegate, the masses of -archers and arblasters, which were only feebly supported by a few -handfuls of pikemen and halberdiers, were swept away by the charge of -some heavy battalions of Swabian and Flemish pikes. Guinegate was the -_debut_ of the Landsknecht infantry as Nancy was that of the Swiss, and -the lesson could not be misread. Louis XI. indeed hanged some of his -_franc-archers_ and dismissed the rest, and in their place raised -"bands" of regular infantry, one of which bore for the first time the -historic name of _Picardie_. But these "bands" were not self-contained. -Armed for the most part with _armes de jet_ they centred on the 6000 -Swiss pikemen whom Louis XI., in 1480, took into his service, and for -nearly fifty years thereafter the French foot armies are always composed -of two elements, the huge battalions of Swiss or Landsknechts,[5] armed -exclusively with the long pike (except for an ever-decreasing proportion -of halberts, and a few arquebuses), and for their support and -assistance, French and mercenary "bands." - -The Italian wars of 1494-1544, in which the principles of fire and shock -were readjusted to meet the conditions created by firearms, were the -nursery of modern infantry. The combinations of Swiss, Landsknechts, -Spanish "tercios" and French "bands" that figured on the battlefields of -the early 16th century were infinitely various. But it is not difficult -to find a thread that runs through the whole. - - - The Italian Wars, 1494-1525. - -The essence of the Swiss system was solidity. They arrayed themselves in -huge oblongs of 5000 men and more, at the corners of which, like the -tower bastions of a 16th-century fortress, stood small groups of -arquebusiers. The Landsknechts and the Romagnols of Italy, imitated and -rivalled them, though as a rule developing more front and less depth. At -this stage solidity was everything and fire-power nothing. At Fornuovo -(1495) the mass of arquebusiers and arblasters in the French army did -little or nothing; it was the Swiss who were _l'esperance de l'ost_. At -Agnadello or Vaila in 1509 the ground and the "encounter-battle" -character of the engagement gave special chances of effective employment -to the arquebusiers on either side. Along the front the Venetian -marksmen, secure behind a bank, picked off the leaders of the enemy as -they came near. On the outer flank of the battle the bands of Gascon -arquebusiers, which would otherwise have been relegated to an -unimportant place in the general line of battle, lapped round the -enemy's flank in broken ground and produced great and almost decisive -effect. But this was only an afterthought of the king of France and -Bayard. In the rest of the battle the huge masses of Swiss pikes were -thrown upon the enemy much as the old feudal cavalry had been, -regardless of ditches, orchards and vineyards. - -Then for a moment the problem was solved, or partially solved, by the -artillery. From Germany the material, though not--at least to the same -extent--the principle, of the _wagenburg_ penetrated, in the first years -of the 16th century, to Italy and thence to France. Thus by degrees a -very numerous and exceedingly handy light artillery--"carts with -gonnes," as they were called in England--came into play on the Italian -battlefields, and took over from the dying _franc-archer_ system the -work of preparing the assault by fire. For mere skirmishing the Swiss -and Landsknechts had arquebusiers enough, without needing to call on the -masses of Gascons, &c., and _pari passu_ with the development of this -artillery, the "bands," other than Swiss and Landsknechts, began to -improve themselves into pikemen and halberdiers. At Ravenna (1512) the -bands of Gascony and Picardy, as well as the French _aventuriers_ (the -"bands of Piedmont," afterwards the second senior regiment of the French -line) fought in the line of battle shoulder to shoulder with the -Landsknechts. On this day the fire action of the new artillery was -extraordinarily murderous, ploughing lanes in the immobile masses of -infantry. At Marignan the French gendarmerie and artillery, closely and -skilfully combined, practically destroyed the huge masses of the Swiss, -and so completely had "infantry" and "fire" become separate ideas that -on the third day of this tremendous battle we find even the "bands of -Piedmont" cutting their way into the Swiss masses. - - - The Spanish infantry and the arquebus. - -But from this point the lead fell into the hands of the Spaniards. These -were originally swift and handy light infantry, capable--like the -Scottish Highlanders at Prestonpans and Falkirk long afterwards--of -sliding under the forest of pikes and breaking into the close-locked -ranks with buckler and stabbing sword. For troops of this sort the -arquebus was an ideal weapon, and the problem of self-contained infantry -was solved by Gonsalvo de Cordoba, Pescara and the great Spanish -captains of the day by intercalating small closed bodies of arquebusiers -with rather larger, but not inordinately large, bodies of pikes. These -arquebusiers formed separate, fully organized sections of the infantry -regiment. In close defence they fought on the front and flanks of the -pikes, but more usually they were pushed well to the front -independently, their speed and excellent fire discipline enabling them -to do what was wholly beyond the power of the older type of firing -infantry--to take advantage of ground, to run out and reopen fire during -a momentary pause in the battle of lance and pike, and to run back to -the shelter of their own closed masses when threatened by an oncoming -charge. When this system of tactics was consecrated by the glorious -success of Pavia (1525), the "cart with gonnes" vanished and the system -of fighting everywhere and always "at push of pike" fell into the -background. - - - 16th Century-tactics. - - The lessons of Pavia can be read in Francis I.'s instructions to his - newly formed Provincial (militia) Legions in 1534 and in the battle of - Cerisoles ten years later. The "legion" was ordered to be composed of - six "bands"--battalions we should call them now, but in those days the - term "battalion" was consecrated to a gigantic square of the Swiss - type--each of 800 pikes (including a few halberts) and 200 - arquebusiers. The pikes, 4800 strong, of each legion were grouped in - one large battalion, and covered on the front and flanks by the 1200 - arquebuses, the latter working in small and handy squads. These - "legions" did not of course count as good troops, but their - organization and equipment, designed deliberately in peace time, and - not affected by the coming and going of soldiers of fortune, represent - therefore the theoretically perfect type for the 16th century. - Cerisoles represents the system in practice, with veteran regular - troops. On the side of the French most of the arquebuses were grouped - on the right wing, in a long irregular line of companies or strong - squads, supported at a moderate distance by companies or small - battalions of "corselets" (pikes of the French bands of Picardy and - Piedmont); the rest of the line of battle was composed of - Landsknechts, &c., similarly arrayed, except that the arquebusiers - were on the flanks and immediate front of the "corselets" and behind - the arquebuses and corselets of the right wing came a Swiss monster of - the old type. On the imperial side of the Landsknechts, Spanish and - Italian infantry were drawn up in seven or eight battalions, each with - its due proportion of pikes and "shot." The course of the battle - demonstrated both the active tactical power of the new form of - fire-action and the solidity of the pike nucleus, the former in the - attack and defence of hills, woods and localities, the latter in an - episode in which a Spanish battalion, after being ridden through from - corner to corner by the French gendarmes, continued on its way almost - unchecked and quite unbroken. This combination of arquebusiers - supported by corselets in first line and corselets with a few - arquebusiers in second, reappeared at Renty (1554), and St Quentin - (1557), and was in fact the typical disposition of infantry from about - 1530 to 1600. - -By 1550, then, infantry had entirely ceased to be an auxiliary arm. It -contained within itself, and (what is more important) within its -regimental units, the power of fighting effectively and decisively both -at close quarters and at a distance--the principal characteristic of the -arm to-day. It had, further, developed a permanent regimental existence, -both in Spain and in France, and in the former country it had progressed -so far from the "residue" state that young nobles preferred to trail a -pike in the ranks of the foot to service in the gendarmerie or light -horse. The service battalions were kept up to war strength by the -establishment of depots and the preliminary training there of recruits. -In France, apart from Picardie and the other old regiments, every -temporary regiment, on disbandment, threw off a depot company of the -best soldiers, on which nucleus the regiment was reconstituted for the -next campaign. Moreover, the permanent establishment was augmented from -time to time by the colonel-general of the foot "giving his white flag" -to temporary regiments. - - - The French infantry in 1570. - - The organization of the French infantry in 1570 presents some points - of interest. The former broad classification of _au dela_ and _en deca - des monts_ or "Picardie" and "Piedmont," representing the home and - Italian armies, had disappeared, and instead the whole of the - infantry, under one colonel-general, was divided into the regiments of - Picardie, Piedmont and French Guards, each of which had its own - colonel and its own colours. Besides these, three newer corps were - _entretenus par le Roy_--"Champagne," practically belonging to the - Guise[6] family, and two others formed out of the once enormous - regiment of Marshal de Cosse-Brissac. At the end of a campaign all - temporary regiments were disbanded, but in imitation of the Spanish - depot system, each, on disbandment, threw off a depot company of - picked men who formed the nucleus for the next year's augmentation. - The regiment consisted of 10-16 "ensigns" or companies, each of about - 150 pikemen and 50 arquebusiers. Each company had a proprietary - captain, the owners of the first two companies being the - colonel-general and the colonel (_mestre de camp_). The senior captain - was called the sergeant-major, and performed the duties of a second in - command and an adjutant or brigade-major. Unlike the regimental - commander, the sergeant-major was always mounted, and it is recorded - that one officer newly appointed to the post incurred the ridicule of - the army by dismounting to speak to the king. "Some veteran officers," - wrote a contemporary, "are inclined to think that the regimental - commander should be mounted as well as the sergeant-major." The - regiment was as a rule formed for parade and battle either in line 10 - deep or in "battalion" (i.e. mass), Swiss fashion. The captain - occupied the front, the ensigns with the company colours the centre, - and the lieutenants the rear place in the file. The sergeants, armed - with the halbert, marched on each side of the battalion or company. - Though the musket was gradually being introduced, and had powerful - advocates in Marshal Strozzi and the duke of Guise, the bulk of the - "shot" still carried the arquebus, the calibre of which had been, - thanks to Strozzi's efforts, standardized (see CALIVER) so that all - the arms took the same sizes of ball. The pikeman had half-armour and - a 14-ft. pike, the arquebusier beside the firearm a sword which he was - trained to use in the manner of the former Spanish light infantry. The - arquebusiers were arrayed in 3 ranks in front of the pikes or in 10 - deep files on either flank. - -The wars in which this system was evolved were wars for prestige and -aggrandizement. They were waged, therefore, by mercenary soldiers, whose -main object was to live, and who were officered either by men of their -own stamp, or by nobles eager to win military glory. But the Wars of -Religion raised questions of life and death for the Frenchmen of either -faith, and such public opinion as there was influenced the method of -operations so far that a decision and not a prolongation of the struggle -began to be the desired end of operations. Hence in those wars the -relatively immobile "battalion" of pikes diminishes in importance and -the arquebusiers and musketeers grow more and more efficient. Armies, -too, became smaller, and marched more rapidly. Encounter-battles became -more frequent than "pitched" battles, and in these the musketeer was at -a great advantage. Thus by 1600 the proportions between pikes and -musketeers in the French army had come to be 6 pikes to 4 muskets or -arquebuses, and the _bataillon de combat_ or brigade was normally no -more than 1200 strong. In the Netherlands, however, the war of -consciences was fought out between the best regular army in the world -and burgher militias. Even the French _fantassins_ were second in -importance to the Spanish _soldados_. The latter continued to hold the -pre-eminent position they had gained at Pavia.[7] They improved the -arquebus into the musket, a heavier and much more powerful weapon (fired -from a rest) which could disable a horse at 500 paces. - - - Alva. - -At this moment the professional soldier was at the high-water mark of -his supremacy. The musket was too complicated to be rapidly and -efficiently used by any but a highly trained man; the pike, probably -because it had now to protect two or three ranks of "shot" in front of -the leading rank of pikemen, as well as the pikemen themselves, had -grown longer (up to 18 ft.); and drill and manoeuvre had become more -important than ever, for in the meantime cavalry had mostly abandoned -the massive armour and the long lance in favour of half-armour and the -pistol, and their new tactics made them both swifter to charge groups of -musketeers and more deadly to the solid masses of pikemen. This -superiority of the regular over the irregular was most conspicuously -shown in Alva's war against the Netherlands patriots. Desperately as the -latter fought, Spanish captains did not hesitate to attack patriot -armies ten times their own strength. If once or twice this contempt led -them to disaster, as at Heiligerlee in 1568 (though here, after all, -Louis of Nassau's army was chiefly composed of trained mercenaries), the -normal battle was of the Jemmingen type--seven _soldados_ dead and seven -thousand rebels. - - - Infantry in 1600. - -As regards battles in the open field, such results as these naturally -confirmed the "Spanish system" of tactics. The Dutch themselves, when -they evolved reliable field armies, copied it with few modifications, -and by degrees it was spread over Europe by the professional soldiers on -both sides. There was plenty of discussion and readjustment of details. -For example, the French, with their smaller battalions and more rapid -movements, were inclined to disparage both the cuirass and the pike, and -only unwillingly hampered themselves with the long heavy Spanish musket, -which had to be fired from a rest. In 1600, nearly fifty years after the -introduction of the musket, this most progressive army still -deliberately preferred the old light arquebus, and only armed a few -selected men with the larger weapons. On the other hand, the Spaniards, -though supreme in the open, had for the most part to deal with desperate -men behind fortifications. Fighting, therefore, chiefly at close -quarters with a fierce enemy, and not disposing either of the space or -of the opportunity for "manoeuvre-battles," they sacrificed all their -former lightness and speed, and clung to armour, the long pike and the -heavy 2(1/2) oz. bullet. But the principles first put into practice by -Gonsalvo de Cordoba, the combination, in the proportions required in -each case, of _fire_ and _shock_ elements in every body of organized -infantry however small, were maintained in full vigour, and by now the -superiority of the infantry arm in method, discipline and technique, -which had long before made the Spanish nobles proud to trail a pike in -the ranks, began to impress itself on other nations. The relative value -of horse and foot became a subject for expert discussion instead of an -axiom of class pride. The question of cavalry _versus_ infantry, hotly -disputed in all ages, is a matter affecting general tactics, and does -not come within the scope of the present article (see further CAVALRY). -Expert opinion indeed was still on the side of the horsemen. It was on -their cavalry, with its speed, its swords and its pistols that the -armies of the 16th century relied in the main to produce the decision in -battle. Sir Francis Vane, speaking of the battle of Nieupoort in 1600, -says, "Whereas most commonly in battles the success of the foot -dependeth on that of the horse, here it was clean contrary, for so long -as the foot held good the horse could not be beaten out of the field." -The "success" of the foot in Vane's eyes is clearly resistance to -disintegration rather than ability to strike a decisive blow. - -[Illustration: PLATE I. - - DREUX--1562. - - (_From Hardy de Perini's Batailles Francaises, by permission._) - - LUTZEN--1632.] - -[Illustration: PLATE II. - - PRUSSIAN VOLLEYS, 1740. EVOLUTIONS OF THE COLUMN AND SKIRMISHERS. - WELLINGTON. - - VIONVILLE DE CISSEY'S COUNTER-ATTACK (SEEN FROM REAR OF PRUSSIAN 38th - BRIGADE). - - APPROACH-MARCH UNDER ARTILLERY FIRE, FRENCH PRINCIPLES (FROM ENEMY'S - ARTILLERY POSITION). - - (_From Revue d'Infanterie, 1909._)] - -It must be remembered, however, that Vane is speaking of the Low -Countries, and that in France at any rate the solidity which saved the -day at Nieupoort was less appreciated than the _elan_ which had won so -many smart engagements in the Wars of Religion. Moreover, it was the -_offensive_, the decision-compelling faculty of the foot that steadily -developed during the 17th century. To this, little by little, the powers -of passive resistance to which Vane did homage, valuable as they were, -were sacrificed, until at last the long pike disappeared altogether and -the firearm, provided with a bayonet, was the uniform weapon of the -foot-soldier. This stage of infantry history covers almost exactly a -century. As far as France was concerned, it was a natural evolution. But -the acceptance of the principle by the rest of the military world, -imposed by the genius of Gustavus Adolphus, was rather revolution than -evolution. - - - Gustavus Adolphus. - -In the army which Louis XIII. led against his revolted barons of Anjou -in 1620, the old regiments (_les vieux_--Picardie, Piedmont, &c.) seem -to have marched in an open chequer-wise formation of companies which is -interesting not only as a deliberate imitation of the Roman legion (all -soldiers of that time, in the prevailing confusion of tactical ideas, -sought guidance in the works of Xenophon, Aelian and Vegetius), but as -showing that flexibility and handiness was not the monopoly of the -Swedish system that was soon to captivate military Europe. The -formations themselves are indeed found in the Spanish and Dutch armies, -but the equipment of the men, and the general character of the -operations in which they were engaged, probably failed to show off the -advantages of this articulation, for the generals of the Thirty Years' -War, trained in this school, formed their infantry into large battalions -(generally a single line of masses). Experience certainly gave the -troops that used these unwieldy formations a relatively high manoeuvring -capacity, for Tilly's army at Breitenfeld (1631) "changed front -half-left" in the course of the battle itself. But the manoeuvring power -of the Swedes was higher still. Each party represented one side of the -classical revival, the Swedes the Roman three-line manipular tactics, -the Imperialists and Leaguers those of the Greek line of phalanxes. The -former, depending as it did on high _moral_ in the individual -foot-soldier, was hardly suitable to such a congeries of mercenaries as -those that Wallenstein commanded, and later in the Thirty Years' War, -when the old native Swedish and Scottish brigades had been annihilated, -the Swedish infantry was little if at all better than the rest. - -But its tactical system, sanctified by victory, was eagerly caught up by -military Europe. The musket, though it had finally driven out the -arquebus, had been lightened by Gustavus Adolphus so far that it could -be fired without a rest. Rapidity in loading had so far improved that a -company could safely be formed six deep instead of ten, as in the -Spanish and Dutch systems. Its fire power was further augmented by the -addition of two very light field-guns to each battalion; these could -inflict loss at twice the effective range of the shortened musket. Above -all, Gustavus introduced into the military systems of Europe a new -discipline based on the idea of exact performance of duty, which made -itself felt in every part of the service, and was a welcome substitute -for the former easy-going methods of regimental existence.[8] The -adoption of Swedish methods indeed was facilitated by the disrepute into -which the older systems had fallen. Men were beginning to see that -armies raised by contract for a few months' work possessed inherent -vices that made it impossible to rely upon them in small things. Courage -the mercenary certainly possessed, but his individual sense of honour, -code of soldierly morals, and sometimes devotion to a particular leader -did not compensate for the absence of a strong motive for victory and -for his general refractoriness in matters of detail, such as -march-discipline and punctuality, which had become essential since the -great Swedish king had reintroduced order, method and definiteness of -purpose into the conduct of military operations. In the old-fashioned -masses, moreover, individual weaknesses, both moral and physical, -counted for little or were suppressed in the general soldierly feeling -of the whole body. But the six-deep line used by Gustavus demanded more -devotion and exact obedience in the individual and a more uniform method -of drill and handling arms. So shallow an order was not strong enough, -under any other conditions, to resist the shock of cavalry or even of -pikemen. Indeed, had not the cavalry (who, after Gustavus's death, were -uninspired mercenaries like the rest) ceased to charge home in the -fashion that Gustavus exacted of them, it is possible that the -new-fashioned line would not have stood the test, and that infantry -would have reverted to the early 16th-century type. - - - The Great Rebellion. - -The problem of combining the maximum of fire power with the maximum of -control over the individual firer was not fully solved until 1740, but -the necessity of attempting the problem was realised from the first. In -the Swedish army, before it was corrupted by the atmosphere of the -Thirty Years' War, duty to God and to country were the springs of the -punctual discipline, in small things and in great, which made it the -most formidable army, unit for unit, in the world. In the English Civil -War (in which the adherents of the "Swedish system" from the first -ousted those of the "Dutch") the difficulty was more acute, for although -the mainsprings of action were similar, the technical side of the -soldier's business--the regimental organization, drill and handling of -arms--had all to be improvised. Now in the beginning the Royalist -cavalry was recruited from "gentlemen that have honour and courage and -resolution"; later, Cromwell raised a cavalry force that was even more -thoroughly imbued with the spirit of duty, "men who made some conscience -of what they did," and throughout the Civil War, consequently, the -mounted arm was the queen of the battlefield. - -The Parliamentary foot too "made some conscience of what it did," more -especially in the first years of the war. But its best elements--the -drilled townsmen--were rather of a defensive than of an offensive -character, and towards the close of the struggle, when the foot on both -sides came to be formed of professional soldiers, the defensive element -decreased, as it had decreased in France and elsewhere. The war was like -Gustavus's German campaign, one of rapid and far-ranging marches, and -the armoured pikeman had either to shorten his pike and to cast off his -armour or to be left at home with the heavy artillery (see Firth's -_Cromwell's Army_, ch. iv.). Fights "at push of pike" were rare enough -to be specially mentioned in reports of battles. Sir James Turner says -that in 1657, when he was commissioned with others to raise regiments -for the king of Denmark, "those of the Privy Council would not suffer -one word to be mentioned of a pike in our Commissions." It was the same -with armour. In 1658 Lockhart, the commander of the English contingent -in France, specially asked for a supply of cuirasses and headpieces for -his pikemen in order to impress his allies. In 1671 Sir James Turner -says, "When we see battalions of pikes, we see them everywhere naked -unless it be in the Netherlands." But a small proportion of pikes was -still held to be necessary by experienced soldiers, for as yet the -socket bayonet had not been invented, and there was still cavalry in -Europe that could be trusted to ride home. - - - Disuse of the pike. - -While such cavalry existed, the development of fire power was everywhere -hindered by the necessity of self-defence. On the other hand the -hitherto accepted defensive means militated against efficiency in many -ways, and about 1670, when Louis XIV. and Louvois were fashioning the -new standing army that was for fifty years the model for Europe, the -problem was how to improve the drill and efficiency of the musketeers so -far that the pikes could be reduced to a minimum. In 1680 the firelock -was issued instead of the matchlock to all grenadiers and to the four -best shots in each French Company. The bayonet--in its primitive form -merely a dagger that was fixed into the muzzle of the musket--was also -introduced, and the pike was shortened. The proportion of pikes to -muskets in Henry IV.'s day, 2 to 1 or 3 to 2, and in Gustavus's 2 to 3, -had now fallen to 1 to 3. - -The day of great causes that could inspire the average man with the -resolution to conquer or die was, however, past, and the "shallow order" -(_l'ordre mince_), with all its demands on the individual's sense of -duty, had become an integral part of the military system. How then was -the sense of duty to be created? Louis and Louvois and their -contemporaries sought to create it by taking raw recruits in batches, -giving them a consistent training, quartering them in barracks and -uniforming them. Henceforward the soldier was not a unit, self-taught -and free to enter the service of any master. He had no existence as a -soldier apart from his regiment, and within it he was taught that the -regiment was everything and the individual nothing. Thus by degrees the -idea of implicit obedience to orders and of _esprit de corps_ was -absorbed. But the self-respecting Englishman or the quick ardent -Frenchman was not the best raw material for quasi-automatic regiments, -and it was not until an infinitely more rigorous system of discipline -was applied to an unimaginative army that the full possibilities of this -enforced sense of duty were realized. - - - Methods of fire before 1740. - - The method of delivering fire originally used by the Spaniards, in - which each man in succession fired and fell back to the rear of the - file to reload, required for its continued and exact performance a - degree of coolness and individual smartness which was probably rarely - attained in practice. This was not of serious moment when the "shot" - were simple auxiliaries, but when under Gustavus the offensive idea - came to the front, and the bullets of the infantry were expected to do - something more than merely annoy the hostile pikemen, a more effective - method had to be devised. First, the handiness of the musket was so - far improved that one man could reload while five, instead of as - formerly ten, fired. Then, as the enhanced rate of fire made the - file-firing still more disorderly than before, two ranks and three - were set to fire "volews" or "salvees" together, and before 1640 it - had become the general custom for the musketeers to fire one or two - volleys and then, along with the pikemen, to "fall on." It was of - course no mean task to charge even a disordered mass of pikes with a - short sword or a clubbed musket, and usually after a few minutes the - combatants would drift apart and the musketeers on either side would - keep up an irregular fire until the officers urged the whole forward - for a second attempt. - - - The bayonet. - - With the general disuse of the lance, the disappearance of the - personal motives that formerly made the cavalryman charge home, the - adoption of the flintlock musket and the invention of the socket - bayonet (the fixing of which did not prevent fire being delivered), - all reason for retaining the pike vanished, and from about 1700 to the - present day, therefore, the invariable armament of infantry has been - the musket (or rifle) and bayonet. The manner of employing the - weapons, however, changed but slowly. In the French army in 1688, for - instance (15 years before the abolition of the pike), the old - file-fire was still officially recognized, though rarely employed, the - more usual method being for the musketeers in groups of 12 to 30 men - to advance to the front and deliver their volleys in turn, these - groups corresponding in size to one of the musketeer wings (_manches_) - of a company or double company. But the fire and shock action of - infantry were still distinct, the idea of "push of pike" remained, the - bayonet (as at Marsaglia) taking the place of the pike, and musketry - methods were still and throughout the War of the Spanish Succession - somewhat half-hearted and tentative. Two generals so entirely - different in genius and temperament as Saxe and Catinat could agree on - this point, that attacking infantry ought to close with the enemy, - bayonets fixed, without firing a shot. Catinat's orders to his army in - 1690, indeed, seem rather to indicate that he expected his troops to - endure the enemy's first fire without replying in order that their own - volley, when it was at last delivered at a few paces distance, should - be as murderous as possible, while Saxe, who was a dreamer as well as - a practical commander of troops, advocated the pure bayonet charge. - But the fact that is common to both is the relative ineffectiveness of - musketry before the Prussian era, whether this musketry was delivered - by groups of men running forward and returning in line or even by - companies in a long line of battle. - - This ineffectiveness was due chiefly to the fact that _fire_ and - _movement_ were separate matters. The enemy's volley, that Catinat and - others ordered their troops to endure without flinching, was sometimes - (as at Fontenoy) absolutely crushing. But as a rule it inflicted an - amount of loss that was not sufficient to put the advancing troops out - of action, and experienced officers were aware that to halt to reply - gave the enemy time to reload, and that once the fight became an - interchange of partial and occasional volleys or a general - _tiraillerie_, there was an end to the attack. - - - Linear tactics. - -Meanwhile, the tactics of armies had been steadily crystallizing into -the so-called "linear" form, which, as far as concerns the infantry, is -simply two long lines of battalions (three, four or five deep) and gave -the utmost possible development to fire-power. The object of the "line" -was to break or beat down the opposing line in the shortest possible -time, whether by fire action or shock action, but fire action was only -decisive at so short a range that the principal volley could be followed -immediately by a charge over a few score paces at most and the crossing -of bayonets. Fire was, however, effective at ranges outside charging -distance, especially from the battalion guns, and however the decision -was achieved in the end, it was necessary to cross the zone between -about 300 yds. and 50 yds. range as quickly as possible. It was -therefore the business of the regimental officer to force his men across -this zone before fire was opened. If, as Catinat recommended, decisive -range was reached with every musket loaded and the troops well in hand, -their fire when finally it was delivered might well be decisive. But in -practice this rarely happened, and though here and there such expedients -as a skirmishing line were employed to assist the advance by disturbing -the enemy's fire the most that was hoped by the average colonel or -captain was that in the advance fire should be opened as late as -possible and that the officers should strive to keep in their hands the -power of breaking off the fire-fight and pushing the troops forward -again. Theorists were already proposing column formations for shock -action, and initiating the long controversy between _l'ordre mince_ and -_l'ordre profonde_, but this was for the time being pure speculation. -The linear system rested on the principle that the maximum weight of -controlled fire at short range was decisive, and the practical problem -of infantry tactics was how to obtain this. The question of _fire versus -shock_ had been answered in favour of the former, and henceforward for -many years the question of _fire versus movement_ held the first place. -The purpose was settled, and it remained to discover the means. - -This means was Prussian fire-discipline, which was elaborated by Leopold -of Dessau and Frederick William I., and practically applied by Frederick -the Great. It consisted first in the combination, instead of the -alternation, of fire and movement, and secondly in the thorough -efficiency of the fire in itself. But both these demanded a more -stringent and technically more perfect drill than had ever before been -imagined, or, for that matter, has ever since been attained. A hundred -years before the steady drill of the Spanish veterans at Rocroi, who at -the word of command opened their ranks to let the cannon fire from the -rear and again closed them, impressed every soldier in Europe. But such -drill as this was child's play compared with the Old Dessauer's. - - - Prussian fire discipline, 1740. - - On approaching the enemy the marching columns of the Prussians, which - were generally open columns of companies 4 deep, wheeled, in - succession to the right or left (almost always to the right) and thus - passed along the front of the enemy at a distance of 800-1200 yds. - until the rear company had wheeled. Then the whole together (or in the - case of a deployment to the left, in succession) wheeled into line - facing the enemy. These movements, if intervals and distances were - preserved with proper precision, brought the infantry into two long - well-closed lines, and parade-ground precision was actually attained, - thanks to remorseless drilling and to the reintroduction of the march - in step to music. Of course such movements were best executed on a - firm plain, and as far as possible the attack and defence of woods and - villages was left to light infantry and grenadiers. But even in - marshes and scrub, the line managed to manoeuvre with some approach to - the precision of the barrack square.[9] Now, this precision allowed - Frederick to take risks that no former commander would have dared to - take. At Hohenfriedberg the infantry columns crossed a marshy stream - almost within cannon shot of the enemy; at Kolin (though there this - insolence was punished) the army filed past the Imperialist - skirmishers within less than musket shot, and the climax of this - daring was the "oblique order" attack of Leuthen. With this was bound - up a fire discipline that was more extraordinary than any perfection - of manoeuvre. Before Hohenfriedberg the king gave orders that - "pelotonfeuer" was to be opened at 200 paces from the enemy and - continued up to 30 paces, when the line was to fall on with the - bayonet. The possibility of this combination of fire and movement was - the work of Leopold, who gave the Prussian infantry iron ramrods, and - by sheer drill made the soldier a machine capable of delivering (with - the flintlock muzzle-loading muskets, be it observed) five volleys a - minute. This _pelotonfeuer_ or company volleys replaced the old fire - by ranks practised in other armies. Fire began from the flanks of the - battalion, which consisted of eight companies (for firing, 3 deep). - When the right company commander gave "fire," the commander of No. 2 - gave "ready," followed in turn by other companies up to the centre. - The same process having been gone through on the left flank, by the - time the two centre companies had fired the two flank companies were - ready to recommence, and thus a continuous series of rolling volleys - was delivered, at one or two seconds' interval only between companies. - In attack this fire was combined with movement, each company in turn - advancing a few paces after "making ready." In square, old-fashioned - methods of fire were employed. Square was an indecisive and defensive - formation, rarely used, and in the advance of the deployed line, the - offensive and decision-seeking formation _par excellence_, the special - Prussian fire-discipline gave Frederick an advantage of five shots to - two against all opponents. The bayonet-attack, if the rolling volleys - had done their work, was merely "presenting the cheque for payment" as - a modern German writer puts it. The cheque had been drawn, the - decision given, in the fire-fight. - - - Leuthen. - -For some years this method of infantry training gave the Prussians a -decisive superiority in whatever order they fought. But their enemies -improved and also grew in numbers, while the Prussian army's resources -were strictly limited. Thus in the Seven Years' War, after the two -costly battles of Prague and Kolin (1757) especially, it became -necessary to manoeuvre with the object of bringing the Prussian infantry -into contact with an equal or if possible smaller portion of the enemy's -line. If this could be achieved, victory was as certain as ever, but the -difficulties of bringing about a successful manoeuvre were such that the -classical "oblique order" attack was only once completely executed. This -was at Leuthen, December 5th, 1757, perhaps the greatest day in the -history of the Prussian army. Here, in a rolling plain country -occasionally broken by marshes and villages, the "oblique order" was -executed at high speed and with clockwork precision. Frederick's object -was to destroy the left of the Austrian army (which far outnumbered his -own) before the rest of their deployed line of battle could change front -to intervene. His method was to place his own line, by a concealed flank -march, opposite the point where he desired to strike, and then to -advance, not in two long lines but in echelon of battalions from the -right (see LEUTHEN). The echelon was not so deep but that each battalion -was properly supported by the following one on its left (100 paces -distance), and each, as it came within 200 yds. of the Austrian -battalion facing it, opened its "rolling volleys" while continuing to -advance; thus long before the left and most backward battalions were -committed to the fight, the right battalions were crumbling the Austrian -infantry units one by one from left to right. It was the same, without -parade manoeuvres, when at last the Austrians managed to organize a line -of defence about Leuthen village. Unable to make an elaborate change of -front with the whole centre and right wing for want of time, they could -do no more than crowd troops about Leuthen, on a short fighting front, -and this crumbled in turn before the Prussian volleys. - -One lesson of Leuthen that contemporary soldiers took to heart was that -even a two-to-one superiority in numbers could not remedy want of -manoeuvring capacity. It might be hoped that with training and drill an -Austrian battalion could be made equal to a Prussian one in the -front-to-front fight, and in fact, as losses told more and more heavily -on Frederick's army as years went on, the specific superiority of his -infantry disappeared. From 1758 therefore, to the end of the war, there -were no more Rossbachs and Leuthens. Superiority in efficiency through -previous training having exhausted its influence, superiority in force -through manoeuvre began to be the general's ideal, and as it was a more -familiar notion to the average Prussian general, trained to manoeuvre, -than to his opponent, whose idea of "manoeuvre" was to sidle carefully -from one _position_ to another, Prussian generalship maintained its -superiority, in spite of many reverses, to the end. The last campaigns -were indeed a war of positions, because Frederick had no longer the men -available for forcing the Austrians out of them, and on many occasions -he was so weak that the most passive defensive and the most elaborate -entrenchments barely sufficed to save him. But whenever opportunity -offered itself, the king sought a decisive success by bringing the whole -of his infantry against part of the enemy's--the principle of Leuthen -put in practice over a wider area and with more elastic manoeuvre -methods. The long echelon of battalions directed against a part of the -hostile line developed quite naturally into an irregular echelon of -brigade columns directed against a part of the enemy's position. But the -history of the "cordon system" which followed this development belongs -rather to the subject of tactics in general than to that of infantry -fighting methods. Within the unit the tactical method scarcely varied. -In a battle each battalion or brigade fought as a unit in line, using -company volleys and seeking the decision by fire. - - - Controversies and developments, 1760-1790. - -In this, and in even the most minute details of drill and uniform, -military Europe slavishly copied Prussia for twenty years after the -Seven Years' War. The services of ex-Prussian officers were at a premium -just as those of Gustavus's officers had been 150 years before. Military -missions from all countries went to Potsdam or to the "Reviews" to study -Prussian methods, with as simple a faith in their adequacy as that shown -to-day by small states and half-civilized kingdoms who send military -representatives to serve in the great European armies. And withal, the -period 1763-1792 is full of tactical and strategical controversies. The -principal of these, as regards infantry, was that between "fire" and -"shock" revived about 1710 by Folard, and about 1780 the American War of -Independence complicated it by introducing a fresh controversy between -_skirmishing_ and _close order_. As to the first, in Folard's day as in -Frederick's, fire action at close range was the deciding factor in -battle, but in Frederick's later campaigns, wherein he no longer -disposed of the old Prussian infantry and its swift mechanical -fire-discipline, there sprang up a tendency to trust to the bayonet for -the decision. If the (so-called) Prussian infantry of 1762 could be in -any way brought to close with the enemy, it had a fair chance of victory -owing to its leaders' previous dispositions, and then the advocates of -"shock," who had temporarily been silenced by Mollwitz and -Hohenfriedberg, again took courage. The ordinary line was primarily a -formation for fire, and only secondarily or by the accident of -circumstances for shock, and, chiefly perhaps under Saxe's influence, -the French army had for many years been accustomed to differentiate -between "linear" formations for fire and "columnar" for attack--thus -reverting to 16th-century practice. While, therefore, the theoreticians -pleaded for battalion columns and the bayonet or for line and the -bullet, the practical soldier used both. Many forms of combined line and -column were tried, but in France, where the question was most -assiduously studied, no agreement had been arrived at when the advent of -the skirmisher further complicated the issues. - - In the early Silesian wars, when armies fought in open country in - linear order, the outpost service scarcely concerned the line troops - sufficiently to cause them to get under arms at the sound of firing on - the sentry line. It was performed by irregular light troops, recruited - from wild characters of all nations, who were also charged with the - preliminary skirmishing necessary to clear up the situation before the - deployment of the battle-army, but once the line opened fire their - work was done and they cleared away to the flanks (generally in search - of plunder). Later, however, as the preliminary manoeuvring before the - battle grew in importance and the ground taken into the manoeuvring - zone was more varied and extended than formerly, light infantry was - more and more in demand--in a "cordon" defensive for patrolling the - intervals between the various detachments of line troops, in an attack - for clearing the way for the deployment of each column. Yet in all - this there was no suggestion that light troops or skirmishers were - capable of bringing about the decision in an armed conflict. When - Frederick gained a durable peace in 1763 he dismissed his "free - battalions" without mercy, and by 1764 not more than one Prussian - soldier in eleven was an "irregular," either of horse or foot.[10] - - - Light Infantry. - - But in the American War of Independence the line was pitted against - light infantry in difficult country, and the British and French - officers who served in it returned to Europe full of enthusiasm for - the latter. Nevertheless, their light infantry was, unlike - Frederick's, _selected line infantry_. The light infantry - duties--skirmishing, reconnaissance, outposts--were grafted on to a - thorough close-order training. At first these duties fell to the - grenadiers and light companies of each battalion, but during the - struggle in the colonies, the light companies of a brigade were so - frequently massed in one battalion that in the end whole regiments - were converted into light infantry. This combination of "line" - steadiness and "skirmisher" freedom was the keynote of Sir John - Moore's training system fifteen years later, and Moore's regiments, - above all the 52nd, 43rd (now combined as the Oxfordshire Light - Infantry) and 95th Rifles (Rifle Brigade), were the backbone of the - British Army throughout the Peninsular War. At Waterloo the 52nd, - changing front in line at the double, flung itself on the head and - flank of the Old Guard infantry, and with the "rolling volleys" - inherited from the Seven Years' War, shattered it in a few minutes. - Such an exploit would have been absolutely inconceivable in the case - of one of the old "free battalions." But the light infantry had not - merely been levelled up to the line, it had surpassed it, and in 1815 - there were no troops in Europe, whether trained to fight in line or - column or skirmishers, who could rival the three regiments named, the - "Light Division" of Peninsular annals. For meantime the infantry - organization and tactics of the old regime, elsewhere than in England, - had been disintegrated by the flames of the French Revolution, and - from their ashes a new system had arisen, which forms the real - starting-point of the infantry tactics of to-day. - - - The French Revolution. - -The controversialists of Louis XVI.'s time, foremost of whom were -Guibert, Joly de Maizeroy and Menil Durand (see Max Jahns, _Gesch. d. -Kriegswissenschaften_, vol. iii.), were agreed that shock action should -be the work of troops formed in column, but as to the results to be -expected from shock action, the extent to which it should be facilitated -by a previous fire preparation, and the formations In which fire should -be delivered (line, line with skirmishers or "swarms") discussion was so -warm that it sometimes led to wrangles in ladies' drawing-rooms and -meetings in the duelling field. The drill-book for the French infantry -issued shortly before the Revolution was a common-sense compromise, -which in the main adhered to the Frederician system as modified by -Guibert, but gave an important place in infantry tactics to the -battalion "columns of attack," that had hitherto appeared only -spasmodically on the battlefields of the French army and never -elsewhere. This, however, and the quick march (100 paces to the minute -instead of the Frederician 75) were the only prescriptions in the -drill-book that survived the test of a "national" war, to which within a -few years it was subjected (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). The rest, -like the "linear system" of organization and manoeuvre to which it -belonged (see ARMY, SS 30-33; CONSCRIPTION, &c.) was ignored, and -circumstances and the practical troop-leaders evolved by circumstances -fashioned the combination of _close-order columns and loose-order -skirmishers_ which constituted essentially the new tactics of the -Revolutionary and Napoleonic infantry. - - - Tactical evolution in France 1792-1807. - -The process of evolution cannot be stated in exact terms, more -especially as the officers, as they grew in wisdom through experience, -learned to apply each form in accordance with ground and circumstances, -and to reject, when unsuitable, not only the forms of the drill-book, -but the forms proposed by themselves to replace those of the drill-book. -But certain tendencies are easily discernible. The first tendency was -towards the dissolution of all tactical links. The earlier battles were -fought partly in line for fire action, partly in columns for the bayonet -attack. Now the linear tactics depended on exact preservation of -dressing, intervals and distances, and what required in the case of the -Prussians years of steady drill at 76 paces to the minute was hardly -attainable with the newly levied ardent Frenchmen marching at 100 to -120. Once, therefore, the line moved, it broke up into an irregular -swarm of excited firers, and experience soon proved that only the troops -kept out of the turmoil, whether in line or in column, were susceptible -of manoeuvre and united action. Thus from about 1795 onwards the forms -of the old regime, with half the troops in front in line of battle -(practically in dense hordes of firers) and the other half in rear in -line or line of columns, give way to new ones in which the skirmishers -are fewer and the closed troops more numerous, and the decision rests no -longer with the fire of the leading units (which of course could not -compare in effectiveness with the rolling volleys of the drilled line) -but with the bayonets of the second and third lines--the latter being -sometimes in line but more often, owing to the want of preliminary -drill, in columns. The skirmishers tended again to become pure light -infantry, whose role was to prepare, not to give, the decision, and who -fought in a thin line, taking every advantage of cover and marksmanship. -In the Consulate and early Empire, indeed, we commonly find, in the -closed troops destined for the attack, mixed line and column formations -combining in themselves shock and controlled close-order -fire--absolutely regardless of the skirmishers in front. - -In sum, then, from 1792 to 1795 the fighting methods of the French -infantry, of which so much has been written and said, are, as they have -aptly been called, "horde-tactics." From 1796 onwards to the first -campaigns of the Empire, on the other hand, there is an ever-growing -tendency to combine skirmishers, properly so called, with controlled and -well-closed bodies in rear, the first to prepare the attack to the best -of their ability by individual courage and skill at arms, the second to -deliver it at the right moment (thanks to their retention of manoeuvre -formations), and with all possible energy (thanks to the cohesion, moral -and material, which carried forward even the laggards). Even when in the -long wars of the Empire the quality of the troops progressively -deteriorated, infantry tactics within the regiment or brigade underwent -no radical alteration. The actual formations were most varied, but they -always contained two of the three elements, column, line and -skirmishers. Column (generally two lines of battalions in columns of -double-companies) was for shock or attack, line for fire-effect, and -skirmishers to screen the advance, to scout the ground and to disturb -the enemy's aim. Of these, except on the defensive (which was rare in a -Napoleonic battle), the "column" of attack was by far the most -important. The line formations for fire, with which it was often -combined, rarely accounted for more than one-quarter of the brigade or -division, while the skirmishers were still less numerous. Withal, these -formations in themselves were merely fresh shapes for old ideas. The -armament of Napoleon's troops was almost identical with that of -Frederick's or Saxe's. Line, column and combinations of the two were as -old as Fontenoy and were, moreover, destined to live for many years -after Napoleon had fallen. "Horde-tactics" did not survive the earlier -Revolutionary campaigns. Wherein then lies the change which makes 1792 -rather than 1740 the starting-point of modern tactics? - - - Napoleon's infantry and artillery tactics, 1807-1815. - -The answer, in so far as so comprehensive a question can be answered -from a purely infantry standpoint, is that whereas Frederick, disposing -of a small and highly finished instrument, used its manoeuvre power and -regimental efficiency to destroy one part of his enemy so swiftly that -the other had no time to intervene, Napoleon, who had numbers rather -than training on his side, only delivered his decisive blow after he had -"fixed" all bodies of the enemy which would interfere with his -preparations--i.e. had set up a physical barrier against the threatened -intervention. This new idea manifested itself in various forms. In -strategy (q.v.) and combined tactics it is generally for convenience -called "economy of force." In the domain of artillery (see ARTILLERY) it -marked a distinction, that has revived in the last twenty years, between -slow disintegrating fire and sudden and overpowering "fire-preparation." -As regards infantry the effect of it was revolutionary. Regiments and -brigades were launched to the attack to compel the enemy to defend -himself, and fought until completely dissolved to force him to use up -his reserves. "On s'engage partout et puis l'on voit" is Napoleon's own -description of his _holding attack_, which in no way resembled the -"feints" of previous generations. The self-sacrifice of the men thus -engaged enabled their commander to "see," and to mass his reserves -opposite a selected point, while little by little the enemy was -hypnotized by the fighting. Lastly, when "the battle was ripe" a hundred -and more guns galloped into close range and practically annihilated a -part of the defender's line. They were followed up by masses of reserve -infantry, often more solidly formed at the outset than the old Swiss -masses of the 16th century.[11] If the moment was rightly chosen these -masses, dissolved though they soon were into dense formless crowds, -penetrated the gap made by the guns (with their arms at the slope) and -were quickly followed by cavalry divisions to complete the enemy's -defeat. Here, too, it is to be observed there is no true shock. The -infantry masses merely "present the cheque for payment," and apart from -surprises, ambushes and fights in woods and villages there are few -recorded cases of bayonets being crossed in these wars. Napoleon himself -said "Le feu est tout, le reste peu de chose," and though a mere plan of -his dispositions suggests that he was the disciple of Folard and Menil -Durand, in reality he simply applied "fire-power" in the new and grander -form which his own genius imagined. - -The problem, then, was not what it had been one hundred and fifty years -before. The business of the attack was not to break down the passive -resistance of the defence, but to destroy or to evade its fire-power. No -attack with the bayonet could succeed if this remained effective and -unbroken, and no resistance (in the open field at least) availed when it -had been mastered or evaded. In Napoleon's army, the circumstance that -the infantry was (after 1807) incapable of carrying out its own -fire-preparation forced the task into the hands of the field artillery. -In other armies the 18th-century system had been discredited by repeated -disasters, and the infantry, as it became "nationalized," was passing -slowly through the successive phases of irregular lines, "swarms," -skirmishers and line-and-column formations that the French Revolutionary -armies had traversed before them--none of them methods that in -themselves had given decisive results. - - - The British Peninsular infantry. - -In all Europe the only infantry that represented the Frederician -tradition and prepared its own charge by its own fire was the British. -Eye-witnesses who served in the ranks of the French have described the -sensation of powerlessness that they felt as their attacking column -approached the line and watched it load and come to the present. The -column stopped short, a few men cheered, others opened a ragged -individual fire, and then came the volleys and the counter-attack that -swept away the column. Sometimes this counterstroke was made, as in the -famous case of Busaco, from an apparently unoccupied ridge, for the -British line, under Moore's guidance, had shaken off the Prussian -stiffness, fought 2 deep instead of 3 and was able to take advantage of -cover. The "blankness of the battlefield" noted by so many observers -to-day in the South African and Manchurian Wars was fully as -characteristic of Wellington's battles from Vimeiro to Waterloo, in -spite of close order and red uniforms. But these battles were of the -offensive-defensive type in the main, and for various reasons this type -could not be accepted as normal by the rest of Europe. Nonchalance was -not characteristic of the eager national levies of 1813 and 1814, and -the Wellington method of infantry tactics, though it had brought about -the failure of Napoleon's last effort, was still generally regarded as -an illustration of the already recognized fact that on the defensive the -fire-power of the line, unless partly or wholly evaded by rapidity in -the advance and manoeuvring power or mastered and extinguished by the -fire-power of the attack, made the front of the defence impregnable. -There was indeed nothing in the English tactics at Waterloo that, -standing out from the incidents of the battle, offered a new principle -of winning battles. - - - Infantry methods, 1815-1870. - -Nor indeed did Europe at large desire a fresh era of warfare. Only the -French, and a few unofficial students of war elsewhere, realized the -significance of the rejuvenated "line." For every one else, the later -Napoleonic battle was the model, and as the great wars had ended before -the "national" spirit had been exhausted or misused in wars of -aggrandizement, infantry tactics retained, in Germany, Austria and -Russia, the characteristic Napoleonic formations, lines of battalion or -regimental columns, sometimes combined with linear formations for fire, -and always covered by skirmishers. That these columns must in action -dissolve sooner or later into dense irregular swarms was of course -foreseen, but Napoleon had accustomed the world to long and costly -fire-fighting as the preliminary to the attack of the massed reserves, -and for the short remainder of the period of smooth-bore muskets, troops -were always launched to the attack in columns covered by a thin line of -picked shots as skirmishers. The moral power of the offensive "will to -conquer" and the rapidity of the attack itself were relied upon to evade -and disconcert the fire-power of the defence. If the attack failed to do -so, the ranges at which infantry fire was really destructive were so -small that it was easy for the columns to deploy or disperse and open a -fire-fight to prepare the way for the next line of columns. And after a -careful study of the battle of the Alma, in which the British line won -its last great victory in the open field, Moltke himself only proposed -such modifications in the accepted tactical system as would admit of the -troops being deployed for _defence_ instead of meeting attack, as the -Russians met it, in solid and almost stationary columns. Fire in the -attack, in fact, had come to be considered as chiefly the work of -artillery, and as artillery, being an expensive arm, had been reduced -during the period of military stagnation following Waterloo, and was no -longer capable of Napoleonic feats, the attack was generally a bayonet -attack pure and simple. Waterloo and the Alma were credited, not to -fire-power, but to English solidity, and as Ardant du Picq observes, -"All the peoples of Europe say 'no one can resist our bayonet attack if -it is made resolutely'--and _all are right_.... Bayonet fixed or in the -scabbard, it is all the same." Since the disappearance of the "dark -impenetrable wood" of spears, the question has always turned on the word -"resolute." If the defence cannot by any means succeed in mastering the -resolution of the assailant, it is doomed. But the means (moral and -material) at the disposal of the defence for the purpose of mastering -this resolution were, within a few years of the Crimean War, -revolutionized by the general adoption of the rifle, the introduction of -the breech-loader and the revival of the "nation in arms." - -Thirty years before the Crimea the flint-lock had given way to the -percussion lock (see GUN), which was more certain in its action and -could be used in all weathers. But fitting a copper cap on the nipple -was not so simple a matter for nervous fingers as priming with a pinch -of powder, and the usual rate of fire had fallen from the five rounds a -minute of Frederick's day to two or three at the most. "Fire-power" -therefore was at a low level until the general introduction[12] of the -rifled barrel, which while further diminishing the rate of fire, at any -rate greatly increased the range at which volleys were thoroughly -effective. Artillery (see ARTILLERY, S 13), the fire-weapon of the -attack, made no corresponding progress, and even as early as the Alma -and Inkerman (where the British troops used the Minie rifle) the dense -columns had suffered heavily without being able to retaliate by -"crossing bayonets." Fire power, therefore, though still the special -prerogative of the defence, began to reassert its influence, and for a -brief period the defensive was regarded as the best form of tactics. But -the low rate of fire was still a serious objection. Many incidents in -the American Civil War showed this, notably Fredericksburg, where the -key of the Confederate position was held--against a simple frontal -attack unsupported by effective artillery fire--by three brigades in -line one behind the other, i.e. by a _six-deep_ firing line. No less -force could guarantee the "inviolability of the front," and even when, -in this unnatural and uneconomical fashion, the rate of fire was -augmented as well as the effective range, a properly massed and well-led -attack in column (or in a rapid succession of deployed lines) generally -reached the defender's position, though often in such disorder that a -resolute counterstroke drove it back again. The American fought over -more difficult country and with less previous drill-training than the -armies of the Old World. The fire-power of the defence, therefore, that -even in America did not always prevail over the resolution of the -attack, entirely failed in the Italian war of 1859 to stop the swiftly -moving, well-drilled columns of the French professional army, in which -the national _elan_ had not as yet been suppressed, as it was a few -years later, by the doctrine that "the new arms found their greatest -scope in the defence." The Austrians, who had pinned their faith to this -doctrine, deserted their false gods, forbade any mention of the -defensive in their drill-books, and brought back into honour the bayonet -tactics of the old wars. - -The need of artillery support for the attack was indeed felt (though the -gunners had not as yet evolved any substitute for the case-shot -preparation of Napoleon's time), but men remembered that artillery was -used by the great captain, not so much to enable good troops to close -with the enemy, as to win battles with masses of troops of an inferior -stamp, and contemporary experience seemed to show that (if losses were -accepted as inevitable) good and resolute troops could overpower the -defence, even in face of the rifle and without the aid of case shot. But -a revolution was at hand. - - - The breech-loading rifle. - -In 1861 Moltke, discussing the war in Italy, wrote, "General Niel -attributes his victory (at Solferino) to the bayonet. But that does not -imply that the attack was often followed by a hand-to-hand fight. In -principle, when one makes a bayonet charge, it is because one supposes -that the enemy will not await it.... _To approach the enemy closely, -pouring an efficacious fire into him_--as Frederick the Great's infantry -did--_is also a method of the offensive_." This method was applicable at -that time for the Prussians alone, for they alone possessed a -breech-loading firearm. The needle-gun was a rudimentary weapon in many -respects, but it allowed of maintaining more than twice the rate of fire -that the muzzle-loader could give, and, moreover, it permitted the full -use of cover, because the firer could lie down to fire without having to -rise between every round to load. Further, he could load while actually -running forward, whereas with the old arms loading not only required -complete exposure but also checked movement. The advantages of the -Prussian weapon were further enhanced, in the war against Austria, by -the revulsion of feeling in the Imperial army in favour of the pure -bayonet charge in masses that had followed upon Magenta and Solferino. - -With the stiffly drilled professional soldier of England, Austria and -Russia the handiness of the new weapon could hardly have been exploited, -for (in Russia at any rate) even skirmishers had to march in step. The -Prussians were drilled nominally in accordance with regulations dating -from 1812, and therefore suitable, if not to the new weapon, at least to -the "swarm" fighting of an enthusiastic national army, but upon these -regulations a mass of peace-time amendments had been superposed, and in -theory their drill was as stiff as that of the Russians. But, as in -France in 1793-1796, the composition of their army--a true "nation in -arms"--and the character of the officers evolved by the universal -service system saved them from their regulations. The offensive spirit -was inculcated as thoroughly as elsewhere, and in a much more practical -form. Dietrich von Bulow's predictions of the future battle of -"skirmishers" (meaning thereby a dense but irregular firing line) had -captivated the younger school of officers, while King William and the -veterans of Napoleon's wars were careful to maintain small columns -(sometimes company[13] columns of 240 rifles, but quite as often -half-battalion and battalion columns) as a solid background to the -firing line. Thus in 1866 (see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR), as Moltke had -foreseen, the attacking infantry fought its way to close quarters by -means of its own fire, and the bayonet charge again became, in his own -words, "not the first, but the last, phase of the combat," immediately -succeeding a last burst of rapid fire at short range and carried out by -the company and battalion reserves in close order. Against the -Austrians, whose tactics alternated between unprepared bayonet rushes by -whole brigades and a passive slow-firing defensive, victory was easily -achieved. - - - Infantry in the war of 1870. - -But immediately after Koniggratz the French army was served out with a -breech-loading rifle greatly superior in every respect to the -needle-gun, and after four years' tension France pitted breech-loader -against breech-loader. In the first battles (see WORTH, and METZ: -_Battles_) the decision-seeking spirit of the "armed nation," the -inferior range of the needle-gun as compared with that of the chassepot, -and the recollections of easy triumphs in 1864 and 1866, all combined to -drive the German infantry forward to within easy range before they began -to make use of their weapons. Their powerful artillery would have -sufficed of itself to enable them to do this (see SEDAN), had they but -waited for its fire to take effect. But they did not, and they suffered -accordingly, for, owing to the ineffectiveness of their rifle between -1000 and 400 yds. range, they had to advance, as the Austrians and -Russians had done in previous wars, without firing a shot. In these -circumstances their formations, whether line or column, broke up, and -the whole attacking force dissolved into long irregular swarms. These -swarms were practically composed only of the brave men, while the rest -huddled together in woods and valleys. When, therefore, at last the -firing line came within 400 or 500 yds. of the French, it was both -severely tried and numerically weak, but the fact that it was composed -of the best men only enabled it to open and to maintain an effective -fire. Even then the French, highly disciplined professional soldiers -that they were, repeatedly swept them back by counterstrokes, but these -counterstrokes were subjected to the fire of the German guns and were -never more than locally and momentarily effective. More and more German -infantry was pushed forward to support the firing line, and, like its -predecessors, each reinforcement, losing most of its unwilling men as it -advanced over the shot-swept ground, consisted on arrival of really -determined men, and closing on the firing line pushed it forward, -sometimes 20 yds., sometimes 100, until at last rapid fire at the -closest ranges dislodged the stubborn defenders. Bayonets (as usual) -were never actually used, save in sudden encounters in woods and -villages. The decisive factors were, first the superiority of the -Prussian guns, secondly, heavy and effective fire delivered at short -range, and above all the high moral of a proportion of resolute soldiers -who, after being subjected for hours to the most demoralizing -influences, had still courage left for the final dash. These three -factors, in spite of changes in armament, rule the infantry attack of -to-day. - - -INFANTRY TACTICS SINCE 1870 - -The net result of the Franco-German War on infantry tactics, as far as -it can be summed up in a single phrase, was to transfer the fire-fight -to the line of skirmishers. Henceforward the old and correct sense of -the word "skirmishers" is lost. They have nothing to do with a -"skirmish," but are the actual organ of battle, and their old duties of -feeling the way for the battle-formations have been taken over by -"scouts." The last-named were not, however, fully recognized in Great -Britain[14] till long after the war--not in fact until the war in South -Africa had shown that the "skirmisher" or firing line was too powerful -an engine to be employed in mere "feeling." In most European armies -"combat patrols," which work more freely, are preferred to scouts, but -the idea is the same. - - - Lessons of 1870. - -The fire-fight on the line of skirmishers, now styled the _firing line_, -is the centre of gravity of the modern battle. In 1870, owing to the -peculiar circumstances of unequal armament, the "fire-fight" was -insufficiently developed and uneconomically used, and after the war -tacticians turned their attention to the evolution of better methods -than those of Worth and Gravelotte, Europe in general following the lead -of Prussia. Controversy, in the early stages, took the form of a contest -between "drill" and "individualism," irrespective of formations and -technical details, for until about 1890 the material efficiency of the -gun and the rifle remained very much what it had been in 1870, and the -only new factor bearing on infantry tactics was the general adoption of -a "national army" system similar to Prussia's and of rifles equal, and -in some ways superior, to the chassepot. All European armies, therefore, -had to consider equality in artillery power, equality in the ballistics -of rifles, and equal intensity of fighting spirit as the normal -conditions of the next battle of nations. Here, in fact, was an -equilibrium, and in such conditions how was the attacking infantry to -force its way forward, whether by fire or movement or by both? France -sought the answer in the domain of artillery. Under the guidance of -General Langlois, she re-created the Napoleonic hurricane of case-shot -(represented in modern conditions by time shrapnel), while from the -doctrine formed by Generals Maillard and Bonnal there came a system of -infantry tactics derived fundamentally from the tactics of the -Napoleonic era. This, however, came later; for the moment (viz. from -1871 to about 1890) the lead in infantry training was admittedly in the -hands of the Prussians. - -German officers who had fought through the war had seen the operations, -generally speaking, either from the staff officer's or from the -regimental officer's point of view. To the former and to many of the -latter the most indelible impression of the battlefield was what they -called _Massen-Druckebergertum_ or "wholesale skulking." The rest, who -had perhaps in most cases led the brave remnant of their companies in -the final assaults, believed that battles were won by the individual -soldier and his rifle. The difference between the two may be said to lie -in this, that the first sought a remedy, the second a method. The remedy -was _drill_, the method _extended order_. - -The extreme statement of the case in favour of drill pure and simple is -to be found in the famous anonymous pamphlet _A Summer Night's Dream_, -in which a return to the "old Prussian fire-discipline" of Frederick's -day was offered as the solution of the problem, how to give "fire" its -maximum efficacity. Volleys and absolutely mechanical obedience to word -of command represent, of course, the most complete application of -fire-power that can be conceived. But the proposals of the extreme -close-order school were nevertheless merely pious aspirations, not so -much because of the introduction of the breech-loader as because the -short-service "national" army can never be "drilled" in the Frederician -sense. The proposals of the other school were, however, even more -impracticable, in that they rested on the hypothesis that all men were -brave, and that, consequently, all that was necessary was to teach the -recruit how to shoot and to work with other individuals in the squad or -company. Disorder of the firing line was accepted, not as an unavoidable -evil, but as a condition in which individuality had full play, and as -dense swarm formations were quite as vulnerable as an ordinary line, it -was an easy step from a thick line of "individuals" to a thin one. The -step was, in fact, made in the middle of the war of 1870, though it was -hardly noticed that extension only became practicable in proportion as -the quality of the enemy decreased and the Germans became acclimatized -to fire. - -Between these extremes, a moderate school, with the emperor William (who -had more experience of the human being in battle than any of his -officers) at its head, spent a few years in groping for close-order -formations which admitted of control without vulnerability, then laid -down the principle and studied the method of developing the greatest -fire-power of which short-service infantry was supposed capable, -ultimately combined the "drill" and teaching ideas in the German -infantry regulations of 1888, which at last abolished those of 1812 with -their multitudinous amendments. - - - Conditions of the modern battle. - -The necessity for "teaching" arose partly out of the new conditions of -service and the relative rarity of wars. The soldier could no longer -learn the ordinary rules of safety in action and comfort in bivouac by -experience, and had to be taught. But it was still more the new -conditions of fighting that demanded careful individual training. Of -old, the professional soldier (other than the man belonging to light -troops or the ground scout) was, roughly speaking, either so far out of -immediate danger as to preserve his reasoning faculties, or so deep in -battle that he became the unconscious agent of his inborn or acquired -instincts. But the increased range of modern arms prolonged the time of -danger, and although (judged by casualty returns) the losses to-day are -far less than those which any regiment of Frederick's day was expected -to face without flinching, and actual fighting is apparently spasmodic, -the period in which the individual soldier is subjected to the fear of -bullets is greatly increased. Zorndorf, the most severe of Frederick's -battles, lasted seven hours, Vionville twelve and Worth eleven. The -battle of the future in Europe, without being as prolonged as Liao-Yang, -Shaho and Mukden, will still be undecided twenty-four hours after the -advanced guards have taken contact. Now, for a great part of this time, -the "old Prussian fire-discipline," which above all aims at a rapid -decision, will be not only unnecessary, but actually hurtful to the -progress of the battle as a whole. As in Napoleon's day (for reasons -presently to be mentioned) the battle must resolve itself into a -preparative and a decisive phase.[15] In the last no commander could -desire a better instrument (if such were attainable with the armies of -to-day) than Frederick's forged steel machine, in which every company -was human mitrailleuse. But the preparatory combat not only will be -long, but also must be graduated in intensity at different times and -places in accordance with the commander's will, and the Frederician -battalion only attained its mechanical perfection by the absolute and -permanent submergence of the individual qualities of each soldier, with -the result that, although it furnished the maximum effort in the minimum -time, it was useless once it fell apart into ragged groups. The -individual spirit of earnestness and intelligence in the use of ground -by small fractions, which in Napoleon's day made the _combat d'usure_ -possible, was necessarily unknown in Frederick's. On the other hand, -graduation implies control on the part of the leaders, and this the -method of irregular swarms of individual fighters imagined by the German -progressives merely abdicates. At most such swarms--however close or -extended--can only be tolerated as an evil that no human power can avert -when the battle has reached a certain stage of intensity. Even the -latest _German Infantry Training_ (1906) is explicit on this point. "It -must never be forgotten that the obligation of abandoning close order is -an evil which can often be avoided when" &c. &c. (par. 342). The -consequences of this evil, further, are actually less serious in -proportion as the troops are well drilled--not to an unnecessary and -unattainable ideal of mechanical perfection, but to a state of -instinctive self-control in danger. Drill, therefore, carried to such a -point that it has eliminated the bad habits of the recruit without -detriment to his good habits, is still the true basis of all military -training, whether training be required for the swift controlled -movements of bodies of infantry in close order, for the cool and steady -fire of scattered groups of skirmishers, or for the final act of the -resolute will embodied in the "decisive attack." Unfortunately for the -solution of infantry problems "drill" and "close order" are often -confused, owing chiefly to the fact that in the 1870 battles the -dissolution of close order formations practically meant the end of -control as control was then understood. Both the material and objective, -and the inward and spiritual significances of "drill" are, however, -independent of "close order." In fact, in modern history, when a -resolute general has made a true decisive attack with half-drilled -troops, he has generally arrayed them in the closest possible -formations. - - - Drill. - - Drill is the military form of education by repetition and association - (see G. le Bon, _Psychologie de l'education_). Materially it consists - in exercises frequently repeated by bodies of soldiers with a view to - ensuring the harmonious action of each individual in the work to be - performed by the mass--in a word, rehearsals. Physical "drill" is - based on physiology and gymnastics, and aims at the development of the - physique and the individual will power.[16] But the psychological or - moral is incomparably the most important side of drill. It is the - method or art of discipline. Neither self-control nor devotion in the - face of imminent danger can as a rule come from individual reasoning. - A commander-in-chief keeps himself free from the contact with the - turmoil of battle so long as he has to calculate, to study reports or - to manoeuvre, and commanders of lower grades, in proportion as their - duty brings them into the midst of danger, are subjected to greater or - less disturbing influences. The man in the fighting line where the - danger is greatest is altogether the slave of the unconscious. - Overtaxed infantry, whether defeated or successful, have been observed - to present an appearance of absolute insanity. It is true that in the - special case of great war experience reason resumes part of its - dominion in proportion as the fight becomes the soldier's habitual - _milieu_. Thus towards the end of a long war men become skilful and - cunning individual fighters; sometimes, too, feelings of respect for - the enemy arise and lead to interchange of courtesies at the outposts, - and it has also been noticed that in the last stage of a long war men - are less inclined to sacrifice themselves. All this is "reason" as - against inborn or inbred "instinct." But in the modern world, which is - normally at peace, some method must be found of ensuring that the - peace-trained soldier will carry out his duties when his reason is - submerged. Now we know that the constant repetition of a certain act, - whether on a given impulse or of the individual's own volition, will - eventually make the performance of that act a reflex action. For this - reason peace-drilled troops have often defeated a war-trained enemy, - even when the motives for fighting were equally powerful on each side. - The mechanical performance of movements, and loading and firing at the - enemy, under the most disturbing conditions can be ensured by bringing - the required self-control from the domain of reason into that of - instinct. "_L'education_," says le Bon, "_est l'art de faire passer le - conscient dans l'inconscient_." Lastly, the instincts of the recruit - being those special to his race or nation, which are the more powerful - because they are operative through many generations, it is the drill - sergeant's business to bring about, by disuse, atrophy of the - instincts which militate against soldierly efficiency, and to develop, - by constant repetition and special preparation, other useful instincts - which the Englishman or Frenchman or German does not as such possess. - In short, as regards infantry training, there is no real distinction - between drill and education, save in so far as the latter term covers - instruction in small details of field service which demand alertness, - shrewdness and technical knowledge (as distinct from technical - training). As understood by the controversialists of the last - generation, drill was the antithesis of education. To-day, however, - the principle of education having prevailed against the old-fashioned - notion of drill, it has been discovered that after all drill is merely - an intensive form of education. This discovery (or rather definition - and justification of an existing empirical rule) is attributable - chiefly to a certain school of French officers, who seized more - rapidly than civilians the significance of modern psycho-physiology. - In their eyes, a military body possesses in a more marked degree than - another, the primary requisite of the "psychological crowd," studied - by Gustave le Bon, viz. the orientation of the wills of each and all - members of the crowd in a determined direction. Such a crowd generates - a collective will that dominates the wills of the individuals - composing it. It coheres and acts on the common property of all the - instincts and habits in which each shares. Further it tends to - extremes of baseness and heroism--this being particularly marked in - the military crowd--and lastly it reacts to a stimulus. The last is - the keynote of the whole subject of infantry training as also, to a - lesser degree, of that of the other arms. The officer can be regarded - practically as a hypnotist playing upon the unconscious activities of - his subject. In the lower grades, it is immaterial whether reason, - caprice or a fresh set of instincts stimulated by an outside - authority, set in motion the "suggestion." The true leader, whatever - the provenance of his "suggestion," makes it effective by dominating - the "psychological crowd" that he leads. On the other hand, if he - fails to do so, he is himself dominated by the uncontrolled will of - the crowd, and although leaderless mobs have at times shown extreme - heroism, it is far more usual to find them reverting to the primitive - instinct of brutality or panic fear. A mob, therefore, or a raw - regiment, requires greater powers of suggestion in its leader, whereas - a thorough course of drill tunes the "crowd" to respond to the - stimulus that average officers can apply. - -So far from diminishing, drill has increased in importance under modern -conditions of recruiting. It has merely changed in form, and instead of -being repressive it has become educative. The force of modern -short-service troops, as _troops_, is far sooner spent than that of the -old-fashioned automatic regiments, while the reserve force of its -component parts, remaining after the dissolution, is far higher than of -old. But this uncontrolled, force is liable to panic as well as amenable -to an impulse of self-sacrifice. In so far, then, it is necessary to -adopt the catchword of the Bulow school and to "organize disorder," and -the only known method of doing so is drill. "Individualism" pure and -simple had certainly a brief reign during and after the South African -War, especially in Great Britain, and both France and Germany coquetted -with "Boer tactics," until the Russo-Japanese war brought military -Europe back to the old principles. - - - The South African War. - - Formulation of the British "Doctrine." - -But the South African War came precisely at the point of time when the -controversies of 1870 had crystallized into a form of tactics that was -not suitable to the conditions of that war, while about the same time -the relations of infantry and artillery underwent a profound change. As -regards the South African War, the clear atmosphere, the trained sight -of the Boers, and the alternation of level plain and high concave kopjes -which constituted the usual battlefield, made the front to front -infantry attacks not merely difficult but almost impossible. For years, -indeed ever since the Peninsular War, the tendency of the British army -to deploy early had afforded a handle to European critics of its -tactical methods. It was a tendency that survived with the rest of the -"linear" tradition. But in South Africa, owing to the special advantages -of the defenders, which denied to the assailant all reliable indications -of the enemy's strength and positions, this early deployment had to take -a non-committal form--viz. many successive lines of skirmishers. The -application of this form was, indeed, made easy by the openness of the -ground, but like all "schematic" formations, open or close, it could not -be maintained under fire, with the special disadvantage that the -extensions were so wide as to make any manoeuvring after the fight had -cleared up a situation a practical impossibility. Hence some -_preconceived idea_ of an objective was an essential preliminary, and as -the Boer mounted infantry hardly ever stood to defend any particular -position to the last (as they could always renew the fight at some other -point in their vast territory), the preconceived idea was always, after -the early battles, an envelopment in which the troops told off to the -frontal holding attack were required, not to force their advance to its -logical conclusion, but to keep the fight alive until the flank attack -made itself felt. The principal tendency of British infantry tactics -after the Boer War was therefore quite naturally, under European as well -as colonial conditions, to deploy at the outset in great depth, i.e. in -many lines of skirmishers, each line, when within about 1400 yds. of the -enemy's position, extending to intervals of 10 to 20 paces between -individuals. The reserves were strong and their importance was well -marked in the 1902 training manual, but their functions were rather to -extend or feed the firing line, to serve as a rallying point in case of -defeat and to take up the pursuit (par. 220, _Infantry Training_, 1902), -than to form the engine of a decisive attack framed by the -commander-in-chief after "engaging everywhere and then seeing" as -Napoleon did. The 1905 regulations adhered to this theory of the attack -in the main, only modifying a number of tactical prescriptions which had -not proved satisfactory after their transplantation from South Africa to -Europe, but after the Russo-Japanese War a series of important -amendments was issued which gave greater force and still greater -elasticity to the attack procedure, and in 1909 the tactical "doctrine" -of the British army was definitively formulated in _Field Service -Regulations_, paragraph 102, of which after enumerating the advantages -and disadvantages of the "preconceived idea" system, laid it down, as -the normal procedure of the British Army, that the general should -"obtain the decision by _manoeuvre on the battlefield_ with a large -general reserve maintained in his own hand" and "_strike with his -reserve at the right place and time_." - -The rehabilitation of the Napoleonic attack idea thus frankly accepted -in Great Britain had taken place in France several years before the -South African War, and neither this war nor that in Manchuria -effectively shook the faith of the French army in the principle, while -on the other hand Germany remains faithful to the "preconceived idea," -both in strategy and tactics.[17] This essential difference in the two -rival "doctrines" is intimately connected with the revival of the -Napoleonic artillery attack, in the form of concentrated time shrapnel. - - The Napoleonic artillery preparation, it will be remembered, was a - fire of overwhelming intensity delivered against the selected point of - the enemy's position, at the moment of the massed and decisive assault - of the reserves. In Napoleon's time the artillery went in to within - 300 or 400 yds. range for this act, i.e. in front of the infantry, - whereas now the guns fire over the heads of the infantry and - concentrate shells instead of guns on the vital point. The principle - is, however, the same. A model infantry attack in the Napoleonic - manner was that of Okasaki's brigade on the Terayama hill at the - battle of Shaho, described by Sir Ian Hamilton in his _Staff Officer's - Scrap-Book_. The Japanese, methodical and cautious as they were, only - sanctioned a pure open force assault as a last resort. Then the - brigadier Okasaki, a peculiarly resolute leader, arrayed his brigade - in a "schematic" attack formation of four lines, the first two in - single rank, the third in line and the fourth in company columns. - Covered by a powerful converging shrapnel fire, the brigade covered - the first 900 yds. of open plain without firing a shot. Then, however, - it disappeared from sight amongst the houses of a village, and the - spectators watched the thousands of flashes fringing the further edge - that indicated a fire-fight at decisive range (the Terayama was about - 600 yds. beyond the houses). Forty minutes passed, and the army - commander Kuroki said, "He cannot go forward. We are in check to-day - all along the line." But at that moment Okasaki's men, no longer in a - "schematic" formation but in many irregularly disposed groups--some of - a dozen men and some of seventy, some widely extended and some - practically in close order--rushed forward at full speed over 600 yds. - of open ground, and stormed the Terayama with the bayonet. - - - The decisive attack. - -Such an attack as that at the battle of Shaho is rare, but so it has -always been with masterpieces of the art of war. We have only to -multiply the front of attack by two and the forces engaged by five--and -to find the resolute general to lead them--to obtain the ideal decisive -attack of a future European war. Instead of the bare open plain over -which the advance to decisive range was made, a European general would -in most cases dispose of an area of spinneys, farm-houses and undulating -fields. The schematic approach-march would be replaced in France and -England by a forward movement of bodies in close order, handy enough to -utilize the smallest covered ways. Then the fire of both infantry and -artillery would be augmented to its maximum intensity, overpowering that -of the defence, and the whole of the troops opposite the point to be -stormed would be thrown forward for the bayonet charge. The formation -for this scarcely matters. What is important is speed and the will to -conquer, and for this purpose small bodies (sections, half-companies or -companies), not in the close order of the drill book but grouped closely -about the leader who inspires and controls them, are as potent an -instrument as a Frederician line or a Napoleonic column. - -Controversy, in fact, does not turn altogether on the method of the -assault, or even on the method of obtaining the fire-superiority of guns -and rifles that justifies it. Although one nation may rely on its guns -more than on the rifles, or vice versa, all are agreed that at decisive -range the firing line should contain as many men as can use their rifles -effectually. Perhaps the most disputed point is the form of the -"approach-march," viz. the dispositions and movements of the attacking -infantry between about 1400 and about 600 yds. from the position of the -enemy. - - - The approach-march. - -The condition of the assailant's infantry when it reaches decisive -ranges is largely governed by the efforts it has expended and the losses -it has suffered in its progress. Sometimes even after a firing line of -some strength has been established at decisive range, it may prove too -difficult or too costly for the supports (sent up from the rear to -replace casualties and to augment fire-power) to make their way to the -front. Often, again, it may be within the commander's intentions that -his troops at some particular point in the line should not be committed -to decisive action before a given time--perhaps not at all. It is -obvious then that no "normal" attack procedure which can be laid down in -a drill book (though from time to time the attempt has been made, as in -the French regulations of 1875) can meet all cases. But here again, -though all armies formally and explicitly condemn the normal attack, -each has its own well-marked tendencies. - - - Current views on the infantry attack. - -The German regulations of 1906 define the offensive as "transporting -fire towards the enemy, if necessary to his immediate proximity"; the -bayonet attack "confirms" the victory. Every attack begins with -deployment into extended order, and the leading line advances as close -to the enemy as possible before opening fire. In ground offering cover, -the firing line has practically its maximum density at the outset. In -open ground, however, half-sections, groups and individuals, widely -spaced out, advance stealthily one after the other till all are _in -position_. It is on this position, called the "first fire position" and -usually about 1000 yds. from the enemy, that the full force of the -attack is deployed, and from this position, as simultaneously as -possible, it opens the fight for fire-superiority. Then, each unit -covering the advance of its neighbours, the whole line fights its way by -open force to within charging distance. If at any point a decision is -not desired, it is deliberately made impossible by employing there such -small forces as possess no offensive power. Where the attack is intended -to be pushed home, the infantry units employed act as far as possible -simultaneously, resolutely and in great force (see the German _Infantry -Regulations_, 1906, SS 324 et seq.). - -While in Germany movement "transports the fire," in France fire is -regarded as the way to make movement possible. It is considered (see -Grandmaison, _Dressage de l'infanterie_) that a premature and excessive -deployment enervates the attack, that the ground (i.e. covered ways of -approach for small columns, not for troops showing a fire front) should -be used as long as possible to march "en troupe" and that a firing line -should only be formed when it is impossible to progress without acting -upon the enemy's means of resistance. Thereafter each unit, in such -order as its chief can keep, should fight its way forward, and help -others to do so--like Okasaki's brigade in the last stage of its -attack--utilizing bursts of fire or patches of wood or depressions in -the ground, as each is profitable or available to assist the advance. -"From the moment when a fighting unit is 'uncoupled,' its action must be -ruled by two conditions, and by those only: the one material, an object -to be reached; the other moral, the will to reach the object." - -The British _Field Service Regulations_ of 1909 are in spirit more -closely allied to the French than to the German. "The climax of the -infantry attack is the assault, which is made possible by superiority of -fire" is the principle (emphasized in the book itself by the use of -conspicuous type), and a "gradual _building up of the firing line within -close range_ of the position," coupled with the closest artillery -support, and the final blow of the reserves delivered "unexpectedly and -in the greatest possible strength" are indicated as the means.[18] - - - Defence. - -The _defence_, as it used to be understood, needs no description. To-day -in all armies the defence is looked upon not as a means of winning a -battle, but as a means of temporizing and avoiding the decision until -the commander of the defending party is enabled, by the general military -situation or by the course and results of the defensive battle itself, -to take the offensive. In the British _Field Service Regulations_ it is -laid down that when an army acts on the defensive no less than half of -it should if possible be earmarked, suitably posted and placed under a -single commander, for the purpose of delivering a decisive -counter-attack. The object of the purely defensive portion, too, is not -merely to hold the enemy's firing line in check, but to drive it back so -that the enemy may be forced to use up his local reserve resources to -keep the fight alive. A firing line covered and steadied by -entrenchments, and restless local reserves ever on the look-out for -opportunities of partial counterstrokes, are the instruments of this -policy. - - - Entrenchments. - - A word must be added on the use of entrenchments by infantry, a - subject the technical aspect of which is fully dealt with and - illustrated in FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT: _Field Defences_. - Entrenchments of greater or less strength by themselves have always - been used by infantry on the defensive, especially in the wars of - position of the 17th and 18th centuries. In the Napoleonic and modern - "wars of movement," they are regarded, not as a passive defence--they - have long ceased to present a physical barrier to assault--but as fire - positions so prepared as to be defensible by relatively few men. Their - purpose is, by economizing force elsewhere, to give the maximum - strength to the troops told off for the counter-offensive. In the - later stages of the American Civil War, and also in the Russo-Japanese - War of 1904-1905--each in its way an example of a "war of - positions"--the assailant has also made use of the methods of - fortification to secure every successive step of progress in the - attack. The usefulness and limitations of this procedure are defined - in generally similar terms in the most recent training manuals of - nearly every European army. Section 136, S 7 of the British _Infantry - Training_ (1905, amended 1907) says: "During the process of - establishing a superiority of fire, successive fire positions will be - occupied by the firing line. As a rule those affording natural cover - will be chosen, but if none exist and the intensity of the hostile - fire preclude any immediate further advance, it may be expedient for - the firing line to create some. This hastily constructed protection - will enable the attack to cope with the defender's fire and thus - prepare the way for a farther advance. The construction of cover - during an attack, however, will entail delay and a temporary loss of - fire effect _and should therefore be resorted to only when absolutely - necessary..._. As soon as possible the advance should be resumed, &c." - The German regulations are as follows (_Infantry Training_, 1906, S - 313): "In the offensive the entrenching tool may be used where it is - desired, for the moment, to content one's self with maintaining the - ground gained.... The entrenching tool is only to be used with the - greatest circumspection, because of the great difficulty of getting an - extended line to go forward under fire when it has expended much - effort in digging cover for itself. The construction of trenches must - never paralyze the desire for the irresistible advance, _and above all - must not kill the spirit of the offensive_." - - - ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT - - The organization of infantry varies rather more than that of other - arms in different countries. Taking the British system first, the - battalion (and not as elsewhere the regiment of two, three or more - battalions) is the administrative and manoeuvre unit. It is about 1000 - strong, and is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel, who has a major and - an adjutant (captain or lieutenant) to assist him, and an officer of - lieutenant's or captain's rank (almost invariably promoted from the - ranks), styled the quartermaster, to deal with supplies, clothing, &c. - There are eight companies of a nominal strength of about 120 each. - These are commanded by captains (or by junior majors), and each - captain has or should have two lieutenants or second lieutenants to - assist him. Machine guns are in Great Britain distributed to the - battalions and not massed in permanent batteries. In addition there - are various regimental details, such as orderly-room staff, cooks, - cyclists, signallers, band and ambulance men. The company is divided - into four sections of thirty men each and commanded by sergeants. A - half-company of two sections is under the control of a subaltern - officer. A minor subdivision of the section into two "squads" is made - unless the numbers are insufficient to warrant it. In administrative - duties the captain's principal assistant is the colour-sergeant or - pay-sergeant, who is not assigned to a section command. The - lieutenant-colonel, the senior major and the adjutant are mounted. The - commanding officer is assisted by a battalion staff, at the head of - which is the adjutant. The sergeant-major holds a "warrant" from the - secretary of state for war, as does the bandmaster. Other members of - the battalion staff are non-commissioned officers, appointed by the - commanding officer. The most important of these is the - quartermaster-sergeant, who is the assistant of the quartermaster. The - two colours ("king's" and "regimental") are in Great Britain carried - by subalterns and escorted by colour-sergeants (see COLOURS). - - The "tactical" unit of infantry is now the _company_, which varies - very greatly in strength in the different armies. Elsewhere the - company of 250 rifles is almost universal, but in Great Britain the - company has about 110 men in the ranks, forming four sections. These - sections, each of about 28 rifles, are the normal "fire-units," that - is to say, the unit which delivers its fire at the orders of and with - the elevation and direction given by its commander. This, it will be - observed, gives little actual executive work for the junior officers. - But a more serious objection than this (which is modified in practice - by arrangement and circumstances) is the fact that a small unit is - more affected by detachments than a large one. In the home battalions - of the Regular Army such detachments are very large, what with finding - drafts for the foreign service battalions and for instructional - courses, while in the Territorial Force, where it is so rarely - possible to assemble all the men at once, the company as organized is - often too small to drill as such. On the other hand, the full - war-strength company is an admirable unit for control and manoeuvre in - the field, owing to its rapidity of movement, handiness in using - accidents of ground and cover, and susceptibility to the word of - command of one man. But as soon as its strength falls below about 80 - the advantages cease to counterbalance the defects. The sections - become too small as fire-units to effect really useful results, and - the battalion commander has to coordinate and to direct 8 - comparatively ineffective units instead of 4 powerful ones. The - British regular army, therefore, has since the South African War, - adopted the _double company_ as the unit of training. This gives at - all times a substantial unit for fire and manoeuvre training, but the - disadvantage of having a good many officers only half employed is - accentuated. As to the tactical value of the large or double company, - opinions differ. Some hold that as the small company is a survival - from the days when the battalion was the tactical unit and the company - was the unit of volley-fire, it is unsuited to the modern exigencies - that have broken up the old rigid line into several independent and - co-operating fractions. Others reply that the strong continental - company of 250 rifles came into existence in Prussia in the years - after Waterloo, not from tactical reasons, but because the state was - too poor to maintain a large establishment of officers, and that in - 1870, at any rate, there were many instances of its tactical - unwieldiness. The point that is common to both organizations is the - fact that there is theoretically one subaltern to every 50 or 60 - rifles, and this reveals an essential difference between the British - and the Continental systems, irrespective of the sizes or groupings of - companies. The French or German subaltern effectively commands his 50 - men as a unit, whereas the British subaltern supervises two groups of - 25 to 30 men under responsible non-commissioned officers. That is to - say, a British sergeant may find himself in such a position that he - has to be as expert in controlling and obtaining good results from - collective fire as a German lieutenant. For reasons mentioned in ARMY, - S 40, non-commissioned officers, of the type called by Kipling the - "backbone of the army," are almost unobtainable with the universal - service system, and the lowest unit that possesses any independence is - the lowest unit commanded by an officer. But apart from the rank of - the fire-unit commander, it is questionable whether the section, as - understood in England, is not too small a fire-unit, for European - warfare at any rate. The regulations of the various European armies, - framed for these conditions, practically agree that the fire-unit - should be commanded by an officer and should be large enough to ensure - good results from collective fire. The number of rifles meeting this - second condition is 50 to 80 and their organization a "section" - (corresponding to the British half-company) under a subaltern officer. - The British army has, of course, to be organized and trained for an - infinitely wider range of activity, and no one would suggest the - abolition of the small section as a fire-unit. But in a great European - battle it would be almost certainly better to group the two sections - into a real unit for fire effect. (For questions of infantry fire - tactics see RIFLE: S _Musketry_.) - - On the continent of Europe the "regiment," which is a unit, acting in - peace and war as such, consists normally of three battalions, and each - battalion of four companies or 1000 rifles. The company of 250 rifles - is commanded by a captain, who is mounted. In France the company has - four sections, commanded in war by the three subalterns and the - "adjudant" (company sergeant-major); the sections are further grouped - in pairs to constitute _pelotons_ (platoons) or half-companies under - the senior of the two section leaders. In peace there are two - subalterns only, and the _peloton_ is the normal junior officer's - command. The battalion is commanded by a major (_commandant_ or - strictly _chef de bataillon_), the regiment (three or four battalions) - by a colonel with a lieutenant-colonel as second. An organization of - 3-battalion regiments and 3-company battalions was proposed in 1910. - - In Germany, where what we have called the continental company - originated, the regiment is of three battalions under majors, and the - battalion of four companies commanded by captains. The company is - divided into three _Zuge_ (sections), each under a subaltern, who has - as his second a sergeant-major, a "vice-sergeant-major" or a - "sword-knot ensign" (aspirant officer). In war there is one additional - officer for company. The _Zug_ at war-strength has therefore about 80 - rifles in the ranks, as compared with the French "section" of 50, and - the British section of 30. - - The system prevailing in the United States since the reorganization of - 1901 is somewhat remarkable. The regiment, which is a tactical as well - as an administrative unit, consists of three battalions. Each - battalion has four companies of (at war-strength) 3 officers and 150 - rifles each. The regiment in war therefore consists of about 1800 - rifles in three small and handy battalions of 600 each. The - circumstances in which this army serves, and in particular the - maintenance of small frontier posts, have always imposed upon - subalterns the responsibilities of small independent commands, and it - is fair to assume that the 75 rifles at a subaltern's disposal are - regarded as a tactical unit. - - In sum, then, the infantry battalion is in almost every country about - 1000 rifles strong in four companies. In the United States it is 600 - strong in four companies, and in Great Britain it is 1000 strong in - eight. The captain's command is usually 200 to 250 men, in the United - States 150, and in Great Britain 120. The lieutenant or second - lieutenant commands in Germany 80 rifles, in France 50, in the United - States 75, as a unit of fire and manoeuvre. In Great Britain he - commands, with relatively restricted powers, 60. - - A short account of the infantry equipments--knapsack or valise, belt, - haversack, &c.