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diff --git a/40009-0.txt b/40009-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b852b90 --- /dev/null +++ b/40009-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18593 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40009 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [oo] for infinity; ð for Partial + derivative; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE INDULGENCE: "... his standpoint is frankly non-Catholic, + but he gives ample materials for judgment." 'is' amended from 'in'. + + ARTICLE INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS: "... for himself by the aid of a + diagram drawn by Pascal in a demonstration of the formula for the + area of a spherical surface." 'demonstration' amended from + 'demonstation'. + + ARTICLE INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS: "... The discoveries 543 of Brook + Taylor and Colin Maclaurin were absorbed into the rapidly growing + continental analysis" 'Colin' amended from 'Colon'. + + ARTICLE INSANITY: "... the suggestion of utterly absurd commercial + schemes, or attempts at feats beyond his physical powers." + 'commercial' amended from 'commerical'. + + ARTICLE INSANITY: "Finally, chronic morphia intoxication produces + mental symptoms very similar to those of chronic alcoholism." + 'symptoms' amended from 'symptons'. + + ARTICLE INSANITY: "... and wherein the percentage of recoveries + will be larger than in asylums and hospitals as now conducted." + 'percentage' amended from 'precentage'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XIV, SLICE V + + Indole to Insanity + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + INDOLE INGEMANN, BERNHARD SEVERIN + INDONESIAN INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN + INDORE INGERSOLL + INDORSEMENT INGHAM, CHARLES CROMWELL + INDO-SCYTHIANS INGHIRAMI + INDRA INGLEBY, CLEMENT MANSFIELD + INDRE INGLEFIELD, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS + INDRE-ET-LOIRE INGLE-NOOK + INDRI INGLIS, SIR JOHN EARDLEY WILMOT + INDUCTION INGLIS, SIR WILLIAM + INDUCTION COIL INGOLSTADT + INDULGENCE INGOT + INDULINES INGRAM, JAMES + INDULT INGRAM, JOHN KELLS + INDUNA INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE + INDUS INGRESS + INDUSTRIA INHAMBANE + INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL INHERITANCE + INDUSTRY INHIBITION + INE INISFAIL + INEBOLI INITIALS + INEBRIETY, LAW OF INITIATION + INFALLIBILITY INJECTOR + INFAMY INJUNCTION + INFANCY INK + INFANT INKERMAN, BATTLE OF + INFANTE INLAYING + INFANTICIDE INMAN, HENRY + INFANTRY INN (river of Europe) + INFANT SCHOOLS INN and INNKEEPER + INFINITE INNERLEITHEN + INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS INNESS, GEORGE + INFINITIVE INNOCENT + INFLEXION INNOCENTS' DAY + INFLUENCE INNSBRUCK + INFLUENZA INNS OF COURT + IN FORM PAUPERIS INNUENDO + INFORMATION INOUYE, KAORU, MARQUESS + INFORMER INOWRAZLAW + INFUSORIA INQUEST + INGEBORG INQUISITION, THE + INGELHEIM INSANITY + INGELOW, JEAN + + + + +INDOLE, or BENZOPYRROL, C8H7N, a substance first prepared by A. Baeyer +in 1868. It may be synthetically obtained by distilling oxindole +(C8H8NO) with zinc dust; by heating ortho-nitrocinnamic acid with potash +and iron filings; by the reduction of indigo blue; by the action of +sodium ethylate on ortho-aminochlorstyrene; by boiling aniline with +dichloracetaldehyde; by the dry distillation of ortho-tolyloxamic acid; +by heating aniline with dichloracetal; by distilling a mixture of +calcium formate and calcium anilidoacetate; and by heating pyruvic acid +phenyl hydrazone with anhydrous zinc chloride. It is also formed in the +pancreatic fermentation of albumen, and, in small quantities, by passing +the vapours of mono- and dialkyl-anilines through a red-hot tube. It +crystallizes in shining leaflets, which melt at 52° C. and boil at 245° +C. (with decomposition), and is volatile in a current of steam. It is a +feeble base, and gives a cherry-red coloration with a pine shaving. Many +derivatives of indole are known. B-methylindol or skatole occurs in +human faeces. + + + + +INDONESIAN, a term invented by James Richardson Logan to describe the +light-coloured non-Malay inhabitants of the Eastern Archipelago. It now +denotes all those peoples of Malaysia and Polynesia who are not to be +classified as Malays or Papuans, but are of Caucasic type. Among these +are the Battaks of north Sumatra; many of the Bornean Dyaks and +Philippine Islanders, and the large brown race of east Polynesia which +includes Samoans, Maoris, Tongans, Tahitians, Marquesas Islanders and +the Hawaiians. + + See J. Richardson Logan, _The Languages and Ethnology of the Indian + Archipelago_ (1857). + + + + +INDORE, a native state of India in the central India agency, comprising +the dominions of the Maharaja Holkar. Its area, exclusive of guaranteed +holdings on which it has claims, is 9500 sq. m. and the population in +1901 was 850,690, showing a decrease of 23% in the decade, owing to the +results of famine. As in the case of most states in central India the +territory is not homogeneous, but distributed over several political +charges. It has portions in four out of the seven charges of central +India, and in one small portion in the Rajputana agency. The Vindhya +range traverses the S. division of the state in a direction from east to +west, a small part of the territory lying to the north of the mountains, +but by much the larger part to the south. The latter is a portion of the +valley of the Nerbudda, and is bounded on the south by the Satpura +hills. Basalt and other volcanic formations predominate in both ranges, +although there is also much sandstone. The Nerbudda flows through the +state; and the valley at Mandlesar, in the central part, is between 600 +and 700 ft. above the sea. The revenue is estimated at £350,000. The +metre gauge railway from Khandwa to Mhow and Indore city, continued to +Neemuch and Ajmere, was constructed in 1876. + +The state had its origin in an assignment of lands made early in the +18th century to Malhar Rao Holkar, who held a command in the army of the +Mahratta Peshwa. Of the Dhangar or shepherd caste, he was born in 1694 +at the village of Hol near Poona, and from this circumstance the family +derives its surname of Holkar. Before his death in 1766 Malhar Rao had +added to his assignment large territorial possessions acquired by his +armed power during the confusion of the period. By the end of that +century the rulership had passed to another leader of the same clan, +Tukoji Holkar, whose son, Jaswant Rao, took an important part in the +contest for predominance in the Mahratta confederation. He did not, +however, join the combined army of Sindha and the raja of Berar in their +war against the British in 1803, though after its termination he +provoked hostilities which led to his complete discomfiture. At first he +defeated a British force that had marched against him under Colonel +Monson; but when he made an inroad into British territory he was +completely defeated by Lord Lake, and compelled to sign a treaty which +deprived him of a large portion of his possessions. After his death his +favourite mistress, Tulsi Bai, assumed the regency, until in 1817 she +was murdered by the military commanders of the Indore troops, who +declared for the peshwa on his rupture with the British government. +After their defeat at Mehidpur in 1818, the state submitted by treaty to +the loss of more territory, transferred to the British government its +suzerainty over a number of minor tributary states, and acknowledged the +British protectorate. For many years afterwards the administration of +the Holkar princes was troubled by intestine quarrels, misrule and +dynastic contentions, necessitating the frequent interposition of +British authority; and in 1857 the army, breaking away from the chief's +control, besieged the British residency, and took advantage of the +mutiny of the Bengal sepoys to spread disorder over that part of central +India. The country was pacified after some fighting. In 1899 a British +resident was appointed to Indore, which had formerly been directly under +the agent to the governor-general in central India. At the same time a +change was made in the system of administration, which was from that +date carried on by a council. In 1903 the Maharaja, Shivaji Rao Holkar, +G.C.S.I., abdicated in favour of his son Tukoji Rao, a boy of twelve, +and died in 1908. + +The CITY OF INDORE is situated 1738 ft. above the sea, on the river +Saraswati, near its junction with the Khan. Pop. (1901) 86,686. These +figures do not include the tract assigned to the resident, known as "the +camp" (pop. 11,118), which is under British administration. The city is +one of the most important trading centres in central India. + +INDORE RESIDENCY, a political charge in central India, is not +co-extensive with the state, though it includes all of it except some +outlying tracts. Area, 8960 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 833,410. (J. S. Co.) + + + + +INDORSEMENT, or ENDORSEMENT (from Med. Lat. _indorsare_, to write upon +the _dorsum_, or back), anything written or printed upon the back of a +document. In its technical sense, it is the writing upon a bill of +exchange, cheque or other negotiable instrument, by one who has a right +to the instrument and who thereby transmits the right and incurs certain +liabilities. See BILL OF EXCHANGE. + + + + +INDO-SCYTHIANS, a name commonly given to various tribes from central +Asia, who invaded northern India and founded kingdoms there. They +comprise the Sakas, the Yue-Chi or Kushans and the Ephthalites or Hunas. + + + + +INDRA, in early Hindu mythology, god of the clear sky and greatest of +the Vedic deities. The origin of the name is doubtful, but is by some +connected with _indu_, drop. His importance is shown by the fact that +about 250 hymns celebrate his greatness, nearly one-fourth of the total +number in the Rig Veda. He is represented as specially lord of the +elements, the thunder-god. But Indra was more than a great god in the +ancient Vedic pantheon. He is the patron-deity of the invading Aryan +race in India, the god of battle to whose help they look in their +struggles with the dark aborigines. Indra is the child of Dyaus, the +Heaven. In Indian art he is represented as a man with four arms and +hands; in two he holds a lance and in the third a thunderbolt. He is +often painted with eyes all over his body and then he is called +Sahasraksha, "the thousand eyed." He lost much of his supremacy when the +triad Brahma, Siva and Vishnu became predominant. He gradually became +identified merely with the headship of Swarga, a local vice-regent of +the abode of the gods. + + See A. A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_ (Strassburg, 1897). + + + + +INDRE, a department of central France, formed in 1790 from parts of the +old provinces of Berry, Orléanais, Marche and Touraine. Pop. (1906) +290,216. Area 2666 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of +Loir-et-Cher, E. by Cher, S. by Creuse and Haute-Vienne, S.W. by Vienne +and N.W. by Indre-et-Loire. It takes its name from the river Indre, +which flows through it. The surface forms a vast plateau divided into +three districts, the Boischaut, Champagne and Brenne. The Boischaut is a +large well-wooded plain comprising seven-tenths of the entire area and +covering the south, east and centre of the department. The Champagne, a +monotonous but fertile district in the north, produces abundant cereal +crops, and affords excellent pasturage for large numbers of sheep, +celebrated for the fineness of their wool. The Brenne, which occupies +the west of the department, was formerly marshy and unhealthy, but +draining and afforestation have brought about considerable improvement. + +The department is divided into the arrondissements of Châteauroux, Le +Blanc, La Châtre and Issoudun, with 23 cantons and 245 communes. At +Neuvy-St-Sépulchre there is a circular church of the 11th century, to +which a nave was added in the 12th century, and at Mézières-en-Brenne +there is an interesting church of the 14th century. At Levroux there is +a fine church of the 13th century and the remains of a feudal fortress, +and there is a magnificent château in the Renaissance style at Valençay. + + + + +INDRE-ET-LOIRE, a department of central France, consisting of nearly the +whole of the old province of Touraine and of small portions of +Orléanais, Anjou and Poitou. Pop. (1906) 337,916. Area 2377 sq. m. It is +bounded N. by the departments of Sarthe and Loir-et-Cher, E. by +Loir-et-Cher and Indre, S. and S.W. by Vienne and W. by Maine-et-Loire. +It takes its name from the Loire and its tributary the Indre, which +enter it on its eastern border and unite not far from its western +border. The other chief affluents of the Loire in the department are the +Cher, which joins it below Tours, and the Vienne, which waters the +department's southern region. Indre-et-Loire is generally level and +comprises the following districts: the Gâtine, a pebbly and sterile +region to the north of the Loire, largely consisting of forests and +heaths with numerous small lakes; the fertile Varenne or valley of the +Loire; the Champeigne, a chain of vine-clad slopes, separating the +valleys of the Cher and Indre; the Véron, a region of vines and +orchards, in the angle formed by the Loire and Vienne; the plateau of +Sainte-Maure, a hilly and unproductive district in the centre of which +are found extensive deposits of shell-marl; and in the south the Brenne, +traversed by the Claise and the Creuse and forming part of the marshy +territory which extends under the same name into Indre. + +Indre-et-Loire is divided into the arrondissements of Tours, Loches and +Chinon, with 24 cantons and 282 communes. The chief town is Tours, which +is the seat of an archbishopric; and Chinon, Loches, Amboise, +Chenonceaux, Langeais and Azay-le-Rideau are also important places with +châteaus. The Renaissance château of Ussé, and those of Luynes (15th and +16th centuries) and Pressigny-le-Grand (17th century) are also of note. +Montbazon possesses the imposing ruins of a square donjon of the 11th +and 12th centuries. Preuilly has the most beautiful Romanesque church in +Touraine. The Sainte Chapelle (16th century) at Champigny is a survival +of a château of the dukes of Bourbon-Montpensier. The church of +Montrésor (1532) with its mausoleum of the family of Montrésor; that of +St Denis-Hors (12th and 16th century) close to Amboise, with the curious +mausoleum of Philibert Babou, minister of finance under Francis I. and +Henry II.; and that of Ste Catherine de Fierbois, of the 15th century, +are of architectural interest. The town of Richelieu, founded 1631 by +the famous minister of Louis XIII., preserves the enceinte and many of +the buildings of the 17th century. Megalithic monuments are numerous in +the department. + + + + +INDRI, a Malagasy word believed to mean "there it goes," but now +accepted as the designation of the largest of the existing Malagasy (and +indeed of all) lemurs. Belonging to the family _Lemuridae_ (see +PRIMATES) it typifies the subfamily _Indrisinae_, which includes the +avahi and the sifakas (q.v.). From both the latter it is distinguished +by its rudimentary tail, measuring only a couple of inches in length, +whence its name of _Indris brevicaudatus_. Measuring about 24 in. in +length, exclusive of the tail, the indri varies considerably in colour, +but is usually black, with a variable number of whitish patches, chiefly +about the loins and on the fore-limbs. The forests of a comparatively +small tract on the east coast of Madagascar form its home. Shoots, +flowers and berries form the food of the indri, which was first +discovered by the French traveller and naturalist Pierre Sonnerat in +1780. (R. L.