--in use in various countries will be found in UNIFORMS, - NAVAL AND MILITARY. The armament of infantry is, in all countries, the - magazine rifle (see RIFLE) and bayonet (q.v.), for officers and for - certain under-officers sword (q.v.) and pistol (q.v.). Ammunition - (q.v.) in the British service is carried (a) by the individual - soldier, (b) by the reserves (mules and carts) in regimental charge, - some of which in action are assembled from the battalions of a brigade - to form a brigade reserve, and (c) by the ammunition columns. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following works are selected to show (1) the - historical development of the arm, and (2) the different "doctrines" - of to-day as to its training and functions:--Ardant du Picq, _Etudes - sur le combat_; C. W. C. Oman, _The Art of War: Middle Ages_; Biottot, - _Les Grands Inspires--Jeanne d'Arc_; Hardy de Perini, _Batailles - francaises_; C. H. Firth, _Cromwell's Army_; German official history - of Frederick the Great's wars, especially _Erster Schlesische Krieg_, - vol. i.; Susane, _Histoire de l'infanterie francaise_; French General - Staff, _La Tactique au XVIII^me--l'infanterie_ and _La Tactique et la - discipline dans les armees de la Revolution--General Schauenbourg_; J. - W. Fortescue, _History of the British Army_; Moorsom, _History of the - 52nd Regiment_; de Grandmaison, _Dressage de l'infanterie_ (Paris, - 1908); works of W. v. Scherff; F. N. Maude, _Evolution of Infantry - Tactics and Attack and Defence_; [Meckel] _Ein Sommernachtstraum_ - (Eng. trans, in _United Service Magazine_, 1890); J. Meckel, _Taktik_; - Malachowski, _Scharfe- und Revuetaktik_; H. Langlois, _Enseignements - de deux guerres_; F. Hoenig, _Tactics of the Future_ and _Twenty-four - Hours of Moltke's Strategy_ (Eng. trans.); works of A. von - Boguslowski; _British Officers' Reports on the Russo-Japanese War_; H. - W. L. Hime, _Stray Military Papers_; Grange, "Les Realites du champ de - bataille--Woerth" (_Rev. d'infanterie_, 1908-1909); V. Lindenau, "The - Boer War and Infantry Attack" (_Journal R. United Service - Institution_, 1902-1903); Janin, "Apercus sur la - tactique--Mandchourie" (_Rev. d'infanterie_, 1909); Soloviev, - "Infantry Combat in the Russo-Jap. War" (Eng. trans. _Journal - R.U.S.I._, 1908); British Official _Field Service Regulations_, part - i. (1909), and _Infantry Training_ (1905); German drill regulations of - 1906 (Fr. trans.); French drill regulations of 1904; Japanese - regulations 1907 (Eng. trans.). The most important journals devoted to - the infantry arm are the French official _Revue d'infanterie_ (Paris - and Limoges), and the _Journal of the United Stales Infantry - Association_ (Washington, D. C). (C. F. A.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] At Bouvines, it is recorded with special emphasis that Guillaume - des Barres, when in the act of felling the emperor, heard the call to - rescue King Philip Augustus and, forfeiting his rich prize, made his - way back to help his own sovereign. - - [2] Crossbows indeed were powerful, and also handled by professional - soldiers (e.g. the Genoese at Crecy), but they were slow in action, - six times as slow as the long bow, and the impatient gendarmerie - generally became tired of the delay and crowded out or rode over the - crossbowmen. - - [3] As for instance when thirty men-at-arms "cut out" the Captal de - Buch from the midst of his army at Cocherel. - - [4] This tendency of the French military temperament reappears at - almost every stage in the history of armies. - - [5] The term _landsknecht_, it appears, was not confined to the right - bank of the Rhine. The French "lansquenets" came largely from Alsace, - according to General Hardy de Perini. In the Italian wars Francis I. - had in his service a famous corps called the "black bands" which was - recruited, in the lower Rhine countries. - - [6] This practice of "maintenance" on a large scale continued to - exist in France long afterwards. As late as the battle of Lens (1648) - we find figuring in the king of France's army three "regiments of the - House of Conde." - - [7] Even as late as 1645 a battalion of infantry in England was - called a "tercio" or "tertia" (see ARMY; _Spanish army_). - - [8] In France it is recorded that the _Gardes francaises_, when - warned for duty at the Louvre, used to stroll thither in twos and - threes. - - [9] About this time there was introduced, for resisting cavalry, the - well-known hollow battalion square, which, replacing the former - masses of pikes, represented up to the most modern times the - defensive, as the line or column represented the offensive formation - of infantry. - - [10] The Prussian Grenadier battalions in the Silesian and Seven - Years' Wars were more and more confined strictly to line-of-battle - duties as the irregular light infantry developed in numbers. - - [11] Even when the hostile artillery was still capable of fire these - masses were used, for in no other formation could the heterogeneous - and ill-trained infantry of Napoleon's vassal states (which - constituted half of his army) be brought up at all. - - [12] Rifles had, of course, been used by corps of light troops (both - infantry and mounted) for many years. The British Rifle Brigade was - formed in 1800, but even in the Seven Years' War there were - rifle-corps or companies in the armies of Prussia and Austria. These - older rifles could not compare in rapidity or volume of fire with the - ordinary firelock. - - [13] The Prussian company was about 250 strong (see below under - "Organization"). This strength was adopted after 1870 by practically - all nations which adopted universal service. The battalion had 4 - companies. - - [14] The 1902 edition of _Infantry Training_ indeed treated the new - scouts as a thin advanced firing line, but in 1907, at which date - important modifications began to be made in the "doctrine" of the - British Army, the scouts were expressly restricted to the - old-fashioned "skirmishing" duties. - - [15] This is no new thing, but belongs, irrespective of armament, to - the "War of masses." The king of Prussia's fighting instructions of - the 10th of August 1813 lay down the principle as clearly as any - modern work. - - [16] In the British Service, men whose nerves betray them on the - shooting range are ordered more gymnastics (_Musketry Regulations_, - 1910). - - [17] In 1870 the "preconceived idea" was practically confined to - strategy, and the tactical improvisations of the Germans themselves - deranged the execution of the plan quite as often as the act of the - enemy. Of late years, therefore, the "preconceived idea" has been - imposed on tactics also in that country. Special care and study is - given to the once despised "early deployments" in cases where a fight - is part of the "idea," and to the difficult problem of breaking off - the action, when it takes a form that is incompatible with the - development of the main scheme. - - [18] In February 1910 a new _Infantry Training_ was said to be in - preparation. The _I.T._ of 1905 is in some degree incompatible with - the later and ruling doctrine of the _F.S. Regulations_, and in the - winter of 1909 the Army Council issued a memorandum drawing attention - to the different conceptions of the decisive attack as embodied in - the latter and as revealed in manoeuvre procedure. - - - - -INFANT SCHOOLS. The provision in modern times of systematized training -for children below the age when elementary education normally begins may -be dated from the village school at Waldbach founded by Jean Frederic -Oberlin in 1774. Robert Owen started an infant school at New Lanark in -1800, and great interest in the question was taken in Great Britain -during the early years of the 19th century, leading to the foundation in -1836 of the Home and Colonial School Society for the training of -teachers in infant schools; this in turn reacted upon other countries, -especially Germany. Further impetus and a new direction were given to -the movement by Friedrich W. A. Froebel, and the methods of training -adopted for children between the ages of three and six have in most -countries been influenced by, if not based on, that system of directed -activities which was the foundation of the type of "play-school" called -by him the _Kinder Garten_, or "children's garden." The growing tendency -in England to lay stress on the mental training of very young children, -and to use the "infant school" as preparatory to the elementary school, -has led to a considerable reaction; medical officers of health have -pointed out the dangers of infection to which children up to the age of -five are specially liable when congregated together--also the physical -effects of badly ventilated class-rooms, and there is a consensus of -opinion that formal mental teaching is directly injurious before the age -of six or even seven years. At the same time the increase in the -industrial employment of married women, with the consequent difficulty -of proper care of young children by the mother in the home, has somewhat -shifted the ground from a purely educational to a social and physical -aspect. While it is agreed that the ideal place for a young child is the -home under the supervision of its mother, the present industrial -conditions often compel a mother to go out to work, and leave her -children either shut up alone, or free to play about the streets, or in -the care of a neighbour or professional "minder." In each case the -children must suffer. The provision by a public authority of -opportunities for suitable training for such children seems therefore a -necessity. The moral advantages gained by freeing the child from the -streets, by the superintendence of a trained teacher over the games, by -the early inculcation of habits of discipline and obedience; the -physical advantages of cleanliness and tidiness, and the opportunity of -disclosing incipient diseases and weaknesses, outweigh the disadvantages -which the opponents of infant training adduce. It remains to give a -brief account of what is done in Great Britain, the United States of -America, and certain other countries. A valuable report was issued for -the English Board of Education by a Consultative Committee upon the -school attendance of children below the age of five (vol. 22 of the -_Special Reports_, 1909), which also gives some account of the provision -of day nurseries or _creches_ for babies. - -_United Kingdom._--Up to 1905 it was the general English practice since -the Education Act of 1870 for educational authorities to provide -facilities for the teaching of children between three and five years old -whose parents desired it. In 1905, of an estimated 1,467,709 children -between those ages, 583,268 were thus provided for in England and Wales. -In 1905 the objections, medical and educational, already stated, coupled -with the increasing financial strain on the local educational -authorities, led to the insertion in the code of that year of Article -53, as follows: "Where the local education authority have so determined -in the case of any school maintained by them, children who are under -five years may be refused admission to that school." In consequence in -1907 the numbers were found to have fallen to 459,034 out of an -estimated 1,480,550 children, from 39.74% in 1905 to 31%. In the older -type of infant school stress was laid on the mental preparation of -children for the elementary teaching which was to come later. This -forcing on of young children was encouraged by the system under which -the government grant was allotted; children in the infant division -earned an annual grant of 17s. per head, on promotion to the upper -school this would be increased to 22s. In 1909 the system was altered; a -rate of 21s. 4d. was fixed as the grant for all children above five, and -the grant for those below the age was reduced to 13s. 4d. Different -methods of training the teachers in these schools as well as the -children themselves have been now generally adopted. These methods are -largely based on the Froebelian plan, and greater attention is being -paid to physical development. In one respect England is perhaps behind -the more progressive of other European countries, viz. in providing -facilities for washing and attending to the personal needs of the -younger children. There is no _femme de service_ as in Belgium on the -staff of English schools. While in Ireland the children below the age of -five attend the elementary schools in much the same proportion as in -England and Wales, in Scotland it has never been the general custom for -such children to attend school. - -_United States of America._--In no country has the kindergarten system -taken such firm root, and the provision made for children below the -compulsory age is based upon it. In 1873 there were 42 kindergartens -with 1252 pupils; in 1898 the numbers had risen to 2884 with 143,720 -pupils; more than half these were private schools, managed by charitable -institutions or by individuals for profit. In 1904-1905 there were 3176 -public kindergartens with 205,118 pupils. - - _Austria Hungary._--Provision in Austria is made for children under - six by two types of institution, the Day Nursery - (_Kinderbewahranstalten_) and the Kindergarten. In 1872 as the result - of a State Commission the Kindergarten was established in the state - system of education. Its aim is to "confirm and complete the home - education of children under school age, so that through regulated - exercise of body and mind they may be prepared for institution in the - primary school." No regular teaching in ordinary school subjects is - allowed; games, singing and handwork, and training of speech and - observation by objects, tales and gardening are the means adopted. The - training for teachers in these schools is regulated by law. No - children are to be received in a kindergarten til! the beginning of - the fourth and must leave at the end of the sixth year. In 1902-1903 - there were 77,002 children in kindergartens and 74,110 in the day - nurseries. In Hungary a law was passed in 1891 providing for the - education and care of children between three and six, either by asyle - or nurseries open all the year round in communes which contribute from - L830 to L1250 in state taxation, or during the summer in those whose - contribution is less. Communes above the higher sum must provide - kindergartens. In 1904 there were over 233,000 children in such - institutions. - - _Belgium._--For children between three and six education and training - are provided by _Ecoles gardiennes_ or _Jardins d'enfants_. They are - free but not compulsory, are provided and managed by the communes, - receive a state grant, and are under government inspection. Schools - provided by private individuals or institutions must conform to the - conditions of the communal schools. There is a large amount of - voluntary assistance especially in the provision of clothes and food - for the poorer children. The state first recognized these schools in - 1833. In 1881 there were 708 schools with accommodation for over - 56,000 children; in 1907 there were 2837 and 264,845 children, - approximately one-half of the total number of children in the country - between the ages of three and six. In 1890 the minister of Public - Instruction issued a code of rules on which is based the organization - of the _Ecoles gardiennes_ throughout Belgium, but some of the - communes have regulations of their own. A special examination for - teachers in the _Ecoles gardiennes_ was started in 1898. All - candidates must pass this examination before a _certificat de - capacite_ is granted. The training includes a course in Froebelian - methods. While Froebel's system underlies the training in these - schools, the teaching is directed very much towards the practical - education of the child, special stress being laid on manual dexterity. - Reading, writing and arithmetic are also allowed in the classes for - the older children. A marked feature of the Belgian schools is the - close attention paid to health and personal cleanliness. In all - schools there is a _femme de service_, not a teacher, but an - attendant, whose duty it is to see to the tidiness and cleanliness of - the children, and to their physical requirements. - - _France._--The first regular infant school was established in Paris at - the beginning of the 19th century and styled a _Salle d'essai_. In - 1828 a model school, called a _Salle d'asile_, was started, followed - shortly by similar institutions all over France. State recognition and - inspection were granted, and by 1836 there were over 800 in Paris and - the provinces. In 1848 they became establishments of public - instruction, and the name _Ecole maternelle_ which they have since - borne was given them. Every commune with 2000 inhabitants must have - one of these schools or a _Classe enfantine_. Admission is free, but - not compulsory, for children between two and six. Food and clothes are - provided in exceptional cases. Formal mental instruction is still - given to a large extent, and the older children are taught reading, - writing and arithmetic. Though the staffs of the school include - _femmes de service_, not so much attention is paid to cleanliness as - in Belgium, nor is so much stress laid on hygiene. In 1906-1907 there - were 4111 public and private _Ecoles maternelles_ in France, with over - 650,000 pupils. The closing of the clerical schools has led to some - diminution in the numbers. - - _Germany.___--There are two classes of institution in Germany for - children between the ages of 2(1/2) or 3 and 6. These are the - _Kleinkinderbewahranstalten_ and _Kindergarten_. The first are - primarily social in purpose, and afford a place for the children of - mothers who have to leave their homes for work. These institutions, - principally conducted by religious or charitable societies, remain - open all day and meals are provided. Many of them have a kindergarten - attached, and others provide some training on Froebelian principles. - The kindergartens proper are also principally in private hands, though - most municipalities grant financial assistance. They are conducted on - advanced Froebelian methods, and formal teaching in reading, writing - and arithmetic is excluded. In Cologne, Dusseldorf, Frankfort and - Munich there are municipal schools. The state gives no recognition to - these institutions and they form no part of the public system of - education. - - _Switzerland._--In the German speaking cantons the smaller towns and - villages provide for the younger children by _Bewahranstalten_, - generally under private management with public financial help. The - larger towns provide kindergartens where the training is free but not - compulsory for children from four to six. These are generally - conducted on Froebel's system and there is no formal instruction. In - the French speaking cantons the _Ecoles enfantines_ are recognized as - the first stage of elementary education. They are free and not - compulsory for children from three to six years of age. (C. We.) - - - - -INFINITE (from Lat. _in_, not, _finis_, end or limit; cf. _findere_, to -cleave), a term applied in common usage to anything of vast size. -Strictly, however, the epithet implies the absence of all limitation. As -such it is used specially in (1) theology and metaphysics, (2) -mathematics. - -1. Tracing the history of the world to the earliest date for which there -is any kind of evidence, we are faced with the problem that for -everything there is a prior something: the mind is unable to conceive an -absolute beginning ("ex nihilo nihil"). Mundane distances become trivial -when compared with the distance from the earth of the sun and still more -of other heavenly bodies: hence we infer infinite space. Similarly by -continual subdivision we reach the idea of the infinitely small. For -these inferences there is indeed no actual physical evidence: infinity -is a mental concept. As such the term has played an important part in -the philosophical and theological speculation. In early Greek philosophy -the attempt to arrive at a physical explanation of existence led the -Ionian thinkers to postulate various primal elements (e.g. water, fire, -air) or simply the infinite [Greek: to apeiron] (see IONIAN SCHOOL). -Both Plato and Aristotle devoted much thought to the discussion as to -which is most truly real, the finite objects of sense, or the universal -idea of each thing laid up in the mind of God; what is the nature of -that unity which lies behind the multiplicity and difference of -perceived objects? The same problem, variously expressed, has engaged -the attention of philosophers throughout the ages. In Christian theology -God is conceived as infinite in power, knowledge and goodness, uncreated -and immortal: in some Oriental systems the end of man is absorption into -the infinite, his perfection the breaking down of his human limitations. -The metaphysical and theological conception is open to the agnostic -objection that the finite mind of man is by hypothesis unable to cognize -or apprehend not only an infinite object, but even the very conception -of infinity itself; from this standpoint the Infinite is regarded as -merely a postulate, as it were an unknown quantity (cf. [root]-1 in -mathematics). The same difficulty may be expressed in another way if we -regard the infinite as unconditioned (cf. Sir William Hamilton's -"philosophy of the unconditioned," and Herbert Spencer's doctrine of the -infinite "unknowable"); if it is argued that knowledge of a thing arises -only from the recognition of its differences from other things (i.e. -from its limitations), it follows that knowledge of the infinite is -impossible, for the infinite is by hypothesis unrelated. - -With this conception of _the_ infinite as absolutely unconditioned -should be compared what may be described roughly as lesser infinities -which can be philosophically conceived and mathematically demonstrated. -Thus a point, which is by definition infinitely small, is as compared -with a line a unit: the line is infinite, made up of an infinite number -of points, any pair of which have an infinite number of points between -them. The line itself, again, in relation to the plane is a unit, while -the plane is infinite, i.e. made up of an infinite number of lines; -hence the plane is described as doubly infinite in relation to the -point, and a solid as trebly infinite. This is Spinoza's theory of the -"infinitely infinite," the limiting notion of infinity being of a -numerical, quantitative series, each term of which is a qualitative -determination itself quantitatively little, e.g. a line which is -quantitatively unlimited (i.e. in length) is qualitatively limited when -regarded as an infinitely small unit of a plane. A similar relation -exists in thought between the various grades of species and genera; the -highest genus is the "infinitely infinite," each subordinated genus -being infinite in relation to the particulars which it denotes, and -finite when regarded as a unit in a higher genus. - -2. In mathematics, the term "infinite" denotes the result of increasing -a variable without limit; similarly, the term "infinitesimal," meaning -indefinitely small, denotes the result of diminishing the value of a -variable without limit, with the reservation that it never becomes -actually zero. The application of these conceptions distinguishes -ancient from modern mathematics. Analytical investigations revealed the -existence of series or sequences which had no limit to the number of -terms, as for example the fraction 1/(1 - x) which on division gives the -series. 1 + x + x^2+ ...; the discussion of these so-called infinite -sequences is given in the articles SERIES and FUNCTION. The doctrine of -geometrical continuity (q.v.) and the application of algebra to -geometry, developed in the 16th and 17th centuries mainly by Kepler and -Descartes, led to the discovery of many properties which gave to the -notion of infinity, as a localized space conception, a predominant -importance. A line became continuous, returning into itself by way of -infinity; two parallel lines intersect in a point at infinity; all -circles pass through two fixed points at infinity (the circular points); -two spheres intersect in a fixed circle at infinity; an asymptote became -a tangent at infinity; the foci of a conic became the intersections of -the tangents from the circular points at infinity; the centre of a conic -the pole of the line at infinity, &c. In analytical geometry the line at -infinity plays an important part in trilinear coordinates. These -subjects are treated in GEOMETRY. A notion related to that of -infinitesimals is presented in the Greek "method of exhaustion"; the -more perfect conception, however, only dates from the 17th century, when -it led to the infinitesimal calculus. A curve came to be treated as a -sequence of infinitesimal straight lines; a tangent as the extension of -an infinitesimal chord; a surface or area as a sequence of -infinitesimally narrow strips, and a solid as a collection of -infinitesimally small cubes (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). - - - - -INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS. 1. The infinitesimal calculus is the body of -rules and processes by means of which continuously varying magnitudes -are dealt with in mathematical analysis. The name "infinitesimal" has -been applied to the calculus because most of the leading results were -first obtained by means of arguments about "infinitely small" -quantities; the "infinitely small" or "infinitesimal" quantities were -vaguely conceived as being neither zero nor finite but in some -intermediate, nascent or evanescent, state. There was no necessity for -this confused conception, and it came to be understood that it can be -dispensed with; but the calculus was not developed by its first founders -in accordance with logical principles from precisely defined notions, -and it gained adherents rather through the impressiveness and variety of -the results that could be obtained by using it than through the cogency -of the arguments by which it was established. A similar statement might -be made in regard to other theories included in mathematical analysis, -such, for instance, as the theory of infinite series. Many, perhaps all, -of the mathematical and physical theories which have survived have had a -similar history--a history which may be divided roughly into two -periods: a period of construction, in which results are obtained from -partially formed notions, and a period of criticism, in which the -fundamental notions become progressively more and more precise, and are -shown to be adequate bases for the constructions previously built upon -them. These periods usually overlap. Critics of new theories are never -lacking. On the other hand, as E. W. Hobson has well said, "pertinent -criticism of fundamentals almost invariably gives rise to new -construction." In the history of the infinitesimal calculus the 17th -and 18th centuries were mainly a period of construction, the 19th -century mainly a period of criticism. - - -I. _Nature of the Calculus._ - - - Geometrical representation of Variable Quantities. - -2. The guise in which variable quantities presented themselves to the -mathematicians of the 17th century was that of the lengths of variable -lines. This method of representing variable quantities dates from the -14th century, when it was employed by Nicole Oresme, who studied and -afterwards taught at the College de Navarre in Paris from 1348 to 1361. -He represented one of two variable quantities, e.g. the time that has -elapsed since some epoch, by a length, called the "longitude," measured -along a particular line; and he represented the other of the two -quantities, e.g. the temperature at the instant, by a length, called the -"latitude," measured at right angles to this line. He recognized that -the variation of the temperature with the time was represented by the -line, straight or curved, which joined the ends of all the lines of -"latitude." Oresme's longitude and latitude were what we should now call -the abscissa and ordinate. The same method was used later by many -writers, among whom Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei may be -mentioned. In Galileo's investigation of the motion of falling bodies -(1638) the abscissa OA represents the time during which a body has been -falling, and the ordinate AB represents the velocity acquired during -that time (see fig. 1). The velocity being proportional to the time, the -"curve" obtained is a straight line OB, and Galileo showed that the -distance through which the body has fallen is represented by the area of -the triangle OAB. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - - - The problems of Maxima and Minima, Tangents, and Quadratures. - -The most prominent problems in regard to a curve were the problem of -finding the points at which the ordinate is a maximum or a minimum, the -problem of drawing a tangent to the curve at an assigned point, and the -problem of determining the area of the curve. The relation of the -problem of maxima and minima to the problem of tangents was understood -in the sense that maxima or minima arise when a certain equation has -equal roots, and, when this is the case, the curves by which the problem -is to be solved touch each other. The reduction of problems of maxima -and minima to problems of contact was known to Pappus. The problem of -finding the area of a curve was usually presented in a particular form -in which it is called the "problem of quadratures." It was sought to -determine the area contained between the curve, the axis of abscissae -and two ordinates, of which one was regarded as fixed and the other as -variable. Galileo's investigation may serve as an example. In that -example the fixed ordinate vanishes. From this investigation it may be -seen that before the invention of the infinitesimal calculus the -introduction of a curve into discussions of the course of any -phenomenon, and the problem of quadratures for that curve, were not -exclusively of geometrical import; the purpose for which the area of a -curve was sought was often to find something which is not an area--for -instance, a length, or a volume or a centre of gravity. - - - Greek methods. - -3. The Greek geometers made little progress with the problem of -tangents, but they devised methods for investigating the problem of -quadratures. One of these methods was afterwards called the "method of -exhaustions," and the principle on which it is based was laid down in -the lemma prefixed to the 12th book of Euclid's _Elements_ as follows: -"If from the greater of two magnitudes there be taken more than its -half, and from the remainder more than its half, and so on, there will -at length remain a magnitude less than the smaller of the proposed -magnitudes." The method adopted by Archimedes was more general. It may -be described as the enclosure of the magnitude to be evaluated between -two others which can be brought by a definite process to differ from -each other by less than any assigned magnitude. A simple example of its -application is the 6th proposition of Archimedes' treatise On the -_Sphere and Cylinder_, in which it is proved that the area contained -between a regular polygon inscribed in a circle and a similar polygon -circumscribed to the same circle can be made less than any assigned area -by increasing the number of sides of the polygon. The methods of Euclid -and Archimedes were specimens of rigorous limiting processes (see -FUNCTION). The new problems presented by the analytical geometry and -natural philosophy of the 17th century led to new limiting processes. - - - Differentiation. - - 4. In the _problem of tangents_ the new process may be described as - follows. Let P, P' be two points of a curve (see fig. 2). Let x, y be - the coordinates of P, and x + [Delta]x, y + [Delta]y those of P'. The - symbol [Delta]x means "the difference of two x's" and there is a like - meaning for the symbol [Delta]y. The fraction [Delta]y/[Delta]x is the - trigonometrical tangent of the angle which the secant PP' makes with - the axis of x. Now let [Delta]x be continually diminished towards - zero, so that P' continually approaches P. If the curve has a tangent - at P the secant PP' approaches a limiting position (see S 33 below). - When this is the case the fraction [Delta]y/[Delta]x tends to a limit, - and this limit is the trigonometrical tangent of the angle which the - tangent at P to the curve makes with the axis of x. The limit is - denoted by - - dy - --. - dx - - If the equation of the curve is of the form y = [f](x) where [f] is a - functional symbol (see FUNCTION), then - - [Delta]y [f](x + [Delta]x) - [f](x) - -------- = --------------------------, - [Delta]x [Delta]x - - and - - dy [f](x + [Delta]x) - [f](x) - -- = lim. --------------------------. - dx [Delta]x = 0 [Delta]x - - The limit expressed by the right-hand member of this defining equation - is often written - - [f]'(x), - - and is called the "derived function" of [f](x), sometimes the - "derivative" or "derivate" of [f](x). When the function [f](x) is a - rational integral function, the division by [Delta]x can be performed, - and the limit is found by substituting zero for [Delta]x in the - quotient. For example, if [f](x) = x^2, we have - - [f](x + [Delta]x) - [f](x) (x + [Delta]x)^2 - x^2 2x[Delta]x + ([Delta]x)^2 - -------------------------- = ---------------------- = ------------------------- = 2x + [Delta]x, - [Delta]x [Delta]x [Delta]x - - and - - [f]'(x) = 2x. - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.] - - The process of forming the derived function of a given function is - called _differentiation_. The fraction [Delta]y/[Delta]x is called the - "quotient of differences," and its limit dy/dx is called the - "differential coefficient of y with respect to x." The rules for - forming differential coefficients constitute the _differential - calculus_. - - The problem of tangents is solved at one stroke by the formation of - the differential coefficient; and the problem of maxima and minima is - solved, apart from the discrimination of maxima from minima and some - further refinements, by equating the differential coefficient to zero - (see MAXIMA and MINIMA). - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.] - - - Integration. - - 5. The _problem of quadratures_ leads to a type of limiting process - which may be described as follows: Let y = [f](x) be the equation of a - curve, and let AC and BD be the ordinates of the points C and D (see - fig. 3). Let a, b be the abscissae of these points. Let the segment AB - be divided into a number of segments by means of intermediate points - such as M, and let MN be one such segment. Let PM and QN be those - ordinates of the curve which have M and N as their feet. On MN as base - describe two rectangles, of which the heights are the greatest and - least values of y which correspond to points on the arc PQ of the - curve. In fig. 3 these are the rectangles RM, SN. Let the sum of the - areas of such rectangles as RM be formed, and likewise the sum of the - areas of such rectangles as SN. When the number of the points such as - M is increased without limit, and the lengths of all the segments such - as MN are diminished without limit, these two sums of areas tend to - limits. When they tend to the same limit the curvilinear figure ACDB - has an area, and the limit is the measure of this area (see S 33 - below). The limit in question is the same whatever law may be adopted - for inserting the points such as M between A and B, and for - diminishing the lengths of the segments such as MN. Further, if P' is - any point on the arc PQ, and P'M' is the ordinate of P', we may - construct a rectangle of which the height is P'M' and the base is MN, - and the limit of the sum of the areas of all such rectangles is the - area of the figure as before. If x is the abscissa of P, x + [Delta]x - that of Q, x' that of P', the limit in question might be written - - _b - lim. \ [f](x')[Delta]x, - /_a - - where the letters a, b written below and above the sign of summation - [Sigma] indicate the extreme values of x. This limit is called "the - definite integral of [f](x) between the limits a and b," and the - notation for it is - _ - / b - | [f](x)dx. - _/ a - - The germs of this method of formulating the problem of quadratures are - found in the writings of Archimedes. The method leads to a definition - of a definite integral, but the direct application of it to the - evaluation of integrals is in general difficult. Any process for - evaluating a definite integral is a process of integration, and the - rules for evaluating integrals constitute the _integral calculus_. - - - Theorem of Inversion. - - 6. The chief of these rules is obtained by regarding the extreme - ordinate BD as variable. Let [xi] now denote the abscissa of B. The - area A of the figure ACDB is represented by the integral [int] {a to - [xi]} [f](x)dx, and it is a function of [xi]. Let BD be displaced to - B'D' so that [xi] becomes [xi] + [delta][xi] (see fig. 4). The area of - the figure ACD'B' is represented by the integral [int] {a to [xi] + - [Delta][xi]} [f](x)dx, and the increment [Delta]A of the area is given - by the formula - - _[xi]+[Delta][xi] - / - [Delta]A = | [f](x) dx, - _/ [xi] - - which represents the area BDD'B'. This area is intermediate between - those of two rectangles, having as a common base the segment BB', and - as heights the greatest and least ordinates of points on the arc DD' - of the curve. Let these heights be H and h. Then [Delta]A is - intermediate between H[Delta][xi] and h[Delta][xi], and the quotient - of differences [Delta]A/[Delta][xi] is intermediate between H and h. - If the function [f](x) is continuous at B (see Function), then, as - [Delta][xi] is diminished without limit, H and h tend to BD, or - [f]([xi]), as a limit, and we have - - dA - ----- = [f]([xi]). - d[xi] - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.] - - The introduction of the process of differentiation, together with the - theorem here proved, placed the solution of the problem of quadratures - on a new basis. It appears that we can always find the area A if we - know a function F(x) which has [f](x) as its differential coefficient. - If [f](x) is continuous between a and b, we can prove that - _ - / b - A = | [f](x) dx = F(b) - F(a). - _/ a - - When we recognize a function F(x) which has the property expressed by - the equation - - dF(x) - ----- = [f](x), - dx - - we are said to _integrate_ the function [f](x), and F(x) is called the - _indefinite integral_ of [f](x) _with respect to_ x, and is written - _ - / - | [f](x)dx. - _/ - - - Differentials. - - 7. In the process of S 4 the increment [Delta]y is not in general - equal to the product of the increment [Delta]x and the derived - function [f]'(x). In general we can write down an equation of the form - - [Delta]y = [f]'(x)[Delta]x + R, - - in which R is different from zero when [Delta]x is different from - zero; and then we have not only - - lim. R = 0, - [Delta]x=0 - - but also - - R - lim. -------- = 0. - [Delta]x=0 [Delta]x - - We may separate [Delta]y into two parts: the part [f]'(x)[Delta]x and - the part R. The part [f]'(x)[Delta]x alone is useful for forming the - differential coefficient, and it is convenient to give it a name. It - is called the _differential_ of [f](x), and is written d[f](x), or dy - when y is written for [f](x). When this notation is adopted dx is - written instead of [Delta]x, and is called the "differential of x," so - that we have - - d[f](x) = [f]'(x) dx. - - Thus the differential of an independent variable such as x is a finite - difference; in other words it is any number we please. The - differential of a dependent variable such as y, or of a function of - the independent variable x, is the product of the differential of x - and the differential coefficient or derived function. It is important - to observe that the differential coefficient is not to be defined as - the ratio of differentials, but the ratio of differentials is to be - defined as the previously introduced differential coefficient. The - differentials are either finite differences, or are so much of - certain finite differences as are useful for forming differential - coefficients. - - Again let F(x) be the indefinite integral of a continuous function - [f](x), so that we have - _ - dF(x) / b - ----- = [f](x), | [f](x) dx = F(b) - F(a). - dx _/a - - When the points M of the process explained in S 5 are inserted between - the points whose abscissae are a and b, we may take them to be n - 1 - in number, so that the segment AB is divided into n segments. Let x1, - x2, ... x_(n-1) be the abscissae of the points in order. The integral - is the limit of the sum - - [f](a)(x1 - a) + [f](x1)(x2 - x1) + ... + [f](x_r) [x_(r+1) - x_r] - + ... + [f] [x_(n-1)] [b - x_(n-1)], - - every term of which is a differential of the form [f](x)dx. Further - the integral is equal to the sum of differences - - {F(x1) - F(a)} + {F(x2) - F(x1)} + ... + {F[x_(r+1)] - F(x_r)} - + ... + {F(b) - F[x(n-1)]}, - - for this sum is F(b) - F(a). Now the difference F(x_(r+1)) - F(x_r) is - _not_ equal to the differential [f](x_r) [x_(r+1) - x_r], but the sum - of the differences is equal to the _limit_ of the sum of these - differentials. The differential may be regarded as so much of the - difference as is required to form the integral. From this point of - view a differential is called a _differential element of an integral_, - and the integral is the limit of the sum of differential elements. In - like manner the differential element ydx of the area of a curve (S 5) - is not the area of the portion contained between two ordinates, - however near together, but is so much of this area as need be retained - for the purpose of finding the area of the curve by the limiting - process described. - - - Notation. - - 8. The notation of the infinitesimal calculus is intimately bound up - with the notions of differentials and sums of elements. The letter "d" - is the initial letter of the word _differentia_ (difference) and the - symbol [int] is a conventionally written "S," the initial letter of - the word _summa_ (sum or whole). The notation was introduced by - Leibnitz (see SS 25-27, below). - - - Fundamental Artifice. - - 9. The fundamental artifice of the calculus is the artifice of forming - differentials without first forming differential coefficients. From an - equation containing x and y we can deduce a new equation, containing - also [Delta]x and [Delta]y, by substituting x + [Delta]x for x and y + - [Delta]y for y. If there is a differential coefficient of y with - respect to x, then [Delta]y can be expressed in the form - [phi].[Delta]x + R, where lim.{[Delta]x = 0} (R/[Delta]x) = 0, as in S - 7 above. The artifice consists in rejecting _ab initio_ all terms of - the equation which belong to R. We do not form R at all, but only - [phi].[Delta]x, or [phi].dx, which is the differential dy. In the same - way, in all applications of the integral calculus to geometry or - mechanics we form the _element_ of an integral in the same way as the - element of area y.dx is formed. In fig. 3 of S 5 the element of area - y.dx is the area of the rectangle RM. The actual area of the - curvilinear figure PQNM is greater than the area of this rectangle by - the area of the curvilinear figure PQR; but the excess is less than - the area of the rectangle PRQS, which is measured by the product of - the numerical measures of MN and QR, and we have - - MN.QR - lim. ------ = 0. - MN=0 MN - - Thus the artifice by which differential elements of integrals are - formed is in principle the same as that by which differentials are - formed without first forming differential coefficients. - - - Orders of small quantities. - - 10. This principle is usually expressed by introducing the notion of - orders of small quantities. If x, y are two variable numbers which are - connected together by any relation, and if when x tends to zero y also - tends to zero, the fraction y/x may tend to a finite limit. In this - case x and y are said to be "of the same order." When this is not the - case we may have either - - x - lim. --- = 0, - x=0 y - - or - y - lim. --- = 0, - x=0 x - - In the former case y is said to be "of a lower order" than x; in the - latter case y is said to be "of a higher order" than x. In accordance - with this notion we may say that the fundamental artifice of the - infinitesimal calculus consists in the rejection of small quantities - of an unnecessarily high order. This artifice is now merely an - incident in the conduct of a limiting process, but in the 17th - century, when limiting processes other than the Greek methods for - quadratures were new, the introduction of the artifice was a great - advance. - - - Rules of Differentiation. - - 11. By the aid of this artifice, or directly by carrying out the - appropriate limiting processes, we may obtain the rules by which - differential coefficients are formed. These rules may be classified as - "formal rules" and "particular results." The formal rules may be - stated as follows:-- - - (i.) The differential coefficient of a _constant_ is zero. (ii.) For a - _sum_ u + v + ... + z, where u, v, ... are functions of x, - - d(u + v + ... + z) du dv dz - ----------------- = -- + -- + ... + --. - dx dx dx dx - - (iii.) For a _product_ uv - - d(uv) dv du - ----- = u -- + v --. - dx dx dx - - (iv.) For a _quotient_ u/v - - d(u/v) / du dv\ / - ------ = ( v -- - u -- ) / v^2. - dx \ dx dx/ / - - (v.) For a _function of a function_, that is to say, for a function y - expressed in terms of a variable z, which is itself expressed as a - function of x, - - dy dy dz - -- = -- . --. - dx dz dx - - In addition to these formal rules we have particular results as to the - differentiation of simple functions. The most important results are - written down in the following table:-- - - +---------+---------------------+ - | y | dy/dx | - +---------+---------------------+ - | x^n | nx^(n-1) | - | | for all values of n | - +---------+---------------------+ - | log_a x | x^-1 log_a e | - +---------+---------------------+ - | a^x | a^x log_e a | - +---------+---------------------+ - | sin x | cos x | - +---------+---------------------+ - | cos x | -sin x | - +---------+---------------------+ - | sin^-1 x| (1 - x^2)^-(1/2) | - +---------+---------------------+ - | tan^-1 x| (1 + x^2)^-1 | - +---------+---------------------+ - - Each of the formal rules, and each of the particular results in the - table, is a theorem of the differential calculus. All functions (or - rather expressions) which can be made up from those in the table by a - finite number of operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication - or division can be differentiated by the formal rules. All such - functions are called _explicit_ functions. In addition to these we - have _implicit_ functions, or such as are determined by an equation - containing two variables when the equation cannot be solved so as to - exhibit the one variable expressed in terms of the other. We have also - functions of several variables. Further, since the derived function of - a given function is itself a function, we may seek to differentiate - it, and thus there arise the second and higher differential - coefficients. We postpone for the present the problems of differential - calculus which arise from these considerations. Again, we may have - explicit functions which are expressed as the results of limiting - operations, or by the limits of the results obtained by performing an - infinite number of algebraic operations upon the simple functions. For - the problem of differentiating such functions reference may be made to - FUNCTION. - - - Indefinite Integrals. - - 12. The processes of the integral calculus consist largely in - transformations of the functions to be integrated into such forms that - they can be recognized as differential coefficients of functions which - have previously been differentiated. Corresponding to the results in - the table of S 11 we have those in the following table:-- - - +------------------+-------------------------------+ - | [f](x) | [int][f](x)dx | - +------------------+-------------------------------+ - | | x^(n+1) | - | x^n | ------- | - | | n + 1 | - | | for all values of n except -1 | - +------------------+-------------------------------+ - | 1 | | - | --- | log_e x | - | x | | - +------------------+-------------------------------+ - | e^(ax) | a^-1 e^(ax) | - +------------------+-------------------------------+ - | cos x | sin x | - +------------------+-------------------------------+ - | sin x | -cos x | - +------------------+-------------------------------+ - | | x | - |(a^2 - x^2)^-(1/2)| sin^-1 --- | - | | a | - +------------------+-------------------------------+ - | 1 | 1 x | - | --------- | --- tan^-1 --- | - | a^2 + x^2 | a a | - +------------------+-------------------------------+ - - The formal rules of S 11 give us means for the transformation of - integrals into recognizable forms. For example, the rule (ii.) for a - sum leads to the result that the integral of a sum of a finite number - of terms is the sum of the integrals of the several terms. The rule - (iii.) for a product leads to the method of integration by parts. The - rule (v.) for a function of a function leads to the method of - substitution (see S 48 below.) - - -II. _History._ - - - Kepler's methods of Integration. - -13. The new limiting processes which were introduced in the development -of the higher analysis were in the first instance related to problems of -the integral calculus. Johannes Kepler in his _Astronomia nova ... de -motibus stellae Martis_ (1609) stated his laws of planetary motion, to -the effect that the orbits of the planets are ellipses with the sun at a -focus, and that the radii vectores drawn from the sun to the planets -describe equal areas in equal times. From these statements it is to be -concluded that Kepler could measure the areas of focal sectors of an -ellipse. When he made out these laws there was no method of evaluating -areas except the Greek methods. These methods would have sufficed for -the purpose, but Kepler invented his own method. He regarded the area as -measured by the "sum of the radii" drawn from the focus, and he verified -his laws of planetary motion by actually measuring a large number of -radii of the orbit, spaced according to a rule, and adding their -lengths. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - - He had observed that the focal radius vector SP (fig. 5) is equal to - the perpendicular SZ drawn from S to the tangent at p to the auxiliary - circle, and he had further established the theorem which we should now - express in the form--the differential element of the area ASp as Sp - turns about S, is equal to the product of SZ and the differential - ad[phi], where a is the radius of the auxiliary circle, and [phi] is - the angle ACp, that is the eccentric angle of P on the ellipse. The - area ASP bears to the area ASp the ratio of the minor to the major - axis, a result known to Archimedes. Thus Kepler's radii are spaced - according to the rule that the eccentric angles of their ends are - equidifferent, and his "sum of radii" is proportional to the - expression which we should now write - _ - / [phi] - | (a + ae cos [phi]) d[phi], - _/ 0 - - where e is the eccentricity. Kepler evaluated the sum as proportional - to [phi] + e sin [phi]. - -Kepler soon afterwards occupied himself with the volumes of solids. The -vintage of the year 1612 was extraordinarily abundant, and the question -of the cubic content of wine casks was brought under his notice. This -fact accounts for the title of his work, _Nova stereometria doliorum; -accessit stereometriae Archimedeae supplementum_ (1615). In this -treatise he regarded solid bodies as being made up, as it were -(_veluti_), of "infinitely" many "infinitely" small cones or -"infinitely" thin disks, and he used the notion of summing the areas of -the disks in the way he had previously used the notion of summing the -focal radii of an ellipse. - - - Logarithms. - -14. In connexion with the early history of the calculus it must not be -forgotten that the method by which logarithms were invented (1614) was -effectively a method of infinitesimals. Natural logarithms were not -invented as the indices of a certain base, and the notation e for the -base was first introduced by Euler more than a century after the -invention. Logarithms were introduced as numbers which increase in -arithmetic progression when other related numbers increase in geometric -progression. The two sets of numbers were supposed to increase together, -one at a uniform rate, the other at a variable rate, and the increments -were regarded for purposes of calculation as very small and as accruing -discontinuously. - - - Cavalieri's Indivisibles. - -15. Kepler's methods of integration, for such they must be called, were -the origin of Bonaventura Cavalieri's theory of the summation of -indivisibles. The notion of a continuum, such as the area within a -closed curve, as being made up of indivisible parts, "atoms" of area, if -the expression may be allowed, is traceable to the speculations of early -Greek philosophers; and although the nature of continuity was better -understood by Aristotle and many other ancient writers yet the unsound -atomic conception was revived in the 13th century and has not yet been -finally uprooted. It is possible to contend that Cavalieri did not -himself hold the unsound doctrine, but his writing on this point is -rather obscure. In his treatise _Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum -nova quadam ratione promota_ (1635) he regarded a plane figure as -generated by a line moving so as to be always parallel to a fixed line, -and a solid figure as generated by a plane moving so as to be always -parallel to a fixed plane; and he compared the areas of two plane -figures, or the volumes of two solids, by determining the ratios of the -sums of all the indivisibles of which they are supposed to be made up, -these indivisibles being segments of parallel lines equally spaced in -the case of plane figures, and areas marked out upon parallel planes -equally spaced in the case of solids. By this method Cavalieri was able -to effect numerous integrations relating to the areas of portions of -conic sections and the volumes generated by the revolution of these -portions about various axes. At a later date, and partly in answer to an -attack made upon him by Paul Guldin, Cavalieri published a treatise -entitled _Exercitationes geometricae sex_ (1647), in which he adapted -his method to the determination of centres of gravity, in particular for -solids of variable density. - - Among the results which he obtained is that which we should now write - _ - / x x^(m+1) - | x^m dx = -------, (m integral). - _/ 0 m + 1 - - He regarded the problem thus solved as that of determining the sum of - the mth powers of all the lines drawn across a parallelogram parallel - to one of its sides. - - - Successors of Cavalieri. - - Fermat's method of Integration. - -At this period scientific investigators communicated their results to -one another through one or more intermediate persons. Such -intermediaries were Pierre de Carcavy and Pater Marin Mersenne; and -among the writers thus in communication were Bonaventura Cavalieri, -Christiaan Huygens, Galileo Galilei, Giles Personnier de Roberval, -Pierre de Fermat, Evangelista Torricelli, and a little later Blaise -Pascal; but the letters of Carcavy or Mersenne would probably come into -the hands of any man who was likely to be interested in the matters -discussed. It often happened that, when some new method was invented, or -some new result obtained, the method or result was quickly known to a -wide circle, although it might not be printed until after the lapse of a -long time. When Cavalieri was printing his two treatises there was much -discussion of the problem of quadratures. Roberval (1634) regarded an -area as made up of "infinitely" many "infinitely" narrow strips, each of -which may be considered to be a rectangle, and he had similar ideas in -regard to lengths and volumes. He knew how to approximate to the -quantity which we express by [int] (0 to 1) x^m dx by the process of -forming the sum - - 0^m + 1^m + 2^m + ... (n - 1)^m - -------------------------------, - n^(m+1) - -and he claimed to be able to prove that this sum tends to 1/(m + 1), as -n increases for all positive integral values of m. The method of -integrating x^m by forming this sum was found also by Fermat (1636), who -stated expressly that he arrived at it by generalizing a method employed -by Archimedes (for the cases m = 1 and m = 2) in his books on _Conoids -and Spheroids_ and on _Spirals_ (see T. L. Heath, _The Works of -Archimedes_, Cambridge, 1897). Fermat extended the result to the case -where m is fractional (1644), and to the case where m is negative. This -latter extension and the proofs were given in his memoir, _Proportionis -geometricae in quadrandis parabolis et hyperbolis usus_, which appears -to have received a final form before 1659, although not published until -1679. Fermat did not use fractional or negative indices, but he regarded -his problems as the quadratures of parabolas and hyperbolas of various -orders. His method was to divide the interval of integration into parts -by means of intermediate points the abscissae of which are in geometric -progression. In the process of S 5 above, the points M must be chosen -according to this rule. This restrictive condition being understood, we -may say that Fermat's formulation of the problem of quadratures is the -same as our definition of a definite integral. - - - Various Integrations. - -The result that the problem of quadratures could be solved for any curve -whose equation could be expressed in the form - - y = x^m (m [Not Equal] -1), - -or in the form - - y = a1 x^m1 + a2 x^m2 + ... + a_n x^m_n, - -where none of the indices is equal to - 1, was used by John Wallis in -his _Arithmetica infinitorum_ (1655) as well as by Fermat (1659). The -case in which m = - 1 was that of the ordinary rectangular hyperbola; -and Gregory of St Vincent in his _Opus geometricum quadraturae circuli -et sectionum coni_ (1647) had proved by the method of exhaustions that -the area contained between the curve, one asymptote, and two ordinates -parallel to the other asymptote, increases in arithmetic progression as -the distance between the ordinates (the one nearer to the centre being -kept fixed) increases in geometric progression. Fermat described his -method of integration as a logarithmic method, and thus it is clear that -the relation between the quadrature of the hyperbola and logarithms was -understood although it was not expressed analytically. It was not very -long before the relation was used for the calculation of logarithms by -Nicolaus Mercator in his _Logarithmotechnia_ (1668). He began by writing -the equation of the curve in the form y = 1/(1 + x), expanded this -expression in powers of x by the method of division, and integrated it -term by term in accordance with the well-understood rule for finding the -quadrature of a curve given by such an equation as that written at the -foot of p. 325. - - - Integration before the Integral Calculus. - -By the middle of the 17th century many mathematicians could perform -integrations. Very many particular results had been obtained, and -applications of them had been made to the quadrature of the circle and -other conic sections, and to various problems concerning the lengths of -curves, the areas they enclose, the volumes and superficial areas of -solids, and centres of gravity. A systematic account of the methods then -in use was given, along with much that was original on his part, by -Blaise Pascal in his _Lettres de Amos Dettonville sur quelques-unes de -ses inventions en geometrie_ (1659). - - - Fermat's methods of Differentiation. - -16. The problem of maxima and minima and the problem of tangents had -also by the same time been effectively solved. Oresme in the 14th -century knew that at a point where the ordinate of a curve is a maximum -or a minimum its variation from point to point of the curve is slowest; -and Kepler in the _Stereometria doliorum_ remarked that at the places -where the ordinate passes from a smaller value to the greatest value and -then again to a smaller value, its variation becomes insensible. Fermat -in 1629 was in possession of a method which he then communicated to one -Despagnet of Bordeaux, and which he referred to in a letter to Roberval -of 1636. He communicated it to Rene Descartes early in 1638 on receiving -a copy of Descartes's _Geometrie_ (1637), and with it he sent to -Descartes an account of his methods for solving the problem of tangents -and for determining centres of gravity. - - Fermat's method for maxima and minima is essentially our method. - Expressed in a more modern notation, what he did was to begin by - connecting the ordinate y and the abscissa x of a point of a curve by - an equation which holds at all points of the curve, then to subtract - the value of y in terms of x from the value obtained by substituting x - + E for x, then to divide the difference by E, to put E = 0 in the - quotient, and to equate the quotient to zero. Thus he differentiated - with respect to x and equated the differential coefficient to zero. - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.] - - Fermat's method for solving the problem of tangents may be explained - as follows:--Let (x, y) be the coordinates of a point P of a curve, - (x', y'), those of a neighbouring point P' on the tangent at P, and - let MM' = E (fig. 6). - - From the similarity of the triangles P'TM', PTM we have - - y':A - E = y:A, - - where A denotes the subtangent TM. The point P' being near the curve, - we may substitute in the equation of the curve x - E for x and (yA - - yE)/A for y. The equation of the curve is approximately satisfied. If - it is taken to be satisfied exactly, the result is an equation of the - form [phi](x, y, A, E) = 0, the left-hand member of which is divisible - by E. Omitting the factor E, and putting E = 0 in the remaining - factor, we have an equation which gives A. In this problem of tangents - also Fermat found the required result by a process equivalent to - differentiation. - -Fermat gave several examples of the application of his method; among -them was one in which he showed that he could differentiate very -complicated irrational functions. For such functions his method was to -begin by obtaining a rational equation. In rationalizing equations -Fermat, in other writings, used the device of introducing new variables, -but he did not use this device to simplify the process of -differentiation. Some of his results were published by Pierre Herigone -in his _Supplementum cursus mathematici_ (1642). His communication to -Descartes was not published in full until after his death (Fermat, -_Opera varia_, 1679). Methods similar to Fermat's were devised by Rene -de Sluse (1652) for tangents, and by Johannes Hudde (1658) for maxima -and minima. Other methods for the solution of the problem of tangents -were devised by Roberval and Torricelli, and published almost -simultaneously in 1644. These methods were founded upon the composition -of motions, the theory of which had been taught by Galileo (1638), and, -less completely, by Roberval (1636). Roberval and Torricelli could -construct the tangents of many curves, but they did not arrive at -Fermat's artifice. This artifice is that which we have noted in S 10 as -the fundamental artifice of the infinitesimal calculus. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.] - - - Barrow's Differential Triangle. - -17. Among the comparatively few mathematicians who before 1665 could -perform differentiations was Isaac Barrow. In his book entitled -_Lectiones opticae et geometricae_, written apparently in 1663, 1664, -and published in 1669, 1670, he gave a method of tangents like that of -Roberval and Torricelli, compounding two velocities in the directions of -the axes of x and y to obtain a resultant along the tangent to a curve. -In an appendix to this book he gave another method which differs from -Fermat's in the introduction of a differential equivalent to our dy as -well as dx. Two neighbouring ordinates PM and QN of a curve (fig. 7) are -regarded as containing an indefinitely small (_indefinite parvum_) arc, -and PR is drawn parallel to the axis of x. The tangent PT at P is -regarded as identical with the secant PQ, and the position of the -tangent is determined by the similarity of the triangles PTM, PQR. The -increments QR, PR of the ordinate and abscissa are denoted by a and e; -and the ratio of a to e is determined by substituting x + e for x and y -+ a for y in the equation of the curve, rejecting all terms which are of -order higher than the first in a and e, and omitting the terms which do -not contain a or e. This process is equivalent to differentiation. -Barrow appears to have invented it himself, but to have put it into his -book at Newton's request. The triangle PQR is sometimes called "Barrow's -differential triangle." - - - Barrow's Inversion-theorem. - - The reciprocal relation between differentiation and integration (S 6) - was first observed explicitly by Barrow in the book cited above. If - the quadrature of a curve y = f(x) is known, so that the area up to - the ordinate x is given by F(x), the curve y = F(x) can be drawn, and - Barrow showed that the subtangent of this curve is measured by the - ratio of its ordinate to the ordinate of the original curve. The curve - y = F(x) is often called the "quadratrix" of the original curve; and - the result has been called "Barrow's inversion-theorem." He did not - use it as we do for the determination of quadratures, or indefinite - integrals, but for the solution of problems of the kind which were - then called "inverse problems of tangents." In these problems it was - sought to determine a curve from some property of its tangent, e.g. - the property that the subtangent is proportional to the square of the - abscissa. Such problems are now classed under "differential - equations." When Barrow wrote, quadratures were familiar and - differentiation unfamiliar, just as hyperbolas were trusted while - logarithms were strange. The functional notation was not invented till - long afterwards (see FUNCTION), and the want of it is felt in reading - all the mathematics of the 17th century. - - - Nature of the discovery called the Infinitesimal Calculus. - -18. The great secret which afterwards came to be called the -"infinitesimal calculus" was almost discovered by Fermat, and still more -nearly by Barrow. Barrow went farther than Fermat in the theory of -differentiation, though not in the practice, for he compared two -increments; he went farther in the theory of integration, for he -obtained the inversion-theorem. The great discovery seems to consist -partly in the recognition of the fact that differentiation, known to be -a useful process, could always be performed, at least for the functions -then known, and partly in the recognition of the fact that the -inversion-theorem could be applied to problems of quadrature. By these -steps the problem of tangents could be solved once for all, and the -operation of integration, as we call it, could be rendered systematic. A -further step was necessary in order that the discovery, once made, -should become accessible to mathematicians in general; and this step was -the introduction of a suitable notation. The definite abandonment of the -old tentative methods of integration in favour of the method in which -this operation is regarded as the inverse of differentiation was -especially the work of Isaac Newton; the precise formulation of simple -rules for the process of differentiation in each special case, and the -introduction of the notation which has proved to be the best, were -especially the work of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz. This statement -remains true although Newton invented a systematic notation, and -practised differentiation by rules equivalent to those of Leibnitz, -before Leibnitz had begun to work upon the subject, and Leibnitz -effected integrations by the method of recognizing differential -coefficients before he had had any opportunity of becoming acquainted -with Newton's methods. - - - Newton's investigations. - -19. Newton was Barrow's pupil, and he knew to start with in 1664 all -that Barrow knew, and that was practically all that was known about the -subject at that time. His original thinking on the subject dates from -the year of the great plague (1665-1666), and it issued in the invention -of the "Calculus of Fluxions," the principles and methods of which were -developed by him in three tracts entitled _De analysi per aequationes -numero terminorum infinitas, Methodus fluxionum et serierum infinitarum, -and De quadratura curvarum_. None of these was published until long -after they were written. The _Analysis per aequationes_ was composed in -1666, but not printed until 1711, when it was published by William -Jones. The _Methodus fluxionum_ was composed in 1671 but not printed -till 1736, nine years after Newton's death, when an English translation -was published by John Colson. In Horsley's edition of Newton's works it -bears the title _Geometria analytica_. The _Quadratura_ appears to have -been composed in 1676, but was first printed in 1704 as an appendix to -Newton's _Opticks_. - - - Newton's method of Series. - - 20. The tract _De Analysi per aequationes ..._ was sent by Newton to - Barrow, who sent it to John Collins with a request that it might be - made known. One way of making it known would have been to print it in - the _Philosophical Transactions_ of the Royal Society, but this course - was not adopted. Collins made a copy of the tract and sent it to Lord - Brouncker, but neither of them brought it before the Royal Society. - The tract contains a general proof of Barrow's inversion-theorem which - is the same in principle as that in S 6 above. In this proof and - elsewhere in the tract a notation is introduced for the momentary - increment (_momentum_) of the abscissa or area of a curve; this - "moment" is evidently meant to represent a moment of time, the - abscissa representing time, and it is effectively the same as our - differential element--the thing that Fermat had denoted by E, and - Barrow by e, in the case of the abscissa. Newton denoted the moment of - the abscissa by o, that of the area z by ov. He used the letter v for - the ordinate y, thus suggesting that his curve is a velocity-time - graph such as Galileo had used. Newton gave the formula for the area - of a curve v = x^m (m [+-] -1) in the form z = x^(m+1)/(m + 1). In the - proof he transformed this formula to the form z^n = c^n x^p, where n - and p are positive integers, substituted x + o for x and z + ov for z, - and expanded by the binomial theorem for a positive integral exponent, - thus obtaining the relation - - z^n + nz^(n-1) ov + ... = c^n (x_p + px^(p-1)o + ...), - - from which he deduced the relation - - nz_(n-1)v = c^n px^(p-1) - - by omitting the equal terms z^n and c^n.x^p and dividing the remaining - terms by o, tacitly putting o = 0 after division. This relation is the - same as v = x^m. Newton pointed out that, conversely, from the - relation v = x^m the relation z = x^(m+1) / (m + 1) follows. He - applied his formula to the quadrature of curves whose ordinates can be - expressed as the sum of a finite number of terms of the form ax^m; and - gave examples of its application to curves in which the ordinate is - expressed by an infinite series, using for this purpose the binomial - theorem for negative and fractional exponents, that is to say, the - expansion of (1 + x)^n in an infinite series of powers of x. This - theorem he had discovered; but he did not in this tract state it in a - general form or give any proof of it. He pointed out, however, how it - may be used for the solution of equations by means of infinite series. - He observed also that all questions concerning lengths of curves, - volumes enclosed by surfaces, and centres of gravity, can be - formulated as problems of quadratures, and can thus be solved either - in finite terms or by means of infinite series. In the _Quadratura_ - (1676) the method of integration which is founded upon the - inversion-theorem was carried out systematically. Among other results - there given is the quadrature of curves expressed by equations of the - form y = x^n.(a + bx^m)^p; this has passed into text-books under the - title "integration of binomial differentials" (see S 49). Newton - announced the result in letters to Collins and Oldenburg of 1676. - - - Newton's method of Fluxions. - - 21. In the _Methodus fluxionum_ (1671) Newton introduced his - characteristic notation. He regarded variable quantities as generated - by the motion of a point, or line, or plane, and called the generated - quantity a "fluent" and its rate of generation a "fluxion." The - fluxion of a fluent x is represented by x, and its moment, or - "infinitely" small increment accruing in an "infinitely" short time, - is represented by [.x]o. The problems of the calculus are stated to be - (i.) to find the velocity at any time when the distance traversed is - given; (ii.) to find the distance traversed when the velocity is - given. The first of these leads to differentiation. In any rational - equation containing x and y the expressions x + [.x]o and y +[.y]o are - to be substituted for x and y, the resulting equation is to be divided - by o, and afterwards o is to be omitted. In the case of irrational - functions, or rational functions which are not integral, new variables - are introduced in such a way as to make the equations contain rational - integral terms only. Thus Newton's rules of differentiation would be - in our notation the rules (i.), (ii.), (v.) of S 11, together with the - particular result which we write - - dx^m - ---- = mx^(m-1), (m integral). - dx - - a result which Newton obtained by expanding (x = [.x]o)^m by the - binomial theorem. The second problem is the problem of integration, - and Newton's method for solving it was the method of series founded - upon the particular result which we write - _ - / x^(m+1) - | x^m dx = -------. - _/ m + 1 - - Newton added applications of his methods to maxima and minima, - tangents and curvature. In a letter to Collins of date 1672 Newton - stated that he had certain methods, and he described certain results - which he had found by using them. These methods and results are those - which are to be found in the _Methodus fluxionum_; but the letter - makes no mention of fluxions and fluents or of the characteristic - notation. The rule for tangents is said in the letter to be analogous - to de Sluse's, but to be applicable to equations that contain - irrational terms. - - - Publication of the Fluxional Notation. - - 22. Newton gave the fluxional notation also in the tract De - _Quadratura curvarum_ (1676), and he there added to it notation for - the higher differential coefficients and for indefinite integrals, as - we call them. Just as x, y, z, ... are fluents of which [.x], [.y], - [.z], ... are the fluxions, so [.x], [.y], [.z], ... can be treated as - fluents of which the fluxions may be denoted by [:x], [:y], [:z],... - In like manner the fluxions of these may be denoted by [:x], [:y], - [:z], ... and so on. Again x, y, z, ... may be regarded as fluxions of - which the fluents may be denoted by ['x], ['y], ['z], ... and these - again as fluxions of other quantities denoted by ["x], ["y], ["z], ... - and so on. No use was made of the notation ['x], ["x], ... in the - course of the tract. The first publication of the fluxional notation - was made by Wallis in the second edition of his _Algebra_ (1693) in - the form of extracts from communications made to him by Newton in - 1692. In this account of the method the symbols 0, [.x], [:x], ... - occur, but not the symbols ['x], ["x], .... Wallis's treatise also - contains Newton's formulation of the problems of the calculus in the - words _Data aequatione fluentes quotcumque quantitates involvente - fluxiones invenire et vice versa_ ("an equation containing any number - of fluent quantities being given, to find their fluxions and vice - versa"). In the _Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica_ (1687), - commonly called the "Principia," the words "fluxion" and "moment" - occur in a lemma in the second book; but the notation which is - characteristic of the calculus of fluxions is nowhere used. - - - Retarded Publication of the method of Fluxions. - -23. It is difficult to account for the fragmentary manner of publication -of the Fluxional Calculus and for the long delays which took place. At -the time (1671) when Newton composed the _Methodus fluxionum_ he -contemplated bringing out an edition of Gerhard Kinckhuysen's treatise -on algebra and prefixing his tract to this treatise. In the same year -his "Theory of Light and Colours" was published in the _Philosophical -Transactions_, and the opposition which it excited led to the -abandonment of the project with regard to fluxions. In 1680 Collins -sought the assistance of the Royal Society for the publication of the -tract, and this was granted in 1682. Yet it remained unpublished. The -reason is unknown; but it is known that about 1679, 1680, Newton took up -again the studies in natural philosophy which he had intermitted for -several years, and that in 1684 he wrote the tract _De motu_ which was -in some sense a first draft of the _Principia_, and it may be -conjectured that the fluxions were held over until the _Principia_ -should be finished. There is also reason to think that Newton had become -dissatisfied with the arguments about infinitesimals on which his -calculus was based. In the preface to the _De quadratura curvarum_ -(1704), in which he describes this tract as something which he once -wrote ("_olim scripsi_") he says that there is no necessity to introduce -into the method of fluxions any argument about infinitely small -quantities; and in the _Principia_ (1687) he adopted instead of the -method of fluxions a new method, that of "Prime and Ultimate Ratios." By -the aid of this method it is possible, as Newton knew, and as was -afterwards seen by others, to found the calculus of fluxions on an -irreproachable method of limits. For the purpose of explaining his -discoveries in dynamics and astronomy Newton used the method of limits -only, without the notation of fluxions, and he presented all his results -and demonstrations in a geometrical form. There is no doubt that he -arrived at most of his theorems in the first instance by using the -method of fluxions. Further evidence of Newton's dissatisfaction with -arguments about infinitely small quantities is furnished by his tract -_Methodus diferentialis_, published in 1711 by William Jones, in which -he laid the foundations of the "Calculus of Finite Differences." - - - Leibnitz's course of discovery. - -24. Leibnitz, unlike Newton, was practically a self-taught -mathematician. He seems to have been first attracted to mathematics as a -means of symbolical expression, and on the occasion of his first visit -to London, early in 1673, he learnt about the doctrine of infinite -series which James Gregory, Nicolaus Mercator, Lord Brouncker and -others, besides Newton, had used in their investigations. It appears -that he did not on this occasion become acquainted with Collins, or see -Newton's _Analysis per aequationes_, but he purchased Barrow's -_Lectiones_. On returning to Paris he made the acquaintance of Huygens, -who recommended him to read Descartes' _Geometrie_. He also read -Pascal's _Lettres de Dettonville_, Gregory of St Vincent's _Opus -geometricum_, Cavalieri's _Indivisibles_ and the _Synopsis geometrica_ -of Honore Fabri, a book which is practically a commentary on Cavalieri; -it would never have had any importance but for the influence which it -had on Leibnitz's thinking at this critical period. In August of this -year (1673) he was at work upon the problem of tangents, and he appears -to have made out the nature of the solution--the method involved in -Barrow's differential triangle--for himself by the aid of a diagram -drawn by Pascal in a demonstration of the formula for the area of a -spherical surface. He saw that the problem of the relation between the -differences of neighbouring ordinates and the ordinates themselves was -the important problem, and then that the solution of this problem was to -be effected by quadratures. Unlike Newton, who arrived at -differentiation and tangents through integration and areas, Leibnitz -proceeded from tangents to quadratures. When he turned his attention to -quadratures and indivisibles, and realized the nature of the process of -finding areas by summing "infinitesimal" rectangles, he proposed to -replace the rectangles by triangles having a common vertex, and obtained -by this method the result which we write - - 1 1 1 1 - --- [pi] = 1 - --- + --- - --- + ... - 4 3 5 7 - -In 1674 he sent an account of his method, called "transmutation," along -with this result to Huygens, and early in 1675 he sent it to Henry -Oldenburg, secretary of the Royal Society, with inquiries as to Newton's -discoveries in regard to quadratures. In October of 1675 he had begun to -devise a symbolical notation for quadratures, starting from Cavalieri's -indivisibles. At first he proposed to use the word _omnia_ as an -abbreviation for Cavalieri's "sum of all the lines," thus writing -_omnia_ y for that which we write "[int] ydx," but within a day or two -he wrote "[int] y". He regarded the symbol "[int]" as representing an -operation which raises the dimensions of the subject of operation--a -line becoming an area by the operation--and he devised his symbol "d" to -represent the inverse operation, by which the dimensions are diminished. -He observed that, whereas "[int]" represents "sum," "d" represents -"difference." His notation appears to have been practically settled -before the end of 1675, for in November he wrote [int] y dy = (1/2)y^2, -just as we do now. - - - Correspondence of Newton and Leibnitz. - -25. In July of 1676 Leibnitz received an answer to his inquiry in regard -to Newton's methods in a letter written by Newton to Oldenburg. In this -letter Newton gave a general statement of the binomial theorem and many -results relating to series. He stated that by means of such series he -could find areas and lengths of curves, centres of gravity and volumes -and surfaces of solids, but, as this would take too long to describe, he -would illustrate it by examples. He gave no proofs. Leibnitz replied in -August, stating some results which he had obtained, and which, as it -seemed, could not be obtained easily by the method of series, and he -asked for further information. Newton replied in a long letter to -Oldenburg of the 24th of October 1676. In this letter he gave a much -fuller account of his binomial theorem and indicated a method of proof. -Further he gave a number of results relating to quadratures; they were -afterwards printed in the tract _De quadratura curvarum_. He gave many -other results relating to the computation of natural logarithms and -other calculations in which series could be used. He gave a general -statement, similar to that in the letter to Collins, as to the kind of -problems relating to tangents, maxima and minima, &c., which he could -solve by his method, but he concealed his formulation of the calculus in -an anagram of transposed letters. The solution of the anagram was given -eleven years later in the _Principia_ in the words we have quoted from -Wallis's _Algebra_. In neither of the letters to Oldenburg does the -characteristic notation of the fluxional calculus occur, and the words -"fluxion" and "fluent" occur only in anagrams of transposed letters. The -letter of October 1676 was not despatched until May 1677, and Leibnitz -answered it in June of that year. In October 1676 Leibnitz was in -London, where he made the acquaintance of Collins and read the _Analysis -per aequationes_, and it seems to have been supposed afterwards that he -then read Newton's letter of October 1676, but he left London before -Oldenburg received this letter. In his answer of June 1677 Leibnitz gave -Newton a candid account of his differential calculus, nearly in the form -in which he afterwards published it, and explained how he used it for -quadratures and inverse problems of tangents. Newton never replied. - - - Leibnitz's Differential Calculus. - -26. In the _Acta eruditorum_ of 1684 Leibnitz published a short memoir -entitled _Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis, itemque tangentibus, -quae nec fractas nec irrationales quantitates moratur, et singulare pro -illis calculi genus_. In this memoir the differential dx of a variable -x, considered as the abscissa of a point of a curve, is said to be an -arbitrary quantity, and the differential dy of a related variable y, -considered as the ordinate of the point, is defined as a quantity which -has to dx the ratio of the ordinate to the subtangent, and rules are -given for operating with differentials. These are the rules for forming -the differential of a constant, a sum (or difference), a product, a -quotient, a power (or root). They are equivalent to our rules (i.)-(iv.) -of S 11 and the particular result - - d(x^m) = mx^(m-1) dx. - -The rule for a function of a function is not stated explicitly but is -illustrated by examples in which new variables are introduced, in much -the same way as in Newton's _Methodus fluxionum_. In connexion with the -problem of maxima and minima, it is noted that the differential of y is -positive or negative according as y increases or decreases when x -increases, and the discrimination of maxima from minima depends upon the -sign of ddy, the differential of dy. In connexion with the problem of -tangents the differentials are said to be proportional to the momentary -increments of the abscissa and ordinate. A tangent is defined as a line -joining two "infinitely" near points of a curve, and the "infinitely" -small distances (e.g., the distance between the feet of the ordinates of -such points) are said to be expressible by means of the differentials -(e.g., dx). The method is illustrated by a few examples, and one example -is given of its application to "inverse problems of tangents." Barrow's -inversion-theorem and its application to quadratures are not mentioned. -No proofs are given, but it is stated that they can be obtained easily -by any one versed in such matters. The new methods in regard to -differentiation which were contained in this memoir were the use of the -second differential for the discrimination of maxima and minima, and the -introduction of new variables for the purpose of differentiating -complicated expressions. A greater novelty was the use of a letter (d), -not as a symbol for a number or magnitude, but as a symbol of operation. -None of these novelties account for the far-reaching effect which this -memoir has had upon the development of mathematical analysis. This -effect was a consequence of the simplicity and directness with which the -rules of differentiation were stated. Whatever indistinctness might be -felt to attach to the symbols, the processes for solving problems of -tangents and of maxima and minima were reduced once for all to a -definite routine. - - - Development of the Calculus. - -27. This memoir was followed in 1686 by a second, entitled _De Geometria -recondita et analysi indivisibilium atque infinitorum_, in which -Leibnitz described the method of using his new differential calculus for -the problem of quadratures. This was the first publication of the -notation [int] ydx. The new method was called _calculus summatorius_. -The brothers Jacob (James) and Johann (John) Bernoulli were able by 1690 -to begin to make substantial contributions to the development of the new -calculus, and Leibnitz adopted their word "integral" in 1695, they at -the same time adopting his symbol "[int]." In 1696 the marquis de -l'Hospital published the first treatise on the differential calculus -with the title _Analyse des infiniment petits pour l'intelligence des -lignes courbes_. The few references to fluxions in Newton's _Principia_ -(1687) must have been quite unintelligible to the mathematicians of the -time, and the publication of the fluxional notation and calculus by -Wallis in 1693 was too late to be effective. Fluxions had been -supplanted before they were introduced. - -The differential calculus and the integral calculus were rapidly -developed in the writings of Leibnitz and the Bernoullis. Leibnitz -(1695) was the first to differentiate a logarithm and an exponential, -and John Bernoulli was the first to recognize the property possessed by -an exponential (a^x) of becoming infinitely great in comparison with any -power (x^n) when x is increased indefinitely. Roger Cotes (1722) was the -first to differentiate a trigonometrical function. A great development -of infinitesimal methods took place through the founding in 1696-1697 of -the "Calculus of Variations" by the brothers Bernoulli. - - - Dispute concerning Priority. - -28. The famous dispute as to the priority of Newton and Leibnitz in the -invention of the calculus began in 1699 through the publication by -Nicolas Fatio de Duillier of a tract in which he stated that Newton was -not only the first, but by many years the first inventor, and insinuated -that Leibnitz had stolen it. Leibnitz in his reply (_Acta Eruditorum_, -1700) cited Newton's letters and the testimony which Newton had rendered -to him in the _Principia_ as proofs of his independent authorship of the -method. Leibnitz was especially hurt at what he understood to be an -endorsement of Duillier's attack by the Royal Society, but it was -explained to him that the apparent approval was an accident. The dispute -was ended for a time. On the publication of Newton's tract _De -quadratura curvarum_, an anonymous review of it, written, as has since -been proved, by Leibnitz, appeared in the _Acta Eruditorum_, 1705. The -anonymous reviewer said: "Instead of the Leibnitzian differences Newton -uses and always has used fluxions ... just as Honore Fabri in his -_Synopsis Geometrica_ substituted steps of movements for the method of -Cavalieri." This passage, when it became known in England, was -understood not merely as belittling Newton by comparing him with the -obscure Fabri, but also as implying that he had stolen his calculus of -fluxions from Leibnitz. Great indignation was aroused; and John Keill -took occasion, in a memoir on central forces which was printed in the -_Philosophical Transactions_ for 1708, to affirm that Newton was without -doubt the first inventor of the calculus, and that Leibnitz had merely -changed the name and mode of notation. The memoir was published in 1710. -Leibnitz wrote in 1711 to the secretary of the Royal Society (Hans -Sloane) requiring Keill to retract his accusation. Leibnitz's letter was -read at a meeting of the Royal Society, of which Newton was then -president, and Newton made to the society a statement of the course of -his invention of the fluxional calculus with the dates of particular -discoveries. Keill was requested by the society "to draw up an account -of the matter under dispute and set it in a just light." In his report -Keill referred to Newton's letters of 1676, and said that Newton had -there given so many indications of his method that it could have been -understood by a person of ordinary intelligence. Leibnitz wrote to -Sloane asking the society to stop these unjust attacks of Keill, -asserting that in the review in the _Acta Eruditorum_ no one had been -injured but each had received his due, submitting the matter to the -equity of the Royal Society, and stating that he was persuaded that -Newton himself would do him justice. A committee was appointed by the -society to examine the documents and furnish a report. Their report, -presented in April 1712, concluded as follows: - - "The _differential method_ is one and the same with the _method of - fluxions_, excepting the name and mode of notation; Mr Leibnitz - calling those quantities _differences_ which Mr Newton calls _moments_ - or _fluxions_, and marking them with the letter d, a mark not used by - Mr Newton. And therefore we take the proper question to be, not who - invented this or that method, but who was the first inventor of the - method; and we believe that those who have reputed Mr Leibnitz the - first inventor, knew little or nothing of his correspondence with Mr - Collins and Mr Oldenburg long before; nor of Mr Newton's having that - method above fifteen years before Mr. Leibnitz began to publish it in - the _Acta Eruditorum_ of Leipzig. For which reasons we reckon Mr - Newton the first inventor, and are of opinion that Mr Keill, in - asserting the same, has been no ways injurious to Mr Leibnitz." - -The report with the letters and other documents was printed (1712) under -the title _Commercium Epistolicum D. Johannis Collins et aliorum de -analysi promota, jussu Societatis Regiae in lucem editum_, not at first -for publication. An account of the contents of the _Commercium -Epistolicum_ was printed in the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1715. A -second edition of the _Commercium Epistolicum_ was published in 1722. -The dispute was continued for many years after the death of Leibnitz in -1716. To translate the words of Moritz Cantor, it "redounded to the -discredit of all concerned." - - - British and Continental Schools of Mathematics. - -29. One lamentable consequence of the dispute was a severance of British -methods from continental ones. In Great Britain it became a point of -honour to use fluxions and other Newtonian methods, while on the -continent the notation of Leibnitz was universally adopted. This -severance did not at first prevent a great advance in mathematics in -Great Britain. So long as attention was directed to problems in which -there is but one independent variable (the time, or the abscissa of a -point of a curve), and all the other variables depend upon this one, the -fluxional notation could be used as well as the differential and -integral notation, though perhaps not quite so easily. Up to about the -middle of the 18th century important discoveries continued to be made by -the use of the method of fluxions. It was the introduction of partial -differentiation by Leonhard Euler (1734) and Alexis Claude Clairaut -(1739), and the developments which followed upon the systematic use of -partial differential coefficients, which led to Great Britain being left -behind; and it was not until after the reintroduction of continental -methods into England by Sir John Herschel, George Peacock and Charles -Babbage in 1815 that British mathematics began to flourish again. The -exclusion of continental mathematics from Great Britain was not -accompanied by any exclusion of British mathematics from the continent. -The discoveries of Brook Taylor and Colin Maclaurin were absorbed into -the rapidly growing continental analysis, and the more precise -conceptions reached through a critical scrutiny of the true nature of -Newton's fluxions and moments stimulated a like scrutiny of the basis of -the method of differentials. - - - Oppositions to the calculus. - - The "Analyst" controversy. - - Cauchy's method of limits. - -30. This method had met with opposition from the first. Christiaan -Huygens, whose opinion carried more weight than that of any other -scientific man of the day, declared that the employment of differentials -was unnecessary, and that Leibnitz's second differential was meaningless -(1691). A Dutch physician named Bernhard Nieuwentijt attacked the method -on account of the use of quantities which are at one stage of the -process treated as somethings and at a later stage as nothings, and he -was especially severe in commenting upon the second and higher -differentials (1694, 1695). Other attacks were made by Michel Rolle -(1701), but they were directed rather against matters of detail than -against the general principles. The fact is that, although Leibnitz in -his answers to Nieuwentijt (1695), and to Rolle (1702), indicated that -the processes of the calculus could be justified by the methods of the -ancient geometry, he never expressed himself very clearly on the subject -of differentials, and he conveyed, probably without intending it, the -impression that the calculus leads to correct results by compensation of -errors. In England the method of fluxions had to face similar attacks. -George Berkeley, bishop and philosopher, wrote in 1734 a tract entitled -_The Analyst; or a Discourse addressed to an Infidel Mathematician_, in -which he proposed to destroy the presumption that the opinions of -mathematicians in matters of faith are likely to be more trustworthy -than those of divines, by contending that in the much vaunted fluxional -calculus there are mysteries which are accepted unquestioningly by the -mathematicians, but are incapable of logical demonstration. Berkeley's -criticism was levelled against all infinitesimals, that is to say, all -quantities vaguely conceived as in some intermediate state between -nullity and finiteness, as he took Newton's moments to be conceived. The -tract occasioned a controversy which had the important consequence of -making it plain that all arguments about infinitesimals must be given -up, and the calculus must be founded on the method of limits. During the -controversy Benjamin Robins gave an exceedingly clear explanation of -Newton's theories of fluxions and of prime and ultimate ratios regarded -as theories of limits. In this explanation he pointed out that Newton's -_moment_ (Leibnitz's "differential") is to be regarded as so much of the -actual difference between two neighbouring values of a variable as is -needful for the formation of the fluxion (or differential coefficient) -(see G. A. Gibson, "The Analyst Controversy," _Proc. Math. Soc._, -Edinburgh, xvii., 1899). Colin Maclaurin published in 1742 a _Treatise -of Fluxions_, in which he reduced the whole theory to a theory of -limits, and demonstrated it by the method of Archimedes. This notion was -gradually transferred to the continental mathematicians. Leonhard Euler -in his _Institutiones Calculi differentialis_ (1755) was reduced to the -position of one who asserts that all differentials are zero, but, as the -product of zero and any finite quantity is zero, the ratio of two zeros -can be a finite quantity which it is the business of the calculus to -determine. Jean le Rond d'Alembert in the _Encyclopedie methodique_ -(1755, 2nd ed. 1784) declared that differentials were unnecessary, and -that Leibnitz's calculus was a calculus of mutually compensating errors, -while Newton's method was entirely rigorous. D'Alembert's opinion of -Leibnitz's calculus was expressed also by Lazare N. M. Carnot in his -_Reflexions sur la metaphysique du calcul infinitesimal_ (1799) and by -Joseph Louis de la Grange (generally called Lagrange) in writings from -1760 onwards. Lagrange proposed in his _Theorie des fonctions -analytiques_ (1797) to found the whole of the calculus on the theory of -series. It was not until 1823 that a treatise on the differential -calculus founded upon the method of limits was published. The treatise -was the _Resume des lecons ... sur le calcul infinitesimal_ of Augustin -Louis Cauchy. Since that time it has been understood that the use of the -phrase "infinitely small" in any mathematical argument is a figurative -mode of expression pointing to a limiting process. In the opinion of -many eminent mathematicians such modes of expression are confusing to -students, but in treatises on the calculus the traditional modes of -expression are still largely adopted. - - - Arithmetical basis of modern analysis. - -31. Defective modes of expression did not hinder constructive work. It -was the great merit of Leibnitz's symbolism that a mathematician who -used it knew what was to be done in order to formulate any problem -analytically, even though he might not be absolutely clear as to the -proper interpretation of the symbols, or able to render a satisfactory -account of them. While new and varied results were promptly obtained by -using them, a long time elapsed before the theory of them was placed on -a sound basis. Even after Cauchy had formulated his theory much remained -to be done, both in the rapidly growing department of complex variables, -and in the regions opened up by the theory of expansions in -trigonometric series. In both directions it was seen that rigorous -demonstration demanded greater precision in regard to fundamental -notions, and the requirement of precision led to a gradual shifting of -the basis of analysis from geometrical intuition to arithmetical law. A -sketch of the outcome of this movement--the "arithmetization of -analysis," as it has been called--will be found in FUNCTION. Its general -tendency has been to show that many theories and processes, at first -accepted as of general validity, are liable to exceptions, and much of -the work of the analysts of the latter half of the 19th century was -directed to discovering the most general conditions in which particular -processes, frequently but not universally applicable, can be used -without scruple. - - -III. _Outlines of the Infinitesimal Calculus._ - -32. The general notions of functionality, limits and continuity are -explained in the article FUNCTION. Illustrations of the more immediate -ways in which these notions present themselves in the development of the -differential and integral calculus will be useful in what follows. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.] - - - Geometrical limits. - - Tangents. - - 33. Let y be given as a function of x, or, more generally, let x and y - be given as functions of a variable t. The first of these cases is - included in the second by putting x = t. If certain conditions are - satisfied the aggregate of the points determined by the functional - relations form a curve. The first condition is that the aggregate of - the values of t to which values of x and y correspond must be - continuous, or, in other words, that these values must consist of all - real numbers, or of all those real numbers which lie between assigned - extreme numbers. When this condition is satisfied the points are - "ordered," and their order is determined by the order of the numbers - t, supposed to be arranged in order of increasing or decreasing - magnitude; also there are two senses of description of the curve, - according as t is taken to increase or to diminish. The second - condition is that the aggregate of the points which are determined by - the functional relations must be "continuous." This condition means - that, if any point P determined by a value of t is taken, and any - distance [delta], however small, is chosen, it is possible to find two - points Q, Q' of the aggregate which are such that (i.) P is between Q - and Q', (ii.) if R, R' are any points between Q and Q' the distance - RR' is less than [delta]. The meaning of the word "between" in this - statement is fixed by the ordering of the points. Sometimes additional - conditions are imposed upon the functional relations before they are - regarded as defining a curve. An aggregate of points which satisfies - the two conditions stated above is sometimes called a "Jordan curve." - It by no means follows that every curve of this kind has a tangent. In - order that the curve may have a tangent at P it is necessary that, if - any angle [alpha], however small, is specified, a distance [delta] can - be found such that when P is between Q and Q', and PQ and PQ' are less - than [delta], the angle RPR' is less than [alpha] for all pairs of - points R, R' which are between P and Q, or between P and Q' (fig. 8). - When this condition is satisfied y is a function of x which has a - differential coefficient. The only way of finding out whether this - condition is satisfied or not is to attempt to form the differential - coefficient. If the quotient of differences [Delta]y/[Delta]x has a - limit when [Delta]x tends to zero, y is a differentiable function of - x, and the limit in question is the differential coefficient. The - derived function, or differential coefficient, of a function [f](x) is - always defined by the formula - - d[f](x) [f](x + h) - [f](x) - [f]'(x) = ------- = lim. -------------------. - dx h=0 h - - Rules for the formation of differential coefficients in particular - cases have been given in S 11 above. The definition of a differential - coefficient, and the rules of differentiation are quite independent of - any geometrical interpretation, such as that concerning tangents to a - curve, and the tangent to a curve is properly defined by means of the - differential coefficient of a function, not the differential - coefficient by means of the tangent. - - - Progressive and Regressive Differential Coefficients. - - It may happen that the limit employed in defining the differential - coefficient has one value when h approaches zero through positive - values, and a different value when h approaches zero through negative - values. The two limits are then called the "progressive" and - "regressive" differential coefficients. In applications to dynamics, - when x denotes a coordinate and t the time, dx/dt denotes a velocity. - If the velocity is changed suddenly the progressive differential - coefficient measures the velocity just after the change, and the - regressive differential coefficient measures the velocity just before - the change. Variable velocities are properly defined by means of - differential coefficients. - - - Areas. - - Lengths of Curves. - - All geometrical limits may be specified in terms similar to those - employed in specifying the tangent to a curve; in difficult cases they - must be so specified. Geometrical intuition may fail to answer the - question of the existence or non-existence of the appropriate limits. - In the last resort the definitions of many quantities of geometrical - import must be analytical, not geometrical. As illustrations of this - statement we may take the definitions of the areas and lengths of - curves. We may not assume that every curve has an area or a length. To - find out whether a curve has an area or not, we must ascertain whether - the limit expressed by [f]ydx exists. When the limit exists the curve - has an area. The definition of the integral is quite independent of - any geometrical interpretation. The length of a curve again is defined - by means of a limiting process. Let P, Q be two points of a curve, and - R1, R2, ... R_(n-1) a set of intermediate points of the curve, - supposed to be described in the sense in which Q comes after P. The - points R are supposed to be reached successively in the order of the - suffixes when the curve is described in this sense. We form a sum of - lengths of chords - - PR1 + R1R2 + ... + R_(n-1)Q. - - If this sum has a limit when the number of the points R is increased - indefinitely and the lengths of all the chords are diminished - indefinitely, this limit is the length of the arc PQ. The limit is the - same whatever law may be adopted for inserting the intermediate points - R and diminishing the lengths of the chords. It appears from this - statement that the differential element of the arc of a curve is the - length of the chord joining two neighbouring points. In accordance - with the fundamental artifice for forming differentials (SS 9, 10), - the differential element of arc ds may be expressed by the formula - - ds = [root] {(dx)^2 + (dy)^2}, - - of which the right-hand member is really the measure of the distance - between two neighbouring points on the tangent. The square root must - be taken to be positive. We may describe this differential element as - being so much of the actual arc between two neighbouring points as - need be retained for the purpose of forming the integral expression - for an arc. This is a description, not a definition, because the - length of the short arc itself is only definable by means of the - integral expression. Similar considerations to those used in defining - the areas of plane figures and the lengths of plane curves are - applicable to the formation of expressions for differential elements - of volume or of the areas of curved surfaces. - - - Constants of Integration. - - 34. In regard to differential coefficients it is an important theorem - that, if the derived function [f]'(x) vanishes at all points of an - interval, the function [f](x) is constant in the interval. It follows - that, if two functions have the same derived function they can only - differ by a constant. Conversely, indefinite integrals are - indeterminate to the extent of an additive constant. - - - Higher Differential Coefficients. - - 35. The differential coefficient dy/dx, or the derived function - [f]'(x), is itself a function of x, and its differential coefficient - is denoted by [f]"(x) or d^2y/dx^2. In the second of these notations - d/dx is regarded as the symbol of an operation, that of - differentiation with respect to x, and the index 2 means that the - operation is repeated. In like manner we may express the results of n - successive differentiations by [f]^(n)(x) or by d^n.y/dx^n. When the - second differential coefficient exists, or the first is - differentiable, we have the relation - - [f](x + h) - 2[f](x) + [f](x - h) - [f]"(x) = lim. ---------------------------------- (i.) - h=0 h^2 - - The limit expressed by the right-hand member of this equation may - exist in cases in which [f]'(x) does not exist or is not - differentiable. The result that, when the limit here expressed can be - shown to vanish at all points of an interval, then [f](x) must be a - linear function of x in the interval, is important. - - The relation (i.) is a particular case of the more general relation - - [f]^(n)(x) = lim.(h=0) h^-n [[f](x + nh) -n[f] {(x + (n - 1)h} - - n(n - 1) - + -------- [f]{x + (n - 2)h} - ... +(-1)^n [f](x)]. (ii.) - 2! - - As in the case of relation (i.) the limit expressed by the right-hand - member may exist although some or all of the derived functions - [f]'(x), [f]"(x), ... [f]^(n-1)(x) do not exist. - - Corresponding to the rule iii. of S 11 we have the rule for forming - the nth differential coefficient of a product in the form - - d^n(uv) d^n v du d^(n-1)v n(n - 1) d^2u d^(n-2)v d^n u - ------- = u ----- + n -- -------- + -------- ----- -------- + ... + ----- v, - dx^n dx^n dx dx^(n-1) 1.2 dx^2 dx^(n-2) dx^n - - where the coefficients are those of the expansion of (1 + x)^n in - powers of x (n being a positive integer). The rule is due to Leibnitz, - (1695). - - _Differentials of higher orders_ may be introduced in the same way as - the differential of the first order. In general when y = [f](x), the - nth differential d^n.y is defined by the equation - - d^n.y = [f]^n(x)(dx)^n, - - in which dx is the (arbitrary) differential of x. - - - Symbols of operation. - - When d/dx is regarded as a single symbol of operation the symbol [f] - ... dx represents the inverse operation. If the former is denoted by - D, the latter may be denoted by D^-1. D^n means that the operation D - is to be performed n times in succession; D^-n that the operation of - forming the indefinite integral is to be performed n times in - succession. Leibnitz's course of thought (S 24) naturally led him to - inquire after an interpretation of D^n. where n is not an integer. For - an account of the researches to which this inquiry gave rise, - reference may be made to the article by A. Voss in _Ency. d. math. - Wiss._ Bd. ii. A, 2 (Leipzig, 1889). The matter is referred to as - "fractional" or "generalized" differentiation. - - [Illustration: FIG. 9.] - - - Theorem of Intermediate Value. - - 36. After the formation of differential coefficients the most - important theorem of the differential calculus is the _theorem of - intermediate value_ ("theorem of mean value," "theorem of finite - increments," "Rolle's theorem," are other names for it). This theorem - may be explained as follows: Let A, B be two points of a curve y = - [f](x) (fig. 9). Then there is a point P between A and B at which the - tangent is parallel to the secant AB. This theorem is expressed - analytically in the statement that if [f]'(x) is continuous between a - and b, there is a value x1 of x between a and b which has the property - expressed by the equation - - [f](b) - [f](a) - --------------- = [f]'(x1). (i.) - b - a - - The value x1 can be expressed in the form a + [theta](b - a) where - [theta] is a number between 0 and 1. - - A slightly more general theorem was given by Cauchy (1823) to the - effect that, if [f]'(x) and F'(x) are continuous between x = a and x = - b, then there is a number [theta] between 0 and 1 which has the - property expressed by the equation - - F(b) - F(a) F'{a + [theta](b - a)} - --------------- = ------------------------. - [f](b) - [f](a) [f]'{a + [theta](b - a)} - - The theorem expressed by the relation (i.) was first noted by Rolle - (1690) for the case where [f](x) is a rational integral function which - vanishes when x = a and also when x = b. The general theorem was given - by Lagrange (1797). Its fundamental importance was first recognized by - Cauchy (1823). It may be observed here that the theorem of integral - calculus expressed by the equation - _ - / b - F(b) - F(a) = | F'(x) dx - _/ a - - follows at once from the definition of an integral and the theorem of - intermediate value. - - The theorem of intermediate value may be generalized in the statement - that, if [f](x) and all its differential coefficients up to the nth - inclusive are continuous in the interval between x = a and x = b, then - there is a number [theta] between 0 and 1 which has the property - expressed by the equation - - (b - a)^2 (b - a)^(n-1) - [f](b) = [f](a) + (b - a)[f]'(a) + --------- [f]" (a) + ... + ------------- [f]^(n-1)(a) - 2! (n - 1)! - - (b - a)^n - + --------- [f]^(n) {a + [theta](b - a)}. (i.) - n! - - - Taylor's Theorem. - - 37. This theorem provides a means for computing the values of a - function at points near to an assigned point when the value of the - function and its differential coefficients at the assigned point are - known. The function is expressed by a terminated series, and, when the - remainder tends to zero as n increases, it may be transformed into an - infinite series. The theorem was first given by Brook Taylor in his - _Methodus Incrementorum_ (1717) as a corollary to a theorem concerning - finite differences. Taylor gave the expression for [f](x + z) in terms - of [f](x), [f]'(x), ... as an infinite series proceeding by powers of - z. His notation was that appropriate to the method of fluxions which - he used. This rule for expressing a function as an infinite series is - known as Taylor's theorem. The relation (i.), in which the remainder - after n terms is put in evidence, was first obtained by Lagrange - (1797). Another form of the remainder was given by Cauchy (1823) viz., - - (b - a)^n - --------- (1 - [theta])^(n-1) [f]^n {a + [theta](b - a)}. - (n - 1)! - - The conditions of validity of Taylor's expansion in an infinite series - have been investigated very completely by A. Pringsheim (_Math. Ann._ - Bd. xliv., 1894). It is not sufficient that the function and all its - differential coefficients should be finite at x = a; there must be a - _neighbourhood_ of a within which Cauchy's form of the remainder tends - to zero as n increases (cf. FUNCTION). - - An example of the necessity of this condition is afforded by the - function f(x) which is given by the equation - - __ n = [oo] - 1 \ (-1)^n 1 - [f](x) = ------- + ) ------ ------------- (i.) - 1 + x^2 /__ n = 1 n! 1 + 3^(2n)x^2 - - The sum of the series - - x^2 - [f](0) + x[f]'(0) + --- [f]"(0) + ... (ii.) - 2! - - is the same as that of the series - - e^-1 - x^2 e^-3^2 + x^4 e^(-3^4) - ... - - It is easy to prove that this is less than e^-1 when x lies between 0 - and 1, and also that f(x) is greater than e^-l when x = 1/[root]3. - Hence the sum of the series (i.) is not equal to the sum of the series - (ii.). - - The particular case of Taylor's theorem in which a = 0 is often called - Maclaurin's theorem, because it was first explicitly stated by Colin - Maclaurin in his _Treatise of Fluxions_ (1742). Maclaurin like Taylor - worked exclusively with the fluxional calculus. - - - Expansions in power series. - - Examples of expansions in series had been known for some time. The - series for log (1 + x) was obtained by Nicolaus Mercator (1668) by - expanding (1 + x)^-1 by the method of algebraic division, and - integrating the series term by term. He regarded his result as a - "quadrature of the hyperbola." Newton (1669) obtained the expansion of - sin^-1 x by expanding (l - x^2)^-(1/2) by the binomial theorem and - integrating the series term by term. James Gregory (1671) gave the - series for tan^-1 x. Newton also obtained the series for sin x, cos x, - and e^x by reversion of series (1669). The symbol e for the base of - the Napierian logarithms was introduced by Euler (1739). All these - series can be obtained at once by Taylor's theorem. James Gregory - found also the first few terms of the series for tan x and sec x; the - terms of these series may be found successively by Taylor's theorem, - but the numerical coefficient of the general term cannot be obtained - in this way. - - Taylor's theorem for the expansion of a function in a power series was - the basis of Lagrange's theory of functions, and it is fundamental - also in the theory of analytic functions of a complex variable as - developed later by Karl Weierstrass. It has also numerous applications - to problems of maxima and minima and to analytical geometry. These - matters are treated in the appropriate articles. - - The forms of the coefficients in the series for tan x and sec x can be - expressed most simply in terms of a set of numbers introduced by James - Bernoulli in his treatise on probability entitled _Ars Conjectandi_ - (1713). These numbers B1, B2, ... called Bernoulli's numbers, are the - coefficients so denoted in the formula - - x x B1 B2 B3 - ------- = 1 - --- + -- x^2 - -- x^4 + -- x^6 - ..., - e^x - 1 2 2! 4! 6! - - and they are connected with the sums of powers of the reciprocals of - the natural numbers by equations of the type - - (2n)! / 1 1 1 \ - B_n = ------------------ ( ------ + ------ + ------ + ... ). - 2^(2n-1) [pi]^(2n) \ 1^(2n) 2^(2n) 3^(2n) / - - The function - - m m.m - 1 - x^m - --- x^(m-1) + ------- B1 x^(m-2) - ... - 2 2! - - has been called Bernoulli's function of the mth order by J. L. Raabe - (Crelle's _J. f. Math._ Bd. xlii., 1851). Bernoulli's numbers and - functions are of especial importance in the calculus of finite - differences (see the article by D. Seliwanoff in _Ency. d. math. - Wiss._ Bd. i., E., 1901). - - When x is given in terms of y by means of a power series of the form - - x = y(C0 + C1y + C2y^2 + ...) (C0 [not eq.] 0) = y [f]0(y), say, - - there arises the problem of expressing y as a power series in x. This - problem is that of _reversion of series_. It can be shown that - provided the absolute value of x is not too great, - - __n=[oo] _ _ - x \ | x^n d^(n-1) 1 | - y = ------ + ) | --- -------- ----------- | - [f](0) /__n=2 |_ n! dy^(n-1) {[f]0(y)}^n _| y=0 - - To this problem is reducible that of expanding y in powers of x when x - and y are connected by an equation of the form - - y = a + x[f](y), - - for which problem Lagrange (1770) obtained the formula - - __n=[oo] _ _ - \ | x^n d^(n-1) | - y = a + x[f](a) + ) | --- . -------- {[f](a)}^n |. - /__n=2 |_ n! da^(n-1) _| - - For the history of the problem and the generalizations of Lagrange's - result reference may be made to O. Stolz, _Grundzuge d. Diff. u. Int. - Rechnung_, T. 2 (Leipzig, 1896). - - [Illustration: FIG. 10.] - - - Indeterminate forms. - - 38. An important application of the theorem of intermediate value and - its generalization can be made to the problem of evaluating certain - limits. If two functions [phi](x) and [psi](x) both vanish at x = a, - the fraction [phi](x)/[psi](x) may have a finite limit at a. This - limit is described as the limit of an "indeterminate form." Such - indeterminate forms were considered first by de l'Hospital (1696) to - whom the problem of evaluating the limit presented itself in the form - of tracing the curve y = [phi](x)/[psi](x) near the ordinate x = a, - when the curves y = [phi](x) and y = [psi](x) both cross the axis of x - at the same point as this ordinate. In fig. 10 PA and QA represent - short arcs of the curves [phi], [psi], chosen so that P and Q have the - same abscissa. The value of the ordinate of the corresponding point R - of the compound curve is given by the ratio of the ordinates PM, QM. - De l'Hospital treated PM and QM as "infinitesimal," so that the - equations PM : AM =[phi]'(a) and QM : AM = [psi]'(a) could be assumed - to hold, and he arrived at the result that the "true value" of - [phi](a)/[psi](a) is [phi]'(a)/[psi]'(a). It can be proved rigorously - that, if [psi]'(x) does not vanish at x = a, while [phi](a) = 0 and - [psi](a) = 0, then - - [phi](x) [phi]'(a) - lim. -------- = ---------. - x=a [psi](x) [psi]'(a) - - It can be proved further if that [phi]^m (x) and [psi]^n (x) are the - differential coefficients of lowest order of [phi](x) and [psi](x) - which do not vanish at x = a, and if m = n, then - - [phi](x) [phi]^n(a) - lim. -------- = ----------. - x=a [psi](x) [psi]^n(a) - - If m > n the limit is zero; but if m < n the function represented by - the quotient [phi](x)/[psi](x) "becomes infinite" at x = a. If the - value of the function at x = a is not assigned by the definition of - the function, the function does not exist at x = a, and the meaning of - the statement that it "becomes infinite" is that it has no finite - limit. The statement does not mean that the function has a value which - we call infinity. There is no such value (see FUNCTION). - - Such indeterminate forms as that described above are said to be of the - form 0/0. Other indeterminate forms are presented in the form 0 X - [oo], or 1^[oo], or [oo]/[oo], or [oo] - [oo]. The most notable of the - forms 1^[oo] is lim.(x=0) (1 + x)^(1/x), which is e. The case in which - [phi](x) and [psi](x) both tend to become infinite at x = a is - reducible to the case in which both the functions tend to become - infinite when x is increased indefinitely. If [phi]'(x) and [psi]'(x) - have determinate finite limits when x is increased indefinitely, while - [phi](x) and [psi](x) are determinately (positively or negatively) - infinite, we have the result expressed by the equation - - [phi](x) lim.x=[oo] [psi]'(x) - lim. -------- = --------------------. - x=[oo] [psi](x) lim.x=[oo] [psi](x) - - For the meaning of the statement that [phi](x) and [psi](x) are - determinately infinite reference may be made to the article FUNCTION. - The evaluation of forms of the type [oo]/[oo] leads to a scale of - increasing "infinities," each being infinite in comparison with the - preceding. Such a scale is - - log x,...x, x^2,...x^n,...e^x,...x^x; - - each of the limits expressed by such forms as lim.x=[oo] - [phi](x)/[psi](x), where [phi](x) precedes [psi](x) in the scale, is - zero. The construction of such scales, along with the problem of - constructing a complete scale was discussed in numerous writings by - Paul du Bois-Reymond (see in particular, _Math. Ann._ Bd. xi., 1877). - For the general problem of indeterminate forms reference may be made - to the article by A. Pringsheim in _Ency. d. math. Wiss._ Bd. ii., A. - 1 (1899). Forms of the type 0/0 presented themselves to early writers - on analytical geometry in connexion with the determination of the - tangents at a double point of a curve; forms of the type [oo]/[oo] - presented themselves in like manner in connexion with the - determination of asymptotes of curves. The evaluation of limits has - innumerable applications in all parts of analysis. Cauchy's _Analyse - algebrique_ (1821) was an epoch-making treatise on limits. - - If a function [phi](x) becomes infinite at x = a, and another function - [psi](x) also becomes infinite at x = a in such a way that - [phi](x)/[psi](x) has a finite limit C, we say that [phi](x) and - [psi](x) become "infinite of the same order." We may write [phi](x) = - C[psi](x) + [phi]1(x), where lim. x=a [phi]1(x)/[psi](x) = 0, and thus - [phi]1(x) is of a lower order than [phi](x); it may be finite or - infinite at x = a. If it is finite, we describe C[psi](x) as the - "infinite part" of [phi](x). The resolution of a function which - becomes infinite into an infinite part and a finite part can often be - effected by taking the infinite part to be infinite of the same order - as one of the functions in the scale written above, or in some more - comprehensive scale. This resolution is the inverse of the process of - evaluating an indeterminate form of the type [oo] - [oo]. - - For example lim.x=0 {(e^x - 1)^-1 - x^-1} is finite and equal to = - 1/2, and the function (e^x - 1)^-1 - x^-1 can be expanded in a power - series in x. - - - Functions of several variables. - - 39. The nature of a function of two or more variables, and the meaning - to be attached to continuity and limits in respect of such functions, - have been explained under FUNCTION. The theorems of differential - calculus which relate to such functions are in general the same - whether the number of variables is two or any greater number, and it - will generally be convenient to state the theorems for two variables. - - - Partial differentiation. - - 40. Let u or [f](x, y) denote a function of two variables x and y. If - we regard y as constant, u or f becomes a function of one variable x, - and we may seek to differentiate it with respect to x. If the function - of x is differentiable, the differential coefficient which is formed - in this way is called the "partial differential coefficient" of u or f - with respect to x, and is denoted by [Pd]u/[Pd]x or [Pd]f/[Pd]x. The - symbol "[Pd]" was appropriated for partial differentiation by C. G. J. - Jacobi (1841). It had before been written indifferently with "d" as a - symbol of differentiation. Euler had written (df/dx) for the partial - differential coefficient of f with respect to x. Sometimes it is - desirable to put in evidence the variable which is treated as - constant, and then the partial differential coefficient is written - "(df/dx)_y" or "([Pd]f/[Pd]x)_y". This course is often adopted by - writers on Thermodynamics. Sometimes the symbols d or [Pd] are - dropped, and the partial differential coefficient is denoted by u_x or - [f]_x. As a definition of the partial differential coefficient we have - the formula - - [Pd][f] [f](x + h, y) - f(x, y) - ------- = lim. -----------------------. - [Pd]x h=0 h - - In the same way we may form the partial differential coefficient with - respect to y by treating x as a constant. - - The introduction of partial differential coefficients enables us to - solve at once for a surface a problem analogous to the problem of - tangents for a curve; and it also enables us to take the first step in - the solution of the problem of maxima and minima for a function of - several variables. If the equation of a surface is expressed in the - form z = [f](x, y), the direction cosines of the normal to the surface - at any point are in the ratios [Pd]f/[Pd]x : [Pd]f/[Pd]y : = 1. If f - is a maximum or a minimum at (x, y), then [Pd]f/[Pd]x and [Pd]f/[Pd]y - vanish at that point. - - In applications of the differential calculus to mathematical physics - we are in general concerned with functions of three variables x, y, z, - which represent the coordinates of a point; and then considerable - importance attaches to partial differential coefficients which are - formed by a particular rule. Let F(x, y, z) be the function, P a point - (x, y, z), P' a neighbouring point (x + [Delta]x, y + [Delta]y, z + - [Delta]z), and let [Delta]s be the length of PP'. The value of F(x, y, - z) at P may be denoted shortly by F(P). A limit of the same nature as - a partial differential coefficient is expressed by the formula - - F(P') = F(P) - lim. ------------, - [Delta]s=0 [Delta]s - - in which [Delta]s is diminished indefinitely by bringing P' up to P, - and P' is supposed to approach P along a straight line, for example, - the tangent to a curve or the normal to a surface. The limit in - question is denoted by [Pd]F/[Pd]h, in which it is understood that h - indicates a direction, that of PP'. If l, m, n are the direction - cosines of the limiting direction of the line PP', supposed drawn from - P to P', then - - [Pd]F [Pd]F [Pd]F [Pd]F - ----- = l ----- + m ----- + n -----. - [Pd]h [Pd]x [Pd]y [Pd]z - - The operation of forming [Pd]F/[Pd]h is called "differentiation with - respect to an axis" or "vector differentiation." - - - Theorem of the Total Differential. - - 41. The most important theorem in regard to partial differential - coefficients is the _theorem of the total differential_. We may write - down the equation - - [f](a + h, b + k) - [f](a, b) = [f](a + h, b + k) - [f](a, b + k) - + [f](a, b + k) - [f](a, b). - - If [f]x is a continuous function of x when x lies between a and a + h - and y = b + k, and if further [f]y is a continuous function of y when - y lies between b and d + k, there exist values of [Theta] and [eta] - which lie between 0 and 1 and have the properties expressed by the - equations - - [f](a + h, b + k) - [f](a, b + k) = h[f]_x (a + [Theta]h, b + k), - [f](a, b + k) - [f](a, b) = k[f]_y (a, b + [eta]k). - - Further, [f]x(a + [Theta]h, b + k) and [f]_y (a, b + [eta]k) tend to - the limits [f]_x (a, b) and [f]_y (a, b) when h and k tend to zero, - provided the differential coefficients [f]_x, [f]_y, are continuous - at the point (a, b). Hence in this case the above equation can be - written - - [f](a + h, b + k) - [f](a, b) = h[f]_x (a, b) + k[f]_y (a, b) + R, - - where - - R R - lim. --- = 0 and lim. --- = 0. - h=0, k=0 h h=0, k=0 k - - In accordance with the notation of differentials this equation gives - - [Pd]f [Pd]y - d[f] = ----- dx + ----- dy. - [Pd]x [Pd]y - - Just as in the case of functions of one variable, dx and dy are - arbitrary finite differences, and d[f] is not the difference of two - values of [f], but is so much of this difference as need be retained - for the purpose of forming differential coefficients. - - The theorem of the total differential is immediately applicable to the - differentiation of _implicit functions_. When y is a function of x - which is given by an equation of the form [f](x, y) = 0, and it is - either impossible or inconvenient to solve this equation so as to - express y as an explicit function of x, the differential coefficient - dy/dx can be formed without solving the equation. We have at once - - dy [Pd][f] / [Pd][f] - -- = - ------- / -------. - dx [Pd]x / [Pd]y - - This rule was known, in all essentials, to Fermat and de Sluse before - the invention of the algorithm, of the differential calculus. - - An important theorem, first proved by Euler, is immediately deducible - from the theorem of the total differential. If [f](x, y) is a - homogeneous function of degree n then - - [Pd][f] [Pd][f] - x ------- + y ------- = n[f](x, y). - [Pd]x [Pd]y - - The theorem is applicable to functions of any number of variables and - is generally known as _Euler's theorem of homogeneous functions_. - - - Jacobians. - - 42. Many problems in which partial differential coefficients occur are - simplified by the introduction of certain determinants called - "Jacobians" or "functional determinants." They were introduced into - Analysis by C. G. J. Jacobi (_J. f. Math._, Crelle, Bd. 22, 1841, p. - 319). The Jacobian of u1, u2, ... u_n with respect to x1, x2, ... x_n - is the determinant - - | [Pd]u1 [Pd]u1 [Pd]u1 | - | ------ ------ ... ------- | - | [Pd]x1 [Pd]x2 [Pd]x_n | - | | - | [Pd]u2 [Pd]u2 [Pd]u2 | - | ------ ------ ... ------- | - | [Pd]x1 [Pd]x2 [Pd]x_n | - | . | - | . | - | . | - | [Pd]u_n [Pd]u_n [Pd]u_n | - | ------- ------- ... -------- | - | [Pd]x1 [Pd]x2 [Pd]x_n | - - in which the constituents of the rth row are the n partial - differential coefficients of u_r, with respect to the n variables x. - This determinant is expressed shortly by - - [Pd](u1, u2, ..., u_n) - ----------------------. - [Pd](x1, x2, ..., x_n) - - Jacobians possess many properties analogous to those of ordinary - differential coefficients, for example, the following:-- - - [Pd](u1, u2, ..., u_n) [Pd](x1, x2, ..., x_n) - ---------------------- X ---------------------- = 1, - [Pd](x1, x2, ..., x_n) [Pd](u1, u2, ..., u_n) - - [Pd](u1, u2, ..., u_n) [Pd](y1, y2, ..., y_n) [Pd](u1, u2, ..., u_n) - ---------------------- X ---------------------- = ----------------------. - [Pd](y1, y2, ..., y_n) [Pd](x1, x2, ..., x_n) [Pd](x1, x2, ..., x_n) - - If n functions (u1, u2, ... u_n) of n variables (x1, x2, ..., x_n) are - not independent, but are connected by a relation [f](u1, u2, ... u_n) - = 0, then - - [Pd](u1, u2, ..., u_n) - ---------------------- = 0; - [Pd](x1, x2, ..., x_n) - - and, conversely, when this condition is satisfied identically the - functions u1, u2 ..., u_n are not independent. - - - Interchange of order of differentiations. - - 43. Partial differential coefficients of the second and higher orders - can be formed in the same way as those of the first order. For - example, when there are two variables x, y, the first partial - derivatives [Pd]f/[Pd]x and [Pd]f/[Pd]y are functions of x and y, - which we may seek to differentiate partially with respect to x or y. - The most important theorem in relation to partial differential - coefficients of orders higher than the first is the theorem that the - values of such coefficients do not depend upon the order in which the - differentiations are performed. For example, we have the equation - - [Pd] /[Pd]f\ [Pd] /[Pd]f\ - ----- ( ----- ) = ----- ( ----- ) (i.) - [Pd]x \[Pd]y/ [Pd]y \[Pd]x/ - - This theorem is not true without limitation. The conditions for its - validity have been investigated very completely by H. A. Schwarz (see - his _Ges. math. Abhandlungen_, Bd. 2, Berlin, 1890, p. 275). It is a - sufficient, though not a necessary, condition that all the - differential coefficients concerned should be continuous functions of - x, y. In consequence of the relation (i.) the differential - coefficients expressed in the two members of this relation are written - - [Pd]^2f [Pd]^2f - ---------- or ----------. - [Pd]x[Pd]y [Pd]y[Pd]x - - The differential coefficient - - [Pd]^_n [f] - -----------------------, - [Pd]x^p [Pd]y^q [Pd]z^r - - in which p + g + r = n, is formed by differentiating p times with - respect to x, q times with respect to y, r times with respect to z, - the differentiations being performed in any order. Abbreviated - notations are sometimes used in such forms as - - (p, q, r) - [f] or [f] . - x^p y^q z^r x, y, z - - _Differentials_ of higher orders are introduced by the defining - equation - - / [Pd] [Pd] \ n - d^n [f] = ( dx ----- + dy ----- ) [f] - \ [Pd]x [Pd]y/ - - [Pd]^n [f] [Pd]^n [f] - = (dx)^n ---------- + n(dx)^(n-1) dy ----------------- + ... - [Pd]x^n [Pd]x^(n-1) [Pd]y - - in which the expression (dx.[Pd]/[Pd]x + dy.[Pd]/[Pd]y)^n is developed - by the binomial theorem in the same way as if dx.[Pd]/[Pd]x and - dy.[Pd]/[Pd]y were numbers, and ([Pd]/[Pd]x)^r.([Pd]/[Pd]y)^(n-r) [f] - is replaced by [Pd]^n [f]/[[Pd]x^r [Pd]y^(n-r)]. When there are more - than two variables the multinomial theorem must be used instead of the - binomial theorem. - - The problem of forming the second and higher differential coefficients - of _implicit functions_ can be solved at once by means of partial - differential coefficients, for example, if [f](x, y) = 0 is the - equation defining y as a function of x, we have - _ _ - d^2y /[Pd][f]\ -3 | /[Pd][f]\^2 [Pd]^2[f] [Pd][f] [Pd][f] [Pd]^2[f] /[Pd][f]\^2 [Pd]^2[f] | - ---- = ( ------- ) | ( ------- ) --------- - 2 ------- . ------- . ---------- + ( ------- ) --------- |. - dx^2 \ [Pd]y / |_ \ [Pd]y / [Pd]x^2 [Pd]x [Pd]y [Pd]x[Pd]y \ [Pd]x / [Pd]y^2 _| - - The differential expression Xdx + Ydy, in which both X and Y are - functions of the two variables x and y, is a _total differential_ if - there exists a function [f] of x and y which is such that - - [Pd][f]/[Pd]x = X, [Pd][f]/[Pd]y = Y. - - When this is the case we have the relation - - [Pd]Y/[Pd]x = [Pd]X/[Pd]y. (ii.) - - Conversely, when this equation is satisfied there exists a function - [f] which is such that - - d[f] = Xdx + Ydy. - - The expression Xdx + Ydy in which X and Y are connected by the - relation (ii.) is often described as a "perfect differential." The - theory of the perfect differential can be extended to functions of n - variables, and in this case there are (1/2)n(n - 1) such relations as - (ii.). - - In the case of a function of two variables x, y an abbreviated - notation is often adopted for differential coefficients. The function - being denoted by z, we write - - [Pd]z [Pd]z [Pd]^2z [Pd]^2z [Pd]^2z - p, q, r, s, t for -----, -----, -------, ----------, -------. - [Pd]x [Pd]y [Pd]x^2 [Pd]x[Pd]y [Pd]y^2 - - Partial differential coefficients of the second order are important in - geometry as expressing the curvature of surfaces. When a surface is - given by an equation of the form z = [f](x, y), the lines of curvature - are determined by the equation - - {(l + q^2)s - pqt} (dy)^2 + {(1 + q^2)r - (1 + p^2)t} dx dy - - {(1 + p^2)s - pqr} (dx)^2 = 0, - - and the principal radii of curvature are the values of R which satisfy - the equation - - R^2(rt - s^2) - R{(1 + q^2)r - 2pqs + (1 + p^2)t} [root](1 + p^2 + q^2) - + (1 + p^2 + q^2)^2 = 0. - - - Change of variables. - - 44. The problem of change of variables was first considered by Brook - Taylor in his _Methodus incrementorum_. In the case considered by - Taylor y is expressed as a function of z, and z as a function of x, - and it is desired to express the differential coefficients of y with - respect to x without eliminating z. The result can be obtained at once - by the rules for differentiating a product and a function of a - function. We have - - dy dy dz - -- = -- . --, - dx dz dx - - d^2y dy d^2z d^2y /dz\^2 - ---- = -- . ---- + ---- . ( -- ), - dx^2 dz dx^2 dz^2 \dx/ - - d^3y dy d^3z, d^2y dz d^2z, d^3y /dz\^3 - ---- = -- . ---- + 3 ---- . -- . ---- + ---- . ( -- ), - dx^3 dz dx^3 dz^2 dx dx^2 dz^3 \dx/ - - . . . . . . . - - The introduction of partial differential coefficients enables us to - deal with more general cases of change of variables than that - considered above. If u, v are new variables, and x, y are connected - with them by equations of the type - - x = [f]1(u, v), y = [f]2(u, v), (i.) - - while y is either an explicit or an implicit function of x, we have - the problem of expressing the differential coefficients of various - orders of y with respect to x in terms of the differential - coefficients of v with respect to u. We have - - dy /[Pd][f]2 [Pd][f]2 dv \ / /[Pd][f]1 [Pd][f]1 dv \ - -- = ( -------- + -------- -- ) / ( -------- + -------- -- ) - dx \ [Pd]u [Pd]v du / / \ [Pd]u [Pd]v du / - - - by the rule of the total differential. In the same way, by means of - differentials of higher orders, we may express d^2y/dx^2, and so on. - - Equations such as (i.) may be interpreted as effecting a - _transformation_ by which a point (u, v) is made to correspond to a - point (x, y). The whole theory of transformations, and of functions, - or differential expressions, which remain invariant under groups of - transformations, has been studied exhaustively by Sophus Lie (see, in - particular, his _Theorie der Transformationsgruppen_, Leipzig, - 1888-1893). (See also DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS and GROUPS). - - A more general problem of change of variables is presented when it is - desired to express the partial differential coefficients of a function - V with respect to x, y, ... in terms of those with respect to u, v, - ..., where u, v, ... are connected with x, y, ... by any functional - relations. When there are two variables x, y, and u, v are given - functions of x, y, we have - - [Pd]V [Pd]V [Pd]u [Pd]V [Pd]v - ----- = ----- ----- + ----- -----, - [Pd]x [Pd]u [Pd]x [Pd]v [Pd]x - - [Pd]V [Pd]V [Pd]u [Pd]V [Pd]v - ----- = ----- ----- + ----- -----, - [Pd]y [Pd]u [Pd]y [Pd]v [Pd]y - - and the differential coefficients of higher orders are to be formed by - repeated applications of the rule for differentiating a product and - the rules of the type - - [Pd] [Pd]u [Pd] [Pd]v [Pd] - ----- = ----- ----- + ----- -----. - [Pd]x [Pd]x [Pd]u [Pd]x [Pd]x - - When x, y are given functions of u, v, ... we have, instead of the - above, such equations as - - [Pd]V [Pd]V [Pd]x [Pd]V [Pd]y - ----- = ----- ----- + ----- -----; - [Pd]u [Pd]x [Pd]u [Pd]y [Pd]u - - and [Pd]V/[Pd]x, [Pd]V/[Pd]y can be found by solving these equations, - provided the Jacobian [Pd](x, y) / [Pd](u, v) is not zero. The - generalization of this method for the case of more than two variables - need not detain us. - - In cases like that here considered it is sometimes more convenient not - to regard the equations connecting x, y with u, v as effecting a point - transformation, but to consider the loci u = const., v = const. as two - "families" of curves. Then in any region of the plane of (x, y) in - which the Jacobian [Pd](x, y) / d(u, v) does not vanish or become - infinite, any point (x, y) is uniquely determined by the values of u - and v which belong to the curves of the two families that pass through - the point. Such variables as u, v are then described as "curvilinear - coordinates" of the point. This method is applicable to any number of - variables. When the loci u = const., ... intersect each other at right - angles, the variables are "orthogonal" curvilinear coordinates. - Three-dimensional systems of such coordinates have important - applications in mathematical physics. Reference may be made to G. - Lame, _Lecons sur les coordonnees curvilignes_ (Paris, 1859), and to - G. Darboux, _Lecons sur les coordonnees curvilignes et systemes - orthogonaux_ (Paris, 1898). - - When such a coordinate as u is connected with x and y by a functional - relation of the form [f](x, y, u) = 0 the curves u = const. are a - family of curves, and this family may be such that no two curves of - the family have a common point. When this is not the case the points - in which a curve [f](x, y, u) = 0 is intersected by a curve [f](x, y, - u + [Delta]u) = 0 tend to limiting positions as [Delta]u is diminished - indefinitely. The locus of these limiting positions is the "envelope" - of the family, and in general it touches all the curves of the family. - It is easy to see that, if u, v are the parameters of two families of - curves which have envelopes, the Jacobian [Pd](x, y) / [Pd](u, v) - vanishes at all points on these envelopes. It is easy to see also that - at any point where the reciprocal Jacobian [Pd](u, v) / [Pd](x, y) - vanishes, a curve of the family u touches a curve of the family v. - - If three variables x, y, z are connected by a functional relation - [f](x, y, z) = 0, one of them, z say, may be regarded as an _implicit - function_ of the other two, and the partial differential coefficients - of z with respect to x and y can be formed by the rule of the total - differential. We have - - [Pd]z [Pd]f / [Pd]f [Pd]z [Pd]f / [Pd]f - ----- = - ----- / -----, ----- = - ----- / -----; - [Pd]x [Pd]x / [Pd]z [Pd]y [Pd]y / [Pd]z - - and there is no difficulty in proceeding to express the higher - differential coefficients. There arises the problem of expressing the - partial differential coefficients of x with respect to y and z in - terms of those of z with respect to x and y. The problem is known as - that of "changing the dependent variable." It is solved by applying - the rule of the total differential. Similar considerations are - applicable to all cases in which n variables are connected by fewer - than n equations. - - - Extension of Taylor's theorem. - - 45. Taylor's theorem can be extended to functions of several - variables. In the case of two variables the general formula, with a - remainder after n terms, can be written most simply in the form - - [f](a + h, b + k) = [f](a, b) + d[f](a, b) + (1/2!) d^2[f](a, b) + ... - - 1 1 - + -------- d^(n-1) [f](a, b) + -- d^n [f](a+[Theta]h, b + [theta]k), - (n - 1)! n! - - in which - _ _ - | / [Pd] [Pd] \r | - d^r [f](a, b) = | ( h ----- + k ----- ) [f](x, y) | , - |_ \ [Pd]x [Pd]y / _| x=a, y=b - - and - - d^n [f](a + [Theta]h, b + [Theta]k) = - _ _ - | / [Pd] [Pd] \n | - | ( h ----- + k ----- ) [f](x, y) |. - |_ \ [Pd]x [Pd]y/ _| x=a+[Theta]h, y=b+[Theta]k - - The last expression is the remainder after n terms, and in it [Theta] - denotes some particular number between 0 and 1. The results for three - or more variables can be written in the same form. The extension of - Taylor's theorem was given by Lagrange (1797); the form written above - is due to Cauchy (1823). For the validity of the theorem in this form - it is necessary that all the differential coefficients up to the nth - should be continuous in a region bounded by x = a [+-] h, y = b [+-] k. When - all the differential coefficients, no matter how high the order, are - continuous in such a region, the theorem leads to an expansion of the - function in a multiple power series. Such expansions are just as - important in analysis, geometry and mechanics as expansions of - functions of one variable. Among the problems which are solved by - means of such expansions are the problem of maxima and minima for - functions of more than one variable (see MAXIMA and MINIMA). - - - Plane curves. - - 46. In treatises on the differential calculus much space is usually - devoted to the differential geometry of curves and surfaces. A few - remarks and results relating to the differential geometry of plane - curves are set down here. - - (i.) If [psi] denotes the angle which the radius vector drawn from the - origin makes with the tangent to a curve at a point whose polar - coordinates are r, [Theta] and if p denotes the perpendicular from the - origin to the tangent, then - - cos [psi] = dr/ds, sin [psi] = r d[Theta]/ds = p/r, - - where ds denotes the element of arc. The curve may be determined by an - equation connecting p with r. - - (ii.) The locus of the foot of the perpendicular let fall from the - origin upon the tangent to a curve at a point is called the _pedal_ of - the curve with respect to the origin. The angle [psi] for the pedal is - the same as the angle [psi] for the curve. Hence the (p, r) equation - of the pedal can be deduced. If the pedal is regarded as the primary - curve, the curve of which it is the pedal is the "negative pedal" of - the primary. We may have pedals of pedals and so on, also negative - pedals of negative pedals and so on. Negative pedals are usually - determined as envelopes. - - (iii.) If [phi] denotes the angle which the tangent at any point makes - with a fixed line, we have - - r^2 = p^2 + (dp/d[phi])^2. - - (iv.) The "average curvature" of the arc [Delta]s of a curve between - two points is measured by the quotient - - | [Delta][phi] | - | ------------ | - | [Delta]s | - - where the upright lines denote, as usual, that the absolute value of - the included expression is to be taken, and [phi] is the angle which - the tangent makes with a fixed line, so that [Delta][phi] is the angle - between the tangents (or normals) at the points. As one of the points - moves up to coincidence with the other this average curvature tends to - a limit which is the "curvature" of the curve at the point. It is - denoted by - - | d[phi] | - | ------ | - | ds | - - Sometimes the upright lines are omitted and a rule of signs is - given:--Let the arc s of the curve be measured from some point along - the curve in a chosen sense, and let the normal be drawn towards that - side to which the curve is concave; if the normal is directed towards - the left of an observer looking along the tangent in the chosen sense - of description the curvature is reckoned positive, in the contrary - case negative. The differential d[phi] is often called the "angle of - contingence." In the 14th century the size of the angle between a - curve and its tangent seems to have been seriously debated, and the - name "angle of contingence" was then given to the supposed angle. - - (v.) The curvature of a curve at a point is the same as that of a - certain circle which touches the curve at the point, and the "radius - of curvature" [rho] is the radius of this circle. We have 1/[rho] = - |d[phi]/ds|. The centre of the circle is called the "centre of - curvature"; it is the limiting position of the point of intersection - of the normal at the point and the normal at a neighbouring point, - when the second point moves up to coincidence with the first. If a - circle is described to intersect the curve at the point P and at two - other points, and one of these two points is moved up to coincidence - with P, the circle touches the curve at the point P and meets it in - another point; the centre of the circle is then on the normal. As the - third point now moves up to coincidence with P, the centre of the - circle moves to the centre of curvature. The circle is then said to - "osculate" the curve, or to have "contact of the second order" with it - at P. - - (vi.) The following are formulae for the radius of curvature:-- - - 1 | { /dy\^2 }-3/2 d^2y | - ----- = | { 1 + ( -- ) } --- |, - [rho] | { \dx/ } dx^2 | - - | dr | | d^2p | - [rho] = | r -- | = | p + -------- |. - | dp | | d[phi]^2 | - - (vii.) The points at which the curvature vanishes are "points of - inflection." If P is a point of inflection and Q a neighbouring point, - then, as Q moves up to coincidence with P, the distance from P to the - point of intersection of the normals at P and Q becomes greater than - any distance that can be assigned. The equation which gives the - abscissae of the points in which a straight line meets the curve being - expressed in the form [f](x) = 0, the function [f](x) has a factor (x - - x0)^3, where x0 is the abscissa of the point of inflection P, and - the line is the tangent at P. When the factor (x - x0) occurs (n + 1) - times in [f](x), the curve is said to have "contact of the nth order" - with the line. There is an obvious modification when the line is - parallel to the axis of y. - - (viii.) The locus of the centres of curvature, or envelope of the - normals, of a curve is called the "evolute." A curve which has a given - curve as evolute is called an "involute" of the given curve. All the - involutes are "parallel" curves, that is to say, they are such that - one is derived from another by marking off a constant distance along - the normal. The involutes are "orthogonal trajectories" of the - tangents to the common evolute. - - (ix.) The equation of an algebraic curve of the nth degree can be - expressed in the form u0 + u1 + u2 + ... + u_n = 0, where u0 is a - constant, and u_r is a homogeneous rational integral function of x, y - of the rth degree. When the origin is on the curve, u0 vanishes, and - u1 = 0 represents the tangent at the origin. If u1 also vanishes, the - origin is a double point and u2 = o represents the tangents at the - origin. If u2 has distinct factors, or is of the form a(y - p1x)(y - - p2x), the value of y on either branch of the curve can be expressed - (for points sufficiently near the origin) in a power series, which is - either - - p1x + (1/2) q1x^2 + ..., or p2x + (1/2) q2X^2 + ..., - - where q1, ... and q2, ... are determined without ambiguity. If p1 and - p2 are real the two branches have radii of curvature [rho]1, [rho]2 - determined by the formulae - - 1 | | 1 | | - ------ = |(1 + p1^2)^{-3/2} q1 |, ------ = |(1 + p2^2)^{-3/2} q2 |. - [rho]1 | | [rho]2 | | - - When p1 and p2 are imaginary the origin is the real point of - intersection of two imaginary branches. In the real figure of the - curve it is an _isolated point_. If u2 is a square, a(y - px)^2, the - origin is a _cusp_, and in general there is not a series for y in - integral powers of x, which is valid in the neighbourhood of the - origin. The further investigation of cusps and multiple points belongs - rather to analytical geometry and the theory of algebraic functions - than to differential calculus. - - (x.) When the equation of a curve is given in the form u0 + u1 + ... + - u_(n-1) + u_n = 0 where the notation is the same as that in (ix.), the - factors of u_n determine the directions of the _asymptotes_. If these - factors are all real and distinct, there is an asymptote corresponding - to each factor. If u_n = L1 L2 ... L_n, where L1, ... are linear in x, - y, we may resolve u_(n-1)/u_n into partial fractions according to the - formula - - u_(n-1) A1 A2 A_n - ------- = -- + -- + ... + ---, - u{n} L1 L2 L_n - - and then L1 + A1 = 0, L2 + A2 = 0, ... are the equations of the - asymptotes. When a real factor of u_n is repeated we may have two - parallel asymptotes or we may have a "parabolic asymptote." Sometimes - the parallel asymptotes coincide, as in the curve x^2(x^2 + y^2 - a^2) = - a^4, where x = 0 is the only real asymptote. The whole theory of - asymptotes belongs properly to analytical geometry and the theory of - algebraic functions. - - - Integral calculus. - - 47. The formal definition of an integral, the theorem of the existence - of the integral for certain classes of functions, a list of classes of - "integrable" functions, extensions of the notion of integration to - functions which become infinite or indeterminate, and to cases in - which the limits of integration become infinite, the definitions of - multiple integrals, and the possibility of defining functions by means - of definite integrals--all these matters have been considered in - FUNCTION. The definition of integration has been explained in S 5 - above, and the results of some of the simplest integrations have been - given in S 12. A few theorems relating to integrations have been noted - in SS 34, 35, 36 above. - - - Methods of integration. - - 48. The chief methods for the evaluation of indefinite integrals are - the method of integration by parts, and the introduction of new - variables. - - From the equation d(uv) = udv + vdu we deduce the equation - _ _ - / dv / du - | u -- dx = uv - | v -- dx, - _/ dx _/ dx - - or, as it may be written - _ _ _ _ - / / / du / / \ - | uw dx = u | w dx - | -- ( | w dx ) dx. - _/ _/ _/ dx \ _/ / - - This is the rule of "integration by parts." - - As an example we have - _ _ - / e^(ax) / e^(ax) / x 1 \ - | xe^(ax) dx = x ------ - | ------ dx = ( --- - --- ) e^(ax). - _/ a _/ a \ a a^2 / - - When we introduce a new variable z in place of x, by means of an - equation giving x in terms of z, we express [f](x) in terms of z. Let - [phi](z) denote the function of z into which [f](x) is transformed. - Then from the equation - - dx - dx = -- dz - dz - - we deduce the equation - _ _ - / / dx - | [f](x) dx = | [phi](z) -- dz. - _/ _/ dz - - As an example, in the integral - _ - / - | [root](1 - x^2) dx - _/ - - put x = sin z; the integral becomes - - _ _ - / / - | cos z . cos zdz = | (1/2)(1 + cos 2z)dz = (1/2)(z + (1/2) sin 2z) = (1/2)(z + sin z cos z). - _/ _/ - - - Integration in terms of elementary functions. - - 49. The indefinite integrals of certain classes of functions can be - expressed by means of a finite number of operations of addition or - multiplication in terms of the so-called "elementary" functions. The - elementary functions are rational algebraic functions, implicit - algebraic functions, exponentials and logarithms, trigonometrical and - inverse circular functions. The following are among the classes of - functions whose integrals involve the elementary functions only: (i.) - all rational functions; (ii.) all irrational functions of the form - [f](x, y), where [f] denotes a rational algebraic function of x and y, - and y is connected with x by an algebraic equation of the second - degree; (iii.) all rational functions of sin x and cos x; (iv.) all - rational functions of e^x; (v.) all rational integral functions of the - variables x, e^(ax), e^(bx), ... sin mx, cos mx, sin nx, cos nx, ... - in which a, b, ... and m, n, ... are any constants. The integration of - a rational function is generally effected by resolving the function - into partial fractions, the function being first expressed as the - quotient of two rational integral functions. Corresponding to any - simple root of the denominator there is a logarithmic term in the - integral. If any of the roots of the denominator are repeated there - are rational algebraic terms in the integral. The operation of - resolving a fraction into partial fractions requires a knowledge of - the roots of the denominator, but the algebraic part of the integral - can always be found without obtaining all the roots of the - denominator. Reference may be made to C. Hermite, _Cours d'analyse_, - Paris, 1873. The integration of other functions, which can be - integrated in terms of the elementary functions, can usually be - effected by transforming the functions into rational functions, - possibly after preliminary integrations by parts. In the case of - rational functions of x and a radical of the form [root](ax^2 + bx + - c) the radical can be reduced by a linear substitution to one of the - forms [root](a^2 - x^2), [root](x^2 - a^2), [root](x^2 + a^2). The - substitutions x = a sin [theta], x = a sec [theta], x = a tan [theta] - are then effective in the three cases. By these substitutions the - subject of integration becomes a rational function of sin [theta] and - cos [theta], and it can be reduced to a rational function of t by the - substitution tan (1/2)[theta] = t. There are many other substitutions - by which such integrals can be determined. Sometimes we may have - information as to the functional character of the integral without - being able to determine it. For example, when the subject of - integration is of the form (ax^4 + bx^3 + cx^2 + dx + e)^-(1/2) the - integral cannot be expressed explicitly in terms of elementary - functions. Such integrals lead to new functions (see FUNCTION). - - Methods of reduction and substitution for the evaluation of indefinite - integrals occupy a considerable space in text-books of the integral - calculus. In regard to the functional character of the integral - reference may be made to G. H. Hardy's tract, _The Integration of - Functions of a Single Variable_ (Cambridge, 1905), and to the memoirs - there quoted. A few results are added here - _ - / - (i.) | (x^2 + a) - (1/2) dx = log {x + (x^2 + a)^(1/2) }. - _/ - _ - / dx - (ii.) | ------------------------------ - _/ (x - p) [root](ax^2 + 2bx + c) - - can be evaluated by the substitution x - p = 1/z, and - _ - / dx - | ---------------------------------- - _/ (x - p)^{n} [root](ax^2 + 2bx + c) - - can be deduced by differentiating (n - 1) times with respect to p. - _ - / (Hx + K)dx - (iii.) | -------------------------------------------------------- - _/ ([alpha]x^2 + 2[beta]x + [gamma]) [root](ax^2 + 2bx + c) - - can be reduced by the substitution y^2 = (ax^2 + 2bx + c)/([alpha]x^2 + - 2[beta]x + [gamma]) to the form - _ _ - / dy / dy - A | ----------------------- + B | ----------------------- - _/ [root]([lambda]1 - y^2) _/ [root](y^2 - [lambda]2) - - where A and B are constants, and [lambda]1 and [lambda]2 are the two - values of [lambda] for which (a - [lambda][alpha])x^2 + 2(b - - [lambda][beta])x + c - [lambda][gamma] is a perfect square (see A. G. - Greenhill, _A Chapter in the Integral Calculus_, London, 1888). - - (iv.) [f]x^m (ax^n + b)^p dx, in which m, n, p are rational, can be - reduced, by putting ax^n = bt, to depend upon [f]t^q (1 + t)^p dt. If - p is an integer and q a fraction r/s, we put t = u^s. If q is an - integer and p = r/s we put 1 + t = u^s. If p + q is an integer and p = - r/s we put 1 + t = tu^s. These integrals, called "binomial integrals," - were investigated by Newton (_De quadratura curvarum_). - _ _ - / dx x / dx - (v.) | ----- = log tan ---, (vi.) | ----- = log (tan x + sec x). - _/ sin x 2 _/ cos x - - (vii.) [f] e^(ax) sin (bx + [alpha]) dx = (a^2 + b^2)^-1 e^(ax){a sin - (bx + [alpha]) - b cos (bx + [alpha])}. - - (viii.) [f] sin^m x cos^n x dx can be reduced by differentiating a - function of the form sin^p x cos^q x; - - d sin x 1 q sin^2 x 1 - q q - e.g. -- ------- = ----------- + ----------- = ----------- + -----------. - dx cos^q x cos^(q-1) x cos^(q+1) x cos^(q-1) x cos^(q+1) x - - Hence - _ _ - / dx sin x n - 2 / dx - | ------- = ------------------- + ----- | -----------. - _/ cos^n x (n - 1) cos^(n-1) x n - 1 _/ cos^(n-2) x - _ _ - /1/2[pi] /1/2[pi] - (ix.) | sin^(2n) x dx = | cos^(2n) x dx = - _/ 0 _/ 0 - - 1.3 ... (2n - 1) [pi] - ---------------- . ----, (n an integer). - 2.4 ... 2n 2 - _ _ - /1/2[pi] /1/2[pi] - (x.) | sin^(2n+1) x dx = | cos^(2n+1) x dx = - _/ 0 _/ 0 - - 2.4 ... (2n) - --------------, (n an integer). - 3.5 ... (2n+1) - _ - / dx - (xi.) | --------------- can be reduced by one of the substitutions - _/ (1 + e cos x)^n - - e + cos x e + cos x - cos [phi] = -----------, cosh u = -----------, - 1 + e cos x 1 + e cos x - - of which the first or the second is to be employed according as e < or > 1. - - - New transcendents. - - 50. Among the integrals of transcendental functions which lead to new - transcendental functions we may notice - _ _ - / x dx / log x e^z - | ----- or | --- dz, - _/ 0 log x' _/ -x z - - called the "logarithmic integral," and denoted by "Li x," also the - integrals - _ _ - / x sin x / x cos x - | ----- dx and | ----- dx, - _/ 0 x _/ [oo] x - - called the "sine integral" and the "cosine integral," and denoted by - "Si x" and "Ci x," also the integral - _ - / x - | e^-x^2 dx - _/ 0 - - called the "error-function integral," and denoted by "Erf x." All - these functions have been tabulated (see TABLES, MATHEMATICAL). - - - Eulerian integrals. - - 51. New functions can be introduced also by means of the definite - integrals of functions of two or more variables with respect to one of - the variables, the limits of integration being fixed. Prominent among - such functions are the Beta and Gamma functions expressed by the - equations - _ - / 1 - B(l, m) = | x^(l-1) (1 - x)^(m-1) dx, - _/ 0 - _ - / [oo] - [Gamma](n) = | e^-t t^(n-1) dt. - _/ 0 - - When n is a positive integer [Gamma](n + 1) = n!. The Beta function - (or "Eulerian integral of the first kind") is expressible in terms of - Gamma functions (or "Eulerian integrals of the second kind") by the - formula - - B(l, m).[Gamma](l+m) = [Gamma](l).[Gamma](m). - - The Gamma function satisfies the difference equation - - [Gamma](x + 1) = x [Gamma](x), - - and also the equation - - [Gamma](x).[Gamma](1-x) = [pi]/sin (x[pi]), - - with the particular result - - [Gamma](1/2)= [root][pi]. - - The number - _ _ - | d | - - | -- {log [Gamma](1 + x)} | , or -[Gamma]'(1), - |_ dx _|x=0 - - is called "Euler's constant," and is equal to the limit - _ _ - | / \ | - lim. | ( 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + ... + 1/n ) - log n |; - n=[oo] |_ \ / _| - - its value to 15 decimal places is 0.577 215 664 901 532. - - The function log [Gamma](1 + x) can be expanded in the series - - / x[pi] \ - log [Gamma](1 + x) = 1/2 log ( --------- ) - \ sin x[pi] / - 1 + x - - 1/2 log ----- + {1 + [Gamma]'(1)} x - 1 - x - - - 1/3 (S3 - 1)x^3 - 1/5 (S5 - 1)x^5 - ..., - - where - - 1 1 - S_(2r+1) = 1 + -------- + -------- + ..., - 2^(2r+1) 3^(2r+1) - - and the series for log [Gamma](1 + x) converges when x lies between - - 1 and 1. - - - Definite integrals. - - 52. Definite integrals can sometimes be evaluated when the limits of - integration are some particular numbers, although the corresponding - indefinite integrals cannot be found. For example, we have the result - _ - / 1 - | (1 - x^2)^-(1/2) log x dx = -1/2 [pi] log 2, - _/ 0 - - although the indefinite integral of (1 - x^2)^-(1/2) log x cannot be - found. Numbers of definite integrals are expressible in terms of the - transcendental functions mentioned in S 50 or in terms of Gamma - functions. For the calculation of definite integrals we have the - following methods:-- - - (i.) Differentiation with respect to a parameter. - (ii.) Integration with respect to a parameter. - (iii.) Expansion in infinite series and integration term by term. - (iv.) Contour integration. - - The first three methods involve an interchange of the order of two - limiting operations, and they are valid only when the functions - satisfy certain conditions of continuity, or, in case the limits of - integration are infinite, when the functions tend to zero at infinite - distances in a sufficiently high order (see FUNCTION). The method of - contour integration involves the introduction of complex variables - (see FUNCTION: S _Complex Variables_). - - A few results are added - _ - / [oo] x^(a-1) [pi] - (i.) | ------- dx = ---------, (1 > a > 0), - _/ 0 1 + x sin a[pi] - - _ - / [oo] x^(a-1) - x^(b-1) - (ii.) | ----------------- dx = [pi](cot a[pi] - cot b[pi]), (0 < a or b < 1), - _/ 0 1 - x - - _ - / [oo] x^(a-1) log x [pi]^2 - (iii.) | ------------ dx = -----------, (a > 1), - _/ 0 x - 1 sin^2 a[pi] - - _ - / [oo] - (iv.) | x^2.cos 2x.e^-x^2 dx = -1/4 e^-1 [root][pi], - _/ 0 - - _ - / 1 1 - x^2 dx [pi] - (v.) | -------- ----- = log tan ----, - _/ 0 1 + x^4 log x 8 - - _ - / [oo] sin mx / 1 1 1 \ - (vi.) | -------------- dx = 1/2 ( ------- - --- + --- ), - _/ 0 e^(2[pi]x) - 1 \ e^m - 1 m 2 / - - _ - / [pi] - (vii.) | log(1 - 2[alpha] cos x + [alpha]^2) dx = 0 - _/ 0 - - or 2[pi]log [alpha] according as [alpha] < or > 1, - _ - / [oo] sin x - (viii.) | ----- dx = (1/2)[pi], - _/ 0 x - - _ - / [oo] cos ax - (ix.) | --------- dx = (1/2)[pi]b^-1 e^(-ab), - _/ 0 x^2 + b^2 - - _ - / [oo] cos ax - cos bx - (x.) | --------------- dx = (1/2)[pi](b - a), - _/ 0 x^2 - - _ - / [oo] cos ax - cos bx b - (xi.) | --------------- dx = log ---, - _/ 0 x a - - _ - / [oo] cos x - e ^(-mx) - (xii.) | ---------------- dx = log m, - _/ 0 x - - _ - / [oo] - (xiii.) | e^(-x^2+2ax) dx = [root][pi].e^(a2), - _/ -[oo] - - _ _ - / [oo] / [oo] - (xiv.) | x^-(1/2) sin x dx = | x^-(1/2) cos x dx = [root]((1/2)[pi]), - _/ 0 _/ 0 - - - Multiple Integrals. - - 53. The meaning of integration of a function of n variables through a - domain of the same number of dimensions is explained in the article - FUNCTION. In the case of two variables x, y we integrate a function - [f](x, y) over an area; in the case of three variables x, y, z we - integrate a function [f](x, y, z) through a volume. The integral of a - function [f](x, y) over an area in the plane of (x, y) is denoted by - _ _ - / / - | | [f](x, y) dx dy. - _/_/ - - The notation refers to a method of evaluating the integral. We may - suppose the area divided into a very large number of very small - rectangles by lines parallel to the axes. Then we multiply the value - of [f] at any point within a rectangle by the measure of the area of - the rectangle, sum for all the rectangles, and pass to a limit by - increasing the number of rectangles indefinitely and diminishing all - their sides indefinitely. The process is usually effected by summing - first for all the rectangles which lie in a strip between two lines - parallel to one axis, say the axis of y, and afterwards for all the - strips. This process is equivalent to integrating [f](x, y) with - respect to y, keeping x constant, and taking certain functions of x as - the limits of integration for y, and then integrating the result with - respect to x between constant limits. The integral obtained in this - way may be written in such a form as - _ _ - / b { / [f]2(x) } - | dx { | [f](x, y) dy }, - _/ a { _/ [f]1(x) } - - and is called a "repeated integral." The identification of a surface - integral, such as [int][int][f](x, y)dxdy, with a repeated integral - cannot always be made, but implies that the function satisfies certain - conditions of continuity. In the same way volume integrals are usually - evaluated by regarding them as repeated integrals, and a volume - integral is written in the form - _ _ _ - / / / - | | | [f](x, y, z) dx dy dz. - _/_/_/ - - Integrals such as surface and volume integrals are usually called - "multiple integrals." Thus we have "double" integrals, "triple" - integrals, and so on. In contradistinction to multiple integrals the - ordinary integral of a function of one variable with respect to that - variable is called a "simple integral." - - - Surface Integrals. - - A more general type of surface integral may be defined by taking an - arbitrary surface, with or without an edge. We suppose in the first - place that the surface is closed, or has no edge. We may mark a large - number of points on the surface, and draw the tangent planes at all - these points. These tangent planes form a polyhedron having a large - number of faces, one to each marked point; and we may choose the - marked points so that all the linear dimensions of any face are less - than some arbitrarily chosen length. We may devise a rule for - increasing the number of marked points indefinitely and decreasing the - lengths of all the edges of the polyhedra indefinitely. If the sum of - the areas of the faces tends to a limit, this limit is the area of the - surface. If we multiply the value of a function [f] at a point of the - surface by the measure of the area of the corresponding face of the - polyhedron, sum for all the faces, and pass to a limit as before, the - result is a surface integral, and is written - _ _ - / / - | | [f] dS. - _/_/ - - - Line Integrals. - - The extension to the case of an open surface bounded by an edge - presents no difficulty. A line integral taken along a curve is defined - in a similar way, and is written - _ - / - | [f] ds - _/ - - where ds is the element of arc of the curve (S 33). The direction - cosines of the tangent of a curve are dx/ds, dy/ds, dz/ds, and line - integrals usually present themselves in the form - _ _ - / / dx dy dz \ / - | ( u -- + v -- + w -- ) ds or | (u dx + v dy + w dz). - _/ \ ds ds ds / _/ s - - In like manner surface integrals usually present themselves in the - form - _ _ - / / - | | (l[xi] + m[eta] + n[zeta]) dS - _/_/ - - where l, m, n are the direction cosines of the normal to the surface - drawn in a specified sense. - - The area of a bounded portion of the plane of (x, y) may be expressed - either as - _ - / - 1/2 | (x dy - y dx), - _/ - - or as - _ _ - / / - | | dx dy, - _/_/ - - the former integral being a line integral taken round the boundary of - the portion, and the latter a surface integral taken over the area - within this boundary. In forming the line integral the boundary is - supposed to be described in the positive sense, so that the included - area is on the left hand. - - - Theorems of Green and Stokes. - - 53_a_. We have two theorems of transformation connecting volume - integrals with surface integrals and surface integrals with line - integrals. The first theorem, called "Green's theorem," is expressed - by the equation - _ _ _ _ _ - / / / / [Pd][xi] [Pd][eta] [Pd][zeta]\ / / - | | | ( -------- + --------- + ---------- )dx dy dz = | | (l[xi] + m[eta] + n[zeta]) dS, - _/_/_/ \ [Pd]x [Pd]y [Pd]z / _/_/ - - where the volume integral on the left is taken through the volume - within a closed surface S, and the surface integral on the right is - taken over S, and l, m, n denote the direction cosines of the normal - to S drawn outwards. There is a corresponding theorem for a closed - curve in two dimensions, viz., - _ _ _ - / / / [Pd][xi] [Pd][eta]\ / / dy dx \ - | | ( -------- + --------- ) dx dy = | ( [xi] -- - [eta] -- ) ds, - _/_/ \ [Pd]x [Pd]y / _/ \ ds ds / - - the sense of description of s being the positive sense. This theorem - is a particular case of a more general theorem called "Stokes's - theorem." Let s denote the edge of an open surface S, and let S be - covered with a network of curves so that the meshes of the network are - nearly plane, then we can choose a sense of description of the edge of - any mesh, and a corresponding sense for the normal to S at any point - within the mesh, so that these senses are related like the directions - of rotation and translation in a right-handed screw. This convention - fixes the sense of the normal (l, m, n) at any point on S when the - sense of description of s is chosen. If the axes of x, y, z are a - right-handed system, we have Stokes's theorem in the form - _ _ _ - / / / { /[Pd]w [Pd]v\ /[Pd]u [Pd]w\ /[Pd]v [Pd]u\ } - | (u dx + v dy + w dz) = | | { l( ----- - ----- ) + m( ----- - ----- ) + n( ----- - ----- ) }dS, - _/ s _/_/ { \[Pd]y [Pd]z/ \[Pd]z [Pd]x/ \[Pd]x [Pd]y/ } - - where the integral on the left is taken round the curve s in the - chosen sense. When the axes are left-handed, we may either reverse the - sense of l, m, n and maintain the formula, or retain the sense of l, - m, n and change the sign of the right-hand member of the equation. For - the validity of the theorems of Green and Stokes it is in general - necessary that the functions involved should satisfy certain - conditions of continuity. For example, in Green's theorem the - differential coefficients [Pd][xi]/[Pd]x, [Pd][eta]/[Pd]y, - [Pd][zeta]/[Pd]z must be continuous within S. Further, there are - restrictions upon the nature of the curves or surfaces involved. For - example, Green's theorem, as here stated, applies only to - simply-connected regions of space. The correction for - multiply-connected regions is important in several physical theories. - - - Change of Variables in a Multiple Integral. - - 54. The process of changing the variables in a multiple integral, such - as a surface or volume integral, is divisible into two stages. It is - necessary in the first place to determine the differential element - expressed by the product of the differentials of the first set of - variables in terms of the differentials of the second set of - variables. It is necessary in the second place to determine the limits - of integration which must be employed when the integral in terms of - the new variables is evaluated as a repeated integral. The first part - of the problem is solved at once by the introduction of the Jacobian. - If the variables of one set are denoted by x1, x2, ..., x_n, and those - of the other set by u1, u2, ..., u_n, we have the relation - - [Pd](x1, x2, ..., x_n) - dx1 dx2 ...dx_n = ---------------------- du1 du2 ... du_n. - [Pd](u1, u2, ..., u_n) - - In regard to the second stage of the process the limits of integration - must be determined by the rule that the integration with respect to - the second set of variables is to be taken through the same domain as - the integration with respect to the first set. - - For example, when we have to integrate a function [f](x, y) over the - area within a circle given by x^2 + y^2 = a^2, and we introduce polar - coordinates so that x = r cos [theta], y = r sin [theta], we find that - r is the value of the Jacobian, and that all points within or on the - circle are given by a [>=] r [>=] o, 2[pi][>=][theta][>=]o, and we have - _ _ _ _ - / a / [root](a^2-x^2) / a /2[pi] - | dx | [f](x, y) dy = | dr | f(r cos [theta], r sin [theta]) r d[theta]. - _/-a _/-[root](a^2-x^2) _/ 0 _/ 0 - - If we have to integrate over the area of a rectangle a [>=] x [>=] 0, - b [>=] y [>=] 0, and we transform to polar coordinates, the integral - becomes the sum of two integrals, as follows:-- - _ _ _ _ - /a / b /tan^-1 b/a /a sec [theta] - | dx | [f](x, y) dy = | d[theta] | [f](r cos [theta], r sin [theta]) r dr - _/0 _/ 0 _/ 0 _/0 - _ _ - /1/2[pi] /b cosec [theta] - + | d[theta] | [f](r cos [theta], r sin [theta]) r dr. - _/tan^-1 b/a _/ 0 - - 55. A few additional results in relation to line integrals and - multiple integrals are set down here. - - - Line Integrals and Multiple Integrals. - - (i.) Any simple integral can be regarded as a line-integral taken - along a portion of the axis of x. When a change of variables is made, - the limits of integration with respect to the new variable must be - such that the domain of integration is the same as before. This - condition may require the replacing of the original integral by the - sum of two or more simple integrals. - - (ii.) The line integral of a perfect differential of a one-valued - function, taken along any closed curve, is zero. - - (iii.) The area within any plane closed curve can be expressed by - either of the formulae - _ _ - / / - | (1/2) r^2 d[theta] or | (1/2) p ds, - _/ _/ - - where r, [theta] are polar coordinates, and p is the perpendicular - drawn from a fixed point to the tangent. The integrals are to be - understood as line integrals taken along the curve. When the same - integrals are taken between limits which correspond to two points of - the curve, in the sense of line integrals along the arc between the - points, they represent the area bounded by the arc and the terminal - radii vectores. - - (iv.) The volume enclosed by a surface which is generated by the - revolution of a curve about the axis of x is expressed by the formula - _ - / - [pi] | y^2 dx, - _/ - - and the area of the surface is expressed by the formula - _ - / - 2[pi] | y ds, - _/ - - where ds is the differential element of arc of the curve. When the - former integral is taken between assigned limits it represents the - volume contained between the surface and two planes which cut the axis - of x at right angles. The latter integral is to be understood as a - line integral taken along the curve, and it represents the area of the - portion of the curved surface which is contained between two planes at - right angles to the axis of x. - - (v.) When we use curvilinear coordinates [xi], [eta] which are - conjugate functions of x, y, that is to say are such that - - [Pd][xi]/[Pd]x = [Pd][eta]/[Pd]y and [Pd][xi]/[Pd]y = -[Pd][eta]/[Pd]x, - - the Jacobian [Pd]([xi], [eta])/[Pd](x, v) can be expressed in the form - - /[Pd][xi]\^2 /[Pd][eta]\^2 - ( -------- ) + ( --------- ), - \ [Pd]x / \ [Pd]x / - - and in a number of equivalent forms. The area of any portion of the - plane is represented by the double integral - _ _ - / / - | | J^-1 d[xi] d[eta], - _/_/ - - where J denotes the above Jacobian, and the integration is taken - through a suitable domain. When the boundary consists of portions of - curves for which [xi] = const., or [eta] = const., the above is - generally the simplest way of evaluating it. - - (vi.) The problem of "rectifying" a plane curve, or finding its - length, is solved by evaluating the integral - _ - / { /dy\^2 }1/2 - | { 1 + ( -- ) } dx, - _/ { \dx/ } - - or, in polar coordinates, by evaluating the integral - _ - / { / dr \^2 }1/2 - | { r^2 + ( -------- ) } d[theta]. - _/ { \d[theta]/ } - - In both cases the integrals are line integrals taken along the curve. - - (vii.) When we use curvilinear coordinates [xi], [eta] as in (v.) - above, the length of any portion of a curve [xi] = const. is given by - the integral - _ - / - | J^-(1/2) d[eta] - _/ - - taken between appropriate limits for [eta]. There is a similar formula - for the arc of a curve [eta] = const. - - (viii.) The area of a surface z = [f](x, y) can be expressed by the - formula - _ _ - / / { /[Pd]z\^2 /[Pd]z\^2 }1/2 - | | { 1 + ( ----- ) + ( ----- ) } dx dy. - _/_/ { \[Pd]x/ \[Pd]y/ } - - When the coordinates of the points of a surface are expressed as - functions of two parameters u, v, the area is expressed by the - formula - _ _ _ _ - / / | { [Pd](y, z) }^2 { [Pd](z, x) }^2 { [Pd](x, y) }^2 |1/2 - | | | { ---------- } + { ---------- } + { ---------- } | du dv. - _/_/ |_ { [Pd](u, v) } { [Pd](u, v) } { [Pd](u, v) } _| - - When the surface is referred to three-dimensional polar coordinates r, - [theta], [phi] given by the equations - - x = r sin [theta] cos [phi], y = r sin [theta] sin [phi], - z = r cos [theta], - - and the equation of the surface is of the form r = [f]([theta], - [phi]), the area is expressed by the formula - _ _ _ _ - / / | { / [Pd]r \^2 } / [Pd]r \^2 |1/2 - | | r | { r^2 + ( ----------- ) } sin^2 [theta] + ( --------- ) | d[theta] d[phi]. - _/_/ |_ { \[Pd][theta]/ } \[Pd][phi]/ _| - - The surface integral of a function of ([theta], [phi]) over the - surface of a sphere r = const. can be expressed in the form - - _ _ - /2[pi] /[pi] - | d[phi] | F([theta], [phi]) r^2 sin [theta] d[theta]. - _/ 0 _/ 0 - - In every case the domain of integration must be chosen so as to - include the whole surface. - - (ix.) In three-dimensional polar coordinates the Jacobian - - [Pd](x, y, z) - ----------------------- = r^2 sin [theta] - [Pd](r, [theta], [phi]) - - The volume integral of a function F (r, [theta], [phi]) through the - volume of a sphere r = a is - _ _ _ - / a /2[pi] /[pi] - | dr | d[phi] | F(r, [theta], [phi]) r^2 sin [theta] d[theta]. - _/ 0 _/ 0 _/ 0 - - (x.) Integrations of rational functions through the volume of an - ellipsoid x^2/a^2 + y^2/b^2 + z^2/c^2 = 1 are often effected by means - of a general theorem due to Lejeune Dirichlet (1839), which is as - follows: when the domain of integration is that given by the - inequality - - /x1\[alpha]1 /x2\^[alpha]2 /x_n\[alpha]_n - ( -- ) + ( -- ) + ... + ( --- ) [<=] 1 - \a1/ \a2/ \a_n/ - - where the a's and [alpha]'s are positive, the value of the integral - _ _ - / / - | | ... x1^(n1-1).x2^(n2-1) ... dx1 dx2 ... - _/_/ - - a1^(n1) a2^(n2) ... [Gamma] (n1/[alpha]1) [Gamma] (n2/[alpha]2) - is --------------------- ---------------------------------------------. - [alpha]1 [alpha]2 ... [Gamma](1 + n1/[alpha]1 + n2/[alpha]2 + ... ) - - If, however, the object aimed at is an integration through the volume - of an ellipsoid it is simpler to reduce the domain of integration to - that within a sphere of radius unity by the transformation x = a[xi], - y = b[eta], z = c[zeta], and then to perform the integration through - the sphere by transforming to polar coordinates as in (ix). - - - Approximate and Mechanical Integration. - - 56. Methods of approximate integration began to be devised very early. - Kepler's practical measurement of the focal sectors of ellipses (1609) - was an approximate integration, as also was the method for the - quadrature of the hyperbola given by James Gregory in the appendix to - his _Exercitationes geometricae_ (1668). In Newton's _Methodus - differentialis_ (1711) the subject was taken up systematically. - Newton's object was to effect the approximate quadrature of a given - curve by making a curve of the type - - y = a0 + a1x + a2x^2 + ... + a_n x^n - - pass through the vertices of (n + 1) equidistant ordinates of the - given curve, and by taking the area of the new curve so determined as - an approximation to the area of the given curve. In 1743 Thomas - Simpson in his _Mathematical Dissertations_ published a very - convenient rule, obtained by taking the vertices of three consecutive - equidistant ordinates to be points on the same parabola. The distance - between the extreme ordinates corresponding to the abscissae x = a and - x = b is divided into 2n equal segments by ordinates y1, y2, ... - y(2n-1), and the extreme ordinates are denoted by y0, y(2n). The - vertices of the ordinates y0, y1, y2 lie on a parabola with its axis - parallel to the axis of y, so do the vertices of the ordinates y2, y3, - y4, and so on. The area is expressed approximately by the formula - - {(b - a)/6n} [y0 + y_(2n) + 2 (y2 + y4 + ... + y_(2n-2)) - + 4(y1 + y3 + ... + y_(2n-1)], - - which is known as Simpson's rule. Since all simple integrals can be - represented as areas such rules are applicable to approximate - integration in general. For the recent developments reference may be - made to the article by A. Voss in _Ency. d. Math. Wiss._, Bd. II., A. - 2 (1899), and to a monograph by B. P. Moors, _Valeur approximative - d'une integrale definie_ (Paris, 1905). - - Many instruments have been devised for registering mechanically the - areas of closed curves and the values of integrals. The best known are - perhaps the "planimeter" of J. Amsler (1854) and the "integraph" of - Abdank-Abakanowicz (1882). - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For historical questions relating to the subject the - chief authority is M. Cantor, _Geschichte d. Mathematik_ (3 Bde., - Leipzig, 1894-1901). For particular matters, or special periods, the - following may be mentioned: H. G. Zeuthen, _Geschichte d. Math. im - Altertum u. Mittelalter_ (Copenhagen, 1896) and _Gesch. d. Math. im - XVI. u. XVII. Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig, 1903); S. Horsley, _Isaaci - Newtoni opera quae exstant omnia_ (5 vols., London, 1779-1785); C. I. - Gerhardt, _Leibnizens math. Schriften_ (7 Bde., Leipzig, 1849-1863); - Joh. Bernoulli, _Opera omnia_ (4 Bde., Lausanne and Geneva, 1742). - Other writings of importance in the history of the subject are cited - in the course of the article. A list of some of the more important - treatises on the differential and integral calculus is appended. The - list has no pretensions to completeness; in particular, most of the - recent books in which the subject is presented in an elementary way - for beginners or engineers are omitted.--L. Euler, _Institutiones - calculi differentialis_ (Petrop., 1755) and _Institutiones calculi - integralis_ (3 Bde., Petrop., 1768-1770); J. L. Lagrange, _Lecons sur - le calcul des fonctions_ (Paris, 1806, _Oeuvres_, t. x.), and _Theorie - des fonctions analytiques_ (Paris, 1797, 2nd ed., 1813, _Oeuvres_, t. - ix.); S. F. Lacroix, _Traite de calcul diff. et de calcul int._ (3 - tt., Paris, 1808-1819). There have been numerous later editions; a - translation by Herschel, Peacock and Babbage of an abbreviated edition - of Lacroix's treatise was published at Cambridge in 1816. G. Peacock, - _Examples of the Differential and Integral Calculus_ (Cambridge, - 1820); A. L. Cauchy, _Resume des lecons ... sur le calcul - infinitesimale_ (Paris, 1823), and _Lecons sur le calcul differentiel_ - (Paris, 1829; _Oeuvres_, ser. 2, t. iv.); F. Minding, _Handbuch d. - Diff.-u. Int.-Rechnung_ (Berlin, 1836); F. Moigno, _Lecons sur le - calcul diff._ (4 tt., Paris, 1840-1861); A. de Morgan, _Diff. and Int. - Calc._ (London, 1842); D. Gregory, _Examples on the Diff. and Int. - Calc._ (2 vols., Cambridge, 1841-1846); I. Todhunter, _Treatise on the - Diff. Calc._ and _Treatise on the Int. Calc._ (London, 1852), numerous - later editions; B. Price, _Treatise on the Infinitesimal Calculus_ (2 - vols., Oxford, 1854), numerous later editions; D. Bierens de Haan, - _Tables d'integrales definies_ (Amsterdam, 1858); M. Stegemann, - _Grundriss d. Diff.- u. Int.-Rechnung_ (2 Bde., Hanover, 1862) - numerous later editions; J. Bertrand, _Traite de calc. diff. et int._ - (2 tt., Paris, 1864-1870); J. A. Serret, _Cours de calc. diff. et - int._ (2 tt., Paris, 1868, 2nd ed., 1880, German edition by Harnack, - Leipzig, 1884-1886, later German editions by Bohlmann, 1896, and - Scheffers, 1906, incomplete); B. Williamson, _Treatise on the Diff. - Calc._ (Dublin, 1872), and _Treatise on the Int. Calc._ (Dublin, 1874) - numerous later editions of both; also the article "Infinitesimal - Calculus" in the 9th ed. of the _Ency. Brit._; C. Hermite, _Cours - d'analyse_ (Paris, 1873); O. Schlomilch, _Compendium d. hoheren - Analysis_ (2 Bde., Leipzig, 1874) numerous later editions; J. Thomae, - _Einleitung in d. Theorie d. bestimmten Integrale_ (Halle, 1875); R. - Lipschitz, _Lehrbuch d. Analysis_ (2 Bde., Bonn, 1877, 1880); A. - Harnack, _Elemente d. Diff.- u. Int.-Rechnung_ (Leipzig, 1882, Eng. - trans. by Cathcart, London, 1891); M. Pasch, _Einleitung in d. Diff.- - u. Int.-Rechnung_ (Leipzig, 1882); Genocchi and Peano, _Calcolo - differenziale_ (Turin, 1884, German edition by Bohlmann and Schepp, - Leipzig, 1898, 1899); H. Laurent, _Traite d'analyse_ (7 tt., Paris, - 1885-1891); J. Edwards, _Elementary Treatise on the Diff. Calc._ - (London, 1886), several later editions; A. G. Greenhill, _Diff. and - Int. Calc._ (London, 1886, 2nd ed., 1891); E. Picard, _Traite - d'analyse_ (3 tt., Paris, 1891-1896); O. Stolz, _Grundzuge d. Diff.- - u. Int.-Rechnung_ (3 Bde., Leipzig, 1893-1899); C. Jordan, _Cours - d'analyse_ (3 tt., Paris, 1893-1896); L. Kronecker, _Vorlesungen u. d. - Theorie d. einfachen u. vielfachen Integrale_ (Leipzig, 1894); J. - Perry, _The Calculus for Engineers_ (London, 1897); H. Lamb, _An - Elementary Course of Infinitesimal Calculus_ (Cambridge, 1897); G. A. - Gibson, _An Elementary Treatise on the Calculus_ (London, 1901); E. - Goursat, _Cours d'analyse mathematique_ (2 tt., Paris, 1902-1905); - C.-J. de la Vallee Poussin, _Cours d'analyse infinitesimale_ (2 tt., - Louvain and Paris, 1903-1906); A. E. H. Love, _Elements of the Diff. - and Int. Calc._ (Cambridge, 1909); W. H. Young, _The Fundamental - Theorems of the Diff. Calc._ (Cambridge, 1910). A resume of the - infinitesimal calculus is given in the articles "Diff.- u. - Int-Rechnung" by A. Voss, and "Bestimmte Integrale" by G. Brunel in - _Ency. d. math. Wiss._ (Bde. ii. A. 2, and ii. A. 3, Leipzig, 1899, - 1900). Many questions of principle are discussed exhaustively by E. W. - Hobson, _The Theory of Functions of a Real Variable_ (Cambridge, - 1907). (A. E. H. L.) - - - - -INFINITIVE, a form of the verb, properly a noun with verbal functions, -but usually taken as a mood (see GRAMMAR). The Latin grammarians gave it -the name of _infinitus_ or _infinitivus modus_, i.e. indefinite, -unlimited mood, as not having definite persons or numbers. - - - - -INFLEXION (from Lat. _inflectere_, to bend), the action of bending -inwards, or turning towards oneself, or the condition of being bent or -curved. In optics, the term "inflexion" was used by Newton for what is -now known as "diffraction of light" (q.v.). For inflexion in geometry -see CURVE. Inflexion when used of the voice, in speaking or singing, -indicates a change in tone, pitch or expression. In grammar (q.v.) -inflexion indicates the changes which a word undergoes to bring it into -correct relations with the other words with which it is used. In English -grammar nouns, pronouns, adjectives (in their degrees of comparison), -verbs and adverbs are inflected. Some grammarians, however, regard the -inflexions of adverbs more as an actual change in word-formation. - - - - -INFLUENCE (Late Lat. _influentia_, from _influere_, to flow in), a word -whose principal modern meaning is that of power, control or action -affecting others, exercised either covertly or without visible means or -direct physical agency. It is one of those numerous terms of astrology -(q.v.) which have established themselves in current language. From the -stars was supposed to flow an ethereal stream which affected the course -of events on the earth and the fortunes and characters of men. For the -law as to "undue influence" see CONTRACT. - - - - -INFLUENZA (syn. "grip," _la grippe_), a term applied to an infectious -febrile disorder due to a specific bacillus, characterized specially by -catarrh of the respiratory passages and alimentary canal, and occurring -mostly as an epidemic. The Italians in the 17th century ascribed it to -the influence of the stars, and hence the name "influenza." The French -name _grippe_ came into use in 1743, and those of _petite poste_ and -_petit courier_ in 1762, while _general_ became another synonym in 1780. -Apparently the scourge was common; in 1403 and 1557 the sittings of the -Paris law courts had to be suspended through it, and in 1427 sermons had -to be abandoned through the coughing and sneezing; in 1510 masses could -not be sung. Epidemics occurred in 1580, 1676, 1703, 1732 and 1737, and -their cessation was supposed to be connected with earthquakes and -volcanic eruptions. - -The disease is referred to in the works of the ancient physicians, and -accurate descriptions of it have been given by medical writers during -the last three centuries. These various accounts agree substantially in -their narration of the phenomena and course of the disease, and -influenza has in all times been regarded as fulfilling all the -conditions of an epidemic in its sudden invasion, and rapid and -extensive spread. Among the chief epidemics were those of 1762, 1782, -1787, 1803, 1833, 1837 and 1847. It appeared in fleets at sea away from -all communication with land, and to such an extent as to disable them -temporarily for service. This happened in 1782 in the case of the -squadron of Admiral Richard Kempenfelt (1718-1782), which had to return -to England from the coast of France in consequence of influenza -attacking his crews. - -Like cholera and plague, influenza reappeared in the last quarter of the -19th century, after an interval of many years, in epidemic or rather -pandemic form. After the year 1848, in which 7963 deaths were directly -attributed to influenza in England and Wales, the disease continued -prevalent until 1860, with distinct but minor epidemic exacerbations in -1851, 1855 and 1858; during the next decade the mortality dropped -rapidly though not steadily, and the diminution continued down to the -year 1889, In which only 55 deaths were ascribed to this cause. It is -not clear whether the disease ever disappears wholly, and the deaths -registered in 1889 are the lowest recorded in any year since the -registrar-general's returns began. Occasionally local outbreaks of -illness resembling epidemic influenza have been observed during the -period of abeyance, as in Norfolk in 1878 and in Yorkshire in 1887; but -whether such outbreaks and the so-called "sporadic" cases are -nosologically identical with epidemic influenza is open to doubt. The -relation seems rather to be similar to that between Asiatic cholera and -"cholera nostras." Individual cases may be indistinguishable, but as a -factor in the public health the difference between sporadic and epidemic -influenza is as great and unmistakable as that between the two forms of -cholera. This fact, which had been forgotten by some since 1847 and -never learnt by others, was brought home forcibly to all by the -visitation of 1889. - -According to the exhaustive report drawn up by Dr H. Franklin Parsons -for the Local Government Board, the earliest appearances were observed -in May 1889, and three localities are mentioned as affected at the same -time, all widely separated from each other--namely, Bokhara in Central -Asia, Athabasca in the north-west Territories of Canada and Greenland. -About the middle of October it was reported at Tomsk in Siberia, and by -the end of the month at St Petersburg. During November Russia became -generally affected, and cases were noticed in Paris, Berlin, Vienna, -London and Jamaica (?). In December epidemic influenza became -established over the whole of Europe, along the Mediterranean, in Egypt -and over a large area in the United States. It appeared in several towns -in England, beginning with Portsmouth, but did not become generally -epidemic until the commencement of the new year. In London the full -onset of unmistakable influenza dated from the 1st of January 1890. -Everywhere it seems to have exhibited the same explosive character when -once fully established. In St Petersburg, out of a government staff of -260 men, 220 were taken ill in one night, the 15th of November. During -January 1890 the epidemic reached its height in London, and appeared in -a large number of towns throughout the British Islands, though it was -less prevalent in the north and north-west than in the south. January -witnessed a great extension of the disease in Germany, Holland, -Switzerland, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Spain and Portugal; but in Russia, -Scandinavia and France it was already declining. The period of greatest -activity in Europe was the latter half of December and the earlier half -of January, with the change of the year for a central point. Other parts -of the world affected in January 1890 were Cape Town, Canada, the United -States generally, Algiers, Tunis, Cairo, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, -Honolulu, Mexico, the West Indies and Montevideo. In February the -provincial towns of England were most severely affected, the death-rate -rising to 27.4, but in London it fell from 28.1 to 21.2, and for Europe -generally the back of the epidemic was broken. At the same time, -however, it appeared in Ceylon, Penang, Japan, Hong Kong and India; also -in West Africa, attacking Sierra Leone, and Gambia in the middle of the -month; and finally in the west, where Newfoundland and Buenos Aires were -invaded. In March influenza became widely epidemic in India, -particularly in Bengal and Bombay, and made its appearance in Australia -and New Zealand. In April and May it was epidemic all over Australasia, -in Central America, Brazil, Peru, Arabia and Burma. During the summer -and autumn it reached a number of isolated islands, such as Iceland, St -Helena, Mauritius and Reunion. Towards the close of the year it was -reported from Yunnan in the interior of China, from the Shire Highlands -in Central Africa, Shoa in Abyssinia, and Gilgit in Kashmir. In the -course of fifteen months, beginning with its undoubted appearance in -Siberia in October 1889, it had traversed the entire globe. - -The localities attacked by influenza in 1889-1890 appear in no case to -have suffered severely for more than a month or six weeks. Thus in -Europe and North America generally the visitation had come to an end in -the first quarter of 1890. The earliest signs of an epidemic revival on -a large scale occurred in March 1891, in the United States and the north -of England. It was reported from Chicago and other large towns in the -central states, whence it spread eastwards, reaching New York about the -end of March. In England it began in the Yorkshire towns, particularly -in Hull, and also independently in South Wales. In London influenza -became epidemic for the second time about the end of April, and soon -afterwards was widely distributed in England and Wales. The large towns -in the north, together with London and Wales, suffered much more heavily -in mortality than in the previous attack, but the south-west of England, -Scotland and Ireland escaped with comparatively little sickness. The -same may be said of the European continent generally, except parts of -Russia, Scandinavia and perhaps the north of Germany. This second -epidemic coincided with the spring and early summer; it had subsided in -London by the end of June. The experience of Sheffield is interesting. -In 1890 the attack, contrary to general experience, had been undecided, -lingering and mild; in 1891 it was very sudden and extremely severe, the -death-rate rising to 73.4 during the month of April, and subsiding with -equal rapidity. During the third quarter of the year, while Europe was -free, the antipodes had their second attack, which was more severe than -the first. As in England, it reversed the previous order of things, -beginning in the provinces and spreading thence to the capital towns. -The last quarter of the year was signalized by another recrudescence in -Europe, which reached its height during the winter. All parts, including -Great Britain, were severely affected. In England those parts which had -borne the brunt of the epidemic in the early part of the year escaped. -In fact, these two revivals may be regarded as one, temporarily -interrupted by the summer quarter. - -The recrudescence at the end of 1891 lasted through mid-winter, and in -many places, notably in London, it only reached its height in January -1892, subsiding slowly and irregularly in February and March. Brighton -suffered with exceptional severity. The continent of Europe seems to -have been similarly affected. In Italy the notifications of influenza -were as follow: 1891--January to October, 0; November, 30; December, -6461; 1892--January, 84,543; February, 55,352; March, 28,046; April, -7962; May, 1468; June, 223. Other parts of the world affected were the -West Indies, Tunis, Egypt, Sudan, Cape Town Teheran, Tongking and China. -In August 1892 influenza was reported from Peru, and later in the year -from various places in Europe. - -A fourth recrudescence, but of a milder character, occurred in Great -Britain in the spring of 1893, and a fifth in the following winter, but -the year 1894 was freer from influenza than any since 1890. In 1895 -another extensive epidemic took place. In 1896 influenza seemed to have -spent its strength, but there was an increased prevalence of the disease -in 1897, which was repeated on a larger scale in 1898, and again in -1899, when 12,417 deaths were recorded in England and Wales. This was -the highest death-rate since 1892. After this the death-rate declined to -half that amount and remained there with the slight upward variations -until 1907, in which the total death-rate was 9257. The experience of -other countries has been very similar; they have all been subjected to -periodical revivals of epidemic influenza at irregular intervals and of -varying intensity since its reappearance in 1889, but there has been a -general though not a steady decline in its activity and potency. Its -behaviour is, in short, quite in keeping with the experience of -1847-1860, though the later visitation appears to have been more violent -and more fatal than the former. Its diffusion was also more rapid and -probably more extensive. - -The foregoing general summary may be supplemented by some further -details of the incidence in Great Britain. The number of deaths directly -attributed to influenza, and the death-rates per million in each year in -England and Wales, are as follow:-- - - +------+--------+-------------+ - | Year.| Deaths.| Death-rates | - | | | per million.| - +------+--------+-------------+ - | 1890 | 4,523 | 157 | - | 1891 | 16,686 | 574 | - | 1892 | 15,737 | 534 | - | 1893 | 9,669 | 325 | - | 1894 | 6,625 | 220 | - | 1895 | 12,880 | 424 | - | 1896 | 3,753 | 122 | - | 1897 | 6,088 | 196 | - | 1898 | 10,405 | 331 | - | 1899 | 12,417 | 389 | - | 1900 | 16,245 | 504 | - | 1901 | 5,666 | 174 | - | 1902 | 7,366 | 223 | - | 1903 | 6,322 | 189 | - | 1904 | 5,694 | 168 | - | 1905 | 6,953 | 204 | - | 1906 | 6,310 | 183 | - | 1907 | 9,257 | 265 | - +------+--------+-------------+ - -It is interesting to compare these figures with the corresponding ones -for the previous visitation:-- - - +------+--------+-------------+ - | Year.| Deaths.| Death-rates | - | | | per million.| - +------+--------+-------------+ - | 1847 | 4,881 | 285 | - | 1848 | 7,963 | 460 | - | 1849 | 1,611 | 92 | - | 1850 | 1,380 | 78 | - | 1851 | 2,152 | 120 | - | 1852 | 1,359 | 76 | - | 1853 | 1,789 | 99 | - | 1854 | 1,061 | 58 | - | 1855 | 3,568 | 193 | - +------+--------+-------------+ - -The two sets of figures are not strictly comparable, because, during the -first period, notification of the cause of death was not compulsory; but -it seems clear that the later wave was much the more deadly. The average -annual death-rate for the nine years is 320 in the one case against 162 -in the other, or as nearly as possible double. In both epidemic periods -the second year was far more fatal than the first, and in both a marked -revival took place in the ninth year; in both also an intermediate -recrudescence occurred, in the fifth year in one case, in the sixth in -the other. The chief point of difference is the sudden and marked drop -in 1849-1850, against a persistent high mortality in 1892-1893, -especially in 1892, which was nearly as fatal as 1891. - -To make the significance of these epidemic figures clear, it should be -added that in the intervening period 1861-1889 the average annual -death-rate from influenza was only fifteen, and in the ten years -immediately preceding the 1890 outbreak it was only three. Moreover, in -epidemic influenza, the mortality directly attributed to that disease is -only a fraction of that actually caused by it. For instance, in January -1890 the deaths from influenza in London were 304, while the excess of -deaths from respiratory diseases was 1454 and from all causes 1958 above -the average. - -We have seen above that the mortality was far greater in the second -epidemic year than in the first, and this applies to all parts of -England, and to rural as well as to urban communities, as the following -table shows:-- - - _Deaths from Influenza._ - - +--------------------------------------+------+------+ - | | 1890.| 1891.| - +--------------------------------------+------+------+ - | London | 624 | 2302 | - | 24 Great Towns over 80,000 population| 439 | 2417 | - | 35 Towns between 20,000 and 80,000 | 186 | 765 | - | 21 Towns between 10,000 and 20,000 | 46 | 196 | - | 60 Towns under 10,000 | 62 | 196 | - | 85 Rural Sanitary Districts | 317 | 841 | - +--------------------------------------+------+------+ - -In spite of these figures, it appears that the 1890 attack, which was in -general much more sudden in its onset than that of 1891, also caused a -great deal more sickness. More people were "down with influenza," though -fewer died. For Instance, the number of persons treated at the Middlesex -Hospital in the two months' winter epidemic of 1890 was 1279; in the far -more fatal three months' spring epidemic of 1891 it was only 726. One -explanation of this discrepancy between the incidence of sickness and -mortality is that in the second attack, which was more protracted and -more insidious, the stress of the disease fell more upon the lungs. -Another is that its comparative mildness, combined with the time of -year, in itself proved dangerous, because it tempted people to disregard -the illness, whereas in the first epidemic they were too ill to resist. -On the whole, rural districts showed a higher death-rate than towns, and -small towns a higher one than large ones in both years. This is -explained by the age distribution in such localities; influenza being -particularly fatal to aged people, though no age is exempt. Certain -counties were much more severely affected than others. The eastern -counties, namely, Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk, together with Hampshire -and one or two others, escaped lightly in both years; the western -counties, namely, North and South Wales, with the adjoining counties of -Monmouth, Hereford and Shropshire, suffered heavily in both years. - -It will be convenient to discuss _seriatim_ the various points of -interest on which light has been thrown by the experience described -above. - -The bacteriology of influenza is discussed in the article on PARASITIC -DISEASES. The disease is often called "Russian" influenza, and its -origin in 1889 suggests that the name may have some foundation in fact. -A writer, who saw the epidemic break out in Bokhara, is quoted by him to -the following effect:--"The summer of 1888 was exceptionally hot and -dry, and was followed by a bitterly cold winter and a rainy spring. The -dried-up earth was full of cracks and holes from drought and subsequent -frost, so that the spring rains formed ponds in these holes, inundated -the new railway cuttings, and turned the country into a perfect marsh. -When the hot weather set in the water gave off poisonous exhalations, -rendering malaria general." On account of the severe winter, the people -were enfeebled from lack of nourishment, and when influenza broke out -suddenly they died in large numbers. Europeans were very severely -affected. Russians, hurrying home, carried the disease westwards, and -caravans passing eastwards took it into Siberia. There is a striking -similarity in the conditions described to those observed in connexion -with outbreaks of other diseases, particularly typhoid fever and -diphtheria, which have occurred on the supervention of heavy rain after -a dry period, causing cracks and fissures in the earth. Assuming the -existence of a living poison in the ground, we can easily understand -that under certain conditions, such as an exceptionally dry season, it -may develop exceptional properties and then be driven out by the -subsequent rains, causing a violent outbreak of illness. Some such -explanation is required to account for the periodical occurrence of -epidemic and pandemic diffusions starting from an endemic centre. We may -suppose that a micro-organism of peculiar robustness and virulence is -bred and brought into activity by a combination of favourable -conditions, and is then disseminated more or less widely according to -its "staying power," by human agency. Whether central Asia is an endemic -centre for influenza or not there is no evidence, but the disease seems -to be more often prevalent in the Russian Empire than elsewhere. -Extensive outbreaks occurred there in 1886 and 1887, and it is certain -that the 1889 wave was active in Siberia at an earlier date than in -Europe, and that it moved eastwards. The hypothesis that it originated -in China is unsupported by evidence. But whatever may be the truth with -regard to origin, the dissemination of influenza by human agency must be -held to be proved. This is the most important addition to our knowledge -of the subject contributed by recent research. The upshot of the inquiry -by Dr Parsons was to negative all theories of atmospheric influence, and -to establish the conclusion that the disease was "propagated mainly, -perhaps entirely, by human intercourse." - - He found that it prevailed independently of climate, season and - weather; that it moved in a contrary direction to the prevailing - winds; that it travelled along the lines of human intercourse, and not - faster than human beings can travel; that in 1889 it travelled much - faster than in previous epidemics, when the means of locomotion were - very inferior; that it appeared first in capital towns, seaports and - frontier towns, and only affected country districts later; that it - never commenced suddenly with a large number of cases in a place - previously free from disease, but that epidemic manifestations were - generally preceded for some days or weeks by scattered cases; that - conveyance of infection by individuals and its introduction into fresh - places had been observed in many instances; that persons brought much - into contact with others were generally the first to suffer; that - persons brought together in large numbers in enclosed spaces suffered - more in proportion than others, and that the rapidity and extent of - the outbreak in institutions corresponded with the massing together of - the inmates. - -These conclusions, based upon the 1889-1890 epidemic, have been -confirmed by subsequent experience, especially in regard to the complete -independence of season and weather shown by influenza. It has appeared -and disappeared at all seasons and in all weathers and only popular -ignorance continues to ascribe its behaviour to atmospheric conditions. -In Europe, however, it has prevailed more often in winter than in -summer, which may be due to the greater susceptibility of persons in -winter, or, more probably, to the fact that they congregate more in -buildings and are less in the open air during that part of the year. No -doubt is any longer entertained of its infectious character, though the -degree of infectivity appears to vary considerably. Many cases have been -recorded of individuals introducing it into houses, and of all or most -of the other inmates then taking it from the first case. Difficulties in -preventing the spread of infection are due to (1) the shortness of the -period of incubation, (2) the disease being infectious in the earliest -stages before the nature of the illness is recognized, (3) the milder -varieties being equally infectious with the severe attacks, and the -patient going to work and spreading the infection, (4) the diagnosis -often being difficult, influenza being possibly confused with ordinary -catarrhal attacks, typhoid fever and other diseases. Domestic animals -seem to be free from any suspicion of being liable to human influenza. -Sanitary conditions, other than overcrowding, do not appear to exercise -any influence on the spread of influenza. - -Influenza has been shown to be an acute specific fever having nothing -whatever to do with a "bad cold." There may be some inflammation of the -respiratory passages, and then symptoms of catarrh are present, but that -is not necessarily the case, and in some epidemics such symptoms are -quite exceptional. This had been recognized by various writers before -the 1889 visitation, but it had not been generally realized, as it has -been since, and some medical authorities, who persisted in regarding -influenza as essentially a "catarrhal" affection, were chiefly to blame -for a widespread and tenacious popular fallacy. - -Leichtenstern, in his masterly article in Nothnagel's _Handbuch_, -divides the disease as follows:--(1) Epidemic influenza vera caused by -Pfeiffer's bacillus; (2) Endemic-epidemic influenza vera, which occurs -several years after a pandemic and is caused by the same bacillus; (3) -Endemic influenza nostras or eatarrhal fever, called _la grippe_, and -bearing the same relation to true influenza as cholera nostras does to -Asiatic cholera. - -The "period of incubation" is one to four days. Susceptibility varies -greatly, but the conditions that influence it are matters of conjecture -only. It appears that the inhabitants of Great Britain are less -susceptible than those of many other countries. Dr Parsons gives the -following list, showing the proportion of the population estimated to -have been attacked in the 1889-1890 epidemic in different localities:-- - - +---------------------+---------+---------------------+---------+ - | Place. |Per cent.| Place. |Per cent.| - +---------------------+---------+---------------------+---------+ - | St Petersburg | 50 | Portugal | 90 | - | Berlin | 33 | Vienna | 30-40 | - | Nuremberg | 67 | Belgrade | 33 | - | Grand-Duchy of Hesse| 25-30 | Antwerp | 33 | - | Grand-Duchy, other | | Gaeta | 50-77 | - | Districts | 50-75 | Massachusetts | 39 | - | Heligoland | 50 | Peking | 50 | - | Budapest | 50 | St Louis (Mauritius)| 67 | - +---------------------+---------+---------------------+---------+ - -In and about London he reckoned roughly from a number of returns that -the proportion was about 12(1/2)% among those employed out of doors and -25% among those in offices, &c. The proportion among the troops in the -Home District was 9.3%. The General Post Office made the highest return -with 33.6%, which is accounted for partly by the enormous number of -persons massed together in the same room in more than one department, -and partly by the facilities for obtaining medical advice, which would -tend to bring very light cases, unnoticed elsewhere, upon the record. No -public service was seriously disorganized in England by sickness in the -same manner as on the continent of Europe. Some individuals appear to be -totally immune; others take the disease over and over again, deriving no -immunity, but apparently greater susceptibility from previous attacks. - -The symptoms were thus described by Dr Bruce Low from observations made -in St Thomas's Hospital, London, in January 1890:-- - - The invasion is sudden; the patients can generally tell the time when - they developed the disease; e.g. acute pains in the back and loins - came on quite suddenly while they were at work or walking in the - street, or in the case of a medical student, while playing cards, - rendering him unable to continue the game. A workman wheeling a barrow - had to put it down and leave it; and an omnibus driver was unable to - pull up his horses. This sudden onset is often accompanied by vertigo - and nausea, and sometimes actual vomiting of bilious matter. There are - pains in the limbs and general sense of aching all over; frontal - headache of special severity; pains in the eyeballs, increased by the - slightest movement of the eyes; shivering; general feeling of misery - and weakness, and great depression of spirits, many patients, both men - and women, giving way to weeping; nervous restlessness; inability to - sleep, and occasionally delirium. In some cases catarrhal symptoms - develop, such as running at the eyes, which are sometimes injected on - the second day; sneezing and sore throat; and epistaxis, swelling of - the parotid and submaxillary glands, tonsilitis, and spitting of - bright blood from the pharynx may occur. There is a hard, dry cough of - a paroxysmal kind, worst at night. There is often tenderness of the - spleen, which is almost always found enlarged, and this persists after - the acute symptoms have passed. The temperature is high at the onset - of the disease. In the first twenty-four hours its range is from 100 - deg. F. in mild cases to 105 deg. in severe cases. - -Dr J. S. Bristowe gave the following description of the illness during -the same epidemic:-- - - The chief symptoms of influenza are, coldness along the back, with - shivering, which may continue off and on for two or three days; severe - pain in the head and eyes, often with tenderness in the eyes and pain - in moving them; pains in the ears; pains in the small of the back; - pains in the limbs, for the most part in the fleshy portions, but also - in the bones and joints, and even in the fingers and toes; and febrile - temperature, which may in the early period rise to 104 deg. or 105 - deg. F. At the same time the patient feels excessively ill and - prostrate, is apt to suffer from nausea or sickness and diarrhoea, and - is for the most part restless, though often (and especially in the - case of children and those advanced in age) drowsy.... In ordinary - mild cases the above symptoms are the only important ones which - present themselves, and the patient may recover in the course of three - or four days. He may even have it so mildly that, although feeling - very ill, he is able to go about his ordinary work. In some cases the - patients have additionally some dryness or soreness of the throat, or - some stiffness and discharge from the nose, which may be accompanied - by slight bleeding. And in some cases, for the most part in the course - of a few days, and at a time when the patient seems to be - convalescent, he begins to suffer from wheezing in the chest, cough, - and perhaps a little shortness of breath, and before long spits mucus - in which are contained pellets streaked or tinged with blood.... - Another complication is diarrhoea. Another is a roseolous spotty - rash.... Influenza is by no means necessarily attended with the - catarrhal symptoms which the general public have been taught to regard - as its distinctive signs, and in a very large proportion of cases no - catarrhal condition whatever becomes developed at any time. - -Several writers have distinguished four main varieties of the -disease--namely, (1) nervous, (2)gastro-intestinal, (3)respiratory, (4) -febrile, a form chiefly found in children. Clifford Allbutt says, -"Influenza simulates other diseases." Many forms are of typhoid or -comatose types. Cardiac attacks are common, not from organic disease but -from the direct poisoning of the heart muscle by influenza. - -Perhaps the most marked feature of influenza, and certainly the one -which victims have learned to dread most, is the prolonged debility and -nervous depression that frequently follow an attack. It was remarked by -Nothnagel that "Influenza produces a specific nervous toxin which by its -action on the cortex produces psychoses." In the Paris epidemic of 1890 -the suicides increased 25%, a large proportion of the excess being -attributed to nervous prostration caused by the disease. Dr Rawes, -medical superintendent of St Luke's hospital, says that of insanities -traceable to influenza melancholia is twice as frequent as all other -forms of insanity put together. Other common after-effects are -neuralgia, dyspepsia, insomnia, weakness or loss of the special senses, -particularly taste and smell, abdominal pains, sore throat, rheumatism -and muscular weakness. The feature most dangerous to life is the special -liability of patients to inflammation of the lungs. This affection must -be regarded as a complication rather than an integral part of the -illness. The following diagram gives the annual death-rate per million -in England and Wales, and is taken from an article by Dr Arthur -Newsholme in _The Practitioner_ (January 1907). - -The deaths directly attributed to influenza are few in proportion to the -number of cases. In the milder forms it offers hardly any danger to life -if reasonable care be taken, but in the severer forms it is a fairly -fatal disease. In eight London hospitals the case-mortality among -in-patients in the 1890 outbreak was 34.5 per 1000; among all patients -treated it was 1.6 per 1000. In the army it was rather less. - -The infectious character of influenza having been determined, -suggestions were made for its administrative control on the familiar -lines of notification, isolation and disinfection, but this has not -hitherto been found practicable. In March 1895, however, the Local -Government Board issued a memorandum recommending the adoption of the -following precautions wherever they can be carried out:-- - - 1. The sick should be separated from the healthy. This is especially - important in the case of first attacks in a locality or a household. - - 2. The sputa of the sick should, especially in the acute stage of the - disease, be received into vessels containing disinfectants. Infected - articles and rooms should be cleansed and disinfected. - - 3. When influenza threatens, unnecessary assemblages of persons should - be avoided. - - 4. Buildings and rooms in which many people necessarily congregate - should be efficiently aerated and cleansed during the intervals of - occupation. - -There is no routine treatment for influenza except bed. In all cases bed -is advisable, because of the danger of lung complications, and in mild -ones it is sufficient. Severer ones must be treated according to the -symptoms. Quinine has been much used. Modern "anti-pyretic" drugs have -also been extensively employed, and when applied with discretion they -may be useful, but patients are not advised to prescribe them for -themselves. - -[Illustration] - -Sir Wm. Broadbent in a note on the prophylaxis of influenza recommends -quinine in a dose of two grains every morning, and remarks: "I have had -opportunities of obtaining extraordinary evidence of its protective -power. In a large public school it was ordered to be taken every -morning. Some of the boys in the school were home boarders, and it was -found that while the boarders at the school took the quinine in the -presence of a master every morning, there were scarcely any cases of -influenza among them, although the home boarders suffered nearly as much -as before." He continues, "In a large girls' school near London the same -thing was ordered, and the girls and mistresses took their morning dose -but the servants were forgotten. The result was that scarcely any girl -or mistress suffered while the servants were all down with influenza." - -The liability to contract influenza, and the danger of an attack if -contracted, are increased by depressing conditions, such as exposure to -cold and to fatigue, whether mental or physical. Attention should, -therefore, be paid to all measures tending to the maintenance of health. -Persons who are attacked by influenza should at once seek rest, warmth -and medical treatment, and they should bear in mind that the risk of -relapse, with serious complications, constitutes a chief danger of the -disease. - - In addition to the ordinary text-books, see the series of articles by - experts on different aspects in _The Practitioner_ (London) for - January 1907. - - - - -IN FORMA PAUPERIS (Latin, "in the character of pauper"), the legal -phrase for a method of bringing or defending a case in court on the part -of persons without means. By an English statute of 1495 (11 Hen. VII. c. -12), any poor person having cause of action was entitled to have a writ -according to the nature of the case, without paying the fees thereon. -The statute of 1495 was repealed by the Statute Law Revision and Civil -Procedure Act 1883, but its provisions, as well as the chancery -practice were incorporated into one code and embodied in the rules of -the Supreme Court (O. xvi. rr. 22-31). Now any person may be admitted to -sue as a pauper, on proof that he is not worth L25, his wearing apparel -and the subject matter of the cause or matter excepted. He must lay his -case before counsel for opinion, and counsel's opinion thereon, with an -affidavit of the party suing that the case contains a full and true -statement of all the material facts to the best of his knowledge and -belief, must be produced before the proper officers to whom the -application is made. A person who desires to defend as a pauper must -enter an appearance to a writ in the ordinary way and afterwards apply -for an order to defend as a pauper. Where a person is admitted to sue or -defend as a pauper, counsel and solicitor may be assigned to him, and -such counsel and solicitor are not at liberty to refuse assistance -unless there is some good reason for refusing. If any person admitted to -sue or defend as a pauper agrees to pay fees to any person for the -conduct of his business he will be dispaupered. Costs ordered to be paid -to a pauper are taxed as in other cases. Appeals to the House of Lords -_in forma pauperis_ were regulated by the Appeal (Forma Pauperis) Act -1893, which gave the House of Lords power to refuse a petition for leave -to sue. - - - - -INFORMATION (from Lat. _informare_, to give shape or form to, to -represent, describe), the communication of knowledge; in English law, a -proceeding on behalf of the crown against a subject otherwise than by -indictment. A criminal information is a proceeding in the King's bench -by the attorney-general without the intervention of a grand jury. The -attorney-general, or, in his absence, the solicitor-general, has a right -_ex officio_ to file a criminal information in respect of any -indictments, but not for treason, felonies or misprision of treason. It -is, however, seldom exercised, except in cases which might be described -as "enormous misdemeanours," such as those peculiarly tending to disturb -or endanger the king's government, e.g. seditions, obstructing the -king's officers in the execution of their duties, &c. In the form of the -proceedings the attorney-general is said to "come into the court of our -lord the king before the king himself at Westminster, and gives the -court there to understand and be informed that, &c." Then follows the -statement of the offence as in an indictment. The information is filed -in the crown office without the leave of the court. An information may -also be filed at the instance of a private prosecutor for misdemeanours -not affecting the government, but being peculiarly flagrant and -pernicious. Thus criminal informations have been granted for bribing or -attempting to bribe public functionaries, and for aggravated libels on -public or private persons. Leave to file an information is obtained -after an application to show cause, founded on a sworn statement of the -material facts of the case. - -Certain suits might also be filed in Chancery by way of information in -the name of the attorney-general, but this species of information was -superseded by Order 1, rule 1 of the Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, -under which they are instituted in the ordinary way. Informations in the -Court of Exchequer in revenue cases, also filed by the attorney-general, -are still resorted to (see _A.