*) + + + + +INDUCTION (from Lat. _inducere_, to lead into; cf. Gr. [Greek: +epagôgê]), in logic, the term applied to the process of discovering +principles by the observation and combination of particular instances. +Aristotle, who did so much to establish the laws of deductive reasoning, +neglected induction, which he identified with a complete enumeration of +facts; and the schoolmen were wholly concerned with syllogistic logic. A +new era opens with Bacon, whose writings all preach the principle of +investigating the laws of nature with the purpose of improving the +conditions of human life. Unluckily his mind was still enslaved by the +formulae of the quasi-mechanical scholastic logic. He supposed that +natural laws would disclose themselves by the accumulation and due +arrangement of instances without any need for original speculation on +the part of the investigator. In his _Novum Organum_ there are +directions for drawing up the various kinds of lists of instances. For +two hundred years after Bacon's death little was done towards the theory +of induction; the reason being, probably, that the practical scientists +knew no logic, while the university logicians, with their conservative +devotion to the syllogism, knew no science. Whewell's _Philosophy of the +Inductive Sciences_ (1840), the work of a thoroughly equipped scientist, +if not of a great philosopher, shows due appreciation of the cardinal +point neglected by Bacon, the function of theorizing in inductive +research. He saw that science advances only in so far as the mind of the +inquirer is able to suggest organizing ideas whereby our observations +and experiments are colligated into intelligible system. In this respect +J. S. Mill is inferior to Whewell: throughout his _System of Logic_ +(1843) he ignores the constitutive work of the mind, and regards +knowledge as the merely passive reception of sensuous impressions. His +work was intended mainly to reduce the procedure of induction to a +regular demonstrative system like that of the syllogism; and it was for +this purpose that he formulated his famous Four Methods of Experimental +Inquiry. His work has contributed greatly to the systematic treatment of +induction. But it must be remarked that his Four Methods are not methods +of formal proof, as their author supposed, but methods whereby +hypotheses are suggested or tested. The actual proof of an hypothesis is +never formal, but always lies in the tests of experiment or observation +to which it is subjected. + +The current theory of induction as set forth in the standard works is so +far satisfactory that it combines the merit of Whewell's treatment with +that of Mill's; and yet it is plain that there is much for the logician +of the future to accomplish. The most important faculty in scientific +inquiry is the faculty of suggesting new and valuable hypotheses. But no +one has ever given any explanation how the hypotheses arise in the mind: +we attribute it to "genius," which, of course, is no explanation at all. +The logic of discovery, in the higher sense of the term, simply has no +existence. Another important but neglected province of the subject is +the relation of scientific induction to the inductions of everyday life. +There are some who think that a study of this relation would quite +transform the accepted view of induction. Consider such a piece of +reasoning as may be heard any day in a court of justice, a detective who +explains how in his opinion a certain burglary was effected. If all +reasoning is either deductive or inductive, this must be induction. And +yet it does not answer to the accepted definition of induction, "the +process of discovering a general principle by observation of particular +instances": what the detective does is to reconstruct a particular +crime; he evolves no general principle. Such reasoning is used by every +man in every hour of his life: by it we understand what people are doing +around us, and what is the meaning of the sense-impressions which we +receive. In the logic of the future it will probably be recognized that +scientific induction is only one form of this universal constructive or +reconstructive faculty. Another most important question closely akin to +that just mentioned is the true relation between these reasoning +processes and our general life as active intelligent beings. How is it +that the detective is able to understand the burglar's plan of +action?--the military commander to forecast the enemy's plan of +campaign? Primarily, because he himself is capable of making such plans. +Men as active creatures co-operating with their fellow-men are +incessantly engaged in forming plans and in apprehending the plans of +those around them. Every plan may be viewed as a form of induction; it +is a scheme invented to meet a given situation, an hypothesis which is +put to the test of events, and is verified or refuted by practical +success or failure. Such considerations widen still farther our view of +scientific induction and help us to understand its relation to ordinary +human thought and activity. The scientific investigator in his inductive +stage is endeavouring to make out the plan on which his material is +constructed. The phenomena serve as indications to help him in framing +his hypothesis, generally a guess at first, which he proceeds to verify +by experiment and the collection of additional facts. In the deductive +stage he assumes that he has made out the plan and can apply it to the +discovery of further detail. He has the capacity of detecting plans in +nature because he is wont to form plans for practical purposes. + + There are good recent accounts of induction in Welton's _Manual of + Logic_, ii., in H. W. B. Joseph's _Introduction to Logic_, and in W. + R. Boyce Gibson's _Problem of Logic_; see also LOGIC. (H. St.) + + + + +INDUCTION COIL, an electrical instrument consisting of two coils of wire +wound one over the other upon a core consisting of a bundle of iron +wires. One of these circuits is called the primary circuit and the other +the secondary circuit. If an alternating or intermittent continuous +current is passed through the primary circuit, it creates an alternating +or intermittent magnetization in the iron core, and this in turn creates +in the secondary circuit a secondary current which is called the induced +current. For most purposes an induction coil is required which is +capable of giving in the secondary circuit intermittent currents of very +high electromotive force, and to attain this result the secondary +circuit must as a rule consist of a very large number of turns of wire. +Induction coils are employed for physiological purposes and also in +connexion with telephones, but their great use at the present time is in +connexion with the production of high frequency electric currents, for +Röntgen ray work and wireless telegraphy. + + + Early history. + +The instrument began to be developed soon after Faraday's discovery of +induced currents in 1831, and the subsequent researches of Joseph Henry, +C. G. Page and W. Sturgeon on the induction of a current. N. J. Callan +described in 1836 the construction of an electromagnet with two separate +insulated wires, one thick and the other thin, wound on an iron core +together. He provided the primary circuit of this instrument with an +interrupter, and found that when the primary current was rapidly +intermitted, a series of secondary currents was induced in the fine +wire, of high electromotive force and considerable strength. Sturgeon in +1837 constructed a similar coil, and provided the primary circuit with a +mercury interrupter operated by hand. Various other experimentalists +took up the construction of the induction coil, and to G. H. Bachhoffner +is due the suggestion of employing an iron core made of a bundle of fine +iron wires. At a somewhat later date Callan constructed a very large +induction coil containing a secondary circuit of very great length of +wire. C. G. Page and J. H. Abbot in the United States, between 1838 and +1840, also constructed some large induction coils.[1] In all these cases +the primary circuit was interrupted by a mechanically worked +interrupter. On the continent of Europe the invention of the automatic +primary circuit interrupter is generally attributed to C. E. Neeff and +to J. P. Wagner, but it is probable that J. W. M'Gauley, of Dublin, +independently invented the form of hammer break now employed. In this +break the magnetization of the iron core by the primary current is made +to attract an iron block fixed to the end of a spring, in such a way +that two platinum points are separated and the primary circuit thus +interrupted. It was not until 1853 that H. L. Fizeau added to the break +the condenser which greatly improved the operation of the coil. It 1851 +H. D. Rühmkorff (1803-1877), an instrument-maker in Paris, profiting by +all previous experience, addressed himself to the problem of increasing +the electromotive force in the secondary circuit, and induction coils +with a secondary circuit of long fine wire have generally, but +unnecessarily, been called Rühmkorff coils. Rühmkorff, however, greatly +lengthened the secondary circuit, employing in some coils 5 or 6 m. of +wire. The secondary wire was insulated with silk and shellac varnish, +and each layer of wire was separated from the next by means of varnished +silk or shellac paper; the secondary circuit was also carefully +insulated from the primary circuit by a glass tube. Rühmkorff, by +providing with his coil an automatic break of the hammer type, and +equipping it with a condenser as suggested by Fizeau, arrived at the +modern form of induction coil. J. N. Hearder in England and E. S. +Ritchie in the United States began the construction of large coils, the +last named constructing a specially large one to the order of J. P. +Gassiot in 1858. In the following decade A. Apps devoted great attention +to the production of large induction coils, constructing some of the +most powerful coils in existence, and introduced the important +improvement of making the secondary circuit of numerous flat coils of +wire insulated by varnished or paraffined paper. In 1869 he built for +the old Polytechnic Institution in London a coil having a secondary +circuit 150 m. in length. The diameter of the wire was 0.014 in., and +the secondary bobbin when complete had an external diameter of 2 ft. and +a length of 4 ft. 10 ins. The primary bobbin weighed 145 lb., and +consisted of 6000 turns of copper wire 3770 yds. in length, the wire +being .095 of an inch in diameter. Excited by the current from 40 large +Bunsen cells, this coil could give secondary sparks 30 in. in length. +Subsequently, in 1876, Apps constructed a still larger coil for William +Spottiswoode, which is now in the possession of the Royal Institution. +The secondary circuit consisted of 280 m. of copper wire about 0.01 of +an inch in diameter, forming a cylinder 37 in. long and 20 in. in +external diameter; it was wound in flat disks in a large number of +separate sections, the total number of turns being 341,850. Various +primary circuits were employed with this coil, which when at its best +could give a spark of 42 in. in length. + + + Construction. + +A general description of the mode of constructing a modern induction +coil, such as is used for wireless telegraphy or Röntgen ray apparatus, +is as follows: The iron core consists of a bundle of soft iron wires +inserted in the interior of an ebonite tube. On the outside of this tube +is wound the primary circuit, which generally consists of several +distinct wires capable of being joined either in series or parallel as +required. Over the primary circuit is placed another thick ebonite tube, +the thickness of the walls of which is proportional to the +spark-producing power of the secondary circuit. The primary coil must be +wholly enclosed in ebonite, and the tube containing it is generally +longer than the secondary bobbin. The second circuit consists of a +number of flat coils wound up between paraffined or shellaced paper, +much as a sailor coils a rope. It is essential that no joints in this +wire shall occur in inaccessible places in the interior. A machine has +been devised by Leslie Miller for winding secondary circuits in flat +sections without any joints in the wire at all (British Patent, No. +5811, 1903). A coil intended to give a 10 or 12 in. spark is generally +wound in this fashion in several hundred sections, the object of this +mode of division being to prevent any two parts of the secondary circuit +which are at great differences of potential from being near to one +another, unless effectively insulated by a sufficient thickness of +shellaced or paraffined paper. A 10-in. coil, a size very commonly used +for Röntgen ray work or wireless telegraphy, has an iron core made of a +bundle of soft iron wires No. 22 S.W.G., 2 in. in diameter and 18 in. in +length. The primary coil wound over this core consists of No. 14 S.W.G. +copper wire, insulated with white silk laid on in three layers and +having a resistance of about half an ohm. The insulating ebonite tube +for such a coil should not be less than ¼ in. in thickness, and should +have two ebonite cheeks on it placed 14 in. apart. This tube is +supported on two hollow pedestals down which the ends of the primary +wire are brought. The secondary coil consists of No. 36 or No. 32 +silk-covered copper wire, and each of the sections is prepared by +winding, in a suitable winding machine, a flat coiled wire in such a way +that the two ends of the coil are on the outside. The coil should not be +wound in less than a hundred sections, and a larger number would be +still better. The adjacent ends of consecutive sections are soldered +together and insulated, and the whole secondary coil should be immersed +in paraffin wax. The completed coil (fig. 1) is covered with a sheet of +ebonite and mounted on a base board which, in some cases, contains the +primary condenser within it and carries on its upper surface a hammer +break. For many purposes, however, it is better to separate the +condenser and the break from the coil. Assuming that a hammer break is +employed, it is generally of the Apps form. The interruption of the +primary circuit is made between two contact studs which ought to be of +massive platinum, and across the break points is joined the primary +condenser. This consists of a number of sheets of paraffined paper +interposed between sheets of tin foil, alternate sheets of the tin foil +being joined together (see Leyden Jar). This condenser serves to quench +the break spark. If the primary condenser is not inserted, the arc or +spark which takes place at the contact points prolongs the fall of +magnetism in the core, and since the secondary electromotive force is +proportional to the rate at which this magnetism changes, the secondary +electromotive force is greatly reduced by the presence of an arc-spark +at the contact points. The primary condenser therefore serves to +increase the suddenness with which the primary current is interrupted, +and so greatly increases the electromotive force in the secondary +circuit. Lord Rayleigh showed (_Phil. Mag._, 1901, 581) that if the +primary circuit is interrupted with sufficient suddenness, as for +instance if it is severed by a bullet from a gun, then no condenser is +needed. No current flows in the secondary circuit so long as a steady +direct current is passing through the primary, but at the moments that +the primary circuit is closed and opened two electromotive forces are +set up in the secondary; these are opposite in direction, the one +induced by the breaking of the primary circuit being by far the +stronger. Hence the necessity for some form of circuit breaker, by the +continuous action of which there results a series of discharges from one +secondary terminal to the other in the form of sparks. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + + Interrupters or Breaks. + +The hammer break is somewhat irregular in action and gives a good deal +of trouble in prolonged use; hence many other forms of primary circuit +interrupters have been devised. These may be classified as (1) hand- or +motor-worked dipping interrupters employing mercury or platinum +contacts; (2) turbine mercury interrupters; (3) electrolytic +interrupters. In the first class a steel or platinum point, operated by +hand or by a motor, is periodically immersed in mercury and so serves to +close the primary circuit. To prevent oxidation of the mercury by the +spark and break it must be covered with oil or alcohol. In some cases +the interruption is caused by the continuous rotation of a motor either +working an eccentric which operates the plunger, or, as in the +Mackenzie-Davidson break, rotating a slate disk having a metal stud on +its surface, which is thus periodically immersed in mercury in a vessel. +A better class of interrupter is the mercury turbine interrupter. In +this some form of rotating turbine pump pumps mercury from a vessel and +squirts it in a jet against a copper plate. Either the copper plate or +the jet is made to revolve rapidly by a motor, so that the jet by turns +impinges against the plate and escapes it; the mercury and plate are +both covered with a deep layer of alcohol or paraffin oil, so that the +jet is immersed in an insulating fluid. In a recent form the chamber in +which the jet works is filled with coal gas. The current supplied to the +primary circuit of the coil travels from the mercury in the vessel +through the jet to the copper plate, and hence is periodically +interrupted when the jet does not impinge against the plate. Mercury +turbine breaks are much employed in connexion with large induction coils +used for wireless telegraphy on account of their regular action and the +fact that the number of interruptions per second can be controlled +easily by regulating the speed of the motor which rotates the jet. But +all mercury breaks employing paraffin or alcohol as an insulating medium +are somewhat troublesome to use because of the necessity of periodically +cleaning the mercury. Electrolytic interrupters were first brought to +notice by Dr A. R. B. Wehnelt in 1898 (_Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift_, +January 20th, 1899). He showed that if a large lead plate was placed in +dilute sulphuric acid as a cathode, and a thick platinum wire protruding +for a distance of about one millimetre beyond a glass or porcelain tube +into which it tightly fitted was used as an anode, such an arrangement +when inserted in the circuit of a primary coil gave rise to a rapid +intermittency in the primary current. It is essential that the platinum +wire should be the anode or positive pole. The frequency of the Wehnelt +break can be adjusted by regulating the extent to which the platinum +wire protrudes through the porcelain tube, and in modern electrolytic +breaks several platinum anodes are employed. This break can be employed +with any voltage between 30 and 250. The Caldwell interrupter, a +modification of the Wehnelt break, consists of two electrodes immersed +in dilute sulphuric acid, one of them being enclosed by a glass vessel +which has a small hole in it capable of being more or less closed by a +tapered glass plug. It differs from the Wehnelt break in that there is +no platinum to wear away and it requires less current; hence finer +regulation of the coil to the current can be obtained. It will also work +with either direct or alternating currents. The hammer and mercury +turbine breaks can be arranged to give interruptions from about 10 per +second up to about 50 or 60. The electrolytic breaks are capable of +working at a higher speed, and under some conditions will give +interruptions up to a thousand per second. If the secondary terminals of +the induction coils are connected to spark balls placed a short distance +apart, then with an electrolytic break the discharge has a flame-like +character resembling an alternating current arc. This type of break is +therefore preferred for Röntgen ray work since it makes less flickering +upon the screen, but its advantages in the case of wireless telegraphy +are not so marked. In the Grisson interrupter the primary circuit of the +induction coil is divided into two parts by a middle terminal, so that a +current flowing in at this point and dividing equally between the two +halves does not magnetize the iron. This terminal is connected to one +pole of the battery, the other two terminals being connected alternately +to the opposite pole by means of a revolving commutator which (1) passes +a current through one half of the primary, thus magnetizing the core; +(2) passes a current through both halves in opposite directions, thus +annulling the magnetization; (3) passes a current through the second +half of the primary, thus reversing the magnetization of the core; and +(4) passes a current in both halves through opposite directions, thus +again annulling the magnetization. As this series of operations can be +performed without interrupting a large current through the inductive +circuit there is not much spark at the commutator, and the speed of +commutation can be regulated so as to obtain the best results due to a +resonance between the primary and secondary circuits. Another device due +to Grisson is the electrolytic condenser interrupter. If a plate of +aluminium and one of carbon or iron is placed in an electrolyte yielding +oxygen, this aluminium-carbon or aluminium-iron cell can pass current in +one direction but not in the other. Much greater resistance is +experienced by a current flowing from the aluminium to the iron than in +the opposite direction, owing to the formation of a film of aluminic +hydroxide on the aluminium. If then a cell consisting of a number of +aluminium plates alternating with iron plates or carbon in alkaline +solution is inserted in the primary circuit of an induction coil, the +application of an electromotive force in the right direction will cause +a transitory current to flow through the coil until the electrolytic +condenser is charged. By the use of a proper commutator the position of +the electrolytic cell in the circuit can be reversed and another +transitory primary current created. This interrupted flow of electricity +through the primary circuit provides the intermittent magnetization of +the core necessary to produce the secondary electromotive force. This +operation of commutation can be conducted without much spark at the +commutator because the circuit is interrupted at the time when there is +no current in it. In the case of the electrolytic condenser no +supplementary paraffined paper condenser is necessary as in the case of +the hammer or mercury interrupters. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Arrangements for producing High Frequency +Currents. + + T, Transformer or induction coil. + Q, Q, Choking coils. + D, Spark balls. + C, Condenser. + L, Inductance. + P, Primary circuit of high frequency coil. + S, Secondary circuit.] + + + High Frequency Coils. + +An induction coil for the transformation of alternating current is +called a transformer (q.v.). One type of high frequency current +transformer is called an _oscillation transformer_ or sometimes a _Tesla +coil_. The construction of such a coil is based on different principles +from that of the coil just described. If the secondary terminals of an +ordinary induction coil or transformer are connected to a pair of spark +balls (fig. 2), and if these are also connected to a glass plate +condenser or Leyden jar of ordinary type joined in series with a coil of +wire of low resistance and few turns, then at each break of the primary +circuit of the ordinary induction coil a secondary electromotive force +is set up which charges the Leyden jar, and if the spark balls are set +at the proper distance, this charge is succeeded by a discharge +consisting of a movement of electricity backwards and forwards across +the spark gap, constituting an oscillatory electric discharge (see +ELECTROKINETICS). Each charge of the jar may produce from a dozen to a +hundred electric oscillations which are in fact brief electric currents +of gradually decreasing strength. If the circuit of few turns and low +resistance through which this discharge takes place is overlaid with +another circuit well insulated from it consisting of a large number of +turns of finer wire, the inductive action between the two circuits +creates in the secondary a smaller series of electric oscillations of +higher potential. Between the terminals of this last-named coil we can +then produce a series of discharges each of which consists in an +extremely rapid motion of electricity to and fro, the groups of +oscillations being separated by intervals of time corresponding to the +frequency of the break in the primary circuit of the ordinary induction +coil charging the Leyden jar or condenser. These high frequency +discharges differ altogether in character from the secondary discharges +of the ordinary induction coil. Theory shows that to produce the best +results the primary circuit of the oscillation transformer should +consist of only one thick turn of wire or, at most, but of a few turns. +It is also necessary that the two circuits, primary and secondary, +should be well insulated from one another, and for this purpose the +oscillation transformer is immersed in a box or vessel full of highly +insulating oil. For full details N. Tesla's original Papers must be +consulted (see _Journ. Inst. Elect. Eng._ 21, 62). + +In some cases the two circuits of the Tesla coil, the primary and +secondary, are sections of one single coil. In this form the arrangement +is called a _resonator_ or _auto transformer_, and is much used for +producing high frequency discharges for medical purposes. The +construction of a resonator is as follows: A bare copper wire is wound +upon an ebonite or wooden cylinder or frame, and one end of it is +connected to the outside of a Leyden jar or battery of Leyden jars, the +inner coating of which is connected to one spark ball of the ordinary +induction coil. The other spark ball is connected to a point on the +above-named copper wire not very far from the lower end. By adjusting +this contact, which is movable, the electric oscillations created in the +short section of the resonator coil produce by resonance oscillations in +the longer free section, and a powerful high frequency electric brush or +discharge is produced at the free end of the resonator spiral. An +electrode or wire connected with this free end therefore furnishes a +high frequency glow discharge which has been found to have valuable +therapeutic powers. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3. + + C1, Condenser in primary circuit. + C2, Condenser in secondary circuit. + L1, Inductance in primary circuit. + L2, Inductance in secondary circuit.] + + + Theory of Oscillation Transformers. + + The general theory of an oscillation transformer containing capacity + and inductance in each circuit has been given by Oberbeck, Bjerknes + and Drude.