-G._ v. _Williamson_, 1889, 60 L.T. 930). - - - - -INFORMER, in a general sense, one who communicates information. The term -is applied to a person who prosecutes in any of the courts of law those -who break any law or penal statute. Such a person is called a common -informer when he furnishes evidence on criminal trials or prosecutes for -breaches of penal laws solely for the purpose of obtaining the penalty -recovered, or a share of it. An action by a common informer is termed a -_popular_ or _qui tam_ action, because it is brought by a person _qui -tam pro domino rege quam pro se ipso sequitur_. A suit by an informer -must be brought within a year of the offence, unless a specific time is -prescribed by the statute. The term informer is also used of an -accomplice in crime who turns what is called "king's evidence" (see -ACCOMPLICE). In Scotland, informer is the term applied to the party who, -in criminal proceedings, sets the lord advocate in motion. - - - - -INFUSORIA, the name given by Butschli (following O.F. Ledermuller, 1763) -to a group of Protozoa. The name arose from the procedure adopted by the -older microscopists to obtain animalcules. Infusions of most varied -organic substances were prepared (hay and pepper being perhaps the -favourite ones), the method of obtaining them including maceration and -decoction, as well as infusion in the strict sense; they were then -allowed to decompose in the air, so that various living beings developed -therein. As classified by C. G. Ehrenberg in his monumental -_Infusionstierchen als volkommene Organismen_, they included (1) -Desmids, Diatoms and Schizomycetes, now regarded as essentially Plant -Protista or Protophytes; (2) Sarcodina (excluding Foraminifera, as well -as Radiolaria, which were only as yet known by their skeletons, and -termed Polycystina), and (3) Rotifers, as well as (4) Flagellates and -Infusoria in our present sense. F. Dujardin in his _Histoire des -zoophytes_ (1841) gave nearly as liberal an interpretation to the name; -while C. T. Van Siebold (1845) narrowed it to its present limits save -for the admission of several Flagellate families. O. Butschli limited -the group by removing the Flagellata, Dinoflagellata and Cystoflagellata -(q.v.) under the name of "Mastigophora" proposed earlier by R. M. -Diesing (1865). We now define it thus:--Protozoa bounded by a permanent -plasmic pellicle and consequently of definite form, never using -pseudopodia for locomotion or ingestion, provided (at least in the young -state) with numerous cilia or organs derived from cilia and equipped -with a double nuclear apparatus: the larger (mega-) nucleus usually -dividing by constriction, and disappearing during conjugation: the -smaller (micro-) nucleus (sometimes multiple) dividing by mitosis, and -entering into conjugation and giving rise to the cycle of nuclei both -large and small of the race succeeding conjugation. - -[Illustration: FIG. i. Ciliata. - - 1. _Opalinopsis sepiolae_, Foett.: a parasitic Holotrichous mouthless - Ciliate from the liver of the Squid. a, branched meganucleus; b, - vacuoles (non-contractile). - - 2. A similar specimen treated with picrocarmine, showing a remarkably - branched and twisted meganucleus (a), in place of several nuclei. - - 3. _Anoplophrya naidos_, Duj.; a mouthless Holotrichous Ciliate - parasitic in the worm Nais. a, the large axial meganucleus; b, - contractile vacuoles. - - 4. _Anoplophrya prolifera_, C. and L.; from the intestine of - _Clitellio_. Remarkable for the adhesion of incomplete - fission-products in a metameric series. a, meganucleus. - - 5. _Amphileptus gigas_, C. and L. (Gymnostomaceae). b, contractile - vacuoles; c, trichocysts (see fig. 2); d, meganucleus; e. pharynx. - - 6, 7. _Prorodon niveus_, Ehr. (Gymnostomaceae). a, meganucleus; b, - contractile vacuole; c, pharynx with horny cuticular lining. - - 6. The fasciculate cuticle of the pharynx isolated. - - 8. _Trachelius ovum_, Ehr. (Gymnostomaceae); showing the reticulate - arrangement of the endosarc, b, contractile vacuoles; c, the - cuticle-lined pharynx. - - 9, 10, 11, 12. _Icthyophthirius multifilius_, Fouquet - (Gymnostomaceae). Free individual and successive stages of division to - form spores. a, meganucleus; b, contractile vacuoles. - - 13. _Didinium nasutum_, Mull. (Gymnostomaceae). The pharynx is everted - and has seized a _Paramecium_ as food. a, meganucleus; b, contractile - vacuole; c, everted pharynx. - - 14. _Euplotes charon_, Mull. (Hypotrichaceae); lateral view of the - animal when using its great cirrhi, x, as ambulatory organs. - - 15. _Euplotes harpa_, Stein (Hypotrichaceae); h, mouth; x, cirrhi. - - 16. _Nyctotherus cordiformis_, Stein (a Heterotriceae), parasitic in - the intestine of the Frog; a, meganucleus; b, contractile vacuole; c, - food particle; d, anus; e, heterotrichous band of membranelles; f, g, - mouth; h, pharynx; i, small cilia.] - -Thus defined, the Infusoria fall into two groups:--(1) _Ciliata_, with -cilia or organs derived from cilia throughout their lives, provided with -a single permanent mouth (absent in the parasitic _Opalinopsidae_) flush -with the body or at the base of an oral depression, and taking in food -by active swallowing or by ciliary action: (2) _Suctoria_, rarely -ciliated except in the young state, and taking in their food by suction -through protrusible hollow tentacles, usually numerous. - - The pellicle of the Infusoria is stronger and more permanent than in - many Protozoa, and sometimes assumes the character of a mail of hard - plates, closely fitting; but even in this case it undergoes solution - soon after death. It is continuous with a firm ectosarc, highly - differentiated in the Ciliata, and in both groups free from coarse - movable granules. The endosarc is semifluid and rich in granules - mostly "reserve" in nature, often showing proteid or fat reactions. - One or more contractile vacuoles are present in some of the marine and - all the freshwater species, and open to the surface by pores of - permanent position: a system of canals in the deeper layers of the - ectoplasm is sometimes connected with the vacucle. The body is often - provided with not-living external formations "stalk" and "theca" (or - "lorica"). - - The character of the nuclear apparatus excludes two groups both - parasitic and mouthless: (1) the Trichonymphidae, with a single - nucleus of Leidy, parasitic in Insects, especially Termites; (2) the - Opalinidae, with several (often numerous) uniform nuclei, parasitic in - the gut of Batrachia, &c., and producing 1-nuclear zoospores which - conjugate. Both these families we unite into a group of Pseudociliata, - which may be referred to the _Flagellata_ (q.v.). Lankester in the - last edition of this Encyclopaedia called attention to the doubtful - position of _Opalina_, and Delage and Herouard placed Trichonymphidae - among Flagellates. - - The theca or shell is present in some pelagic species (fig. iii. 3, 5) - and in many of the attached species, notably among the Peritricha - (fig. iii. 21, 22, 25, 26) and Suctoria (fig. viii. 11); and is found - in some free-swimming forms (fig. iii. 3, 5): it is usually chitinous, - and forms a cup into which the animal, protruded when at its utmost - elongation, can retract itself. In _Metacineta mystacina_ it has - several distinct slits (pylomes) for the passage of tufts of - tentacles. In _Stentor_ it is gelatinous; and in the Dictyocystids it - is beautifully latticed. - - The stalk is usually solid, and expanded at the base into a disk in - Suctoria. In Peritrichaceae (fig. iii. 8-22, 25, 26), the only ciliate - group with a stalk, it grows for some time after its formation, and on - fission two new stalks continue the old one, so as to form a branched - colony (fig. iii. 18). In _Vorticella_ (fig. iii. 11, 12, 14, &c.) the - stalk is hollow and elastic, and attached to it along a spiral is a - prolongation of the ectosarc containing a bundle of myonemes, so that - by the contractions of the bundle the stalk is pulled down into a - corkscrew spiral, and on the relaxation of the muscle the elasticity - of the hollow stalk straightens it out. - - On fission the stalk may become branched, as the solid one of - _Epistylis_ and _Opercularia_ (fig. iii. 20); and the myoneme also in - the tubular stem of _Zoothaminum_; or the branch-myoneme for the one - offspring may be inserted laterally on that for the other in - _Carchesium_ (fig. iii. 18). In several tubicolous Peritrichaceae - there is some arrangement for closing their tubes. In _Thuricola_ - (fig. iii. 25-26) there is a valve which opens by the pressure of the - animal on its protrusion, and closes automatically by elasticity on - retraction. In _Lagenophrys_ the animal adheres to the cup a little - below the opening, so that its withdrawal closes the cup: at the - adherent part the body mass is hardened, and so differentiated as to - suggest the frame of the mouth of a purse. In _Pyxicola_ (fig. iii. - 21-22) the animal bears some way down the body a hardened shield - ("operculum") which closes the mouth of the shell on retraction. - - [Illustration: FIG. ii. - - 1, Surface view of _Paramecium_, showing the disposition of the - cilia in longitudinal rows. - - 2, a, mega-; b, micronucleus; c, junction of ecto- and endosarc; D, - pellicle; E, endosarc; f, cilia (much too numerous and crowded); g, - trichocysts; g', same with thread; h, discharged; i, pharynx, its - undulating membrane not shown; k, food granules collecting into a - bolus; l, m, n, o, food vacuoles, their contents being digested as - they pass in the endosarc along the path indicated by the arrows. - - 3, Outline showing contractile vacuoles in commencing diastole, - surrounded by five afferent canals. - - 4-7 Successive stages of diastole of contractile vacuole.] - - The cytoplasm of the Infusoria is very susceptible to injuries; and - when cut or torn, unless the pellicle contracts rapidly to enclose the - wounded surface, the substance of the body swells up, becoming frothy, - with bubbles which rapidly enlarge and finally burst; the cell thus - disintegrates, leaving only a few granules to mark where it was. This - phenomenon, observed by Dujardin, is called "diffluence." The - contractile vacuole appears to be one of the means by which diffluence - is avoided in cells with no strong wall to resist the absorption of - water in excess; for after growing in size for some time, its walls - contract suddenly, and its contents are expelled to the outside by a - pore, which is, like the anus, usually invisible, but permanent in - position. The contractile vacuole may be single or multiple; it may - receive the contents of a canal, or of a system of canals, which only - become visible at the moment of the contraction of the vacuole (fig. - ii. 4-7), giving liquid time to accumulate in them, or when the - vacuole is acting sluggishly or imperfectly, as in the approach of - asphyxia (fig. ii. 3). Besides this function, since the system passes - a large quantity of water from without through the substance of the - cell, it must needs act as a means of respiration and excretion. In - all Peritrichaceae it opens to the vestibule, and in some of them it - discharges through an intervening reservoir, curiously recalling the - arrangements in the Flagellate Euglenaceae. - - The nuclear apparatus consists of two parts, the meganucleus, and the - micronucleus or micronuclei (fig. iii. 17d, iv. 1). The meganucleus - alone regarded and described as "the nucleus" by older observers is - always single, subject to a few reservations. It is most frequently - oval, and then is indented by the micronucleus; but it may be lobed, - the lobes lying far apart and connected by a slender bridge or - moniliform, or horseshoe-shaped (Peritrichaceae). It often contains - darker inclusions, like nucleoles. - - It has been shown, more especially by Gruber, that many Ciliata are - multinucleate, and do not possess merely a single meganucleus and a - micronucleus. In _Oxytricha_ the nuclei are large and numerous (about - forty), scattered through the protoplasm, whilst in other cases the - nucleus is so finely divided as to appear like a powder diffused - uniformly through the medullary protoplasm (_Trachelocerca_). Carmine - staining, after treatment with absolute alcohol, has led to this - remarkable discovery. The condition described by Foettinger in his - _Opalinopsis_ (fig. i. 1, 2) is an example of this pulverization of - the nucleus. The condition of pulverization had led in some cases to a - total failure to detect any nucleus in the living animal, and it was - only by the use of reagents that the actual state of the case was - revealed. Before fission, whatever be its habitual character, it - condenses, becomes oval, and divides by constriction; and though it - usually is then fibrillated, only in a few cases does it approach the - typical mitotic condition. The micronucleus described by older writers - as the "nucleolus" or "paranucleus" ("endoplastule" of Huxley), may be - single or multiple. When the meganucleus is bilobed there are always - two micronuclei, and at least one is found next to every enlargement - of the moniliform meganucleus. In the fission of the Infusoria, every - micronucleus divides by a true mitotic process, during which, however, - its wall remains intact. From their relative sizes the meganucleus - would appear to discharge during cell-life, exclusively, the functions - of the nucleus in ordinary cells. Since in conjugation, however, the - meganucleus degenerates and is in great part either digested or - excreted as waste matter, while the new nuclear apparatus in both - exconjugates arises, as we shall see, from a conjugation-nucleus of - exclusively micronuclear origin, we infer that the micronucleus has - for its function the carrying on of the nuclear functions of the race - from one fission cycle to the next from which the meganucleus is - excluded. - - Fission is the ordinary mode of reproduction in the Infusoria, and is - usually transverse, but oblique in _Stentor_, &., as in Flagellata, - longitudinal in Peritrichaceae; in some cases it is always more or - less unequal owing to the differentiation of the body, and - consequently it must be followed by a regeneration of the missing - organs in either daughter-cell. In some cases it becomes very uneven, - affording every transition to budding, which process assumes especial - importance in the Suctoria. Multiple fission (brood-formation or - sporulation) is exceptional in Infusoria, and when it occurs the - broods rarely exceed four or eight--another difference from - Flagellata. The nuclear processes during conjugation suggest the - phylogenetic loss of a process of multiple fission into active - gametes. As noted, in fission the meganucleus divides by direct - constriction; each micronucleus by a mode of mitosis. The process of - fission is subject in its activity to the influences of nutrition and - temperature, slackening as the food supply becomes inadequate or as - the temperature recedes from the optimum for the process. Moreover, if - the descendants of a single animal be raised, it is found that the - rapidity of fission, other conditions being the same, varies - periodically, undergoing periods of depression, which may be followed - by either (1) spontaneous recovery, (2) recovery under stimulating - food, (3) recovery through conjugation, or (4) the death of the cycle, - which would have ensued if 2 or 3 had been omitted at an earlier - stage, but which ultimately seems inevitable, even the induction of - conjugation failing to restore it. These physiological conditions were - first studied by E. Maupas, librarian to the city of Algiers, in his - pioneering work in the later 'eighties, and have been confirmed and - extended by later observers, among whom we may especially cite G. N. - Calkins. - - Syngamy, usually termed conjugation or "karyogamy," is of exceptional - character in the majority of this group--the Peritrichaceae alone - evincing an approximation to the usual typical process of the - permanent fusion of two cells (pairing-cells or gametes), cytoplasm to - cytoplasm, nucleus to nucleus, to form a new cell (coupled cell, - zygote). - - This process was elucidated by E. Maupas in 1889, and his results, - eagerly questioned and repeatedly tested, have been confirmed in every - fact and in every generalization of importance. - - Previously all that had been definitely made out was that under - certain undetermined conditions a fit of pairing two and two occurred - among the animals of the same species in a culture or in a locality in - the open; that after a union prolonged over hours, and sometimes even - days, the mates separated; that during the union the meganucleus - underwent changes of a degenerative character; and that the - micronucleus underwent repeated divisions, and that from the offspring - of the micronuclei the new nuclear apparatus was evolved for each - mate. Maupas discovered the biological conditions leading to - conjugation: (1) the presence of individuals belonging to distinct - stocks; (2) their belonging to a generation sufficiently removed from - previous conjugation, but not too far removed therefrom; (3) a - deficiency of food. He also showed that during conjugation a - "migratory" nucleus, the offspring of the divisions of the - micronucleus, passes from either mate to the other, while its sister - nucleus remains "stationary"; and that reciprocal fusion of the - migratory nucleus of the one mate with the stationary nucleus of the - other takes place to form a zygote nucleus in either mate; and that - from these zygote nuclei in each by division, at least two nuclei are - formed, the one of which enlarges to form a meganucleus, while the - other remains small as the first micronucleus of the new reorganized - animal, which now separates as an "exconjugate" (fig. iv). Moreover, - if pairing be prevented, or be not induced, the individuals produced - by successive fissions become gradually weaker, their nuclear - apparatus degenerates, and finally they cannot be induced under - suitable conditions to pair normally, so that the cycle becomes - extinct by senile decay. In Peritrichaceae the gametes are of unequal - sizes (fig. iii. 11, 12), the smaller being formed by brood fissions - (4 or 8); syngamy is here permanent, not temporary, the smaller (male) - being absorbed into the body of the larger (female); and there are - only two nuclei that pair. Thus we have a derived binary sexual - process, comparable to that of ordinary bisexual organisms. - - [Illustration: FIG. iii.-- Ciliata: 1, 2, Heterotrichaceae; 3-7, - 23-24, Oligotrichaceae; 8-22, 25, 26, Peritrichaceae. - - 1, _Spirostomum ambiguum_, Ehr.; on its left side oral groove and - wreath of membranellae; a, moniliform meganucleus; b, position of - contractile vacuole. - - 2, Group of _Stentor polymorphus_, O. F. Muller; the twisted end of - the peristome indicating the position of the mouth. - - 3, _Tintinnus lagenula_, Cl. and L., in free shell. - - 4, _Strombidium claparedii_, S. Kent. - - 5, Shell of _Codonella campanella_, Haeck. - - 6, 7, _Torquatella typica_, Lank. (= _Strombidium_ according to - Butschli); p, oral tube seen through peristomial wreath of - apparently coalescent membranellae. - - 8. Basal, and 9, side (inverted) views of _Trichodina pediculus_, - Ehr.; a, meganucleus; c, basal collar and ring of hooks; d, mouth; - contractile vacuole and oral tube seen by transparency in 8. - - 10, _Spirochona gammipara_, Stein; a, meganucleus; g, bud. - - 11, 12, _Vorticella microstoma_, Ehr.; d, formation of a brood of 8 - microgametes c by multiple fission; b, contr. vacuole. - - 13, Same sp. in binary fission; a, meganucleus. - - 14, _V. nebulifera_, Ehr.; bud swimming away by posterior wreath, - peristome contracted; e, peristomial disk; f, oral tube. - - 15, _V. microstoma_; b, contr. vacuole; c, d, two microgametes - seeking to conjugate. - - 16, _V. nebulifera_, contracted, with body encysted. - - 17, Same sp. enlarged; c, myonemes converging posteriorly to muscle - of stalk; d, micronucleus. - - 18, _Carchesium spectabile_, Ehr.; (X50). - - 19, Nematocysts of _Epistylis flavicans_. Ehr. (after Greeff). - - 20, _Opercularia stenostoma_, St.; (X200); a small colony showing - upstanding ("opercular") peristomial disk, protruded oral undulating - membranejand cilia in oral tube. - - 21, 22, _Pyxicola affinis_, S.K., with stalk and theca; x, chitinous - disk, or true "operculum" closing theca in retracted state. - - 23, 24, _Caenomorpha medusula_, Perty, (X250), with spiral - peristomial wreath. - - 25, 26, _Thuricola valvata_, Str. Wright, in sessile theca, with - internal valve (v) to close tube, as in gastropod _Clausilia_; owing - to recent fission two animals occupy one tube.] - - [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. - - FIG. iv.--Diagrammatic Sketch of Changes during Conjugation in - Ciliata. (From Hickson after Delage and Maupas.) - - 1, Two individuals at commencement of conjugation showing - meganucleus (dotted) and micronucleus; successive stages of the - disintegration of the meganucleus shown in all figures up to 9. - - 2, 3, First mitotic division of micronuclei. - - 4, 5, Second ditto. - - 6, One of the four nuclei resulting from the second division again - dividing to form the pairing-nuclei in either mate, while the other - 3 nuclei degenerate. - - 7, Migration of the migratory nuclei. - - 8, 9, Fusion of the incoming migratory with the stationary nucleus - in either mate. - - 10, Fission of Zygote nucleus into two, the new mega- and - micronucleus whose differentiation is shown in 11, 12. The vertical - dotted line indicates the separation of the mates.] - -CILIATA.--The _Ciliate_ Infusoria represent the highest type of -Protozoa. They are distinctly animal in function, and the Gymnostomaceae -are active predaceous beings preying on other Infusoria or Flagellates. -Some possess shells (fig. iii. 3, 5, 21, 22, 25, 26), most have a -distinct swallowing apparatus, and in _Dysteria_ there is a complex -jaw--or tooth-apparatus, which needs new investigation. In the active -Ciliata we find locomotive organs of most varied kinds: tail-springs, -cirrhi for crawling and darting, cilia and membranellae for continuous -swimming in the open or gliding over surfaces or waltzing on the -substratum (_Trichodina_, fig. iii. 8) or for eddying in wild turns -through the water (_Strombidium_, _Tintinnus_, _Halteria_). Their forms -offer a most interesting variety, and the flexibility of many adds to -their easy grace of movement, especially where the front of the body is -produced and elongated like the neck of a swan (_Amphileptus_, fig. iii. -5; _Lacrymaria_). - - The cytoplasm is very highly differentiated: especially the ectoplasm - or ectosarc. This has always a distinct elastic "pellicle" or limiting - layer, in a few cases hard, or even with local hardenings that affect - the disposition of a coat of mail (_Coleps_) or a pair of valves - (_Dysteria_); but is usually only marked into a rhomboidal network by - intersecting depressions, with the cilia occupying the centres of the - areas or meshes defined. The cytoplasm within is distinctly - alveolated, and frequently contains tubular alveoli running along the - length of the animal. Between these are dense fibrous thickenings, - which from their double refraction, from their arrangement, and from - their shortening in contracted animals are regarded as of muscular - function and termed "myonemes." Other threads running alongside of - these, and not shortening but becoming wavy in the general contraction - have been described in a few species as "neuronemes" and as possessing - a _nervous_, conducting character. On this level, too, lie the - dot-like granules at the bases of the cilia, which form definite - groups in the case of such organs as are composed of fused cilia; in - the deeper part of the ectoplasm the vacuoles or alveoli are more - numerous, and reserve granules are also found; here too exist the - canals, sometimes developed into a complex network, which open into - the contractile vacuole. - - [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. - - FIG. v.--Diagram 1 illustrating changes during conjugation of - _Colpidium colpoda_. (From Hickson, after Maupas.) - - M, Old meganucleus undergoing disintegration. - - m, Micronucleus. - - N, migratory, and - - S, Stationary pairing-nucleus. - - M', M', the new meganuclei, and - - m', The new micronuclei in the products of the first fission of each - of the exconjugates; the continuous vertical line indicates period - of fusion, its cessation, separation; dotted lines indicate fission; - the spaces lettered 1-7 successive stages in the process; the clear - circles indicate functionless nuclei which degenerate.] - - The cilia themselves have a stiffer basal part, probably strengthened - by an axial rod, and a distal flexible lash; when cilia are united by - the outer plasmatic layer, they form (1) "Cirrhi," stiff and either - hook-like and pointed at the end, or brush-like, with a frayed apex; - (2) membranelles, flattened organs composed of a number of cilia fused - side by side, sometimes on a single row, sometimes on two rows - approximated at either end so as to form a narrow oval, the - membranelle thus being hollow; (3) the oral "undulating membrane," - merely a very elongated membranelle whose base may extend over a - length nearly equal to the length of the animal; such membranes are - present in the mouth oral depression and pharynx of all but - Gymnostomaceae, and aid in ingestion; a second or third may be - present, and behave like active lips; (4) in Peritrichaceae the cilia - of the peristomial wreath are united below into a continuous - undulating membrane, forming a spiral of more than one turn, and fray - out distally into a fringe; (5) the dorsal cilia of Hypotrichaceae are - slender and motionless, probably sensory. - - Embedded in the ectosarc of many Ciliates are trichocysts, little - elongated sacs at right angles to the surface, with a fine hair-like - process projecting. On irritation these elongate into strong prominent - threads, often with a more or less barb-like head, and may be ejected - altogether from the body. Those over the surface of the body appear to - be protective; but in the Gymnostomaceae specially strong ones - surround the mouth. They can be injected into the prey pursued, and - appear to have a distinctly poisonous effect on it. They are combined - also into defensive batteries in the Gymnostome _Loxophyllum_. They - are absent from most Heterotrichaceae and Hypotrichaceae, and from - Peritrichaceae, except for a zone round the collar of the peristome. - - The openings of the body are the _mouth_, absent in a few parasital - species (_Opalinopsis_, fig. i. 1, 2), the _anus_ and the _pore_ of - the contractile vacuole. The _mouth_ is easily recognizable; in the - most primitive forms of the Gymnostomaceae and some other groups, it - is terminal, but it passes further and further back in more modified - species, thereby defining a ventral, and correspondingly a dorsal - surface; it usually lies on the left side. The anus is usually only - visible during excretion, though its position is permanent; in a few - genera it is always visible (e.g. _Nyctotherus_, fig. i. 16). The pore - of the contractile vacuole might be described in the same terms. - - The endoplasm has also an alveolar structure, and contains besides - large food-vacuoles or digestive vacuoles, and shows movements of - rotation within the ectoplasm, from which, however, it is not usually - distinctly bounded. In _Ophryoscolex_ and _Didinium_ (fig. i. 13) a - permanent cavity traverses it from mouth to anus. - - [Illustration: From Calkins' _Protozoa_, by permission of the - Macmillan Company, N.Y. - - FIG. vi.--Diagrammatic view of behaviour of the motile reaction of - Paramecium after meeting a mechanical obstruction at A. (From G. N. - Calkins after H. S. Jennings.) For clearness and simplicity the normal - motion is supposed to be straight instead of spiral.] - - Ingestion of food is of the same character in all the Hymenostomata. - The ciliary current drives a powerful stream into the mouth, which - impinges against the endosarc, carrying with it the food particles; - these adhere and accumulate to form a pellet, which ultimately is - pushed by an apparently sudden action into the substance of the - endosarc which closes behind it (fig. ii. 2). In some of the - Aspirotrichaceae accessory undulating membranes play the part of lips, - and there is a closer approximation to true deglutition. The mouth is - rarely terminal, more frequently at the bottom of a depression, the - "vestibule," which may be prolonged into a slender canal, sometimes - called the "pharynx" or "oral tube," ciliated as well as provided with - a membrane, and extending deep down into the body in many - Peritrichaceae. - - In Spirostomaceae the "adoral wreath" of membranelles encloses more or - less completely an anterior part of the body, the "peristome," within - which lies the vestibule. This area may be depressed, truncate, convex - or produced into a short obconical disk or into one or more lobes, or - finally form a funnel, or a twisted spiral like a paper cone. In most - Peritrichaceae a collar-like rim surrounds the peristome, and marks - out a gutter from which the vestibule opens; the peristome can be - retracted, and the collar close over it. This rim forms a deep - permanent spiral funnel in _Spirochona_ (fig. iii. 10). - - _Movements of Ciliata._--H. S. Jennings has made a very detailed study - of these movements, which resemble those of most minute free-swimming - organisms. The following account applies practically to all active - "Infusoria" in the widest sense. - - [Illustration: FIG. vii.--Diagram of a mode of progression of a - Ciliate like _Paramecium_; m, mouth and pharynx; the straight line A, - B, represents the axis of progression described by the posterior end, - and the spiral line the curve described by the anterior end; the clear - circles are the contractile vacuoles on the dorsal side.] - - The position of the free-swimming Infusoria, like that of Rotifers and - other small swimming animals, is with the front end of the body - inclined outward to the axis of advance, constantly changing its - azimuth while preserving its angle constant or nearly so; if advance - were ignored the body would thus rotate so as to trace out a cone, - with the hinder end at the apex, and the front describing the base. On - any irritation, (1) the motion is arrested, (2) the animal reverses - its cilia and swims backwards, (3) it swerves outwards away from the - axis so as to make a larger angle with it, and (4) then swims forwards - along a new axis of progression, to which it is inclined at the same - angle as to the previous axis (figs. vi., vii.). In this way it alters - its axis of progression when it finds itself under conditions of - stimulation. Thus a _Paramecium_ coming into a region relatively too - cold, too hot, or too poor in CO2 or in nutriment, alters its - direction of swimming; in this way individuals come to assemble in - crowds where food is abundant, or even where there is a slight excess - of CO2. This reaction may lead to fatal results; if a solution of - corrosive sublimate (Mercuric chloride) diffuses towards the hinder - end of the animal faster than it progresses, the stimulus affecting - the hinder end first, the axis of progression is altered so as to - bring the animal after a few changes into a region where the solution - is strong enough to kill it. This "motile reaction," first noted by H. - S. Jennings, is the explanation of the general reactions of minute - swimming animals to most stimuli of whatever character, including - light; the practical working out is, as he terms it, a method of - "trial and error." The action, however, of a current of electricity is - distinctly and immediately directive; but such a stimulus is not to be - found in nature. The motile reaction in the Hypotrichaceae which crawl - or dart in a straight line is somewhat different, the swerve being a - simple turn to the right hand--i.e. away from the mouth. - - Parasitism in the Infusoria is by no means so important as among - Flagellates. _Ichthyophthirius_ alone causes epidemics among Fishes, - and _Balantidium coli_ has been observed in intestinal disease in Man. - The Isotricheae, among Aspirotrichaceae and the Ophryoscolecidae among - Heterotrichaceae are found in abundance in the stomachs of Ruminants, - and are believed to play a part in the digestion of cellulose, and - thus to be rather commensals than parasites. A large number of - attached species are epizoic commensals, some very indifferent in - choice of their host, others particular not only in the species they - infest, but also in the special organs to which they adhere. This is - notably the case with the shelled Peritrichaceae. _Lichnophora_ and - _Trichodina_ (fig. iii. 8, 9) among Peritrichaceae are capable of - locomotion by their permanent posterior wreath or of attaching - themselves by the sucker which surrounds it; _Kerona polyporum_ glides - habitually over the body of Hydra, as does _Trichodina pediculus_. - - Several Suctoria are endoparasitic in Ciliata, and their occurrence - led to the view that they represented stages in the life-history of - these. Again, we find in the endosarc of certain Ciliates green - nucleated cells, which have a cellulose envelope and multiply by - fission inside or outside the animal. They are symbiotic Algae, or - possibly the resting state of a Chlamydomonadine Flagellate - (_Carteria_?), and have received the name _Zoochlorella_. They are of - constant occurrence in _Paramecium bursaria_, frequent in _Stentor - polymorphus_ and _S. igneus_, and _Ophrydium versatile_, and a few - other species, which become infected by swallowing them. - - - _Classification._ - - Order I.--Section A.--Gymnostomaceae. Mouth habitually closed; - swallowing an active process; cilia (or membranelles) uniform, usually - distributed evenly over the body; form variable, sometimes of circular - transverse section. - - Section B.--Trichostomata. Mouth permanently open against the - endosarc, provided with 1 or 2 undulating membranes often prolonged - into an inturned pharynx; ingestion by action of oral ciliary - apparatus. - - Order 2.--Subsection (a).--Aspirotrichaceae. Cilia nearly uniform, not - associated with cirrhi or membranelles, nor forming a peristomial - wreath. Form usually flattened, mouth unilateral. (N.B.--Orders 1, 2 - are sometimes united into the single order Holotrichaceae.) - - Subsection (b).--Spirotricha. Wreath of distinct membranelles--or of - cilia fused at the base--enclosing a peristomial area and leading into - the mouth. - - SS i.--Wreath of separate membranelles. - - Order 3.--Heterotrichaceae; body covered with fine uniform cilia, - usually circular in transverse section. - - Order 4.--Oligotrichaceae; body covering partial or wholly absent; - transverse section usually circular. - - Order 5.--Hypotrichaceae; body flattened; body cilia represented - chiefly by stiff cirrhi in ventral rows, and fine motionless dorsal - sensory hairs. - - Order 6.--SS ii.--Peritrichaceae. Peristomial ciliary wreath, spiral, - of cilia united at the base; posterior wreath circular of long - membranelles; body circular in section, cylindrical, taper, or - bell-shaped. - - - _Illustrative Genera (selected)._ - - 1. Gymnostomaceae. (a) Ciliation general or not confined to one - surface. _Coleps_ Ehr., with pellicle locally hardened into mailed - plates; _Trachelocerca_ Ehr.; _Prorodon_ Ehr. (fig. i. 6, 7); - _Trachelius_ Ehr., with branching endosarc (fig. i. 8); _Lacrymaria_ - Ehr. (fig. i. 5), body produced into a long neck with terminal mouth - surrounded by offensive trichocysts; _Dileptus_ Duj., of similar form, - but anterior process, blind, preoral; _Ichthyophthirius_ Fouquet (fig. - i. 9-12), cilia represented by two girdles of membranellae; _Didinium_ - St. (fig. i. 13), cilia in tufts, surface with numerous tentacles each - with a strong terminal trichocyst; _Actinobolus_ Stein, body with one - adoral tentacle; Ileonema Stokes. (b) Cilia confined to dorsal - surface. _Chilodon_ Ehr.; _Loxodes_ Ehr., body flattened, ciliated on - one side only, endosarc as in _Trachelius_; _Dysteria_ Huxley, with - the dorsal surface hardened and hinged along the median line into a - bivalve shell, ciliated only on ventral surface, with a protrusible - foot-like process, and a complex pharyngeal armature. (c) Cilia - restricted to a single equatorial girdle, strong (probably - membranelles); _Mesodinium_, mouth 4-lobed. - - 2. Aspirotrichaceae. _Paramecium_ Hill (fig. ii. 1-3); _Ophryoglena_ - Ehr.; _Colpoda_ O. F. Muller; _Colpidium_ St.; _Lembus_ Cohn, with - posterior strong cilium for springing; _Leucophrys_ St.; _Urocentrum_ - Nitsch, bare, with polar and equatorial zones and a posterior tuft of - long cilia; _Opalinopsis_ Foetlinger (fig. i. 1, 2); _Anoplophyra_ - St. (fig. i. 3, 4). (The last two parasitic mouthless genera are - placed here doubtfully.) - - 3. Heterotrichaceae. (a) Wreath spiral; _Stentor_ Oken. (fig. iii. 2), - oval when free, trumpet-shaped when attached by pseudopods at apex, - and then often secreting a gelatinous tube; _Blepharisma_ Perty, - sometimes parasitic in Heliozoa; _Spirostomum_ Ehr., cylindrical, up - to 1" in length; (b) Wreath straight, often oblique; _Nyctotherus_ - Leidy, parasitic anus always visible; _Balantidium_ Cl. and L., - parasitic (_B. coli_ in man); _Bursaria_, O.F.M., hollowed into an - oval pouch, with the wreath inside. - - 4. Oligotrichaeceae. _Tintinnus_ Schranck (fig. iii. 3); - _Trichodinopsis_ Cl. and L.; _Codonella_ Haeck. (fig. iii. 5); - _Strombidium_ Cl. and L. (fig. iii. 4), including _Torquatella_ Lank. - (fig. iii. 6, 7), according to Butschli; _Halteria_ Duj., with an - equatorial girdle of stiff bristle-like cilia; _Caenomorpha_ Perty - (fig. iii. 23, 24); _Ophryoscolex_ St., with straight digestive - cavity, and visible anus, parasitic in Ruminants. - - 5. Hypotrichaceae. _Stylonychia_ Ehr.; _Oxytricha_ Ehr.; _Euplotes_ - Ehr. (fig. i. 14, 15); _Kerona_ Ehr. (epizoic on _Hydra_). - - 6. Peritrichaceae. 1. Peristomial wreath projecting when expanded - above a circular contractile collar-like rim. - - (a) Fam. Urceolaridae: posterior wreath permanently present around - sucker-like base. _Trichodina_ Ehr. (fig. iii. 8, 9), epizoic on - Hydra; _Lichnophora_ Cl. and L.; _Cyclochaeta_ Hatchett Jackson; - _Gerda_ Cl. and L.; _Scyphidia_ Duj. - - (b) Fam. Vorticellidae = Bell Animalcules: posterior wreath - temporarily present, shed after fixation. - - Subfam. 1. Vorticellinae animals naked. (i.) Solitary; _Vorticella_ - Linn. (fig. iii. 11-17), stalk hollow with spiral muscle; _Pyxidium_ - S. Kent, stalk non-contractile. (ii.) Forming colonies by budding on a - branched stalk: _Carchesium_ Ehr., hollow branches and muscles - discontinuous; _Zoothamnium_. Ehr., branched hollow stem and muscle - continuous through colony; _Epistylis_ Ehr., stalk rigid--(the animal - body in these three genera has the same characters as - _Vorticella_)--_Campanella_ Goldf., stalked like _Epistylis_, wreath - of many turns (nematocysts sometimes present) (fig. iii. 19); - _Opercularia_, stalk of _Epistylis_, disk supporting wreath obconical, - collar very high (fig. iii. 20). - - Subfam. 2. Vaginicolinae; body enclosed in a firm theca: _Vaginicola_ - Lam., shell simple, sessile; _Thuricola_ St. Wright, shell sessile, - with a valve opening inwards (fig. iii. 25-26); _Cothurnia_ Ehr., - shell stalked, simple; _Pyxicola_ S. Kent, shell stalked, closed by an - infraperistomial opercular thickening on the body (fig. iii. 21-22). - - Subfam. 3. Shells gelatinous; those of the colony aggregated into a - floating spheroidal mass several inches in diameter _Ophrydium_ Bory, - _O. versatile_ contains _Zoochlorella_, which secretes oxygen, and the - gas-bubbles float the colonies like green lumps of jelly. - - 2. Peristomial wreath, not protrusible, surrounded by a very high - usually spiral collar. - - Fam. Spirochonina. _Spirochona_ St. (fig. iii. 10); _Kentrochona_ - Rompel; both genera epizoic on gills, &c., of small Crustacea. - -SUCTORIA.--These are distinguished from Ciliata by their possession of -hollow tentacles (one only in _Rhyncheta_, fig. viii. 1, and _Urnula_) -through which they ingest food, and by not possessing cilia, except in -the young stage. Fission approximately equal is very rare. Usually it is -unequal, or if nearly equal one of the halves remains attached, and the -other, as an embryo or gemmule, develops cilia and swims off to attach -itself elsewhere; _Sphaerophrya_ (fig. viii. 2-6) alone, often occurring -as an endoparasite in Ciliata, may be free, tentaculate and unattached. - - The ectosarc is usually provided with a firm pellicle which shows a - peculiar radiate "milling" in optical section, so fine that its true - nature is difficult to make out; it may be due to radial rods, - regularly imbedded, or may be the expression of radial vacuoles. The - tentacles vary in many respects, but are always retractile. They are - tubes covered by an extension of the pellicle; this is invaginated - into the body round the base of the tentacle as a sheath, and then - evaginated to form the outer layer of the tentacle itself, over which - it is frequently raised into a spiral ridge, which may be traced down - into the part sunk and ensheathed within the body: in _Choanophrya_, - where the tentacles are largest, the pellicle is further continued - into the interior of the tentacle. The tentacles are always pierced by - a central canal opening at the apex, which may be (1) enlarged into a - terminal capitate sucker, (2) slightly flared, (3) truncate and closed - in the resting state to become widely opened into a funnel, or (4) - pointed. The tentacles are always capable of being waved from side to - side, or turned in a definite direction for the reception or - prehension of food; in _Rhyncheta_, the movements of the long single - tentacle recall those of an elephant's trunk, only they are more - extensive and more varied. In the majority of cases the food consists - of Ciliata; and the contents of the prey may be seen passing down the - canal of the sucker beyond where it becomes free from the general - surface. In _Choanophrya_ the food appears to consist of the debris of - the prey of the carnivorous host (_Cyclops_), which is sucked into the - wide funnel-shaped mouths of the tentacles--by what mechanism is - unknown. The endosarc is full of food-granules and reserve-granules - (oil, colouring matter and proteid). - - [Illustration: FIG. viii.--Suctoria (in all a, meganucleus; b, - contractile vacuole). - - 1, _Rhyncheta cyclopum_, Zenker; only a single tentacle and that - suctorial; epizoic on Cyclops. - - 2, _Sphaerophrya urostylae_, Maupas; normal adult; parasitic in - Ciliate _Urostyla_. - - 3, The same dividing by transverse fission, the anterior moiety with - temporarily developed cilia. - - 4, 5, 6, _Sphaerophrya stentorea_, Maupas. Parasitic in _Stentor_, - and at one time mistaken for its young. - - 7, _Trichophrya epistylidis_, Cl. and L. - - 8, _Hemiophrya gemmipara_, Hertwig. Example with six buds, into each - of which a branch of the meganucleus a is extended. - - 9, The same species, showing the two kinds of tentacles (the - suctorial and the pointed), and two contractile vacuoles b. - - 10, Ciliated embryo of _Podophrya steinii_, Cl. and L. - - 11, _Acineta grandis_, Saville Kent; showing pedunculated cup, and - animal with two bunches of entirely suctorial tentacles. - - 12, _Sphaerophrya magna_, Maupas. It has seized with its tentacles, - and is in the act of sucking out the juices of six examples of the - Ciliate _Colpoda parvifrons_. - - 13, _Podophrya elongata_, Cl. and L. - - 14, _Hemiophrya benedenii_, Fraip.; the suctorial tentacles - retracted. - - 15, _Dendrocometes paradoxus_, Stein. Parasitic on Gammarus pulex; - captured prey. - - 16, A single tentacle of _Podophrya_. R. Hertwig. - - 17-20, _Dendrosoma radians_, Ehr.:--17, free-swimming ciliated - embryo. 18, Earliest fixed condition of the embryo. 19, Later stage, - a single tentaculiferous process now developed. 20, Adult colony; c, - enclosed ciliated embryos; d, branching stolon; e, more minute - reproductive (?) bodies. - - 21, _Ophryodendron pedicellatum_, Hincks.] - - The meganucleus and the micronucleus are both usually single, but in - _Dendrosoma_ (fig. viii. 20), of which the body is branched, and the - meganucleus with it, there are numerous micronuclei. In most cases the - micronucleus has not been recorded, though from the similarity of - conjugation, and its presence in most cases of fission and budding - that have been accurately described, we may infer that it is always - present. In unequal fission the meganucleus sends a process into the - bud, while the micronucleus divides as in Ciliata. The bud may be - nearly equal to the remains of the original animal, or much smaller, - and in that case a depression surrounds it which may deepen so as to - form a brood-cavity, either communicating by a mere "birth-pore" with - the outside or entirely closed. In some cases the budding is multiple - (fig. viii. 8), and a large number of buds are formed and liberated at - the same time. In all cases the bud escapes without tentacles, and - possesses a characteristic supply of cilia, whose arrangement is - constant for the species. - - In some cases an adult may withdraw its tentacles, moult its pellicle - and develop an equipment of cilia and swim away: this is the case with - _Dendrocometes_, parasitic on _Gammarus_, when its host moults. - - The numerous species of Suctoria, often so abundant on various species - of _Cyclops_, are not found on the other freshwater Copepoda, - _Diaptomus_ and _Canthocamptus_, belonging indeed to other families. - Again, these Suctoria affect different positions, those found on the - antennae not being present on the mouth parts; the ventral part of the - thorax has another set; and the inside of the pleural fold another. - _Rhyncheta_ occupies the front of the "couplers" or median downgrowths - uniting the coxopodites of the swimming legs, and _Choanophrya_ - settles in the immediate neighbourhood of the mouth, preferably on the - epistoma, labrum and metastomatic region, but also on the adoral - appendages and in rare cases extends, when the settlement is - extensive, to the bases of the two pairs of antennae; while distinct - species of _Podophrya_ settle on the antennae, the front of the thorax - and the inside of the pleural folds. _Dendrocometes_ is common on the - gills of the freshwater shrimp (Amphipod) _Gammarus_ and - _Stylocometes_ on the gills and gill-covers of the Isopod Asellus, the - water-slater. The independence of the Acinetaria was threatened by the - erroneous view of Stein that they were phases in the life-history of - Vorticellidae. Small parasitic forms (_Sphaerophrya_) were also - regarded erroneously as the "acinetiform young" of Ciliata. They now - must be regarded as an extreme modification of the Protozoon series, - in which the differentiation of organs in a unicellular animal reaches - its highest point. - - - _Principal Genera._ - - 1. Unstalked simple forms. _Urnula_ Cl. and L., permanently ciliate; - _Rhyncheta_ Zenker (fig. viii. 1), on the limb couplers of _Cyclops_; - _Sphaerophrya_ Cl. and L. (fig. viii. 2-6, 12), endoparasitic in - Ciliata and formerly taken for embryos thereof, never attached; - _Trichophrya_ Cl. and L. (fig. viii. 7), of similar habits, but - temporarily attached, sessile. - - 2. Stalked simple forms; _Podophrya_ Ehr. (fig. viii. 10, 13, 16), - tentacles all knobbed or flared; _Ephelota_ Strethill Wright, - tentacles all pointed; _Hemiophrya_ S. Kent (fig. viii. 8, 9, 14), - tentacles of both kinds; _Choanophrya_ Hartog, tentacles thick, - truncate, very retractile, when expanded opening into funnels for - aspiration of floating prey, never for attachment--epizoic on - antero-ventral parts of _Cyclops_. - - 3. Cupped forms; _Solenophrya_ Cl. and L., cup sessile; _Acineta_ - Ehr., cup stalked; _Acinetopsis_ Butschli, like _Acineta_, but the cup - flattened, closed distally with only slit-like apertures ("pylomes") - for the bundles of tentacles; _Podocyathus_, like _Acineta_, but with - pointed as well as knobbed tentacles. - - 4. Tentacles in bundles at the tips of one or more processes or - branches of the body. _Ophryodendron_ Cl. and L., tentaculiferous - process single (fig. viii. 21); _Dendrocometes_ Stein (fig. viii. 15), - body rounded, processes repeatedly branched, epizoic on gills of - _Gammarus pulex_; _Dendrosoma_ Ehr. (fig. viii. 17-20), body freely - branched from a basal attached stolon, meganucleus branching with the - body. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(a) Infusoria in the widest sense: C. E. Ehrenberg. - _Die Infusionstierchen als vollkommene Organismen_ (1838); F. - Dujardin, _Zoophytes infusoires_ (1841). (b) Infusoria, including - Mastigophora: M. Perty, _Zur Kenntniss Kleinster Lebensformen_ (1852); - E. Claparede and J. Lachmann, _Etudes sur les infusoires_ _et les - Rhizopodes_ (1858-1861); F. von Stein, _Der Organismus der - Infusionstiere_ (1859-1883); W. Saville Kent, _A Manual of the - Infusoria_, including a description of all known Flagellate, Ciliate - and Tentaculiferous Protozoa (1880-1882). (c) Infusoria, as limited by - Butschli. O. Butschli, _Bronn's Tierreich_, vol. i. _Protozoa_, pt. 3 - _Infusoria_ (1887-1889), the most complete work existing, but without - specific diagnoses; S. J. Hickson, "The Infusoria" in Lankester's - _Treatise on Zoology_, vol. i. fasc. 2 (1903), a general account, well - illustrated, with a diagnosis of all genera. See also Delage and - Herouard, _Traite de Zoologie concrete_, vol. i. "La Cellule et les - Protozoaires" (1896), with an illustrated conspectus of the genera; E. - Maupas, "Recherches experimentales sur la multiplication des - Infusoires cilies," _Arch. zool. exp._ vi. (1888); and "Le - Rajeunissement karyogomique chez les Cilies," _ib._ vii. (1889); R. - Sand, _Etude monographique sur le groupe des Infusoires - tentaculiferes_ (Suctoria), (1899), with diagnoses of species; A. - Lang, _Lehrb. der vergleich, Anatomie der wirbellosen Tiere_, vol. i. - "Protozoa" (1901) (a view of comparative anatomy, physiology and - bionomics); Marcus Hartog, "Protozoa," in _Cambridge Natural History_, - i. (1906); H. S. Jennings, _Contributions to the Study of the - Behaviour of Lower Organisms_ (1904); G. N. Calkins, "Studies on the - Life History of Protozoa" (Life cycle of Paramecium), I. _Arch. Entw._ - xv. (1902), II. _Arch. Prot._ i. (1902), III. _Biol. Bull._ iii. - (1902), IV. _J. Exp. Zool._ i. (1904). Numerous papers dealing - especially with advances in structural knowledge have appeared in the - _Archiv fur Protistenkunde_, founded by F. Schaudinn in 1902. - (M. Ha.) - - - - -INGEBORG [INGEBURGE, INGELBURGE, INGELBORG, ISEMBURGE, Dan. INGIBJORG] -(c. 1176-1237 or 1238), queen of France, was the daughter of Valdemar -I., king of Denmark. She married in 1193 Philip II. Augustus, king of -France, but on the day after his marriage the king took a sudden -aversion to her, and wished to obtain a separation. During almost twenty -years he strained every effort to obtain from the church the declaration -of nullity of his marriage. The council of Compiegne acceded to his wish -on the 5th of November 1193, but the popes Celestine III. and Innocent -III. successively took up the defence of the unfortunate queen. Philip, -having married Agnes of Meran in June 1196, was excommunicated, and as -he remained obdurate, the kingdom was placed under an interdict. Agnes -was finally sent away, but Ingeborg, shut up in the chateau of Etampes, -had to undergo all sorts of privations and vexations. The king attempted -to induce her to solicit a divorce herself, or to enter a convent. At -last, however (1213), hoping perhaps to justify by his wife's claims his -pretensions to England, Philip was reconciled with Ingeborg, whose life -from henceforth was devoted to religion. She survived him more than -fourteen years, passing the greater part of the time in the priory of St -Jean at Corbeil, which she had founded. - - See Robert Davidson, _Philip II. August von Frankreich und Ingeborg_ - (Stuttgart, 1888); and E. Michael, "Zur Geschichte der Konigin - Ingelborg" in the _Zeitschrift fur Katholische Theologie_ (1890). - - - - -INGELHEIM (Ober-Ingelheim and Nieder-Ingelheim), the name of two -contiguous market-towns of Germany, in the grand-duchy of -Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Selz, near its confluence with the Rhine, 9 m. -W.N.W. of Mainz on the railway to Coblenz. Ober-Ingelheim, formerly an -imperial town, is still surrounded by walls. It has an Evangelical -church with painted windows representing scenes in the life of -Charlemagne, a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue. Its chief industry -is the manufacture of red wine. Pop. (1900) 3402. Nieder-Ingelheim has -an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and, in addition to wine, -manufactories of paper, chemicals, cement and malt. Pop. 3435. - -Nieder-Ingelheim is, according to one tradition, the birthplace of -Charlemagne, and it possesses the ruins of an old palace built by that -emperor between 768 and 774. The building contained one hundred marble -pillars, and was also adorned with sculptures and mosaics sent from -Ravenna by Pope Adrian I. It was extended by Frederick Barbarossa, and -was burned down in 1270, being restored by the emperor Charles IV. in -1354. Having passed into the possession of the elector palatine of the -Rhine, the building suffered much damage during a war in 1462, the -Thirty Years' War, and the French invasion in 1689. Only few remains of -it are now standing; but of the pillars, several are in Paris, one is in -the museum at Wiesbaden and another on the Schillerplatz in Mainz. -Inside its boundaries there is the restored Remigius Kirche, apparently -dating from the time of Frederick I. - - See Hilz, _Der Reichspalast zu Ingelheim_ (Ober-Ingelheim, 1868); and - Clemen, "Der Karolingische Kaiserpalast zu Ingelheim," in - _Westdeutsche Zeitschrift_, Band ix. (Trier, 1890). - - - - -INGELOW, JEAN (1820-1897), English poet and novelist, was born at -Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the 17th of March 1820. She was the daughter -of William Ingelow, a banker of that town. As a girl she contributed -verses and tales to the magazines under the pseudonym of "Orris," but -her first (anonymous) volume, _A Rhyming Chronicle of Incidents and -Feelings_, did not appear until her thirtieth year. This Tennyson said -had "very charming things" in it, and he declared he should "like to -know" the author, who was later admitted to his friendship. Miss Ingelow -followed this book of verse in 1851 with a story, _Allerton and Dreux_, -but it was the publication of her _Poems_ in 1863 which suddenly raised -her to the rank of a popular writer. They ran rapidly through numerous -editions, were set to music, and sung in every drawing-room, and in -America obtained an even greater hold upon public estimation. In 1867 -she published _The Story of Doom and other Poems_, and then gave up -verse for a while and became industrious as a novelist. _Off the -Skelligs_ appeared in 1872, _Fated to be Free_ in 1873, _Sarah de -Berenger_ in 1880, and _John Jerome_ in 1886. She also wrote _Studies -for Stories_ (1864), _Stories told to a Child_ (1865), _Mopsa the Fairy_ -(1869), and other excellent stories for children. Her third series of -_Poems_ was published in 1885. She resided for the last years of her -life in Kensington, and somewhat outlived her popularity as a poet. She -died on the 20th of July 1897. Her poems, which were collected in one -volume in 1898, have often the genuine ballad note, and as a writer of -songs she was exceedingly successful. "Sailing beyond Seas" and "When -Sparrows build" in _Supper at the Mill_ were deservedly among the most -popular songs of the day; but they share, with the rest of her work, the -faults of affectation and stilted phraseology. Her best-known poem was -the "High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire," which reached the highest -level of excellence. The blemishes of her style were cleverly indicated -in a well-known parody of Calverley's; a false archaism and a deliberate -assumption of unfamiliar and unnecessary synonyms for simple objects -were among the most vicious of her mannerisms. She wrote, however, in -verse with a sweetness which her sentiment and her heart inspired, and -in prose she displayed feeling for character and the gift of narrative; -while a delicate underlying tenderness is never wanting in either medium -to her sometimes tortured expression. Miss Ingelow was a woman of frank -and hospitable manners, with a look of the Lady Bountiful of a country -parish. She had nothing of the professional authoress or the "literary -lady" about her, and, as with characteristic simplicity she was -accustomed to say, was no great reader. Her temperament was rather that -of the improvisatore than of the professional author or artist. - - - - -INGEMANN, BERNHARD SEVERIN (1789-1862), Danish poet and novelist, was -born at Torkildstrup, in the island of Falster, on the 28th of May 1789. -He was educated at the grammar school at Slagelse, and entered the -university of Copenhagen in 1806. His studies were interrupted by the -English invasion, and on the first night of the bombardment of the city -Ingemann stood with the young poet Blicher on the walls, while the -shells whistled past them, and comrades were killed on either side. All -his early and unpublished writings were destroyed when the English -burned the town. In 1811 he published his first volume of poems, and in -1812 his second, followed in 1813 by a book of lyrics entitled _Procne_ -and in 1814 the verse romance, _The Black Knights_. In 1815 he published -two tragedies, _Masaniello and Blanca_, followed by _The Voice in the -Desert_, _The Shepherd of Tolosa_, and other romantic plays. After a -variety of publications, all very successful, he travelled in 1818 to -Italy. At Rome he wrote _The Liberation of Tasso_, and returned in 1819 -to Copenhagen. In 1820 he began to display his real power in a volume of -delightful tales. In 1821 his dramatic career closed with the production -of an unsuccessful comedy, _Magnetism in a Barber's Shop_. In 1822 the -poet was nominated lector in Danish language and literature at Soro -College, and he now married. _Valdemar the Great and his Men_, an -historical epic, appeared in 1824. The next few years were occupied with -his best and most durable work, his four great national and historical -novels of _Valdemar Seier_, 1826; _Erik Menved's Childhood_, 1828; _King -Erik_, 1833; and _Prince Otto of Denmark_, 1835. He then returned to -epic poetry in _Queen Margaret_, 1836, and in a cycle of romances, -_Holger Danske_, 1837. His later writings consist of religious and -sentimental lyrics, epic poems, novels, short stories in prose, and -fairy tales. His last publication was _The Apple of Gold_, 1856. In 1846 -Ingemann was nominated director of Soro College, a post from which he -retired in 1849. He died on the 24th of February 1862. Ingemann enjoyed -during his lifetime a popularity unapproached even by that of -Ohlenschlager. His boundless facility and fecundity, his sentimentality, -his religious melancholy, his direct appeal to the domestic affections, -gave him instant access to the ear of the public. His novels are better -than his poems; of the former the best are those which are directly -modelled on the manner of Sir Walter Scott. As a dramatist he outlived -his reputation, and his unwieldy epics are now little read. - - Ingemann's works were collected in 41 vols. at Copenhagen (1843-1865). - His autobiography was edited by Galskjot in 1862; his correspondence - by V. Heise (1879-1881); and his letters to Grundtvig by S. Grundtvig - (1882). See also H. Schwanenflugel, _Ingemanns Liv og Digtning_ - (1886); and Georg Brandes, _Essays_ (1889). - - - - -INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN (1833-1899), American lawyer and lecturer, was -born in Dresden, New York, on the 11th of August 1833. His father was a -Congregational minister, who removed to Wisconsin in 1843 and to -Illinois in 1845. Robert, who had received a good common-school -education, was admitted to the bar in 1854, and practised law with -success in Illinois. Late in 1861, during the Civil War, he organized a -cavalry regiment, of which he was colonel, until captured at Lexington, -Tennessee, on the 18th of December 1862, by the Confederate cavalry -under General N. B. Forrest. He was paroled, waited in vain to be -exchanged, and in June 1863 resigned from the service. He was -attorney-general of Illinois in 1867-1869, and in 1876 his speech in the -Republican National Convention, naming James G. Blaine for the -Presidential candidate, won him a national reputation as a public -speaker. As a lawyer he distinguished himself particularly as counsel -for the defendants in the "Star-Route Fraud" trials. He was most widely -known, however, for his public lectures attacking the Bible, and his -anti-Christian views were an obstacle to his political advancement. -Ingersoll was an eloquent rhetorician rather than a logical reasoner. He -died at Dobbs Ferry, N.Y., on the 21st of July 1899. - - His principal lectures and speeches were published under the titles: - _The Gods and Other Lectures_ (1876); _Some Mistakes of Moses_ (1879); - _Prose Poems_ (1884); _Great Speeches_ (1887). His lectures, entitled - "The Bible," "Ghosts," and "Foundations of Faith," attracted - particular attention. His complete works were published in 12 vols. in - New York in 1900. - - - - -INGERSOLL, a town and port of entry of Oxford county, Ontario, Canada, -19 m. E. of London, on the river Thames and the Grand Trunk and Canadian -Pacific railways. Pop. (1901) 4572. The principal manufactures are -agricultural implements, furniture, pianos and screws. There is a large -export trade in cheese and farm produce. - - - - -INGHAM, CHARLES CROMWELL (1796-1863), American artist, was born in -Dublin, Ireland. He was a pupil of the Dublin Academy, emigrated to the -United States at the age of twenty-one, and immediately became -identified with the art life of that country, being one of the founders -of the National Academy of New York in 1826 and its vice-president from -1845 to 1850. He painted portraits of the reigning beauties of New York -and acquired considerable reputation, continuing to practise his -profession until his death, in New York, on the 10th of December 1863. - - - - -INGHIRAMI, the name of an Italian noble family of Volterra. The -following are its most important members: - -TOMMASO INGHIRAMI (1470-1516), a humanist, is best known for his Latin -orations, seven of which were published in 1777. His success in the part -of Phaedra in a presentation of Seneca's _Hippolytus_ (or _Phaedra_) led -to his being generally known as _Fedra_. He received high honours from -Alexander VI., Leo X. and Maximilian I. - -FRANCESCO INGHIRAMI (1772-1846), a distinguished archaeologist, fought -in the French wars (1799), and afterwards devoted himself especially to -the study of Etruscan antiquities. He founded a college at Fiesole and -collected, though without critical insight, a mass of valuable material -in his _Monumenti etruschi_ (10 vols., 1820-1827), _Galleria omerica_ (3 -vols., 1829-1851), _Pitture di vasi fittili_ (1831-1837), _Museo etrusco -chiusino_ (2 vols., 1833), and the incomplete _Storia della Toscana_ -(1841-1845): these works were elaborately illustrated. - -His brother, GIOVANNI INGHIRAMI (1779-1851), was an astronomer of -repute. He was professor of astronomy at the Institute founded by -Ximenes in Florence and published beside a number of text-books -_Effemeridi dell' occultazione delle piccole stelle sotto la luna_ -(1809-1830); _Effemeridi di Venese e Giove all' uso de' naviganti_ -(1821-1824); _Tavole astronomichi universali portatili_ (1811); _Base -trigonometrica misurata in Toscana_ (1818); _Carta topografica e -geometrica della Toscana_ (1830). - - - - -INGLEBY, CLEMENT MANSFIELD (1823-1886), English Shakespearian scholar, -was born at Edgbaston, Birmingham, on the 29th of October 1823, the son -of a solicitor. After taking his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge, -he entered his father's office, eventually becoming a partner. In 1859 -he abandoned the law and left Birmingham to live near London. He -contributed articles on literary, scientific and other subjects to -various magazines, but from 1874 devoted himself almost entirely to -Shakespearian literature. His first work in this field had been an -exposure of the manipulations of John Payne Collier, entitled _The -Shakespeare Fabrications_ (1859); his work as a commentator began with -_The Still Lion_ (1874), enlarged in the following year into -_Shakespeare Hermeneutics_. In this book many of the then existing -difficulties of Shakespeare's text were explained. In the same year -(1875) he published the _Centurie of Prayse_, a collection of references -to Shakespeare and his works between 1592 and 1692. His _Shakespeare: -the Man and the Book_ was published in 1877-1881; he also wrote -_Shakespeare's Bones_ (1882), in which he suggested the disinterment of -Shakespeare's bones and an examination of his skull. This suggestion, -though not due to vulgar curiosity, was regarded, however, by public -opinion as sacrilegious. He died on the 26th of September 1886, at -Ilford, Essex. Although Ingleby's reputation now rests solely on his -works on Shakespeare, he wrote on many other subjects. He was the author -of hand-books on metaphysic and logic, and made some contributions to -the study of natural science. He was at one time vice-president of the -New Shakspere Society, and one of the original trustees of the -"Birthplace." - - - - -INGLEFIELD, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1820-1894), British admiral and -explorer, was born at Cheltenham, on the 27th of March 1820, and -educated at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth. His father was -Rear-Admiral Samuel Hood Inglefield (1783-1848), and his grandfather -Captain John Nicholson Inglefield (1748-1828), who served with Lord Hood -against the French. The boy went to sea when fourteen, took part in the -naval operations on the Syrian Coast in 1840, and in 1845 was promoted -to the rank of commander for gallant conduct at Obligado. In 1852 he -commanded Lady Franklin's yacht "Isabel" on her cruise to Smith Sound, -and his narrative of the expedition was published under the title of _A -Summer Search for Sir John Franklin_ (1853). He received the gold medal -of the Royal Geographical Society on his return and was given command of -the "Phoenix," in which he made three trips to the Arctic, bringing home -part of the Belcher Arctic expedition in 1854. In that year he was again -sent out on the last attempt made by the Admirally to find Sir John -Franklin. - -In the Crimean War Captain Inglefield took part in the siege of -Sevastopol. He was knighted in 1877, and nominated a Knight Commander of -the Bath ten years later. He was promoted admiral in 1879. Besides being -an excellent marine artist, he was the inventor of the hydraulic -steering gear and the Inglefield anchor. He died on the 5th of September -1894. His son, Captain Edward Fitzmaurice Inglefield (b. 1861), became -secretary of Lloyds in 1906. Sir Edward Inglefield's brother, -Rear-Admiral V. O. Inglefield, was the father of Rear-Admiral Frederick -Samuel Inglefield (b. 1854), director of naval intelligence in -1902-1904, and of two other sons distinguished as soldiers. - - - - -INGLE-NOOK (from Lat. _igniculus_, dim. of _ignis_, fire), a corner or -seat by the fireside, within the chimney-breast. The open Tudor or -Jacobean fire-place was often wide enough to admit of a wooden settle -being placed at each end of the embrasure of which it occupied the -centre, and yet far enough away not to be inconveniently hot. This was -one of the means by which the builder sought to avoid the draughts which -must have been extremely frequent in old houses. English literature is -full of references, appreciatory or regretful, to the cosy ingle-nook -that was killed by the adoption of small grates. Modern English and -American architects are, however, fond of devising them in houses -designed on ancient models, and owners of old buildings frequently -remove the modern grates and restore the original arrangement. - - - - -INGLIS, SIR JOHN EARDLEY WILMOT (1814-1862), British major-general, was -born in Nova Scotia on the 15th of November 1814. His father was the -third, and his grandfather the first, bishop of that colony. In 1833 he -joined the 32nd Foot, in which all his regimental service was passed. In -1837 he saw active service in Canada, and in 1848-1849 in the Punjab, -being in command at the storming of Mooltan and at the battle of Gujrat. -In 1857, on the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny, he was in command of his -regiment at Lucknow. Sir Henry Lawrence being mortally wounded during -the siege of the residency, Inglis took command of the garrison, and -maintained a successful defence for 87 days against an overwhelming -force. He was promoted to major-general and made K.C.B. After further -active service in India, he was, in 1860, given command of the British -troops in the Ionian Islands. He died at Hamburg on the 27th of -September 1862. - - - - -INGLIS, SIR WILLIAM (1764-1835), British soldier, was born in 1764, a -member of an old Roxburghshire family. He entered the army in 1781. -After ten years in America he served in Flanders, and in 1796 took part -in the capture of St Lucia. In 1809 he commanded a brigade in the -Peninsula, taking part in the battle of Busaco (1810) and the first -siege of Badajoz. At Albuera his regiment, the 57th, occupied a most -important position, and was exposed to a deadly fire. "Die hard! -Fifty-Seventh," cried Inglis, "Die hard!" The regiment's answer has gone -down to history. Out of a total strength of 579, 23 officers and 415 -rank and file were killed and wounded. Inglis himself was wounded. On -recovering, he saw further Peninsular service. In two engagements his -horse was shot under him. His services were rewarded by the thanks of -parliament and in 1825 he became lieutenant-general, and was made a -K.C.B. After holding the governorships of Kinsale and Cork, he was, in -1830, appointed colonel of the 57th. He died at Ramsgate on the 29th of -November 1835. - - - - -INGOLSTADT, a fortified town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on -the left bank of the Danube at its confluence with the Schutter, 52 m. -north of Munich, at the junction of the main lines of railway, Munich, -Bamberg and Regensburg-Augsburg. Pop. (1900) 22,207. The principal -buildings are the old palace of the dukes of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, now -used as an arsenal; the new palace on the Danube; the remains of the -earliest Jesuits' college in Germany, founded in 1555; the former -university buildings, now a school; the theatre; the large Gothic -Frauenkirche, founded in 1425, with two massive towers, containing -several interesting monuments, among them the tomb of Dr Eck, Luther's -opponent; the Franciscan convent and nunnery; and several other churches -and hospitals. Ingolstadt possesses several technical and other -schools. In 1472 a university was founded in the town by the Bavarian -duke, Louis the Rich, which at the end of the 16th century was attended -by 4000 students. In 1800 it was removed to Landshut, whence it was -transferred to Munich in 1826. Its newer public buildings include an -Evangelical church, a civil hospital, an arsenal and an orphanage. The -industries are cannon-founding, manufacture of gunpowder and cloth, and -brewing. - -Ingolstadt, known as _Aureatum_ or _Chrysopolis_, was a royal villa in -the beginning of the 9th century, and received its charter of civic -incorporation before 1255. After that date it grew in importance, and -became the capital of a dukedom which merged in that of Bavaria-Munich. -The fortifications, erected in 1539, were put to the test during the -contests of the Reformation period and in the Thirty Years' War. -Gustavus Adolphus vainly besieged Ingolstadt in 1632, when Tilly, to -whom there is a monument in the Frauenkirche, lay mortally wounded -within the walls. In the War of the Spanish Succession it was besieged -by the margrave of Baden in 1704. In 1743 it was surrendered by the -French to the Austrians, and in 1800, after three months' siege, the -French, under General Moreau, took the town, and dismantled the -fortifications. They were rebuilt on a much larger scale under King -Louis I., and since 1870 Ingolstadt has ranked as a fortress of the -first class. In 1872 even more important fortifications were -constructed, which include tetes-de-pont with round towers of massive -masonry, and the redoubt Tilly on the right bank of the river. - - See Gerstner, _Geschichte der Stadt Ingolstadt_ (Munich, 1853); and - Prantl, _Geschichte der Ludwig Maximilians Universitat_ (Munich, - 1872). - - - - -INGOT, originally a mould for the casting of metals, but now a mass of -metal cast in a mould, and particularly the small bars of the precious -metals, cast in the shape of an oblong brick or wedge with slightly -sloping sides, in which form gold and silver are handled as bullion at -the Bank of England and the Mint. Ingots of varying sizes and shapes are -cast of other metals, and "ingot-steel" and "ingot-iron" are technical -terms in the manufacture of iron and steel (see IRON AND STEEL). The -word is obscure in origin. It occurs in Chaucer ("The Canon's Yeoman's -Tale") as a term of alchemy, in the original sense of a mould for -casting metal, and, as the _New English Dictionary_ points out, an -English origin for such a term is unlikely. It may, however, be derived -from _in_ and the O. Eng. _geotan_ to pour; cf. Ger. _giessen_ and -_Einguss_, a mould. The Fr. _lingot_, with the second English meaning -only, has been taken as the origin of "ingot" and derived from the Lat. -_lingua_, tongue--with a supposed reference to the shape. This -derivation is wrong, and French etymologists have now accepted the -English origin for the word, _lingot_ having coalesced from _l'ingot_. - - - - -INGRAM, JAMES (1774-1850), English antiquarian and Anglo-Saxon scholar, -was born near Salisbury on the 21st of December 1774. He was educated at -Warminster and Winchester schools and at Trinity College, Oxford, of -which he became a fellow in 1803. From 1803 to 1808 he was Rawlinsonian -professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford, and in 1824 was made President of -Trinity College and D.D. His time, however, was principally spent in -antiquarian research, and especially in the study of Anglo-Saxon, in -which field he was the pre-eminent scholar of his time. He published in -1823 an edition of the _Saxon Chronicle_. His other works include -admirable _Memorials of Oxford_ (1832-1837), and _The Church in the -Middle Centuries_ (1842). He died on the 5th of September 1850. - - - - -INGRAM, JOHN KELLS (1823-1907), Irish scholar and economist, was born in -Co. Donegal, Ireland, on the 7th of July 1823. Educated at Newry School -and Trinity College, Dublin, he was elected a fellow of his college in -1846. He held the professorship of Oratory and English Literature in -Dublin University from 1852 to 1866, when he became regius professor of -Greek. In 1879 he was appointed librarian. Ingram was remarkable for his -versatility. In his undergraduate days he had written the well-known -poem "Who fears to speak of Ninety-eight?" and his _Sonnets and other -Poems_ (1900) reveal the poetic sense. He contributed many important -papers to mathematical societies on geometrical analysis, and did much -useful work in advancing the science of classical etymology, notably in -his _Greek and Latin Etymology in England_, _The Etymology of Liddell -and Scott_. His philosophical works include _Outlines of the History of -Religion_ (1900), _Human Nature and Morals according to A. Comte_ -(1901), _Practical Morals_ (1904), and the _Final Transition_ (1905). He -contributed to the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ an -historical and biographical article on political economy, which was -translated into nearly every European language. His _History of Slavery -and Serfdom_ was also written for the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia -Britannica_. He died in Dublin on the 18th of May 1907. - - - - -INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE (1780-1867), French painter, was born at -Montauban, on the 29th of August 1780. His father, for whom he -entertained the most tender and respectful affection, has described -himself as _sculpteur en platre_; he was, however, equally ready to -execute every other kind of decorative work, and now and again eked out -his living by taking portraits or obtained an engagement as a -violin-player. He brought up his son to command the same varied -resources, but in consequence of certain early successes--the lad's -performance of a concerto of Viotti's was applauded at the theatre of -Toulouse--his attention was directed chiefly to the study of music. At -Toulouse, to which place his father had removed from Montauban in 1792, -Ingres had, however, received lessons from Joseph Roques, a painter whom -he quitted at the end of a few months to become a pupil of M. Vigan, -professor at the academy of fine arts in the same town. From Vigan, -Ingres, whose vocation became day by day more distinctly evident, passed -to M. Briant, a landscape-painter who insisted that his pupil was -specially gifted by nature to follow the same line as himself. For a -while Ingres obeyed, but he had been thoroughly aroused and enlightened -as to his own objects and desires by the sight of a copy of Raphael's -"Madonna della Sedia," and, having ended his connexion with Briant, he -started for Paris, where he arrived about the close of 1796. He was then -admitted to the studio of David, for whose lofty standard and severe -principles he always retained a profound appreciation. Ingres, after -four years of devoted study, during which (1800) he obtained the second -place in the yearly competition, finally carried off the Grand Prix -(1801). The work thus rewarded--the "Ambassadors of Agamemnon in the -Tent of Achilles" (Ecole des Beaux Arts)--was admired by Flaxman so much -as to give umbrage to David, and was succeeded in the following year -(1802) by the execution of a "Girl after Bathing," and a woman's -portrait; in 1804 Ingres exhibited "Portrait of the First Consul" (Musee -de Liege), and portraits of his father and himself; these were followed -in 1806 by "Portrait of the Emperor" (Invalides), and portraits of M, -Mme, and Mlle Riviere (the first two now in the Louvre). These and -various minor works were executed in Paris (for it was not until 1809 -that the state of public affairs admitted of the re-establishment of the -Academy of France at Rome), and they produced a disturbing impression on -the public. It was clear that the artist was some one who must be -counted with; his talent, the purity of his line, and his power of -literal rendering were generally acknowledged; but he was reproached -with a desire to be singular and extraordinary. "Ingres," writes Frau v. -Hastfer (_Leben und Kunst in Paris_, 1806) "wird nach Italien gehen, und -dort wird er vielleicht vergessen dass er zu etwas Grossem geboren ist, -und wird eben darum ein hohes Ziel erreichen." In this spirit, also, -Chaussard violently attacked his "Portrait of the Emperor" (_Pausanias -Francais_, 1806), nor did the portraits of the Riviere family escape. -The points on which Chaussard justly lays stress are the strange -discordances of colour--such as the blue of the cushion against which -Mme Riviere leans, and the want of the relief and warmth of life, but he -omits to touch on that grasp of his subject as a whole, shown in the -portraits of both husband and wife, which already evidences the strength -and sincerity of the passionless point of view which marks all Ingres's -best productions. The very year after his arrival in Rome (1808) Ingres -produced "Oedipus and the Sphinx" (Louvre; lithographed by Sudre, -engraved by Gaillard), a work which proved him in the full possession of -his mature powers, and began the "Venus Anadyomene" (Collection Rieset; -engraving by Pollet), completed forty years later, and exhibited in -1855. These works were followed by some of his best portraits, that of -M. Bochet (Louvre), and that of Mme la Comtesse de Tournon, mother of -the prefect of the department of the Tiber; in 1811 he finished "Jupiter -and Thetis," an immense canvas now in the Musee of Aix; in 1812 "Romulus -and Acron" (Ecole des Beaux Arts), and "Virgil reading the _Aeneid_"--a -composition very different from the version of it which has become -popular through the engraving executed by Pradier in 1832. The original -work, executed for a bedchamber in the Villa Aldobrandini-Miollis, -contained neither the figures of Maecenas and Agrippa nor the statue of -Marcellus; and Ingres, who had obtained possession of it during his -second stay in Rome, intended to complete it with the additions made for -engraving. But he never got beyond the stage of preparation, and the -picture left by him, together with various other studies and sketches, -to the Musee of his native town, remains half destroyed by the process -meant for its regeneration. The "Virgil" was followed by the "Betrothal -of Raphael," a small painting, now lost, executed for Queen Caroline of -Naples; "Don Pedro of Toledo Kissing the Sword of Henry IV." (Collection -Deymie; Montauban), exhibited at the Salon of 1814, together with the -"Chapelle Sistine" (Collection Legentil; lithographed by Sudre), and the -"Grande Odalisque" (Collection Seilliere; lithographed by Sudre). In -1815 Ingres executed "Raphael and the Fornarina" (Collection Mme N. de -Rothschild; engraved by Pradier); in 1816 "Aretin" and the "Envoy of -Charles V." (Collection Schroth), and "Aretin and Tintoret" (Collection -Schroth); in 1817 the "Death of Leonardo" (engraved by Richomme) and -"Henry IV. Playing with his Children" (engraved by Richomme), both of -which works were commissions from M. le Comte de Blacas, then ambassador -of France at the Vatican. "Roger and Angelique" (Louvre; lithographed by -Sudre), and "Francesca di Rimini" (Musee of Angers; lithographed by -Aubry Lecomte), were completed in 1819, and followed in 1820 by "Christ -giving the Keys to Peter" (Louvre). In 1815, also, Ingres had made many -projects for treating a subject from the life of the celebrated duke of -Alva, a commission from the family, but a loathing for "cet horrible -homme" grew upon him, and finally he abandoned the task and entered in -his diary--"J'etais force par la necessite de peindre un pareil tableau; -Dieu a voulu qu'il restat en ebauche." During all these years Ingres's -reputation in France did not increase. The interest which his "Chapelle -Sistine" had aroused at the Salon of 1814 soon died away; not only was -the public indifferent, but amongst his brother artists Ingres found -scant recognition. The strict classicists looked upon him as a renegade, -and strangely enough Delacroix and other pupils of Guerin--the leaders -of that romantic movement for which Ingres, throughout his long life, -always expressed the deepest abhorrence--alone seem to have been -sensible of his merits. The weight of poverty, too, was hard to bear. In -1813 Ingres had married; his marriage had been arranged for him with a -young woman who came in a business-like way from Montauban, on the -strength of the representations of her friends in Rome. Mme Ingres -speedily acquired a faith in her husband which enabled her to combat -with heroic courage and patience the difficulties which beset their -common existence, and which were increased by their removal to Florence. -There Bartolini, an old friend, had hoped that Ingres might have -materially bettered his position, and that he might have aroused the -Florentine school--a weak offshoot from that of David--to a sense of its -own shortcomings. These expectations were disappointed. The good offices -of Bartolini, and of one or two other persons, could only alleviate the -miseries of this stay in a town where Ingres was all but deprived of the -means of gaining daily bread by the making of those small portraits for -the execution of which, in Rome, his pencil had been constantly in -request. Before his departure he had, however, been commissioned to -paint for M. de Pastoret the "Entry of Charles V. into Paris," and M. -de Pastoret now obtained an order for Ingres from the Administration of -Fine Arts; he was directed to treat the "Voeu de Louis XIII." for the -cathedral of Montauban. This work, exhibited at the Salon of 1824, met -with universal approbation: even those sworn to observe the -unadulterated precepts of David found only admiration for the "Voeu de -Louis XIII." On his return Ingres was received at Montauban with -enthusiastic homage, and found himself celebrated throughout France. In -the following year (1825) he was elected to the Institute, and his fame -was further extended in 1826 by the publication of Sudre's lithograph of -the "Grande Odalisque," which, having been scorned by artists and -critics alike in 1819, now became widely popular. A second commission -from the government called forth the "Apotheosis of Homer," which, -replaced by a copy in the decoration of the ceiling for which it was -designed, now hangs in the galleries of the second storey of the Louvre. -From this date up till 1834 the studio of Ingres was thronged, as once -had been thronged the studio of David, and he was a recognized _chef -d'ecole_. Whilst he taught with despotic authority and admirable wisdom, -he steadily worked; and when in 1834 he produced his great canvas of the -"Martyrdom of Saint Symphorien" (cathedral of Autun; lithographed by -Trichot-Garneri), it was with angry disgust and resentment that he found -his work received with the same doubt and indifference, if not the same -hostility, as had met his earlier ventures. The suffrages of his pupils, -and of one or two men--like Decamps--of undoubted ability, could not -soften the sense of injury. Ingres resolved to work no longer for the -public, and gladly availed himself of the opportunity to return to Rome, -as director of the Ecole de France, in the room of Horace Vernet. There -he executed "La Vierge a l'Hostie" (Imperial collections, St -Petersburg), "Stratonice," "Portrait of Cherubini" (Louvre), and the -"Petite Odalisque" for M. Marcotte, the faithful admirer for whom, in -1814, Ingres had painted the "Chapelle Sistine." The "Stratonice," -executed for the duke of Orleans, had been exhibited at the Palais Royal -for several days after its arrival in France, and the beauty of the -composition produced so favourable an impression that, on his return to -Paris in 1841, Ingres found himself received with all the deference that -he felt to be his due. A portrait of the purchaser of "Stratonice" was -one of the first works executed after his return; and Ingres shortly -afterwards began the decorations of the great hall in the Chateau de -Dampierre, which, unfortunately for the reputation of the painter, were -begun with an ardour which gradually slackened, until in 1849 Ingres, -having been further discouraged by the loss of his faithful and -courageous wife, abandoned all hope of their completion, and the -contract with the duc de Luynes was finally cancelled. A minor work, -"Jupiter and Antiope," marks the year 1851, but Ingres's next -considerable undertaking (1853) was the "Apotheosis of Napoleon I.," -painted for the ceiling of a hall in the Hotel de Ville; "Jeanne d'Arc" -(Louvre) appeared in 1854; and in 1855 Ingres consented to rescind the -resolution, more or less strictly kept since 1834, in favour of the -International Exhibition, where a room was reserved for his works. -Prince Napoleon, president of the jury, proposed an exceptional -recompense for their author, and obtained from the emperor Ingres's -nomination as grand officer of the Legion of Honour. With renewed -confidence Ingres now took up and completed one of his most charming -productions--"La Source" (Louvre), a figure of which he had painted the -torso in 1823, and which seen with other works in London (1862) there -renewed the general sentiment of admiration, and procured him, from the -imperial government, the dignity of senator. After the completion of "La -Source," the principal works produced by Ingres were with one or two -exceptions ("Moliere" and "Louis XIV.," presented to the Theatre -Francais, 1858; "Le Bain Turc," 1859), of a religious character; "La -Vierge de l'Adoption," 1858 (painted for Mlle Roland-Gosselin), was -followed by "La Vierge Couronnee" (painted for Mme la Baronne de -Larinthie) and "La Vierge aux Enfans" (Collection Blanc); in 1859 these -were followed by repetitions of "La Vierge a l'Hostie"; and in 1862 -Ingres completed "Christ and the Doctors" (Musee Montauban), a work -commissioned many years before by Queen Marie Amelie for the chapel of -Bizy. - -On the 17th of January 1867 Ingres died in his eighty-eighth year, -having preserved his faculties in wonderful perfection to the last. For -a moment only--at the time of the execution of the "Bain Turc," which -Prince Napoleon was fain to exchange for an early portrait of the master -by himself--Ingres's powers had seemed to fail, but he recovered, and -showed in his last years the vigour which marked his early maturity. It -is, however, to be noted that the "Saint Symphorien" exhibited in 1834 -closes the list of the works on which his reputation will chiefly rest; -for "La Source," which at first sight seems to be an exception, was -painted, all but the head and the extremities, in 1821; and from those -who knew the work well in its incomplete state we learn that the -after-painting, necessary to fuse new and old, lacked the vigour, the -precision, and the something like touch which distinguished the original -execution of the torso. Touch was not, indeed, at any time a means of -expression on which Ingres seriously calculated; his constant employment -of local tint, in mass but faintly modelled in light by half tones, -forbade recourse to the shifting effects of colour and light on which -the Romantic school depended in indicating those fleeting aspects of -things which they rejoiced to put on canvas;--their methods would have -disturbed the calculations of an art wholly based on form and line. -Except in his "Sistine Chapel," and one or two slighter pieces, Ingres -kept himself free from any preoccupation as to depth and force of colour -and tone; driven, probably by the excesses of the Romantic movement into -an attitude of stricter protest, "ce que l'on sait" he would repeat, "il -faut le savoir l'epee a la main." Ingres left himself therefore, in -dealing with crowded compositions, such as the "Apotheosis of Homer" and -the "Martyrdom of Saint Symphorien," without the means of producing the -necessary unity of effect which had been employed in due measure--as the -Stanze of the Vatican bear witness--by the very master whom he most -deeply reverenced. Thus it came to pass that in subjects of one or two -figures Ingres showed to the greatest advantage: in "Oedipus," in the -"Girl after Bathing," the "Odalisque" and "La Source"--subjects only -animated by the consciousness of perfect physical well-being--we find -Ingres at his best. One hesitates to put "Roger and Angelique" upon this -list, for though the female figure shows the finest qualities of -Ingres's work,--deep study of nature in her purest forms, perfect -sincerity of intention and power of mastering an ideal conception--yet -side by side with these the effigy of Roger on his hippogriff bears -witness that from the passionless point of view, which was Ingres's -birthright, the weird creatures of the fancy cannot be seen. - - A graphic account of "Ingres, sa vie et ses travaux," and a complete - catalogue of his works, were published by M. Delaborde in 1870, and - dedicated to Mme Ingres, _nee_ Ramel, Ingres's devoted second wife, - whom he married in 1852. Allusions to the painter's early days will be - found in Delecluze's _Louis David_; and amongst less important notices - may be cited that by Theophile Silvestre in his series of living - artists. Most of Ingres's important works are engraved in the - collection brought out by Magimel. (E. F. S. D.) - - - - -INGRESS (Lat. _ingressus_, going in), entrance as opposed to exit or -egress; in astronomy, the apparent entrance of a smaller body upon the -disk of a larger one, as it passes between the latter and the observer; -in this sense it is applied especially to the beginning of a transit of -a satellite of Jupiter over the disk of the planet. - - - - -INHAMBANE, a seaport of Portuguese East Africa in 23 deg. 50' S., 35 -deg. 25' E. The town, which enjoys a reputation for healthiness, is -finely situated on the bank of a river of the same name which empties -into a bay also called Inhambane. Next to Mozambique Inhambane, which -dates from the middle of the 16th century, is architecturally the most -important town in Portuguese East Africa. The chief buildings are the -fort, churches and mosque. The principal church is built with stone and -marble brought from Portugal. The population, about 4000 in 1909, is of -a motley character: Portuguese and other Europeans, Arabs, Banyans, -half-castes and negroes. Its commerce was formerly mostly in ivory and -slaves. In 1834 Inhambane was taken and all its inhabitants save ten -killed by a Zulu horde under Manikusa (see GAZALAND). It was not until -towards the close of the 19th century that the trade of the town -revived. The value of exports and imports in 1907 was about L150,000. -The chief exports are wax, rubber, mafureira and other nuts, mealies and -sugar. Cotton goods and cheap wines (for consumption by natives) are the -principal imports. The harbour, about 9 m. long by 5 wide, accommodates -vessels drawing 10 to 12 ft. of water. The depth of water over the bar -varies from 17 to 28 ft., and large vessels discharge into and load from -lighters. Inhambane is the natural port for the extensive and fertile -district between the Limpopo and Sabi rivers. This region is the best -recruiting ground for labourers in the Rand gold mines. Mineral oils -have been found within a short distance of the port. - - - - -INHERITANCE. In English law, inheritance, heir and other kindred words -have a meaning very different from that of the Latin _haeres_, from -which they are derived. In Roman law the heir or heirs represented the -entire legal personality of the deceased--his _universum jus_. In -English law the heir is simply the person on whom the real property of -the deceased devolves by operation of law if he dies intestate. He has -nothing to do as heir with the personal property; he is not appointed by -will; and except in the case of coparceners he is a single individual. -The Roman _haeres_ takes the whole estate; his appointment may or may -not be by testament; and more persons than one may be associated -together as heirs. - -The devolution of an inheritance in England is now regulated by the -rules of descent, as altered by the Inheritance Act 1833, amended by the -Law of Property Amendment Act 1859. - -1. The first rule is that inheritance shall descend to the issue of the -last "purchaser." A purchaser in law means one who acquires an estate -otherwise than by descent, e.g. by will, by gratuitous gift, or by -purchase in the ordinary meaning of the word. This rule is one of the -changes introduced by the Inheritance Act, which further provides that -"the person last entitled to the land shall be considered the purchaser -thereof unless it be proved that he inherited the same." Under the -earlier law descent was traced from the last person who had "seisin" or -feudal possession, and it was occasionally a troublesome question -whether the heir or person entitled had ever, in fact, acquired such -possession. Now the only inquiry is into title, and each person entitled -is presumed to be in by purchase unless he is proved to be in by -descent, so that the stock of descent is the last person entitled who -cannot be shown to have inherited. 2. The male is admitted before the -female. 3. Among males of equal degree in consanguinity to the -purchaser, the elder excludes the younger; but females of the same -degree take together as "coparceners." 4. Lineal descendants take the -place of their ancestor. Thus an eldest son dying and leaving issue -would be represented by such issue, who would exclude their father's -brothers and sisters. 5. If there are no lineal descendants of the -purchaser, the next to inherit is his nearest lineal ancestor. This is a -rule introduced by the Inheritance Act. Under the former law inheritance -never went to an ancestor--collaterals, however remote of the person -last seized being preferred even to his father. Various explanations -have been given of this seemingly anomalous rule--Bracton and Blackstone -being content to say that it rests on the law of nature, by which heavy -bodies gravitate downwards. Another explanation is that estates were -granted to be descendible in the same way as an ancient inheritance, -which having passed from father to son _ex necessitate_ went to -collaterals on failure of issue of the person last seized. 6. The sixth -rule is thus expressed by Joshua Williams in his treatise on _The Law of -Real Property_:-- - - "The father and all the male paternal ancestors of the purchaser and - their descendants shall be admitted before any of the female paternal - ancestors or their heirs; all the female paternal ancestors and their - heirs before the mother or any of the maternal ancestors or her or - their descendants; and the mother and all the male maternal ancestors - and her and their descendants before any of the female maternal - ancestors or their heirs." - -7. Kinsmen of the half-blood may be heirs; such kinsmen shall inherit -next after a kinsman in the same degree of the whole blood, and after -the issue of such kinsman where the common ancestor is a male and next -after the common ancestor where such ancestor is a female. The admission -of kinsmen of the half-blood into the chain of descent is an alteration -made by the Inheritance Act. Formerly a relative, however nearly -connected in blood with the purchaser through one only and not both -parents, could never inherit--a half-brother for example. 8. In the -admission of female paternal ancestors, the mother of the more remote -male paternal ancestor and her heirs shall be preferred to the mother of -the less remote male paternal and her heirs; and, in the case of female -maternal ancestors, the mother of the more remote male maternal ancestor -shall be preferred to the mother of a less remote male maternal -ancestor. This rule, following the opinion of Blackstone, settles a -point much disputed by text-writers, although its importance was little -more than theoretical. 9. When there shall be a total failure of heirs -of the purchaser, or when any lands shall be descendible as if an -ancestor had been the purchaser thereof, and there shall be a total -failure of the heirs of such ancestor, then and in every such case the -descent shall be traced from the person last entitled to the land as if -he had been the purchaser thereof. This rule is enacted by the Law of -Property Amendment Act 1859. It would apply to such a case as the -following: Purchaser dies intestate, leaving a son and no other -relations, and the son in turn dies intestate; the son's relations -through his mother are now admitted by this rule. If the purchaser is -illegitimate, his only relations must necessarily be his own issue. -Failing heirs of all kinds, the lands of an intestate purchaser, not -alienated by him, would revert by "escheat" to the next immediate lord -of the fee, who would generally be the crown. If an intermediate -lordship could be proved to exist between the crown and the tenant in -fee simple, such intermediate lord would have the escheat. But escheat -is a matter of rare occurrence. - -The above rules apply to all freehold land whether the estate therein of -the intestate is legal or equitable. Before 1884, if a sole trustee had -the legal estate in realty, and his _cestui que trust_ died intestate -and without heirs, the land escheated to the trustee. This distinction -was abolished by the Intestate Estates Act 1884. - -The descent of an estate in tail would be ascertained by such of the -foregoing rules as are not inapplicable to it. By the form of the entail -the estate descends to the "issue" of the person to whom the estate was -given in tail--in other words, the last purchaser. The preceding rules -after the fourth, being intended for the ascertainment of heirs other -than those by lineal descent, would therefore not apply; and a special -limitation in the entail, such as to heirs male or female only, would -render unnecessary some of the others. When the entail has been barred, -the estate descends according to these rules. In copyhold estates -descent, like other incidents thereof, is regulated by the custom of -each particular manor; e.g. the youngest son may exclude the elder sons. -How far the Inheritance Act applies to such estates has been seriously -disputed. It has been held in one case (_Muggleton_ v. _Barnett_) that -the Inheritance Act, which orders descent to be traced from the last -purchaser, does not override a manorial custom to trace descent from the -person last seized, but this position has been controverted on the -ground that the act itself includes the case of customary holdings. - -Husband and wife do not stand in the rank of heir to each other. Their -interests in each other's real property are secured by courtesy and -dower. - -The personal property of a person dying intestate devolves according to -an entirely different set of rules (see INTESTACY). - - In Scotland the rules of descent differ from the above in several - particulars. Descent is traced, as in England before the Inheritance - Act, to the person last seized. The first to succeed are the lineal - descendants of the deceased, and the rules of primogeniture, - preference of males to females, equal succession of females - (heirs-portioners), and representation of ancestors are generally the - same as in English law. Next to the lineal descendants, and failing - them, come the brothers and sisters, and their issue as collaterals. - Failing collaterals, the inheritance ascends to the father and his - relations, to the entire exclusion of the mother and her relations. - Even when the estate has descended from mother to son, it can never - revert to the maternal line. As to succession of brothers, a - distinction must be taken between an estate of heritage and an estate - of conquest. Conquest is where the deceased has acquired the land - otherwise than as heir, and corresponds to the English term purchase - in the technical sense explained. Heritage is land acquired by - deceased as heir. The distinction is important only in the case when - the heir of the deceased is to be sought among his brothers; when the - descent is lineal, conquest and heritage go to the same person. And - when the brothers are younger than the deceased, both conquest and - heritage go to the brother (or his issue) next in order of age. But - when the deceased leaves an elder and a younger brother (or their - issues), the elder brother takes the conquest, the younger takes the - heritage. Again, when there are several elder brothers, the one next - in age to the deceased takes the conquest before the more remote, and - when there are several younger brothers, the one next to the deceased - takes the heritage before the more remote. When heritage of the - deceased goes to an elder brother (as might happen in certain - eventualities), the younger of the elder brothers is preferred. The - position of the father, after the brothers and sisters of the - deceased, will be noticed as an important point of difference from the - English axioms; so also is the total exclusion of the mother and the - maternal line. As between brothers and sisters the half-blood only - succeeds after the full blood. Half-blood is either consanguinean, as - between children by the same father, or uterine, as between children - having the same mother. The half-blood uterine is excluded altogether. - Half-blood consanguinean succeeds thus: if the issue is by a former - marriage, the youngest brother (being nearest to the deceased of the - consanguinean) succeeds first; if by a later marriage than that from - which the deceased has sprung, the eldest succeeds first. - -_United States._--American law has borrowed its rules of descent -considerably more from the civil law than the common law. "The 118 novel -of Justinian has a striking resemblance to American law in giving the -succession of estates to all legitimate children without distinction and -disregarding all considerations of primogeniture. There is one -particular in which the American law differs from that of Justinian, -that while generally in this country lineal descendants if they stand in -an equal degree from the common ancestor share equally _per capita_, -under the Roman law regard was had to the right of representation, each -lineal branch of descendants taking only the portion which their parent -would have taken had he been living, the division being _per stirpes_ -and not _per capita_. But in some of the states the rule of the Roman -law in this respect has been adopted and retained. Among these are Rhode -Island, New Jersey, North and South Carolina, Alabama and Louisiana" (3 -Washburn's _Real Property_, pp. 408, 409; 4 Kent's _Comm._ p. 375). When -such lineal descendants stand in unequal degrees of consanguinity the -inheritance is _per stirpes_ and not _per capita_ (_In re Prote_, 1907; -104, N.Y. Supplement 581). This is the rule in practically all the -states. But as in no two states or territories are the rules of descent -identical, the only safe guides are the statutes and decisions of the -particular state in which the land to be inherited is situated. The law -of primogeniture as understood in England is generally abolished -throughout the United States, and male and female relatives inherit -equally. In some states, as in Massachusetts, relatives of the -half-blood inherit equally with chose of the whole-blood of the same -degree; in others, like Maryland, they can inherit only in case none of -whole-blood exist. In some of the states the English rule that natural -children have no inheritable blood has been greatly modified. In -Louisiana, if duly acknowledged, they may inherit from both father and -mother in the absence of lawful issue. Degrees of kindred in the United -States generally are computed according to the civil law, i.e. by adding -together the number of degrees between each of the two persons whose -relationship is to be ascertained and the common ancestor. Thus, -relationship between two brothers is in the second degree; between uncle -and nephew in the third degree; between cousins, in the fourth, &c. - - In a few states such degrees are computed according to the common law, - i.e. by counting from the common ancestor to the most remote - descendant of the two from him--thus, brothers would be related in the - first degree, uncle and nephew in the second, &c. In most states - representation amongst collaterals is restricted--in some to the - descendants of brothers and sisters, in others to their children only. - - - In some states, e.g. in California, Louisiana and Texas, the law of - "community property" of husband and wife prevails. This is derived - from the French and Spanish law existing in the territories out of - which those states were formed, as the result of the conquest of - Mexico by Spain and the colonizing of Louisiana by France. The - foundation idea is an equal division at death of either party of all - property acquired during their marriage except by gift, devise or - descent. In general the husband has the control and management thereof - during the marriage, and either survivor has the administration of the - moiety of the one deceased. There is a conflict in the laws in such - states as to the exact definition and as to whether or not the gains - or profits of such property are to be deemed separate property or - community property [Succession of Dielman (Louisiana, 1907), 43 - Southern Rep. 972]. - - - - -INHIBITION (from Lat. _inhibere_, to restrain, prevent), an act of -restraint or prohibition, an English legal term, particularly used in -ecclesiastical law, for a writ from a superior to an inferior court, -suspending proceedings in a case under appeal, also for the suspension -of a jurisdiction of a bishop's court on the visitation of an -archbishop, and for that of an archdeacon on the visitation of a bishop. -It is more particularly applied to a form of ecclesiastical _censure_, -suspending an offending clergyman from the performance of any service of -the Church, or other spiritual duty, for the purpose of enforcing -obedience to a monition or order of the bishop or judge. Such -inhibitions are at the discretion of the ordinary if he considers that -scandal might arise from the performance of spiritual duties by the -offender (Church Discipline Act 1860, re-enacted by the Clergy -Discipline Act 1892, sect. 10). By the Sequestration Act 1871, sect. 5, -similar powers of inhibition are given where a sequestration remains in -force for more than six months, and also, by the Benefices Act 1898, in -cases where a commission reports that the ecclesiastical duties of a -benefice are inadequately performed through the negligence of the -incumbent. - - - - -INISFAIL, a poetical name for Ireland. It is derived from _Faul_ or -_Lia-fail_, the celebrated stone, identified in Irish legend with the -stone on which the patriarch Jacob slept when he dreamed of the heavenly -ladder. The Lia-fail was supposed to have been brought to Ireland by the -Dedannans and set up at Tara as the "inauguration stone" of the Irish -kings; it was subsequently removed to Scone where it became the -coronation stone of the Scottish kings, until it was taken by James VI. -of Scotland to Westminster and placed under the coronation chair in the -Abbey, where it has since remained. Inisfail was thus the island of the -Fail, the island whose monarchs were crowned at Tara on the sacred -inauguration stone. - - - - -INITIALS (Lat. _initialis_, of or belonging to a beginning, _initium_), -the first letters of names. In legal and formal documents it is usually -the practice in appending a signature to write the name in full. But -this is by no means necessary, even in cases where a signature is -expressly required by statute. It has been held that it is sufficient if -a person affixes to a document the usual form in which he signs his -name, with the intent that it shall be treated as his signature. So, -signature by initials is a good signature within the Statute of Frauds -(_Phillimore_ v. _Barry_, 1818, I Camp. 513), and also under the Wills -Act 1837 (_In re Blewitt_, 1880, 5 P.D. 116). - - - - -INITIATION (Lat. _initium_, beginning, entrance, from _inire_, to go -in), the process of formally entering, and especially the rite of -admission into, some office, or religious or secret society, &c. Among -nearly all primitive races initiatory rites of a bloody character were -and are common. The savage pays homage to strength, and the purpose of -his initiatory rites is to test physical vigour, self-control and the -power of enduring pain. Initiation is sometimes religious, sometimes -social, but in primitive society it has always the same character. Thus, -in Whydah (West Africa) the young girls consecrated to the worship of -the serpent, "the brides of the Serpent," had figures of flowers and -animals burnt into their skins with hot irons; while in the neighbouring -Yorubaland the power of enduring a sound thrashing is the qualification -for the throne. In no country was the practice of initiatory rites more -general than in the Americas. The Colombian Indians compelled their -would-be chief to submit to terrible tests. He had first to bear severe -beatings without a murmur. Then, placed in a hammock with his hands -tied, venomous ants were placed on his naked body. Finally a fire was -lit beneath him. All this he had to bear without flinching. In ancient -Mexico there were several orders of chivalry, entry into which was only -permitted after brutal initiation. The nose of the candidate was pierced -with an eagle's talon or a pointed bone, and he was expected to dig -knives into his body. In Peru the young Inca princes had to fast and -live for weeks without sleep. Among the North American Indians -initiatory rites were universal. The Mandans held a feast at which the -young "braves" supported the weight of their bodies on pieces of wood -skewered through the muscles of shoulders, breasts and arms. With the -Sioux, to become a medicine-man, it was necessary to submit to the -ordeal known as "looking at the sun." The sufferer, nearly naked, was -bound on the earth by cords passed through holes made in the pectoral -muscles. With bow and arrow in hand, he lay in this position all day -gazing at the sun. Around him his friends gathered to applaud his -courage. - -Religious brotherhoods of antiquity, too, were to be entered only after -long and complicated initiation. But here the character of the ordeal is -rather moral than physical. Such were the rites of admission to the -Mysteries of Isis and Eleusis. Secret societies of all ages have been -characterized by more or less elaborate initiation. That of the -Femgerichte, the famous medieval German secret tribunal, took place at -night in a cave, the neophyte kneeling and making oath of blind -obedience. Imitations of such tests are perpetuated to-day in -freemasonry; while the Mafia, the Camorra, the Clan-na-Gael, the Molly -Maguires, the Ku-Klux Klan, are among more recent secret associations -which have maintained the old idea of initiation. - - - - -INJECTOR (from Lat. _injicere_, to throw in), an appliance for supplying -steam-boilers with water, and especially used with locomotive boilers. -It was invented by the French engineer H. V. Giffard in 1858, and -presents the paradox that by the pressure of the steam in the boiler, or -even, as in the case of the exhaust steam injector, by steam at a much -lower pressure, water is forced into the boiler against that pressure. A -diagrammatic section illustrating its construction is shown in figure. -Steam enters at A and blows through the annular orifice C, the size of -which can be regulated by a valve not shown in the figure. The feed -water flows in at B and meeting the steam at C causes it to condense. -Hence a vacuum is produced at C, and consequently the water rushes in -with great velocity and streams down the combining cone D, its velocity -being augmented by the impact of steam on the back of the column. In the -lower part of the nozzle E the stream expands; it therefore loses -velocity and, by a well-known hydrodynamic principle, gains pressure, -until at the bottom the pressure is so great that it is able to enter -the boiler through a check valve which opens only in the direction of -the stream. An overflow pipe F, by providing a channel through which -steam and water may escape before the stream has acquired sufficient -energy to force its way into the boiler, allows the injector to start -into action. Means are also provided for regulating the amount of water -admitted between D and C. In the _exhaust-steam_ injector, which works -with steam from the exhaust of non-condensing engines, the steam orifice -is larger in proportion to other parts than in injectors working with -boiler steam, and the steam supply more liberal. In _self-starting_ -injectors an arrangement is provided which permits free overflow until -the injector starts into action, when the openings are automatically -adjusted to suit delivery into the boiler. - -[Illustration] - - - - -INJUNCTION (from Lat. _injungere_, to fasten, or attach to, to lay a -burden or charge on, to enjoin), a term-meaning generally a command, and -in English law the name for a judicial process whereby a party is -required to refrain from doing a particular thing according to the -exigency of the writ. Formerly it was a remedy peculiar to the court of -chancery, and was one of the instruments by which the jurisdiction of -that court was established in cases over which the courts of common law -were entitled to exercise control. The court of chancery did not presume -to interfere with the action of the courts, but, by directing an -injunction to the person whom it wished to restrain from following a -particular remedy at common law, it effected the same purpose -indirectly. Under the present constitution of the judicature, the -injunction is now equally available in all the divisions of the high -court of justice, and it can no longer be used to prevent an action in -any of them from proceeding in the ordinary course. - -Although an injunction is properly a restraining order, there are -instances in which, under the form of a prohibition, a positive order to -do something is virtually expressed. Thus in a case of nuisance an -injunction was obtained to restrain the defendant from preventing water -from flowing in such regular quantities as it had ordinarily done before -the day on which the nuisance commenced. But generally, if the relief -prayed for is to compel something to be done, it cannot be obtained by -injunction, although it may be expressed in the form of a -prohibition--as in the case in which it was sought to prevent a person -from discontinuing to keep a house as an inn. The injunction was used to -stay proceedings in other courts "wherever a party by fraud, accident, -mistake or otherwise had obtained an advantage in proceeding in a court -of ordinary jurisdiction, which must necessarily make that court an -instrument of injustice." As the injunction operates personally on the -defendant, it may be used to prevent applications to foreign -judicatures; but it is not used to prevent applications to parliament, -or to the legislature of any foreign country, unless such applications -be in breach of some agreement, and relate to matters of private -interest. In so far as an injunction is used to prohibit acts, it may be -founded either on an alleged contract or on a right independent of -contract. The jurisdiction of the court to prevent breaches of contract -has been described as supplemental to its power of compelling specific -performance; i.e. if the court has power to compel a person to perform a -contract, it will interfere to prevent him from doing anything in -violation of it. But even when it is not within the power of the court -to compel specific performance, it may interfere by injunction; thus, -e.g. in the case of an agreement of a singer to perform at the -plaintiff's theatre and at no other, the court, although it could not -compel her to sing, could by injunction prevent her from singing -elsewhere in breach of her agreement. - -An injunction may as a general rule be obtained to prevent acts which -are violations of legal rights, except when the same may be adequately -remedied by an action for damages at law. Thus the court will interfere -by injunction to prevent waste, or the destruction by a limited owner, -such as a tenant for life, of things forming part of the inheritance. -Injunctions may also be obtained to prevent the continuance of -nuisances, public or private, the infringement of patents, copyrights -and trade marks. Trespass might also in certain cases be prevented by -injunction. Under the Common Law Procedure Act of 1854, and by other -statutes in special cases, a limited power of injunction was conferred -on the courts of common law. But the Judicature Act, by which all the -superior courts of common law and chancery were consolidated, enacts -that an injunction may be granted by an interlocutory order of the court -in all cases in which it shall appear to be just or convenient; ... and, -if an injunction is asked either before or at or after the hearing of -any cause or matter, to prevent any threatened or apprehended waste or -trespass, such injunction may be granted whether the person against whom -it is sought is or is not in possession under any claim of title or -otherwise, or if not in possession does or does not claim to do the act -sought to be restrained under colour of any title, and whether the -estates claimed are legal or equitable. - -An injunction obtained on interlocutory application during the progress -of an action is superseded by the trial. It may be continued either -provisionally or permanently. In the latter case the injunction is said -to be perpetual. The distinction between "special" and "common" -injunctions--the latter being obtained as of course--is now abolished in -English law. - -In the courts of the United States the writ of injunction remains purely -an equitable remedy. It may be issued at the instance of the president -to prevent any organized obstruction to inter-state commerce or to the -passage of the mails (_in re_ Debs, 158 United States Reports, 564). -Temporary restraining orders may be issued, _ex parte_, pending an -application for a temporary injunction. In the state courts temporary -injunctions are often issued, _ex parte_, subject to the defendant's -right to move immediately for their dissolution. Generally, however, -notice of an application for a temporary injunction is required. - - For the analogous practice in Scots law see INTERDICT. - - - - -INK (from Late Lat. _encaustum_, Gr. [Greek: enkauston], the purple ink -used by Greek and Roman emperors, from [Greek: enkaiein], to burn in), -in its widest signification, a substance employed for producing graphic -tracings, inscriptions, or impressions on paper or similar materials. -The term includes two distinct conditions of pigment or colouring -matter: the one fluid, and prepared for use with a pen or brush, as -writing ink; the other a glutinous adhesive mass, printing ink, used for -transferring to paper impressions from types, engraved plates and -similar surfaces. - -The ancient Egyptians prepared and used inks (Flinders Petrie discovered -a papyrus bearing written characters as old as 2500 B.C.), and in China -the invention of an ink is assigned to Tien-Tcheu, who lived between -2697 B.C. and 2597 B.C. These early inks were prepared from charcoal or -soot mixed with gum, glue or varnish. Sepia (q.v.), the black pigment -secreted by the cuttle-fish, was used as a writing fluid by the Romans. -The iron-gall ink, i.e. an ink prepared from an iron salt and tannin, -appears to have been first described by the monk Theophilus, who lived -in the 11th century A.D., although Pliny, in the 1st century A.D., was -acquainted with the blackening of paper containing green vitriol by -immersion in an infusion of nut-galls. Iron-gall inks, prepared by -mixing extracts of galls, barks, &c., with green vitriol, subsequently -came into common use, and in the 16th century recipes for their -preparation were given in domestic encyclopaedias. Their scientific -investigation was first made by William Lewis in 1748. The earlier -iron-inks were essentially a suspension of the pigment in water. In the -early part of the 19th century the firm of Stephens introduced the first -of the so-called blue-black inks under the name of "Stephens' writing -fluid." Solutions of green vitriol and tannin, coloured by indigo and -logwood, were prepared, which wrote with a blue tint and blackened on -exposure, this change being due to the production of the pigment within -the pores of the paper. The "alizarine" inks, patented by Leonhardi in -1856, are similar inks with the addition of a little madder. The -application of aniline colours to ink manufacture in England dates from -Croc's patent of 1861. - -_Writing Inks._--Writing inks are fluid substances which contain -colouring matter either in solution or in suspension, and commonly -partly in both conditions. They may be prepared in all shades of colour, -and contain almost every pigment which can be dissolved or suspended in -a suitable medium. The most important of all varieties is black ink, -after which red and blue are most commonly employed. Apart from colour -there are special qualities which recommend certain inks for limited -applications, such as marking inks, ineradicable ink, sympathetic ink, -&c. A good writing ink for ordinary purposes should continue limpid, and -flow freely and uniformly from the pen; it should not throw down a thick -sludgy deposit on exposure to the air; nor should a coating of mould -form on its surface. It should yield distinctly legible characters -immediately on writing, not fading with age; and the fluid ought to -penetrate into the paper without spreading, so that the characters will -neither wash out nor be readily removed by erasure. Further, it is -desirable that ink should be non-poisonous, that it should as little as -possible corrode steel pens, that characters traced in it should dry -readily on the application of blotting paper without smearing, and that -the writing should not present a glossy, varnished appearance. - -_Tannin Inks._--These inks are prepared from galls, or other sources of -tannin, and a salt of iron, with the addition of some agglutinant in the -case of the so-called oxidized inks, or a colouring matter in the case -of unoxidized inks. Such mixtures form the staple black inks of -commerce; they are essentially an insoluble iron gallate in extremely -fine division held in suspension in water or a soluble compound -dissolved in water. - -On long exposure to air, as in inkstands, or otherwise, tannin inks -gradually become thick and ropy, depositing a slimy sediment. This -change on exposure is inevitable, resulting from the gradual oxidation -of the ferrous compound, and it can only be retarded by permitting -access of air to as small surfaces as possible. The inks also have a -tendency to become mouldy, an evil which may be obviated by the use of a -minute proportion of carbolic acid; or salicylic acid may be used. - -The essential ingredients of ordinary black ink are--first, -tannin-yielding bodies, for which Aleppo or Chinese galls are the most -eligible materials; second, a salt of iron, ferrous sulphate (green -vitriol) being alone employed; and third, a gummy or mucilaginous agent -to keep in suspension the insoluble tinctorial matter of the ink. For -ink-making the tannin has first to be transformed into gallic acid. In -the case of Aleppo galls this change takes place by fermentation when -the solution of the galls is exposed to the air, the tannin splitting up -into gallic acid and sugar. Chinese galls do not contain the ferment -necessary for inducing this change; and to induce the process yeast must -be added to their solution. To prepare a solution of Aleppo galls for -ink-making, the galls are coarsely powdered, and intimately mixed with -chopped straw. This mixture is thrown into a narrow deep oak vat, -provided with a perforated false bottom, and having a tap at the bottom -for drawing off liquid. Over the mixture is poured lukewarm water, -which, percolating down, extracts and carries with it the tannin of the -galls. The solution is drawn off and repeatedly run through the mixture -to extract the whole of the tannin, the water used being in such -proportion to the galls as will produce as nearly as possible a solution -having 5% of tannin. The object of using straw in the extraction process -is to maintain the porosity of the mixture, as powdered galls treated -alone become so slimy with mucilaginous extract that liquid fails to -percolate the mass. For each litre of the 5% solution about 45 grammes -of the iron salt are used, or about 100 parts of tannin for 90 parts of -crystallized green vitriol. These ingredients when first mixed form a -clear solution, but on their exposure to the air oxidation occurs, and -an insoluble blue-black ferrosoferric gallate in extremely fine -division, suspended in a coloured solution of ferrous gallate, is -formed. To keep the insoluble portion suspended, a mucilaginous agent is -employed, and those most available are gum senegal and gum arabic. An -ink so prepared develops its intensity of colour only after some -exposure; and after it has partly sunk into the paper it becomes -oxidized there, and so mordanted into the fibre. As the first faintness -of the characters is a disadvantage, it is a common practice to add some -adventitious colouring matter to give immediate distinctness, and for -that purpose either extract of logwood or a solution of indigo is used. -When logwood extract is employed, a smaller proportion of extract of -galls is required, logwood itself containing a large percentage of -tannin. For making an unoxidized or blue-black ink indigo is dissolved -in strong sulphuric acid, and the ferrous sulphate, instead of being -used direct, is prepared by placing in this indigo solution a proper -quantity of scrap iron. To free the solution from excess of uncombined -acid, chalk or powdered limestone is added, whereby the free acid is -fixed and a deposit of sulphate of lime formed. A solution so prepared, -mixed with a tannin solution, yields a very limpid sea-green writing -fluid, and as all the constituents remain in solution, no gum or other -suspending medium is necessary. In consequence the ink flows freely, is -easily dried and is free from the glossy appearance which arises through -the use of gum. - -_China ink_ or _Indian ink_ is the form in which ink was earliest -prepared, and in which it is still used in China and Japan for writing -with small brushes instead of pens. It is extensively used by -architects, engineers and artists generally, and for various special -uses. China ink is prepared in the form of sticks and cakes, which are -rubbed down in water for use. It consists essentially of lamp-black in -very fine condition, baked up with a glutinous substance; and the finer -Oriental kinds are delicately perfumed. The following description of the -manufacture as conducted in Japan is from a native source:-- - - "The body of the ink is soot obtained from pine wood or rosin, and - lamp-black from sesamum oil for the finest sort. This is mixed with - liquid glue made of ox-skin. This operation is effected in a large - round copper bowl, formed of two spherical vessels, placed 1 in. - apart, so that the space between can be filled up with hot water to - prevent the glue from hardening during the time it is being mixed by - hand with the lamp-black. The cakes are formed in wooden moulds, and - dried between paper and ashes. Camphor, or a peculiar mixture of - scents which comes from China, and a small quantity of carthamine (the - red colouring substance of safflower), are added to the best kinds for - improving the colour as well as for scenting the ink. There is a great - difference both in price and in quality of the various kinds of ink, - the finest article being rather costly." - -It is said that the size used in Chinese kinds is of vegetable origin. - -_Logwood Ink._--Under the name of chrome ink a black ink was discovered -by Runge, which held out the promise of cheapness combined with many -excellent qualities. It is prepared by dissolving 15 parts of extract of -logwood in 900 parts of water, to which 4 parts of crystallized sodium -carbonate are added. A further solution of 1 part of potassium chromate -(not bichromate) in 100 parts of water is prepared, and is added very -gradually to the other solution with constant agitation. The ink so -obtained possesses an intense blue-black colour, flows freely and dries -readily, is neutral in reaction and hence does not corrode steel pens, -and adheres to and sinks into paper so that manuscripts written with it -may be freely washed with a sponge without danger of smearing or -spreading. It forms a good copying ink, and it possesses all the -qualities essential to the best ink; but on exposure to air it very -readily undergoes decomposition, the colouring matter separating in -broad flakes, which swim in a clear menstruum. It is affirmed by Viedt -that this drawback may be overcome by the use of soda, a method first -suggested by Bottger. - -Logwood forms the principal ingredient in various other black inks used, -especially as copying ink. A very strong decoction of logwood or a -strong solution of the extract with ammonium-alum yields a violet ink -which darkens slowly on exposure. Such an ink is costly, on account of -the concentrated condition in which the logwood must be used. If, -however, a metallic salt is introduced, a serviceable ink is obtained -with the expenditure of much less logwood. Either sulphate of copper or -sulphate of iron may be used, but the former, which produces a pleasing -blue-black colour, is to be preferred. The following is the formula most -highly recommended for this ink. A clear solution of 20 kilos of extract -of logwood in 200 litres of water is obtained, to which is added, with -agitation, 10 kilos of ammonium-alum dissolved in 20 litres of boiling -water. The solution is acidified with 0.2 kilo of sulphuric acid, which -has the effect of preventing any deposit, and finally there is added a -solution of 1.5 kilos of sulphate of copper dissolved in 20 litres of -water. This compound is exposed to the air for a few days to allow the -colour to develop by oxidation, after which it is stored in well-corked -bottles. The acid condition of this ink has a corrosive influence on -steel pens; in all other respects it is a most valuable writing fluid. - -_Aniline Inks._--Solutions of aniline dye-stuffs in water are widely -used as inks, especially coloured varieties. They are usually fugitive. -Nigrosine is a black ink, which, although not producing a black so -intense as common ink, possesses various advantages. Being perfectly -neutral, it does not attack pens; it can easily be kept of a proper -consistency by making up with water; and its colour is not injuriously -affected by the action of acids. Its ready flow from stylographic pens -led to the name "stylographic ink." Other aniline inks are mentioned -below. - -_Copying Ink._--Ink which yields by means of pressure an impression, on -a sheet of damped tissue paper, of characters written in it is called -copying ink. Any ink soluble in water, or which retains a certain degree -of solubility, may be used as copying ink. Runge's chrome ink, being a -soluble compound, is, therefore, so available; and the other logwood -inks as well as the ordinary ferrous gallate inks contain also soluble -constituents, and are essentially soluble till they are oxidized in and -on the paper after exposure to the air. To render these available as -copying inks it is necessary to add to them a substance which will -retard the oxidizing effect of the air for some time. For this purpose -the bodies most serviceable are gum arabic or senegal, with glycerin, -dextrin or sugar, which last, however, renders the ink sticky. These -substances act by forming a kind of glaze or varnish over the surface of -the ink which excludes the air. At the same time when the damp sheet of -tissue paper is applied to the writing, they dissolve and allow a -portion of the yet soluble ink to be absorbed by the moistened tissue. -As copying ink has to yield two or more impressions, it is necessary -that it should be made stronger, i.e. that it should contain more -pigment or body than common ink. It, therefore, is prepared with from 30 -to 40% less of water than non-copying kinds; but otherwise, except in -the presence of the ingredients above mentioned, the inks are the same. -Copying ink pencils consist of a base of graphite and kaolin impregnated -with a very strong solution of an aniline colour, pressed into sticks -and dried. - -_Red Ink._--The pigment most commonly employed as the basis of red ink -is Brazil-wood. Such an ink is prepared by adding to a strong decoction -of the wood a proportion of stannous chloride (tin spirits), and -thickening the resulting fluid with gum arabic. In some instances alum -and cream of tartar are used instead of the stannous chloride. Cochineal -is also employed as the tinctorial basis of red ink; but, while the -resulting fluid is much more brilliant than that obtained from -Brazil-wood, it is not so permanent. A very brilliant red ink may be -prepared by dissolving carmine in a solution of ammonia, but this -preparation must be kept in closely stoppered bottles. A useful red ink -may also be made by dissolving the rosein of Brook, Simpson and Spiller -in water, in the proportion of 1 to from 150 to 200 parts. - -_Blue Ink._--For the production of blue ink the pigment principally used -is Prussian blue. It is first digested for two or three days with either -strong hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid or nitric acid, the digested -mass is next very largely diluted with water, and after settling the -supernatant liquid is siphoned away from the sediment. This sediment is -repeatedly washed, till all traces of iron and free acid disappear from -the water used, after which it is dried and mixed with oxalic acid in -the proportion of 8 parts of Prussian blue to 1 of the acid, and in this -condition the material is ready for dissolving in water to the degree of -colour intensity necessary. An aniline blue ink may be prepared by -dissolving 1 part of bleu de Paris in from 200 to 250 parts of water. - -_Marking Ink._--The ink so called, used principally for marking linen, -is composed of a salt of silver, usually the nitrate, dissolved in water -and ammonia, with a little provisional colouring matter and gum for -thickening. The colour resulting from the silver salt is developed by -heat and light; and the stain it makes, although exceedingly obstinate, -gradually becomes a faint brownish-yellow. The following yields a good -marking ink. Equal parts of nitrate of silver and dry tartaric acid are -triturated in a mortar, and treated with water, when a reaction takes -place, resulting in the formation of tartrate of silver and the -liberation of nitric acid. The acid is neutralized, and at the same time -the silver tartrate is dissolved by the addition of ammonia, and this -solution with colouring matter and gum forms the ink, which may be used -with an ordinary steel pen. - -Many vegetable juices, e.g. of _Coriaria thymifolia_, _Semecarpus_ -_anacardium_, _Anacardium occidentale_ (Cashew), are inks of this type. - -_Gold_ and _silver inks_ are writing fluids in which gold and silver, or -imitations of these metals, are suspended in a state of fine division. -In place of gold, Dutch leaf or mosaic gold is frequently substituted, -and bronze powders are used for preparing a similar kind of ink. The -metallic foil is first carefully triturated into a fine paste with -honey, after which it is boiled in water containing a little alkali, and -then repeatedly washed in hot water and dried at a gentle heat. A -solution is prepared consisting of 1 part of pure gum arabic and 1 part -of soluble potash glass in 4 parts of distilled water, into which the -requisite quantity of the metallic powder prepared is introduced. Owing -to the superior covering nature of pure gold, less of the metal is -required than is necessary in the case of silver and other foils. In -general 1 part of foil to 3 or 4 parts of solution is sufficient. The -metallic lustre of writing done with this solution may be greatly -heightened by gently polishing with a burnishing point. Another gold ink -depends upon the formation of purple of Cassius; the linen is mordanted -with stannous chloride, and the gold applied as a gummy solution of the -chloride. - -_Indelible_ or _incorrodible ink_ is the name given to various -combinations of lamp-black or other carbonaceous material with resinous -substances used for writing which is exposed to the weather or to the -action of strong acids or alkaline solutions. An ink having great -resisting powers may be conveniently prepared by rubbing down Indian ink -in common ink till the mixture flows easily from the pen. Other -combinations have more the character of coloured varnishes. - -_Sympathetic inks_ are preparations used for forming characters which -only become visible on the application of heat or of some chemical -reagent. Many chemicals which form in themselves colourless solutions, -but which develop colour under the influence of reagents, may be used as -sympathetic ink, but they are of little practical utility. Characters -written in a weak solution of galls develop a dark colour on being -treated with a solution of copperas; or, vice versa, the writing may be -done in copperas and developed by the galls solution. Writing done in -various preparations develops colour on heating which fades as the paper -cools. Among such substances are solutions of the chlorides of cobalt -and of nickel. Very dilute solutions of the mineral acids and of common -salt and a solution of equal parts of sulphate of copper and -sal-ammoniac act similarly. Writing with rice water and developing with -iodine was a device much used during the Indian Mutiny. - -_Printing Inks._--Printing inks are essentially mixtures of a pigment -and a varnish. The varnish is prepared from linseed oil, rosin and soap; -the oil must be as old as possible; the rosin may be black or amber; and -the soap, which is indispensable since it causes the ink to adhere -uniformly to the type and also to leave the type clean after taking an -impression, is yellow, or turpentine soap for dark inks, and curd soap -for light inks. The varnish is prepared as follows: The oil is carefully -heated until it "strings" properly, i.e. a drop removed from the vessel -on a rod, when placed upon a plate and the rod drawn away, forms a -thread about 1/2 in. long. The rosin is carefully and slowly added and the -mixture well stirred. The soap is then stirred in. The ink is prepared -by mixing the varnish with the pigment, and grinding the mass to -impalpable fineness either in a levigating mill or by a stone and -muller. For black ink, lamp-black mixed with a little indigo or Prussian -blue is the pigment employed; for wood engravings it may be mixed with -ivory black, and for copper plates with ivory or Frankfurt black; for -lithographic reproductions Paris black is used. Red inks are made with -carmine or cochineal; red lead is used in cheap inks, but it rapidly -blackens. Blue inks are made with indigo or Prussian blue; yellow with -lead chromate or yellow ochre; green is made by mixing yellow and blue; -and purple by mixing red and blue. - - See C. A. Mitchell and T. C. Hepworth, _Inks, their Composition and - Manufacture_ (1904); S. Lehner, _Ink Manufacture_ (1902); A. F. - Gouillon, _Encres et cirages_ (1906); L. E. Andes, _Schreib-, Kopier- - und andere Tinten_ (1906). - - - - - -INKERMAN, BATTLE OF, fought on the 5th of November 1854 between a -portion of the Allied English and French army besieging Sevastopol and a -Russian army under Prince Menshikov (see CRIMEAN WAR). This battle -derives its name from a ruin on the northern bank of the river Tchernaya -near its mouth, but it was fought some distance away, on a nameless -ridge (styled Mount Inkerman after the event) between the Tchernaya and -the Careenage Ravine, which latter marked the right of the siege-works -directed against Sevastopol itself. Part of this ridge, called Home -Ridge and culminating in a knoll, was occupied by the British, while -farther to the south, facing the battleground of Balaklava, a corps -under General Bosquet was posted to cover the rear of the besiegers -against attacks from the direction of Traktir Bridge. The Russians -arranged for a combined attack on the ridge above-mentioned by part of -Menshikov's army (16,000) and a corps (19,000) that was to issue from -Sevastopol. This attack was to have, beside its own field artillery, the -support of fifty-four heavy guns, and the Russian left wing on the -Balaklava battleground was to keep Bosquet occupied. If successful, the -attack on the ridge was to be the signal for a general attack all along -the line. It was apparently intended by Menshikov that the column from -the field army should attack the position from the north, and that the -Sevastopol column should advance along the west side of the Careenage -Ravine. But he only appointed a commander to take charge of both columns -at the last moment, and the want of a clear understanding as to what was -to be done militated against success from the first. General Soimonov, -with the Sevastopol column, after assembling his troops before dawn on -the 5th, led them on to the upland east of Careenage Ravine, while the -field army column, under General Pavlov, crossed the Tchernaya near its -mouth, almost at right angles to Soimonov's line of advance. - -[Illustration: Map of Inkerman.] - -The British troops on or near the ground were the 2nd Division, 3000, -encamped on the ridge; Codrington's brigade of the Light Division, 1400, -on the slopes west of the Careenage Ravine; and the Guards' brigade, -1350, about 3/4 m. in rear of the 2nd Division camp. No other forces, -French or British, were within 2 m. except another part of Sir George -Brown's Light Division. A mist overhung the field and the hillsides were -slippery with mud. Soimonov, with his whole force deployed in a normal -attack formation (three lines of battalion columns covered by a few -hundred skirmishers) pushed forward along the ridge (6 A.M.) without -waiting for Pavlov or for Dannenberg, the officer appointed to command -the whole force. Shell Hill, guarded only by a picquet, was seized at -once. The heavy guns that had been brought from the fortress were placed -in position on this hill, and opened fire (7 A.M.) on the knoll, 1400 -yds. to the S., behind which the 2nd Division was encamped. The Russian -infantry halted for the guns to prepare the way, and the heavy -projectiles both swept the crest of the British knoll and destroyed the -camp in rear. But already General Pennefather, commanding the division, -had pushed forward one body of his infantry after another down the -forward slope, near the foot of which they encountered the Russians in -great force. On his side, Soimonov had been compelled to break up his -regular lines of columns at the narrowest part of the ridge and to push -his battalions forward a few at a time. This and the broken character of -the ground made the battle even in the beginning a melee. The obscurity -of the mist, which had at first allowed the big battalions to approach -unobserved, now favoured the weaker side. Soimonov himself, however, -formed up some 9000 men, who drove back the British left wing--for the -whole of Pennefather's force at the time was no more than 3600 men. But -the right wing, not as yet attacked, either by Soimonov or by Pavlov, -held on to its positions on the forward slope, and a column of Russian -sailors and marines, who had been placed under Soimonov's command and -had moved up the Careenage Ravine to turn the British left, were caught, -just as they emerged on to the plateau in rear of Pennefather's line, -between two bodies of British troops hurrying to the scene of action. On -the front, too, the Russian attack came to a standstill and ebbed, for -Soimonov's overcrowded battalions jostled one another and dissolved on -the narrow and broken plateau. Soimonov himself was killed, and the -disciplined confidence and steady volleys of the defenders dominated the -chaotic _elan_ of the Russians. Thus 3300 defenders were able to repulse -and even to "expunge from the battlefield" the whole of the Sevastopol -column, except that portion of it which drifted away to its left and -joined Pavlov. This stage of the battle had lasted about forty minutes. -But, brilliant as was this overture, it is the second stage of the -battle that gives it its epic interest. - -The first attack made by Pavlov's advanced guard, aided by parts of -Soimonov's corps, was relatively slight, but General Dannenberg now -arrived on the field, and arranged for an assault on the British centre -and right, to be delivered by 10,000 men (half his intact forces) -chiefly by way of the Quarry Ravine, the attack to be prepared by the -guns on Shell Hill. Pennefather had been reinforced by the Guards' -brigade and a few smaller units. Not the least extraordinary feature of -the battle that followed is the part played by a sangar of stones at the -head of Quarry Ravine and a small battery, called the Sandbag Battery, -made as a temporary emplacement for two heavy guns a few days before. -The guns had done their work and been sent back whence they came. -Nevertheless these two insignificant works, as points to hold and lines -to defend on an otherwise featureless battlefield, became the centres of -gravity of the battle. - -The sangar at first fell into the hands of the Russians, but they were -soon ejected, and small British detachments reoccupied and held it, -while the various Russian attacks flowed up and past it and ebbed back -into the Quarry Ravine. Possession of the Sandbag Battery was far more -fiercely contested. The right wing was defended by some 700 men of the -2nd Division, who were reinforced by 1300 of the Guards. The line of -defence adjacent to the battery looked downhill for about 300 yds., -giving a clear field of fire for the new Enfield rifle the English -carried; but a sharp break in the slope beyond that range gave the -assailants plenty of "dead ground" on which to form up. For a time, -therefore, the battle was a series of attacks, delivered with great -fierceness by the main body of Pavlov's corps, the repulse of each being -followed by the disappearance of the assailants. But the arrival of part -of the British 4th Division under Sir George Cathcart gave the impulse -for a counter-attack. Most of the division indeed had to be used to -patch up the weaker parts of the line, but Cathcart himself with about -400 men worked his way along the lower and steeper part of the eastern -slope so as to take the assailants of the battery in flank. He had not -proceeded far, however, when a body of Russians moving higher up -descended upon the small British corps and scattered it, Cathcart -himself being killed. Other counterstrokes that his arrival had inspired -were at the same time made from different parts of the defensive front, -and had the effect of breaking up what was a solid line into a number of -disconnected bands, each fighting for its life in the midst of the -enemy. The crest of the position was laid open and parts of the Russian -right wing seized it. But they were flung back to the lower slopes of -the Quarry Ravine by the leading French regiment sent by Bosquet. This -regiment was quickly followed by others. The last great assault was -delivered with more precision, if with less fury than the others, and -had Dannenberg chosen to employ the 9000 bayonets of his reserve, who -stood idle throughout the day, to support the 6000 half-spent troops who -made the attack, it would probably have been successful. - -As it was, supported by the heavy guns on Shell Hill, the assailants, -though no longer more than slightly superior in numbers, carried not -only the sangar, but part of the crest line of the allied position. But -they were driven back into the Quarry Ravine, and, relieving the -exhausted British, the French took up the defence along the edge of the -ravine, which, though still not without severe fighting, they maintained -till the close of the battle. Inkerman, however, was not a drawn battle. -The allied field artillery, reinforced by two long 18-pr. guns of the -British siege train and assisted by the bold advance of two French -horse-artillery batteries which galloped down the forward slope and -engaged the Russians at close range, gained the upper hand. Last of all, -the dominant guns on Shell Hill thus silenced, the resolute advance of a -handful of British infantry decided the day, and the Russians retreated. -The final shots were fired about 1.30 P.M. - - The total British force engaged was 8500, of whom 2357 were killed and - wounded. The French lost 939 out of about 7000 who came on to the - field, though not all these were engaged. The Russians are said to - have lost 11,000 out of about 42,000 present. The percentage (27.7) of - loss sustained by the British is sufficient evidence of the intensity - of the conflict, and provides a convincing answer to certain writers - who have represented the battle as chiefly a French affair. On the - other hand, the reproaches addressed by some British writers to - General Bosquet for not promptly supporting the troops at Inkerman - with his whole strength are equally unjustifiable, for apparently Sir - George Brown and Sir George Cathcart both declined his first offers of - support, and he had Prince Gorchakov with at least 20,000 Russians in - his own immediate front. He would therefore have risked the failure of - his own mission in order to take part in a battle where his - intervention was not, so far as he could tell, of vital importance. - When Lord Raglan definitely asked him for support, he gave it - willingly and eagerly, sending his troops up at the double, and it - must be remembered that several British divisions took no part in the - action for the same reason that actuated Bosquet. But, in spite of the - seemingly inevitable controversies attendant on an "allied" battle, it - is now generally admitted that, as a "soldiers' battle," Inkerman is - scarcely to be surpassed in modern history. - - - - -INLAYING, a method of ornamentation, by incrusting or otherwise -inserting in one material a substance or substances differing therefrom -in colour or nature. The art is practised in the fabrication of -furniture and artistic objects in all varieties of wood, metal, shell, -ivory and coloured, and hard stone, and in compound substances; and the -combinations, styles and varieties of effect are exceedingly numerous. -Several special classes of inlaying may be here enumerated and defined, -details regarding most of which will be found under their separate -headings. In the ornamental treatment of metal surfaces _Niello_ -decoration, applied to silver and gold, is an ancient and much-practised -species of inlaying. It consists in filling up engraved designs with a -composition of silver, copper, lead and sulphur incorporated by heat. -The composition is black, and the finished work has the appearance of a -drawing in black on a metallic plate. An art, analogous in effect, -called _bidri_, from Bider in the Deccan, is practised in India. In -bidri work the ground is an alloy of zinc, with small proportions of -copper and lead, in which shallow patterns and devices are traced, and -filled up with thin plates of silver. When the surface has been evened -and smoothed, the bidri ground is stained a permanent black by a paste -the chief ingredients of which are sal-ammoniac and nitre, leaving a -pleasing contrast of bright metallic silver in a dead black ground. The -inlaying of gold wire in iron or steel is known as Damascening (q.v.). -It has been very largely practised in Persia and India for the -ornamentation of arms and armour, being known in the latter country as -Kuft work or Kuftgari. In Kashmir, vessels of copper and brass are very -effectively inlaid with tin--an art which, like many other decorative -arts, appears to have originated in Persia. In the ornamental inlaying -of metal surfaces the Japanese display the most extraordinary skill and -perfection of workmanship. In the inlaying of their fine bronzes they -use principally gold and silver, but for large articles and also for -common cast hollow ware commoner metals and alloys are employed. In -inlaying bronzes they generally hollow out and somewhat undercut the -design, into which the ornamenting metal, usually in the form of wire, -is laid and hammered over. Frequently the lacquer work of the Japanese -is inlaid with mother-of-pearl and other substances, in the same manner -as is practised in ornamenting lacquered papier-mache among Western -communities. The Japanese also practise the various methods of inlaying -referred to under DAMASCENING. The term _Mosaic_ (q.v.) is generally -applied to inlaid work in hard stones, marble and glass, but the most -important class of mosaics--those which consist of innumerable small -separate pieces--do not properly come under the head of inlaying. Inlaid -mosaics are those in which coloured designs are inserted in spaces cut -in a solid ground or basis, such as the modern Florentine mosaic, which -consists of thin veneers of precious coloured stones set in slabs of -marble. The Taj Mahal at Agra is an example of inlaid mosaic in white -marble, and the art, carried to that city by a French artist, is still -practised by native workmen. _Pietra dura_ is a fine variety of inlaid -mosaic in which hard and expensive stones--agate, cornelian, amethyst -and the like--are used in relief. Certain kinds of enamel might also be -included among the varieties of inlaying. (See also MARQUETRY and BOMBAY -FURNITURE.) - - - - -INMAN, HENRY (1801-1846), American artist, was born in Utica, New York, -on the 20th of October 1801. Apprenticed to the painter John W. Jarvis -at the age of fourteen, he left him after seven years and set up for -himself, painting portraits, genre and landscape. He was one of the -organizers of the National Academy of Design in New York and its first -vice-president (from 1826 until 1832). As a portrait painter he was -highly successful both in New York and Philadelphia, and going to -England in 1844, he had for sitters the Lord Chancellor (Cottenham), the -poet Wordsworth, Doctor Chalmers, Lord Macaulay and others. His American -sitters included President Van Buren and Chief Justice Marshall. He died -in New York City on the 17th of January 1846. - - - - -INN, a river of Europe, an important right bank tributary of the Danube. -It rises at an elevation of 7800 ft., in a small lake under the Piz -Longhino, in the Swiss canton of the Grisons. After flowing for a -distance of 55 m., through the Engadine it leaves Swiss territory at -Martinsbruck and enters Austria. It next plunges through the deep ravine -of Finstermunz, and, continuing in the main a north-easterly direction, -receives at Landeck the Rosanna. Hence its course becomes more rapid, -until, after swirling through the narrow and romantic Oberinnthal, it -enters the broader and pastoral Unterinnthal. It next passes Innsbruck -and from Hall, a few miles lower down, begins to be navigable for -barges. At Kufstein, down to which point it has still pursued a -north-easterly direction, it breaks through the north Tirol limestone -formation, and, now keeping a northerly course, enters at Rosenheim the -Bavarian high plateau. Its bed is now broad, studded with islands and -enclosed by high banks. Its chief tributaries on this last portion of -its course are the Alz and the Salzach, and at Passau, 309 m. from its -source, it joins the Danube, which river down to that point it equals in -length and far exceeds in volume of water. Its rapid current does not -permit of extensive navigation, but timber rafts are floated down from -above Innsbruck. - - See Greinz, _Eine Wanderung durch das Unterinntal_ (Stuttgart, 1902). - - - - -INN and INNKEEPER. An inn is a house where travellers are fed and lodged -for reward. A distinction has been drawn between tavern, inn and hotel, -the tavern supplying food and drink, the hotel lodging, the inn both; -but this is fanciful. "Hotel" now means "inn," and "inn" is often -applied to a mere public-house, whilst "tavern" is less used. "Inn," -still the legal and best, as it is the oldest, is a form of the word -"in" or "within." This sense is retained in the case of the English -legal societies still known as INNS OF COURT (q.v.). In the Bible "inn" -means "lodging-place for the night." Hospitality has always been a -sacred duty in the East. The pilgrim or the traveller claims it as a -right. But some routes were crowded, as that from Bagdad to Babylon. On -these, _khans_ (in or near a town) and _caravanserais_ (in waste places) -were erected at the expense of the benevolent. They consisted of a -square building surrounded by a high wall; on the roof there was a -terrace and over the gateway a tower; inside, was a large court -surrounded by compartments in which was some rude provision for the -animals and baggage of the traveller as well as for himself. The latter -purchased his own food where he chose, and had to "do for himself." In -some such place Jesus was born. Tavern is mentioned once in Scripture -(Acts xxviii. 15) where it is said the brethren from Rome met Paul at -"the Three Taverns." This was a station on the Appian Way, referred to -also in Cicero's _Letters_ (_Ad Att._ ii. 12). So, in modern London, -stations are called "Elephant and Castle," or "Bricklayers' Arms," from -adjacent houses of entertainment. Among the Greeks inns and innkeepers -were held in low repute. The houses were bad and those who kept them had -a bad name. A self-respecting Greek entered them as seldom as possible; -if he travelled he relied on the hospitality of friends. In Rome under -the emperors something akin to the modern inn grew up. There is, -however, scarcely any mention of such institutions in the capital as -distinguished from mere wine-shops or eating-houses. Ambassadors were -lodged in apartments at the expense of the state. But along the great -roads that radiated from Rome there were inns. Horace's account of his -journey to Brundisium (_Sat._ i. 5), that brilliant picture of -contemporary travel, tells us of their existence, and the very name of -the Three Taverns shows that there was sufficient custom to support a -knot of these institutions at one place. Under the Roman law, the -innkeeper was answerable for the property of his guests unless the -damage was due to _damnum fatale_ or _vis major_, in modern language the -act of God or the king's enemies. He was also liable for damage done by -his servant or his slave or other inhabitant of the house. - -In the middle ages hospitality was still regarded as a duty, and -provision for travellers was regularly made in the monasteries. People -of rank were admitted to the house itself, others sought the -guest-chamber, which sometimes stood (as at Battle Abbey) outside the -precincts. It consisted of a hall, round which were sleeping-rooms, -though the floor of the hall itself was often utilized. Again, -hospitality was rarely denied at the castle or country house. The knight -supped with his host at the dais or upper part of the great hall, and -retired with him into his own apartment. His followers, or the meaner -strangers, sat lower down at meat, and after the tables had been removed -stretched themselves to rest upon the floor. In desolate parts hospices -were erected for the accommodation of pilgrims. Such existed in the -Alps and on all the great roads to the Holy Land or to famous shrines, -notably to that of Canterbury. The still impressive remains of the -Travellers' Hospital at Maidstone, founded by Archbishop Boniface in -1260, give an idea of the extent of such places. The mention of -Canterbury recalls two inns celebrated by Chaucer. The pilgrims started -from the "Tabard" at Southwark under the charge of Harry Baily the host, -and they put up at the "Checquers of the Hope," in Mercery Lane, -Canterbury. It is easy to infer that, as time went on, the meagre -hospitality of the monastery or the hospice was not sufficient for an -increasing middle class, and that the want was met by the development of -the mere ale-house into the inn. The "ale-house," to give it the old -English name, was always in evidence, and even in pre-Reformation days -was a favourite subject for the satirist. In Langland's _Piers the -Plowman_ and in Skelton's _Elynour Rummynge_ we have contemporary -pictures of ale-houses of the 14th and 16th centuries, but the Tabard is -quite a modern inn, with a _table d'hote_ supper, a sign, a landlord -("right a mery man") and a reckoning! - -It has been conjectured (Larwood and Hotten, _History of Signboards_, -1874) that the inn sign was taken or imitated from that displayed on the -town houses or _inns_ of noblemen and prelates. The innkeeper alone of -tradesmen retains his individual sign. The inn shared with the tavern -the long projecting pole garnished with branches. These poles had become -of such inordinate length in London that in 1375 they were restricted to -7 ft. But the inn of those times was still a simple affair. In each room -there were several beds, the price of which the prudent traveller -inquired beforehand. Extortion was frequent, though it was forbidden by -a statute of Edward III. The fare was simple; bread, meat and beer, with -fish on Fridays. The tavern sentiment is strong in Elizabethan -literature. The "Boar's Head" in Eastcheap is inseparably connected with -Sir John Falstaff and Dame Quickly. "Shall I not take mine ease in mine -Inn?" (1 Henry IV., Act iii. sc. 3) is well-nigh the most famous word of -the famous knight. A passage in Holinshed's _Chronicle_ (1587, i. 246) -explains the inner meaning of this. He assures us that the inns of -England are not as those of other lands. Abroad the guest is under the -tyranny of the host, but in England your inn is as your own house; in -your chamber you can do what you will, and the host is rather your -servant than your master. The "Mermaid" in Bread Street is associated -with the memory of many wits and poets--Raleigh, Shakespeare, Beaumont, -Fletcher, Ben Jonson--who frequented it and praised it. - -Shenstone's lines as to "the warmest welcome at an inn" vent a common -but rather cheap cynicism. Doctor Johnson was a great frequenter of inns -and was outspoken in praise and blame. In the time immediately preceding -railways the inn, which was also a post-house where the public coach as -well as that of the private traveller changed horses, was a place of -much importance. We have it presented over and over again in the pages -of Dickens. The "Maypole" in _Barnaby Rudge_ may be singled out for -mention; it survives at Chigwell, Essex, as the "King's Head." - -The effect of railways was to multiply hotels in great centres and -gradually increase their size till we have the huge structures so -plentiful to-day. The bicycle and later the motor car, through the -enormous traffic they caused on the country roads, have restored the old -wayside inns to more than their former prosperity. - -In Scotland a statute (1424) of James I. ordained inns for man and -beast, with food and drink at reasonable prices, in each borough, and a -subsequent act prohibited lodging in private houses in places where -there were inns, under a penalty of 40s. But for centuries the Scots inn -was a poor affair. The Clachan of Aberfoyle in _Rob Roy_, kept by the -widow MacAlpine, was probably typical. In _St Ronan's Well_ Scott gives -the more pleasing picture of the Cleikum Inn, kept by the delightful Meg -Dods, and mention should be made of St Mary's Cottage, with its hostess -Tibby Shiels, the scene of one of the _Noctes Ambrosianae_, with -memories not merely of Scott but of Christopher North and the Ettrick -Shepherd. Burns had much to do with inns and taverns. If Poosie -Nancie's, where the Jolly Beggars held wild revel, is long vanished, the -Globe at Dumfries still exists, a fair sample of an inn of the period. -As late as 1841 Dickens, writing to John Foster during his first visit -to Scotland, describes the Highland inns as very poor affairs, "a mere -knot of little outhouses" he says of one; and even in Queen Victoria's -_Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands_ the inn is -described as invariably small and unassuming. Thus the development of -hotels in Scotland did not begin much before the middle of the 19th -century. - -In America the first hotel mentioned in New York is "Kriger's Tavern" -about 1642, replaced in 1703 by the "King's Arms." When the town came to -be English a proclamation was issued regulating the inns. Meals were not -to cost more than 8d. or beer 2d. per quart. - -_Law Relating to Innkeepers._--Whether any special building is an inn is -a question of fact. A temperance hotel is an inn, but a mere -public-house is not. An innkeeper is bound to receive, lodge and feed -travellers if he has accommodation, if they are able and willing to pay, -and are not obviously objectionable. If he refuse he is liable at common -law to indictment, or an action will lie against him at the suit of the -would-be guest. Under the Army Act soldiers of all kinds may be billeted -on the innkeeper, even beyond his power to provide in his own house; he -must find accommodation for them elsewhere. An innkeeper must keep the -goods and chattels of his guest in safety, unless they are destroyed by -the act of God or the king's enemies. Under this last the king's -rebellious subjects are not included. He is not liable for goods stolen -or destroyed by the companion of the guest or through the guest's own -negligence. There are two theories as to the origin of this common law -liability of the innkeeper: (1) it was a survival of the liability of -the common trader, or (2) specially imposed from the nature of his -calling. Old English law held him to some extent suspect. The traveller -amongst strangers seemed forlorn and unprotected, and conspiracy with -thieves was dreaded. In modern times the landlord's responsibilities -were cut down by the Innkeepers Liability Act 1863. He is not liable -(save for horses and other live animals with their gear and carriages) -to a greater extent than L30, unless the loss is caused by the default -or neglect of himself or his servants, or the goods have been formally -deposited with him. He must conspicuously exhibit a copy of the material -parts of the act. The innkeeper may contract himself out of his common -law obligation, and, apart from negligence, he is not liable for injury -to the person or clothes of his guest. In return for these -responsibilities the law gives him a lien over his guest's goods till -his bill be paid. This is a particular and not a general lien. It -attaches only to the special goods brought by the guest to the inn, and -housed by the innkeeper with him. When several guests go together, the -lien extends to all their goods. The innkeeper is only bound to take -ordinary care of goods thus held, but he cannot use them or charge for -their house-room. By the custom of London and Exeter, "when a horse eats -out the price of his head," namely, when the cost of keep exceeds value, -the host may have him as his own. By the Innkeepers Act 1878, if goods -have been kept for six weeks they may be advertised and then sold after -the interval of a month. Although an advertisement in a London paper is -directed, this act (it would seem) applies to Scotland (J. A. Fleming, -in Green's _Encyclopaedia of the Law of Scotland_, vi. 363). In that -country the law is generally the same as in England, though it has been -held that the innkeeper is not responsible for loss by accidental fire. -Nor is his refusal to receive a guest a criminal offence. In the United -States the common law follows that of England, though laws of the -various states have diminished the liability of the innkeeper in much -the same fashion as in England. Innkeepers as retailers of intoxicating -liquors are subject to the provisions of the Licensing Laws. - - See Angus, _Bible Handbook_ (new ed., 1904); Beckmann's _Inventions_, - tr. by Johnson (1846); Jusserand, _Les Anglais au moyen age_ (1884); - Liebenau, _Das Gasthof- und Wirtshauswesen der Schweiz_ _in alterer - Zeit_ (1891); Kempt, _Convivial Caledonia_ (1893); F. W. Hackwood, - _Inns, Ales and Drinking Customs of Old England_ (1909); Jelf and - Hurst, _The Law of Innkeepers_ (1904). English and Roman law are - compared in Pymar's _Law of Innkeepers_ (1892). For Scots law, see - Bell's _Principles_. An American treatise is S. H. Wandell, _Law of - Inns, Hotels and Boarding Houses_ (1888). (F. Wa.) - - - - -INNERLEITHEN, a police burgh and health resort of Peeblesshire, -Scotland, on Leithen Water, near its junction with the Tweed, 6(1/2) m. -S.E. of Peebles by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 2181. In olden -times it seems to have been known as Hornehuntersland, and to have been -mentioned as early as 1159, when a son of Malcolm IV. (the Maiden) was -drowned in a pool of the Tweed, close to Leithenfoot. Its chief industry -is the manufacture of tweeds and fine yarns, which, together with the -fame of its medicinal springs, brought the burgh into prominence towards -the end of the 18th century. The spa, alleged to be the St Ronan's well -of Scott's novel of that name, has a pump-room, baths, &c. The saline -waters are useful in minor cases of dyspepsia and liver complaints. The -town is flanked on the W. by the hill fort of Caerlee (400 ft. long) and -on the E. by that of the Pirn (350 ft. long). Farther E., close to the -village of Walkerburn, are Purvis Hill terraces, a remarkable series of -earthen banks, from 50 ft. to more than 100 ft. wide, and with a length -varying up to 900 ft., the origin and purpose of which are unknown. -Traquair House, or Palace, on the right bank of the Tweed, is believed -to be the oldest inhabited house in Scotland, the most ancient portion -dating from the 10th century, and including a remnant of the castle. It -was largely added to by Sir John Stewart, first earl of Traquair (d. -1659) and is a good example of the Scottish Baronial mansion with -high-pitched roof and turreted angles. To the west of the house was the -arbour which formed the "bush aboon Traquair" of the songs by Robert -Crawford (d. 1733) and John Campbell Shairp, its site being indicated by -a few birch trees. James Nicol (1769-1819), the poet, was minister of -Traquair, and his son James Nicol (1810-1879), the geologist and -professor of natural history in Aberdeen University, was born in the -manse. - - - - -INNESS, GEORGE (1825-1894), American landscape painter, was born near -Newburgh, N.Y., on the 1st of May 1825. Before he was five years of age -his parents had moved to New York and afterwards to Newark, N.J., in -which latter city his boyhood was passed. He would not "take education" -at the town academy, nor was he a success as a greengrocer's boy. He had -a strong bent towards art, and his parents finally placed him with a -drawing-master named Barker. At sixteen he went to New York to study -engraving, but soon returned to Newark, where he continued sketching and -painting after his own initiative. In 1843 he was again in New York, and -is said to have passed a month in Gignoux's studio. But he was too -impetuous, too independent in thought, to accept teaching; and, besides, -the knowledge of his teachers must have been limited. Practically he was -self-taught, and always remained a student. In 1851 he went to Europe, -and in Italy got his first glimpse of real art. He was there two years, -and imbibed some traditions of the classic landscape. In 1854 he went to -France, and there studied the Barbizon painters, whom he greatly -admired, especially Daubigny and Rousseau. After his return to America -he opened a studio in New York, then went to Medfield, Mass., where he -resided for five years. A pastoral landscape near this town inspired the -characteristic painting "The Medfield Meadows." Again he went abroad and -spent six years in Europe. He came back to New York in 1876, and lived -there, or near there, until the year of his death, which took place at -Bridge of Allan on the 3rd of August 1894 while he was travelling in -Scotland. He was a National Academician, a member of the Society of -American Artists, and had received many honours at home and abroad. He -was married twice, his son, George Inness (b. 1854), being also a -painter. Inness was emphatically a man of temperament, of moods, -enthusiasms, convictions. He was fond of speculation and experiment in -metaphysics and religion, as in poetry and art. Swedenborgianism, -symbolism, socialism, appealed to him as they might to a mystic or an -idealist. He aspired to the perfect unities, and was impatient of -structural foundations. This was his attitude towards painting. He -sought the sentiment, the light, air, and colour of nature, but was put -out by nature's forms. How to subordinate form without causing weakness -was his problem, as it was Corot's. His early education gave him no -great technical facility, so that he never was satisfied with his -achievement. He worked over his pictures incessantly, retouching with -paint, pencil, coal, ink--anything that would give the desired -effect--yet never content with them. In his latter days it was almost -impossible to get a picture away from him, and after his death his -studio was found to be full of experimental canvases. He was a very -uneven painter, and his experiments were not always successful. His was -an original--a distinctly American--mind in art. Most of his American -subjects were taken from New York state, New Jersey and New England. His -point of view was his own. At his best he was often excellent in poetic -sentiment, and superb in light, air and colour. He had several styles: -at first he was somewhat grandiloquent in Roman scenes, but sombre in -colour; then under French influence his brush grew looser, as in the -"Grey Lowering Day"; finally he broke out in full colour and light, as -in the "Niagara" and the last "Delaware Water-Gap." Some of his pictures -are in American museums, but most of them are in private hands. - (J. C. Van D.) - - - - -INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS), the name of thirteen popes and one antipope. - -INNOCENT I., pope from 402 to 417, was the son of Pope Anastasius I. It -was during his papacy that the siege of Rome by Alaric (408) took place, -when, according to a doubtful anecdote of Zosimus, the ravages of plague -and famine were so frightful, and help seemed so far off, that papal -permission was granted to sacrifice and pray to the heathen deities; the -pope was, however, absent from Rome on a mission to Honorius at Ravenna -at the time of the sack in 410. He lost no opportunity of maintaining -and extending the authority of the Roman see as the ultimate resort for -the settlement of all disputes; and his still extant communications to -Victricius of Rouen, Exuperius of Toulouse, Alexander of Antioch and -others, as well as his action on the appeal made to him by Chrysostom -against Theophilus of Alexandria, show that opportunities of the kind -were numerous and varied. He took a decided view on the Pelagian -controversy, confirming the decisions of the synod of the province of -proconsular Africa held in Carthage in 416, which had been sent to him. -He wrote in the same year in a similar sense to the fathers of the -Numidian synod of Mileve who, Augustine being one of their number, had -addressed him. Among his letters are one to Jerome and another to John, -bishop of Jerusalem, regarding annoyances to which the first named had -been subjected by the Pelagians at Bethlehem. He died on the 12th of -March 417, and in the Roman Church is commemorated as a confessor along -with Saints Nazarius, Celsus and Victor, martyrs, on the 28th of July. -His successor was Zosimus. - -INNOCENT II. (Gregorio Paparesci dei Guidoni), pope from 1130 to 1143, -was originally a Benedictine monk. His ability, pure life and political -connexions raised him rapidly to power. Made cardinal deacon of Sant -Angelo in Pescheria by Paschal II. he was employed in various diplomatic -missions. Calixtus II. appointed him one of the ambassadors who made -peace with the Empire and drew up the Concordat of Worms (1122), and in -the following year, with his later enemy Cardinal Peter Pierleoni, he -was papal legate in France. On the 13th of February 1130 Honorius II. -died, and on that night a minority of the Sacred College elected -Paparesci, who took the name of Innocent II. After a hasty consecration -he was forced to take refuge with a friendly noble by the faction of -Pierleoni, who was elected pope under the name of Anacletus II. by a -majority of the cardinals. Declaring that the cardinals had been -intimidated, Innocent refused to recognize their choice; by June, -however, he was obliged to flee to France. Here his title was recognized -by a synod called by Bernard of Clairvaux at Etampes. Similar action was -taken in Germany by the synod of Wurzburg. In January 1131 Innocent held -a personal interview with King Henry I. of England at Chartres, and in -March, at Liege, with the German King Lothair, whom he induced to -undertake a campaign against Anacletus. The German army invaded Italy in -August 1132, and occupied Rome, all except St Peter's church and the -castle of St Angelo which held out against them. Lothair was crowned -emperor at the Lateran in June 1133, and as a further reward Innocent -gave him the territories of the Countess Mathilda as a fief, but refused -to surrender the right of investiture. Left to himself Innocent again -had to flee, this time to Pisa. Here he called a council which condemned -Anacletus. A second expedition of Lothair expelled Roger of Sicily (to -whom Anacletus had given the title of king in return for his support) -from southern Italy, but a quarrel with Innocent prevented the emperor -attacking Rome. At this crisis, in January 1138, Anacletus died, and a -successor elected by his faction, as Victor IV., resigned after two -months. The Lateran council of 1139 restored peace to the Church, -excommunicating Roger of Sicily, against whom Innocent undertook an -expedition which proved unsuccessful. In matters of doctrine the pope -supported Bernard of Clairvaux in his prosecution of Abelard and Arnold -of Brescia, whom he condemned as heretics. The remaining years of -Innocent's life were taken up by a quarrel with the Roman commune, which -had set up an independent senate, and one with King Louis VII. of -France, about an appointment. France was threatened with the interdict, -but before matters came to a head Innocent died on the 22nd of September -1143. - - See Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, "Innocenz II.," with full - references. Gregorovius, _History of Rome in the Middle Ages_, trans. - by Hamilton (London, 1896), vol. iv. part ii. pp. 420-453. (P. Sm.) - -INNOCENT III. (Lando da Sezza), antipope (1179-1180), sprang from a -noble Lombard family. Opponents of Alexander III. tried to make him pope -in September 1179. Alexander, however, bribed his partisans to give him -up, and imprisoned him in the cloister of La Cava in January 1180. - -INNOCENT III. (Lotario de' Conti di Segni), pope from 1198 to 1216, was -the son of Trasimondo, count of Segni, and of Claricia, a Roman lady of -the noble family of Scotti, and was born at Anagni about 1160. His early -education he received at Rome, whence he went to the university of Paris -and subsequently to that of Bologna. At Paris, where he attended the -lectures of Peter of Corbeil, he laid the foundations of his profound -knowledge of the scholastic philosophy; at Bologna he acquired an -equally profound knowledge of the canon and civil law. Thus -distinguished by birth, intellect and attainments, on his return to Rome -he rose rapidly in the church. He at once became a canon of St Peter's; -he was made subdeacon of the Roman Church by Gregory VIII.; and in 1190 -his uncle, Pope Clement III., created him cardinal-deacon of Santi -Sergio e Baccho. The election of Celestine III. in the following year -withdrew Lotario for a while from the active work of the Curia, the new -pope belonging to the family of the Orsini, who were at feud with the -Scotti. Lotario, however, employed his leisure in writing several works: -_Mysteriorum evangelicae legis ac sacramenti eucharistiae libri VI._, -_De contemtu mundi, sive de miseria humanae conditionis_, and _De -quadrapartita specie nuptiarum_. Of these only the two first are extant; -they are written in the scholastic style, a sea of quotations balanced -and compared, and they witness at once to the writer's profound -erudition and to the fact that his mind had not yet emancipated itself -from the morbid tendencies characteristic of one aspect of medieval -thought. Yet Lotario was destined to be above all things a man of -action, and, though his activities to the end were inspired by -impracticable ideals, they were in their effects intensely practical; -and Innocent III. is remembered, not as a great theologian, but as a -great ruler and man of affairs. - -On the 8th of January 1198 Celestine III. died, and on the same day -Lotario, though not even a priest, was unanimously elected pope by the -assembled cardinals. He took the name of Innocent III. On the 21st of -February he was ordained priest, and on the 22nd consecrated bishop. -Innocent was but thirty-seven years old at this time, and the vigour of -youth, guided by a master mind, was soon apparent in the policy of the -papacy. His first acts were to restore the prestige of the Holy See in -Italy, where it had been overshadowed by the power of the emperor Henry -VI. As pope it was his object to shake off the imperial yoke, as an -Italian prince to clear the land of the hated Germans. The circumstances -of the time were highly favourable to him. The early death of Henry VI. -(September 1197) had left Germany divided between rival candidates for -the crown, Sicily torn by warring factions of native and German barons. -It was, then, easy for Innocent to depose the imperial prefect in Rome -itself and to oust the German feudatories who held the great Italian -fiefs for the Empire. Spoleto fell; Perugia surrendered; Tuscany -acknowledged the leadership of the pope; papal _rectores_ once more -governed the patrimony of St Peter. Finally, Henry's widow, Constance, -in despair, acknowledged the pope as overlord of the two Sicilies, and -on her death (November 27, 1198) appointed him guardian of her infant -son Frederick. Thus in the first year of his pontificate Innocent had -established himself as the protector of the Italian nation against -foreign aggression, and had consolidated in the peninsula a secure basis -on which to build up his world-power. - -The effective assertion of this world-power is the characteristic -feature of Innocent's pontificate. Other popes before him--from Gregory -VII. onwards--had upheld the theory of the supremacy of the spiritual -over the temporal authority, with various fortune; it was reserved for -Innocent to make it a reality. The history of the processes by which he -accomplished this is given elsewhere. Here it will suffice to deal with -it in the broadest outline. In Germany his support of Otto IV. against -Philip of Swabia, then of Philip against Otto and finally, after -Philip's murder (June 21, 1208), of the young Frederick II. against -Otto, effectually prevented the imperial power, during his pontificate, -from again becoming a danger to that of the papacy in Italy. Concessions -at the cost of the Empire in Italy were in every case the price of his -support (see GERMANY: _History_). In his relations with the German -emperors Innocent acted partly as pope, partly as an Italian prince; his -victories over other and more distant potentates he won wholly in his -spiritual capacity. Thus he forced the masterful Philip Augustus of -France to put away Agnes of Meran and take, back his Danish wife -Ingeborg, whom he had wrongfully divorced; he compelled Peter of Aragon -to forgo his intended marriage with Bianca of Navarre and ultimately -(1204) to receive back his kingdom as a fief of the Holy See; he forced -Alphonso IX. of Leon to put away his wife Berengaria of Castile, who was -related to him within the prohibited degrees, though he pronounced their -children legitimate. Sancho of Portugal was compelled to pay the tribute -promised by his father to Rome, and Ladislaus of Poland to cease from -infringing the rights of the church. Even the distant north felt the -weight of Innocent's power, and the archbishop of Trondhjem was called -to order for daring to remove the ban of excommunication from the -repentant King Haakon IV., as an infringement of the exclusive right of -the pope to impose or remove the ban of the church in the case of -sovereigns. So widespread was the prestige of the pope that Kaloyan, -prince of Bulgaria, hoping to strengthen himself against internal foes -and the aggressions of the Eastern Empire, submitted to Rome and, in -November 1204, received the insignia of royalty from the hands of the -papal legates as the vassal of the Holy See. - -Meanwhile Innocent had been zealous in promoting the crusade which -ultimately, under the Doge Dandolo, led to the Latin occupation of -Constantinople (see CRUSADES). This diversion from its original object -was at first severely censured by Innocent; but an event which seemed to -put an end to the schism of East and West came to wear a different -aspect; he was the first pope to nominate a patriarch of Constantinople, -and he expressed the hope that henceforth the church would be "one fold -under one shepherd." By a bull of October 12, 1204, moreover, Innocent -proclaimed the same indulgences for a crusade to Livonia as the Holy -Land. The result was the "conversion" of the Livonians (1206) and the -Letts (1208) by the crusaders headed by the knights of the Teutonic -Order. The organization of the new provinces thus won for the church -Innocent kept in his own hands, instituting the new archbishopric of -Riga and defining the respective jurisdictions of the archbishops and -the Teutonic Knights, a process which, owing to the ignorance at Rome of -the local geography, led to curious confusion. - -Another crusade, horrible in its incidents and momentous in its -consequences, was that proclaimed by Innocent in 1207 against the -Albigenses. In this connexion all that can be said in his favour is that -he acted from supreme conviction; that the heresies against which he -appealed to the sword were really subversive of Christian civilization; -and that he did not use force until for ten years he had tried all the -arts of persuasion in vain (see ALBIGENSES). - -Of all Innocent's triumphs, however, the greatest was his victory over -King John of England. The quarrel between the pope and the English king -arose out of a dispute as to the election to the vacant see of -Canterbury, which Innocent had settled by nominating Stephen Langton -over the heads of both candidates. John refusing to submit, Innocent -imposed an interdict on the kingdom and threatened him with a crusade; -and, to avert a worse fate, the English king not only consented to -recognize Langton but also to hold England and Ireland as fiefs of the -Holy See, subject to an annual tribute (May 1213). The submission was no -idle form; for years the pope virtually ruled England through his -legates (see ENGLISH HISTORY and JOHN, KING OF ENGLAND). So great had -the secular power of the papacy become that a Byzantine visitor to Rome -declared Innocent to be "the successor not of Peter but of Constantine." - -As in the affairs of the world at large, so also in those of the church -itself, Innocent's authority exceeded that of all his predecessors. -Under him the centralization of the ecclesiastical administration at -Rome received a great impulse, and the independent jurisdiction of -metropolitans and bishops was greatly curtailed. In carrying out this -policy his unrivalled knowledge of the canon law gave him a great -advantage. To his desire to organize the discipline of the church was -due the most questionable of his expedients: the introduction of the -system of provisions and reservations, by which he sought to bring the -patronage of sees and benefices into his own hands--a system which led -later to intolerable abuses. - -The year before Innocent's death the twelfth ecumenical council -assembled at the Lateran under his presidency. It was a wonderful proof -at once of the world-power of the pope and of his undisputed personal -ascendancy. It was attended by the plenipotentiaries of the emperor, of -kings and of princes, and by some 1500 archbishops, bishops, abbots and -other dignitaries. The business before it, the disciplining of heretics -and Jews, and the proclamation of a new crusade, &c., vitally concerned -the states represented; yet there was virtually no debate and the -function of the great assembly was little more than to listen to and -endorse the decretals read by the pope (see LATERAN COUNCILS). Shortly -after this crowning exhibition of his power the great pope died on the -16th of July 1216. - -Innocent III. is one of the greatest historical figures, both in the -grandeur of his aims and the force of character which brought him so -near to their realization. An appreciation of his work and personality -will be found in the article PAPACY; here it will suffice to say that, -whatever judgment posterity may have passed on his aims, opinion is -united as to the purity of the motives that inspired them and the -tireless self-devotion with which they were pursued. "I have no -leisure," Innocent once sighed, "to meditate on supermundane things; -scarce I can breathe. Yea, so much must I live for others, that almost I -am a stranger to myself." Yet he preached frequently, both at Rome and -on his journeys--many of his sermons, inspired by a high moral -earnestness, have come down to us--and, towards the end of his life, he -found time to write a pious exposition of the Psalms. His views on the -papal supremacy are best explained in his own words. Writing to the -patriarch of Constantinople (_Inn. III., lib._ ii. _ep._ 200) he says: -"The Lord left to Peter the governance not of the church only but of the -whole world;" and again in his letter to King John of England (_lib._ -xvi. ep. 131): "The King of Kings ... so established the kingship and -the priesthood in the church, that the kingship should be priestly, and -the priesthood royal (_ut sacerdotale sit regnum et sacerdotium sit -regale_), as is evident from the epistle of Peter and the law of Moses, -setting one over all, whom he appointed his vicar on earth." In his -answer to the ambassadors of Philip Augustus he states the premises from -which this stupendous claim is logically developed:-- - - "To princes power is given on earth, but to priests it is attributed - also in heaven; to the former only over bodies, to the latter also - over souls. Whence it follows that by so much as the soul is superior - to the body, the priesthood is superior to the kingship.... Single - rulers have single provinces, and single kings single kingdoms; but - Peter, as in the plenitude, so in the extent of his power is - pre-eminent over all, since he is the Vicar of Him whose is the earth - and the fullness thereof, the whole wide world and all that dwell - therein." - -To the emperor of Constantinople, who quoted 1 Peter ii. 13, 14, to the -contrary, he replied in perfect good faith that the apostle's admonition -to obey "the king as supreme was addressed to lay folk and not to the -clergy." The more intelligent laymen of the time were not convinced even -when coerced. Even so pious a Catholic as the minnesinger Walther von -der Vogelweide, giving voice to the indignation of German laymen, -ascribed Innocent's claims, not to soundness of his scholastic logic, -but to the fact that he was "too young" (_owe der babest ist ze junc_). - - The literature on Innocent III. is very extensive; a carefully - analysed bibliography will be found in Herzog-Hauck, - _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed., 1901) s. "Innocenz III." In A. Potthast, - _Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi_ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), p. 650, is a - bibliography of the literature on Innocent's writings. In the _Corpus - juris canonici_, ed. Aemilius Friedberg (Leipzig, 1881), vol. ii., pp. - xiv.-xvii., are lists of the official documents of Innocent III. - excerpted in the _Decretales Gregorii IX_. The most important later - works on Innocent III. are Achille Luchaire's _Innocent III, Rome et - l'Italie_ (Paris, 1904), _Innocent III, la croisade des Albigeois_ - (_ib._ 1905), _Innocent III, la papaute et l'empire_ (_ib._ 1906), - _Innocent III, la question d'orient_ (_ib._ 1906); _Innocent III, les - royautes vassales du Saint-Siege_ (_ib._ 1908); and _Innocent III, la - concile de latran et la reforme de l'eglise_ (1908); _Innocent the - Great_, by C. H. C. Pirie-Gordon (London, 1907); is the only English - monograph on this pope and contains some useful documents, but is - otherwise of little value. See also H. H. Milman, _History of Latin - Christianity_, vol. v.; F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, - translated by A. Hamilton (1896), vol. v. pp. 5-110; J. C. L. - Gieseler, _Ecclesiastical Hist._, translated by J. W. Hull, vol. iii. - (Edinburgh, 1853), which contains numerous excerpts from his letters, - &c. Innocent's works are found in Migne, _Patrologiae Cursus - Completus, Series Latina_, vols. ccxiv.-ccxvii. For a translation of - Innocent's answer to King John on the interdict, and John's surrender - of England and Ireland to Innocent, see Gee and Hardy, _Documents - illustrative of Church History_ (London, 1896), pp. 73 et seq. - (W. A. P.) - -INNOCENT IV. (Sinibaldo Fiesco), pope 1243-1254, belonged to the noble -Genoese family of the counts of Lavagna. Born at Genoa, he was educated -under the care of his uncle Opizo, bishop of Parma. After taking orders -at Parma, when he was made canon of the cathedral, he studied -jurisprudence at Bologna. His first recorded appearance in political -affairs was in 1218-1219, when he was associated with Cardinal Hugolinus -(afterwards Gregory IX.) in negotiating a peace between Genoa and Pisa. -This led to his rapid promotion. In 1223 Pope Honorius III. gave him a -benefice in Parma, and in 1226 he was established at the curia as -_auditor contradictarum literarum_ of the pope, a post he held also -under Gregory IX., until promoted (1227) to be vice-chancellor of the -Roman Church. In September of the same year he was created cardinal -priest of San Lorenzo in Lucina. He was papal _rector_ (governor) of the -March of Ancona from 1235 to 1240. On the 25th of June 1243 he was -elected pope by the cardinals assembled at Anagni. - -Innocent was raised to the Holy See when it was at deadly feud with the -emperor Frederick II., who lay under excommunication. Frederick at first -greeted the elevation of a member of an imperialist family with joy; but -it was soon clear that Innocent intended to carry on the traditions of -his predecessors. Embassies and courtesies were, indeed, interchanged, -and on the 31st of March 1244 a treaty was signed at Rome, whereby the -emperor undertook to satisfy the pope's claims in return for his own -absolution from the ban. Neither side, however, was prepared to take -the first steps to carry out the agreement, and Innocent, who had -ventured back to Rome, began to feel unsafe in the city, where the -imperial partisans had the ascendancy. Fearing a plan to kidnap him, he -left Rome, ostensibly to meet the emperor, and from Sutri fled by night -on horseback, pursued by 300 of the emperor's cavalry, to Civitavecchia, -whence he took ship for Genoa and thence proceeded across the Alps to -Lyons, at that time a merely nominal dependence of the Empire. Thence he -wrote to the French king, Louis IX., asking for an asylum in France; but -this Louis cautiously refused. Innocent, therefore, remained at Lyons, -whence he issued a summons to a general council, before which he cited -Frederick to appear in person, or by deputy. The council, which met on -the 5th of June 1245, was attended only by those prepared to support the -pope's cause; and though Frederick condescended to be represented by his -justiciar, Thaddeus of Suessa, the judgment was a foregone conclusion. -On the 17th of July Innocent formally renewed the sentence of -excommunication on the emperor, and declared him deposed from the -imperial throne and that of Naples. Frederick retorted by announcing his -intention of reducing "the clergy, especially the highest, to a state of -apostolic poverty," and by ordaining the severest punishments for those -priests who should obey the papal sentence. Innocent thereupon -proclaimed a crusade against the emperor and armed his ubiquitous -agents, the Franciscan and Dominican friars, with special indulgences -for all those who should take up the cross against the imperial heretic. -At the same time he did all in his power to undermine Frederick's -authority in Germany and Italy. In Naples he fomented a conspiracy among -the feudal lords, who were discontented with the centralized government -established under the auspices of Frederick's chancellor, Piero della -Vigna. In Germany, at his instigation, the archbishops with a few of the -secular nobles in 1246 elected Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, -German king; but the "priests' king," as he was contemptuously called, -died in the following year, William II., count of Holland, being after -some delay elected by the papal party in his stead. - -Innocent's relentless war against Frederick was not supported by the lay -opinion of his time. In Germany, where it wrought havoc and misery, it -increased the already bitter resentment against the priests. From -England the pope's legate was driven by threats of personal violence. In -France not even the saintly King Louis IX., who made several vain -attempts to mediate, approved the pope's attitude; and the failure of -the crusade which, in 1248, he led against the Mussulmans in Egypt, was, -with reason, ascribed to the deflection of money and arms from this -purpose to the war against the emperor. Even the clergy were by no means -altogether on Innocent's side; the council of Lyons was attended by but -150 bishops, mainly French and Spanish, and the deputation from England, -headed by Robert Grossetete of Lincoln and Roger Bigod, came mainly in -order to obtain the canonization of Edmund of Canterbury and to protest -against papal exactions. Yet, for better or for worse, Innocent -triumphed. His financial position was from the outset strong, for not -only had he the revenue from the accustomed papal dues but he had also -the support of the powerful religious orders; e.g. in November 1245 he -visited the abbey of Cluny and was presented by the abbot with gifts, -the value of which surprised even the papal officials. At first the war -went in Frederick's favour; then came the capture of the strategically -important city of Parma by papal partisans (June 16th, 1247). From this -moment fortune changed. On the 18th of February 1248 Frederick's camp -before Parma (the temporary town of Vittoria) was taken and sacked, the -imperial insignia--of vast significance in those days--being captured. -From this blow the emperor never recovered; and when on the 13th of -December 1250 he died Innocent greeted the news by quoting from Psalm -xcvi. 11, "Let the heavens rejoice and let the earth be glad." - -On the 19th of April 1251 Innocent left Lyons, which had suffered -severely from his presence, and returned to Italy. He continued the -struggle vigorously with Frederick's son and successor, Conrad IV., who -in 1252 descended into Italy, reduced the rebellious cities and claimed -the imperial crown. Innocent, determined that the Hohenstaufen should -not again dominate Italy, offered the crown of Sicily in turn to Richard -of Cornwall, Charles of Anjou, and Henry III. of England, the last of -whom accepted the doubtful gift for his son Edmund. Even after Conrad's -capture of Naples Innocent remained inexorable; for he feared that Rome -itself might fall into the hands of the German king. But fortune -favoured him. On the 20th of May 1254 Conrad died, leaving his infant -son Conradin, as Henry VI. had left Frederick II., under the pope's -guardianship. Innocent accepted the charge and posed as the champion of -the infant king. He held, indeed, to his bargain with Henry III. and, -with all too characteristic nepotism, exercised his rights over the -Sicilian kingdom by nominating his own relations to its most important -offices. Finally, when Manfred, who by Frederick's will had been charged -with the government of the two Sicilies, felt obliged to acknowledge the -pope's suzerainty, Innocent threw off the mask, ignored Conradin's -claims, and on the 24th of October formally asserted his own claims to -Calabria and Sicily. He entered Naples on the 27th; but meanwhile -Manfred had fled and had raised a considerable force; and the news of -his initial successes against the papal troops reached Innocent as he -lay sick and hastened his end. He died on the 7th of December 1254. - -Innocent IV. is comparable to his greater predecessor Innocent III. -mainly in the extreme assertion of the papal claims. "The emperor," he -wrote, "doubts and denies that all men and all things are subject to the -See of Rome. As if we who are judges of angels are not to give sentence -on earthly things.... The ignorant assert that Constantine first gave -temporal power to the See of Rome; it was already bestowed by Christ -Himself, the true King and Priest, as inalienable from its nature and -absolutely unconditional. Christ established not only a pontifical but a -royal sovereignty (_principatus_) and committed to blessed Peter and his -successors the empire both of earth and heaven, as is sufficiently -proved by the plurality of the keys" (_Codex epist. Vatic._ No. 4957, -49, quoted in Raumer, _Hohenstaufen_, iv. 78). But this language, which -in the mouth of Innocent III. had been consecrated by the greatness of -his character and aims, was less impressive when it served as a cloak -for an unlimited personal ambition and a family pride which displayed -itself in unblushing nepotism. Yet in some respects Innocent IV. carried -on the high traditions of his great predecessors. Thus he admonished -Sancho II. of Portugal to turn from his evil courses and, when the king -disobeyed, absolved the Portuguese from their allegiance, bestowing the -crown on his brother Alphonso. He also established an ecclesiastical -organization in the newly converted provinces of Prussia, which he -divided into four dioceses; but his attempt to govern the Baltic -countries through a legate broke on the opposition of the Teutonic -Order, whose rights in Prussia he had confirmed. - -It was Innocent IV. who, at the council of Lyons, first bestowed the red -hat on the Roman cardinals, as a symbol of their readiness to shed their -blood in the cause of the church. - -Innocent was a canon lawyer of some eminence. His small work _De -exceptionibus_ was probably written before he became pope; but the -_Apparatus in quinque libros decretalium_, which displays both practical -sense and a remarkable mastery of the available materials, was written -at Lyons immediately after the council. His _Apologeticus_, a defence of -the papal claims against the Empire, written--as is supposed--in -refutation of Piero della Vigna's argument in favour of the independence -of the Empire, has been lost. Innocent was also a notable patron of -learning, he encouraged Alexander of Hales to write his _Summa universae -theologiae_, did much for the universities, notably the Sorbonne, and -founded law schools at Rome and Piacenza. - - Innocent's letters, the chief source for his life, are collected by E. - Berger in _Les Registres d'Innocent IV_ (3 vols., Paris, 1884-1887). - For English readers the account in Milman's _Latin Christianity_, vol. - vi. (3rd ed., 1864) is still useful. Full references will be found in - Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, vol. ix. (1901). (W. A. P.) - -INNOCENT V. (Pierre de Champagni or de Tarentaise), pope from the 21st -of January to the 22nd of June 1276, was born about 1225 in Savoy and -entered the Dominican order at an early age. He studied theology under -Thomas Aquinas, Albertus Magnus and Bonaventura, and in 1262 was elected -provincial of his order in France. He was made archbishop of Lyons in -1271; cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri, and grand penitentiary in -1275; and, partly through the influence of Charles of Anjou, was elected -to succeed Gregory X. As pope he established peace between the republics -of Lucca and Pisa, and confirmed Charles of Anjou in his office of -imperial vicar of Tuscany. He was seeking to carry out the Lyons -agreement with the Eastern Church when he died. His successor was Adrian -V. Innocent V., before he became pope, prepared, in conjunction with -Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, a rule of studies for his order, -which was accepted in June 1259. He was the author of several works in -philosophy, theology and canon law, including commentaries on the -Scriptures and on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and is sometimes -referred to as _famosissimus doctor_. He preached the funeral sermon at -Lyons over St Bonaventura. His bulls are in the Turin collection (1859). - - See F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs - G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); A. Potthast, _Regesta, pontif. - Roman._ vol. ii. (Berlin, 1875); E. Bourgeois, _Le Bienheureux - Innocent V_ (Paris, 1899); J. E. Borel, _Notice biogr. sur Pierre de - Tarentaise_ (Chambery, 1890); P. J. Bethaz, _Pierre des Cours de la - Salle, pape sous le nom Innocent V_ (Augustae, 1891); L. Carboni, _De - Innocentio V. Romano pontifice_ (1894). (C. H. Ha.) - -INNOCENT VI. (Etienne Aubert), pope from the 18th of December 1352 to -the 12th of September 1362, was born at Mons in Limousin. He became -professor of civil law at Toulouse and subsequently chief judge of the -city. Having taken orders, he was raised to the see of Noyon and -translated in 1340 to that of Clermont. In 1342 he was made -cardinal-priest of Sti Giovanni e Paolo, and ten years later -cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri, grand penitentiary, and -administrator of the bishopric of Avignon. On the death of Clement VI., -the cardinals made a solemn agreement imposing obligations, mainly in -favour of the college as a whole, on whichever of their number should be -elected pope. Aubert was one of the minority who signed the agreement -with the reservation that in so doing he would not violate any law, and -was elected pope on this understanding; not long after his accession he -declared the agreement null and void, as infringing the -divinely-bestowed power of the papacy. Innocent was one of the best -Avignon popes and filled with reforming zeal; he revoked the -reservations and commendations of his predecessor and prohibited -pluralities; urged upon the higher clergy the duty of residence in their -sees, and diminished the luxury of the papal court. Largely through the -influence of Petrarch, whom he called to Avignon, he released Cola di -Rienzo, who had been sent a prisoner in August 1352 from Prague to -Avignon, and used the latter to assist Cardinal Albornoz, vicar-general -of the States of the Church, in tranquillizing Italy and restoring the -papal power at Rome. Innocent caused Charles IV. to be crowned emperor -at Rome in 1355, but protested against the famous "Golden Bull" of the -following year, which prohibited papal interference in German royal -elections. He renewed the ban against Peter the Cruel of Castile, and -interfered in vain against Peter IV. of Aragon. He made peace between -Venice and Genoa, and in 1360 arranged the treaty of Bretigny between -France and England. In the last years of his pontificate he was busied -with preparations for a crusade and for the reunion of Christendom, and -sent to Constantinople the celebrated Carmelite monk, Peter Thomas, to -negotiate with the claimants to the Greek throne. He instituted in 1354 -the festival of the Holy Lance. Innocent was a strong and earnest man of -monastic temperament, but not altogether free from nepotism. He was -succeeded by Urban V. - - The chief sources for the life of Innocent VI. are in Baluzius, _Vitae - Pap. Avenion_, vol. i. (Paris, 1693); _Magnum bullarium Romanum_, vol. - iv. (Turin, 1859); E. Werunsky, _Excerpta ex registris Clementis VI. - et Innocentii VI._ (Innsbruck, 1885). See also L. Pastor _History of - the Popes_, vol. i. trans. by F. I. Antrobus (London, 1899); F. - Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 6, trans. by Mrs G. W. - Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); D. Cerri, _Innocenzo Papa VI._ (Turin, - 1873); J. B. Christophe, _Histoire de la papaute pendant le XIV^e - siecle_, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853); M. Souchon, _Die Papstwahlen_ - (Brunswick, 1888); G. Daumet, _Innocent VI. et Blanche de Bourbon_ - (Paris, 1899); E. Werunsky, _Gesch. Kaiser Karls IV._ (Innsbruck, - 1892). There is an excellent article by M. Naumann in Hauck's - _Realencyklopadie_, 3rd ed. (C. H. Ha.) - -INNOCENT VII. (Cosimo dei Migliorati), pope from the 17th of October -1404 to the 6th of November 1406, was born of middle-class parentage at -Sulmona in the Abruzzi in 1339. On account of his knowledge of civil and -canon law, he was made papal vice-chamberlain and archbishop of Ravenna -by Urban VI., and appointed by Boniface IX. cardinal priest of Sta Croce -in Gerusalemme, bishop of Bologna, and papal legate to England. He was -unanimously chosen to succeed Boniface, after each of the cardinals had -solemnly bound himself to employ all lawful means for the restoration of -the church's unity in the event of his election, and even, if necessary, -to resign the papal dignity. The election was opposed at Rome by a -considerable party, but peace was maintained by the aid of Ladislaus of -Naples, in return for which Innocent made a promise, inconsistent with -his previous oath, not to come to terms with the antipope Benedict -XIII., except on condition that he should recognize the claims of -Ladislaus to Naples. Innocent issued at the close of 1404 a summons for -a general council to heal the schism, and it was not the pope's fault -that the council never assembled, for the Romans rose in arms to secure -an extension of their liberties, and finally maddened by the murder of -some of their leaders by the pope's nephew, Ludovico dei Migliorati, -they compelled Innocent to take refuge at Viterbo (6th of August 1405). -The Romans, recognizing later the pope's innocence of the outrage, made -their submission to him in January 1406. He returned to Rome in March, -and, by bull of the 1st of September, restored the city's decayed -university. Innocent was extolled by contemporaries as a lover of peace -and honesty, but he was without energy, guilty of nepotism, and showed -no favour to the proposal that he as well as the antipope should resign. -He died on the 6th of November 1406 and was succeeded by Gregory XII. - - See L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i., trans. by F. I. - Antrobus (London, 1899); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, vol. - i. (London, 1899); N. Valois, _La France et le grand schisme - d'occident_ (Paris, 1896-1902); Louis Gayet, _Le Grand Schisme - d'occident_ (Paris, 1898); J. Loserth, _Geschichte des spateren - Mittelalters_ (1903); Theodorici de Nyem, _De schismate libri tres_, - ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 1890); K. J. von Hefele, - _Conciliengeschichte_, Bd. 6, 2nd ed.; J. von Haller, _Papsttum u. - Kirchenreform_ (Berlin, 1903). (C. H. Ha.) - -INNOCENT VIII. (Giovanni Battista Cibo), pope from the 29th of August -1484 to the 25th of July 1492, successor of Sixtus IV., was born at -Genoa (1432), the son of Arano Cibo, who under Calixtus III. had been a -senator of Rome. His youth, spent at the Neapolitan court, was far from -blameless, and it is not certain that he was married to the mother of -his numerous family. He later took orders, and, through the favour of -Cardinal Calandrini, half-brother of Nicholas V., obtained from Paul II. -the bishopric of Savona. Sixtus IV. translated him to the see of -Molfetta, and in 1473 created him cardinal-priest of Sta Balbina, -subsequently of Sta Cecilia. As pope, he addressed a fruitless summons -to Christendom to unite in a crusade against the infidels, and concluded -in 1489 a treaty with Bayezid II., agreeing in consideration of an -annual payment of 40,000 ducats and the gift of the Holy Lance, to -detain the sultan's fugitive brother Jem in close confinement in the -Vatican. Innocent excommunicated and deposed Ferdinand, king of Naples, -by bull of the 11th of September 1489, for refusal to pay the papal -dues, and gave his kingdom to Charles VIII. of France, but in 1492 -restored Ferdinand to favour. He declared (1486) Henry VII. to be lawful -king of England by the threefold right of conquest, inheritance and -popular choice, and approved his marriage with Elizabeth, the daughter -of Edward IV. Innocent, like his predecessor, hated heresy, and in the -bull _Summis desiderantes_ (5th of December 1484) he instigated very -severe measures against magicians and witches in Germany; he prohibited -(1486) on pain of excommunication the reading of the propositions of -Pico della Mirandola; he appointed (1487) T. Torquemada to be grand -inquisitor of Spain; and he offered plenary indulgence to all who would -engage in a crusade against the Waldenses. He took the first steps -towards the canonization of Queen Margaret of Scotland, and sent -missionaries under Portuguese auspices to the Congo. An important event -of his pontificate was the capture of Granada (2nd of January 1492), -which was celebrated at Rome with great rejoicing and for which Innocent -gave to Ferdinand of Aragon the title of "Catholic Majesty." Innocent -was genial, skilled in flattery, and popular with the Romans, but he -lacked talent and relied on the stronger will of Cardinal della Rovere, -afterwards Julius II. His Curia was notoriously corrupt, and he himself -openly practised nepotism in favour of his children, concerning whom the -epigram is quoted: "Octo nocens pueros genuit, totidemque puellas:--Hunc -merito poterit dicere Roma patrem." Thus he gave to his undeserving son -Franceschetto several towns near Rome and married him to the daughter of -Lorenzo de' Medici. Innocent died on the 25th of July 1492, and was -succeeded by Alexander VI. - - The sources for the life of Innocent VIII. are to be found in L. - Muratori, _Rerum Italicarum Scriptores_, vol. 3, and in Raynaldus, a. - 1484-1492. See also L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. 