[2] Suppose there are two circuits, each consisting of a + coil of wire, the two being superimposed or adjacent, and let each + circuit contain a condenser or Leyden jar in series with the circuit, + and let one of these circuits contain a spark gap, the other being + closed (fig. 3). If to the spark balls the secondary terminals of an + ordinary induction coil are connected, and these spark balls are + adjusted near one another, then when the ordinary coil is set in + operation, sparks pass between the balls and oscillatory discharges + take place in the circuit containing the spark gap. These oscillations + induce other oscillations in the second circuit. The two circuits have + a certain mutual inductance M, and each circuit has self inductance L1 + and L2. If then the capacities in the two circuits are denoted by C1 + and C2 the following simultaneous equations express the relation of + the currents, i1 and i2, and potentials, v1, and v2, in the primary + and secondary circuits respectively at any instant:-- + + di1 di2 + L1 --- + M --- + R1 i1 + v1 = 0, + dt dt + + di2 di1 + L2 --- + M --- + R2 i2 + v2 = 0, + dt dt + + R1 and R2 being the resistances of the two circuits. If for the moment + we neglect the resistances of the two circuits, and consider that the + oscillations in each circuit follow a simple harmonic law i = I sin pt + we can transform the above equations into a biquadratic + + L1C1 + L2C2 1 + p^4 + p² --------------- + --------------- = 0. + C1C2(L1L2 - M²) C1C2(L1L2 - M²) + + The capacity and inductance in each circuit can be so adjusted that + their products are the same number, that is C1L1 = C2L2 = CL. The two + circuits are then said to be in resonance or to be tuned together. In + this particular and unique case the above biquadratic reduces to + + 1 1 ± k + p² = -- · ------, + CL 1 - k² + + where k is written for M [root](L1L2) and is called the _coefficient + of coupling_. In this case of resonant circuits it can also be shown + that the maximum potential differences at the primary and secondary + condenser terminals are determined by the rule V1/V2 = + 2[root]C2/[root]C1. Hence the transformation ratio is not determined + by the relative number of turns on the primary and secondary circuits, + as in the case of an ordinary alternating current transformer (see + TRANSFORMERS), but by the ratio of the capacity in the two oscillation + circuits. For full proofs of the above the reader is referred to the + original papers. + + Each of the two circuits constituting the oscillation transformer + taken separately has a natural time period of oscillation; that is to + say, if the electric charge in it is disturbed, it oscillates to and + fro in a certain constant period like a pendulum and therefore with a + certain frequency. If the circuits have the same frequency when + separated they are said to be isochronous. If n stands for the natural + frequency of each circuit, where n = p/2[pi] the above equations show + that when the two circuits are coupled together, oscillations set up + in one circuit create oscillations of two frequencies in the secondary + circuit. A mechanical analogue to the above electrical effect can be + obtained as follows: Let a string be strung loosely between two fixed + points, and from it let two other strings of equal length hang down at + a certain distance apart, each of them having a weight at the bottom + and forming a simple pendulum. If one pendulum is set in oscillation + it will gradually impart this motion to the second, but in so doing it + will bring itself to rest; in like manner the second pendulum being + set in oscillation gives back its motion to the first. The graphic + representation, therefore, of the motion of each pendulum would be a + line as in fig. 4. Such a curve represents the effect in music known + as beats, and can easily be shown to be due to the combined effect of + two simple harmonic motions or simple periodic curves of different + frequency superimposed. Accordingly, the effect of inductively + coupling together two electrical circuits, each having capacity and + inductance, is that if oscillations are started in one circuit, + oscillations of two frequencies are found in the secondary circuit, + the frequencies differing from one another and differing from the + natural frequency of each circuit taken alone. This matter is of + importance in connexion with wireless telegraphy (see TELEGRAPH), as + in apparatus for conducting it, oscillation transformers as above + described, having two circuits in resonance with one another, are + employed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + REFERENCES.--J. A. Fleming, _The Alternate Current Transformer_ (2 + vols., London, 1900), containing a full history of the induction coil; + id., _Electric Wave Telegraphy_ (London, 1906), dealing in chap. i., + with the construction of the induction coil and various forms of + interrupter as well as with the theory of oscillation transformers; A. + T. Hare, _The Construction of Large Induction Coils_ (London, 1900); + J. Trowbridge, "On the Induction Coil," _Phil. Mag._ (1902), 3, p. + 393; Lord Rayleigh, "On the Induction Coil," _Phil. Mag._ (1901), 2, + p. 581; J. E. Ives, "Contributions to the Study of the Induction + Coil," _Physical Review_ (1902), vols. 14 and 15. (J. A. F.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For a full history of the early development of the induction coil + see J. A. Fleming, _The Alternate Current Transformer_, vol. ii., + chap. i. + + [2] See A. Oberbeck, _Wied. Ann._ (1895), 55, p. 623; V. F. R. + Bjerknes, d. (1895), 55, p. 121, and (1891), 44, p. 74; and P. K. L. + Drude, _Ann. Phys._ (1904), 13, p. 512. + + + + +INDULGENCE (Lat. _indulgentia_, _indulgere_, to grant, concede), in +theology, a term defined by the official catechism of the Roman Catholic +Church in England as "the remission of the temporal punishment which +often remains due to sin after its guilt has been forgiven." This +remission may be either total (_plenary_) or partial, according to the +terms of the Indulgence. Such remission was popularly called a _pardon_ +in the middle ages--a term which still survives, e.g. in Brittany. + +The theory of Indulgences is based by theologians on the following +texts: 2 Samuel (Vulgate, 2 Kings) xii. 14; Matt. xvi. 19 and xviii. 17, +18; 1 Cor. v. 4, 5; 2 Cor. ii. 6-11; but the practice itself is +confessedly of later growth. As Bishop Fisher says in his Confutation of +Luther, "in the early church, faith in Purgatory and in Indulgences was +less necessary than now.... But in our days a great part of the people +would rather cast off Christianity than submit to the rigour of the +[ancient] canons: wherefore it is a most wholesome dispensation of the +Holy Ghost that, after so great a lapse of time, the belief in purgatory +and the practice of Indulgences have become generally received among the +orthodox" (_Confutatio_, cap. xviii.; cf. Cardinal Caietan, _Tract. XV. +de Indulg._ cap. i.). The nearest equivalent in the ancient Church was +the local and temporary African practice of restoring lapsed Christians +to communion at the intercession of confessors and prospective martyrs +in prison. But such reconciliations differed from later Indulgences in +at least one essential particular, since they brought no remission of +ecclesiastical penance save in very exceptional cases. However, as the +primitive practice of public penance for sins died out in the Church, +there grew up a system of equivalent, or nominally equivalent, private +penances. Just as many of the punishments enjoined by the Roman criminal +code were gradually commuted by medieval legislators for pecuniary +fines, so the years or months of fasting enjoined by the earlier +ecclesiastical codes were commuted for proportionate fines, the +recitation of a certain number of psalms, and the like. "Historically +speaking, it is indisputable that the practice of Indulgences in the +medieval church arose out of the authoritative remission, in exceptional +cases, of a certain proportion of this canonical penalty." At the same +time, according to Catholic teaching, such Indulgence was not a mere +permission to omit or postpone payment, but was in fact a _discharge_ +from the debt of temporal punishment which the sinner owed. The +authority to grant such discharge was conceived to be included in the +power of binding and loosing committed by Christ to His Church; and when +in the course of time the vaguer theological conceptions of the first +ages of Christianity assumed scientific form and shape at the hands of +the Schoolmen, the doctrine came to prevail that this discharge of the +sinner's debt was made through an application to the offender of what +was called the "Treasure of the Church" (Thurston, p. 315). "What, then, +is meant by the 'Treasure of the Church'?... It consists primarily and +completely of the merit and satisfaction of Christ our Saviour. It +includes also the superfluous merit and satisfaction of the Blessed +Virgin and the Saints. What do we mean by the word 'superfluous'? In one +way, as I need not say, a saint has no superfluous merit. Whatever he +has, he wants it all for himself, because, the more he merits on earth +(by Christ's grace) the greater is his glory in heaven. But, speaking of +mere satisfaction for punishment due, there cannot be a doubt that some +of the Saints have done more than was needed in justice to expiate the +punishment due to their own sins.... It is this 'superfluous' expiation +that accumulates in the Treasure of the Church" (Bp. of Newport, p. +166). It must be noted that this theory of the "Treasure" was not +formulated until some time after Indulgences in the modern sense had +become established in practice. The doctrine first appeared with +Alexander of Hales (c. 1230) and was at once adopted by the leading +schoolmen. Clement VI. formally confirmed it in 1350, and Pius VI. still +more definitely in 1794. + +The first definite instance of a _plenary_ Indulgence is that of Urban +II. for the First Crusade (1095). A little earlier had begun the +practice of _partial_ Indulgences, which are always expressed in terms +of days or years. However definite may have been the ideas originally +conveyed by these notes of time, their first meaning has long since been +lost. Eusebius Amort, in 1735, admits the gravest differences of +opinion; and the Bishop of Newport writes (p. 163) "to receive an +Indulgence of a year, for example, is to have remitted to one so much +temporal punishment as was represented by a year's canonical penance. If +you ask me to define the amount more accurately, I say that it cannot be +done. No one knows how severe or how long a Purgatory was, or is, +implied in a hundred days of canonical penance." The rapid extension of +these time-Indulgences is one of the most remarkable facts in the +history of the subject. Innocent II., dedicating the great church of +Cluny in 1132, granted as a great favour a forty days' Indulgence for +the anniversary. A hundred years later, all churches of any importance +had similar indulgences; yet Englishmen were glad even then to earn a +pardon of forty days by the laborious journey to the nearest cathedral, +and by making an offering there on one of a few privileged feast-days. A +century later again, Wycliffe complains of Indulgences of two thousand +years for a single prayer (ed. Arnold, i. 137). In 1456, the recitation +of a few prayers before a church crucifix earned a Pardon of 20,000 +years for every such repetition (Glassberger in _Analecta Franciscana_, +ii. 368): "and at last Indulgences were so freely given that there is +now scarcely a devotion or good work of any kind for which they cannot +be obtained" (Arnold & Addis, _Catholic Dictionary_, s.v.). To quote +again from Father Thurston (p. 318): "In imitation of the prodigality of +her Divine Master, the Church has deliberately faced the risk of +depreciation to which her treasure was exposed.... The growing +effeminacy and corruption of mankind has found her censures unendurable +... and the Church, going out into the highways and the hedges, has +tried to entice men with the offer of generous Indulgence." But it must +be noted that, according to the orthodox doctrine, not only can an +Indulgence not remit future sins, but even for the past it cannot take +full effect unless the subject be truly contrite and have confessed (or +intend shortly to confess) his sins. + +This salutary doctrine, however, has undoubtedly been obscured to some +extent by the phrase _a poena et a culpa_, which, from the 13th century +to the Reformation, was applied to Plenary Indulgences. The prima-facie +meaning of the phrase is that the Indulgence itself frees the sinner not +only from the temporal penalty (_poena_) but also from the guilt +(_culpa_) of all his sins: and the fact that a phrase so misleading +remained so long current shows the truth of Father Thurston's remark: +"The laity cared little about the analysis of it, but they knew that the +_a culpa et poena_ was the name for the biggest thing in the nature of +an Indulgence which it was possible to get" (_Dublin Review_, Jan. +1900). The phrase, however, was far from being confined to the +unlearned. Abbot Gilles li Muisis, for instance, records how, at the +Jubilee of 1300, all the Papal Penitentiaries were in doubt about it, +and appealed to the Pope. Boniface VIII. did indeed take the occasion of +repeating (in the words of his Bull) that confession and contrition were +necessary preliminaries; but he neither repudiated the misleading words +nor vouchsafed any clear explanation of them. (_Chron. Aegidii li +Muisis_ ed. de Smet, p. 189.) His predecessor, Celestine V., had +actually used them in a Bull. + +The phrase exercised the minds of learned canonists all through the +middle ages, but still held its ground. The most accepted modern theory +is that it is merely a catchword surviving from a longer phrase which +proclaimed how, during such Indulgences, ordinary confessors might +absolve from sins usually "reserved" to the Bishop or the Pope. Nobody, +however, has ventured exactly to reconstitute this hypothetical phrase; +nor is the theory easy to reconcile with (i.) the uncertainty of +canonists at the time when the locution was quite recent, (ii.) the fact +that Clement V. and Cardinal Cusanus speak of absolution _a poena et a +culpa_ as a separate thing from (a) plenary absolution and (b) +absolution from "reserved" sins (Clem. lib. v. tit. ix. c. 2, and Johann +Busch (d. c. 1480) _Chron. Windeshemense_, cap. xxxvi.). But, however it +originated, the phrase undoubtedly contributed to foster popular +misconceptions as to the intrinsic value of Indulgences, apart from +repentance and confession; though Dr Lea seems to press this point +unduly (p. 54 ff.), and should be read in conjunction with Thurston (p. +324 ff.). + +These misconceptions were certainly widespread from the 13th to the 16th +century, and were often fostered by the "pardoners," or professional +collectors of contributions for Indulgences. This can best be shown by a +few quotations from eminent and orthodox churchmen during those +centuries. Berthold of Regensburg (c. 1270) says, "Fie, penny-preacher! +... thou dost promise so much remission of sins for a mere halfpenny or +penny, that thousands now trust thereto, and fondly dream to have atoned +for all their sins with the halfpenny or penny, and thus go to hell" +(ed. Pfeiffer, i. 393).