5, trans. - by F. I. Antrobus (London, 1898); M. Creighton, _History of the - Papacy_, vol. 4 (London, 1901); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle - Ages_, vol. 7, trans. by Mrs. G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); T. - Hagen, _Die Papstwahlen von 1484 u. 1492_ (Brizen, 1885); S. Riezler, - _Die Hexenprozesse_ (1896); G. Viani, _Memorie della famiglia Cybo_ - (Pisa, 1808); F. Serdonati, _Vita e fatti d'Innocenzo VIII._ (Milan, - 1829). (C. H. Ha.) - -INNOCENT IX. (Giovanni Antonio Fachinetti) was born in 1519. He filled -the offices of apostolic vicar of Avignon, legate at the council of -Trent, nuncio to Venice, and president of the Inquisition. He became -cardinal in 1583; and under the invalid Gregory XIV. assumed almost the -entire conduct of affairs. His election to the papacy, on the 29th of -October 1591, was brought about by Philip II., who profited little by -it, however, inasmuch as Innocent soon succumbed to age and feebleness, -dying on the 30th of December 1591. - - See Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, - 1601-1602); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, _De Vitis Pontiff. - Rom._ (both contemporaries of Innocent); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., - Austin), ii. 233 sq. (all brief accounts). (T. F. C.) - -INNOCENT X. (Giovanni Battista Pamfili) was born in Rome on the 6th of -May 1574, served successively as auditor of the Rota, nuncio to Naples, -legate apostolic to Spain, was made cardinal in 1627, and succeeded -Urban VIII. as pope on the 15th of September 1644. Throughout his -pontificate Innocent was completely dominated by his sister-in-law, -Donna Olimpia Maidalchini, a woman of masculine spirit. There is no -reason to credit the scandalous reports of an illicit attachment. -Nevertheless, the influence of Donna Olimpia was baneful; and she made -herself thoroughly detested for her inordinate ambition and rapacity. -Urban VIII. had been French in his sympathies; but the papacy now -shifted to the side of the Habsburgs, and there remained for nearly -fifty years. Evidences of the change were numerous: Innocent promoted -pro-Spanish cardinals; attacked the Barberini, proteges of Mazarin, and -sequestered their possessions; aided in quieting an insurrection in -Naples, fomented by the duke of Guise; and refused to recognize the -independence of Portugal, then at war with Spain. As a reward he -obtained from Spain and Naples the recognition of ecclesiastical -immunity. In 1649 Castro, which Urban VIII. had failed to take, was -wrested from the Farnese and annexed to the Papal States. The most -worthy efforts of Innocent were directed to the reform of monastic -discipline (1652). His condemnation of Jansenism (1653) was met with the -denial of papal infallibility in matters of _fact_, and the controversy -entered upon a new phase (see JANSENISM). Although the pontificate of -Innocent witnessed the conversion of many Protestant princes, the most -notable being Queen Christina of Sweden, the papacy had nevertheless -suffered a perceptible decline in prestige; it counted for little in the -negotiations at Munster, and its solemn protest against the peace of -Westphalia was entirely ignored. Innocent died on the 7th of January -1655, and was succeeded by Alexander VII. - - For contemporary lives of Innocent see Oldoin, continuator of - Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom._; and _Palazzi, - Gesta Pontiff. Rom._ (Venice, 1687-1688) iv. 570 sqq.; Ciampi's - _Innoc. X. Pamfili, et la sua Corte_ (Rome, 1878), gives a very full - account of the period. Gualdus' (pseud. of Gregorio Leti; v. bibliog. - note, art. "SIXTUS V.") _Vita de Donna Olimpia Maidalchina_ (1666) is - gossipy and untrustworthy; Capranica's _Donna Olympia Pamfili_ (Milan, - 1875, 3rd ed.) is fanciful and historically of no value. See also - Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), iii. 40 sqq.; v. Reumont, - _Gesch. der Stadt Rom._ iii. 2, p. 623 sqq.; Brosch, _Gesch. des - Kirchenstaates_ (1880) i. 409 sqq.; and the extended bibliography in - Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, s.v. "Innocenz X." (T. F. C.) - -INNOCENT XI. (Benedetto Odescalchi), pope from 1676 to 1689, was born at -Como on the 16th of May 1611. He studied law in Rome and Naples, entered -the Curia under Urban VIII. (his alleged military service seems to be -questionable), and became successively protonotary, president of the -Apostolic Chamber, governor of Macerate and commissary of Ancona. -Innocent X. made him a cardinal (1647), legate to Ferrara, and, in 1650, -bishop of Novara. His simple and blameless life, his conscientious -discharge of duty, and his devotion to the needs of the poor had won for -him such a name that, despite the opposition of France, he was chosen to -succeed Clement X. on the 21st of September 1676. He at once applied -himself to moral and administrative reform; declared against nepotism, -introduced economy, abolished sinecures, wiped out the deficit (at the -same time reducing rents), closed the gaming-houses, and issued a number -of sumptuary ordinances. He held monks strictly to the performance of -their vows; took care to satisfy himself of the fitness of candidates -for bishoprics; enjoined regular catechetical instruction, greater -simplicity in preaching, and greater reverence in worship. The moral -teaching of the Jesuits incurred his condemnation (1679) (see LIGUORI), -an act which the society never forgave, and which it partially revenged -by forcing, through the Inquisition, the condemnation of the quietistic -doctrines of Molinos (1687), for which Innocent entertained some -sympathy (see MOLINOS). - -The pontificate of Innocent fell within an important period in European -politics, and he himself played no insignificant role. His protest -against Louis XIV.'s extended claim to regalian rights called forth the -famous Declaration of Gallican Liberties by a subservient French synod -under the lead of Bossuet (1682), which the pope met by refusing to -confirm Louis's clerical appointments. His determination to restrict the -ambassadorial right of asylum, which had been grossly abused, was -resented by Louis, who defied him in his own capital, seized the papal -territory of Avignon, and talked loudly of a schism, without, however, -shaking the pope in his resolution. The preponderance of France Innocent -regarded as a menace to Europe. He opposed Louis's candidate for the -electorate of Cologne (1688), approved the League of Augsburg, -acquiesced in the designs of the Protestant William of Orange, even in -his supplanting James II., whom, although a Roman Catholic, he -distrusted as a tool of Louis. The great object of Innocent's desire was -the repulse of the Turks, and his unwearying efforts to that end -entitled him to share in the glory of relieving Vienna (1683). - -Innocent died on the 12th of August 1689, lamented by his subjects. His -character and life were such as to suggest the propriety of -canonization, but hostile influences have defeated every move in that -direction. - - The life of Innocent has been frequently written. See Guarnacci, - _Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1751), i. 105 sqq.; - Palazzi, _Gesta Pontiff. Rom._ (Venice, 1690); also the lives by - Albrizzi (Rome, 1695); Buonamici (Rome, 1776); and Immich (Berlin, - 1900). Particular phases of Innocent's activity have been treated by - Michaud, _Loius XIV. et Innoc. XI._ (Paris, 1882 sqq., 4 vols.); - Dubruel, _La Correspond.... du Card. Carlo Pio_, &c. (see _Rev. des - quest. hist._ lxxv. (1904) 602 sqq.); and Gerin, in _Rev. des quest. - hist._, 1876, 1878, 1886. For correspondence of Innocent see Colombo, - _Notizie biogr. e lettere di P. Innoc. XI._ (Turin, 1878); and - Berthier, _Innoc. PP. XI. Epp. ad Principes_ (Rome, 1890 sqq.). An - extended bibliography may be found in Herzog-Hauck, - _Realencyklopadie_, s.v. "Innocenz XI." (T. F. C.) - -INNOCENT XII. (Antonio Pignatelli), pope from 1691 to 1700 in succession -to Alexander VIII., was born in Naples on the 13th of March 1615, was -educated at the Jesuit College in Rome, entered upon his official career -at the age of twenty, and became vice-legate of Urbino, governor of -Perugia, and nuncio to Tuscany, to Poland and to Austria. He was made -cardinal and archbishop of Naples by Innocent XI., whose pontificate he -took as a model for his own, which began on the 12th of July 1691. Full -of reforming zeal, he issued ordinances against begging, extravagance -and gambling; forbade judges to accept presents from suitors; built new -courts of justice; prohibited the sale of offices, maintaining the -financial equilibrium by reducing expenses; and, an almost revolutionary -step, struck at the root of nepotism, in a bull of 1692 ordaining that -thenceforth no pope should grant estates, offices or revenues to any -relative. Innocent likewise put an end to the strained relations that -had existed between France and the Holy See for nearly fifty years. He -adjusted the difficulties over the regalia, and obtained from the French -bishops the virtual repudiation of the Declaration of Gallican -Liberties. He confirmed the bull of Alexander VIII. against Jansenism -(1696); and, in 1699, under pressure from Louis XIV., condemned certain -of Fenelon's doctrines which Bossuet had denounced as quietistic (see -FENELON). When the question of the Spanish succession was being agitated -he advised Charles II. to make his will in favour of the duke of Anjou. -Innocent died, on the eve of the great conflict, on the 27th of -September 1700. Moderate, benevolent, just, Innocent was one of the best -popes of the modern age. - - See Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1751), i. - 389 sqq.; Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), iii. 186 sqq.; v. - Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom._ iii. 2, p. 640 sqq.; and the - _Bullarium Innoc. XII._ (Rome, 1697). (T. F. C.) - -INNOCENT XIII. (Michele Angelo Conti), pope from 1721 to 1724, was the -son of the duke of Poli, and a member of a family that had produced -several popes, among them Innocent III., was born in Rome on the 13th of -May 1655, served as nuncio in Switzerland, and, for a much longer time, -in Portugal, was made cardinal and bishop of Osimo and Viterbo by -Clement XI., whom he succeeded on the 8th of May 1721. One of his first -acts was to invest the emperor Charles VI. with Naples (1722); but -against the imperial investiture of Don Carlos with Parma and Piacenza -he protested, albeit in vain. He recognized the Pretender, "James III.," -and promised him subsidies conditional upon the re-establishment of -Roman Catholicism in England. Moved by deep-seated distrust of the -Jesuits and by their continued practice of "Accommodation," despite -express papal prohibition (see CLEMENT XI.), Innocent forbade the Order -to receive new members in China, and was said to have meditated its -suppression. This encouraged the French Jansenist bishops to press for -the revocation of the bull _Unigenitus_; but the pope commanded its -unreserved acceptance. He weakly yielded to pressure and bestowed the -cardinal's hat upon the corrupt and debauched Dubois. Innocent died on -the 7th of March 1724, and was succeeded by Benedict XIII. - - See Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1751), ii. - 137 sqq., 381 sqq.; Sandini, _Vitae Pontiff. Rom._ (Padua, 1739); M. - v. Mayer, _Die Papstwahl Innocenz XIII._ (Vienna, 1874); Michaud, "La - Fin du Clement XI. et le commencement du pontificat d'Innocent XIII." - in the _Internat. Theol. Zeitschr._ v. 42 sqq., 304 sqq. (T. F. C.) - - - - -INNOCENTS' DAY, or CHILDERMAS, a festival celebrated in the Latin church -on the 28th of December, and in the Greek church on the 29th (O.S.) in -memory of the massacre of the children by Herod. The Church early -regarded these little ones as the first martyrs. It is uncertain when -the day was first kept as a saint's day. At first it seems to have been -absorbed into the celebration of the Epiphany, but by the 5th century it -was kept as a separate festival. In Rome it was a day of fasting and -mourning. In the middle ages the festival was the occasion for much -indulgence to the children. The boy-bishop (q.v.), whose tenure of -office lasted till Childermas, had his last exercise of authority then, -the day being one of the series of days which were known as the Feast of -Fools. Parents temporarily abdicated authority, and in nunneries and -monasteries the youngest nun and monk were for the twenty-four hours -allowed to masquerade as abbess and abbot. These mockeries of religion -were condemned by the Council of Basel (1431); but though shorn of its -extravagances the day is still observed as a feast day and merry-making -for children in Catholic countries, and particularly as an occasion for -practical joking like an April Fool's Day. In Spanish-America when such -a joke has been played, the phrase equivalent to "You April fool!" is -_Que la inocencia le valga!_ May your innocence protect you! The society -of Lincoln's Inn specially celebrated Childermas, annually electing a -"king of the Cockneys." Innocents' Day was ever accounted unlucky. -Nothing was begun and no marriages took place then. Louis XI. prohibited -all state business. The coronation of Edward IV., fixed for a Sunday, -was postponed till the Monday when it was found the Sunday fell on the -28th of December. In rural England it was deemed unlucky to do -housework, put on new clothes or pare the nails. At various places in -Gloucestershire, Somerset and Worcestershire muffled peals were rung -(_Notes and Queries_, 1st series, vol. viii. p. 617). In Northampton the -festival was called "Dyzemas Day" (possibly from Gr. [Greek: dys-] "ill" -and "mass"), and there is a proverb "What is begun on Dyzemas will never -be finished." The Irish call the day _La Croasta na bliana_, "the cross -day of the year," or _Diar dasin darg_, "blood Thursday," and many -legends attach to it (_Notes and Queries_, 4th series, vol. xii. p. -185). In medieval England the children were reminded of the mournfulness -of the day by being whipped in bed on Innocents' morning. This custom -survived to the 17th century. - - - - -INNSBRUCK, the capital of the Austrian province of Tirol, and one of the -most beautifully situated towns in Europe. In 1900 the population was -26,866 (with a garrison of about 2000 men), mainly German-speaking and -Romanist. Built at a height of 1880 ft., in a wide plain formed by the -middle valley of the Inn and on the right bank of that river, it is -surrounded by lofty mountains that seem to overhang the town. It -occupies a strong military position (its commercial and industrial -importance is now but secondary) at the junction of the great highway -from Germany to Italy over the Brenner Pass, by which it is by rail -109(1/2) m. from Munich and 174(1/2) m. from Verona, with that from -Bregenz in the Vorarlberg, distant 122 m., by rail under the Arlberg -Pass. It takes its name from its position, close to the chief bridge -over the Inn. It is the seat of the supreme judicial court of the Tirol, -the Diet of which meets in the Landhaus. The streets are broad, there -are several open places and the houses are handsome, many of those in -the old town dating from the 17th and 18th centuries, and being adorned -with frescoes, while the arcades beneath are used as shops. - -The principal monument is the Franciscan or Court church (1553-1563). In -it is the magnificent 16th-century cenotaph (his body is elsewhere) of -the emperor Maximilian (d. 1519), who, as count of the Tirol from 1490 -onwards, was much beloved by his subjects. It represents the emperor -kneeling in prayer on a gigantic marble sarcophagus, surrounded by -twenty-eight colossal bronze statues of mourners, of which twenty-three -figure ancestors, relatives or contemporaries of Maximilian, while five -represent his favourite heroes of antiquity--among these five are the -two finest statues (both by Peter Vischer of Nuremberg), those of King -Arthur of Britain and of Theodoric, the Ostrogothic king. On the sides -of the sarcophagus are twenty-four marble reliefs, depicting the -principal events in the life of Maximilian, nearly all by Alexander -Colin of Malines, while the general design of the whole monument is -attributed to Gilg Sesselschreiber, the court painter. In one of the -aisles of the same church is the Silver Chapel, so called from a silver -Madonna and silver bas-reliefs on the altar; it contains the tombs of -Archduke Ferdinand, count of the Tirol (d. 1595) and his non-royal wife, -Philippine Welser of Augsburg (d. 1580), whose happy married life spent -close by is one of the most romantic episodes in Tirolese history. In -the other aisle are the tombs, with monuments, of the heroes of the War -of Independence of 1809, Hofer, Haspinger and Speckbacher. It was in -this church that Queen Christina of Sweden, daughter of Gustavus -Adolphus, abjured Protestantism, in 1655. There are also several other -churches and convents, among the latter the first founded (1593) in -Germany by the Capuchins. - -The university of Innsbruck was formally founded in 1677, and refounded -(after two periods of suspension, 1782-1792 and 1810-1826) in 1826. It -is attended by about 1000 students and has a large staff of professors, -the theological faculty being controlled by the Jesuits. It has a -library of 176,000 books, and 1049 MSS. The University or Jesuit church -dates from the early 17th century. The Ferdinandeum is the provincial -museum (founded in 1823, though the present building is later). The -house known as the Goldne Dachl has its roof covered with gilded copper -tiles; it was built about 1425, by Frederick, count of the Tirol, -nicknamed "with the empty pockets," but the balcony and gilded roof were -added in 1500 by the emperor Maximilian. Among the other monuments of -Innsbruck may be mentioned the Pillar of St Anne, erected in 1706 to -commemorate the repulse of the French and the Bavarians in 1703; the -Triumphal Arch, built in 1765, on the occasion of the marriage of the -future emperor Leopold II. with the Infanta Maria Louisa of Spain; and a -fountain, with a bronze statue of Archduke Leopold V., set up in -1863-1877, in memory of the five-hundredth anniversary of the union of -the Tirol with Austria. - -The Roman station of Veldidena was succeeded by the Premonstratensian -abbey of Wilten, both serving to guard the important strategical bridge -over the Inn. In 1180 the count of Andechs (the local lord) moved the -market-place over to the right bank of the river (where is the convent), -and in 1187 we first hear of the town by its present name. Between 1233 -and 1235 it was fortified, and a castle built for the lord. But it was -only about 1420 that Archduke Frederick IV. ("with the empty pockets") -built himself a new castle in Innsbruck, which then replaced Meran as -the capital of Tirol. The county of Tirol was generally held by a cadet -line of the Austrian house, the count being almost an independent ruler. -But the last princeling of this kind died in 1665, since which date -Innsbruck and Tirol have been governed from Vienna. In 1552 Maurice of -Saxony surprised and nearly took Innsbruck, almost capturing the emperor -Charles V. himself, who escaped owing to a mutiny among Maurice's -troops. In the patriotic war of 1809, Innsbruck played a great part and -suffered much, while in 1848, at the time of the revolution in Vienna, -it joyfully received the emperor Ferdinand. (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -INNS OF COURT. The Inns of Court and Chancery are voluntary -non-corporate legal societies seated in London, having their origin -about the end of the 13th and the commencement of the 14th century. - -Dugdale (_Origines Juridiciales_) states that the learned in English law -were anciently persons in holy orders, the justices of the king's court -being bishops, abbots and the like. But in 1207 the clergy were -prohibited by canon from acting in the temporal courts. The result -proving prejudicial to the interests of the community, a commission of -inquiry was issued by Edward I. (1290), and this was followed up (1292) -by a second commission, which among other things directed that students -"apt and eager" should be brought from the provinces and placed in -proximity to the courts of law now fixed by Magna Carta at Westminster -(see INN). These students were accordingly located in what became known -as the Inns of Court and Chancery, the latter designated by Fortescue -(_De Laudibus_) as "the earliest settled places for students of the -law," the germ of what Sir Edward Coke subsequently spoke of as our -English juridical university. In these Inns of Court and Chancery, thus -constituted, and corresponding to the ordinary college, the students, -according to Fortescue, not only studied the laws and divinity, but -further learned to dance, sing and play instrumental music, "so that -these hostels, being nurseries or seminaries of the court, were -therefore called Inns of Court." - -Stow in his _Survey_ (1598) says: "There is in and about this city a -whole university, as it were, of students, practisers or pleaders and -judges of the laws of this realm"; and he goes on to enumerate the -several societies, fourteen in number, then existing, corresponding -nearly with those recognized in the present day, of which the Inns of -Court, properly so-called, are and always have been four, namely -_Lincoln's Inn_, the _Inner Temple_, the _Middle Temple_ and _Gray's -Inn_. To these were originally attached as subordinate Inns of Chancery, -Furnival's Inn, Thavie's Inn (to Lincoln's Inn), Clifford's Inn, -Clement's Inn (to the Inner Temple), New Inn (to the Middle Temple), -Staple's Inn, Barnard's Inn (to Gray's Inn), but they were cut adrift by -the older Inns and by the middle of the 18th century had ceased to have -any legal character (_vide infra_). In addition to these may be -specified _Serjeant's Inn_, a society composed solely of -serjeants-at-law, which ceased to exist in 1877. Besides the Inns of -Chancery above enumerated, there were others, such as Lyon's Inn, which -was pulled down in 1868, and Scrope's Inn and Chester or Strand Inn, -spoken of by Stow, which have long been removed, and the societies to -which they belonged have disappeared. The four Inns of Court stand on a -footing of complete equality, no priority being conceded to or claimed -by one inn over another. Their jurisdictions and privileges are equal, -and upon affairs of common interest the benchers of the four inns meet -in conference. From the earliest times there has been an interchange of -fellowship between the four houses; nevertheless the Middle Temple and -Lincoln's Inn, and the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn, have maintained a -closer alliance. - -The members of an Inn of Court consist of benchers, barristers and -students. The benchers are the senior members of the society, who are -invested with the government of the body to which they belong. They are -more formally designated "masters of the bench," are self-elected and -unrestricted as to numbers. Usually a member of an inn, on attaining the -rank of king's counsel, is invited to the bench. Other members of long -standing are also occasionally chosen, but no member by becoming a -king's counsel or by seniority of standing acquires the right of being -nominated a bencher. The benchers vary in number from twenty in Gray's -Inn to seventy and upwards in Lincoln's Inn and the Inner Temple. The -powers of the benchers are practically without limit within their -respective societies; their duties, however, are restricted to the -superintendence and management of the concerns of the inn, the admission -of candidates as students, the calling of them to the bar and the -exercise of discipline generally over the members. The meetings of the -benchers are variously denominated a "parliament" in the Inner and -Middle Temples, a "pension" in Gray's Inn and a "council" in Lincoln's -Inn. The judges of the superior courts are the visitors of the inns, and -to them alone can an appeal be had when either of the societies refuses -to call a member to the bar, or to reinstate in his privileges a -barrister who has been disbarred for misconduct. The presiding or chief -officer is the treasurer, one of the benchers, who is elected annually -to that dignity. Other benchers fulfil the duties of master of the -library, master of the walks or gardens, dean of the chapel and so -forth, while others are readers, whose functions are referred to below. - -The usages of the different inns varied somewhat formerly in regard both -to the term of probationary studentship enforced and to the procedure -involved in a "call" to the bar by which the student is converted into -the barrister. In the present day the entrance examination, the course -of study and the examinations to be passed on the completion of the -curriculum are identical and common to all the inns (see ENGLISH LAW). -When once called to the bar, no hindrance beyond professional etiquette -limits a barrister's freedom of action; so also members may on -application to the benchers, and on payment of arrears of dues (if any), -leave the society to which they belong, and thus cease altogether to be -members of the bar likewise. A member of an Inn of Court retains his -name on the lists of his inn for life by means of a small annual payment -varying from L1 to L5, which at one or two of the inns is compounded for -by a fixed sum taken at the call to the bar. - -The ceremony of the "call" varies in detail at the different inns. It -takes place after dinner (before dinner at the Middle Temple, which is -the only inn at which students are called in their wigs and gowns), in -the "parliament," "pension" or "council" chamber of the benchers. The -benchers sit at a table round which are ranged the students to be -called. Each candidate being provided with a glass of wine, the -treasurer or senior bencher addresses them and the senior student -briefly replies. "Call Parties" are also generally held by the new -barristers; at the Middle Temple they are allowed in hall. - -During the reign of Edward III. the Inns of Court and Chancery, based on -the collegiate principle, prospered under the supervision and protection -of the crown. In 1381 Wat Tyler invaded the Temple, and in the -succeeding century (1450) Jack Cade meditated pulling down the Inns of -Court and killing the lawyers. It would appear, moreover, that the -inmates of the inns were themselves at times disorderly and in conflict -with the citizens. Fortescue (c. 1464) describing these societies thus -speaks of them: "There belong to the law ten lesser inns, which are -called the Inns of Chancery, in each of which there are one hundred -students at least, and in some a far greater number, though not -constantly residing. After the students have made some progress here -they are admitted to the Inns of Court. Of these there are four, in the -least frequented of which there are about two hundred students. The -discipline is excellent, and the mode of study well adapted for -proficiency." This system had probably existed for two centuries before -Fortescue wrote, and continued to be enforced down to the time of Sir -Thomas More (1498), of Chief Justice Dyer (1537) and of Sir Edward Coke -(1571). By the time of Sir Matthew Hale (1629) the custom for law -students to be first entered to an Inn of Chancery before being admitted -to an Inn of Court had become obsolete, and thenceforth the Inns of -Chancery have been abandoned to the attorneys. Stow in his _Survey_ -succinctly points out the course of reading enforced at the end of the -16th century. He says that the Inns of Court were replenished partly by -students coming from the Inns of Chancery, who went thither from the -universities and sometimes immediately from grammar schools; and, having -spent some time in studying the first elements of the law, and having -performed the exercises called "bolts," "moots" and "putting of cases," -they proceeded to be admitted to, and become students in, one of the -Inns of Court. Here continuing for the space of seven years or -thereabouts, they frequented readings and other learned exercises, -whereby, growing ripe in the knowledge of the laws, they were, by the -general consent either of the benchers or of the readers, called to the -degree of barrister, and so enabled to practise in chambers and at the -bar. This ample provision for legal study continued with more or less -vigour down to nearly the commencement of the 18th century. A languor -similar to that which affected the church and the universities then -gradually supervened, until the fulfilment of the merest forms sufficed -to confer the dignity of advocate and pleader. This was maintained until -about 1845, when steps were taken for reviving and extending the ancient -discipline and course of study, bringing them into harmony with modern -ideas and requirements. - -The fees payable vary slightly at the different inns, but average about -L150. This sum covers all expenses from admission to an inn to the call -at the bar, but the addition of tutorial and other expenses may augment -the cost of a barrister's legal education to L400 or L500. The period of -study prior to call must not be less than twelve terms, equivalent to -about three years. Solicitors, however, may be called without keeping -any terms if they have been in practice for not fewer than five -consecutive years. - -It has been seen that the studies pursued in ancient times were -conducted by means of "readings," "moots" and "bolts." The _readings_ -were deemed of vital importance, and were delivered in the halls with -much ceremony; they were frequently regarded as authorities and cited as -such at Westminster in argument. Some statute or section of a statute -was selected for analysis and explanation, and its relation to the -common law pointed out. Many of these readings, dating back to Edward -I., are extant, and well illustrate the importance of the subjects and -the exhaustive and learned manner in which they were treated. The -function of "reader" involved the holder in very weighty expenses, -chiefly by reason of the profuse hospitality dispensed--a constant and -splendid table being kept during the three weeks and three days over -which the readings extended, to which were invited the nobility, judges, -bishops, the officers of state and sometimes the king himself. In 1688 -the readers were paid L200 for their reading, but by that time the -office had become a sinecure. In the present day the readership is -purely honorary and without duties. The privilege formerly assumed by -the reader of calling to the bar was taken away in 1664 by an order of -the lord chancellor and the judges. _Moots_ were exercises of the nature -of formal arguments on points of law raised by the students and -conducted under the supervision of a bencher and two barristers sitting -as judges in the halls of the inns. _Bolts_ were of an analogous -character, though deemed inferior to moots. - -In the early history of the inns discrimination was exercised in regard -to the social status of candidates for admission to them. Sir John -Ferne, a writer of the 16th century, referred to by Dugdale, states that -none were admitted into the houses of court except they were gentlemen -of blood. So also Pliny, writing in the 1st century of the Christian era -(_Letters_, ii. 14), says that before his day young men even of the -highest families of Rome were not admitted to practice except upon the -introduction of some man of consular rank. But he goes on to add that -all barriers were then broken down, everything being open to -everybody--a remark applicable to the bar of England and elsewhere in -the present day. It may here be noted that no dignity or title confers -any rank at the bar. A privy councillor, a peer's son, a baronet, the -speaker of the House of Commons or a knight--all rank at the bar merely -according to their legal precedence. Formerly orders were frequently -issued both by the benchers and by the crown on the subject of the -dress, manners, morals and religious observances of students and -members. Although some semblance of a collegiate discipline is still -maintained, this is restricted to the dining in hall, where many ancient -usages survive, and to the closing of the gates of the inns at night. - -Each inn maintains a chapel, with the accompaniment of preachers and -other clergy, the services being those of the Church of England. The -Inner and the Middle Temple have joint use of the Temple church. The -office of preacher is usually filled by an ecclesiastic chosen by the -benchers. The principal ecclesiastic of the Temple church is, however, -constituted by letters patent by the crown without episcopal institution -or induction, enjoying, nevertheless, no authority independently of the -benchers. He bears the title of Master of the Temple. - -It has already been stated, on the authority of Fortescue, that the -students of the Inns of Court learned to dance, sing and play -instrumental music; and those accomplishments found expression in the -"masques" and "revels" for which the societies formerly distinguished -themselves, especially the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn. These -entertainments were of great antiquity and much magnificence, involving -very considerable expense. Evelyn (_Diary_) speaks of the revels at the -Middle Temple as an old and riotous custom, having relation neither to -virtue nor to policy. The last revel appears to have been held at the -Inner Temple in 1734, to mark the occasion of the elevation of Lord -Chancellor Talbot to the woolsack. The plays and masques performed were -sometimes repeated elsewhere than in the hall of the inn, especially -before the sovereign at court. A master of the revels was appointed, -commonly designated Lord of Misrule. There is abundant information as to -the scope and nature of these entertainments: one of the festivals is -minutely described by Gerard Leigh in his _Accedence of Armorie_, 1612; -and a tradition ascribes the first performance of Shakespeare's _Twelfth -Night_ to a revel held in the Middle Temple hall in February 1601. The -hospitality of the inns now finds expression mainly in the "Grand Day," -held once in each of the four terms, when it is customary for the judges -and other distinguished visitors to dine with the benchers (who sit -apart from the barristers and students on a dais in some state), and -"Readers' Feast," on both which occasions extra commons and wine are -served to the members attending. But the old customs also found some -renewal in the shape of balls, concerts, garden-parties and other -entertainments. In 1887 there was a revival (the first since the 17th -century) of the Masque of Flowers at both the Inner Temple and Gray's -Inn. The Royal Horticultural Society's annual exhibition of flowers and -fruit is held in May in the Temple Gardens. Plays are also occasionally -performed in the Temple, Robert Browning's _Sordello_ being acted in -1902 by a company of amateurs, most of whom were either members of the -bar or connected with the legal profession. - - The _Inner_ and the _Middle Temple_, so far as their history can be - traced, have always been separate societies. Fortescue, writing - between 1461 and 1470, makes no allusion to a previous junction of the - two inns. Dugdale (1671) speaks of the Temple as having been one - society, and states that the students so increased in number that at - length they divided, becoming the Inner and Middle Temple - respectively. He does not, however, give any authority for this - statement, or furnish the date of the division. The first trustworthy - mention of the Temple as an inn of court is found in the _Paston - Letters_, where, under date November 1440, the Inner Temple is spoken - of as a college, as is also subsequently the Middle Temple. The Temple - had been the seat in England of the Knights Templars, on whose - suppression in 1312 it passed with other of their possessions to the - crown, and after an interval of some years to the Knights Hospitallers - of St John of Jerusalem, who in the reign of Edward III. demised the - mansion and its surroundings to certain professors of the common law - who came from Thavie's Inn. Notwithstanding the destruction of the - muniments of the Temple by fire or by popular commotion, sufficient - testimony is attainable to show that in the reigns of Edward III. and - Richard II. the Temple had become the residence of the legal - communities which have since maintained there a permanent footing. The - two societies continued as tenants to the Knights Hospitallers of St - John until the dissolution of the order in 1539; they then became the - lessees of the crown, and so remained until 1609, when James I. made a - grant by letters patent of the premises in perpetuity to the benchers - of the respective societies on a yearly payment by each of L10, a - payment bought up in the reign of Charles II. In this grant the two - inns are described as "the Inner and the Middle Temple or New Temple," - and as "being two out of those four colleges the most famous of all - Europe" for the study of the law. Excepting the church, nothing - remains of the edifices belonging to the Knights Templars, the present - buildings having been almost wholly erected since the reign of Queen - Elizabeth or since the Great Fire, in which the major part of the - Inner Temple perished. The church has been in the joint occupation of - the Inner and Middle Temple from time immemorial--the former taking - the southern and the latter the northern half. The round portion of - the church was consecrated in 1185, the nave or choir in 1240. It is - the largest and most complete of the four remaining round churches in - England, and is built on the plan of the church of the Holy Sepulchre - at Jerusalem. Narrowly escaping the ravages of the fire of 1666, this - beautiful building is one of the most perfect specimens of early - Gothic architecture in England. In former times the lawyers awaited - their clients for consultation in the Round Church, as similarly the - serjeants-at-Law were accustomed to resort to St Paul's Cathedral, - where each serjeant had a pillar assigned him. - - The _Inner Temple_, comprehending a hall, parliament chamber, library - and other buildings, occupies the site of the ancient mansion of the - Knights Templars, built about the year 1240, and has from time to time - been more or less rebuilt and extended, the present handsome range of - buildings, including a new dining hall, being completed in 1870. The - library owes its existence to William Petyt, keeper of the Tower - Records in the time of Queen Anne, who was also a benefactor to the - library of the Middle Temple. The greatest addition by gift was made - by the Baron F. Maseres in 1825. The number of volumes now in the - library is 37,000. Of the Inns of Chancery belonging to the Inner - Temple _Clifford's Inn_ was anciently the town residence of the Barons - Clifford, and was demised in 1345 to a body of students of the law. It - was the most important of the Inns of Chancery, and numbered among its - members Coke and Selden. At its dinners a table was specially set - aside for the "Kentish Mess," though it is not clear what connexion - there was between the Inn and the county of Kent. It was governed by a - principal and twelve rulers. _Clement's Inn_ was an Inn of Chancery - before the reign of Edward IV., taking its name from the parish church - of St Clement Danes, to which it had formerly belonged. Clement's Inn - was the inn of Shakespeare's Master Shallow, and was the Shepherd's - Inn of Thackeray's _Pendennis_. The buildings of Clifford's Inn - survive (1910), but of Clement's Inn there are left but a few - fragments. - - The _Middle Temple_ possesses in its hall one of the most stately of - existing Elizabethan buildings. Commenced in 1562, under the auspices - of Edmund Plowden, then treasurer, it was not completed until 1572, - the richly carved screen at the east end in the style of the - Renaissance being put up in 1575. The belief that the screen was - constructed of timber taken from ships of the Spanish Armada (1588) is - baseless. The hall, which has been preserved unaltered, has been the - scene of numerous historic incidents, notably the entertainments given - within its walls to regal and other personages from Queen Elizabeth - downwards. The library, which contains about 28,000 volumes, dates - from 1641, when Robert Ashley, a member of the society, bequeathed his - collection of books in all classes of literature to the inn, together - with a large sum of money; other benefactors were Ashmole (the - antiquary), William Petyt (a benefactor of the Inner Temple) and Lord - Stowell. From 1711 to 1826 the library was greatly neglected; and many - of the most scarce and valuable books were lost. The present handsome - library building, which stands apart from the hall, was completed in - 1861, the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) attending the - inauguration ceremony on October 31st of that year, and becoming a - member and bencher of the society on the occasion. He afterwards held - the office of treasurer (1882). The MSS. in the collection are few and - of no special value. In civil, canon and international law, as also in - divinity and ecclesiastical history, the library is very rich; it - contains also some curious works on witchcraft and demonology. There - was but one Inn of Chancery connected with the Middle Temple, that of - _New Inn_, which, according to Dugdale, was formed by a society of - students previously settled at St George's Inn, situated near St - Sepulchre's Church without Newgate; but the date of this transfer is - not known. The buildings have now been pulled down. - - _Lincoln's Inn_ stands on the site partly of an episcopal palace - erected in the time of Henry III. by Ralph Nevill, bishop of - Chichester and chancellor of England, and partly of a religious house, - called Black Friars House, in Holborn. In the reign of Edward II., - Henry Lacy, earl of Lincoln, possessed the place, which from him - acquired the name of Lincoln's Inn, probably becoming an Inn of Court - soon after his death (in 1310), though of its existence as a place of - legal study there is little authentic record until the time of Henry - VI. (1424), to which date the existing muniments reach back. The fee - simple of the inn would appear to have remained vested in the see of - Chichester; and it was not until 1580 that the society which for - centuries had occupied the inn as tenants acquired the absolute - ownership of it. The old hall, built about 1506, still remains, but - has given place to a modern structure designed by Philip Hardwick, - R.A., which, along with the buildings containing the library, was - completed in 1845, Queen Victoria attending the inauguration ceremony - (October 13). The chapel, built after the designs of Inigo Jones, was - consecrated in 1623. The library--as a collection of law books the - most complete in the country--owes its foundation to a bequest of John - Nethersale, a member of the society, in 1497, and is the oldest of the - existing libraries in London. Various entries in the records of the - inn relate to the library, and notably in 1608, when an effort was - made to extend the collection, and the first appointment of a master - of the library (an office now held in annual rotation by each bencher) - was made. The library has been much enriched by donations and by the - acquisition by purchase of collections of books on special subjects. - It includes also an extensive and valuable series of MSS., the whole - comprehending 50,000 volumes. The prince of Wales (George V.), a - bencher of the society, filled the office of treasurer in 1904. The - Inns of Chancery affiliated to Lincoln's Inn were Thavie's Inn and - Furnival's Inn. _Thavie's Inn_ was a residence of students of the law - in the time of Edward III., and is mentioned by Fortescue as having - been one of the lesser houses of Lincoln's Inn for some centuries. It - thus continued down to 1769, when the inn was sold by the benchers, - and thenceforth it ceased to have any character as a place of legal - education. _Furnival's Inn_ became the resort of students about the - year 1406, and was purchased by the society of Lincoln's Inn in 1547. - It was governed by a principal and twelve antients. In 1817 the Inn - was rebuilt, but from that date it ceased to exist as a legal - community and is now demolished. - - The exact date of _Gray's Inn_ becoming the residence of lawyers is - not known, though it was so occupied before the year 1370. The inn - stands upon the site of the manor of Portpoole, belonging in ancient - times to the dean and chapter of St Paul's, but subsequently the - property of the family of Grey de Wilton and eventually of the crown, - from which a grant of the manor or inn was obtained, many years since - discharged from any rent or payment. The hall of the inn is of - handsome design, similar to the Middle Temple hall in its general - character and arrangements, and was completed about the year 1560. The - chapel, of much earlier date than the hall, has, notwithstanding its - antiquity, little to recommend it to notice, being small and - insignificant, and lacking architectural features of any kind. The - library, including about 13,000 volumes, contains a small but - important collection of MSS. and missals, and also some valuable works - on divinity. Little is known of the origin or early history of the - library, though mention is incidentally made of it in the society's - records in the 16th and 17th centuries. The gardens, laid out about - 1597, it is believed under the auspices of the lord chancellor Bacon, - at that time treasurer of the society, continue to this day as then - planned, though with some curtailment owing to the erection of - additional buildings. Among many curious customs maintained in this - inn is that of drinking a toast on grand days "to the glorious, pious - and immortal memory of Queen Elizabeth." Of the special circumstances - originating this display of loyalty there is no record. The Inns of - Chancery connected with Gray's Inn are Staple and Barnard's Inns. - _Staple Inn_ was an Inn of Chancery in the reign of Henry V., and is - probably of yet earlier date. Readings and moots were observed here - with regularity. Sir Simonds d'Ewes mentions attending a moot in - February 1624. The Inn, with its picturesque Elizabethan front, faces - Holborn. It was sold by the antients in 1884 lor L68,000. It is in a - very good state of preservation, and it is the intention of the - purchasers, the Prudential Assurance Company, to preserve it as a - memorial of vanishing London. _Barnard's Inn_, anciently designated - Mackworth Inn, was an Inn of Chancery in the reign of Henry VI. It was - bequeathed by him to the dean and chapter of Lincoln. It is now the - property of the Mercer's Company and is used as a school. - - The _King's Inns, Dublin_, the legal school in Ireland, corresponds - closely to the English Inns of Court, and is in many respects in - unison with them in its regulations with regard to the admission of - students into the society, and to the degree of barrister-at-law, as - also in the scope of the examinations enforced. Formerly it was - necessary to keep a number of terms at one of the Inns in London--the - stipulation dating as far back as 1542 (33 Henry VIII. c. 3). Down to - 1866 the course of education pursued at the King's Inns differed from - the English Inns of Court in that candidates for admission to the - legal profession as attorneys and solicitors carried on their studies - with those studying for the higher grade of the bar in the same - building under a professor specially appointed for this - purpose,--herein following the usage anciently prevailing in the Inns - of Chancery in London. This arrangement was put an end to by the - Attorneys and Solicitors Act (Ireland) 1866. The origin of the King's - Inns may be traced to the reign of Edward I., when a legal society - designated Collett's Inn was established without the walls of the - city; it was destroyed by an insurrectionary band. In the reign of - Edward III. Sir Robert Preston, chief baron of the exchequer, gave up - his residence within the city to the legal body, which then took the - name of Preston's Inn. In 1542 the land and buildings known as - Preston's Inn were restored to the family of the original donor, and - in the same year Henry VIII. granted the monastery of Friars Preachers - for the use of the professors of the law in Ireland. The legal body - removed to the new site, and thenceforward were known by the name of - the King's Inns. Possession of this property having been resumed by - the government in 1742, and the present Four Courts erected thereon, a - plot of ground at the top of Henrietta Street was purchased by the - society, and the existing hall built in the year 1800. The library, - numbering over 50,000 volumes, with a few MSS., is housed in buildings - specially provided in the year 1831, and is open, not only to the - members of the society, but also to strangers. The collection - comprises all kinds of literature. It is based principally upon a - purchase made in 1787 of the large and valuable library of Mr Justice - Robinson, and is maintained chiefly by an annual payment made from the - Consolidated Fund to the society in lieu of the right to receive - copyright works which was conferred by an Act of 1801, but abrogated - in 1836. - - In discipline and professional etiquette the members of the bar in - Ireland differ little from their English brethren. The same style of - costume is enforced, the same gradations of rank--attorney-general, - solicitor-general, king's counsel and ordinary barristers--being - found. There are also serjeants-at-law limited, however, to three in - number, and designated 1st, 2nd and 3rd Serjeant. The King's Inns do - not provide chambers for business purposes; there is consequently no - aggregation of counsel in certain localities, as is the case in London - in the Inns of Court and their immediate vicinity. - - The corporation known as the _Faculty of Advocates_ in Edinburgh - corresponds with the Inns of Court in London and the King's Inns in - Dublin (see ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF). - - AUTHORITIES.--Fortescue, _De laudibus legum Angliae_, by A. Amos - (1825); Dugdale, _Origines juridicales_ (2nd ed., 1671); _History and - Antiquities of the Four Inns of Court_, &c. (1780, 2nd ed.); Foss, - _Judges of England_ (1848-1864, 9 vols.); Herbert, _Antiquities of the - Inns of Court_ (1804); Pearce, _History of the Inns of Court_ (1848); - _Report_ of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Inns of - Court and Chancery, 1855; Ball, _Student's Guide to the Bar_ (1878); - Stow, _Survey of London and Westminster_, by Strype (1754-1755); - Nichols, _Progresses of Elizabeth and James I._; Lane, _Student's - Guide through Lincoln's Inn_ (2nd ed., 1805); Spilsbury, _Lincoln's - Inn, with an Account of the Library_ (2nd ed., 1873); Douthwaite, - _Notes illustrative of the History and Antiquities of Gray's Inn_ - (1876), and _Gray's Inn, its History and Associations_ (1886); _Paston - Letters_ (1872); _Law Magazine_, 1859-1860; _Quarterly Review_, - October, 1871; Cowel, _Law Dictionary_ (1727); Duhigg, _History of the - King's Inns in Ireland_ (1806); Mackay, _Practice of the Court of - Session_ (1879); Bellot, _The Inner and Middle Temple_ (1902); - Inderwick, _The King's Peace_ (1895); Fletcher, _The Pension Book of - Gray's Inn_ (1901); Loftie, _The Inns of Court_ (1895); Hope, - _Chronicles of an Old Inn_ (Gray's Inn) (1887); _A Calendar of the - Inner Temple Records_ (ed. F. A. Inderwick, 3 vols.). (J. C. W.) - - - - -INNUENDO (Latin for "by nodding," from _innuere_, to indicate by -nodding), an insinuation, suggestion, in prima facie innocent words, of -something defamatory or disparaging of a person. The word appears in -legal documents in Medieval Latin, to explain, in parenthesis, that to -which a preceding word refers; thus, "he, _innuendo_, the plaintiff, is -a thief." The word is still found in pleadings in actions for libel and -slander. The innuendo, in the plaintiff's statement of claim, is an -averment that words written or spoken by the defendant, though prima -facie not actionable, have, in fact, a defamatory meaning, which is -specifically set out (see LIBEL AND SLANDER). - - - - -INOUYE, KAORU, MARQUESS (1835- ), Japanese statesman, was born in 1835, -a _samurai_ of the Choshu fief. He was a bosom friend of his -fellow-clansman Prince Ito, and the two youths visited England in 1863, -serving as common sailors during the voyage. At that time all travel -abroad was forbidden on pain of death, but the veto did not prove -deterrent in the face of a rapidly growing conviction that, as a matter -of self-protection, Japan must assimilate the essentials of Western -civilization. Shortly after the departure of Inouye and Ito, the Choshu -fief, having fired upon foreign vessels passing the strait of -Shimonoseki, was menaced by war with the Yedo government or with the -insulted powers, and Inouye and Ito, on receipt of this news, hastened -home hoping to avert the catastrophe. They repaired to the British -legation in Yedo and begged that the allied squadron, then about to sail -for Shimonoseki to call Choshu to account, should be delayed that they -might have an opportunity of advising the fief to make timely -submission. Not only was this request complied with, but a British -frigate was detailed to carry the two men to Shimonoseki, and, pending -her departure, the British legation assisted them to lie _perdu_. Their -mission proved futile, however, and Inouye was subsequently waylaid by a -party of conservative _samurai_, who left him covered with wounds. This -experience did not modify his liberal views, and, by the time of the -Restoration in 1867, he had earned a high reputation as a leader of -progress and an able statesman. Finance and foreign affairs were -supposed to be the spheres specially suited to his genius, but his name -is not associated with any signal practical success in either, though -his counsels were always highly valued by his sovereign and his country -alike. As minister of foreign affairs he conducted the long and abortive -negotiations for treaty revision between 1883 and 1886, and in 1885 he -was raised to the peerage with the title of count, being one of the -first group of _Meiji_ statesmen whose services were thus rewarded. -Prior to his permanent retirement from office in 1898, he held the -portfolios of foreign affairs, finance, home affairs, and agriculture -and commerce, and throughout the war with Russia he attended all -important state councils, by order of the emperor, being also specially -designated adviser to the minister of finance. In 1907 he was raised to -the rank of marquess. His name will go down in his country's history as -one of the five _Meiji_ statesmen, namely, Princes Ito and Yamagata, -Marquesses Inouye and Matsukata and Count Okuma. - - - - -INOWRAZLAW, the Polish form of the German _Jung-Breslau_, by which the -place was formerly known, a town in the Prussian province of Posen, -situated on an eminence in the most fertile part of the province, 21 m. -S.W. of Thorn. Pop. (1900) 26,141. Iron-founding, the manufacture of -machinery and chemicals, and an active trade in cattle and country -produce are carried on. In the vicinity are important salt works and a -sulphur mine, and since 1876 a brine bath has been within the town. -Inowrazlaw is mentioned as early as 1185, and in 1772 it passed to -Prussia. - - - - -INQUEST (O. Fr. _enqueste_, modern _enquete_, from Lat. _inquisitum_, -_inquirere_, to inquire), an inquiry, particularly a formal legal -inquiry into facts. The word is now chiefly confined to the inquiry held -by a coroner and jury into the causes of certain deaths, in matters of -treasure trove, and, in the city of London, in cases of fires (see -CORONER). Formerly the term was applied to many formal and official -inquiries for fixing prices, &c. - - - - -INQUISITION, THE (Lat. _inquisitio_, an inquiry), - - - Punishment of heresy in the Roman Empire. - - Opinions of the Fathers. - - In the early Middle Ages. - - Conflicting views as to the punishment of heresy. - - The Church Councils. - - Influence of the Canon Law. - - The Council of Tours, 1163. - - Definition of the procedure under Lucius III. and the Emperor Frederick - I. - - The death penalty. - - Innocent III. - -the name given to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction dealing both in the -middle ages and in modern times with the detection and punishment of -heretics and all persons guilty of any offence against Catholic -orthodoxy. It is incorrect to say that the Inquisition made its -appearance in the 13th century complete in all its principles and -organs. It was the result of, or rather one step in, a process of -evolution, the beginnings of which are to be traced back to the origins -of Christianity. St Paul (1 Tim. i. 20) "delivered unto Satan" -Hymenaeus and Alexander, "that they might learn not to blaspheme." The -penalty of death by stoning inflicted by the book of Deuteronomy upon -those who deserted the true faith (Deut. xiii. 6-9, xvii. 1-6) is thus -reduced to a purely spiritual excommunication. During the first three -centuries of the Church there is no trace of any persecution, and the -earlier Fathers, especially Origen and Lactantius, reject the idea of -it. Constantine, by the edict of Milan (313), inaugurated an era of -official tolerance, but from the time of Valentinian I. and Theodosius -I. onwards, laws against heretics began to appear, and increased with -astonishing regularity and rapidity. We can count sixty-eight -distributed over fifty-two years; heretics are subjected to exile or -confiscation, disqualified from inheriting property, and even, in the -case of a few groups of Manichaeans and Donatists, condemned to death; -but it should be noticed that these penalties apply only to the outward -manifestations of heresy, and not, as in the middle ages, to crimes of -conscience. Within the Church, St Optatus alone (_De schismate -Donatistarum_, _lib._ iii. cap. iii.) approved of this violent -repression of the Donatist heresy; St Augustine only admitted a -_temperata severitas_, such as scourging, fines or exile, and at the end -of the 4th century the condemnation of the Spanish heretic Priscillian, -who was put to death in 385 by order of the emperor Maximus, gave rise -to a keen controversy. St Martin of Tours, St Ambrose and St Leo -vigorously attacked the Spanish bishops who had obtained the -condemnation of Priscillian. St John Chrysostom considered that a -heretic should be deprived of the liberty of speech and that assemblies -organized by heretics should be dissolved, but declared that "to put a -heretic to death would be to introduce upon earth an inexpiable crime." -From the 6th to the 9th century the heterodox, with the exception of the -Manichaean sects in certain places, were hardly subjected to -persecution. They were, moreover, rare and generally isolated, for -groups of sectaries only began to appear to any extent at the time of -the earliest appearances of Catharism. However, at the end of the 10th -century, the disciples of Vilgard, a heretic of Ravenna, were destroyed -in Italy and Sardinia, according to Glaber, _ferro et incendio_, -probably by assimilation to the Manichaeans. Perhaps this was the -precedent for the punishment of the thirteen Cathari who were burnt at -Orleans in 1022 by order of King Robert, a sentence which has been -commonly quoted as the first action of the "secular arm" (or lay power) -against heresy in the West during the middle ages. However that may be, -after 1022 there were numerous cases of the execution of heretics, -either by burning or strangling, in France, Italy, the Empire and -England. Up till about 1200 it is not quite easy to determine what part -was taken by the Church and its bishops and doctors in this series of -executions. At Orleans the people, supported by the Crown, were -responsible for the death of the heretics; the historians give only the -faintest indications of any direct intervention of the clergy, except -perhaps for the examination of doctrine. At Goslar (1051-1052) the -proceedings were the same. At Asti (1034) the bishop's name appears side -by side with those of the other lords who attacked the Cathari, but it -seems clear that it was not he who had the chief voice in their -execution; at Milan, it was again the civil magistrates, and this time -against the wish of the archbishop--who gave the heretics the choice -between the adoration of the cross and death. At Soissons (1114) the -mob, distrusting the weakness of the clergy, took advantage of their -bishop's absence to burn heretics at the stake. It was also the mob who, -infuriated at seeing him destroy and burn crosses, burnt the heresiarch -Peter of Bruis (c. 1140). At Liege (1144) the bishop saved from the -flames certain persons whom the faithful were attempting to burn. At -Cologne (1163) the archbishop was less successful, and the mob put the -heretics to death without even a trial. The condemnation of Arnold of -Brescia was entirely political, though he was denounced as a heretic to -the secular arm by Bernard of Clairvaux, and his execution was the act -of the prefect of Rome (1155). At Vezelay, on the contrary (1167), the -heretics were burnt after ecclesiastical judgment had been pronounced -by the abbot and several bishops. From 1183 to 1206 Hugh, bishop of -Auxerre, took upon himself the discretionary power of exiling, -dispossessing or burning heretics, while about the same time William of -the White Hands, archbishop of Reims, in concert with Philip, count of -Flanders, stamped out heresy from his diocese by fire. There was a -similar unanimity between the lay and ecclesiastical authorities in the -famous condemnation of the disciples of Amalric of Bena, who were burnt -at Paris in 1209 by order of Philip Augustus after an ecclesiastical -inquiry and judgment. The theory in these matters was at first as -uncertain as the practice; in the 11th century one bishop only, Theodwin -of Liege (d. 1075), affirms the necessity for the punishment of heretics -by the secular arm (1050). His predecessor, Wazo, bishop of Liege from -1041 to 1044, had expressly condemned any capital punishment and advised -the bishop of Chalons to resort to peaceful conversion. In the 12th -century Peter the Cantor[1] protested against the death penalty, -admitting at the most imprisonment. It was imprisonment again, or exile, -but not death, which the German abbot Gerhoh of Reichersperg (1093-1169) -demanded in the case of Arnold of Brescia, and in dealing with the -heretics of Cologne, St Bernard, who cannot be accused of leniency where -heterodoxy was concerned, recommended pacific refutation, followed by -excommunication or prison, but never the death penalty (see BERNARD, ST, -of Clairvaux). In the councils, too, it is clear that the appeal to the -secular arm was equally guarded: at Reims (1049) excommunication alone -is decreed against heretics; and when, as at Toulouse (1119) and the -Lateran council (1139), it is laid down that heretics, in addition to -excommunication, should be dealt with _per potestates exteras_, or when, -as at the council of Reims (1148), the secular princes are forbidden to -support or harbour heretics, there is never any suggestion of capital -punishment. But it must be noticed that from the opening years of the -12th century date the beginnings of a decided evolution in the canon -law, continuing up to the time of Innocent III., which substituted for -arbitrary decisions according to circumstances an organized and -particularized legislation, in which judgment was given _secundum -canonicas et legitimas sanctiones_. Anselm of Lucca and the _Panormia_ -attributed to Ivo of Chartres reproduced word for word under the rubric -_De edicto imperatorum in dampnationem hoereticorum_, law 5 of the title -_De hereticis_ of Justinian's code, which pronounces the sentence of -death against the Manichaeans; and we should remember that the Cathari, -and in general all heretics in the West in the 11th and 12th centuries -were considered by contemporary theologians as Manichaeans. Gratian in -the _Decretum_ proclaims the views of St Augustine (exile and fines). -Certain of his commentators (_2^a pars Caus._ xxiii.), and notably -Rufinus Johannes Teutonicus, and the anonymous glossator (in Uguccio's -Great Summa of the _Decretum_) declare that impenitent heretics may, or -even should, be punished by death. As early as 1163, the council of -Tours suggested to the ecclesiastical authorities definite penalties to -be inflicted on heretics, namely, imprisonment and loss of all their -property. Pope Alexander III., who had attended the council of Tours of -1163, renewed at the Lateran council (1179) the decisions which had -already been made with regard to the heterodox in the south of France, -and at Verona in 1184 Pope Lucius III., in concert with the emperor -Frederick Barbarossa, took still more severe measures: obstinate -heretics were to be excommunicated, and then handed over to the secular -arm, which would inflict a suitable penalty. The emperor, on his side, -laid them under the imperial ban (exile, confiscation, demolition of -their houses, _infamia_, loss of civil rights, disqualification from -public offices, &c.). The usage, then, was already quite clear; but the -death penalty had not as yet been demanded or inflicted. Possibly it was -Count Raymond V. of Toulouse, in whose territories heretics abounded, -who in 1194 enacted a law threatening them with the penalty of death; -but the authenticity of this act has been questioned. It was more -probably Peter II. of Aragon who was the first to decree, in 1197, the -punishment of death by burning against the heretics who should not have -left his kingdom within a given time. But it was Innocent III. who gave -the most powerful impetus to the anti-heretical movement in the secular -world by his frequent exhortations (beginning in 1198) to the secular -princes (letters of March 25th, 1199, and September 22nd, 1207). As a -jurist he henceforward assimilated the crime of high treason against God -to that of high treason against temporal rulers, and admitted all the -terrible consequences of this assimilation. - - - Albigensian Crusade. No regular Inquisition. - - The Emperor Frederick II. - - Gregory IX. creates the monastic Inquisition. - - The Dominicans. - -It is therefore incorrect to believe that the Inquisition arose out of, -and at the time of, the crusade against the Albigenses. These executions -_en masse_ certainly created a definitive precedent for violent -repression, but there was still no regular organization: the council of -Toulouse, held in November 1229 by the Roman legate after the treaty of -peace, attempted to organize one, and constituted itself the tribunal. -But the procedure was still uncertain; in the north, from 1200 to 1222, -at Paris (execution of the disciples of Amalric of Bena), at Strassburg, -Cambrai, Troyes and Besancon executions took place, after trials in -which the bishops were the judges, the exercise of the secular power -being based on vague phrases in the decrees of Louis VIII. (that -heretics be punished _animadversione debita_), or in those of Louis IX., -ordering his _baillis_ or barons to do to them _quod debebunt_. The -emperor Frederick II. defined his jurisprudence more clearly: from 1220 -to 1239, supported by Pope Honorius III., and above all by Gregory IX., -he established against the heretics of the Empire in general a -legislation in which the penalties of death, banishment and confiscation -of property were formulated so clearly as to be henceforth -incontestable. Gregory IX. felt his influence, and also that of the -Dominican Guala, bishop of Brescia, who had subjected his episcopal town -to the full rigour of the imperial laws. The pope no longer hesitated as -to the principle or the degree of repression; but introduced new methods -of inquiry and judgment: he created out of the material furnished him by -the mendicant orders, and especially the Dominicans, who were more -disciplined than the rest and better theologians, the monastic -inquisition, which was more elastic, more constant in its activities and -more numerous than the inquisition by legate, and better disciplined -than the episcopal inquisition. In November 1232 the Dominican Alberic -went round Lombardy with the title of _Inquisitor haereticae -pravitatis_. In 1231 a similar commission was given to the Dominicans of -Friesach and to the terrible Conrad of Marburg, whose zeal in Germany -even exceeded the pope's wishes. In 1233 Gregory IX. addressed a letter -to the bishops in the south of France, in which he announced his -intention of employing the preaching friars in future for the discovery -and repression of heresy. - - - Beginnings of the Inquisition. - - Inquisitorial districts. - - The Inquisitors and their auxiliaries. - -The inquisition was now regularly instituted, but its jurisprudence was -elaborated by successive additions or limitations, by the force of -custom and the detailed prescriptions added by the papal constitutions. -The pope's commissioners "in the matter of heresy" at first travelled -from place to place. On arriving in a district they addressed its -inhabitants, called upon them to confess, if they were heretics, or to -denounce those whom they knew to be heretics: a "time of grace" was -opened, during which those who freely confessed were dispensed from all -penalties, or only given a secret and very light penance; while those -whose heresy had been openly manifested were exempted from the penalties -of death and perpetual imprisonment. But this time could not exceed one -month. After that began the inquisition. As soon as their mission was at -an end, and heresy was considered to be stamped out, the inquisitors -left the country. Later, inquisitorial districts were formed. The seat -of the Inquisition in each district was the monastery of the order -(Dominican or Franciscan) to which the inquisitors for that part -belonged. There was never any special court or prison: the _murus_ -(prison) was lent to the Inquisition by the ecclesiastical or secular -authorities. The maintenance of the prisoners and the duty of providing -the prison fell in principle upon the bishops (council of Toulouse, -1229), but they tried to evade it. The kings of France, and in -particular Louis VIII., granted subsidies to the inquisitors. For each -district the inquisitors were chosen by the provincials of their order, -approved or rejected by the pope, and removable by him only. Their -discretionary powers were absolute. They conducted their interrogations -before two persons (laymen or ecclesiastics) and only pronounced their -sentence after consultation with leading men in the district -(_communicato bonorum virorum consilio_). This was the only protection -for the accused. It was in vain that the civil lawyers tried to prove -that the secular authorities had a right to see the documents bearing on -the case; the Inquisition always succeeded in setting aside these -claims. The share taken in the proceedings by the bishops, the accused -or their representatives, though admitted in principle, was as a rule -merely illusory. The Inquisition had in addition to these _boni viri_ -certain other lay assistant officials, its sworn notaries, messengers -and familiars, all of whom were closely bound to it. - - - Procedure of the Inquisition. - - Use of torture. - - Punishments. - - "Handing over to the secular arm." - -Bernard Guy (Bernardus Guidonis),[2] one of the earliest and most -complete exponents of the theory of the Inquisition, admits distinctly -that in its procedure _multa sunt specialia_. The procedure was secret -and in the highest degree arbitrary, proceeding _sine strepitu et figura -judicii_, its object being to ascertain not so much particular offences -as tendencies: the murderers of the inquisitor Peter Martyr[3] were -tried, not as assassins, but as guilty of heresy and adversaries of the -Inquisition; and on the other hand, external acts of piety and verbal -professions of faith were held of no value. Moreover the Inquisition was -not bound by the ordinary rules of procedure in its inquiries: the -accused was surprised by a sudden summons, and as a rule imprisoned on -suspicion. All the accused were presumed to be guilty, the judge being -at the same time the accuser. Absence was naturally considered as -contumacy, and only increased the presumption of guilt by seeming to -admit it. The accused had the right to demand a written account of the -offences attributed to him (_capitula accusationis_), but the names of -the witnesses were withheld from him (Innocent IV.; bulls Cum negocium -and _Licet sicut accepimus_), he did not know who had denounced him, nor -what weight was attached by the judges to the denunciations made against -him. The utmost that was allowed him was the unsatisfactory privilege of -the _recusationes divinatrices_, i.e. at his first examination he was -asked for the names of any enemies of whom he knew, and the causes of -their enmity. Heretics or persons deprived of civil rights (_infames_) -were admitted as witnesses in cases of heresy. Women, children or slaves -could be witnesses for the prosecution, but not for the defence, and -cases are even to be found in which the witnesses were only ten years of -age. Langhino Ugolini states that a witness who should retract his -hostile evidence should be punished for false witness, but that his -evidence should be retained, and have its full effect on the sentence. -No witness might refuse to give evidence, under pain of being considered -guilty of heresy. The prosecution went on in the utmost secrecy. The -accused swore that he would tell the whole truth, and was bound to -denounce all those who were partners of his heresy, or whom he knew or -suspected to be heretics. If he confessed, and denounced his -accomplices, relatives or friends, he was "reconciled" with the Church, -and had to suffer only the humiliating penalties prescribed by the canon -law. If further examination proved necessary, it was continued by -various methods. Bernardus Guidonis enumerates many ways of obtaining -confessions, sometimes by means of moral subterfuges, but sometimes also -by a process of weakening the physical strength. And as a last expedient -torture was resorted to. The Church was originally opposed to torture, -and the canon law did not admit confessions extorted by that means; but -by the bull _Ad extirpanda_ (1252) Innocent IV. approved its use for the -discovery of heresy, and Urban IV. confirmed this usage, which had its -origin in secular legislation (cf. the Veronese Code of 1228, and -Sicilian Constitution of Frederick II. in 1231). In 1312 excessive -cruelty had to be suppressed by the council of Vienna. Canonically the -torture could only be applied once, but it might be "continued." The -next step was the torture of witnesses, a practice which was left to the -discretion of the inquisitors. Moreover, all confessions or depositions -extorted in the torture-chamber had subsequently to be "freely" -confirmed. The confession was always considered as voluntary. The -procedure was of course not litigious; any lawyer defending the accused -would have been held guilty of heresy. The inquiry might last a long -time, for it was interrupted or resumed according to the discretion of -the judges, who disposed matters so as to obtain as many confessions or -denunciations as possible. After the different phases of the -examination, the accused were divided into two categories: (1) those who -had confessed and abjured, (2) those who had not confessed and were -consequently convicted of heresy. There was a third class, by no means -the least numerous, namely, those who having previously confessed and -abjured had relapsed into error. Next came the moment of the sentence: -"there was never any case of an acquittal pure and simple" (H. C. Lea). -The formula for full and complete acquittal given by Bernardus Guidonis -in his _Practica_, should, he says, never or very rarely be employed. -The sentences were solemnly pronounced on a Sunday, in a church or -public place, in the presence of the inquisitors, their auxiliaries, the -bishops, the secular magistrates and the people. This was the _sermo -generalis_ (see AUTO DA FE). The accused who had confessed were -reconciled, and the penalties were then pronounced; these were, in order -of severity, penances, fasting, prayers, pilgrimages (Palestine, St -James of Compostella, Canterbury, &c.), public scourging, the compulsory -wearing on the breast or back of crosses of yellow felt sewn on to the -clothes or sometimes of tongues of red, letters, &c. These were the -_poenae confusibiles_ (humiliating). The inquisitors eventually acquired -the right of inflicting fines at discretion. In 1244 and 1251 Innocent -IV. reproved them for their exactions. All these minor penalties could -be commuted for payments in money in the same way as absolution from the -crusader's vow, and the council of Vienna tried to put an end to these -extortions. Beyond these minor penalties came the severer ones of -imprisonment for a period of time, perpetual imprisonment and -imprisonment of various degrees of severity (_murus largus_, _murus -strictus vel strictissimus_). The _murus strictus_ consisted in the -deepest dungeon, with single or double fetters, and "the bread and water -of affliction"; but the severity of the prison regime varied very much. -The _murus largus_, especially for a rich prisoner, amounted to a fairly -mild imprisonment, but the mortality among those confined in the _murus -strictus_ became so high that Clement V. ordered an inquiry to be made -into the prison regime in Languedoc, in spite of Bernard Guy's protest -against the investigation as likely to diminish the prestige of the -inquisitors. After the sentences had been pronounced, the obstinate -heretics and renegades were for the last time called upon to submit and -to confess and abjure. If they consented, they were received as -penitents, and condemned on the spot to perpetual imprisonment; if they -did not consent, they were handed over to the secular arm. When the -heretic was handed over to the secular arm, the agents of the secular -power were recommended to punish him _debita animadversione_, and the -form of recommending him to mercy was gone through. But, as M. Vacandard -says, "If the secular judges had thought fit to take this formula -literally, they would soon have been brought back to a recognition of -the true state of affairs by excommunication." In effect, handing over -to the secular arm was equivalent to a sentence of death, and of death -by fire. The Dominican Jacob Sprenger, provincial of his order in -Germany (1494) and inquisitor, does not hesitate to speak of the victims -_quas incinerari fecimus_ ("whom we [the inquisitors] caused to be burnt -to ashes"). But we must accept the conclusions of H. C. Lea and -Vacandard that comparatively few people suffered at the stake in the -medieval Inquisition. Between 1308 and 1323, Bernard Guy, who cannot be -accused of inactivity, only handed over to the secular arm 42 persons, -out of 930 who were convicted of heresy. - - - Punishment by confiscation of goods. - - Abuse of the system. - - Economic and political importance of the system. - -From the point of view of jurisprudence of the Inquisition, the -confiscation of the condemned man's property by the ecclesiastical and -secular powers is only the accompaniment to the more severe penalties of -perpetual imprisonment or death; but from the point of view of its -economic history the importance of the confiscation is supreme. The -practice originated in the Roman law, and all secular princes had -already, in their own interest, recognized it as lawful (Frederick -Barbarossa, Decree of Verona; Louis VIII., ordinances of 1226, 1229; -Louis IX., ordinance of 1234; Raymond VII. of Toulouse, &c.). In the -kingdom of France there was a special official, the _procureur des -encours_ (confiscation in the matter of heresy), whose duty it was to -collect the personal property of the heretics, and to incorporate their -landed estates in the royal domain; in Languedoc crying abuses arose, -especially under the reign of Alphonse of Poitiers. Soon the papacy -managed to gain a share of the spoils, even outside the states of the -Church, as is shown by the bulls _ad extirpanda_ of Innocent IV. and -Alexander IV., and henceforward the inquisitors had, in varying -proportions, a direct interest in these spoliations. In Spain this -division only applied to the property of the clergy and vassals of the -Church, but in France, Italy and Germany, the property of all those -convicted of heresy was shared between the lay and ecclesiastical -authorities. Venice alone decided that all the receipts of the Holy -Office should be handed over in full to the state. Clement V., in his -attempted reform and regularization of inquisitorial procedure, -endeavoured to reduce the confiscations to a fairly reasonable minimum, -and in 1337-1338 a series of papal inquiries was held into this -financial aspect of the matter. The Assize of Clarendon, the -Constitutions of Frederick II. (1232) and of Count Raymond of Toulouse -(1234) had also come to a joint decision with the councils on this -question. King Charles V. of France prevailed upon the papacy to abolish -this regulation (1378). Confiscation was, indeed, most profitable to the -secular princes, and there is no doubt that the hope of considerable -gain was what induced many princes to uphold the inquisitorial -administration, especially in the days of the decay of faith. The -resistance of the south of France to the Capetian monarchs was to a -large extent broken owing to the decimation of the bourgeoisie by the -Inquisition and their impoverishment by the extortions of the _encours_. -The same was the case in certain of the Italian republics; while in -districts such as the north of France, where heretics were both poor and -few and far between, the Inquisition did not easily take root, nor did -it prove very profitable. These confiscations, the importance of which -in the political and economic history of the middle ages was first shown -fully by H. C. Lea, were a constant source of uncertainty in -transactions of all kinds; there was, for instance, always a risk in -entering into a contract in a place where the existence of heretics was -suspected, since any contract entered into with a heretic was void in -itself. Nor was there any more security in the transmission of -inheritances for posthumous trials were frequent; the _Liber -sententiarum inquisitionis_ of Bernardus Guidonis (1307-1323) records -sentences pronounced after death against 89 persons during a period of -15 years. But not only was their property confiscated and their heirs -disinherited; they were subject to still further penalties. Frederick -II. extended to heresy the application of the Roman law disqualifying -from holding office, and even included under its operation the children -and grandchildren of the guilty man. Alexander IV. and Boniface VIII. -lightened the severity of this law, and removed certain -disqualifications, notably in the case of ecclesiastical offices and -property. - - - Condemnation of books. - -Among other accessory penalties, we must notice the condemnation of -books. There were many precedents for this: Constantine had had the -Arian writings burnt, Theodosius II. and Valentinian III. those of the -Nestorians and Manichaeans, Justinian the Talmud. In 1210 were burnt the -books of David of Dinant and the Periphyseon of Aristotle. In 1255 the -_De periculis novissimorum temporum_ of William of St Amour[4] was burnt -by order of Pope Alexander IV., and from 1248 to 1319 was pronounced a -series of condemnations of the Talmud. Nicholas Eymerich (c. 1320-1399), -the Spanish inquisitor, demanded from Pope Gregory XI. the condemnation -of Raymond Lully's books, and in 1376 obtained it, but before long the -Lullists returned into favour with the pope and Eymerich was banished. -This rebuff suffered by an inquisitor shows how uncertain the censure of -books still was, even in a country where in less than two centuries' -time it was to become one of the chief spheres of inquisitorial -activity. - - - Sorcery and magic. - -The definite object of the Inquisition was the prosecution of heresy; -but its sphere of action was gradually extended by the theologians and -casuists until sorcery and magic ranked with dogmatic heresy. The -council of Valence (1248) dealt with sorcerers as well as sacrilegious -persons, but did not treat them as heretics. Alexander IV. went further, -declaring that divination and sorcery should only come within the -competence of the inquisitor when they directly affected the unity or -faith of the Church (9th December 1257; cf. bull _Quod super nonnullis_, -10th January 1260). Cases of simple sorcery were left to be dealt with -by the ordinary judges. The distinction was very subtle, but it was not -tampered with until 1451, at which date Nicholas V. gave the inquisitor -Hugues Lenoir the cognizance of cases of divination, even when the crime -did not savour of heresy. In dealing with such a subtle question, great -variations had naturally arisen in practice, and the repression of -sorcery was carried on jointly by the inquisitors, the bishops and the -secular courts. John XXII., in consequence of a perfect epidemic of -sorcery about 1320, handed over to the inquisitors for a time -(1320-1333) all cases of crimes involving magic; but this measure was -temporary and exceptional and only confirms the rule. There were various -occasions during the middle ages when men's minds became infatuated, and -it seemed as if the scourge of magic were likely entirely to destroy the -Catholic faith; and during such times, morbidly infected with fear and -the spirit of persecution, the ecclesiastical judges regained all their -prestige. One of these crises culminated in the affair of the -"Vauderie"[5] of Arras (1459), in which twelve unfortunates perished at -the stake; and there were similar occurrences at the same period in -Dauphine and Gascony; of this nature again was the violent persecution -in the Germanic countries begun by the bull _Summis desiderantes_ of -Innocent VIII. (5th December 1484), in the course of which the two -authors of the _Malleus maleficorum_, the inquisitors Sprenger and -Institoris (Heinrich Kramer), distinguished themselves as much by their -knowledge of theoretical demonology as by their zeal as persecutors. In -France the secular authority was not long in claiming and obtaining -jurisdiction over sorcerers (parlement of Paris, 1374), and as early as -1378 the university of Paris gave judgment in a case of demonology. -Those unfortunates who were charged with sorcery gained, however, -nothing by this change of jurisdiction, for they were invariably put to -death. - - - The Inquisition and the Jews. - -The inquisitors could not take proceedings against Jews as such. They -might profess their religion and observe its rites without being in a -state of heresy; they were only heretic when they attacked the Christian -faith or community, made proselytes, or returned to Judaism after being -converted. Further, those who practised usury were "suspected of not -holding very orthodox doctrine as to theft" (Vacandard), and on this -account the Inquisition gained a hold on them. Pope Martin V. (6th -November 1419) authorized inquisitors to take proceedings against -usurers. - - - Treatment of heresy in the various countries. - - England. - - Scotland. - - Ireland. - -But these are merely extensions of competence resulting from the works -of the casuists; the Inquisition was primarily the instrument for the -repression of all kinds of breaches of orthodoxy. Its work in this -capacity we will now describe in outline for each of the great countries -of medieval Christendom. England, whether before or after the -establishment of the Inquisition, had but few trials for heresy and, -particularist in this as in all her religious activity, judged them -according to her own discipline, without asking Rome for laws or special -judges. In 1166, a few heretics having been apprehended, Henry II. -called a council at Oxford and summoned them to appear before it; they -all confessed, and were condemned to be scourged, branded on the face -with the mark of a key, and expelled from the country, and by the 21st -article of the Assize of Clarendon the king forbade any one to harbour -on their lands or in the house any "of that sect of renegades who had -been excommunicated at Oxford." Any one offending against this law was -to be "at the king's mercy" and his house was to be "carried outside the -town and burnt." The sheriffs were obliged to swear observance of this -law and to require a similar oath from all barons' stewards, knights and -free tenants. This was the first civil law against heresy since the end -of the Roman empire, and preceded the famous rescripts of Frederick II. -against sectaries in the 13th century. It should, however, be noted that -the political acts of Henry II. and Frederick II. drew down the most -explicit condemnation of the church. Orthodoxy remained almost -unimpaired in England up till the time of Wycliffe. Apparently neither -the Catharist, Waldensian nor Pantheistic heresies gained any footing in -Great Britain. The affair of the Templars in France, which was quite -political, was repeated in England: Clement V. having ordered their -arrest, Edward II., after much hesitation, gave orders to the sheriffs -to execute it and then decided that the _ecclesiastical law_ should be -applied. The papal inquisitors sent to England met with a bad reception, -and the pope was obliged to forbid them to use torture, which was -contrary to the laws of the kingdom. It was found impossible to -establish the Templars' guilt and only canonical penalties were -inflicted on them. The rising of the Lollards having alarmed both the -church and the state, the article _De haeretico comburendo_ was -established by statute in 1401, and gained a melancholy notoriety during -the religious struggles of the 16th century; it seems to have been not -so much a measure for the safeguarding of dogma as a violent assertion -of the secular absolutism. It was not till 1676 that Charles II. caused -it to be abrogated, and obtained a decision that in cases of atheism, -blasphemy, heresy, schism and other religious offences, the -ecclesiastical courts should be confined to the penalties of -excommunication, removal from office, degradation and other -ecclesiastical means of censure, to the exclusion of the death penalty. -Scotland was much later than England in giving up persecution and -bloodshed; and so late as 1696 a student of medicine aged eighteen and -named Aikenhead was accused of heresy and hanged at Edinburgh. In -Ireland Richard de Lederede or Ledred, a Franciscan and bishop of -Ossory, in 1324 prosecuted on suspicion of heresy and for sorcery a -certain Dame Alice Kettle or Kyteler and her accomplices, Petronilla of -Meath and her daughter Bassilla, who were accused of holding "nightly -conference with a spirit called Robert Artisson, to whom she sacrificed -in the high way nine red cocks and nine peacocks' eyes." The lady had -powerful connexions, and her brother-in-law, Arnold le Powre, seneschal -of Kilkenny, even went so far as to imprison the bishop. But in spite of -the refusal of the secular authorities to co-operate with him, the -bishop was strong enough to force them in 1325 to burn some of the -accused. Dame Kettle herself, however, who had been cited to appear at -Dublin before the dean of St Patrick's, escaped with the assistance of -some of the nobles to England. Meanwhile the bishop, who had attempted -to involve Arnold le Powre in the same charge, became involved in a -quarrel with the administrators of the English government in Ireland; -counter charges were brought against him, he was excommunicated by his -metropolitan, Alexander de Bicknor, archbishop of Dublin; and in -defiance of the king's commands, after publishing counter charges -against the archbishop, he appealed to Rome and left the country. In -1335 Benedict XII. wrote to Edward III. deploring the absence of any -inquisition in the king's dominions, and exhorting him to lend the aid -of the secular arm in repressing heresy. Archbishop Alexander, who in -1347 was denounced as an abettor of heresy, died in 1349, and his -successor was ordered to chastise those heretics who had taken refuge in -the diocese from Richard de Lederede's violence, and whom his -predecessor had protected. Finally, in 1354, Richard de Lederede himself -was allowed to return to his diocese, where his zeal for persecution -does not, however, seem to have found much further scope. He died in -1360. - - - France. - -The scene of the activities of the monastic Inquisition in France lay -chiefly in the south. The repression of the Albigensian heresy (see -ALBIGENSES) went on even when its importance had quite disappeared. The -chronicle of the inquisitor Guilhem Pelhisso (d. 1268) shows us the most -tragic episodes of the reign of terror which wasted Languedoc for a -century. Guillaume Arnaud, Peter Cella, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St -Pierre, Nicholas of Abbeville, Foulques de St Georges, were the chief of -the inquisitors who played the part of absolute dictators, burning at -the stake, attacking both the living and the dead, confiscating their -property and land, and enclosing the inhabitants both of the towns and -the country in a network of suspicion and denunciation. The secular -authorities were of the utmost assistance to them in this task; owing to -the confiscations, the crown had too direct an interest in the success -of the inquisitorial trials not to connive at all their abuses. Under -the regency of Alphonse of Poitiers Languedoc was regularly laid under -contribution by the _procureur des encours_. There were frequent -attempts at retaliation, directed for the most part against the -inquisitors, and isolated attacks were made on Dominicans. In 1234-1235 -there were regular risings of the people at Albi and Narbonne, which -forced the inquisitors to retreat. In 1235 the inquisitors were driven -out of Toulouse. These risings were followed by terrible measures of -repression, which, in turn, led to violent outbreaks on the part of the -relatives, friends or compatriots of the sufferers. During the night of -the 28th or 29th of May 1242 the inquisitors and their agents were -massacred at the castle of Avignonet. This massacre led to a persecution -which went on without opposition and almost without a lull for nearly -fifty years. At the beginning of the 14th century the terrified people -found a defender in the heroic Franciscan Bernard Delicieux. For a -moment King Philip the Fair and Pope Clement V. seemed to interest -themselves in the misfortunes of Languedoc, and the king of France sent -down reformers; but they had no effect, their activity being restrained -by the king himself, who was alarmed at a separatist movement which was -arising in Languedoc. The work of repression which followed this moment -of hope was carried out, between 1308 and 1323, by the inquisitor -Bernard Guy, and completed the destruction of the Catharist heresy, the -appearances of which after the middle of the 14th century became less -and less frequent. Other heretics, for a time at least, took their -place, namely the Spirituals, who had developed out of a branch of the -Franciscans, and were remotely disciples of Joachim, abbot of Floris -(q.v.), and whom their rigid rule of absolute poverty led, by a reaction -against the cupidity of the ordinary ecclesiastics, to repudiate any -hierarchy and to uphold the doctrines of Peter John de Oliva against the -word of the pope. On the 17th of February 1317 John XXII. condemned all -these irregular followers of St Francis, "_fraticelli, fratres de -paupere vita, bizochi_ or _beghini_," and the Inquisition of Languedoc -was at once set in motion against them. Four _spirituales_ were burnt at -Marseilles in 1318, and soon the persecution was extended to the -Franciscan _beguins_ or _tertiarii_, many people being burnt about 1320 -at Narbonne, Lunel, Beziers, Carcassonne, &c. The persecution stopped -for lack of an object, for the small groups of beguins were soon -destroyed, and those of the _Spirituales_ who were not sent to the stake -or to prison were compelled by the papacy to enter other orders than the -Franciscan. The Waldenses (q.v.) were more difficult to destroy: -originally less dangerous to the church than the Cathari, they resisted -longer, and their dispersal in scattered communities aided their long -resistance. - -In the north of France the workings of the Inquisition were very -intermittent; for there were fewer heretics there than in the south, and -as they were poorer, there was less zeal on the part of the secular arm -to persecute them. At its outset, however, the Inquisition in the north -of France was marked by a series of melancholy events: the inquisitor -Robert le Bougre, formerly a Catharist, spent six years (1233-1239) in -going through the Nivernais, Burgundy, Flanders and Champagne, burning -at the stake in every place unfortunates whom he condemned without a -judgment, supported as he was by the ecclesiastical authorities and by -princes such as Theobald of Champagne. The pope was forced to put a -check on his zeal, and, after an inquiry, condemned him to imprisonment -for life. We know that there were inquisitors settled in Ile de France, -Orleanais, Touraine, Lorraine and Burgundy during the 12th century, but -we know next to nothing of what they did. In the 14th century, the -Flemish and German heresies of the Free Spirit made their appearance in -France; in 1310 a heretic named Marguerite Porette was burnt at Paris, -and in 1373 another named Jeanne Daubenton, both of whom seem to have -professed a kind of rudimentary pantheism, the latter being the head of -a sect called the Turlupins. The Turlupins reappeared in 1421 at Arras -and Douai and were persecuted in a similar way. But in the 15th century, -with the exception of a few condemnations aimed against the Hussites, -the Inquisition acted but feebly against heresy, which, as in the famous -case of the "Vauderie" of Arras, was often nothing but fairly ordinary -sorcery. - -From the middle of the 14th century onward, the parlement had taken upon -itself the right of hearing appeals from persons sentenced by the -Inquisition. And the University again, by its faculty of theology, -escaped the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. It was these two great -bodies which at the time of the Reformation took the place of the -Inquisition in dealing with heresy. - - - Italy. - -In Italy heresy not infrequently took on a social or political -character; it was sometimes almost indistinguishable from the opposition -of the Ghibellines or the communalist spirit of independence. Lombardy, -besides a number of Cathari, contained a certain number of -vaguely-defined sects against whom the efforts of the Apostolic Visitors -sent by Innocent III. were not of much effect. From the very earliest -days of the Inquisition, John of Vicenza, Roland of Cremona and Rassiero -Sacchoni directed their persecutions against Lombardy, and especially -against Milan. St Peter Martyr, who was conspicuous for his bigoted -violence, was assassinated in 1252. On the 20th of March 1256 Alexander -IV. ordered the provincial of the friar preachers of Lombardy to -increase the number of inquisitors in that province from four to eight. -At Florence both heresy and Ghibellinism were alike crushed by the -terrible severities of Fra Ruggieri, and indulgences were promised to -all who should aid in the extinction of heresy in Tuscany. Certain -districts revolted against this violence, which threatened to devastate -Italy as it had devastated Provence; in 1277 Fra Corrado Pagano was -killed on an expedition against the heretics of the Vattelline, and two -years after the people of Parma rose against the inquisitors. Besides, -this reign of terror only raised to a furious pitch the passionate and -independent piety of the Italian peoples. The body of a heretic, Armanno -Ponzilupo, who was killed at Ferrara in 1269, was venerated by the -people, and his mediation was even invoked, until the Inquisition had to -suppress this cult. But it had a harder struggle against the successes -of Gerard Legarelli, and especially Dolcino (see APOSTOLICI), which only -came to an end after a long and difficult trial of the adepts of the -Messianist sect of Guglielma, some of whom belonged to the noble -families of Lombardy. Up till the beginning of the 14th century, -however, the power of the Inquisition steadily increased, and at this -period Zanghino Ugolini appeared as the most skilful exponent of its -theory and procedure. About the same time Charles of Anjou introduced -the Inquisition into the Two Sicilies, but it could rarely effect -anything there; the religious cohesion of the country was weak, and -refugees were sure of safe hiding, both Waldenses and Fraticelli being -frequently harboured there. When Sicily passed into the hands of Peter -III. of Aragon, moreover, it came into a position of open hostility to -the Holy See and became a refuge for heretics. - -Venice always preserved its autonomy as regards the repression of -heresy; she was perfectly orthodox, but remained entirely independent of -Rome; Innocent IV. sent inquisitors there, but the heretics continued -actually to be subject to the secular tribunals. In 1288 a compromise -was arrived at, and the papal Inquisition was admitted into the -republic, but only on condition that it should remain under the control -of the secular power; thus there was established a mixed regime which -survived till the last days of the Venetian state. In Savoy the -Inquisition constantly carried on severe measures against the Waldenses -of the Alps. During the 14th and 15th centuries there was an -uninterrupted succession of trials. - - - States of the Church. - -As regards the papal states, "it was in the nature of things that, by a -confusion of the two personages, the pope should consider all opposition -to him _qua_ Italian prince as resistance offered to the head of the -church, i.e. to the church" (Ch. V. Langlois). The Colonna had a -personal animosity against the Gaetani; therefore Boniface VIII., a -Gaetano, declared the Colonna to be heretics. Rienzi was accused of -heresy for having questioned the temporal sovereignty of the pope at -Rome. The Venetians, who in 1309 opposed the annexation of Ferrara by -Clement V. to the detriment of the house of Este, were proclaimed -heretics and placed under the ban of Christendom. Savonarola was -attacked because he interfered with the policy of Alexander VI. at -Florence. It was this same desire for the hegemony of Italy which -inspired the attitude of the popes throughout the middle ages, causing -them to excommunicate, apparently without reason so far as doctrine was -concerned, the Visconti of Milan, the Della Scala of Verona, the -Maffredi of Faenza, &c., and prompting them to lay under an interdict or -preach a crusade against certain rebellious great towns (Clement V. -against Venice, John XXII. against Milan). Further, in each of the great -cities of Lombardy and Tuscany, the papal party directed the local -inquisition, and this power was rarely abused. - - - Germany. - -In Germany heresies, especially of a mystical character, were numerous -in the middle ages; some of them affected the mass of the people, and -led to religious and social movements of no little importance. The -repression of heresy went on by fits and starts, and the Inquisition was -never exercised so regularly in the Germanic as in certain of the Latin -countries. At the outset of the 13th century persecutions of the -Waldenses and Ortlibarii (followers of Ortlieb of Strassburg, c. 1200) -took place at Strassburg; measures were taken locally until, in 1231, -Gregory IX. issued definite instructions to the German prelates with a -view to a regular repression of heresy, and gave full powers to execute -them to Conrad of Marburg. Certain nobles having offered him -resistance, he preached a crusade against them, but died by the hand of -an assassin. The council of Mainz (April 1234) dealt gently with -Conrad's murderers, but severely with the false witnesses whom he had -employed. Shortly before (February 1234), the diet of Frankfort had -decided, in spite of the pope's injunctions, that the destruction of -heresy should be entrusted to the ordinary magistrates. And besides, -thanks to the struggle between the Empire and the papacy, the German -prelates always limited the prerogatives of the papal Inquisition. -Again, by the municipal laws of the north (_Sachsenspiegel_) the -ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the matter of heresy was very much -limited, while the _Schwabenspiegel_ (municipal laws for southern -Germany) does not seem to be aware of the existence of any inquisitional -jurisdiction or procedure. When in the 14th century communities of -Beghards developed with extraordinary rapidity, it was the episcopal -authority, both at Cologne and Strassburg, which undertook to deal with -these groups of sectaries, and at the very height of the conflict -between the Empire and the papacy. Marsilius of Padua, the theoretical -exponent of the imperial rights, attributes to the secular judge the -right and obligation to punish heresy, the priest's role being merely -advisory. In 1353 Innocent VI. tried to implant the papal Inquisition in -Germany once for all; its success was but short, and Urban V.'s attempt -in 1362 succeeded little better, in spite of the fact that Charles IV. -(edicts of Lucca, June 1369) gave him the support of the secular power. -Towards 1372, however, Gregory XI. succeeded in regularizing the -exercise of the powers of the papal inquisitors on German soil; and the -latter, notably Kerlinger, Hetstede, &c. set to work to destroy the -communities of the Beghards, to burn their books, to close those -_beguinages_ which were under suspicion, and to check by more or less -violent means mystical epidemics such as those of the "flagellants," -"dancers," &c. But these measures provoked angry protests from the -people, the secular magistrates and even the bishops, so that Gregory -XI., perceiving that he was face to face with the popular party, invited -the bishops to control the inquiries of his own envoys. At the end of -the 15th century the two inquisitions were acting concurrently. - - - Bohemia. - -In Bohemia and the provinces subject to it the Waldenses had found their -chosen country, and by the middle of the 13th century their propaganda -was very flourishing. In 1245 Innocent IV. ordered the bishops to -prosecute them with the aid of the secular arm, and in 1257, at the -request of King Premysl Ottokar II., Alexander IV. introduced the -Inquisition into Bohemia. But from this date till 1335 inquisitorial -missions succeeded one another without effecting any sensible diminution -in the material and moral strength of the heresy. The Waldenses had been -joined by other sectaries, the Luciferani, and especially the Brethren -of the Free Spirit. It was in vain that the bishops of Bohemia and -Silesia carried on during the second half of the 14th century an active -campaign against heresy; the spirit of criticism which had arisen with -regard to the morals, and even to the dogmas of the church, was already -preparing the way for Hussitism. - - - The Balkan States. - -In the regions east of the Adriatic, Catharism, the first communities of -which had very probably settled here, was supreme in the time of -Innocent III. and Honorius III. The first Dominicans who established -themselves in these parts had much to suffer from the aggression of -those very heretics whom they had come to convert. Gregory XI., -implacable in his persecution of Catharism, preached a crusade against -them in 1234, and Bosnia was laid waste by fire and sword. But in spite -of these violent measures Catharism only gained strength in the churches -of Bulgaria, Rumania, Slavonia and Dalmatia. In 1298 Boniface VIII. -tried to organize the Inquisition there, but the project remained -fruitless. The attempt was revived in 1323 by John XXII. with doubtful -success. The persecutions undertaken in the 14th and 15th centuries -merely resulted in binding the Cathari to the invading Turks, with whom -they found more tolerance than with the Slav princes converted to Roman -orthodoxy. - - - Spain. - -In Spain the papal Inquisition could gain no solid footing in the middle -ages. Spain had been, in turn or simultaneously, Arian under the -Visigoths, Catholic under the Hispano-Romans, Mussulman by conquest, and -under a regime of religious peace Judaism had developed there. After the -reconquest, and even at the height of the influence of the Cathari its -heresies had been of quite minor importance. At the end of the 12th -century Alphonso II. and Peter II. had on principle promulgated cruel -edicts against heresy, but the persecution seemed to be dormant. By the -bull _Declinante_ of the 26th of May 1232 inquisitors were sent to -Aragon by Gregory IX. on the request of Raymond of Penaforte, and by -1237-1238 the Inquisition was practically founded. But as early as 1233 -King James I. had promulgated an edict against the heretics which quite -openly put the Inquisition in a subaltern position, and secularized a -great part of its activities. The people, moreover, showed great -hostility towards it. The inquisitor Fray Pedro de Cadrayta was murdered -by the mob, and in 1235 the Cortes, with the consent of King James, -prohibited the use of inquisitorial procedure and of the torture, as -constituting a violation of the Fueros, though they made no attempt to -give effect to their prohibition. In Castile Alphonso the Wise had, by -establishing in his _Fuero Real_ and his _Siete Partidas_ an entirely -independent secular legislation with regard to heretics (1255), removed -his kingdom from all papal interference. At the opening of the 14th -century Castile and Portugal had still no Inquisition. But at that time -in Spain orthodoxy was generally threatened only by a few Fraticelli and -Waldenses, who were not numerous enough to call for active repression. -The Spanish inquisitor Nicholas Eymerich, the author of the famous -_Directorium Inquisitorum_, had rarely to exercise his functions during -the whole of his long career (end of 14th century). It was not against -heresy that the church had to direct its vigilance. A mutual tolerance -between the different religions had in fact sprung up, even after the -conquest; the Christians in the north recognized the Mahommedan and -Jewish religions, and Alphonso VI. of Castile took the title of -_imperador de los dos cultos_. But for a long time past both the -decisions of councils and papal briefs had proclaimed their surprise and -indignation at this ominous indifference. As early as 1077 the third -council of Rome, and in 1081 Gregory VII., protested against the -admission of Jews to public offices in Spain. Clement IV., in a brief of -1266, exhorted James I. of Aragon to expel the Moors