[1] A century later, the author of _Piers +Plowman_ speaks of pardoners who "give pardon for pence poundmeal about" +(i.e. wholesale; B. ii. 222); and his contemporary, Pope Boniface IX., +complained of their absolving even impenitent sinners for ridiculously +small sums (_pro qualibet parva pecuniarum summula_, Raynaldus, _Ann. +Ecc._ 1390). In 1450 Thomas Gascoigne, the great Oxford Chancellor, +wrote: "Sinners say nowadays 'I care not how many or how great sins I +commit before God, for I shall easily and quickly get plenary remission +of any guilt and penalty whatsoever (_cujusdam culpae et poenae_) by +absolution and indulgence granted to me from the Pope, whose writing and +grant I have bought for 4d. or 6d. or for a game of tennis'"--or +sometimes, he adds, by a still more disgraceful bargain (_pro actu +meretricio_, _Lib._ Ver. p. 123, cf. 126). In 1523 the princes of +Germany protested to the Pope in language almost equally strong (Browne, +_Fasciculus_, i. 354). In 1562 the Council of Trent abolished the office +of "pardoner." + +The greatest of all Plenary Indulgences is of course the Roman Jubilee. +This was instituted in 1300 by Boniface VIII., who pleaded a popular +tradition for its celebration every hundredth year, though no written +evidence could be found. Clement VI. shortened the period to 50 years +(1350): it was then further reduced to 33, and again in 1475 to 25 +years. + + See also the article on LUTHER. The latest and fullest authority on + this subject is Dr H. C. Lea, _Hist, of Auricular Confession and + Indulgences in the Latin Church_ (Philadelphia, 1896); his standpoint + is frankly non-Catholic, but he gives ample materials for judgment. + The greatest orthodox authority is Eusebius Amort, _De Origine, &c., + indulgentiarum_ (1735). More popular and more easily accessible are + Father Thurston's _The Holy Year of Jubilee_ (1900), and an article by + the Bishop of Newport in the _Nineteenth Century_ for January 1901, + with a reply by Mr Herbert Paul in the next number. (G. G. Co.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Equally strong assertions were made by the provincial council of + Mainz in 1261; and Lea (p. 287) quotes the complaints of 36 similar + church councils before 1538. + + + + +INDULINES, a series of dyestuffs of blue, bluish-red or black shades, +formed by the interaction of para-amino azo compounds with primary +monamines in the presence of a small quantity of a mineral acid. They +were first discovered in 1863 (English patent 3307) by J. Dale and H. +Caro, and since then have been examined by many chemists (see O. N. +Witt, _Ber._, 1884, 17, p. 74; O. Fischer and E. Hepp, _Ann._, 1890, +256, pp. 233 et seq.; F. Kehrmann, _Ber._, 1891, 24, pp. 584, 2167 et +seq.). They are derivatives of the eurhodines (aminophenazines, +aminonaphthophenazines), and by means of their diazo derivatives can be +de-amidated, yielding in this way azonium salts; consequently they may +be considered as amidated azonium salts. The first reaction giving a +clue to their constitution was the isolation of the intermediate +_azophenin_ by O. Witt (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1883, 43, p. 115), which was +proved by Fischer and Hepp to be dianilidoquinone dianil, a similar +intermediate compound being found shortly afterwards in the naphthalene +series. _Azophenin_, C30H24N4, is prepared by warming quinone dianil +with aniline; by melting together quinone, aniline and aniline +hydrochloride; or by the action of aniline on para-nitrosophenol or +para-nitrosodiphenylamine. The indulines are prepared as mentioned above +from aminoazo compounds: + + // N------\ + NH2·C6H4N2·C6H5 + C5H5NH2 -> HN:C6H3 // \ C6H4, + \ N·C6H5 / + + (aposafranine) + +or by condensing oxy- and amido-quinones with phenylated ortho-diamines +(F. Kehrmann, _Ber._, 1895, 28, p. 1714): + + HO\ // O H2N \ + \ C6H2 // + \ C6H4 = + O// \ OH C6H5NH / + + O \\ / N·C6H5 \ + 2H2O + \\ C6H2 / \ C6H4. + HO / \\ N------// + + The indulines may be subdivided into the following groups:-- (1) + benzindulines, derivatives of phenazine; (2) isorosindulines; and (3) + rosindulines, both derived from naphthophenazine; and (4) + naphthindulines, derived from naphthazine. + + // N------\ // N------\ + NH:C6H3 // \ C6H4 NH:C6H3 // \ C10H6 + \ N·C6H5 / \ N·C6H5 / + + I. Benzindulines. II. Isorosindulines. + + // N------\ // N------\ + NH:C10H5 // \ C6H4 NH:C10H5 // \ C10H6 + \ N·C6H5 / \ N·C6H5 / + + III. Rosindulines. IV. Naphthindulines. + + The rosindulines and naphthindulines have a strongly basic character, + and their salts possess a marked red colour and fluorescence. + _Benzinduline_ (aposafranine), C18H13N3, is a strong base, but cannot + be diazotized, unless it be dissolved in concentrated mineral acids. + When warmed with aniline it yields anilido-aposafranine, which may + also be obtained by the direct oxidation of ortho-aminodiphenylamine. + _Isorosinduline_ is obtained from quinone dichlorimide and + phenyl-[beta]-naphthylamine; _rosinduline_ from + benzene-azo-[alpha]-naphthylamine and aniline and _naphthinduline_ + from benzene-azo-[alpha]-naphthylamine and naphthylamine. + + + + +INDULT (Lat. _indultum_, from _indulgere_, grant, concede, allow), a, +papal licence which authorizes the doing of something not sanctioned by +the common law of the church; thus by an indult the pope authorizes a +bishop to grant certain relaxations during the Lenten fast according to +the necessities of the situation, climate, &c., of his diocese. + + + + +INDUNA, a Zulu-Bantu word for an officer or head of a regiment among the +Kaffir (Zulu-Xosa) tribes of South Africa. It is formed from the +inflexional prefix _in_ and _duna_, a lord or master. Indunas originally +obtained and retained their rank and authority by personal bravery and +skill in war, and often proved a menace to their nominal lord. Where, +under British influence, the purely military system of government among +the Kaffir tribes has broken down or been modified, indunas are now +administrators rather than warriors. They sit in a consultative +gathering known as an indaba, and discuss the civil and military affairs +of their tribe. + + + + +INDUS, one of the three greatest rivers of northern India. + + + In the Himalaya. + + The Shyok affluent. + + The Gilgit affluent. + +A considerable accession of exact geographical knowledge has been gained +of the upper reaches of the river Indus and its tributaries during those +military and political movements which have been so constant on the +northern frontiers of India of recent years. The sources of the Indus +are to be traced to the glaciers of the great Kailas group of peaks in +32° 20´ N. and 81° E., which overlook the Mansarowar lake and the +sources of the Brahmaputra, the Sutlej and the Gogra to the south-east. +Three great affluents, flowing north-west, unite in about 80° E. to form +the main stream, all of them, so far as we know at present, derived from +the Kailas glaciers. Of these the northern tributary points the road +from Ladakh to the Jhalung goldfields, and the southern, or Gar, forms a +link in the great Janglam--the Tibetan trade route--which connects +Ladakh with Lhasa and Lhasa with China. Gartok (about 50 m. from the +source of this southern head of the Indus) is an important point on this +trade route, and is now made accessible to Indian traders by treaty with +Tibet and China. At Leh, the Ladakh capital, the river has already +pursued an almost even north-westerly course for 300 m., except for a +remarkable divergence to the south-west which carries it across, or +through, the Ladakh range to follow the same course on the southern side +that had been maintained on the north. This very remarkable instance of +transverse drainage across a main mountain axis occurs in 79° E., about +100 m. above Leh. For another 230 m., in a north-westerly direction, the +Indus pursues a comparatively gentle and placid course over its sandy +bed between the giant chains of Ladakh to the north and Zaskar (the main +"snowy range" of the Himalaya) to the south, amidst an array of mountain +scenery which, for the majesty of sheer altitude, is unmatched by any in +the world. Then the river takes up the waters of the Shyok from the +north (a tributary nearly as great as itself), having already captured +the Zasvar from the south, together with innumerable minor glacier-fed +streams. The Shyok is an important feature in Trans-Himalayan +hydrography. Rising near the southern foot of the well-known Karakoram +pass on the high road between Ladakh and Kashgar, it first drains the +southern slopes of the Karakoram range, and then breaks across the axis +of the Muztagh chain (of which the Karakoram is now recognized as a +subsidiary extension northwards) ere bending north-westwards to run a +parallel course to the Indus for 150 m. before its junction with that +river. The combined streams still hold on their north-westerly trend for +another 100 m., deep hidden under the shadow of a vast array of +snow-crowned summits, until they arrive within sight of the Rakapushi +peak which pierces the north-western sky midway between Gilgit and +Hunza. Here the great change of direction to the south-west occurs, +which is thereafter maintained till the Indus reaches the ocean. At this +point it receives the Gilgit river from the north-west, having dropped +from 15,000 to 4000 ft. (at the junction of the rivers) after about 500 +m. of mountain descent through the independent provinces of northern +Kashmir. (See GILGIT.) A few miles below the junction it passes Bunji, +and from that point to a point beyond Chilas (50 m. below Bunji) it runs +within the sphere of British interests. Then once again it resumes its +"independent" course through the wild mountains of Kohistan and Hazara, +receiving tribute from both sides (the Buner contribution being the most +noteworthy) till it emerges into the plains of the Punjab below Darband, +in 34° 10´ N. All this part of the river has been mapped in more or less +detail of late years. The hidden strongholds of those Hindostani +fanatics who had found a refuge on its banks since Mutiny days have been +swept clean, and many ancient mysteries have been solved in the course +of its surveying. + + + Indus of the plains. + +From its entrance into the plains of India to its disappearance in the +Indian Ocean, the Indus of to-day is the Indus of the 'fifties--modified +only in some interesting particulars. It has been bridged at several +important points. There are bridges even in its upper mountain courses. +There is a wooden pier bridge at Leh of two spans, and there are native +suspension bridges of cane or twig-made rope swaying uneasily across the +stream at many points intervening between Leh and Bunji; but the first +English-made iron suspension bridge is a little above Bunji, linking up +the highroad between Kashmir and Gilgit. Next occurs the iron girder +railway bridge at Attock, connecting Rawalpindi with Peshawar, at which +point the river narrows almost to a gorge, only 900 ft. above sea-level. +Twenty miles below Attock the river has carved out a central trough +which is believed to be 180 ft. deep. Forty miles below Attock another +great bridge has been constructed at Kushalgarh, which carries the +railway to Kohat and the Kurram valley. At Mari, beyond the series of +gorges which continue from Kushalgarh to the borders of the Kohat +district, on the Sind-Sagar line, a boat-bridge leads to Kalabagh (the +Salt city) and northwards to Kohat. Another boat-bridge opposite Dera +Ismail Khan connects that place with the railway; but there is nothing +new in these southern sections of the Indus valley railway system except +the extraordinary development of cultivation in their immediate +neighbourhood. The Lansdowne bridge at Sukkur, whose huge cantilevers +stand up as a monument of British enterprise visible over the flat +plains for many miles around, is one of the greatest triumphs of Indian +bridge-making. Kotri has recently been connected with Hyderabad in Sind, +and the Indus is now one of the best-bridged rivers in India. The +intermittent navigation which was maintained by the survivals of the +Indus flotilla as far north as Dera Ismail Khan long after the +establishment of the railway system has ceased to exist with the +dissolution of the fleet, and the high-sterned flat Indus boats once +again have the channels and sandbanks of the river all to themselves. + + + Lower Indus and delta. + +Within the limits of Sind the vagaries of the Indus channels have +necessitated a fresh survey of the entire riverain. The results, +however, indicate not so much a marked departure in the general course +of the river as a great variation in the channel beds within what may be +termed its outside banks. Collaterally much new information has been +obtained about the ancient beds of the river, the sites of ancient +cities and the extraordinary developments of the Indus delta. The +changing channels of the main stream since those prehistoric days when a +branch of it found its way to the Runn of Cutch, through successive +stages of its gradual shift westwards--a process of displacement which +marked the disappearance of many populous places which were more or less +dependent on the river for their water supply--to the last and greatest +change of all, when the stream burst its way through the limestone +ridges of Sukkur and assumed a course which has been fairly constant for +150 years, have all been traced out with systematic care by modern +surveyors till the medieval history of the great river has been fully +gathered from the characters written on the delta surface. That such +changes of river bed and channel should have occurred within a +comparatively limited period of time is the less astonishing if we +remember that the Indus, like many of the greatest rivers of the world, +carries down sufficient detritus to raise its own bed above the general +level of the surrounding plains in an appreciable and measurable degree. +At the present time the bed of the Indus is stated to be 70 ft. above +the plains of the Sind frontier, some 50 m. to the west of it. + + + Statistics. + + The total length of the Indus, measured directly, is about 1500 m. + With its many curves and windings it stretches to about 2000 m., the + area of its basin being computed at 372,000 sq. m. Even at its lowest + in winter it is 500 ft. wide at Iskardo (near the Gilgit junction) and + 9 or 10 ft. deep. The temperature of the surface water during the cold + season in the plains is found to be 5° below that of the air (64° and + 69° F.). At the beginning of the hot season, when the river is + bringing down snow water, the difference is 14° (87° and 101° June). + At greater depths the difference is still greater. At Attock, where + the river narrows between rocky banks, a height of 50 ft. in the flood + season above lowest level is common, with a velocity of 13 m. per + hour. The record rise (since British occupation of the Punjab) is 80 + ft. At its junction with the Panjnad (the combined rivers of the + Punjab east of the Indus) the Panjnad is twice the width of the Indus, + but its mean depth is less, and its velocity little more than + one-third. This discharge of the Panjnad at low season is 69,000 cubic + ft. per second, that of the Indus 92,000. Below the junction the + united discharge in flood season is 380,000 cubic ft., rising to + 460,000 (the record in August). The Indus after receiving the other + rivers carries down into Sind, in the high flood season, turbid water + containing silt to the amount of 1/229 part by weight, or 1/410 by + volume--equal to 6480 millions of cubic ft. in the three months of + flood. This is rather less than the Ganges carries. The silt is very + fine sand and clay. Unusual floods, owing to landslips or other + exceptional causes, are not infrequent. The most disastrous flood of + this nature occurred in 1858. It was then that the river rose 80 ft. + at Attock. The most striking result of the rise was the reversal of + the current of the Kabul river, which flowed backwards at the rate of + 10 m. per hour, flooding Nowshera and causing immense damage to + property. The prosperity of the province of Sind depends almost + entirely on the waters of the Indus, as its various systems of canals + command over nine million acres out of a cultivable area of twelve and + a half million acres. + + See Maclagan, _Proceedings R.G.S._, vol. iii.; Haig, _The Indus Delta + Country_ (London, 1894); Godwin-Austen, _Proceedings R.G.S._ vol. vi. + (T. H. H.*) + + + + +INDUSTRIA (mod. Monteù da Po), an ancient town of Liguria, 20 m. N.E. of +Augusta Taurinorum. Its original name was Bodincomagus, from the +Ligurian name of the Padus (mod. Po), Bodincus, i.e. bottomless (Plin. +_Hist. Nat._ iii. 122), and this still appears on inscriptions of the +early imperial period. It stood on the right bank of the river, which +has now changed its course over 1 m. to the north. It was a flourishing +town, with municipal rights, as excavations (which have brought to light +the forum, theatre, baths, &c.) have shown, but appears to have been +deserted in the 4th century A.D. + + See A. Fabietti in _Atti della Società di Archeologia di Torino_, iii, + 17 seq.; Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ v. (Berlin, 1877), p. + 845; E. Ferrero in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1903), p. 43. + + + + +INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, in England a school, generally established by +voluntary contributions, for the industrial training of children, in +which children are lodged, clothed and fed, as well as taught. +Industrial schools are chiefly for vagrant and neglected children and +children not convicted of theft. Such schools are for children up to the +age of fourteen, and the limit of detention is sixteen. They are +regulated by the Children Act 1908, which repealed the Industrial +Schools Act 1866, as amended by Acts of 1872, 1891 and 1901, and +parallel legislation in the various Elementary Education Acts, besides +some few local acts. The home secretary exercises powers of supervision, +&c. See JUVENILE OFFENDERS. + + + + +INDUSTRY (Lat. _industria_, from _indu_-, a form of the preposition +_in_, and either _stare_, to stand, or _struere_, to pile up), the +quality of steady application to work, diligence; hence employment in +some particular form of productive work, especially of manufacture; or a +particular class of productive work itself, a trade or manufacture. See +LABOUR LEGISLATION, &c. + + + + +INE, king of the West Saxons, succeeded Ceadwalla in 688, his title to +the crown being derived from Ceawlin. In the earlier part of his reign +he was at war with Kent, but peace was made in 694, when the men of Kent +gave compensation for the death of Mul, brother of Ceadwalla, whom they +had burned in 687. In 710 Ine was fighting in alliance with his kinsman +Nun, probably king of Sussex, against Gerent of West Wales and, +according to Florence of Worcester, he was victorious. In 715 he fought +a battle with Ceolred, king of Mercia, at Woodborough in Wiltshire, but +the result is not recorded. Shortly after this time a quarrel seems to +have arisen in the royal family. In 721 Ine slew Cynewulf, and in 722 +his queen Aethelburg destroyed Taunton, which her husband had built +earlier in his reign. In 722 the South Saxons, previously subject to +Ine, rose against him under the exile Aldbryht, who may have been a +member of the West Saxon royal house. In 725 Ine fought with the South +Saxons and slew Aldbryht. In 726 he resigned the crown and went to Rome, +being succeeded by Aethelheard in Wessex. Ine is said to have built the +minster at Glastonbury. The date of his death is not recorded. He issued +a written code of laws for Wessex, which is still preserved. + + See Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ (Plummer), iv. 15, v. 7; _Saxon Chronicle_ + (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 688e, 694, 710, 715, 721, 722, 725, 728; + Thorpe, _Ancient Laws_, i. 2-25; Sehmid, _Gesetze der Angelsachsen_ + (Leipzig, 1858); Liebermann, _Gesetzeder Angelsachsen_ (Halle, + 1898-99). + + + + +INEBOLI, a town on the north coast of Asia Minor, 70 m. W. of Sinub +(Sinope). It is the first place of importance touched at by mercantile +vessels plying eastwards from Constantinople, being the port for the +districts of Changra and Kastamuni, and connected with the latter town +by a carriage road (see KASTAMUNI). The roadstead is exposed, having no +protection for shipping except a jetty 300 ft. long, so that in rough +weather landing is impracticable. The exports (chiefly wool and mohair) +are about £248,000 annually and the imports £200,000. The population is +about 9000 (Moslems 7000, Christians 2000). Ineboli represents the +ancient _Abonou-teichos_, famous as the birthplace of the false prophet +Alexander, who established there (2nd century A.D.) an oracle of the +snake-God Glycon-Asclepius. This impostor, immortalized by Lucian, +obtained leave from the emperor Marcus Aurelius to change the name of +the town to _Ionopolis_, whence the modern name is derived (see +ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAGONIAN). + + + + +INEBRIETY, LAW OF. The legal relations to which inebriety (Lat. _in_, +intensive, and _ebrietas_, drunkenness) gives rise are partly civil and +partly criminal. + +I. _Civil Capacity._--The law of England as to the civil capacity of the +drunkard is practically identified with, and has passed through +substantially the same stages of development as the law in regard to the +civil capacity of a person suffering from mental disease (see INSANITY). +Unless (see III. _inf._) a modification is effected in his condition by +the fact that he has been brought under some form of legal control, a +man may, in spite of intoxication, enter into a valid marriage or make a +valid will, or bind himself by a contract, if he is sober enough to know +what he is doing, and no improper advantage of his condition is taken +(cf. _Matthews_ v. _Baxter_, 1873, L.R. 8 Ex. 132; _Imperial Loan Co._ +v. _Stone_, 1892, 1 Q.B. 599). The law is the same in Scotland and in +Ireland; and the Sale of Goods Act 1893 (which applies to the whole +United Kingdom) provides that where necessaries are sold and delivered +to a person who by reason of drunkenness is incompetent to contract, he +must pay a reasonable price for them; "necessaries" for the purposes of +this provision mean goods suitable to the condition in life of such +person and to his actual requirements at the time of the sale and +delivery. + +Under the Roman law, and under the Roman Dutch law as applied in South +Africa, drunkenness, like insanity, appears to vitiate absolutely a +contract made by a person under its influence (_Molyneux_ v. _Natal Land +and Colonization Co._, 1905, A.C. 555). + +In the United States, as in England, intoxication does not vitiate +contractual capacity unless it is of such a degree as to prevent the +person labouring under it from understanding the nature of the +transaction into which he is entering (Bouvier, _Law Dict._, s.v. +"Drunkenness"; and cf. _Waldron_ v. _Angleman_, 1004, 58 Atl. 568; +_Fowler_ v. _Meadow Brook Water Co._, 1904, 57 Atl. 959; 208 Penn., +473). The same rule is by implication adopted in the Indian Contract Act +(Act ix. of 1872), which provides (s. 12) that "a person is ... of sound +mind for the purpose of making a contract if, at the time when he makes +it, he is capable of understanding it and of forming a rational judgment +as to its effect upon his interests." In some legal systems, however, +habitual drunkenness is a ground for divorce or judicial separation +(Sweden, Law of the 27th of April 1810; France, Code Civil, Art. 231, +_Hirt_ v. _Hirt_, Dalloz, 1898, pt. ii., p. 4, and n. 4). + +II. _Criminal Responsibility._--In English law, drunkenness, unlike +insanity, was at one time regarded as in no way an excuse for crime. +According to Coke (Co. Litt., 247) a drunkard, although he suffers from +acquired insanity, _dementia affectata_, is _voluntarius daemon_, and +therefore has no privilege in consequence of his state; "but what hurt +or ill soever he doth, his drunkenness doth aggravate it." Sir Matthew +Hale (P.C. 32) took a more moderate view, viz. that a person under the +influence of this voluntarily contracted madness "shall have the same +judgment as if he were in his right senses"; and admitted the existence +of two "allays" or qualifying circumstances: (1) _temporary_ frenzy +induced by the unskilfulness of physicians or by drugging; and (2) +_habitual_ or fixed frenzy. Those early authorities have, however, +undergone considerable development and modification. + +Although the general principle that drunkenness is not an excuse for +crime is still steadily maintained (see Russell, _Crimes_, 6th ed., i. +144; Archbold, _Cr. Pl._, 23rd ed., p. 29), it is settled law that where +a particular intent is one of the constituent elements of an offence, +the fact that a prisoner was intoxicated at the time of its commission +is relevant evidence to show that he had not the capacity to form that +intent. Drunkenness is also a circumstance of which a jury may take +account in considering whether an act was premeditated, or whether a +prisoner acted in self-defence or under provocation, when the question +is whether the danger apprehended or the provocation was sufficient to +justify his conduct or to alter its legal character. Moreover, _delirium +tremens_, if it produce such a degree of madness as to render a person +incapable of distinguishing right from wrong, relieves him from criminal +responsibility for any act committed by him while under its influence; +and in one case at _nisi prius_ (_R._ v. _Baines_, _The Times_, 25th +Jan. 1886) this doctrine was extended by Mr Justice Day to temporary +derangement occasioned by drink. The law of Scotland accepts, if it does +not go somewhat beyond, the later developments of that of England in +regard to criminal responsibility in drunkenness. Indian law on the +point is similar to the English (Indian Penal Code, Act. xlv. of 1860, +ss. 85, 86; Mayne, _Crim. Law of India_, ed. 1896, p. 391). In the +United States the same view is the prevalent legal doctrine (see Bishop, +_Crim. Law_, 8th ed., i, ss. 397-416). The Criminal Code of Queensland +(No. 9 of 1899, Art. 28) provides that a person who becomes intoxicated +intentionally is responsible for any crime that he commits while so +intoxicated, whether his voluntary intoxication was induced so as to +afford an excuse for the commission of an offence or not. As in England, +however, when an intention to cause a specific result is an element of +an offence, intoxication, whether complete or partial, and whether +intentional or unintentional, may be regarded for the purpose of +ascertaining whether such intention existed or not. There is a similar +provision in the Penal Code of Ceylon (No. 2 of 1883, Art. 79). The +Criminal Codes of Canada (1892, c. 29, ss. 7 et seq.) and New Zealand +(No. 56 of 1893, ss. 21 et seq.) are silent on the subject of +intoxication as an excuse for crime. The Criminal Code of Grenada (No. 2 +of 1897, Art. 51) provides that "a person shall not, on the ground of +intoxication, be deemed to have done any act involuntarily, or be exempt +from any liability to punishment for any act: and a person who does an +act while in a state of intoxication shall be deemed to have intended +the natural and probable consequences of his act." There is a similar +provision in the Criminal Code of the Gold Coast Colony (No. 12 of 1892, +s. 54). Under the French Penal Code (Art. 64), "_il n'y a ni crime, ni +délit, lorsque le prévenu était en état de démence au temps de l'action +ou lorsqu'il aura été contraint par une force à laquelle il n' a pu +résister_." According to the balance of authority (Dalloz, _Rép._ tit., +Peine, ss. 402 et seq.) intoxication is not assimilated to insanity, +within the meaning of this article, but it may be and is taken account +of by juries as an extenuating circumstance (Ortolan, _Droit Pénal_ i. +s. 323: Chauveau et Hélie i. s. 360). A provision in the German Penal +Code (Art. 51) that an act is not punishable if its author, at the time +of committing it, was in a condition of unconsciousness, or morbid +disturbance of the activity of his mind which prevented the free +exercise of his will, has been held not to extend to intoxication +(Clunet, 1883, p. 311). But in Germany as in France, intoxication may +apparently be an extenuating circumstance. Under the Italian Penal Code +(Arts. 46-49) intoxication--unless voluntarily induced so as to afford +an excuse for crime--may exclude or modify responsibility. + +So far only the question whether drunkenness is an excuse for offences +committed under its influence has been dealt with. There remains the +question how far drunkenness itself is a crime. Mere private +intoxication is not, either in England or in the United States (Bishop, +_Crim. Law_, 8th ed., i. s. 399) indictable as an offence at common law; +but in all civilized countries public drunkenness is punishable when it +amounts to a breach of the peace (see LIQUOR LAWS) or contravention of +public order; and modern legislation in many countries provides for +deprivation of personal liberty for long periods in case of a frequent +repetition of the offence. Reference may be made in this connexion to +the Inebriates Acts 1898, 1899 and 1900 (see iii. _inf._), and also to +similar legislation in the British colonies and in foreign legal systems +(e.g. Cape of Good Hope, No. 32 of 1896; Ceylon, Licensing Ordinance +1891, ss. 23, 24, 29; New South Wales, Vagrants Punishment Act 1866; +Massachusetts, Acts of 1891, c. 427, 1893, cc. 414, 44; France, Law of +23rd of Jan. 1873, Art. 6). + +III. _State Action in Regard to Inebriety._--This assumes a variety of +forms. (a) Measures regulating the punishment of occasional or habitual +drunkenness by fines or short terms of imprisonment. (b) Control in +_penal_ establishments for lengthened periods. (c) Laws prohibiting the +sale of liquor to persons who are known inebriates: e.g. in England +(Licensing Act 1902); Ontario (Rev. Stats. 1897, c. 245, ss. 124, 125); +New South Wales (Liquor Act 1898, ss. 52, 53); Cape of Good Hope (No. 28 +of 1883, s. 89); New York (Rev. Stats. 