from his dominions. -In 1278 Nicholas III. blamed Peter III. for having made a truce with -them. One of the canons of the council of Vienne (1311-1312) denounces -as intolerable the fact that Mahommedan prayers were still proclaimed -from the top of the mosques, and under the influence of this council the -Spanish councils of Zamora (1313) and Valladolid (1322) came to -decisions which soon led to violent measures against the Mudegares -(Mussulmans of the old Christian provinces). Already in 1210 massacres -of Jews had taken place under the inspiration of Arnold of Narbonne, the -papal legate; in 1276 fresh disturbances took place as a result of James -I.'s refusal to obey the order of Clement IV., who had called upon him -to expel the Jews from his dominions. In 1278 Nicholas IV. commanded the -general of the Dominicans to send friars into all parts of the kingdom -to work for the conversion of the Jews, and draw up lists of those who -should refuse to be baptized. It was in vain that a few princes such as -Peter III. or Ferdinand of Castile interfered; the Spanish clergy -directed the persecution with ever increasing zeal. In the 14th century -the massacres increased, and during the year 1391 whole towns were -destroyed by fire and sword, while at Valencia eleven thousand forced -baptisms took place. In the 15th century the persecution continued in -the same way; it can only be said that the years 1449, 1462, 1470, 1473 -were marked by the greatest bloodshed. Moreover, the Mudegares were also -subjected to these baptisms and massacres _en masse_. From those, or the -children of those who had escaped death by baptism, was formed the class -of _Conversos_ or _Marranos_, the latter name being confined to the -converted Jews. This class was still further increased after the -conquest of the kingdom of Granada and the completion of the conquest -by Ferdinand and Isabella, and after the pacification of the kingdoms of -Aragon and Valencia by Charles V. The Mahommedans and Jews in these -parts were given the choice between conversion and exile. Being of an -active nature, and desiring some immediate powers as a recompense for -their moral sufferings, the Jewish or Mussulman _Conversos_ soon became -rich and powerful. In addition to the hatred of the church, which feared -that it might quickly become Islamized or Judaized in this country which -had so little love for theology, hatred and jealousy arose also among -laymen and especially in the rich and noble classes. _Limpieza_, i.e. -purity of blood, and the fact of being an "old Christian" were made the -conditions of holding offices. It is true, this mistrust had assumed a -theological form even before the Mahommedan conquest. As early as 633 -the council of Toledo had declared heretics such converts, forced or -voluntary, as returned to their old religion. When this principle was -revived and, whether through secular jealousy, religious dislike or -national pride, was applied to the _Conversos_, an essentially national -Inquisition, directed against local heretics, was founded in Spain, and -founded without the help of the papacy. It was created in 1480 by -Ferdinand and Isabella. Sixtus IV. had wished the papal Inquisition to -be established after the form and spirit of the middle ages; but -Ferdinand, in his desire for centralization (his efforts in this -direction had already led to the creation of the Holy Hermandad and the -extension of the royal jurisdiction) wished to establish an inquisition -which should be entirely Spanish, and entirely royal. Rome resisted, but -at last gave way. Sixtus IV., Alexander VI., Innocent VIII., Julius II. -and after them all the popes of the 16th century, saw in this secular -attempt a great power in favour of orthodoxy, and approved it when -established, and on seeing its constant activity. The Inquisition took -advantage of this to claim an almost complete autonomy. The decisions of -the Roman Congregation of the Index were only valid for Spain if the -Holy Office of Madrid thought good to countersign them; consequently -there were some books approved at Rome and proscribed in the peninsula, -such as the _Historia pelagiana_ of Cardinal Nores, and some which were -forbidden at Rome and approved in the peninsula, such as the writings of -Fathers Mateo Moya and Juan Bautista Poza. The Spanish Holy Office -perceived long before Rome the dangers of mysticism, and already -persecuted the mystics, the _Alumbrados_ while Rome (impervious to -Molinism) still favoured them. "During the last few centuries the church -of Spain was at once the most orthodox and the most independent of the -national churches" (Ch. V. Langlois). There was even a financial dispute -between the Inquisition and the papacy, in which the Inquisition had the -better of the argument; the Roman Penitentiary sold exemptions from -penalties (involving loss of civil rights), such as prison, the galleys -and wearing the _sanbenito_, and dispensations from the crime of -_Marrania_ (secret Judaism). The inquisitors tried to gain control of -this sale, and at a much higher price, and were seconded in this by the -kings of Spain, who saw that it was to their own interest. At first they -tried a compromise; the unfortunate victims had to pay twice, to the -pope and to the Inquisition. But the payment to the pope was held by the -Inquisition to reduce too much its own share of the confiscated -property, and the struggle continued throughout the first half of the -16th century, the Curia finally triumphing, thanks to the energy of Paul -III. Since, however, the Inquisition continued to threaten the holders -of papal dispensations, most of them found it prudent to demand a -definite rehabilitation, in return for payments both to the king and the -Inquisition. As a national institution the Inquisition had first of all -the advantage of a very strong centralization and very rapid procedure, -consisting as it did of an organization of local tribunals with a -supreme council at Madrid, the _Suprema_. The grand inquisitor was _ex -officio_ president for life of the royal council of the Inquisition. It -was the grand inquisitor, General Jimenez de Cisneros, who set in motion -the inquisitorial tribunals of Seville, Cordova, Jaen, Toledo, Murcia, -Valladolid and Calahorra. There was no such tribunal at Madrid till the -time of Philip IV. The inquisitor-general of Aragon established -inquisitors at Saragossa, Barcelona, Valencia, Majorca, Sardinia, Sicily -and Pampeluna (moved later to Calahorra). From the very beginning the -papacy strengthened this organization by depriving the Spanish -metropolitans, by the bull of the 25th of September 1487, of the right -of receiving appeals from the decisions given jointly by the bishops of -the various dioceses, their suffragans and the apostolic inquisitors, -and by investing the inquisitor-general with this right. And, more than -this, Torquemada actually took proceedings against bishops, for example, -the accusation of heresy against Don Pedro Aranda, bishop of Calahorra -(1498); while the inquisitor Lucero prosecuted the first archbishop of -Granada, Don Ferdinando de Talavera. Further, when once the Inquisition -was closely allied to the crown, no Spaniard, whether clerk or layman, -could escape its power. Even the Jesuits, though not till after 1660, -were put under the authority of the Suprema. The highest nobles were -kept constantly under observation; during the reigns of Charles III. and -Charles IV. the duke of Almodovar, the count of Aranda, the great writer -Campomanes, and the two ministers Melchior de Jovellanos and the count -of Florida-Alanca, were attacked by the Suprema. But the descendants of -Moors and Jews, though they were good Christians, or even nobles, were -most held in suspicion. Even during the middle ages the descendants of -the Paterenes were known, observed and denounced. In the eyes of the -Inquisition the taint of heresy was even more indelible. A family into -which a forced conversion or a mixed marriage had introduced Moorish or -Jewish blood was almost entirely deprived of any chance of public -office, and was bound, in order to disarm suspicion, to furnish agents -or spies to the Holy Office. The Spaniards were very quick to accept the -idea of the Inquisition to such an extent as to look upon heresy as a -national scourge to be destroyed at all costs, and they consequently -considered the Inquisition as a powerful and indispensable agent of -public protection; it would be going too far to state that this -conception is unknown to orthodox present-day historians of the -Inquisition, and especially certain Spanish historians (cf. the preface -to Menendez y Pelayo's _Heterodoxos espanoles_). As had happened among -the Albigenses, commerce and industry were rapidly paralysed in Spain by -this odious regime of suspicion, especially as the _Conversos_, who -inherited the industrial and commercial capacity of the Moors and Jews, -represented one of the most active elements of the population. Besides, -this system of wholesale confiscations might reduce a family to beggary -in a single day, so that all transactions were liable to extraordinary -risks. It was in vain that the counsellors of Charles V., and on several -occasions the Cortes, demanded that the inquisitors and their countless -agents should be appointed on a fixed system by the state; the state, -and above all the Inquisition, refused to make any such change. The -Inquisition preferred to draw its revenues from heresy, and this is not -surprising if we think of the economic aspect of the Albigensian -Inquisition; the system of _encours_ was simply made general in Spain, -and managed to exist there for three centuries. In the case of the -Inquisition in Languedoc, there still remained the possibility of an -appeal to the king, the inquisitors, or more rarely the pope, against -these extortions; but there was nothing of the kind in Spain. The -Inquisition and the Crown could refuse each other nothing, and appeals -to the pope met with their united resistance. As early as the reign of -Ferdinand certain rich _Conversos_ who had bought letters of indulgence -from the Holy See were nevertheless prosecuted by Ferdinand and -Torquemada, in spite of the protests of Sixtus IV. The papacy met with -the most serious checks under the Bourbons. Philip V. forbade all his -subjects to carry appeals to Rome, or to make public any papal briefs -without the royal _exequatur_. - -The political aspect of the work and character of the Inquisition has -been very diversely estimated; it is a serious error to attribute to it, -as has too often been done, extreme ideas of equality, or even to -represent it as having favoured centralization and a royal absolutism to -the same extent as the Inquisition of the 13th and 14th centuries in -Languedoc. "It was a mere coincidence," says H. C. Lea, "that the -Inquisition and absolutism developed side by side in Spain." The Suprema -did not attack all nobles as nobles; it attacked certain of them as -_Conversos_, and the Spanish feudal nobles were sure enough of their -_limpieza_ to have nothing to fear from it. But it is undeniable that it -frequently tended to constitute a state within the state. At the time of -their greatest power, the inquisitors paid no taxes, and gave no account -of the confiscations which they effected; they claimed for themselves -and their agents the right of bearing arms, and it is well known that -their declared adversaries, or even those who blamed them in some -respects, were without fail prosecuted for heresy. But that was not the -limit to their pretensions. In 1574, under Philip II., there was an idea -of instituting a military order, that of Santa Maria de la Espada -Blanca, having as its head the grand inquisitor, and to him all the -members of the order, i.e. all Spaniards distinguished by _limpieza_ of -blood, were to swear obedience in peace and in war. Moreover, they were -to recognize his jurisdiction and give up to him the reversion of their -property. Nine provinces had already consented, when Philip II. put a -stop to this theocratic movement, which threatened his authority. It -was, however, only the Bourbons, who had imbibed Gallican ideas, who by -dint of perseverance managed to make the Inquisition subservient to the -Crown, and Charles III., "the philosopher king," openly set limits to -the privileges of the inquisitors. Napoleon, on his entry into Madrid -(December 1808), at once suppressed the Inquisition, and the -extraordinary general Cortes on the 12th of February 1813 declared it to -be incompatible with the constitution, in spite of the protests of Rome. -Ferdinand VII. restored it (July 21, 1814) on his return from exile, but -it was impoverished and almost powerless. It was again abolished as a -result of the Liberal revolution of 1820, was restored temporarily in -1823 after the French military intervention under the duc d'Angouleme, -and finally disappeared on the 15th of July 1834, when Queen Christina -allied herself with the Liberals. "It was not, however, till the 8th of -May 1869 that the principle of religious liberty was proclaimed in the -peninsula; and even since then it has been limited by the constitution -of 1876, which forbids the public celebration of dissident religions" -(S. Reinach). In 1816 the pope abolished torture in all the tribunals of -the Inquisition. It is a too frequent practice to represent as peculiar -to the Spanish Inquisition modes of procedure in use for a long time in -the inquisitorial tribunals of the rest of Europe. There are no special -manuals, or _practica_, for the inquisitorial procedure in Spain; but -the few distinctive characteristics of this procedure may be mentioned. -The Suprema allowed the accused an advocate chosen from among the -members or familiars of the Holy Office; this privilege was obviously -illusory, for the advocate was chosen and paid by the tribunal, and -could only interview the accused in presence of an inquisitor and a -secretary. The theological examination was a delicate and minute -proceeding; the "qualificators of the Holy Office," special -functionaries, whose equivalent can, however, easily be found in the -medieval Inquisition, charged those books or speeches which had incurred -"theological censures," with "slight, severe or violent" suspicion. -There was no challenging of witnesses; on the contrary, witnesses who -were objected to were allowed to give evidence on the most important -points of the case. The torture, to the practice of which the Spanish -Inquisition certainly added new refinements, was originally very much -objected to by the Spaniards, and Alphonso X. prohibited it in Aragon; -later, especially in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries it was applied -quite shamelessly on the least suspicion. But by the end of the 18th -century, according to Llorente, it had not been employed for a long -time; the _fiscal_, however, habitually demanded it, and the accused -always went in dread of it. The punishment of death by burning was much -more often employed by the Spanish than by the medieval Inquisition; -about 2000 persons were burnt in Torquemada's day. Penitents were not -always reconciled, as they were in the middle ages, but those condemned -to be burnt were as a rule strangled previously. - - - Spanish and Portuguese Colonies. - -With the extension of the Spanish colonial empire the Inquisition -spread throughout it almost contemporaneously with the Catholic faith. -Ferdinand IV. decreed the establishment of the Inquisition in America, -and Jimenes in 1516 appointed Juan Quevedo, bishop of Cuba, -inquisitor-general delegate with discretionary powers. Excesses having -been committed by the agents of the Holy Office, Charles V. decreed -(October 15, 1538) that only the European colonists should be subject to -the jurisdiction of the Inquisition; but Philip II. increased the powers -of the inquisitors' delegate and, in 1541, established on a permanent -basis three new provinces of the Inquisition at Lima, Mexico and -Cartagena. The first _auto-da-fe_ took place at Mexico in 1574, the year -in which Hernando Cortez died. The Inquisition of Portugal was no less -careful to ensure the orthodoxy of the Portuguese colonies. An -Inquisition of the East Indies was established at Goa, with jurisdiction -over all the dominions of the king of Portugal beyond the Cape of Good -Hope. Finally Philip II. even wished to establish an itinerant -Inquisition, and at his request the pope created, by a brief of the 21st -of July 1571, the "Inquisition of the galleys," or "of fleets and -armies." - - - Other activities of the Spanish Inquisition. - -After the expulsion of the Jews under Isabella the Catholic (1492), -followed under Philip III. by that of the Moriscoes (1609), the -Inquisition attacked especially Catholics descended from infidels, the -_Marranes_ and _Conversos_, who were, not without reason, suspected of -often practising in secret the rites of their ancestral religions. As -late as 1715 a secret association was discovered at Madrid, consisting -of twenty families, having a rabbi and a synagogue. In 1727 a whole -community of Moriscoes was denounced at Granada, and prosecuted with the -utmost rigour. Again, a great number of people were denounced, sent to -the galleys, or burnt, for having returned to their ancestral religion, -on the flimsiest of evidence, such as making ablutions during the day -time, abstaining from swine's flesh or wine, using henna, singing -Moorish songs, or possessing Arabic manuscripts. During the 16th and -17th centuries the Inquisition in Spain was directed against -Protestantism. The inquisitor-general, Fernando de Valdes, archbishop of -Seville, asked the pope to condemn the Lutherans to be burnt even if -they were not backsliders, or wished to be reconciled, while in 1560 -three foreign Protestants, two Englishmen and a Frenchman were burnt in -defiance of all international law. But the Reformation never had enough -supporters in Spain to occupy the attention of the Inquisition for long. -After the _Marranes_ the mystics of all kinds furnished the greatest -number of victims to the terrible tribunal. Here again we should not -lose sight of the tradition of the medieval Inquisition; the mysticism -of the Beghards, the Brethren of the Free Spirit and the innumerable -pantheist sects had been pitilessly persecuted by the inquisitors of -Germany and France during the 14th and 15th centuries. The Illuminati -(_alumbrados_), who were very much akin to the medieval sectaries, and -the mystics of Castile and Aragon were ruthlessly examined, judged and -executed. Not even the most famous persons could escape the suspicious -zeal of the inquisitors Valdes and Melchior Cano. The writings of Luis -de Granada were censured as containing _cosas de alumbrados_. St -Ignatius de Loyola was twice imprisoned at the beginning of his career; -St Theresa was accused of misconduct, and several times denounced; one -of her works, _Conceptos del amor divino_, was prohibited by the -Inquisition, and she was only saved by the personal influence of Philip -II. Countless numbers of obscure visionaries, devotees both men and -women, clerks and laymen, were accused of Illuminism and perished in the -fires or the dungeons of the Inquisition. From its earliest appearance -Molinosism was persecuted with almost equal rigour. Molinos himself was -arrested and condemned to perpetual imprisonment (1685-1687), and during -the 18th century, till 1781, several Molinosists were burnt. The -Inquisition also attacked Jansenism, freemasonry (from 1738 onwards; cf. -the bull _In eminenti_) and "philosophism," the learned naturalist Jose -Clavigo y Faxarcho (1730-1806), the mathematician Benito Bails -(1730-1797), the poet Tomas de Iriarte, the ministers Clavigo Ricla, -Aranda and others being prosecuted as "philosophers." Subject also to -the tribunal of the Holy Office were bigamists, blasphemers, usurers, -sodomites, priests who had married or broken the secrecy of the -confessional, laymen who assumed ecclesiastical costume, &c. "In all -these matters, though the Inquisition may have been indiscreet in -meddling with affairs which did not concern it, it must be confessed -that it was not cruel, and that it was always preferable to fall into -the hands of the Inquisition rather than those of the secular judges, or -even the Roman inquisitors" (S. Reinach). Apart from certain exceptional -cruelties such as those of the Inquisition of Calahorra, perhaps the -greatest number of executions of sorcerers took place in the colonies, -in the Philippines and Mexico. In Spain the persecution was only -moderate; at certain times it disappeared almost completely, especially -in the time of the clear-sighted inquisitor Salazar. - -Two features of the Spanish Inquisition are especially noteworthy: the -prosecutions for "speeches suspected of heresy" and the censure of -books. The great scholar Pedro de Lerma, who after fifty years at Paris -(where he was dean of the faculty of theology) had returned to Spain as -abbot of Compluto, was called upon in 1537 to abjure eleven "Erasmian" -propositions, and was forced to return to Paris to die. Juan de Vergara -and his brother were summoned before the Inquisition for favouring -Erasmus and his writings, and detained several years before they were -acquitted. Fray Alonso de Virues, chaplain to Charles V., was imprisoned -on an absurd charge of depreciating the monastic state, and was only -released by the pope at the instance of the emperor. Mateo Pascual, -professor of theology at Alcala, who had in a public lecture expressed a -doubt as to purgatory, suffered imprisonment and the confiscation of his -goods. A similar fate befell Montemayor, Las Brozas and Luis de la -Cadena. - -The censure of books was established in 1502 by Ferdinand and Isabella -as a state institution. All books had to pass through the hands of the -bishops; in 1521 the Inquisition took upon itself the examination of -books suspected of Lutheran heresy. In 1554 Charles V. divided the -responsibility for the censorship between the Royal Council, whose duty -it was to grant or refuse the _imprimatur_ to manuscripts and the -Inquisition, which retained the right of prohibiting books which it -judged to be pernicious; but after 1527 it also gave the licence to -print. In 1547 the Suprema produced an Index of prohibited books, drawn -up in 1546 by the university of Louvain; it was completed especially as -regards Spanish books, in 1551, and several later editions were -published. Moreover, the _revisores de libros_ might present themselves -in the name of the Holy Office in any private library or bookshop and -confiscate prohibited books. In 1558 the penalty of death and -confiscation of property was decreed against any bookseller or -individual who should keep in his possession condemned books. The -censure of books was eventually abolished in 1812. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A critical bibliography was drawn up by P. Fredericq in - the preface to the French translation (1900) of H. C. Lea's important - standard work: _History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages_ (3 - vols., London, 1888). See also J. Havet, _L'Heresie et le bras - seculier au moyen age jusqu'au XIII^e siecle_ in the _Oeuvres - completes_, vol. ii. (Paris, 1896); Ch. V. Langlois, _L'Inquisition - d'apres des travaux recents_ (Paris, 1901); Douais, _L'Inquisition_ - (Paris, 1907); E. Vacandard, _L'Inquisition_ (Paris, 1907); Douais, - _Documents pour servir a l'histoire de l'inquisition dans le - Languedoc_ (2 vols., Paris, 1900); Dollinger, _Beitrage zur - Sektengeschichte des Mittelalters_ (2 vols., Munich, 1890. The second - volume is composed of documents); Molinier, _L'Inquisition dans le - midi de la France au XIII^e et au XIV^e siecle. Etude sur les sources - de son histoire_ (Paris, 1880); P. Fredericq, _Corpus documentorum - inquisitionis haereticae pravitatis neerlandicae_ (1205-1525) (4 - vols., Ghent, 1889-1900); Tanon, _Histoire des tribunaux de - l'inquisition en France_ (Paris, 1893); Hansen, _Inquisition, - Hexenwahn und Hexenverfolgung_ (Munich, 1900); Llorente, _Histoire - critique de l'inquisition d'Espagne_ (4 vols., Paris, 1818); H. C. - Lea, _History of the Inquisition of Spain_ (5 vols., London, - 1905-1908); S. Reinach, articles on Lea's _History of the Inquisition - of Spain_ in the _Revue critique_ (1906, 1907, 1908) and _Cultes, - mythes et religions_ (Paris, 1908), tome iii. (P. A.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Pierre de Beauvoisis (?), choir-master (_grand-chantre_) of the - university of Paris (1184), bishop of Tournai (1191), of Paris - (1196); died as a Cistercian in 1197. He was beatified. - - [2] He was born c. 1261, was a Dominican at Limoges in 1279, - successively prior of Albi (1294), Carcassonne (1297), Castres (1301) - and Limoges (1305), inquisitor at Toulouse (1307), bishop of Tuy - (1323) and of Lodeve (1325). He died in 1331. - - [3] Peter, a Dominican, born at Verona, was murdered near Milan in - 1252 and canonized in 1253. - - [4] Guillaume de St Amour (d. 1272), named after his birthplace in - the Jura, was canon of Beauvais and rector of the university of - Paris. He was conspicuous as the mouthpiece of the secular clergy in - their attacks on the mendicant orders, the Dominicans in particular. - - [5] The name of _vauderie_, i.e. the Vaudois or Waldensian heresy, - had come to be used of witchcraft. - - - - -INSANITY (from Lat. _in_, not, and _sanus_, sound), a generic term -applied to certain morbid mental conditions produced by defect or -disease of the brain. The synonyms in more or less frequent use are -_lunacy_ (from a supposed influence of the moon), _mental disease_, -_alienation_, _derangement_, _aberration_, _madness_, _unsoundness of -mind_. The term _Psychiatry_ ([Greek: psyche], mind, and [Greek: -iatreia], treatment) is applied to the study and treatment of the -condition. - - -I. MEDICAL AND GENERAL - - Definition. - -There are many diseases of the general system productive of disturbance -of the mental faculties, which, either on account of their transient -nature, from their being associated with the course of a particular -disease, or from their slight intensity, are not included under the head -of insanity proper. From a strictly scientific point of view it cannot -be doubted that the fever patient in his delirium, or the drunkard in -his excitement or stupor, is insane; the brain of either being under the -influence of a morbific agent or of a poison, the mental faculties are -deranged; yet such derangements are regarded as functional disturbances, -i.e. disturbances produced by agencies which experience tells will, in -the majority of cases, pass off within a given period without permanent -results on the tissues of the organ. The comprehensive scientific view -of the position is that all diseases of the nervous system, whether -primary or secondary, congenital or acquired, should, in the words of -Griesinger, be regarded as one inseparable whole, of which the so-called -mental diseases comprise only a moderate proportion. However important -it may be for the physician to keep this principle before him, it may be -freely admitted that it cannot be carried out fully in practice, and -that social considerations compel the medical profession and the public -at large to draw an arbitrary line between such functional diseases of -the nervous system as _hysteria_, _hypochondriasis_ and _delirium_ on -the one hand, and such conditions as _mania_, _melancholia_, _stupor_ -and _dementia_ on the other. - -All attempts at a short definition of the term "insanity" have proved -unsatisfactory; perhaps the nearest approach to accuracy is attained by -the rough statement that it is _a symptom of disease of the brain -inducing disordered mental symptoms_--the term disease being used in its -widest acceptance. But even this definition is at once too -comprehensive, as under it might be included certain of the functional -disturbances alluded to, and too exclusive, as it does not comprehend -certain rare transitory forms. Still, taken over all, this may be -accepted as the least defective short definition; and moreover it -possesses the great practical advantage of keeping before the student -the primary fact that insanity is the result of disease of the brain -(see BRAIN, and NEUROPATHOLOGY), and that it is not a mere immaterial -disorder of the intellect. In the earliest epochs of medicine the -corporeal character of insanity was generally admitted, and it was not -until the superstitious ignorance of the middle ages had obliterated the -scientific, though by no means always accurate, deductions of the early -writers, that any theory of its purely psychical character arose. At the -present day it is unnecessary to combat such a theory, as it is -universally accepted that the brain is the organ through which mental -phenomena are manifested, and therefore that it is impossible to -conceive of the existence of an insane mind in a healthy brain. On this -basis insanity may be defined as consisting in _morbid conditions of the -brain, the results of defective formation or altered nutrition of its -substance induced by local or general morbid processes, and -characterized especially by non-development, obliteration, impairment or -perversion of one or more of its psychical functions_. Thus insanity is -not a simple condition; it comprises a large number of diseased states -of the brain, gathered under one popular term, on account of mental -defect or aberration being the predominant symptom. - - - Classification. - -The insanities are sharply divided into two great classes--the -_Congenital_ and the _Acquired_. Under the head of Congenital Insanity -must be considered all cases in which, from whatever cause, brain -development has been arrested, with consequent impotentiality of -development of the mental faculties; under that of Acquired Insanity all -those in which the brain has been born healthy but has suffered from -morbid processes affecting it primarily, or from diseased states of the -general system implicating it secondarily. In studying the causation of -these two great classes, it will be found that certain remote influences -exist which are believed to be commonly predisposing; these will be -considered as such, leaving the proximate or exciting causes until each -class with its subdivisions comes under review. - - - Causation. - -In most treatises on the subject will be found discussed the bearing -which civilization, nationality, occupation, education, &c., have, or -are supposed to have, on the production of insanity. Such discussions -are as a rule eminently unsatisfactory, founded as they are on common -observation, broad generalizations, and very imperfect statistics. As -they are for the most part negative in result, at the best almost -entirely irrelevant to the present purpose, it is proposed merely to -summarize shortly the general outcome of what has been arrived at by -those authorities who have sought to assess the value to be attached to -the influence exercised by such factors, without entering in any detail -on the theories involved. The causes of insanity may be divided into (a) -general, and (b) proximate. - - (a) GENERAL CAUSES.--1. _Civilization._--Although insanity is by no - means unknown amongst savage races, there can be no reasonable doubt - that it is much more frequently developed in civilized communities; - also that, as the former come under the influence of civilization, the - percentage of lunacy is increased. This is in consonance with the - observation of disease of whatever nature, and is dependent in the - case of insanity on the wear and tear of nerve tissue involved in the - struggle for existence, the physically depressing effects of - pauperism, and on the abuse of alcoholic stimulants; each of which - morbid factors falls to be considered separately as a proximate cause. - In considering the influence of civilization upon the production of - insanity, regard must be had to the more evolved ethical attitude - towards disease in general which exists in civilized communities as - well as to the more perfect recognition and registration of insanity. - - 2. _Nationality._--In the face of the imperfect social statistics - afforded by most European and American nations, and in their total - absence or inaccessibility amongst the rest of mankind, it is - impossible to adduce any trustworthy statement under this head. - - 3. _Occupation._--There is nothing to prove that insanity is in any - way connected with the prosecution of any trade or profession _per - se_. Even if statistics existed (which they do not) showing the - proportion of lunatics belonging to different occupations to the 1000 - of the population, it is obvious that no accurate deduction _quoad_ - the influence of occupation could be drawn. - - 4. _Education._--There is no evidence to show that education has any - influence over either the production or the prevention of insanity. - The general result of discussions on the above subjects has been the - production of a series of arithmetical statements, which have either a - misleading bearing or no bearing at all on the question. In the study - of insanity statistics are of slight value from the scientific point - of view, and are only valuable in its financial aspects. - - 5. _Inheritance._--The hereditary transmission of a liability to - mental disease must be reckoned as the most important among all - predisposing causes of insanity. It is probably well within the mark - to say that at least 50% of the insane have a direct or collateral - hereditary tendency towards insanity. The true significance of this - factor cannot as yet be explained or described shortly and clearly, - but it cannot be too definitely stated that it is not the insanity - which is inherited, but only the predisposition to the manifestation - of mental symptoms in the presence of a sufficient exciting cause. The - most widely and generally accepted view of the exciting cause of - insanity is that the predisposed brain readily breaks down under - mental stress or bodily privations. There is, however, another view - which has been recently advanced to the effect that the majority of - mental diseases are secondary to bodily disorders, hereditary - predisposition being the equally predisposing causal factor. There is - probably truth in both these views, and such an admission accentuates - the complexity of the factorship of heredity. If insanity can be - induced by physical disorders, which must essentially be of the nature - of toxic action or of mechanical agency which can alter or influence - the functional powers of the brain, then it is probable that - hereditary predisposition to insanity means, not only the transmission - of an unstable nervous system, but also a constitution which is either - peculiarly liable to the production of such toxic or poisonous - substances, or incapable of effectively dealing with the toxins or - poisonous substances normally formed during metabolic processes. Such - a view broadens our conception of the factorship of hereditary - transmission and offers explanation as to the manner in which - insanity may appear in families previously free from the taint. Very - frequently we find in the history of insane patients that although - there may be no insanity in the family there are undoubted indications - of nervous alongside of physical instability, the parental nervous - defects taking the form of extreme nervousness, vagabondage, epilepsy, - want of mental balance, inequality in mental development or endowment, - extreme mental brilliancy in one direction associated with marked - deficiency in others, the physical defects showing themselves in the - form of insanity; liability to tubercular and rheumatic infections. - The failure of constitutional power which allows of the invasion of - the tubercle bacillus and the micrococcus rheumaticus in certain - members of a family is apparently closely allied to that which favours - the development of mental symptoms in others. - - 6. _Consanguinity._--It has been strongly asserted that consanguineous - marriage is a prolific source of nervous instability. There is - considerable diversity of opinion on this subject; the general outcome - of the investigations of many careful inquirers appears to be that the - offspring of healthy cousins of a healthy stock is not more liable to - nervous disease than that of unrelated parents, but that evil - consequences follow where there is a strong tendency in the family to - degeneration, not only in the direction of the original diathesis, but - also towards instability of the nervous system. The objection to the - marriage of blood relations does not arise from the bare fact of their - relationship, but has its ground in the fear of their having a vicious - variation of constitution, which, in their children, is prone to - become intensified. There is sufficient evidence adducible to prove - that close breeding is productive of degeneration; and when the - multiform functions of the nervous system are taken into account, it - may almost be assumed, not only that it suffers concomitantly with - other organs, but that it may also be the first to suffer - independently. - - 7. _Parental Weakness._--Of the other causes affecting the parents - which appear to have an influence in engendering a predisposition to - insanity in the offspring, the abuse of alcoholic stimulants and - opiates, over-exertion of the mental faculties, advanced age and weak - health may be cited. Great stress has been laid on the influence - exercised by the first of these conditions, and many extreme - statements have been made regarding it. Such statements must be - accepted with reserve, for, although there is reason for attaching - considerable weight to the history of ancestral intemperance as a - probable causating influence, it has been generally assumed as the - proved cause by those who have treated of the subject, without - reference to other agencies which may have acted in common with it, or - quite independently of it. However unsatisfactory from a scientific - point of view it may appear, the general statement must stand that - whatever tends to lower the nervous energy of a parent may modify the - development of the progeny. Constitutional tendency to nervous - instability once established in a family may make itself felt in - various directions--epilepsy, hysteria, hypochondriasis, neuralgia, - certain forms of paralysis, insanity, eccentricity. It is asserted - that exceptional genius in an individual member is a phenomenal - indication. Confined to the question of insanity, the morbid - inheritance may manifest itself in two directions--in defective brain - organization manifest from birth, or from the age at which its - faculties are potential, i.e. congenital insanity; or in the neurotic - diathesis, which may be present in a brain to all appearance - congenitally perfect, and may present itself merely by a tendency to - break down under circumstances which would not affect a person of - originally healthy constitution. - - 8. _Periodic Influence._--The evolutional periods of puberty, - adolescence, utero-gestation, the climacteric period and old age - exercise an effect upon the nervous system. It may be freely admitted - that the nexus between physiological processes and mental disturbances - is, as regards certain of the periods, obscure, and that the causal - relation is dependent more on induction than on demonstration; but it - may be pleaded that it is not more obscure in respect of insanity than - of many other diseases. The pathological difficulty obtains mostly in - the relation of the earlier evolutional periods, puberty and - adolescence, to insanity; in the others a physiologico-pathological - nexus may be traced; but in regard to the former there is nothing to - take hold of except the purely physiological process of development of - the sexual function, the expansion of the intellectual powers, and - rapid increase of the bulk of the body. Although in thoroughly stable - subjects due provision is made for these evolutional processes, it is - not difficult to conceive that in the nervously unstable a - considerable risk is run by the brain in consequence of the strain - laid on it. Between the adolescent and climacteric periods the - constitution of the nervous, as of the other systems, becomes - established, and disturbance is not likely to occur, except from some - accidental circumstances apart from evolution. In the most healthily - constituted individuals the "change of life" expresses itself by some - loss of vigour. The nourishing (trophesial) function becomes less - active, and either various degrees of wasting occur or there is a - tendency towards restitution in bulk of tissues by a less highly - organized material. The most important instance of the latter tendency - is fatty degeneration of muscle, to which the arterial system is very - liable. In the mass of mankind those changes assume no pathological - importance: the man or woman of middle life passes into advanced age - without serious constitutional disturbance; on the other hand, there - may be a break down of the system due to involutional changes in - special organs, as, for instance, fatty degeneration of the heart. In - all probability the insanity of the climacteric period may be referred - to two pathological conditions: it may depend on structural changes in - the brain due to fatty degeneration of its arteries and cells, or it - may be a secondary result of general systemic disturbance, as - indicated by cessation of menstruation in the female and possibly by - some analogous modification of the sexual function in men. The senile - period brings with it further reduction of formative activity; all the - tissues waste, and are liable to fatty and calcareous degeneration. - Here again, the arteries of the brain are very generally implicated; - atheroma in some degree is almost always present, but is by no means - necessarily followed by insanity. - - The various and profound modifications of the system which attend the - periods of utero-gestation, pregnancy and child-bearing do not leave - the nervous centres unaffected. Most women are liable to slight - changes of disposition and temper, morbid longings, strange likes and - dislikes during pregnancy, more especially during the earlier months; - but these are universally accepted as accompaniments of the condition - not involving any doubts as to sanity. But there are various factors - at work in the system during pregnancy which have grave influence on - the nervous system, more especially in those hereditarily predisposed, - and in those gravid for the first time. There is modification of - direction of the blood towards a new focus, and its quality is - changed, as is shown by an increase of fibrin and water and a decrease - of albumen. To such physical influences are superadded the discomfort - and uneasiness of the situation, mental anxiety and anticipation of - danger, and in the unmarried the horror of disgrace. In the puerperal - (recently delivered) woman there are to be taken into pathological - account, in addition to the dangers of sepsis, the various depressing - influences of child-bed, its various accidents reducing vitality, the - sudden return to ordinary physiological conditions, the rapid call for - a new focus of nutrition, the translation as it were of the blood - supply from the uterus to the mammae--all physical influences liable - to affect the brain. These influences may act independently of moral - shock; but, where this is coincident, there is a condition of the - nervous system unprepared to resist its action. - - (b) PROXIMATE CAUSES.--The proximate causes of insanity may be divided - into (1) toxic agents, (2) mechanical injury to the brain, including - apoplexies and tumours, and (3) arterial degeneration. - - 1. _Toxic Agents._--The definite nature of the symptoms in the - majority of the forms of acute insanity leave little reason to doubt - that they result from an invasion of the system by toxins of various - kinds. The symptoms referred to may be briefly indicated as follows: - (i.) Pyrexia, or fever generally of an irregular type; (ii.) - Hyperleucocytosis, or an increase of the white blood corpuscles, which - is the chief method by which the animal organism protects itself - against the noxious influence of micro-organisms and their toxins. In - such cases as typhoid fever, which is caused by a bacillus, or Malta - fever which is caused by a coccus, it is found that if the blood serum - of the patient is mixed _in vitro_ with a broth culture of the - infecting organism in a dilution of 1 in 50, that the bacilli or the - cocci, as the case may be, when examined microscopically, are seen to - run into groups or clusters. The organisms are said to be - agglutinated, and the substance in the serum which produces this - reaction is termed an agglutinine. In many of the forms of insanity - which present the symptom of hyperleucocytosis there can also be - demonstrated the fact that the blood serum of the patients contains - agglutinines to certain members of a group of streptococci (so called - on account of their tendency to grow in the form of a chain, [Greek: - streptos]); (iii.) the rapid organic affection of the special nerve - elements depending upon the virulence of the toxin, and the resistance - of the individual to its influence; (iv.) the marked physical - deterioration as indicated by emaciation and other changes in - nutrition; (v.) the close analogy between the character of many of the - mental symptoms, e.g. delirium, hallucinations or depression, and the - symptoms produced artificially by the administration of certain - poisonous drugs. - - The toxic substances which are generally believed to be associated - with the causation of mental disorders may be divided into three great - classes: (a) those which arise from the morbific products of - metabolism within the body itself "auto-intoxicants"; (b) those due to - the invasion of the blood or tissues by micro-organisms; (c) organic - or inorganic poisons introduced into the system voluntarily or - accidentally. - - (a) Auto-intoxication may be due to defective metabolism or to - physiological instability, or to both combined. The results of - defective metabolism are most clearly manifested in the mental - symptoms which not infrequently accompany such diseases as gout, - diabetes or obesity, all of which depend primarily upon a deficient - chemical elaboration of the products of metabolism. The association of - gout and rheumatism with nervous and mental diseases is historical, - and the gravest forms of spinal and cerebral degeneration have been - found in association with diabetes. Until the pathology of these - affections is better understood we are not in a position to determine - the nature of the toxins which appear to be the cause of these - diseases and of their accompanying nervous symptoms. Physiological - instability is usually manifested by neurotic persons under the strain - of any unusual change in their environment. If, for instance, any - material change in the food supply consisting either in a decrease of - its quality or quantity, or in a failure to assimilate it properly, - the nerve-cells become exhausted and irritable, sleep is diminished - and a condition known as the delirium of collapse or exhaustion may - supervene. An extreme instance of this condition is presented by the - delirium occurring in shipwrecked persons, who having to take to the - boats are suddenly deprived of food, water or both. Poisoning of the - nervous system may also result from the defective action of special - glands such as the thyroid, the liver or the kidneys. These conditions - are specially exemplified in the mental disturbances which accompany - exophthalmic goitre, uraemic poisoning, and the conditions of - depression which are observed in jaundice and other forms of hepatic - insufficiency. - - The results of modern research point to a growing belief in the - frequency of infection of the nervous system from the hosts of - micro-organisms which infest the alimentary tract. No definite or - substantiated discoveries have as yet been formulated which would - justify us in treating this source of infection as more than a highly - probable causative influence. - - (b) When we turn, however, to the potentiality of infection by - micro-organisms introduced from without into the system we are upon - surer if not upon entirely definite ground. A special form of insanity - called by Weber, who first described it, the delirium of collapse, was - observed by him to follow certain infectious diseases such as typhus - fever and pneumonia. In later years it has been frequently observed to - follow attacks of influenza. Recently our views have broadened and we - find that the delirium of collapse is an acute, confusional insanity - which may arise without any previous febrile symptoms, and is in fact - one of the common forms of acute insanity. The nature of the physical - symptoms, the mental confusion and hallucinations which accompany it, - as well as the fact that it frequently follows some other infective - disease, leave no doubt as to its toxic origin. A similar and - analogous condition is presented by incidence of general paralysis - after a previous syphilitic infection. The symptoms of general - paralysis coupled with the extensive and rapid degeneration of not - only the nervous but of the whole of the body tissues point to a - microbic disease of intense virulence which, though probably not - syphilitic, is yet induced, and enhanced in its action by the previous - devitalizing action of the syphilitic toxin. There is abundant - evidence to show that emotions which powerfully affect the mind, if - long continued, conduce towards a condition of metabolic change, which - in its turn deleteriously affects the nervous system, and which may - terminate in inducing a true toxic insanity. - - One of the best examples of insanity arising from micro-organisms is - that form which occurs after childbirth, and which is known as - puerperal mania. Other insanities may, it is true, arise at this - period, but those which occur within the first fourteen days after - parturition are generally of infective origin. The confusional nature - of the mental symptoms, the delirium and the physical symptoms are - sufficient indications of the analogy of this form of mental - aberration with such other toxic forms of insanity as we find arising - from septic wounds and which sometimes accompany the early toxic - stages of virulent infectious diseases such as typhus, diphtheria or - malignant scarlet fever. - - The infective origin of puerperal mania is undoubted, though, as yet, - no special pathogenic organism has been isolated. Dr Douglas (_Ed. - Med. Journ._, 1897, i. 413) found the staphylococcus pyogenes aureus - present in the blood in one case; Jackman (quoted _loc. cit._) found - the micrococcus pneumonial crouposae in one case; while Haultain (_Ed. - Med. Journ._, 1897, ii. 131) found only the bacillus coli communis in - the blood and secretions of several cases. From our experience of - similar mental and physical symptoms produced as a result of septic - wounds or which succeed surgical operations there seems to be no doubt - that several forms of micrococci or streptococci of a virulent - character are capable by means of the toxins they exude of causing - acute delirium or mania of a confusional clinical type when introduced - into the body. - - (c) Accidental and voluntary poisonings of the system which result in - insanity are illustrated by the forms of insanity which follow - phosphorus or lead poisoning and by Pellagra. The voluntary - intoxication of the system by such drugs as morphia and alcohol will - be treated of below. - - 2 and 3. Mechanical injuries to the brain arise from direct violence - to the skull, from apoplectic hemorrhage or embolism, or from rapidly - growing tumours, or from arterial degeneration. - - - Forms of Insanity. - -The forms of insanity may be divided into (I.) Congenital Mental Defect -and (II.) Acquired Insanity. - -I. _Congenital Mental Defect._--The morbid mental conditions which fall -to be considered under this head are _Idiocy_ (with its modification, -Imbecility) and _Cretinism_ (q.v.). - - - Idiocy. - -IDIOCY (from Gr. [Greek: idiotes], in its secondary meaning of a -deprived person). In treating of idiocy it must be carefully borne in -mind that we are dealing with mental phenomena dissociated for the most -part from active bodily disease, and that, in whatever degree it may -exist, we have to deal with a brain condition fixed by the pathological -circumstances under which its possessor came into the world or by such -as had been present before full cerebral activity could be developed, -and the symptoms of which are not dependent on the intervention of any -subsequent morbid process. From the earliest ages the term _Amentia_ has -been applied to this condition, in contradistinction to _Dementia_, the -mental weakness following on acquired insanity. - -The causes of congenital idiocy may be divided into four classes: (1) -hereditary predisposition, (2) constitutional conditions of one or both -parents affecting the constitution of the infant, (3) injuries of the -infant prior to or at birth, and (4) injuries or diseases affecting the -infant head during infancy. All these classes of causes may act in two -directions: they may produce either non-development or abnormal -development of the cranial bones as evidenced by microcephalism, or by -deformity of the head; or they may induce a more subtle morbid condition -of the constituent elements of the brain. As a rule, the pathological -process is more easily traceable in the case of the last three classes -than in the first. For instance, in the case of constitutional -conditions of the parents we may have a history of syphilis, a disease -which often leaves its traces on the bones of the skull; and in the -third case congenital malformation of the brain may be produced by -mechanical causes acting on the child in utero, such as an attempt to -procure abortion, or deformities of the maternal pelvis rendering labour -difficult and instrumental interference necessary. In such cases the -bones of the skull may be injured; it is only fair, however, to say that -more brains are saved than injured by instrumental interference. With -regard to the fourth class, it is evident that the term congenital is -not strictly applicable; but, as the period of life implicated is that -prior to the potentiality of the manifestation of the intellectual -powers, and as the result is identical with that of the other classes of -causes, it is warrantable to connect it with them, on pathological -principles more than as a mere matter of convenience. - -Dr Ireland, in his work _On Idiocy and Imbecility_ (1877), classifies -idiots from the standpoint of pathology as follows: (1) Genetous idiocy: -in this form, which he holds to be complete before birth, he believes -the presumption of heredity to be stronger than in other forms; the -vitality of the general system is stated to be lower than normal; the -palate is arched and narrow, the teeth misshapen, irregular and prone to -decay and the patient dwarfish in appearance; the head is generally -unsymmetrical and the commissures occasionally atrophied; (2) -Microcephalic idiocy, a term which explains itself; (3) Eclampsic -idiocy, due to the effects of infantile convulsions; (4) Epileptic -idiocy; (5) Hydrocephalic idiocy, a term which explains itself; (6) -Paralytic idiocy, a rare form, due to the brain injury causing the -paralysis; (7) Traumatic idiocy, a form produced by the third class of -causes above mentioned; (8) Inflammatory idiocy; (9) Idiocy by -deprivation of one or more of the special senses. - -The general conformation of the idiot is generally imperfect; he is -sometimes deformed, but more frequently the frame is merely awkwardly -put together, and he is usually of short stature. Only about one-fourth -of all idiots have heads smaller than the average. Many cases are on -record in which the cranial measurements exceed the average. It is the -irregularity of development of the bones of the skull, especially at the -base, which marks the condition. Cases, however, often present -themselves in which the skull is perfect in form and size. In such the -mischief has begun in the brain matter. The palate is often highly -arched; hare-lip is not uncommon; in fact congenital defect or -malformation of other organs than the brain is more commonly met with -among idiots than in the general community. Of the special senses, -hearing is most frequently affected. Sight is good, although -co-ordination may be defective. Many are mute. On account of the mental -dullness it is difficult to determine whether the senses of touch, taste -and smell suffer impairment; but the impression is that their acuteness -is below the average. It is needless to attempt a description of the -mental phenomena of idiots, which range between utter want of -intelligence and mere weakness of intellect. - -The term _Imbecility_ has been conventionally employed to indicate the -less profound degrees of idiocy, but in point of fact no distinct line -of demarcation can be drawn between the conditions. As the scale of -imbeciles ascends it is found that the condition is evidenced not so -much by obtuseness as by irregularity of intellectual development. This -serves to mark the difference between the extreme stupidity of the -lowest of the healthy and the highest forms of the morbidly deprived -type. The two conditions do not merge gradually one into the other. -Absolute stupidity and sottishness mark many cases of idiocy, but only -in the lowest type, where no dubiety of opinion can exist as to its -nature, and in a manner which can never be mistaken for the dulness of -the man who is less talented than the average of mankind. Where in -theory the morbid (in the sense of deprivation) and the healthy types -might be supposed to approach each other, in practice we find that, in -fact, no debatable ground exists. The uniformity of dulness of the -former stands in marked opposition to the irregularity of mental -conformation in the latter. Comparatively speaking, there are few idiots -or imbeciles who are uniformly deprived of mental power; some may be -utterly sottish, living a mere vegetable existence, but every one must -have heard of the quaint and crafty sayings of manifest idiots, -indicating the presence of no mean power of applied observation. In -institutions for the treatment of idiots and imbeciles, children are -found not only able to read and write, but even capable of applying the -simpler rules of arithmetic. A man may possess a very considerable meed -of receptive faculty and yet be idiotic in respect of the power of -application; he may be physically disabled from relation, and so be -manifestly a deprived person, unfit to take a position in the world on -the same platform as his fellows. - -Dr Ireland subdivides idiots, for the purpose of education, into five -grades, the first comprising those who can neither speak nor understand -speech, the second those who can understand a few easy words, the third -those who can speak and can be taught to work, the fourth those who can -be taught to read and write, and the fifth those who can read books for -themselves. The treatment of idiocy and imbecility consists almost -entirely of attention to hygiene and the building up of the enfeebled -constitution, along with endeavours to develop what small amount of -faculty exists by patiently applied educational influences. The success -which has attended this line of treatment in many public and private -institutions has been very considerable. It may be safely stated that -most idiotic or imbecile children have a better chance of amelioration -in asylums devoted to them than by any amount of care at home. - -In the class of idiots just spoken of, imperfect development of the -intellectual faculties is the prominent feature, so prominent that it -masks the arrest of potentiality of development of the moral sense, the -absence of which, even if noticed, is regarded as relatively -unimportant; but, in conducting the practical study of congenital -idiots, a class presents itself in which the moral sense is wanting or -deficient, whilst the intellectual powers are apparently up to the -average. It is the custom of writers on the subject to speak of -"intellectual" and "moral" idiots. The terms are convenient for clinical -purposes, but the two conditions cannot be dissociated, and the terms -therefore severally only imply a specially marked deprivation of -intellect or of moral sense in a given case. The everyday observer has -no difficulty in recognizing as a fact that deficiency in receptive -capacity is evidence of imperfect cerebral development; but it is not so -patent to him that the perception of right or wrong can be compromised -through the same cause, or to comprehend that loss of moral sense may -result from disease. The same difficulty does not present itself to the -pathologist; for, in the case of a child born under circumstances -adverse to brain development, and in whom no process of education can -develop an appreciation of what is right or wrong, although the -intellectual faculties appear to be but slightly blunted, or not -blunted at all, he cannot avoid connecting the physical peculiarity with -the pathological evidence. The world is apt enough to refer any fault in -intellectual development, manifested by imperfect receptivity, to a -definite physical cause, and is willing to base opinion on comparatively -slight data; but it is not so ready to accept the theory of a -pathological implication of the intellectual attributes concerned in the -perception of the difference between right and wrong. Were, however, two -cases pitted one against another--the first one of so-called -intellectual, the second one of so-called moral idiocy--it would be -found that, except as regards the psychical manifestations, the cases -might be identical. In both there might be a family history of tendency -to degeneration, a peculiar cranial conformation, a history of previous -symptoms during infancy, and of a series of indications of mental -incapacities during adolescence, differing only in this, that in the -first the prominent indication of mental weakness was inability to add -two and two together, in the second the prominent feature was incapacity -to distinguish right from wrong. What complicates the question of moral -idiocy is that many of its subjects can, when an abstract proposition is -placed before them, answer according to the dictates of morality, which -they may have learnt by rote. If asked whether it is right or wrong to -lie or steal they will say it is wrong; still, when they themselves are -detected in either offence, there is an evident non-recognition of its -concrete nature. The question of moral idiocy will always be a moot one -between the casuist and the pathologist; but, when the whole natural -history of such cases is studied, there are points of differentiation -between their morbid depravation and mere moral depravity. Family -history, individual peculiarities, the general bizarre nature of the -phenomena, remove such cases from the category of crime. - - _Statistics._--According to the census returns of 1901 the total - number of persons described as idiots and imbeciles in England and - Wales was 48,882, the equality of the sexes being remarkable, namely, - 24,480 males and 24,402 females. Compared with the entire population - the ratio is 1 idiot or imbecile to 665 persons, or 15 per 10,000 - persons living. Whether the returns are defective, owing to the - sensitiveness of persons who would desire to conceal the occurrence of - idiocy in their families, we have no means of knowing; but such a - feeling is no doubt likely to exist among those who look upon mental - infirmity as humiliating, rather than, as one of the many physical - evils which afflict humanity. Dr. Ireland estimates that there is 1 - idiot or imbecile to every 500 persons in countries that have a - census. The following table shows the number of idiots according to - official returns of the various countries:-- - - +-------------------+--------+---------+--------+------------+ - | | | | | Proportion | - | | Males. | Females.| Total. | to 100,000 | - | | | | | of Pop. | - +-------------------|--------|---------|--------|------------| - | England and Wales | 24,480 | 24,402 | 48,882 | 150 | - | | | | | | - | Scotland | 3,246 | 3,377 | 6,623 | 148 | - | | | | | | - | Ireland | 2,946 | 2,270 | 5,216 | 117 | - | | | | | | - | France (including | 20,456 | 14,677 | 35,133 | 97 | - | cretins) (1872) | | | | | - | | | | | | - | Germany (1871) | -- | -- | 33,739 | 82 | - | | | | | | - | Sweden (1870) | -- | -- | 1,632 | 38 | - | | | | | | - | Norway (1891) | 1,357 | 1,074 | 2,431 | 121 | - | | | | | | - | Denmark (1888-89) | 2,106 | 1,751 | 3,857 | 200 | - +-------------------|--------|---------|--------|------------+ - - For the United States there are no later census figures than 1890 when - the feeble-minded or idiotic were recorded as 95,571 (52,940 males and - 42,631 females). In 1904 (_Special Report of Bureau of Census_, 1906) - the "feeble-minded" were estimated at 150,000. - - The relative frequency of congenital and acquired insanity in various - countries is shown in the following table, taken from Koch's - statistics of insanity in Wurttemberg, which gives the number of - idiots to 100 lunatics:-- - - Prussia 158 | France 66 - Bavaria 154 | Denmark 58 - Saxony 162 | Sweden 22 - Austria 53 | Norway 65 - Hungary 140 | England and Wales 74 - Canton of Bern 117 | Scotland 68 - America 79 | Ireland 69 - - It is difficult to understand the wide divergence of these figures, - except it be that in certain states, such as Prussia and Bavaria, - dements have been taken along with aments and in others cretins. This - cannot, however, apply to the case of France, which is stated to have - only 66 idiots to every 100 lunatics. In many districts of France - cretinism is common; it is practically unknown in England, where the - proportion of idiots is stated as higher than in France; and it is - rare in Prussia, which stands at 158 idiots to 100 lunatics. - Manifestly imperfect as this table is, it shows how important an - element idiocy is in social statistics; few are aware that the number - of idiots and that of lunatics approach so nearly. - - - Acquired Insanity. - -II. _Acquired Insanity._--So far as the mental symptoms of acquired -insanity are concerned, Pinel's ancient classification, into _Mania_, -_Melancholia_ and _Dementia_, is still applicable to every case, and -although numberless classifications have been advanced they are for the -most part merely terminological variations. Classifications of the -insanities based on pathology and etiology have been held out as a -solution of the difficulty, but, so far, pathological observations have -failed to fulfil this ideal, and no thoroughly satisfactory pathological -classification has emerged from them. - -Classifications are after all matters of convenience; the following -system admittedly is so:-- - - Melancholia. - Mania. - Delusional Insanity. - Katatonia. - Hebephrenia. - Traumatic Insanity. - Insanity following upon arterial degeneration. - Insanities associated or caused by: General Paralysis; Epilepsy. - Insanities associated with or caused by Alcoholic and Drug - intoxication: Delirium Tremens, Chronic Alcoholic Insanity, - Dipsomania, Morphinism. - Senile Insanity. - -The general symptoms of acquired insanity group themselves naturally -under two heads, the physical and the mental. - - - General symptoms. - -The physical symptoms of mental disease generally, if not invariably, -precede the onset of the mental symptoms, and the patient may complain -of indefinite symptoms of malaise for weeks and months before it is -suspected that the disorder is about to terminate in mental symptoms. -The most general physical disorder common to the onset of all the -insanities is the failure of nutrition, i.e. the patient rapidly and -apparently without any apparent cause loses weight. Associated with this -nutritional failure it is usual to have disturbances of the alimentary -tract, such as loss of appetite, dyspepsia and obstinate constipation. -During the prodromal stage of such conditions as mania and melancholia -the digestive functions of the stomach and intestine are almost or -completely in abeyance. To this implication of other systems consequent -on impairment of the trophesial (nourishment-regulating) function of the -brain can be traced a large number of the errors which exist as to the -causation of idiopathic melancholia and mania. Very frequently this -secondary condition is set down as the primary cause; the insanity is -referred to derangements of the stomach or bowels, when in fact these -are, concomitantly with the mental disturbance, results of the cerebral -mischief. Doubtless these functional derangements exercise considerable -influence on the progress of the case by assisting to deprave the -general economy, and by producing depressing sensations in the region of -the stomach. To them may probably be attributed, together with the -apprehension of impending insanity, that phase of the disease spoken of -by the older writers as the _stadium melancholicum_, which so frequently -presents itself in incipient cases. - -The skin and its appendages--the hair and the nails--suffer in the -general disorder of nutrition which accompanies all insanities. The skin -may be abnormally dry and scurfy or moist and offensive. In acute -insanities rashes are not uncommon, and in chronic conditions, -especially conditions of depression, crops of papules occur on the face, -chest and shoulders. The hair is generally dry, loses its lustre and -becomes brittle. The nails become deformed and may exhibit either -excessive and irregular or diminished growth. - -Where there are grave nutritional disorders it is to be expected that -the chief excretions of the body should show departures from the state -of health. In this article it is impossible to treat this subject -fully, but it may suffice to say that in many states of depression there -is a great deficiency in the excretion of the solids of the urine, -particularly the nitrogenous waste products of the body; while in -conditions of excitement there is an excessive output of the nitrogenous -waste products. It has lately been pointed out that in many forms of -insanity indoxyl is present in the urine, a substance only present when -putrefactive processes are taking place in the intestinal tract. - -The nervous system, both on the sensory and motor side, suffers very -generally in all conditions of insanity. On the sensory side the special -senses are most liable to disorder of their function, whereby false -sense impressions arise which the patient from impairment of judgment is -unable to correct, and hence arise the psychical symptoms known as -hallucinations and delusions. Common sensibility is generally impaired. - -On the motor side, impairment of the muscular power is present in many -cases of depression and in all cases of dementia. The incontinence of -urine so frequently seen in dementia and in acute insanity complicated -with the mental symptom of confusion depends partly on impairment of -muscular power and partly on disorder of the sensory apparatus of the -brain and spinal cord. - -The outstanding mental symptom in nearly all insanities, acute and -recent or chronic, is the failure of the capacity of judgment and loss -of self-control. In early acute insanities, however, the two chief -symptoms which are most evident and easily noted are depression on the -one hand and excitement or elevation on the other. Some distinction -ought to be made between these two terms, excitement and elevation, -which at present are used synonymously. Excitement is a mental state -which may be and generally is associated with confusion and mental -impairment, while elevation is an exaltation of the mental faculties, a -condition in which there is no mental confusion, but rather an -unrestrained and rapid succession of fleeting mental processes. - - The symptoms which most strongly appeal to the lay mind as conclusive - evidence of mental disorder are hallucinations and delusions. - Hallucinations are false sense impressions which occur without normal - stimuli. The presence of hallucinations certainly indicates some - functional disorder of the higher brain centres, but is not an - evidence of insanity so long as the sufferer recognizes that the - hallucinations are false sense impressions. So soon, however, as - conduct is influenced by hallucinations, then the boundary line - between sanity on the one hand and insanity on the other has been - crossed. The most common hallucinations are those of sight and - hearing. - - Delusions are not infrequently the result of hallucinations. If the - hallucinations of a melancholic patient consist in hearing voices - which make accusatory statements, delusions of sin and unworthiness - frequently follow. Hallucinations of the senses of taste and smell are - almost invariably associated with the delusion that the patient's food - is being poisoned or that it consists of objectionable matter. On the - other hand, many delusions are apparently the outcome of the patient's - mental state. They may be pleasant or disagreeable according as the - condition is one of elevation or depression. The intensity and quality - of the delusions are largely influenced by the intelligence and - education of the patient. An educated man, for instance, who suffers - from sensory disturbances is much more ingenious in his explanations - as to how these sensory disturbances result from electricity, - marconigrams, X-rays, &c., which he believes are used by his enemies - to annoy him, than an ignorant man suffering from the same abnormal - sensations. Loss of self-control is characteristic of all forms of - insanity. Normal self-control is so much a matter of race, age, the - state of health, moral and physical upbringing, that it is impossible - to lay down any law whereby this mental quality can be gauged, or to - determine when deficiency has passed from a normal to an abnormal - state. In many cases of insanity there is no difficulty in - appreciating the pathological nature of the deficiency, but there are - others in which the conduct is otherwise so rational that one is apt - to attribute the deficiency to physiological rather than to - pathological causes. Perversion of the moral sense is common to all - the insanities, but is often the only symptom to be noticed in cases - of imbecility and idiocy, and it as a rule may be the earliest symptom - noticed in the early stages of the excitement of manic-depressive - insanity and general paralysis. - - The tendency to commit suicide, which is so common among the insane - and those predisposed to insanity, is especially prevalent in patients - who suffer from depression, sleeplessness and delusions of - persecution. Suicidal acts may be divided into accidental, impulsive - and premeditated. The accidental suicides occur in patients who are - partially or totally unconscious of their surroundings, and are - generally the result of terrifying hallucinations, to escape from - which the patient jumps through a window or runs blindly into water or - some other danger. Impulsive suicides may be prompted by suddenly - presented opportunities or means of self-destruction, such as the - sight of water, fire, a knife, cord or poison. Premeditated suicides - most frequently occur in states of long continued depression. Such - patients frequently devote their attention to only one method of - destruction and fail to avail themselves of others equally - practicable. As a rule the more educated the patient, the more - ingenious and varied are the methods adopted to attain the desired - result. - - The faculty of attention is variously affected in the subjects of - insanity. In some the attention is entirely subjective, being occupied - by sensations of misery, depression or sensory disturbances. In others - the attention is objective, and attracted by every accidental sound or - movement. In most of the early acute insanities the capacity of - attention is wholly abolished, while in hebephrenia the stage of - exhaustion which follows acute excitement, and the condition known as - secondary dementia, loss of the power of attention is one of the most - prominent symptoms. The memory for both recent and remote events is - impaired or abolished in all acute insanities which are characterized - by confusion and loss or impairment of consciousness. In the excited - stage of manic-depressive insanity it is not uncommon to find that the - memory is abnormally active. Loss of memory for recent but not remote - events is characteristic of chronic alcoholism and senility and even - the early stage of general paralysis. - - Of all the functions of the brain that of sleep is the most liable to - disorder in the insane. Sleeplessness is the earliest symptom in the - onset of insanity; it is universally present in all the acute forms, - and the return of natural sleep is generally the first symptom of - recovery. The causes of sleeplessness are very numerous, but in the - majority of acute cases the sleeplessness is due to a state of - toxaemia. The toxins act either directly on the brain cells producing - a state of irritability incompatible with sleep, or indirectly, - producing physical symptoms which of themselves alone are capable of - preventing the condition of sleep. These symptoms are high arterial - tension and a rapid pulse-rate. The arterial tension of health ranges - between 110 and 120 millimetres of mercury, and when sleep occurs the - arterial tension falls and is rarely above 100 millimetres. In - observations conducted by Bruce (_Scottish Medical and Surgical - Journal_, August 1900) on cases of insanity suffering from - sleeplessness the arterial tension was found to be as high as 140 and - 150 millimetres. When such sleep was obtained the tension always sank - at once to 110 millimetres or even lower. In a few cases suffering - from sleeplessness the arterial tension was found to be below 100 - millimetres, accompanied by a rapid pulse-rate. When sleep set in, in - these cases, no alteration was noted in the arterial tension, but the - pulse was markedly diminished. - - - Melancholia. - -MELANCHOLIA.--Melancholia is a general term applied to all forms of -insanity in which the prevailing mental symptom is that of depression -and dates back to the time of Hippocrates. Melancholic patients, -however, differ very widely from one another in their mental symptoms, -and as a consequence a perfectly unwarrantable series of subdivisions -have been invented according to the prominence of one or other mental -symptoms. Such terms as delusional melancholia, resistive melancholia, -stuporose melancholia, suicidal melancholia, religious melancholia, &c. -have so arisen; they are, however, more descriptive of individual cases -than indicative of types of disease. - -So far as our present knowledge goes, at least three different and -distinct disease conditions can be described under the general term -melancholia. These are, acute melancholia, excited melancholia and the -state of depression occurring in _Folie circulaire_ or alternating -insanity, a condition in which the patient is liable to suffer from -alternating attacks of excitement and depression. - -_Acute Melancholia_ is a disease of adult life and the decline of life. -Women appear to be more liable to be attacked than men. Hereditary -predisposition, mental worry, exhausting occupations, such as the -sick-nursing of relatives, are the chief predisposing causes, while the -direct exciting cause of the condition is due to the accumulation in the -tissues of waste products, which so load the blood as to act in a toxic -manner on the cells and fibres of the brain. - -The onset of the disease is gradual and indefinite. The patient suffers -from malaise, indigestion, constipation and irregular, rapid and -forcible action of the heart. The urine become scanty and high coloured. -The nervous symptoms are irritability, sleeplessness and a feeling of -mental confusion. The actual onset of the acute mental symptoms may be -sudden, and is not infrequently heralded by distressing hallucinations -of hearing, together with a rise in the body temperature. In the fully -developed disease the patient is flushed and the skin hot and dry; the -temperature is usually raised 1 deg. above the normal in the evening. The -pulse is hard, rapid and often irregular. There is no desire for food, -but dryness of the mouth and tongue promote a condition of thirst. The -bowels are constipated. The urine is scanty and frequently contains -large quantities of indoxyl. The blood shows no demonstrable departure -from the normal. The patient is depressed, the face has a strained, -anxious expression, while more or less mental confusion is always -present. Typical cases suffer from distressing aural hallucinations, and -the function of sleep is in abeyance. - -Acute melancholia may terminate in recovery either gradually or by -crises, or the condition may pass into chronicity, while in a small -proportion of cases death occurs early in the attack from exhaustion and -toxaemia. The acute stage of onset generally lasts for from two to three -weeks, and within that period the patient may make a rapid and sudden -recovery. The skin becomes moist and perspiration is often profuse. -Large quantities of urine are excreted, which are laden with waste -products. The pulse becomes soft and compressible, sleep returns, and -the depression, mental confusion and hallucinations pass away. In the -majority of untreated cases, however, recovery is much more gradual. At -the end of two or three weeks from the onset cf the attack the patient -gradually passes into a condition of comparative tranquillity. The skin -becomes moister, the pulse less rapid, and probably the earliest symptom -of improvement is return of sleep. Hallucinations accompanied by -delusions persist often for weeks and months, but as the patient -improves physically the mental symptoms become less and less prominent. - -If the patient does not recover, the physical symptoms are those of -mal-nutrition, together with chronic gastric and intestinal disorder. -The skin is dull and earthy in appearance, the hair dry, the nails -brittle and the heart's action weak and feeble. Mentally there is -profound depression with delusions, and persistent or recurring attacks -of hallucinations of hearing. When death occurs, it is usually preceded -by a condition known as the "typhoid state." The patient rapidly passes -into a state of extreme exhaustion, the tongue is dry and cracked, -sordes form upon the teeth and lips, diarrhoea and congestion of the -lungs rapidly supervene and terminate life. - - _Treatment._--The patient in the early stage of the disease must be - confined to bed and nursed by night as well as day. The food to begin - with should be milk, diluted with hot water or aerated water, given - frequently and in small quantities. The large intestine should be - thoroughly cleared out by large enemata and kept empty by large normal - saline enemata administered every second day. Sleep may be secured by - lowering the blood pressure with half-grain doses of - erythrol-tetra-nitrate. If a hypnotic is necessary, as it will be if - the patient has had no natural sleep for two nights in succession, - then a full dose of paraldehyde or veronal may be given at bed-time. - Under this treatment the majority of cases, if treated early, improve - rapidly. As the appetite returns great care must be taken that the - patient does not suddenly resume a full ordinary dietary. A sudden - return to a full dietary invariably means a relapse, which is often - less amenable to treatment than the original attack. Toast should - first be added to the milk, and this may be followed by milk puddings - and farinaceous foods in small quantities. Any rise of temperature or - increase of pulse-rate or tendency to sleeplessness should be regarded - as a threatened relapse and treated accordingly. - -_Excited Melancholia._--Excited melancholia is almost invariably a -disease of old age or the decline of life, and it attacks men and women -with equal frequency. Chronic gastric disorders, deficient food and -sleep, unhealthy occupations and environments, together with worry and -mental stress, are all more or less predisposing causes of the disease. -The direct exciting cause or causes have not as yet been demonstrated, -but there is no doubt that the disease is associated with, or caused by, -a condition of bacterial toxaemia, analogous to the bacterial toxaemias -of acute and chronic rheumatism. - -The onset of the disease is always gradual and is associated with -mal-nutrition, loss of body weight, nervousness, depression, loss of the -capacity for work, sleeplessness and attacks of restlessness, these -attacks of restlessness become more and more marked as self-control -diminishes, and as the depression increases the disease passes the -borderland of sanity. - -In the fully developed disease the appearance of the patient is typical. -The expression is drawn, depressed, anxious or apprehensive. The skin is -yellow and parchment like. The hair is often dry and stands out stiffly -from the head. The hands are in constant movement, twisting and -untwisting, picking the skin, pulling at the hair or tearing at the -clothes. The patient moans continuously, or emits cries of grief and -wanders aimlessly. Mentally the patient, although depressed, miserable -and self-absorbed, is not confused. There is complete consciousness -except during the height of a paroxysm of restlessness and depression, -and the patient can talk and answer questions clearly and intelligently, -but takes no interest in the environment. Some of the patients suffer -from delusions, generally a sense of impending danger, but very few -suffer from hallucinations. - -Physically there is loss of appetite, constipation and rapid heart -action, a great increase in the number of the white blood corpuscles, -particularly of the multinucleated cells which are frequently increased -in bacterial infections. In the blood serum also there can be -demonstrated the presence of agglutinines to certain members of the -streptococci group. - -The course of the disease is prolonged and chronic. The acute symptoms -tend to remit at regular intervals, the patient becoming more quiet and -less demonstratively depressed; but as a rule these remissions are -extremely temporary. Excited melancholia is a disease characterized by -repeated relapses, and recoveries are rare in cases above the age of -forty. - - _Treatment._--There is no curative treatment for excited melancholia. - The patient must be carefully nursed; kept in bed during the - exacerbations of the disease and treated with graduated doses of - nepenthe or tincture of opium, to secure some amelioration of the - acute symptoms. Careful dieting, tonics and baths are of benefit - during the remissions of the disease, and in a few cases seem to - promote recovery. - -_Folie circulaire_, or alternating insanity, was first described by -Falret and Baillarger, and more recently Kraepelin has considerably -widened the conception of this class of disease, which he describes -under the term "manic-depressive insanity." Of the two terms (_folie -circulaire_ and manic-depressive insanity) the latter is the more -correct. _Folie circulaire_ implies that the disease invariably passes -through a complete cycle, which description is only applicable to very -few of the cases. Manic-depressive insanity implies that the patient may -either suffer from excitement or depression which do not necessarily -succeed one another in any fixed order. As a matter of fact, the -majority of patients who suffer from the disease either have marked -excited attacks with little or no subsequent depression, or marked -attacks of depression with a subsequent period of such slight exaltation -as hardly to be distinguished from a state of health. - -Depression of the manic-depressive variety, therefore, may either -precede or follow upon an attack of maniacal excitement, or it may be -the chief and only obvious symptom of the disease and may recur again -and again. The disease attacks men and women with equal frequency, and -as a rule manifests itself either late in adolescence or during the -decline of life. Hereditary predisposition has been proved to exist in -over 50% of cases, beyond which no definite predisposing cause is at -present known. A considerable number of cases follow upon attacks of -infective disease such as typhoid fever, scarlet fever or rheumatic -fever. The actual exciting cause is probably an intestinal toxaemia of -bacterial origin; at all events, mal-nutrition, gastric and intestinal -symptoms not infrequently precede an attack, and the condition of the -blood--the increase in number in the multinucleated white blood -corpuscles and the presence of agglutinines to certain members of the -streptococci group of bacteria--are symptoms which have been definitely -demonstrated by Bruce in every case so far examined. - -If the depression is the sequel to an attack of excitement, the onset -may be very sudden or it may be gradual. If, on the other hand, the -depression is not the sequel of excitement, the onset is very gradual -and the patient complains of lassitude, incapacity for mental or -physical work, loss of appetite, constipation and sleeplessness often -for months before the case is recognized as one of insanity. In the -fully developed disease the temperature is very rarely febrile, on the -contrary it is rather subnormal in character. The stomach is disordered -and the bowels confined. The urine is scanty, turbid and very liable to -rapid decomposition. The heart's action is slow and feeble and the -extremities become cold, blue and livid. In extreme cases gangrene of -the lower extremities may occur, but in all there is a tendency to -oedema of the extremities. The skin is greasy, often offensive, and the -palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are sodden. - -Mentally there is simple depression, without, in the majority of cases, -any implication of consciousness. Many patients pass through attack -after attack without suffering from hallucinations or delusions, but in -rare cases hallucinations of hearing and sight are present. Delusions of -unworthiness and unpardonable sin are not uncommon, and if once -expressed are liable to recur again during the course of each successive -attack. The disease is prolonged and chronic in its course, and the -condition of the patient varies but little from day to day. When the -depression follows excitement, the patient as a rule becomes fat and -flabby. On the other hand, if the illness commences with depression, the -chief physical symptoms are mal-nutrition and loss of body weight, and -the return to health is always preceded by a return of nutrition and a -gain in body weight. - -The attacks may last from six months to two or three years. The -intervals between attacks may last for only a few weeks or months or may -extend over several years. During the interval the patient is not only -capable of good mental work but may show capacity of a high order. In -other words this form of mental disorder does not tend to produce -dementia; the explanation probably being that between the attacks there -is no toxaemia. - - _Treatment._--There is no known curative treatment for the depression - of manic-depressive insanity, but the depression, the sleeplessness - and the gastric disorder are to some extent mitigated by common sense - attention to the general health of the body. If the patient is thin - and wasted, then treatment is best conducted in bed. The diet should - be bland, consisting largely of milk, eggs and farinaceous food, given - in small quantities and frequently. Defecation should be maintained by - enemata, and the skin kept clean by daily warm baths. What is of much - more importance is the fact that in some instances subsequent attacks - can be prevented by impressing upon the patient the necessity for - attending to the state of the bowels, and of discontinuing work when - the slightest symptoms of an attack present themselves. If these - symptoms are at all prominent, rest in bed is a wise precaution, - butcher-meat should be discontinued from the dietary and a tonic of - arsenic or quinine and acid prescribed. - - - Mania. - -MANIA.--The term mania, meaning pathological elevation or excitement, -has, like the term melancholia, been applied to all varieties of morbid -mental conditions in which the prevailing mental symptom is excitement -or elevation. As in melancholia so in mania various subdivisions have -been invented, such as delusional mania, religious mania, homicidal -mania, according to the special mental characteristics of each case, but -such varieties are of accidental origin and cannot be held to be -subdivisions. - -Under the term mania two distinct diseased conditions can be described, -viz. acute mania, and the elevated stage of _folie circulaire_ or -manic-depressive insanity. - -_Acute Mania._--Acute mania is a disease which attacks both sexes at all -ages, but its onset is most prevalent during adolescence and early adult -life. Hereditary predisposition, physical and mental exhaustion, -epileptic seizures and childbirth are all predisposing causes. The -direct exciting cause or causes are unknown, but the physical symptoms -suggest that the condition is one of acute toxaemia or poisoning, and -the changes in the blood are such as are consequent on bacterial -toxaemia. - -The onset is gradual in the large majority of cases. Histories of sudden -outbursts of mania can rarely be relied on, as the illness is almost -invariably preceded by loss of body weight, sleeplessness, bad dreams, -headaches and symptoms of general malaise, sometimes associated with -depression. The actual onset of the mental symptoms themselves, however, -are frequently sudden. A typical case of the fully developed disease is -not easily mistaken. The patient is usually anaemic and thin, the -expression of the face is unnatural, the eyes widely opened and bright; -and there is great motor restlessness, the muscular movements being -purposeless and inco-ordinate. This inco-ordination of movement affects -not only the muscles of the limbs and trunk but also those of -expression, so that the usual aspect of the face becomes entirely -altered. The temperature is generally slightly febrile. The tongue and -lips are cracked and dry through excessive shouting or speaking. There -is often no desire for food or drink. The heart's action is rapid and -forcible. The skin is soft and moist. The urine is scanty, turbid and -loaded with urates. The white blood corpuscles per cubic millimetre of -blood are markedly increased, and the blood serum contains agglutinines -to certain strains of streptococci which are not present in healthy -persons. Sensibility to pain is lost or much impaired. Such patients -will swing and jerk a broken limb apparently unaware that it is broken. -Sleep is absent or obtained in short snatches, and even when asleep the -patient is often restless and talkative as if the disease processes were -still active. - -Mentally the patient is excited, often wildly so, quite confused and -unable to recognize time or place. Answers to questions may sometimes be -elicited by repeated efforts to engage the attention of the patient. The -speech is incoherent, and for all practical purposes the patient is -mentally inaccessible. This state of acute excitement lasts usually for -two or three weeks and gradually passes into a condition of chronic -restlessness and noise, in which the movements are more coordinate and -purposeful. The confusion of the acute stage passes off and the -attention can be more readily attracted but cannot be concentrated on -any subject for any length of time. The patient will now recognize -friends, but the affections are in abeyance and the memory is defective. -The appetite becomes insatiable, but the patient does not necessarily -gain in weight. This stage of subacute excitement may last for months, -but as a rule favourable cases recover within six months from the onset -of the disease. A recovering patient gradually gains weight, sleeps -soundly at night and has periods of partial quiescence during the day, -particularly in the morning after a good night's sleep. These lucid -intervals become more and more prolonged and finally pass into a state -of sanity. Some cases on the other hand, after the acute symptoms -decline, remain confused, and this state of confusion may last for -months; by some alienists it is described as secondary stupor. - -The symptoms detailed above are those typical of an attack such as is -most frequently met with in adult cases. Acute mania, however, is a -disease which presents itself in various forms. Adolescent cases, for -instance, very commonly suffer from recurrent attacks, and the recurrent -form of the disease is also to be met with in adults. The recurrent form -at the onset does not differ in symptoms from that already described, -but the course of the attack is shorter and more acute, so that the -patient after one or two weeks of acute excitement rapidly improves, the -mental symptoms pass off and the patient is apparently perfectly -recovered. An examination of the blood, however, reveals the fact that -the patient is still suffering from some disorder of the system, -inasmuch as the white blood corpuscles remain increased above the -average of health. Subsequent attacks of excitement come on without any -obvious provocation. The pulse becomes fast and the face flushed. The -patient frequently complains of fullness in the head, ringing in the -ears and a loss of appetite. Sleeplessness is an invariable symptom. -Self-control is generally lost suddenly, and the patient rapidly passes -into a state of delirious excitement, to recover again, apparently, in -the course of a few weeks. Recurrent mania might therefore be regarded -as a prolonged toxaemia, complicated at intervals by outbursts of -delirious excitement. Acute mania in the majority of cases ends in -recovery. In the continuous attack the recovery is gradual. In the -recurrent cases the intervals between attacks become longer and the -attacks less severe until they finally cease. In such recovered cases -very frequently a persistent increase in the number of the white blood -corpuscles is found, persisting for a period of two or three years of -apparently sound mental health. A few cases die, exhausted by the -acuteness of the excitement and inability to obtain rest by the natural -process of sleep. When death does occur in this way the patient almost -invariably passes into the typhoid state. - -The residue of such cases become chronic, and chronicity almost -invariably means subsequent dementia. The chronic stage of acute mania -may be represented by a state of continuous subacute excitement in which -the patient becomes dirty and destructive in habits and liable from time -to time to exacerbations of the mental symptoms. Continuous observation -of the blood made in such cases over a period extending for weeks -reveals the fact that the leucocytosis, if represented in chart form, -shows a regular sequence of events. Just prior to the onset of an -exacerbation the leucocytosis is low. As the excitement increases in -severity the leucocytosis curve rises, and just before improvement sets -in there may be a decided rise in the curve and then a subsequent fall; -but this fall rarely reaches the normal line. In other cases, which pass -into chronicity, a state of persistent delusion, rather than excitement, -is the prevailing mental characteristic, and these cases may at -recurrent intervals become noisy and dangerous. - - _Treatment._--Acute mania can only be treated on general lines. During - the acute stage of onset the patient should be placed in bed. If there - is difficulty in inducing the patient to take a sufficient quantity of - food, this difficulty can be got over by giving food in liquid form, - milk, milk-tea, eggs beaten up in milk, meat juice and thin gruel, and - it is always better to feed such a patient with small quantities given - frequently. Cases of mania following childbirth are those which most - urgently demand careful and frequent feeding, artificially - administered if necessary. If there is any tendency to exhaustion, - alcoholic stimulants are indicated, and in some cases strychnine, - quinine and cardiac tonics are highly beneficial. The bowels should be - unloaded by large enemata or the use of saline purgatives. The - continuous use of purgatives should as a rule be avoided, as they - drain the system of fluids. On the other hand, the administration of - one large normal saline enema by supplying the tissues with fluids, - and probably thereby diluting the toxins circulating in the system, - gives considerable relief. A continuous warm bath frequently produces - sleep and reduces excitement. The sleeplessness of acute mania is best - treated by warm baths wherever possible, and if a drug must be - administered, then paraldehyde is the safest and most certain, unless - the patient is also an alcoholic, when chloral and bromide is probably - a better sedative. - -_The Elevated Stage of Folie Circulaire or Manic Depressive -Insanity._--As previously mentioned in the description of the depressed -stage of this mental disorder, the disease is equally prone to attack -men and women, generally during late adolescence or in early adult life, -and in a few cases first appears during the decline of life. Hereditary -predisposition undoubtedly plays a large part as a predisposing cause, -and after that is said it is difficult to assign any other definite -predisposing causes and certainly no exciting causes. As in the stage of -depression, so in the stage of excitement the first attack may closely -follow upon typhoid fever, erysipelas or rheumatic fever. On the other -hand many cases occur without any such antecedent disease. Another fact -which has been commented upon is that these patients at the onset of an -attack of excitement often appear to be in excellent physical health. - -The earliest symptoms of onset are moral rather than physical. The -patient changes in character, generally for the worse. The sober man -becomes intemperate. The steady man of business enters into foolish, -reckless speculation. There is a tendency for the patient to seek the -society of inferiors and to ignore the recognized conventionalities of -life and decency. The dress becomes extravagant and vulgar and the -speech loud, boastful and obscene. These symptoms may exist for a -considerable period before some accidental circumstance or some more -than usually extravagant departure from the laws and customs of -civilization draws public attention to the condition of the patient. The -symptoms of the fully developed disease differ in degree in different -cases. The face is often flushed and the expression unnatural. There is -constant restlessness, steady loss of body weight, and sleeplessness. In -very acute attacks there are frequently symptoms of gastric disorder, -while in other cases the appetite is enormous, gross and perverted. The -leucocytosis is above that usually met with in health, and the increase -in the early stages is due to the relative and absolute increase in the -multinucleated or polymorphonuclear leucocytes. The hyperleucocytosis is -not, however, so high as it is in acute mania, and upon recovery taking -place the leucocytosis always falls to normal. In the serum of over 80% -of cases there are present agglutinines to certain strains of -streptococci, which agglutinines are not present in the serum of healthy -persons. The changes in the urine are those which one would expect to -find in persons losing weight; the amount of nitrogenous output is in -excess of the nitrogen ingested in the food. - -Mentally there is always exaltation rather than excitement, and when -excitement is present it is never of a delirious nature, that is to say, -the patient is cognizant of the surroundings, and the special senses are -abnormally acute, particularly those of sight and hearing. -Hallucinations and delusion are sometimes present, but many cases pass -through several attacks without exhibiting either of these classes of -symptoms. The patient is always garrulous and delighted to make any -chance acquaintance the confidant of his most private affairs. The mood -is sometimes expansive and benevolent, interruption in the flow of talk -may suddenly change the subject of the conversation or the patient may -with equal suddenness fly into a violent rage, use foul and obscene -language, ending with loud laughter and protestations of eternal -friendship. In other words the mental processes are easily stimulated -and as easily diverted into other channels. The train of thought is, as -it were, constantly being changed by accidental associations. Although -consciousness is not impaired, the power of work is abolished as the -attention cannot be directed continuously to any subject, and yet the -patient may be capable of writing letters in which facts and fiction are -most ingeniously blended. A typical case will pass through the emotions -of joy, sorrow and rage in the course of a few minutes. The memory is -not impaired and is often hyper-acute. The speech may be rambling but is -rarely incoherent. - -The course of the attack is in some cases short, lasting for from one to -three weeks, while in others the condition lasts for years. The patient -remains in a state of constant restlessness, both of body and mind, -untidy or absurd in dress, noisy, amorous, vindictive, boisterously -happy or virulently abusive. As time passes a change sets in. The -patient sleeps better, begins to lay on flesh, the sudden mental -fluctuations become less marked and finally disappear. Many of these -patients remember every detail of their lives during the state of -elevation, and many are acutely ashamed of their actions during this -period of their illness. As a sequel to the attack of elevation there is -usually an attack of depression, but this is not a necessary sequel. - -The majority of patients recover even after years of illness, but the -attacks are always liable to recur. Even recurrent attacks, however, -leave behind them little if any mental impairment. - - _Treatment._--General attention to the health of the body, and an - abundance of nourishing food, and, where necessary, the use of - sedatives such as bromide and sulphonal, sum up the treatment of the - elevated stage of manic-depressive insanity. In Germany it is the - custom to treat such cases in continuous warm baths, extending - sometimes for weeks. The use of warm baths of several hours' duration - has not proved satisfactory. - - - Delusional Insanity. - -DELUSIONAL INSANITY.--Considerable confusion exists at the present day -regarding the term delusional insanity. It is not correct to define the -condition as a disease in which fixed delusions dominate the conduct and -are the chief mental symptom present. Such a definition would include -many chronic cases of melancholia and mania. All patients who suffer -from attacks of acute insanity and who do not recover tend to become -delusional, and any attempt to include and describe such cases in a -group by themselves and term them delusional insanity is inadmissible. -The fact that delusional insanity has been described under such various -terms as progressive systematized insanity, mania of persecution and -grandeur, monomanias of persecution, unseen agency, grandeur and -paranoia, indicates that the disease is obscure in its origin, probably -passing through various stages, and in some instances having been -confused with the terminal stages of mania and melancholia. If this is -admitted, then probably the best description of the disease is that -given by V. Magnan under the term of "systematized delusional insanity," -and it may be accepted that many cases conform very closely to Magnan's -description. - -The disease occurs with equal frequency in men and women, and in the -majority of cases commences during adolescence or early adult life. The -universally accepted predisposing cause is hereditary predisposition. As -to the exciting causes nothing is known beyond the fact that certain -forms of disease, closely resembling delusional insanity, are apparently -associated or caused by chronic alcoholism or occur as a sequel to -syphilitic infection. In the vast majority of cases the onset is lost in -obscurity, the patient only drawing attention to the diseased condition -by insane conduct after the delusional state is definitely established. -The friends of such persons frequently affirm that the patient has -always been abnormal. However this may be, there is no doubt that in a -few cases the onset is acute and closely resembles the onset of acute -melancholia. The patient is depressed, confused, suffers from -hallucinations of hearing and there are disturbances of the bodily -health. There is generally mal-nutrition with dyspepsia and vague -neuralgic pains, often referred to the heart and intestines. Even at -this stage the patient may labour under delusions. These acute attacks -are of short duration and the patient apparently recovers, but not -uncommonly both hallucinations and delusions persist, although they may -be concealed. - -The second or delusional stage sets in very gradually. This is the stage -in which the patient most frequently comes under medical examination. -The appearance is always peculiar and unhealthy. The manner is unnatural -and may suggest a state of suspicion. The nutrition of the body is below -par, and the patient frequently complains of indefinite symptoms of -malaise referred to the heart and abdomen. The heart's action is often -weak and irregular, but beyond these symptoms there are no special -characteristic symptoms. - -Mentally there may be depression when the patient is sullen and -uncommunicative. It will be found, however, that he always suffers from -hallucinations. At first hallucinations of hearing are the most -prominent, but later all the special senses may be implicated. These -hallucinations constantly annoy the patient and are always more -troublesome at night. Voices make accusations through the walls, floors, -roofs or door. Faces appear at the window and make grimaces. Poisonous -gases are pumped into the room. Electricity, Rontgen rays and -marconigrams play through the walls. The food is poisoned or consists of -filth. In many cases symptoms of visceral discomfort are supposed to be -the result of nightly surgical operations or sexual assaults. All these -persecutions are ascribed to unknown persons or to some known person, -sect or class. Under the influence of these sensory disturbances the -patient may present symptoms of angry excitement, impulsive violence or -of carefully-thought-out schemes of revenge; but the self-control may be -such that although the symptoms are concealed the behaviour is peculiar -and unreasonable. It is not uncommon to find that such patients can -converse rationally and take an intelligent interest in their -environments, but the implication of the capacity of judgment is at once -apparent whenever the subject of the persecutions is touched upon. - -All cases of delusional insanity at this stage are dangerous and their -actions are not to be depended upon. Assaults are common, houses are set -on fire, threatening letters are written and accusations are made which -may lead to much worry and trouble before the true nature of the disease -is realized. - -This, the second or persecutory stage of delusional insanity, may -persist through life. The patient becomes gradually accustomed to the -sensory disturbances, or possibly a certain amount of mental -enfeeblement sets in which reduces the mental vigour. In other cases, -the disease goes on to what Magnan calls the third stage or stage of -grandiose delusions. The onset of this stage is in some cases gradual. -The patient, while inveighing against the persecutions, hints at a -possible cause. One man is an inventor and his enemies desire to deprive -him of the results of his inventions. Another is the rightful heir to a -peerage, of which he is to be deprived. Women frequently believe -themselves to be abducted princesses or heirs to the throne. Others of -both sexes, even more ambitious, assume divine attributes and proclaim -themselves Virgin Marys, Gabriels, Holy Ghosts and Messiahs. Cases are -recorded in which the delusions of grandeur were of sudden onset, the -patient going to bed persecuted and miserable and rising the following -morning elated and grandiose. In this stage the hallucinations persist -but appear to change in character and become pleasant. The king hears -that arrangements are being made for his coronation and waits quietly -for the event. The angel Gabriel sees visions in the heavens. The heirs -and heiresses read of their prospective movements in the court columns -of the daily papers and are much soothed thereby. In short, no delusion -is too grotesque and absurd for such patients to believe and express. - -Cases of delusional insanity never become demented in the true sense of -the word, but their mental state might be described as a dream in which -an imaginary existence obliterates the experiences of their past lives. - - _Treatment._--No treatment influences the course of the disease. - During the stage of persecution such patients are a danger to - themselves, as they not infrequently commit suicide, and to their - supposed persecutors, whom they frequently assault or otherwise annoy. - - - Katatonia. - -KATATONIA.--This disease, so called on account of the symptom of -muscular spasm or rigidity which is present during certain of its -stages, was first described and named by K. L. Kahlbaum in 1874. Many -British alienists refuse to accept katatonia as a distinct disease, but -as it has been accepted and further elaborated by such an authority as -E. Kraepelin reference to it cannot be avoided. - -Katatonia attacks women more frequently than men, and is essentially a -disease of adolescence, but typical cases occasionally occur in adults. -Hereditary predisposition is present in over 50% of the cases and is the -chief predisposing cause. Childbirth, worry, physical strain and mental -shocks are all advanced as secondary predisposing causes. The disease is -one of gradual onset, with loss of physical and mental energy. Probably -the earliest mental symptom is the onset of aural hallucinations. For -convenience of description the disease may be divided into (1) the stage -of onset; (2) the stage of stupor; (3) the stage of excitement. - -The symptoms of the stage of onset are disorders of the alimentary -tract, such as loss of appetite, vomiting after food and obstinate -constipation. The pulse is rapid, irregular and intermittent. The skin -varies between extreme dryness and drenching perspirations. In women the -menstrual function is suppressed. At uncertain intervals the skeletal -muscles are thrown into a condition of rigidity, but this symptom does -not occur invariably. The instincts of cleanliness are in abeyance, -owing to the mental state of the patient, and as a result these cases -are inclined to be wet and dirty in their habits. - -Mentally there is great confusion, vivid hallucinations, which -apparently come on at intervals and are of a terrifying nature, for the -patient often becomes frightened, endeavours to hide in corners or -escape by a window or door. A very common history of such a case prior -to admission is that the patient has attempted suicide by jumping out of -a window, the attempt being in reality an unconscious effort on the part -of the patient to escape from some imaginary danger. During these -attacks the skin pours with perspiration. The patient is oblivious to -his surroundings and is mentally inaccessible. In the intervals between -these attacks the patient may be conscious and capable of answering -simple questions. This acute stage, in which sleep is abolished, lasts -from a few days to four or six weeks and then, generally quite suddenly, -the patient passes into the state of stupor. In some cases a sharp -febrile attack accompanies the onset of the stupor, while in others this -symptom is absent; but in every case examined by Bruce during the acute -stage there was an increase in the number of the white blood corpuscles, -which, just prior to the onset of stupor, were sometimes enormously -increased; the increase being entirely due to multiplication of the -multinucleated or polymorphonuclear leucocytes. - -In the second or stuporose stage of the disease the symptoms are -characteristic. The patient lies in a state of apparent placidity, -generally with the eyes shut. Consciousness is never entirely abolished, -and many of the patients give unmistakable evidence that they understand -what is being said in their presence. Any effort at passive movement of -a limb immediately sets up muscular resistance, and throughout this -stage the sternomastoid and the abdominal muscles are more or less in a -state of over-tension, which is increased to a condition of rigidity if -the patient is interfered with in any way. This symptom of restiveness -or negativism is one of the characteristics of the disease. The patient -resists while being fed, washed, dressed and undressed, and even the -normal stimuli which in a healthy man indicate that the bladder or -rectum require to be emptied are resisted, so that the bladder may -become distended and the lower bowel has to be emptied by enemata. The -temperature is low, often subnormal, the pulse is small and weak, and -the extremities cold and livid. This symptom is probably due in some -part to spasm of the terminal arterioles. Mentally the symptoms are -negative. Though conscious, the patient cannot be got to speak and -apparently is oblivious to what is passing around. Upon recovery, -however, these cases can often recount incidents which occurred to them -during their illness, and may also state that they laboured under some -delusion. Coincidently with the onset of the stupor sleep returns, and -many cases sleep for the greater part of the twenty-four hours. The -duration of the stuporose state is very variable. In some cases it lasts -for weeks, in others for months or years, and may be the terminal stage -of the disease, the patient gradually sinking into dementia or making a -recovery. The third stage or stage of excitement comes on in many cases -during the stage of stupor: the stages overlap; while in others a -distinct interval of convalescence may intervene between the termination -of the stupor and the onset of the excitement. The excitement is -characterized by sudden impulsive actions, rhythmical repetition of -words and sounds (verbigeration), and by rhythmical movements of the -body or limbs, such as swaying the whole frame, nodding the head, -swinging the arms, or walking in circles. The patient may be absolutely -mute in this stage as in the stage of stupor. Others again are very -noisy, singing, shouting or abusive. The speech is staccato in character -and incoherent. Physically the patient, who often gains weight in the -stage of stupor, again becomes thin and haggard in appearance owing to -the incessant restlessness and sleeplessness which characterize the -stage of excitement. The patient may, during the stage of onset, die -through exhaustion, or accidentally and unconsciously commit suicide -usually by leaping from a window. During the stuporose stage symptoms of -tubercular disease of the lungs may commence. All the adolescent insane -are peculiarly liable to contract and die from tubercular disease. -Accidental suicide is also liable to occur during this stage. The stage -of excitement, if at all prolonged, invariably ends in dementia. -According to Kraepelin 13% of the cases recover, 27 make partial -recoveries, and 60% become more or less demented. - - _Treatment._--No treatment arrests or diverts the course of katatonia, - and the acute symptoms of the disease as they arise must be treated on - hospital principles. - - - Hebephrenia. - -HEBEPHRENIA.--This is a disease of adolescence (Gr. [Greek: hebe]) which -was first described by Hecker and Kahlbaum and more recently by -Kraepelin and other foreign workers. Hebephrenia is not yet recognized -by British alienists. The descriptions of the disease are indefinite and -confusing, but there are some grounds for the belief that such an entity -does exist, although it is probably more correct to say that as yet the -symptoms are very imperfectly understood. Hebephrenia is always a -disease of adolescence and never occurs during adult life. It attacks -women more frequently than men, and according to Kahlbaum hereditary -predisposition to insanity is present in over 50% of the cases attacked. -The onset of the disease is invariably associated with two symptoms. On -the physical side an arrested or delayed development and on the mental a -gradual failure of the power of attention and concentrated thought. The -onset of the condition is always gradual and the symptoms which first -attract attention are mental. The patient becomes restless, is unable to -settle to work, becomes solitary and peculiar in habits and sometimes -dissolute and mischievous. As the disease advances the patient becomes -more and more enfeebled, laughs and mutters to himself and wanders -aimlessly and without object. There is no natural curiosity, no interest -in life and no desire for occupation. Later, delusions may appear and -also hallucinations of hearing, and under their influence the patient -may be impulsive and violent. Physically the subjects are always badly -developed. The temperature is at times slightly elevated and at -intervals the white blood corpuscles are markedly increased. The -menstrual function in women is suppressed and both male and female cases -are addicted to masturbation. According to Kraepelin 5% of the cases -recover, 15% are so far relieved as to be able to live at home, but are -mentally enfeebled, the remaining 80% become hopelessly demented. The -patients who recover frequently show at the onset of their disease acute -symptoms, such as mild excitement, slightly febrile temperature and -quick pulse-rate. When recovery does take place there is marked -improvement in development. The subjects of hebephrenia are peculiarly -liable to tubercular infection and many die of phthisis. - - There is no special treatment for hebephrenia beyond attention to the - general health. - - - Traumatic Insanity. - -INSANITY FOLLOWING UPON INJURIES TO THE BRAIN, OR APOPLEXIES OR TUMOURS -OR ARTERIAL DEGENERATION. (a) _Traumatic Insanity._--Insanity following -blows on the head is divided into (1) the forms in which the insanity -immediately follows the accident; (2) the form in which there is an -intermediate prodromal stage characterized by strange conduct and -alteration in disposition; and (3) in which the mental symptoms occur -months or years after the accident, which can have at most but a remote -predisposing causal relation to the insanity. The cases which -immediately succeed injuries to the head are in all respects similar to -confusional insanity after operations or after fevers. There is -generally a noisy incoherent delirium, accompanied by hallucinations of -sight or of hearing, and fleeting unsystematized delusions. The physical -symptoms present all the features of severe nervous shock. - -In those cases in which there is an intervening prodromal condition, -with altered character and disposition, there is usually a more or less -severe accidental implication of the cortex cerebri, either by -depression of bone or local hemorrhage, or meningitic sub-inflammatory -local lesions. Most of the cases during the prodromal stage are sullen, -morose or suspicious, and indifferent to their friends and surroundings. -At the end of the prodromal stage there most usually occurs an attack of -acute mania of a furious impulsive kind. The cases which for many years -after injury are said to have remained sane will generally be found upon -examination and inquiry to exhibit symptoms of hereditary degeneration -or of acquired degeneracy, which may or may not be a consequence of the -accident. - -The most common site of vascular lesion is one of the branches of the -middle cerebral artery within the sylvian fissure, or of one of the -smaller branches of the same artery which go directly to supply the -chief basal ganglia. When an artery like the middle cerebral or one of -its branches becomes either through rupture or blocking of its lumen, -incapable of performing its function of supplying nutrition to important -cerebral areas, there ensues devitality of the nervous tissues, -frequently followed by softening and chronic inflammation. It is these -secondary changes which give rise to and maintain those peculiar mental -aberrations known as post-apoplectic insanity. - -Various characteristic physical symptoms, depending upon the seat of the -cerebral lesion, are met with in the course of this form of insanity. -These consist of paraplegias, hemiplegias and muscular contractures. -Speech defects are very common, being due either to the enfeebled mental -condition, to paralysis of the nerve supplying the muscles of the face -and tongue, or to aphasia caused by implication of those parts of the -cortex which are intimately associated with the faculty of speech. -Mental symptoms vary considerably in different cases and in accordance -with the seat and extent of the lesion. There is almost always present, -however, a certain degree of mental enfeeblement, accompanied by loss of -memory and of judgment, often by mental confusion. Another very general -mental symptom is the presence of emotionalism which leads the patient -to be affected either to tears or to laughter upon trifling and -inadequate occasions. - -Cerebral tumours do not necessarily produce insanity. Indeed it has been -computed that not one half of the cases become insane. When insanity -appears it is met with in all degrees varying from slight mental dulness -up to complete dementia, and from mere moral perversion up to the most -intense form of maniacal excitement. On the physical side the various -symptoms of cerebral tumour such as coma, ataxia, paralysis, headache, -vomiting, optic neuritis and epileptiform convulsions are met with. All -forms of so-called moral changes and of changes of disposition are met -with as mental symptoms and all the ordinary forms of insanity may occur -in varying intensity; but by far the most common mental change occurring -in connexion with cerebral tumour is a progressive enfeeblement of the -intelligence, unattended with any more harmful symptoms than mental -deterioration which ends in complete dementia. - - - Insanity due to Arterial Degeneration. - -(b) _Arterial Degeneration._--Arterial degeneration is a common cause of -mental impairment, especially of that form of mental affection known as -"Early" dementia. It also predisposes to embolism and thrombosis, which -often results in the paralytic and aphasic groups of nerve disturbance, -and which are always accompanied by more or less marked interference -with normal cerebral action. - -The commonest seat for atheroma of the cerebral vessels is the arteries -at the base of the brain and their main branches, especially the middle -cerebral. As a general rule the other arteries of the cerebrum are not -implicated to the same extent, although in a not inconsiderable number -of cases of the disease all the arteries of the brain may participate in -the change. When this is so, we obtain those definite symptoms of slowly -advancing dementia commencing in late middle life and ending in complete -dementia before the usual period for the appearance of senile dementia. -The same appearances are met with in certain patients who have attained -the age in which senile changes in the arteries are not unexpected. As a -rule atheroma in the cerebral vessels is but a part of a general -atheroma of all the arteries of the body. Atheroma is common after -middle life and increases in frequency with age. The chief causes are -syphilis, alcoholism, the gouty and rheumatic diatheses and above all -Bright's disease of the kidneys. Perhaps certain forms of Bright's -disease, owing to the tendency to raise the blood pressure, are of all -causes the most common. - -It is not easy to say to what extent, alone, the arteriosclerosis is -effectual in inducing the gradual failure of the mental powers, and to -what extent it is assisted in its operation by the action on the -brain-cells of the general toxic substances which give rise to the -arterial atheroma. In any case there can be no question that the gradual -mechanical diminution of the blood-supply to the cortex caused by the -occlusion of the lumen of the arteries is a factor of great importance -in the production of mental incapacity. - - - General Paralysis. - -GENERAL PARALYSIS OF THE INSANE (syn. General Paralysis, _dementia -paralytica_, progressive dementia) is a disease characterized by -symptoms of progressive degeneration of the central nervous system, more -particularly of the motor centres. The disease is almost invariably -fatal. Apparent recoveries do very occasionally occur, though this is -denied by the majority of alienists. The disease is in every case -associated with gradually advancing mental enfeeblement, and very -frequently is complicated by attacks of mental disease. - -General paralysis, which is a very common disease, was first recognized -in France; it was identified by J. E. D. Esquirol, and further described -and elaborated by A. L. J. Bayle, Delaye and J. L. Calmeil, the latter -giving it the name of _paralysie generale des alienes_. - -As first described by the earlier writers the disease was regarded as -being invariably associated with delusions of grandeur. At the present -day this description does not apply to the majority of cases admitted -into asylums. The change may be explained as being either due to an -alteration in the type of the disease, or more probably the disease is -better understood and more frequently diagnosed than formerly, the -diagnosis being now entirely dependent on the physical and not on the -mental symptoms. This latter may also be the explanation why general -paralysis is much more common at the present day in British asylums than -it was. The total death-rate from this disease in English and Scottish -asylums rose from 1321 in 1894 to 1795 in 1904. - -General paralysis attacks men much more frequently than women, and -occurs between the ages of 35 and 50 years. It is essentially a disease -of town life. In asylums which draw their patients from country -districts in Scotland and Ireland, the disease is rare, whereas in those -which draw their population from large cities the disease is extremely -common. - -Considerable diversity of opinion exists at present regarding the -causation of general paralysis. Hereditary predisposition admittedly -plays a very small part in its causation. There is, however, an almost -universal agreement that the disease is essentially the result of -toxaemia or poisoning, and that acquired or inherited syphilitic -infection is an important predisposing factor. A history of syphilitic -infection occurs in from 70 to 90% of the patients affected. At first it -was held that general paralysis was a late syphilitic manifestation, but -as it was found that no benefit followed the use of anti-syphilitic -remedies the theory was advanced that general paralysis was a secondary -auto-intoxication following upon syphilitic infection. The latest view -is that the disease is a bacterial invasion, to which syphilis, -alcoholism, excessive mental and physical strain, and a too exclusively -nitrogenous diet, only act as predisposing causes. This latter theory -has been recently advanced and elaborated by Ford Robertson and McRae of -Edinburgh. - -Whatever the cause of general paralysis may be, the disease is -essentially progressive in character, marked by frequent remissions and -so typical in its physical symptoms and pathology that we regard the -bacterial theory with favour, although we are far from satisfied that -the actual causative factor has as yet been discovered. - -For descriptive purposes the disease is most conveniently divided into -three stages,--called respectively the first, second and third,--but it -must be understood that no clear line of demarcation divides these -stages from one another. - -The onset of general paralysis is slow and gradual, and the earliest -symptoms may be either physical or mental. The disease may commence -either in the brain itself or the spinal cord may be primarily the seat -of lesion, the brain becoming affected secondarily. When the disease -originates in the spinal cord the symptoms are similar to those of -locomotor ataxia, and it is now believed that general paralysis and -locomotor ataxia are one and the same disease; in the one case the cord, -in the other the brain, being the primary seat of lesion. The early -physical symptoms are generally motor. The patient loses energy, readily -becomes tired, and the capacity for finely co-ordinated motor acts, such -as are required in playing games of skill, is impaired. Transient -attacks of partial paralysis of a hand, arm, leg or one side of the -body, or of the speech centre are not uncommon. In a few cases the -special senses are affected early and the patient may complain of -attacks of dimness of vision or impairment of hearing. Or the symptoms -may be purely mental and affect the highest and most recently acquired -attributes of man, the moral sense and the faculty of self-control. The -patient then becomes irritable, bursts into violent passions over -trifles, changes in character and habits, frequently takes alcohol to -excess and behaves in an extravagant, foolish manner. Theft is often -committed in this stage and the thefts are characterized by an open, -purposeless manner of commission. The memory is impaired and the patient -is easily influenced by others, that is to say he becomes facile. In -other cases a wild attack of sudden excitement, following upon a period -of restlessness and sleeplessness may be the first symptom which -attracts attention. Whatever the mode of onset the physical symptoms -which characterize the disease come on sooner or later. The speech is -slurred and the facial muscles lose their tone, giving the face a -flattened expression. The muscular power is impaired, the gait is -straddling and the patient sways on turning. All the muscles of the -body, but particularly those of the tongue, upper lip and hands, which -are most highly innervated, present the symptom of fine fibrillary -tremors. The pupils become irregular in outline, often unequal in size -and either one or both fail to react normally to the stimuli of light, -or of accommodation for near or distant vision. - -As the disease advances there is greater excitability and a tendency to -emotionalism. In classical cases the general exaltation of ideas becomes -so great as to lead the patient to the commission of insanely -extravagant acts, such as purchases of large numbers of useless -articles, or of lands and houses far beyond his means, numerous -indiscriminate proposals of marriage, the suggestion of utterly absurd -commercial schemes, or attempts at feats beyond his physical powers. The -mental symptoms, in short, are very similar to those of the elevated -stage of manic-depressive insanity. - -Delusions of the wildest character may also be present. The patient may -believe himself to be in possession of millions of money, to be -unsurpassed in strength and agility, to be a great and overruling -genius, and the recipient of the highest honours. This grandiose -condition is by no means present in every case and is not in itself -diagnostic of the disease. But mental facility, placid contentment, -complete loss of judgment and affection for family and friends, with -impaired memory, are symptoms universally present. As the disease -advances the motor symptoms become more prominent. The patient has great -difficulty in writing, misses letters out of words, words out of -sentences, and writes in a large laboured hand. The expression becomes -fatuous. The speech is difficult and the facial muscles are thrown into -marked tremors whenever any attempt at speech is made. The voice changes -in timbre and becomes high-pitched and monotonous. The gait is weak and -uncertain and the reflexes are exaggerated. In the first stage the -patient, through restlessness and sleeplessness, becomes thin and -haggard. As the second stage approaches sleep returns, the patient lays -on flesh and becomes puffy and unhealthy in appearance. The mental -symptoms are marked by greater facility and enfeeblement, while the -paralysis of all the muscles steadily advances. The patient is now -peculiarly liable to what are called congestive seizures or epileptiform -attacks. The temperature rises, the face becomes flushed and the skin -moist. Twitchings are noticed in a hand or arm. These twitchings -gradually spread until they may involve the whole body. The patient is -now unconscious, bathed in perspiration, which is offensive. The bowels -and bladder empty themselves reflexly or become distended, and bedsores -are very liable to form over the heels, elbows and back. Congestive -seizures frequently last for days and may prove fatal or, on the other -hand, the patient may have recurrent attacks and finally die of -exhaustion or some accidental disease, such as pneumonia. In the second -stage of the disease the patient eats greedily, and as the food is -frequently swallowed unmasticated, choking is not an uncommon accident. -The special senses of taste and smell are also much disordered. We have -seen a case of general paralysis, in the second stage drink a glass of -quinine and water under the impression that he was drinking whisky. - -The third stage of the disease is characterized by sleeplessness and -rapid loss of body weight. Mentally the patient becomes quite demented. -On the physical side the paralysis advances rapidly, so that the patient -becomes bedridden and speechless. Death may occur as the result of -exhaustion, or a congestive seizure, or of some intercurrent illness. - -The duration of the disease is between eighteen months and three years, -although it has been known to persist for seven. - - No curative measures have so far proved of any avail in the treatment - of general paralysis. - - - Epileptic Insanity. - -INSANITY ASSOCIATED WITH EPILEPSY.--The term "epileptic insanity," which -has for many years been in common use, is now regarded as a misnomer. -There is in short no such disease as epileptic insanity. A brain, -however, which is so unstable as to exhibit the sudden discharges of -nervous energy which are known as epileptic seizures, is prone to be -attacked by insanity also, but there is no form of mental disease -exclusively associated with epilepsy. Many epileptics suffer from the -disease for a lifetime and never exhibit symptoms of insanity. The -majority of patients, however, who suffer from epilepsy are liable to -exhibit certain mental symptoms which are regarded as characteristic of -the disease. Some suffer from recurrent attacks of depression, -ill-humour and irritability, which may readily pass into violence under -provocation. Others are emotionally fervid in religious observances, -though sadly deficient in the practice of the religious life. A third -class are liable to attacks of semi-consciousness which may either -follow upon or take the place of a seizure, and during these attacks -actions are performed automatically and without consciousness on the -part of the patient. - -When epileptics do become insane the insanity is generally one of the -forms of mania. Either the patient suffers from sudden furious attacks -of excitement in which consciousness is entirely abolished, or the mania -is of the type of the elevated stage of folie circulaire -(manic-depressive insanity) and alternates with periods of deep -depression. In the elevated period the patient shows exaggerated -self-esteem, with passionate outbursts of anger, and periods of -religious emotionalism. While in the stage of depression the patient is -often actively suicidal. - -Epileptic patients who suffer from recurrent attacks of delirious mania -are liable to certain nervous symptoms which indicate that not only are -the motor centres in the brain damaged, but that the motor tracts in the -spinal cord are also affected. The gait becomes awkward and laboured, -the feet being lifted high off the ground and the legs thrown forward -with a jerk. The tendon reflexes are at the same time exaggerated. These -symptoms indicate descending degeneration of the motor tracts of the -cord. - -If the mental attacks partake of the character of elevation or -depression the mental functions suffer more than the motor. These -patients, in course of time, become delusional, enfeebled and childish, -and in some cases the enfeeblement ends in complete dementia of a very -degraded type. - -Where insanity is superadded to epilepsy the prognosis is unfavourable. - - - Toxic Insanity. - -INSANITY ASSOCIATED WITH OR CAUSED BY ALCOHOLIC AND DRUG -INTOXICATION.--The true role of alcoholic indulgence in the production -of insanity is at present very imperfectly understood. In many cases the -alcoholism is merely a symptom of the mental disease--a result, not a -cause. In others, alcohol seems to act purely as a predisposing factor, -breaking down the resistance of the patient and disordering the -metabolism to such an extent that bodily disorders are engendered which -produce well-marked and easily recognized mental symptoms. In others, -again, alcohol itself may possibly act as a direct toxin, disordering -the functions of the brain. In the latter class may be included the -nervous phenomena of drunkenness, which commence with excitement and -confusion of ideas, and terminate in stupor with partial paralysis of -all the muscles. Certain brains which, either through innate weakness or -as the result of direct injury, have become peculiarly liable to toxic -influences, under the influence of even moderate quantities of alcohol -pass into a state closely resembling delirious mania, a state commonly -spoken of as _mania a potu_. - -_Delirium Tremens._--Delirium tremens is the form of mental disorder -most commonly associated with alcoholic indulgence in the lay mind. -Considerable doubt exists, however, as to whether the disease is -directly or secondarily the result of alcoholic poisoning. Much -evidence exists in favour of the latter supposition. Delirium tremens -may occur in persons who have never presented the symptom of -drunkenness, or it may occur weeks after the patient has ceased to drink -alcohol, and in such cases the actual exciting cause of the disease may -be some accidental complication, such as a severe accident, a surgical -operation, or an attack of pneumonia or erysipelas. - -The early symptoms are always physical. The stomach is disordered. The -desire for food is absent, and there may be abdominal pain and vomiting. -The hands are tremulous, and the patient is unable to sleep. At this -stage the disease may be checked by the administration of an aperient -and some sedative such as bromide and chloral. The mental symptoms vary -greatly in their severity. In a mild case one may talk to the patient -for some time before discovering any mental abnormality, and then it -will be found that confusion exists regarding his position and the -identity of those around him, while the memory is also impaired for -recent events. Hallucinations of sight and hearing may be present. The -hallucinations of sight may be readily induced by pressure upon the -eyeballs. If the symptoms are more acute they usually come on suddenly, -generally during the evening or night. The patient becomes excited, -suffers from vivid hallucinations of sight and hearing which produce -great fear, and these hallucinations may be so engrossing as to render -him quite oblivious to the environment. The hallucinations of sight are -characterized by the false sense impressions taking the forms of animals -or insects which surround or menace the patient. Visions may also appear -in the form of flames, goblins or fairies. The hallucinations of hearing -rarely consist of voices, but are more of the nature of whistlings, and -ringings in the ears, shouts, groans or screams which seem to fill the -air, or emanate from the walls or floors of the room. All the special -senses may be affected, but sight and hearing are always implicated. -Delirium tremens is a short-lived disease, generally running its course -in from four to five days. Recovery is always preceded by the return of -the power of sleep. - - The patient must be carefully nursed and constantly watched, as - homicidal and suicidal impulses are liable to occur under the - terrifying influence of the hallucinations. The food should be - concentrated and fluid, given frequently and in small quantities. - -_Chronic Alcoholic Insanity._--Almost any mental disorder may be -associated with chronic alcoholism, but the most characteristic mental -symptoms are delusions of suspicion and persecution which resemble very -closely those of the persecution stage of systematized delusional -insanity. The appearance of the patient is bloated and heavy; the tongue -is furred and tremulous, and symptoms of gastric and intestinal disorder -are usually present. The gait is awkward and dragging, owing to the -partial paralysis of the extensor muscles of the lower limbs. All the -skeletal muscles are tremulous, particularly those of the tongue, lips -and hands. The common sensibility of the skin is disordered so that the -patient complains of sensory disturbances, such as tinglings and -prickings of the skin, which may be interpreted as electric shocks. In -some cases the mental symptoms may be concealed, but delusions and -hallucinations, particularly hallucinations of sight and hearing, are -very commonly present. The delusions are often directly the outcome of -the physical state; the disordered stomach suggesting poisoning, and the -disturbances of the special senses being interpreted as various forms of -persecution. The patient hears voices shouting foul abuse at him; all -his thoughts are read and repeated aloud; electric shocks are sent -through him at night; gases are pumped into his room. Sexual delusions -are very common and frequently affect marital relations by arousing -suspicions regarding the fidelity of wife or husband; or the delusions -may be more gross and take the form of belief in actual attempts at -sexual mutilations. The memory is always impaired. - -Patients who in addition to chronic alcoholism are also insane are -always dangerous and liable to sudden and apparently causeless outbursts -of violence. - -_Dipsomania._--Dipsomania is a condition characterized by recurrent or -periodic attacks of an irresistible craving for stimulants. The general -bodily condition has a great deal to do with the onset of the attack, -that is to say, the patient is more liable to an attack when the bodily -condition is low than when the health is good. The attacks may be -frequent or recur at very long intervals. They generally last for a few -weeks, and may be complicated by symptoms of excitement, delusions or -hallucinations. - - _Treatment_ consists in attention to the general health between - attacks, with the use of such tonics as arsenic and strychnine. During - the attack the patient should be confined to bed and treated with - sedatives. - -_Morphinism._--The morphia habit is most commonly contracted by persons -of a neurotic constitution. The mental symptoms associated with the -disease may arise either as the result of an overdose, when the patient -suffers from hallucinations, confusion and mild delirium, frequently -associated with vomiting. On the other hand, mental symptoms very -similar to those of delirium tremens may occur as the result of suddenly -cutting off the supply of morphia in a patient addicted to the habit. -Finally, chronic morphia intoxication produces mental symptoms very -similar to those of chronic alcoholism. This latter condition, -characterized by delusions of persecution, mental enfeeblement and loss -of memory, is hopelessly incurable. The patient is always thin and -anaemic on account of digestive disturbances. There is weakness or -slight paralysis of the lower limbs, and the skeletal muscles are -tremulous. - - _Treatment._--The quantity of the drug used must be gradually reduced - until it is finally discontinued, and during treatment the patient - must be confined to bed. - - - Senile Insanity. - -SENILE INSANITY.--States of mental enfeeblement are always the result of -failure of development or of structural changes in the cortical grey -matter of the brain. If the enfeeblement is due to failure of -development or brain damage occurring in early life, it is spoken of as -_idiocy_ or imbecility. Every form of insanity which occurs after a -certain period of life is apt to be regarded by some observers as -senile, but although the failing mental power may colour the character -of the symptoms it cannot be regarded as correct to designate, for -instance, a recurrent form of mania as senile merely because it -necessarily manifests itself in a subject who has lived into the senile -period. On the other hand, many persons first suffer from mental -derangement at an advanced period of life without at the same time -manifesting any marked failure of mental power, while others only -manifest their insanity as a result of the decay of their mental -faculties. - -From this statement it will be seen that senile insanity is a complex of -different conditions, some of them accompanied by dementia, others -without dementia. - -_Senile Dementia_ is distinguished occasionally into "senile" properly -so called, and "presenile" dementia, which supervenes at middle age or -even earlier. - -The occurrence of dementia is sometimes preceded by an acute -hallucinatory phase, accompanied by mania or melancholia; but as a -general rule, in the presenile cases, by neurasthenia, indifference, and -mental apathy which extends to a disregard for the ordinary conventions -and the means of subsistence. - -It has pithily been remarked that the age of a man is the age of his -blood-vessels. The two conditions of senile and presenile dementia -cannot therefore be separated scientifically. From a clinical point of -view, however, the two are distinguishable in so far as their symptoms -are concerned, for the presenile cases are more complete and the process -of dementia achieves its consummation earlier and quicker, while in the -senile the gradual disease of the arteries and the slow decay of the -mental faculties offer a different background for the manifestation of -mental symptoms. Moreover, the senile patients more frequently present -symptoms of recurrent attacks of acute insanity, a more pronounced -emotionalism, and a greater tendency to restlessness at night. The -presenile cases, on the other hand, except at the commencement of their -malady, are usually free from acute and troublesome symptoms and present -chiefly an apathetic indifference and irresponsiveness on the mental -side, and on the physical side a neurasthenic and enfeebled bodily -state. In both conditions memory is greatly impaired. - -Added to senile dementia there is often found a condition of mania or -melancholia or even of systematized delusional insanity. The chief -symptoms of the maniacal attacks are the great motor restlessness and -excitement, which are worst during the night time. Sleep is almost -always seriously disturbed, and the patients rapidly become exhausted -unless carefully nursed and tended. The actions of senile maniacs are -often puerile and foolish, and they may exhibit impulses of a homicidal, -suicidal or sexual character. The melancholic cases are also extremely -restless, and their emotion is loudly expressed in an uncontrollable -manner. They often have delusions of persecution. Their cries and groans -have an automatic character, as if the patient, though compelled to -utter them, did not experience the mental pain which he expressed. They -also, many of them, eat their food ravenously, although a few -obstinately refuse it. The senile delusional cases may manifest any of -the classical forms of paranoia described above, but their delusions are -of a rudimentary and unfinished type. The most common of all senile -delusions is that they are being robbed. They therefore often hide their -small valuables in corners and out-of-the-way places, and as their -memories are very defective they are afterwards unable to find them. -Others, who live alone, barricade their doors and try to prevent any one -entering for fear of thieves. Delusions of ambition in senile subjects -are usually of a very improbable and childish character. Hallucinations -are generally present in the senile delusional cases. - - The _treatment_ of senile insanity is from the medical point of view - not hopeful; it resolves itself largely into instructions for careful - nursing, suitable feeding, and the protection of the patient from all - the physical dangers to which he may be exposed. - - _Statistics._--The statistics of lunacy are merely of interest from a - sociological point of view; for under that term are comprised all - forms of insanity. It is needless to produce tables illustrative of - the relative numbers of lunatics in the various countries of Europe, - the systems of registration being so unequal in their working as to - afford no trustworthy basis of comparison. - - Even in Great Britain, where the systems are more perfect than in any - other country, the tables published in the Blue Books of the three - countries can only be regarded as approximately correct, the - difficulty of registering all cases of lunacy being insuperable. On - the 1st of January 1907, according to the returns made to the offices - of the Commissioners in Lunacy, the numbers of lunatics stood thus on - the registers:-- - - +------------------+--------+----------+---------+ - | | Males. | Females. | Totals. | - +------------------+--------+----------+---------+ - | England and Wales| 57,176 | 66,812 | 123,988 | - | Scotland | 8,594 | 8,999 | 17,593 | - | Ireland | 12,254 | 11,300 | 23,554 | - +------------------+--------+----------+---------+ - | Gross total | 78,024 | 87,111 | 165,135 | - +------------------+--------+----------+---------+ - - These figures show the ratio of lunatics to 100,000 of the population - to be 354 in England and Wales, 312 in Scotland, and 538 in Ireland. - - _Numbers of Lunatics on the 1st of January of the years 1857-1907 - inclusive, according to Returns made to the Offices of the - Commissioners in Lunacy for England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland._ - - +------+---------+----------+----------+ - | | England | | | - |Years.| and | Scotland.| Ireland. | - | | Wales. | | | - +------+---------+----------+----------+ - | 1858 | .. | 5,823 | .. | - | 1859 | 36,762 | 6,072 | .. | - | 1860 | 38,058 | 6,273 | .. | - | 1861 | 39,647 | 6,327 | .. | - | 1862 | 41,129 | 6,398 | 8,055 | - | 1863 | 43,118 | 6,386 | 7,862 | - | 1864 | 44,795 | 6,422 | 8,272 | - | 1865 | 45,950 | 6,533 | 8,845 | - | 1866 | 47,648 | 6,730 | 8,964 | - | 1867 | 49,086 | 6,888 | 8,962 | - | 1868 | 51,000 | 7,055 | 9,086 | - | 1869 | 53,177 | 7,310 | 9,454 | - | 1870 | 54,713 | 7,571 | 10,082 | - | 1871 | 56,755 | 7,729 | 10,257 | - | 1872 | 58,640 | 7,849 | 10,767 | - | 1873 | 60,296 | 7,982 | 10,958 | - | 1874 | 60,027 | 8,069 | 11,326 | - | 1875 | 63,793 | 8,225 | 11,583 | - | 1876 | 64,916 | 8,509 | 11,777 | - | 1877 | 66,636 | 8,862 | 12,123 | - | 1878 | 68,538 | 9,097 | 12,380 | - | 1879 | 69,885 | 9,386 | 12,585 | - | 1880 | 71,191 | 9,624 | 12,819 | - | 1881 | 73,113 | 10,012 | 13,062 | - | 1882 | 74,842 | 10,355 | 13,444 | - | 1883 | 76,765 | 10,510 | 13,882 | - | 1884 | 78,528 | 10,739 | 14,088 | - | 1885 | 79,704 | 10,918 | 14,279 | - | 1886 | 80,156 | 11,187 | 14,590 | - | 1887 | 80,891 | 11,309 | 14,702 | - | 1888 | 82,643 | 11,609 | 15,263 | - | 1889 | 84,340 | 11,954 | 15,685 | - | 1890 | 86,067 | 12,302 | 16,159 | - | 1891 | 86,795 | 12,595 | 16,251 | - | 1892 | 87,848 | 12,799 | 16,688 | - | 1893 | 89,822 | 13,058 | 17,124 | - | 1894 | 92,067 | 13,300 | 17,276 | - | 1895 | 94,081 | 13,852 | 17,665 | - | 1896 | 96,446 | 14,093 | 18,357 | - | 1897 | 99,365 | 14,500 | 18,966 | - | 1898 | 101,972 | 14,906 | 19,590 | - | 1899 | 105,086 | 15,399 | 20,304 | - | 1900 | 106,611 | 15,663 | 20,863 | - | 1901 | 107,944 | 15,899 | 21,169 | - | 1902 | 110,713 | 16,288 | 21,630 | - | 1903 | 113,964 | 16,658 | 22,138 | - | 1904 | 117,199 | 16,894 | 22,794 | - | 1905 | 119,829 | 17,241 | 22,996 | - | 1906 | 121,979 | 17,450 | 23,365 | - | 1907 | 123,988 | 17,593 | 23,554 | - +------+---------+----------+----------+ - - There is thus an increased ratio in England and Wales of lunatics to - the population (which in 1859 was 19,686,701, and in 1907 was - estimated at 34,945,600) of 186.8 per 100,000 as against 354.8, and in - Scotland of 157 as against 312 per 100,000. The Irish figures on the - same basis have increased from 130.9 in 1862 to 538.1 in 1907. The - publication of these figures has given rise to the question whether - lunacy has actually become more prevalent during the last twenty - years, whether there is real increase of the disease. There is a - pretty general consent of all authorities that if there has been an - increase it is very slight, and that the apparent increase is due, - first to the improved systems of registration, and secondly (a far - more powerful reason) to the increasing tendency among all classes, - and especially among the poorer class, to recognize the less - pronounced forms of mental disorder as being of the nature of - insanity. Thirdly, the grant of four shillings per week which in 1876 - was made by parliament from imperial sources for the maintenance of - pauper lunatics has induced parochial authorities to regard as - lunatics a large number of weak-minded paupers, and to force them into - asylums in order to obtain the benefit of the grant and to relieve the - rates. These views receive support from the fact that the increase of - private patients, i.e. patients who are provided for out of their own - funds or those of the family, has advanced in a vastly smaller ratio. - In their case the increase, small as it is, can be accounted for by - the growing disinclination on the part of the community to tolerate - irregularities of conduct due to mental disease. And again, careful - inquiry has failed to show a proportional increase of admissions into - asylums of such well-marked forms as general paralysis, puerperal - mania, &c. The main cause of the registered increase of lunatics is - thus to be sought for in the improved registration, and parochial and - family convenience. If there is an actual increase, and there is - reason for believing that there is a slight actual increase, it is due - to the tendency of the population to gravitate towards towns and - cities, where the conditions of health are inferior to those of rural - life, and where there is therefore a greater disposition to disease of - all kinds. - - The futility of seeking for accurate figures bearing on the relative - number of lunatics in other countries is illustrated by the tables set - forth in a report by the United States Census Bureau. They show that - the number of registered lunatics in 1903 was 150,151; in 1890, - 74,028; and in 1880, 40,942. An attempt was made in 1890 to estimate - the number of insane persons outside of hospitals, which was stated to - be 32,457. In 1903 no such attempt was made, as it was admitted that - so many sources of fallacy existed as to render it useless. Thus the - mere statement that of every 100,000 of the population (calculated at - 80,000,000) 186.2 were registered as insane is of no value. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following are systematic works: Bucknill and Tuke, - _Psychological Medicine_ (4th edition, 1879); Griesinger, _On Mental - Diseases_ (New Sydenham Society, 1867); Maudsley, _The Pathology of - Mind_ (1895); Bevan Lewis, _A Text-Book of Mental Diseases_ (1899); - Clouston, _Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases_ (1892); Kraepelin, - _Psychiatrie_ (1893); Krafft-Ebing, _Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie_ (1893); - Regis, _A Practical Manual of Mental Medicine_ (London, 1895); Magnan, - _Lecons cliniques sur les maladies mentales_ (1897); Mendil, - _Leitfaden der Psychiatrie_ (1902); Mercier, _A Text-Book of Insanity_ - (1902); Lewis C. Bruce, _Studies in Clinical Psychiatry_ (1906); - Macpherson, _Mental Affections_ (1899); Brower-Bannister, _Practical - Manual of Insanity_ (1902); Ford Robertson, _Text-Book of Pathology in - Relation to Mental Diseases_ (1900). (J. B. T.; J. Mn.; L. C. B.) - - -II. LEGAL ASPECTS - -The effect of insanity upon responsibility and civil capacity has been -recognized at an early period in every system of law. - -_Roman Law._--In the Roman jurisprudence its consequences were very -fully developed, and the provisions and terminology of that system have -largely affected the subsequent legal treatment of the subject. Its -leading principles were simple and well marked. The insane person having -no intelligent will, and being thus incapable of consent or voluntary -action, could acquire no right and incur no responsibility by his own -acts (see Sohm's _Inst. Roman Law_, 3rd ed. pp. 216, 217, 219); his -person and property were placed after inquiry by the magistrate under -the control of a curator, who was empowered and bound to manage the -property of the lunatic on his behalf (Sohm, p. 513; Hunter, _Roman -Law_, pp. 732-735). The different terms by which the insane were known, -such as _demens_, _furiosus_, _fatuus_, although no doubt signifying -different types of insanity, did not in Roman law infer any difference -of legal treatment. They were popular names, which all denoted the -complete deprivation of reason. - -_Medieval Law._--During the middle ages the insane were little -protected. Their legal acts were annulled, and their property placed -under control, but little or no attempt was made to supervise their -personal treatment. In England the wardship of idiots and lunatics, -which was annexed before the reign of Edward II. to the king's -prerogative, had regard chiefly to the control of their lands and -estates, and was only gradually elaborated into the systematic control -of their persons and property now exercised under the jurisdiction in -lunacy. Those whose means were insignificant were left to the care of -their relations or to charity. In criminal law the plea of insanity was -unavailing except in extreme cases. About the beginning of the 19th -century a very considerable change commenced. The public attention was -strongly attracted to the miserable condition of the insane incarcerated -in asylums without any efficient check or inspection; and at the same -time the medical knowledge of insanity entered on a new phase. The -possibility and advantages of a better treatment of insanity were -illustrated by eminent physicians, Philippe Pinel in France, H. Tuke in -England, Bond, B. Rush and I. Ray in the United States; its physical -origin became generally accepted; its mental phenomena were more -carefully observed, and its relation was established to other mental -conditions. - -_Modern Law._--From this period we date the commencement of legislation -such as that known in England as the Lunacy Acts, which aimed at the -regulation and control of all constraint applied to the insane. -Hitherto, the criteria of insanity had been very rude, and the evidence -was generally of a loose and popular character; but, whenever it was -fully recognized that insanity was a disease with which physicians who -had studied the subject were peculiarly conversant, expert evidence -obtained increased importance, and from this time became prominent in -every case. The newer medical views of insanity were thus brought into -contact with the old narrow conception of the law courts, and a -controversy arose in the field of criminal law which in England, at -least, still continues. - -_Relations between Insanity and Law._--The fact of insanity may operate -in law--(1) by excluding responsibility for crime; (2) by invalidating -legal acts; (3) by affording ground for depriving the insane person by a -legal process of the control of his person and property; or (4) by -affording ground for putting him under restraint. - -_Legal Terminology._--Before proceeding, however, to deal with these -matters in succession, it may be desirable to say something with regard -to the chief legal terms respecting persons suffering under mental -disabilities. The subject is now of less importance than formerly, -because the modern tendency of the law is to determine the capacity or -responsibility of a person alleged to be insane by considering it with -reference to the particular matter or class of matters which brings his -mental condition _sub judice_. But the literature of the law of lunacy -cannot be clearly understood unless the distinctions between the -different terms employed to describe the insane are kept in view. The -term _non compos mentis_ is as old as the statute _De praerogativa -regis_ (1325), and is used sometimes, as in that statute, to indicate a -species contrasted with idiot, sometimes (e.g. in Co. Litt. 246 (b)) as -a genus, and afterwards, chiefly in statutes relating to the insane, in -connexion with the terms "idiot" and "lunatic" as a word _ejusdem -generis_. The word "idiot" (Gr. [Greek: idios], a private person, one -who does not hold any public office, and [Greek: idiotes], an ignorant -and illiterate person) appears in the statute _De praerogativa regis as -fatuus naturalis_, and it is placed in contradistinction to _non compos -mentis_. The "idiot" is defined by Sir E. Coke (4 Rep. 124 (b)) as one -who from his nativity, by a perpetual infirmity, is non compos mentis, -and Sir M. Hale (_Pleas of the Crown_, i. 29) describes idiocy as -"fatuity a _nativitate vel dementia naturalis_." In early times various -artificial criteria of idiocy were suggested. Fitzherbert's test was the -capacity of the alleged idiot to count twenty pence, or tell his age, or -who were his father and mother (_De natura brevium_, 233). Swinburne -proposed as a criterion of capacity, inter alia, to measure a yard of -cloth or name the days in the week (_Testaments_, 42). Hale propounded -the sounder view that "idiocy or not is a question of fact triable by -jury and sometimes by inspection" (_Pleas of the Crown_, i. 29). The -legal incidents of idiocy were at one time distinct in an important -particular from those of lunacy. Under the statute _De praerogativa -regis_ the king was to have the rents and profits of an idiot's lands to -his own use during the life of the idiot, subject merely to an -obligation to provide him with necessaries. In the case of the lunatic -the king was a trustee, holding his lands and tenements for his benefit -and that of his family. It was on account of this difference in the -legal consequences of the two states that on inquisitions distinct -writs, one _de idiota inquirendo_, the other _de lunatico inquirendo_, -were framed for each of them. But juries avoided finding a verdict of -idiocy wherever they could, and the writ _de idiota inquirendo_ fell -into desuetude. A further blow was struck at the distinction when it -came to be recognized even by the legislature (see the Idiots Act 1886) -that idiots are capable of being educated and trained, and it was -practically abolished when the Lunacy Regulation Act 1862, in a -provision reproduced in substance in the Lunacy Act 1890, limited the -evidence admissible in proof of unsoundness of mind on an inquisition -(without special leave of the Master trying the case) to a period of two -years before the date of the inquiry, and raised a uniform issue, viz. -the state of mind of the alleged lunatic at the time when the -inquisition is held. - -The term "lunatic," derived from the Latin _luna_ in consequence of the -notion that the moon had an influence on mental disorders,[1] does not -appear in the statute-book till the time of Henry VIII. (1541). Coke -defines a lunatic as a "person who has sometimes his understanding and -sometimes not, _qui gaudet lucidis intervallis_, and therefore he is -called _non compos mentis_ so long as he has not understanding" (Co. -Litt. 247 (a), 4 Rep. 124 (b)). Hale defines "lunacy" as "interpolated" -(i.e. intermittent) _dementia accidentalis vel adventitia_, whether -total or (a description, it will be observed, of "partial insanity") -_quoad hoc vel illud_ (_Pleas of the Crown_, i. 29). In modern times, -the word "lunacy" has lost its former precise signification. It is -employed sometimes in the strict sense, sometimes in contradistinction -to "idiocy" or "imbecility"; once at least--viz. in the Lunacy Act -1890--as including "idiot"; and frequently in conjunction with the -vague terms "unsound mind" (non-sane memory) and "insane." Section 116 -of the Lunacy Act 1890 has by implication extended the meaning of the -term lunacy so as to include for certain purposes the incapacity of a -person to manage his affairs through mental infirmity arising from -disease or age. "Imbecility" is a state of mental weakness "between the -limits of absolute idiocy on the one hand and of perfect capacity on the -other" (see 1 Haggard, _Eccles. Rep._ p. 401). - - - Macnaughton's Case. - -1. _The Criminal Responsibility of the Insane._--The law as to the -criminal responsibility of the insane has pursued in England a curious -course of development. The views of Coke and Hale give the best -exposition of it in the 17th century. Both were agreed that in criminal -causes the act and wrong of a madman shall not be imputed to him; both -distinguished, although in different language, between _dementia -naturalis_ (or a _nativitate_) and _dementia accidentalis_ or -_adventitia_; and the main points in which the writings of Hale mark an -advance on those of Coke are in the elaboration by the former of the -doctrine of "partial insanity," and his adoption of the level of -understanding of a child of fourteen years of age as the test of -responsibility in criminal cases (_Pleas of the Crown_, i. 29, 30; and -see Co. 4 _Rep._ 124 (b)). In the 18th century a test, still more -unsatisfactory than this "child of fourteen" theory, with its -identification of "healthy immaturity" with "diseased maturity" (Steph. -_Hist. Crim. Law_, ii. 150), was prescribed. On the trial of Edward -Arnold in 1723 for firing at and wounding Lord Onslow, Mr Justice Tracy -told the jury that "a prisoner, in order to be acquitted on the ground -of insanity, must be a man that is totally deprived of his understanding -and memory, and doth not know what he is doing, no more than an infant, -than a brute or wild beast." In the beginning of the 19th century a -fresh statement of the test of criminal responsibility in mental disease -was attempted. On the trial of Hadfield for shooting at George III. in -Drury Lane Theatre on 15th May 1800, Lord Chief Justice Kenyon charged -the jury in the following terms: "If a man is in a deranged state of -mind at the time, he is not criminally answerable for his acts; but the -material part of the case is whether at the very time when the act was -committed the man's mind was sane." The practical effect of this ruling, -had it been followed, would have been to make the question of the -amenability of persons alleged to be insane to the criminal law very -much one of fact, to be answered by juries according to the particular -circumstances of each case, and without being aided or embarrassed by -any rigid external standard. But in 1812, on the trial of Bellingham for -the murder of Mr Perceval, the First Lord of the Treasury, Sir James -Mansfield propounded yet another criterion of criminal responsibility in -mental disease, viz. whether a prisoner has, at the time of committing -an offence, a sufficient degree of capacity to distinguish between good -and evil. The objection to this doctrine consisted in the fact, to which -the writings of Continental and American jurists soon afterwards began -to give prominence, that there are very many lunatics whose general -ideas on the subject of right and wrong are quite unexceptionable, but -who are yet unable, in consequence of delusions, to perceive the -wrongness of particular acts. Sir James Mansfield's statement of the law -was discredited in the case (4 _State Tri._ (n.s.) 847; 10 Cl. and Fin. -200) of Daniel Macnaughton, who was tried in March 1843, before Chief -Justice Tindal, Mr Justice Williams and Mr Justice Coleridge, for the -murder of Mr Drummond, the private secretary of Sir Robert Peel. Mr -(afterwards Lord Chief Justice) Cockburn, who defended the prisoner, -used Hale's doctrine of partial insanity as the foundation of the -defence, and secured an acquittal, Chief Justice Tindal telling the jury -that the question was whether Macnaughton was capable of distinguishing -right from wrong _with respect to the act with which he stood charged_. -This judicial approval of the doctrine of partial insanity formed the -subject of an animated debate in the House of Lords, and in the end -certain questions were put by that House to the judges, and answered by -Chief Justice Tindal on behalf of all his colleagues except Mr Justice -Maule, who gave independent replies. The answers to those questions are -commonly called "The Rules in Macnaughton's case," and they still -nominally contain the law of England as to the criminal responsibility -of the insane. The points affirmed by the Rules that must be noted here -are the propositions that knowledge of the nature and quality of the -particular criminal act, at the time of its commission, is the test of -criminal responsibility, and that delusion is a valid exculpatory plea, -when, and only when, the fancies of the insane person, if they had been -facts, would have been so. The Rules in Macnaughton's case are open to -serious criticism. They ignore, at least on a literal interpretation, -those forms of mental disease which may, for the present purpose, be -roughly grouped under the heading "moral insanity," and in which the -moral faculties are more obviously deranged than the mental--the -affections and the will, rather than the reason, being apparently -disordered. The test propounded with reference to delusions has also -been strenuously attacked by medical writers, and especially by Dr -Maudsley in his work on _Responsibility in Mental Disease_, on the -ground that it first assumes a man to have a delusion in regard to a -particular subject, and then expects and requires him to reason sanely -upon it. It may be pointed out, however, that in thus localizing the -range of the immunity which insane delusion confers, the criminal law is -merely following the course which, _mutatis mutandis_, the civil law -has, with general acceptance, adopted in questions as to the contractual -and testamentary capacity of the insane. - -The Rules in Macnaughton's case have, as regards moral insanity, -undergone considerable modification. Soon after they were laid down, Sir -(then Mr) James Fitz-James Stephen, in an article in the _Juridical -Papers_, i. 67, on the policy of maintaining the existing law as to the -criminal responsibility of the insane, foreshadowed the view which he -subsequently propounded in his _History of the Criminal Law_, ii. 163, -that no man who was deprived by mental disease of the power of passing a -fairly rational judgment on the moral character of an act could be said -to "know" its nature and quality within the meaning of the Rules; and it -has in recent years been found possible in practice so to manipulate the -test of the criminal responsibility which they prescribed as to afford -protection to the accused in the by no means infrequent cases of -insanity which in its literal interpretation it would leave without -excuse. - -In Scotland the Rules in Macnaughton's case are recognized, but, as in -England, there is a tendency among judges to adopt a generous -construction of them. Mental unsoundness insufficient to bar trial, or -to exempt from punishment, may still, it is said, be present in a degree -which is regarded as reducing the offence from a higher to a lower -category,--a doctrine first practically applied in Scotland, it is -believed, in 1867 by Lord Deas; and the fact that a prisoner is of weak -or ill-regulated mind is often urged with success as a plea in -mitigation of punishment. The Indian Penal Code (Act XLV. of 1860, S 84) -expressly adopts the English test of criminal responsibility, but the -qualifications noted in the case of Scotland have received some measure -of judicial acceptance (see Mayne, _Crim. Law Ind._, 3rd ed., pp. -403-419; Nelson, _Ind. Pen. Code_, 3rd ed., pp. 135 et seq.). The Rules -in Macnaughton's case have also been adopted in substance in those -colonies which have codified the criminal law. The following typical -references may be given: 55 and 56 Vict. (Can.) c. 29, S 11; 57 Vict. -(N.Z.), No. 56 of 1893, S 23; No. 101 of 1888 (St Lucia), S 50; No. 5 of -1876 (Gold Coast), S 49 (b); No. 2 of 1883, art. 77 (Ceylon); No. 4 of -1871, art. 84 (Straits Settlements). On the other hand, a departure -towards a recognition of "moral insanity" is made by the Queensland -Criminal Code (No. 9 of 1899), S 27 of which provides that "a person is -not criminally responsible for an act" if at the time of doing it "he is -in such a state of mental disease ... as to deprive him ... of capacity -to control his actions": and the law has been defined in the same sense -in the Cape of Good Hope in the case of _Queen_ v. _Hay_ (1899, 16 -S.C.R. 290). The Rules were rapidly reproduced in the United States, but -the modern trend of American judicial opinion is adverse to them (see -Clevenger, _Med. Jur. of Ins._ p. 125; _Parsons_ v. _State_ (1887) 81 -Ala. 577). On the Continent of Europe moral insanity and irresistible -impulse are freely recognized as exculpatory pleas (see the French _Code -Penal_, S 64; Belgian _Code Penal_, S 71; German _Penal Code_, S 51; -Italian _Penal Code_, SS 46, 47). - -Not only is insanity at the time of the commission of an offence a valid -exculpatory plea, but supervening insanity stays the action of the -criminal law at every stage from arrest up to punishment. High treason -was formerly an exception, but the statute making it so (33 Hen. VIII. -c. 20) was repealed in the time of Philip and Mary. The Home Secretary -has power, under the Criminal Lunatics Act 1884 to order by warrant the -removal of a prisoner, certified to be insane, to a lunatic asylum, -before[2] trial or after trial, whether under sentence of death or not. -Prisoners dealt with under these provisions are styled "Secretary of -State's lunatics." On the other hand, a prisoner who on arraignment -appears, or is found by the jury to be unfit to plead, or who is found -"guilty but insane" at the time of committing the offence--a verdict -substituted by the Trial of Lunatics Act 1883 for the old verdict of -"acquitted on the ground of insanity," in the hope that the formal -conviction recorded in the new finding might have a deterrent effect on -the mentally unstable--is committed to a criminal lunatic asylum by the -order of the judge trying the case, to be detained there "during the -king's pleasure." Lunatics of this class are called "king's pleasure -lunatics." There was no doubt at common law as to the power of the -courts to order the detention of criminal lunatics in safe custody, but, -prior to 1800, the practice was varying and uncertain. On the acquittal -of Hadfield, however, in that year for the attempted murder of George -III., a question arose as to the provision which was to be made for his -detention, and the Criminal Lunatics Act 1800, part of which is still in -force, was passed to affirm the law on the subject. - -The Criminal Lunatics Act contains provisions similar to those of the -Lunacy Act 1890, as to the discharge (conditional or absolute) and -transfer of criminal lunatics and the detention of persons becoming -pauper lunatics. The expenses of the maintenance of criminal lunatics -are defrayed out of moneys provided by Parliament (Crim. Luns. Act 1884, -and Hansard, 3rd series, vol. ccxc. p. 75; 139 Com. Jo. pp. 336, 340, -344). The Lunatics' Removal (India) Act 1851 provides for the removal to -a criminal lunatic asylum in Great Britain of persons found guilty of -crimes and offences in India, and acquitted on the ground of insanity. -Similar provisions with regard to colonial criminal lunatics are -contained in the Colonial Prisoners' Removal Act 1884; and the policy of -this statute has been followed by No 5. of 1894 (New South Wales), and -Ordin. No. 2 of 1895 (Falkland Islands). Indian law (see Act V. of 1898, -SS 464-475) and the laws of the colonies (the Cape Act No. 1 of 1897 is -a typical example) as to the trial of lunatics are similar to the -English. In Scotland all the criminal lunatics, except those who may -have been removed to the ordinary asylums or have been discharged, are -confined in the Criminal Asylum established at Perth in connexion with -H.M.'s General Prison, and regulated by special acts (23 & 24 Vict. c. -105, and 40 & 41 Vict. c. 53). Provision similar to the English has been -made for prisoners found insane as a bar to trial, or acquitted on the -ground of insanity or becoming insane in confinement. In New York, -Michigan and other American states there are criminal lunatic asylums. -Elsewhere insane criminals are apparently detained in state prisons, &c. -The statutory rules as to the maintenance of criminal lunatic asylums, -the treatment of the criminal insane, and the plea of insanity in -criminal courts in America, closely resemble English practice. The only -special point in Continental law calling for notice is the system by -which official experts report for the guidance of the tribunals on -questions of alleged criminal irresponsibility (see, e.g., the German -_Code of Penal Procedure_, S 293, and cp. S 81). - -2. _Insanity and Civil Capacity._--The law as to the civil capacity of -the insane was for some time influenced in Great Britain by the view -propounded by Lord Brougham in 1848 in the case of _Waring_ v. _Waring_, -and by Sir J. P. Wilde in a later case, raising the question of the -validity of a marriage, that, as the mind is one and indivisible, the -least disorder of its faculties was fatal to civil capacity. In the -leading case of _Banks_ v. _Goodfellow_ in 1870, the court of queen's -bench, in an elaborate judgment delivered by Chief Justice Cockburn, -disapproved of this doctrine, and in effect laid down the principle that -the question of capacity must be considered with strict reference to the -act which has to be or has been done. Thus a certain degree of -unsoundness of mind is not now, in the absence of undue influence, a bar -to the formation of a valid marriage, if the party whose capacity is in -question knew at the time of the marriage the nature of the engagement -entered into (but see 51 Geo. III. c. 37 as to the marriage of lunatics -so found by inquisition). Again, a man whose mind is affected may make a -valid will, if he possesses at the time of executing it a memory -sufficiently active to recall the nature and extent of his property, the -persons who have claims upon his bounty, and a judgment and will -sufficiently free from the influence of morbid ideas or external control -to determine the relative strength of those claims. So far has this rule -been carried, that in 1893 probate was granted of the will of a lady who -was a Chancery lunatic at the date of its execution, and died without -the inquisition having been superseded. (_Roe_ v. _Nix_, 1893, P. 55.) -It is also now settled that the simple contract of a lunatic is voidable -and not void, and is binding upon him, unless he can show that at the -time of making it he was, to the knowledge of the other party, so insane -as not to know what he was about. (_Imperial Loan Co._ v. _Stone_, 1892, -1 Q.B. 599.) The test established by _Banks_ v. _Goodfellow_ is applied -also in a number of minor points in which civil capacity comes into -question, e.g. competency of the insane as witnesses. The law implies, -on the part of a lunatic, whether so found or not, an obligation to pay -a reasonable price for "necessaries" supplied to him; and the term -"necessaries" means goods suitable to his condition in life and to his -actual requirements at the time of sale and delivery (Sale of Goods Act -1893). - -The question of the liability of an insane person for tort appears still -to be undecided (see Pollock on _Torts_, 7th ed. p. 53; Clerk and -Lindsell on _Torts_, 2nd ed. pp. 39, 40; _Law Quart. Rev._ vol. xiii. p. -325). Supervening insanity is no bar to proceedings by or against a -lunatic husband or wife for divorce or separation for previous -matrimonial offences. It does not avoid a marriage nor constitute _per -se_ a ground either for divorce or for judicial separation. But cruelty -does not cease to be a cause of suit if it proceeds from disorderly -affections or want of moral control falling short of positive insanity; -and possibly even cruelty springing from intermittent or recurrent -insanity might be held a ground for judicial separation, since in such -case the party offended against cannot obtain protection by securing the -permanent confinement of the offending spouse. Whether insanity at the -time when an alleged matrimonial offence was committed is a bar to a -suit for divorce or separation is an open question; and in any event, in -order that it may be so, the insanity must be of such a character as to -have prevented the insane party from knowing the nature and consequences -of the act at the time of its commission. The laws of Scotland, Ireland, -India (see, e.g., Act IX. of 1872, S 12), the colonies and the United -States are substantially identical with English law on the subject of -the civil capacity of the insane. The German Civil Code (S 1569) -recognizes the lunacy of a spouse as a ground for divorce, but only -where the malady continues during at least three years of the union, and -has reached such a pitch that intellectual intercourse between the -spouses is impossible, and that every prospect of a restoration of such -association is excluded. If one of the spouses obtains a divorce on the -ground of the lunacy of the other the former has to allow alimony, just -as a husband declared to be the sole guilty party in a divorce suit -would have to do (SS 1585, 1578). - -3. _The Jurisdiction in Lunacy._--In order to effect a change in the -status of persons alleged to be of unsound mind, and to bring their -persons and property under control, the aid of the jurisdiction in -lunacy must be invoked. Under the unrepealed statute _De Praerogativa -Regis_ (1325) the care and custody of lunatics belong to the Crown. But -the Crown has, at least since the 16th century, exercised this branch of -the prerogative by delegates, and principally through the Lord -Chancellor--not as head of the Court of Chancery, but as the -representative and delegate of the sovereign. Under the Lunacy Acts 1890 -and 1891, the jurisdiction in lunacy is exercised first by the Lord -Chancellor and such of the Lords Justices and other judges as may be -invested with it by the sign-manual; and, secondly, by the two Masters -in Lunacy, appointed by the Lord Chancellor, from members of the bar of -at least ten years' standing, whose duties include the holding of -inquisitions and summary inquiries, and the making of most of the -consequential orders dealing with the persons and estates of lunatics. -County court judges may also exercise a limited jurisdiction in lunacy -in the case of lunatics as to whom a reception order has been made, if -their entire property is under L200 in value, and no relative or friend -is willing to undertake the management of it; in partnership cases where -the assets do not exceed L500; and upon application by the guardians of -any union for payment of expenses incurred by them in relation to any -lunatic. - -Persons of unsound mind are brought under the jurisdiction in lunacy -either by an inquisition _de lunatico inquirendo_, or, in certain cases -which will be adverted to below, by proceedings instituted under S 116 -of the Lunacy Act 1890, which is now the great practice section in the -Lunacy Office. Prior to 1853 a special commission was issued to the -Masters in each alleged case of lunacy. But by the Lunacy Regulation Act -of that year a general commission was directed to the Masters, -empowering them to proceed in each case in which the Lord Chancellor by -order required an inquisition to be held. This procedure is still in -force. A special commission would now be issued only where both Masters -were personally interested in the subject of the inquiry, or for some -other similar reason. An inquisition is ordered by the judge in lunacy -(a term which does not, for this purpose, at present include the -Masters, although this is one of the points in regard to which a change -in the law has been suggested, on the petition generally of a near -relative of the alleged lunatic). The inquiry is held before one of the -Masters, and a jury may be summoned if the alleged lunatic, being within -the jurisdiction, demands it, unless the judge is satisfied that he is -not competent to form and express such a wish; and even in that case the -Master has power to direct trial by jury if he thinks fit on -consideration of the evidence. Where the alleged lunatic is not within -the jurisdiction the trial must be by jury; and the judge in lunacy may -direct this mode of trial to be adopted in any case whatever. - -A few points of general interest in connexion with inquisitions must be -noted. In practice thirty-four jurors are summoned by the sheriff, and -not more than twenty-four are empanelled. Twelve at least must concur in -the verdict. Counsel for the petitioner ought to act in the judicial -spirit expected from counsel for the prosecution in criminal cases. The -issue to be determined on an inquisition is "whether or not the alleged -lunatic is at the time of the inquisition of unsound mind, and incapable -of managing himself and his affairs" (a special verdict may, however, be -found that the lunatic is capable of managing himself, although not his -affairs, and that he is not dangerous to others); and without the -direction of the person holding the inquisition, no evidence as to the -lunatic's conduct at any time being more than two years before the -inquisition is to be receivable. This limitation, both of the issue and -of the evidence, was imposed with a view to preventing the recurrence of -such cases as that of Mr Windham in 1861-1862, when the inquiry ranged -over the whole life of an alleged lunatic, forty-eight witnesses being -examined on behalf of the petitioners and ninety-one on behalf of the -respondents, while the hearing lasted for thirty-four days. For the -purpose of assisting the Master or jury in arriving at a decision, -provision is made for the personal examination of the alleged lunatic by -them on oath or otherwise, and either in open court or in private, as -may be directed. The proceedings on inquisition are open to the public. -When a person has been found lunatic by inquisition he becomes subject -to the jurisdiction in lunacy, and remains so (unless he succeeds in -setting aside the verdict by a "traverse"--a proceeding which ultimately -comes before, and is determined by, the King's Bench Division in London -or at the assizes) until his recovery, when the inquisition may be put -an end to by a procedure technically known as "supersedeas," or by his -death. The results of the inquisition are worked out in the Lunacy -Office. The control of the estate, and, except where he was found -incapable of managing his property only, of the person of the lunatic is -entrusted to committees of the estate and person, who are appointed by, -and accountable to, the Master in Lunacy, and whose legal position -corresponds roughly with that of the tutors and curators of the civil -law. The committee of the estate in particular exercises over the -property of the lunatic, with the sanction or by the order of the -Master, very wide powers of management and administration, including the -raising of money by sale, charge or otherwise, to pay the lunatic's -debts, or provide for his past or future maintenance, charges for -permanent improvements, the sale of any property belonging to the -lunatic, the execution of powers vested in him and the performance of -contracts relating to property. - -The alternative method of bringing a person of unsound mind under lunacy -jurisdiction was created by S 116 of the Lunacy Act 1890. The effect of -that section briefly is to enable the Master, on a summons being taken -out in his chambers and heard before him, to apply the powers of -management and administration summarized in the last preceding -paragraph, without any inquisition, to the following classes of cases: -lunatics not so found by inquisition, for the protection or -administration of whose property any order was made under earlier acts; -every person lawfully detained, within the jurisdiction of the English -courts, as a lunatic, though not so found by inquisition; persons not -coming within the foregoing categories who are "through mental infirmity -arising from disease or age" incapable of managing their affairs; -persons of unsound mind whose property does not exceed L2000 in value, -or does not yield an annual income of more than L100; and criminal -lunatics continuing insane and under confinement. - -In Scotland the insane are brought under the jurisdiction in lunacy by -alternative methods, similar to the English inquisition and summary -procedure, viz. "cognition," the trial taking place before the Lord -President of the Court of Session, or any judge of that court to whom he -may remit it, and a jury of twelve--see 31 & 32 Vict. c. 100, and Act of -Sederunt of 3rd December 1868--and an application to the Junior Lord -Ordinary of the Court of Session or (43 & 44 Vict. c. 4, S 4) to the -Sheriff Court, when the estate in question does not exceed L100 a year, -for the appointment of a _curator bonis_ or judicial factor. - -The powers of the Lord Chancellor of Ireland with regard to lunatics are -generally similar to those of the English Chancellor (see the Lunacy -Regulations (Ireland) Act 1871, 34 & 35 Vict. c. 22, and the Lunacy -(Ireland) Act 1901, 1 Ed. VII. c. 17; also Colles on _The Lunacy -Regulation (Ireland) Act_. - -The main feature of the French system is the provision made by the Civil -Code (arts. 489-512) for the interdiction of an insane person by the -Tribunal of First Instance, with a right of appeal to the Court of -Appeal, after a preliminary inquiry and a report by a family council -(arts. 407, 408), consisting of six blood relatives in as near a degree -of relationship to the lunatic as possible, or, in default of such -relatives, of six relatives by marriage. The family council is presided -over by the _Juge de Paix_ of the district in which the lunatic is -domiciled. This system is also in force in Mauritius. - -There are provisions, it may be noted, in Scots law for the interdiction -of lunatics, either voluntarily or judicially (see Bell's _Principles_, -S 2123). The German Civil Code provides for insane persons being made -subject to guardianship (_vormundung_), on conditions similar to those -of Scots and French law (see Civil Code, SS 6, 104 (1896, 1906), -645-679). In the United States the fundamental procedure is an -inquisition conducted on practically the same lines as in England. (Cf. -Indiana, _Rev. Stats._ (1894) SS 2715 et seq.; Missouri, Annot. Code -(1892) SS 2835 et seq.; New Mexico, _General Laws_ (1880) c. 74 SS 1 et -seq.). - -4. _Asylum Administration._--Asylum administration in England is now -regulated by the Lunacy Acts 1890 and 1891. Receptacles for the insane -are divisible into the following classes: (i.) Institutions for -lunatics, including asylums, registered hospitals and licensed houses. -The asylums are provided by counties or boroughs, or by union of -counties or boroughs. Registered hospitals are hospitals holding -certificates of registration from the Commissioners in Lunacy, where -lunatics are received and supported wholly or partially by voluntary -contributions or charitable bequests, or by applying the excess of the -payments of some patients towards the maintenance of others. Licensed -houses are houses licensed by the Commissioners, or, beyond their -immediate jurisdiction, by justices; (ii.) Workhouses--see article POOR -LAW; (iii.) Houses in which patients are boarded out; (iv.) Private -houses (unlicensed) in which not more than a single patient may be -received. A person, not being a pauper or a lunatic so found by -inquisition, cannot, in ordinary cases, be received and detained as a -lunatic in any institution for the insane, except under a "reception -order" made by a county court judge or stipendiary magistrate or -specially appointed justice of the peace. The order is made on a -petition presented by a relative or friend of the alleged lunatic, and -supported by two medical certificates, and after a private hearing by -the judicial authority. The detention of a lunatic is, however, -justifiable at common law, if necessary for his safety or that of -others; and the Lunacy Act 1890, borrowing from the lunacy law of -Scotland, provides for the reception of a lunatic not a pauper into an -asylum, where it is expedient for his welfare or the public safety that -he should be confined without delay, upon an "urgency order," made if -possible by a near relative and accompanied by one medical certificate. -The urgency order only justifies detention for seven days (the -curtailment of this period to four days is proposed), and before the -expiration of that period the ordinary procedure must be followed. -"Summary reception orders" may be made by justices otherwise than on -petition. There are four classes of cases in which such orders may be -made, viz.: (i.) lunatics (not paupers and not wandering at large) who -are not under proper care and control, or are cruelly treated or -neglected; (ii.) resident pauper lunatics; (iii.) lunatics, whether -pauper or not, wandering at large; (iv.) lunatics in workhouses. (As to -pauper lunatics generally, see article POOR LAW.) A lunatic may also be -received into an institution under an order by the Commissioners in -Lunacy; and a lunatic so found by inquisition under an order signed by -the committee of his person. - -The chief features of English asylum administration requiring notice are -these. Mechanical restraint is to be applied only when necessary for -surgical or medical purposes, or in order to prevent the lunatic from -injuring himself or others. The privacy of the correspondence of -lunatics with the Lord Chancellor, the Commissioners in Lunacy, &c., is -secured. Provision is made for regular visits to patients by their -relatives and friends. The employment of males for the custody of -females is, except on occasions of urgency, prohibited. Pauper lunatics -may be boarded out with relatives and friends. Elaborate provision is -made for the official visitation of every class of receptacle for the -insane. The duties of visitation are divided between the Commissioners -in Lunacy, the Chancery Visitors and various other visitors and visiting -committees. There are ten Commissioners in Lunacy--four unpaid and six -paid, three of the latter being barristers of not less than five years' -standing at the date of appointment, and three medical. The -Commissioners in Lunacy, who are appointed by the Lord Chancellor, visit -every class of lunatics except persons so found by inquisition. These -are visited by the Chancery Visitors. There are three Chancery -Visitors, two medical and one legal (a barrister of at least five years' -standing at the date of his appointment), who are appointed and -removable by the Lord Chancellor. The Chancery Visitors (together with -the Master in Lunacy) form a Board, and have offices in the Royal Courts -of Justice. In addition to these two classes of visitors, every asylum -has a Visiting Committee of not less than seven members, appointed by -the local authority; and the justices of every county and -quarter-sessions borough not within the immediate jurisdiction of the -Commissioners in Lunacy annually appoint three or more of their number -as visitors of licensed houses. - -Provision is made for the discharge of lunatics from asylums, &c., on -recovery, or by _habeas corpus_, or by the various visiting authorities. -Any person who considers himself to have been unjustly detained is -entitled on discharge to obtain, free of expense, from the secretary to -the Lunacy Commissioners a copy of the documents under which he was -confined. - -The Irish [Lunacy Acts 1821-1890; Lunacy (Ireland) Act 1901] and -Scottish [Lunacy Acts 1857 (20 & 21 Vict. c. 71), 1887 (50 & 51 Vict. c. -39)] asylum systems present no feature sufficiently different from the -English to require separate notice, except that in Scotland "boarding -out" is a regular, and not merely an incidental, part of asylum -administration. The "boarding out" principle has, however, received its -most extended and most successful application in the Gheel colony in -Belgium. The patients, after a few days' preliminary observation, are -placed in families, and, except that they are under ultimate control by -a superior commission, composed of the governor of the province, the -Procureur du Roi and others, enjoy complete liberty indoors as well as -out of doors. The patients are visited by nurses from the infirmary, to -which they may be sent if they become seriously ill or unmanageable. -They are encouraged to work. The accommodation provided for them is -prescribed, and is to be of the same quality as that of the household in -which they live. Clothing is provided by the administration. - -In the French (see laws of 30th June 1838 and 18th December 1839) and -German (see _Journal of Comparative Legislation_, n.s. vol. i. at pp. -271, 272) asylum systems the main features of English administration are -also reproduced. - -The lunacy laws of the British colonies have also closely followed -English legislation (cf. Ontario, _R.S._ 1897, cc. 317, 318; Manitoba, -_R.S._ 1902, c. 80; Victoria (No. 1113, 1890); New Zealand (No. 34 of -1882 and Amending Acts); Mauritius (No. 37 of 1858). - -In America the different states of the Union have each their own lunacy -legislation. The national government provides only for the insane of the -army and navy, and for those residing in the District of Columbia and in -Alaska. The various laws as to the reception, &c., of the insane into -asylums closely resemble English procedure. But in several states the -verdict of a jury finding lunacy is a necessary preliminary to the -commitment of private patients (Kentucky, Act of 1883, c. 900, S 14; -Maryland, _R.S._ 1878, c. 53, S 21; Illinois, _R.S._ 1874, c. 85, S 22). - - AUTHORITIES.--The following works may be consulted: Collinson on the - _Law of Lunatics and Idiots_ (2 vols., London, 1812); Shelford on the - _Law of Lunatics and Idiots_ (London, 1847). On all points relating to - the history and development of the law these two treatises are - invaluable. Pope on _Lunacy_ (2nd ed., London, 1890); Archbold's - _Lunacy_ (4th ed., London, 1895); Elmer on _Lunacy_ (7th ed., London, - 1892); Wood Renton on _Lunacy_ (London and Edinburgh, 1896); Fry's - _Lunacy Laws_ (3rd ed., London, 1890); Pitt-Lewis, Smith and Hawke, - _The Insane and the Law_ (London, 1895); Hack-Tuke, _Dictionary of - Psychological Medicine_ (London, 1892), and the bibliographies - attached to the various legal articles in that work; Clevenger, - _Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity_ (2 vols., New York, 1899); - Semelaigne, _Les Alienistes francais_ (Paris 1849); Bertrand, _Loi sur - les alienes_ (Paris, 1872), presents a comparative view of English and - foreign legislations. In forensic medicine the works of Taylor, - _Medical Jurisprudence_ (5th ed., London, 1905); Dixon Mann, _Foreign - Medicine and Toxicology_ (3rd ed., London, 1902); and Wharton and - Stille, _A Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence_ (Philadelphia, 1873); - Hamilton and Godkin, _System of Legal Medicine_ (New York, 1895); are - probably the English authorities in most common use. See also Casper - and Liman, _Praktisches Handbuch_ _der gerichtlichen Medicin_ - (Berlin, 6th ed., 1876); Tardieu, _Etude medico-legale sur la folie_ - (Paris, 1872); Legrand du Saulle, _La Folie devant les tribunaux_ - (Paris, 1864); Dubrac, _Traite de jurisprudence medicale_ (Paris, - 1894); Tourdes, _Traite de medecine legale_ (Paris, 1897); and - especially Krafft-Ebing, _Lehrbuch der gerichtlichen Psychopathologie_ - (Stuttgart, 1899). (A. W. R.) - - -III. HOSPITAL TREATMENT - -The era of real hospitals for the insane began in the 19th century. -There had been established here and there in different parts of the -world, it is true, certain asylums or places of restraint before the -beginning of the 19th century. We find mention in history of such a -place established by monks at Jerusalem in the latter part of the 5th -century. There is evidence that even earlier than this in Egypt and -Greece the insane were treated as individuals suffering from disease. -Egyptian priests employed not only music and the beautiful in nature and -art as remedial agents in insanity, but recreation and occupation as -well. A Greek physician protested against mechanical restraint in the -care of the insane, and advocated kindly treatment, the use of music, -and of some sorts of manual labour. But these ancient beneficent -teachings were lost sight of during succeeding centuries. The prevailing -idea of the pathology of insanity in Europe during the middle ages was -that of demoniacal possession. The insane were not sick, but possessed -of devils, and these devils were only to be exorcised by moral or -spiritual agencies. Medieval therapeutics in insanity adapted itself to -the etiology indicated. Torture and the cruellest forms of punishment -were employed. The insane were regarded with abhorrence, and were -frequently cast into chains and dungeons. Milder forms of mental disease -were treated by other spiritual means--such as pilgrimages to the -shrines of certain saints who were reputed to have particular skill and -success in the exorcism of evil spirits. The shrine of St Dymphna at -Gheel, in Belgium, was one of these, and seems to have originated in the -7th century, a shrine so famed that lunatics from all over Europe were -brought thither for miraculous healing. The little town became a resort -for hundreds of insane persons, and as long ago as the 17th century -acquired the reputation, which still exists to this day, of a unique -colony for the insane. At the present time the village of Gheel and its -adjacent farming hamlets (with a population of some 13,000 souls) -provides homes, board and care for nearly 2000 insane persons under -medical and government supervision. Numerous other shrines and holy -wells in various parts of Europe were resorted to by the mentally -afflicted--such as Glen-na-Galt in Ireland, the well of St Winifred, St -Nun's Pool, St Fillans, &c. At St Nun's the treatment consisted of -plunging the patient backwards into the water and dragging him to and -fro until mental excitement abated. Not only throughout the middle ages, -but far down into the 17th century, demonology and witchcraft were -regarded as the chief causes of insanity. And the insane were frequently -tortured, scourged, and even burned to death. - -Until as late as the middle of the 18th century, mildly insane persons -were cared for at shrines, or wandered homeless about the country. Such -as were deemed a menace to the community were sent to ordinary prisons -or chained in dungeons. Thus large numbers of lunatics accumulated in -the prisons, and slowly there grew up a sort of distinction between them -and criminals, which at length resulted in a separation of the two -classes. In time many of the insane were sent to cloisters and -monasteries, especially after these began to be abandoned by their -former occupants. Thus "Bedlam" (Bethlehem Royal Hospital) was -originally founded in 1247 as a priory for the brethren and sisters of -the Order of the Star of Bethlehem. It is not known exactly when -lunatics were first received into Bedlam, but some were there in 1403. -Bedlam was rebuilt as an asylum for the insane in 1676. In 1815 a -committee of the House of Commons, upon investigation, found it in a -disgraceful condition, the medical treatment being of the most -antiquated sort, and actual inhumanity practised upon the patients. -Similarly the Charenton Asylum, just outside Paris, near the park of -Vincennes, was an old monastery which had been given over to the insane. -Numerous like instances could be cited, but the interesting point to be -borne in mind is, that with a general tendency to improvement in the -condition of imbeciles upon public charge, idiots and insane persons -came gradually to be separated from criminals and other paupers, and to -be segregated. The process of segregation was, however, very slow. Even -after it had been accomplished in the larger centres of civilization, -the condition of these unfortunates in provincial districts remained the -same. Furthermore, the transfer to asylums provided especially for them -was not followed by any immediate improvement in the patients. - -Twenty-five years after Pinel had, in 1792, struck the chains from the -lunatics huddled in the Salpetriere and Bicetre of Paris, and called -upon the world to realize the horrible injustice done to this wretched -and suffering class of humanity, a pupil of Pinel, Esquirol, wrote of -the insane in France and all Europe: "These unfortunate people are -treated worse than criminals, reduced to a condition worse than that of -animals. I have seen them naked, covered with rags, and having only -straw to protect them against the cold moisture and the hard stones they -lie upon; deprived of air, of water to quench thirst, and all the -necessaries of life; given up to mere gaolers and left to their -surveillance. I have seen them in their narrow and filthy cells, without -light and air, fastened with chains in these dens in which one would not -keep wild beasts. This I have seen in France, and _the insane are -everywhere in Europe treated in the same way_." It was not until 1838 -that the insane in France were all transferred from small houses of -detention, workhouses and prisons to asylums specially constructed for -this purpose. - -In Belgium, in the middle ages, the public executioner was ordered to -expel from the towns, by flogging, the poor lunatics who were wandering -about the streets. In 1804 the Code Napoleon "punished those who allowed -the insane and mad criminals to run about free." In 1841 an -investigation showed in Belgium thirty-seven establishments for the -insane, only six of which were in good order. In fourteen of them chains -and irons were still being used. In Germany, England and America, in -1841, the condition of the insane was practically the same as in Belgium -and France. - -These facts show that no great advance in the humane and scientific care -of the insane was made till towards the middle of the 19th century. Only -then did the actual metamorphosis of asylums for detention into -hospitals for treatment begin to take place. Hand in hand with this -progress there has grown, and still is growing, a tendency to -subdivision and specialization of hospitals for this purpose. There are -now hospitals for the acutely insane, others for the chronic insane, -asylums for the criminal insane, institutions for the feeble-minded and -idiots, and colonies for epileptics. There are public institutions for -the poor, and well-appointed private retreats and homes for the rich. -All these are presided over by the best of medical authorities, -supervised by unsalaried boards of trustees or managers, and carefully -inspected by Government lunacy commissioners, or boards of charities--a -contrast, indeed, to the gaols, shrines, holy wells, chains, tortures, -monkish exorcisms, &c., of the past! - -The statistics of insanity have been fairly well established. The ratio -of insane to normal population is about 1 to 300 among civilized -peoples. This proportion varies within narrow limits in different races -and countries. It is probable that intemperance in the use of alcohol -and drugs, the spread of venereal diseases, and the over-stimulation in -many directions induced by modern social conditions, have caused an -increase of insanity in the 19th as compared with past centuries. The -amount of such increase is probably very small, but on superficial -examination might seem to be large, owing to the accumulation of the -chronic insane and the constant upbuilding of asylums in new -communities. The imperfections of census-taking in the past must also be -taken into account. - -The modern hospital for the insane does credit to latter-day -civilization. Physical restraint is no longer practised. The day of -chains--even of wristlets, covered cribs and strait-jackets--is past. -Neat dormitories, cosy single rooms, and sitting- and dining-rooms -please the eye. In the place of bare walls and floors and curtainless -windows, are pictures, plants, rugs, birds, curtains, and in many -asylums even the barred windows have been abolished. Some of the wards -for milder patients have unlocked doors. Many patients are trusted alone -about the grounds and on visits to neighbouring towns. An air of busy -occupation is observed in sewing-rooms, schools, shops, in the fields -and gardens, employment contributing not only to economy in -administration, but to improvement in mental and physical conditions. -The general progress of medical science in all directions has been -manifested in the department of psychiatry by improved methods of -treatment, in the way of sleep-producing and alleviating drugs, -dietetics, physical culture, hydrotherapy and the like. There are few -asylums now without pathological and clinical laboratories. While it is -a far cry from the prisons and monasteries of the past to the modern -hospital for the insane, it is still possible to trace a resemblance in -many of our older asylums to their ancient prototypes, particularly in -those asylums built upon the so-called corridor plan. Though each -generation contributed something new, antecedent models were more or -less adhered to. Progress in asylum architecture has hence advanced more -slowly in countries where monasteries and cloisters abounded than in -countries where fixed models did not exist. Architects have had a freer -hand in America, Australia and Germany, and even in Great Britain, than -in the Catholic countries of Europe. - -Germany approaches nearest to an ideal standard of provision for the -insane. The highest and best idea which has yet been attained is that of -small hospitals for the acutely insane in all cities of more than 50,000 -inhabitants, and of colonies for the chronic insane in the rural -districts adjacent to centres of population. The psychopathic hospital -in the city gives easy and speedy access to persons taken suddenly ill -with mental disease, aids in early diagnosis, places the patients within -reach of the best specialists in all departments of medicine, and -associated, as it should be, with a medical school or university, -affords facilities not otherwise available for scientific research and -for instruction in an important branch of medical learning. A feature of -the psychopathic hospital should be the reception of patients for a -reasonable period of time, as sufferers from disease, without the -formality of legal commitment papers. Such papers are naturally required -for the detention and restraint of the insane for long periods of time, -but in the earlier stages they should be spared the stigma, delay and -complicated procedure of commitment for at least ten days or two weeks, -since in that time many may convalesce or recover, and in this way -escape the public record of their infirmities, unavoidable by present -judicial procedures. - -There should be associated with such hospitals for the acutely insane in -cities out-door departments or dispensaries, to which patients may be -brought in still earlier stages of mental disorder, at a period when -early diagnosis and preventive therapeutics may have their best -opportunities to attain good results. In Germany a psychopathic hospital -now exists in every university town, under the name of Psychiatrische -Klinik. - -Colonies for the chronic insane are established in the country, but in -the neighbourhood of the cities having psychopathic hospitals, to -receive the overflow of the latter when the acute stage has passed. The -true colony is constructed on the principle of a farming hamlet, without -barracks, corridored buildings, or pavilions. It is similar in most -respects to any agricultural community. The question here is one of -humane care and economical administration. Humane care includes medical -supervision, agreeable home-life, recreation, and, above all things, -regular manual and out-of-door occupation in garden, farm and dairy, in -the quarry, clay-pit or well-ventilated shop. Employment for the -patients is of immense remedial importance, and of great value from the -standpoint of economical administration. In the colony system the small -cottage homes of the patients are grouped about the centres of industry. -The workers in the farmstead live in small families about the farmstead -group of buildings; the tillers of the soil adjacent to the fields, -meadows and gardens; the brickmakers, quarrymen and artizans in still -other cottages in the neighbourhood of the scenes of their activities. -In addition to these groups of cottages, which constitute the majority -of the buildings in the village, an infirmary for bedridden, excited and -crippled patients is required, and a small hospital for the sick. All -the inhabitants of the colony are under medical supervision. A -laboratory for scientific researches forms a highly important part of -the equipment. The colony is not looked upon as a refuge for the -incurable; it is still a hospital for the sick, where treatment is -carried on under the most humane and most suitable conditions, and -wherein the percentage of recoveries will be larger than in asylums and -hospitals as now conducted. In respect of the establishment of colonies -for the insane upon the plan outlined here, Germany has, as in the case -of the psychopathic hospital, led the world. It has been less difficult -for that country to set the example, because she had fewer of the -conditions of the past to fight, and with her the progress of medical -science and of methods of instruction in all departments of medicine has -been more pronounced and rapid. - -Among the German colonies for the insane, that at Alt-Scherbitz, near -Leipzig, is the oldest and most successful, and is pre-eminent in its -close approach to the ideal village or colony system. In 1899 Professor -Kraeplin of Heidelberg stated (_Psychiatrie_, 6th edition) that the -effort was made everywhere in Germany to give the exterior of asylums, -by segregation of the patients in separate home-like villas, rather the -appearance of hamlets for working-people than prisons for the insane, -and he said, further, that the whole question of the care of the insane -had found solution in the colony system, the best and cheapest method of -support. "I have myself," he writes, "had opportunity to see patients, -who had lived for years in a large closed asylum, improve in the most -extraordinary manner under the influence of the freer movement and more -independent occupation of colony life." - -In America the colony scheme has been successfully adopted by the state -of New York at the Craig Colony for Epileptics at Sonyea and elsewhere. - -That the tendency nowadays, even outside of Germany, in the direction of -the ideal standard of provision for the insane is a growing one is -manifested in all countries by a gradual disintegration of the former -huge cloister-like abodes. More asylums are built on the pavilion plan. -Many asylums have, as it were, thrown off detached cottages for the -better care of certain patients. Some asylums have even established -small agricultural colonies a few miles away from the parent plant, like -a vine throwing out feelers. What is called the boarding-out system is -an effort in a similar direction. Patients suffering from mild forms of -insanity are boarded out in families in the country, either upon public -or private charge. Gheel is an example of the boarding-out system -practised on a large scale. But the ideal system is that of the -psychopathic hospital and the colony for the insane. - - AUTHORITIES.--Sir J. B. Tuke, _Dictionary of Psychological Medicine_, - (London and Philadelphia, 1892); W. P. Letchworth, _The Insane in - Foreign Countries_ (New York, 1889); _Care and Treatment of - Epileptics_ (New York, 1900); F. Peterson, _Mental Diseases_ - (Philadelphia, 1899); "Annual Address to the American - Medico-Psychological Association," _Proceedings_ (1899). (F. P.*) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The word for "lunatic" in several other languages has a similar - etymology. Cp. Ital. _lunatico_, Span. _alunado_, Gr. [Greek: - seleniakos] (epileptic), Ger. _mondsuchtig_. - - [2] It has sometimes been stated that this power, which ought - clearly, in the interests alike of prisoners and of the public, to be - exercised with caution, is in fact exerted in an unduly large number - of cases. The following figures, taken from the respective volumes of - the _Criminal Judicial Statistics_, show the number of criminal - lunatics certified insane before trial. In 1884-1885, out of a total - of 938 criminal lunatics, 169 were so certified; in 1885-1886, 149 - out of 890; in 1889-1890, 108 out of 926; in 1890-1891, 95 out of - 900; in 1894, 78 out of 738; in 1895, 84 out of 757; in 1896, 88 out - of 769; in 1897, 85 out of 764; in 1898, 17 out of 209; in 1899, 13 - out of 159; in 1900, 12 out of 185; in 1901, 15 out of 205; in 1902, - 7 out of 233; in 1903, 11 out of 229. - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 14, Slice 5, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 40009.txt or 40009.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/0/0/40009/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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