1889-1892, c. 20, Title iv.); +California (Act to prevent sale of liquor to drunkards, 1889); +Massachusetts (Pub. Stats., ed. 1902, c. 100, s. 9). (d) Laws regulating +the appointment of some person or persons to act as guardian or +guardians, or who may be endowed with legal powers over the person and +estate of an inebriate. Thus in France (Code Civil, Arts. 489 et seq.), +Germany (Civil Code, Art. 6 (39)) and Austria-Hungary (_Bürgerliches +Gesetz-Buch_, ss. 21, 269, 270, 273), an inebriate may be judicially +interdicted if he is squandering his property and thereby exposing his +family to future destitution. Provision is also made for the +interdiction of inebriates by the laws of Nova Scotia (Rev. Stats. 1900, +c. 126, s. 2), Manitoba (Rev. Stat. 1902, c. 103, ss. 30 et seq.), +British Columbia (Rev. Stat. 1897, c. 66), New South Wales (Inebriates +Act 1900, s. 5), Tasmania (Inebriates Act 1885, No. 17, s. 23); Canton +of Bâle (Trustee Law of the 23rd of Feb. 1880, s. 11), Orange River +Colony (Code Laws, c. 108, s. 30), Maryland (Code General Laws, c. 474, +s. 47). (e) Control for the purpose of reformation. Legislation of this +character provides reformatory treatment: (1) for the inebriate who +makes a voluntary application for admission; (2) by compulsory seclusion +for the inebriate who refuses consent to treatment and yet manages to +keep out of the reach of the law; (3) for the inebriate who is a +police-court recidivist, or who has committed crime, caused or +contributed to by drink. The legislation of the Cape of Good Hope +(Inebriates Act 1896) and of North Dakota (Habitual Drunkards Act 1895) +provides for the first of these methods of treatment alone. Compulsory +detention for ordinary inebriates only is provided for by the laws of +Delaware (Act of 1898), Massachusetts (Rev. Laws, c. 87), and of the +Cantons of Berne (Law of the 24th of Nov. 1883) and Bâle (Law of the +21st of Feb. 1901). All three methods of treatment are in force in New +South Wales (Inebriates Act 1900), Queensland (Inebriates Institutions +Act 1896) and South Australia (Inebriates Act 1881). Provision is made +only for voluntary application and compulsory detention of ordinary +inebriates in Victoria (Inebriates Act 1890), Tasmania (Inebriates Act +1885; Inebriates Hospitals Act 1892) and New Zealand (Inebriates +Institutions Act 1898). The legislation of the United Kingdom +(Inebriates Acts 1879-1900) deals both with voluntary application and +with the committal of criminal inebriates or of police-court +recidivists. A brief sketch of the English system must suffice. + +The Inebriates Acts of 1870-1900 deal in the first place with +non-criminal, and in the second place with criminal, habitual drunkards. + +For the purposes of the acts the term "habitual drunkard" means "a +person who, not being amenable to any jurisdiction in lunacy, is +notwithstanding, by reason of habitual intemperate drinking of +intoxicating liquor, at times dangerous to himself or herself, or +incapable of managing himself or herself and his or her affairs." A +person would become amenable to the lunacy jurisdiction not only where +habitual drunkenness made him a "lunatic" in the legal sense of the +term, but where it created, such a state of disease and consequential +"mental infirmity" as to bring his case within section 116 of the Lunacy +Act 1890, the effect of which is explained in the article Insanity. Any +"habitual drunkard" within the above definition may obtain admission to +a "licensed retreat" on a written application to the licensee, stating +the time (the maximum period is two years) that he undertakes to remain +in the retreat. The application must be accompanied by the statutory +declaration of two persons that the applicant is an habitual drunkard, +and its signature must be attested by a justice of the peace who has +satisfied himself as to the fact, and who is required to state that the +applicant understood the nature and effect of his application. Licences +(each of which is subject to a duty and is impressed with a stamp of £5, +and 10s. for every patient above ten in number) are granted for retreats +by the borough council and the town clerk in boroughs, and elsewhere by +the county council and the clerk of the county council. The maximum +period for which a licence may be granted is two years, but licences may +be renewed by the licensing authority on payment of a stamp duty of the +same amount as on the original grant. When an habitual drunkard has once +been committed to a retreat, he must remain in the retreat for the time +that he has fixed in his application, subject to certain statutory +provisions similar to those prescribed by the Lunacy Acts for asylums as +to leave of absence and discharge; and he may be retaken and brought +back to the retreat under a justice's warrant. The term of detention may +be extended on its expiry, or an inebriate may be readmitted, on a fresh +application, without any statutory declaration, and without the +attesting justice being required to satisfy himself that the applicant +is an habitual drunkard. Licensed retreats are subject to inspection by +an Inspector of Retreats appointed by the Home Secretary, to whom he +makes an annual report. The Home Secretary is empowered to make rules +and regulations for the management of retreats, and "regulations and +orders," not inconsistent with such rules, are to be prepared by the +licensee within a month after the granting of his licence, and submitted +to the inspector for approval. The rules now in force are dated as +regards (a) England, 28th Feb. 1902; (b) Scotland, 14th April 1902; (c) +Ireland, 3rd Feb. 1903. There are also statutory provisions, similar to +those of the Lunacy Acts, as to offences--(i.) by licensees failing to +comply with the requirements of the acts; (ii) by persons ill-treating +patients, or helping them to escape, or unlawfully supplying them with +intoxicating liquor; (iii.) by patients refusing to comply with the +rules. The Home Secretary may (i.) authorize the establishment of "State +Inebriate Reformatories," to be paid for out of moneys provided by +parliament; and (ii.) sanction "Certified Inebriates' Reformatories" on +the application of any borough or county council, or any person +whatever, if satisfied concerning the reformatory and the persons +proposing to maintain it. An Inspector of Certified Inebriate +Reformatories has been appointed. Regulations for State Inebriate +Reformatories and for Certified Inebriate Reformatories have been made, +dated as follows: _State Inebriate Reformatories_:--England, 21st of +June 1901, 29th of Dec. 1903, 29th of April 1904; Scotland, 9th of March +1900; Ireland, 16th of March 1899, 16th of April 1901, 10th of Feb. +1904. _Certified Inebriate Reformatories_:--England, Model Regulations, +17th of Dec. 1898; Scotland, Regulations, 14th of Feb. 1899; Ireland, +Model Regulations, 29th of April 1899. + +Any person convicted on indictment of an offence punishable with +imprisonment or penal servitude (i.e. of any non-capital felony and of +most misdemeanours), if the court is satisfied from the evidence that +the offence was committed under the influence of drink, or that drink +was a contributing cause of the offence, may, if he admits that he is, +or is found by the jury to be, an habitual drunkard, in addition to or +in substitution for any other sentence, be ordered to be detained in a +state or certified inebriate reformatory, the managers of which are +willing to receive him. Again, any habitual drunkard who is found drunk +in any public place, or who commits any other of a series of similar +offences under various statutes, after having within twelve months been +convicted at least three times of a similar offence, may, on conviction +on indictment, or, if he consent, on summary conviction, be sent for +detention in any certified inebriate reformatory. The expenses of +prosecuting habitual drunkards under the above provisions are payable +out of the local rates upon an order to that effect by the judge of +assize or chairman of quarter-sessions if the prosecution be on +indictment, or by a court of summary jurisdiction if the offence is +dealt with summarily. + + AUTHORITIES.--As to the history of legislation on the subject see + Parl. Paper No. 242 of 1872; 1893 C. 7008. See also Wyatt Paine, + _Inebriate Reformatories and Retreats_ (London, 1899); Blackwell, + _Inebriates Acts_, 1879-1898 (London, 1899); Wood Renton, _Lunacy_ + (London and Edinburgh, 1896); Kerr, _Inebriety_ (3rd ed., London, + 1894). An excellent account of the systems in force in other countries + for the treatment of inebriates will be found in Parl. Pap. (1902), + cd. 1474. (A. W. R.) + + + + +INFALLIBILITY (Fr. _infaillibilité_ and _infallibilité_, the latter now +obsolete, Med. Lat. _infallibilitas_, _infallibilis_, formed from +fallor, to make a mistake), the fact or quality of not being liable to +err or fail. The word has thus the general sense of "certainty"; we may, +e.g., speak of a drug as an infallible specific, or of a man's judgment +as infallible. In these cases, however, the "infallibility" connotes +certainty only in so far as anything human can be certain. In the +language of the Christian Church the word "infallibility" is used in a +more absolute sense, as the freedom from ail possibility of error +guaranteed by the direct action of the Spirit of God. This belief in the +infallibility of revelation is involved in the very belief in revelation +itself, and is common to all sections of Christians, who differ mainly +as to the kind and measure of infallibility residing in the human +instruments by which this revelation is interpreted to the world. Some +see the guarantee, or at least the indication, of infallibility in the +consensus of the Church (_quod semper, ubique, et ab omnibus_) expressed +from time to time in general councils; others see it in the special +grace conferred upon St Peter and his successors, the bishops of Rome, +as heads of the Church; others again see it in the inspired Scriptures, +God's Word. This last was the belief of the Protestant Reformers, for +whom the Bible was in matters of doctrine the ultimate court of appeal. +To the translation and interpretation of the Scriptures men might bring +a fallible judgment, but this would be assisted by the direct action of +the Spirit of God in proportion to their faith. As for infallibility, +this was a direct grace of God, given only to the few. "What ever was +perfect under the sun," ask the translators of the Authorized Version +(1611) in their preface, "where apostles and apostolick men, that is, +men endued with an extraordinary measure of God's Spirit, and privileged +with the privilege of infallibility, had not their hand?" In modern +Protestantism, on the other hand, the idea of an infallible authority +whether in the Church or the Bible has tended to disappear, religious +truths being conceived as valuable only as they are apprehended and made +real to the individual mind and soul by the grace of God, not by reason +of any submission to an external authority. (See also INSPIRATION.) + +At the present time, then, the idea of infallibility in religious +matters is most commonly associated with the claim of the Roman Catholic +Church, and more especially of the pope personally as head of that +Church, to possess the privilege of infallibility, and it is with the +meaning and limits of this claim that the present article deals. + +The substance of the claim to infallibility made by the Roman Catholic +Church is that the Church and the pope cannot err when solemnly +enunciating, as binding on all the faithful, a decision on a question of +faith or morals. The infallibility of the Church, thus limited, is a +necessary outcome of the fundamental conception of the Catholic Church +and its mission. Every society of men must have a supreme authority, +whether individual or collective, empowered to give a final decision in +the controversies which concern it. A community whose mission it is to +teach religious truth, which involves on the part of its members the +obligation of belief in this truth, must, if it is not to fail of its +object, possess an authority capable of maintaining the faith in its +purity, and consequently capable of keeping it free from and condemning +errors. To perform this function without fear of error, this authority +must be infallible in its own sphere. The Christian Church has expressly +claimed this infallibility for its formal dogmatic teaching. In the very +earliest centuries we find the episcopate, united in council, drawing up +symbols of faith, which every believer was bound to accept under pain of +exclusion, condemning heresies, and casting out heretics. From Nicaea +and Chalcedon to Florence and Trent, and to the present day, the Church +has excluded from her communion all those who do not profess her own +faith, i.e. all the religious truths which she represents and imposes as +obligatory. This is infallibility put into practice by definite acts. + +The infallibility of the pope was not defined until 1870 at the Vatican +Council; this definition does not constitute, strictly speaking, a +dogmatic innovation, as if the pope had not hitherto enjoyed this +privilege, or as if the Church, as a whole, had admitted the contrary; +it is the newly formulated definition of a dogma which, like all those +defined by the Councils, continued to grow into an ever more definite +form, ripening, as it were, in the always living community of the +Church. The exact formula for the papal infallibility is given by the +Vatican Council in the following terms (Constit. _Pastor aeternus_, cap. +iv.); "we teach and define as a divinely revealed dogma, that the Roman +Pontiff, when he speaks _ex cathedra_--i.e. when, in his character as +Pastor and Doctor of all Christians, and in virtue of his supreme +apostolic authority, he lays down that a certain doctrine concerning +faith or morals is binding upon the universal Church,--possesses, by the +Divine assistance which was promised to him in the person of the blessed +Saint Peter, that same infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer +thought fit to endow His Church, to define its doctrine with regard to +faith and morals; and, consequently, that these definitions of the Roman +Pontiff are irreformable in themselves, and not in consequence of the +consent of the Church." A few notes will suffice to elucidate this +pronouncement. + +(a) As the Council expressly says, the infallibility of the pope is not +other than that of the Church; this is a point which is too often +forgotten or misunderstood. The pope enjoys it in person, but solely +_qua_ head of the Church, and as the authorized organ of the +ecclesiastical body. For this exercise of the primacy as for the others, +we must conceive of the pope and the episcopate united to him as a +continuation of the Apostolic College and its head Peter. The head of +the College possesses and exercises by himself alone the same powers as +the College which is united with him; not by delegation from his +colleagues, but because he is their established chief. The pope when +teaching _ex cathedra_ acts as head of the whole episcopal body and of +the whole Church. + +(b) If the Divine constitution of the Church has not changed in its +essential points since our Lord, the mode of exercise of the various +powers of its head has varied; and that of the supreme teaching power as +of the others. This explains the late date at which the dogma was +defined, and the assertion that the dogma was already contained in that +of the papal primacy established by our Lord himself in the person of St +Peter. A certain dogmatic development is not denied, nor an evolution in +the direction of a centralization in the hands of the pope of the +exercise of his powers as primate; it is merely required that this +evolution should be well understood and considered as legitimate. + +(c) As a matter of fact the infallibility of the pope, when giving +decisions in his character as head of the Church, was generally admitted +before the Vatican Council. The only reservation which the most advanced +Gallicans dared to formulate, in the terms of the celebrated declaration +of the clergy of France (1682), had as its object the irreformable +character of the pontifical definitions, which, it was claimed, could +only have been acquired by them through the assent of the Church. This +doctrine, rather political than theological, was a survival of the +errors which had come into being after the Great Schism, and especially +at the council of Constance; its object was to put the Church above its +head, as the council of Constance had put the ecumenical council above +the pope, as though the council could be ecumenical without its head. In +reality it was Gallicanism alone which was condemned at the Vatican +Council, and it is Gallicanism which is aimed at in the last phrase of +the definition we have quoted. + +(d) Infallibility is the guarantee against error, not in all matters, +but only in the matter of dogma and morality; everything else is beyond +its power, not only truths of another order, but even discipline and the +ecclesiastical laws, government and administration, &c. + +(e) Again, not all dogmatic teachings of the pope are under the +guarantee of infallibility; neither his opinions as private instructor, +nor his official allocutions, however authoritative they may be, are +infallible; it is only his _ex cathedra_ instruction which is +guaranteed; this is admitted by everybody. + +But when does the pope speak _ex cathedra_, and how is it to be +distinguished when he is exercising his infallibility? As to this point +there are two schools, or rather two tendencies, among Catholics: some +extend the privilege of infallibility to all official exercise of the +supreme _magisterium_, and declare infallible, e.g. the papal +encyclicals.[1] Others, while recognizing the supreme authority of the +papal _magisterium_ in matters of doctrine, confine the infallibility to +those cases alone in which the pope chooses to make use of it, and +declares positively that he is imposing on all the faithful the +obligation of belief in a certain definite proposition, under pain of +heresy and exclusion from the Church; they do not insist on any special +form, but only require that the pope should clearly manifest his will to +the Church. This second point of view, as clearly expounded by Mgr +Joseph Fessler (1813-1872), bishop of St Pölten, who was secretary to +the Vatican Council, in his work _Die wahre und die falsche +Unfehlbarkeit der Päpste_ (French trans. _La vraie et la fausse +infaillibilité_, Paris, 1873), and by Cardinal Newman in his "Letter to +the Duke of Norfolk," is the correct one, and this is clear from the +fact that it has never been blamed by the ecclesiastical authority. +Those who hold the latter opinion have been able to assert that since +the Vatican Council no infallible definition had yet been formulated by +the popes, while recognizing the supreme authority of the encyclicals of +Leo XIII. + +It is remarkable that the definition of the infallibility of the pope +did not appear among the projects (_schemata_) prepared for the +deliberations of the Vatican Council (1869). It doubtless arose from the +proposed forms for the definitions of the primacy and the pontifical +_magisterium_. The chapter on the infallibility was only added at the +request of the bishops and after long hesitation on the part of the +cardinal presidents. The proposed form, first elaborated in the +conciliary commission _de fide_, was the object of long public +discussions from the 50th general congregation (May 13th, 1870) to the +85th (July 13th); the constitution as a whole was adopted at a public +session, on the 18th, of the 535 bishops present, two only replied "_Non +placet_"; but about 50 had preferred not to be present. The +controversies occasioned by this question had started from the very +beginning of the Council, and were carried on with great bitterness on +both sides. The minority, among whom were prominent Cardinals Rauscher +and Schwarzenberg, Hefele, bishop of Rotterdam (the historian of the +councils) Cardinal Mathieu, Mgr Dupanloup, Mgr Maret, &c., &c., did not +pretend to deny the papal infallibility; they pleaded the +inopportuneness of the definition and brought forward difficulties +mainly of an historical order, in particular the famous condemnation of +Pope Honorius by the 6th ecumenical council of Constantinople in 680. +The majority, in which Cardinal Manning played a very active part, took +their stand on theological reasons of the strongest kind; they invoked +the promises of Our Lord to St Peter: "Thou art Peter, and upon this +rock will I build my Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail +against her"; and again, "I have prayed for thee, Peter, that thy faith +fail not; and do thou in thy turn confirm thy brethren"; they showed the +popes, in the course of the ages, acting as the guardians and judges of +the faith, arousing or welcoming dogmatic controversies and +authoritatively settling them, exercising the supreme direction in the +councils and sanctioning their decisions; they explained that the few +historical difficulties did not involve any dogmatic defect in the +teaching of the popes; they insisted upon the necessity of a supreme +tribunal giving judgment in the name of the whole of the scattered +Church; and finally, they considered that the definition had become +opportune for the very reason that under the pretext of its +inopportuneness the doctrine itself was being attacked. + +The definition once proclaimed, controversies rapidly ceased; the +bishops who were among the minority one after the other formulated their +loyal adhesion to the Catholic dogma. The last to do so in Germany was +Hefele, who published the decrees of the 10th of April 1871, thus +breaking a long friendship with Döllinger; in Austria, where the +government had thought good to revive for the occasion the royal +_placet_, Mgr Haynald and Mgr Strossmayer delayed the publication, the +former till the 15th of September 1871, the latter till the 26th of +December 1872. In France the adhesion was rapid, and the publication was +only delayed by some bishops in consequence of the disastrous war with +Prussia. Though no bishops abandoned it, a few priests, such as Father +Hyacinthe Loyson, and a few scholars at the German universities refused +their adhesion. The most distinguished among the latter was Döllinger, +who resisted all the advances of Mgr Scherr, archbishop of Munich, was +excommunicated on the 17th of April 1871, and died unreconciled, though +without joining any separate group. After him must be mentioned +Friedrich of Munich, several professors of Bonn, and Reinkens of +Breslau, who was the first bishop of the "Old Catholics." These +professors formed the "Committee of Bonn," which organized the new +Church. It was recognized and protected first in Bavaria, thanks to the +minister Freiherr Johann von Lutz, then in Saxony, Baden, Württemberg, +Prussia, where it was the pretext for, if not the cause of, the +Kulturkampf, and finally in Switzerland, especially at Geneva. + + For the theological aspects of the dogma of infallibility, see, among + many others, L. Billot, S.J., _De Ecclesia Christi_ (3 vols., Rome, + 1898-1900); or G. Wilmers, S.J., _De Christi Ecclesia_ (Regensburg, + 1897). The most accessible popular work is that of Mgr Fessler already + mentioned. For the history of the definition see VATICAN COUNCIL; also + PAPACY, GALLICANISM, FEBRONIANISM, OLD CATHOLICS, &c. (A. Bo.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] It was in this sense that it was understood by Döllinger, who + pointed out that the definition of the dogma would commit the Church + to all past official utterances of the popes, e.g. the Syllabus of + 1864, and therefore to a war _à outrance_ against modern + civilization. This view was embodied in the circular note to the + Powers, drawn up by Döllinger and issued by the Bavarian prime + minister Prince Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst on April 9, 1869. It was + also the view universally taken by the German governments which + supported the _Kulturkampf_ in a greater or less degree.--ED. + + + + +INFAMY (Lat. _infamia_), public disgrace or loss of character. Infamy +(_infamia_) occupied a prominent place in Roman law, and took the form +of a censure on individuals pronounced by a competent authority in the +state, which censure was the result either of certain actions which they +had committed or of certain modes of life which they had pursued. Such a +censure involved disqualification for certain rights both in public and +in private law (see A. H. J. Greenidge, _Infamia, its Place in Roman +Public and Private Law_, 1894). In English law infamy attached to a +person in consequence of conviction of some crime. The effect of infamy +was to render a person incompetent to give evidence in any legal +proceeding. Infamy as a cause of incompetency was abolished by an act of +1843 (6 & 7 Vict. c. 85). + +The word "infamous" is used in a particular sense in the English Medical +Act of 1858, which provides that if any registered medical practitioner +is judged by the General Medical Council, after due inquiry, to have +been guilty of infamous conduct in any professional respect, his name +may be erased from the Medical Register. The General Medical Council are +the sole judges of whether a practitioner has been guilty of conduct +infamous in a professional respect, and they act in a judicial capacity, +but an accused person is generally allowed to appear by counsel. Any +action which is regarded as disgraceful or dishonourable by a man's +professional brethren--such, for example, as issuing advertisements in +order to induce people to consult him in preference to other +practitioners--may be found infamous. + + + + +INFANCY, in medical practice, the nursing age, or the period during +which the child is at the breast. As a matter of convenience it is usual +to include in it children up to the age of one year. The care of an +infant begins with the preparations necessary for its birth and the +endeavour to ensure that taking place under the best possible sanitary +conditions. On being born the normal infant cries lustily, drawing air +into its lungs. As soon as the umbilical cord which unites the child to +the mother has ceased to pulsate, it is tied about 2 in. from the +child's navel and is divided above the ligature. The cord is wrapped in +a sterilized gauze pad and the dressing is not removed until the seventh +to the tenth day, when the umbilicus is healed. + +The baby is now a separate entity, and the first event in its life is +the first bath. The room ready to receive a new-born infant should be +kept at a temperature of 70° F. The temperature of the first bath should +be 100° F. The child should be well supported in the bath by the left +hand of the nurse, and care should be taken to avoid wetting the gauze +pad covering the cord. In some cases infants are covered with a white +substance termed "vernix caseosa," which may be carefully removed by a +little olive oil. Sponges should never be used, as they tend to harbour +bacteria. A soft pad of muslin or gauze which can be boiled should take +its place. After the first ten days 94° F. is the most suitable +temperature for a bath. When the baby has been well dried the skin may +be dusted with pure starch powder to which a small quantity of boric +acid has been added. The most important part of the toilet of a new-born +infant is the care of the eyes, which should be carefully cleansed with +gauze dipped in warm water and one drop of a 2% solution of nitrate of +silver dropped into each eye. The clothes of a newly born child should +consist exclusively of woollen undergarments, a soft flannel binder, +which should be tied on, being placed next the skin, with a long-sleeved +woven wool vest and over this a loose garment of flannel coming below +the feet and long enough to tuck up. Diapers should be made of soft +absorbent material such as well-washed linen and should be about two +yards square and folded in a three-cornered shape. An infant should +always sleep in a bed or cot by itself. In 1907, of 749 deaths from +violence in England and Wales of children under one month, 445 were due +to suffocation in bed with adults. A healthy infant should spend most of +its time asleep and should be laid into its cot immediately after +feeding. + +The normal infant at birth weighs about 7 lb. During the two or three +days following birth a slight decrease in weight occurs, usually 5 to 6 +oz. When nursing begins the child increases in weight up to the seventh +day, when the infant will have regained its weight at birth. From the +second to the fourth week after birth (according to Camerer) an infant +should gain 1 oz. daily or 1½ to 2 lb. monthly, from the fourth to the +sixth month ½ to 2/3 of an oz. daily or 1 lb. monthly, from the sixth to +the twelfth month ½ oz. daily or less than 1 lb. monthly. At the sixth +month it should be twice the weight at birth. The average weight at the +twelfth month is 20 to 21 lb. The increase of weight in artificially fed +is less regular than in breast-fed babies. + +_Food._--There is but one proper food for an infant, and that is its +mother's milk, unless when in exceptional circumstances the mother is +not allowed to nurse her child. Artificially fed children are much more +liable to epidemic diseases. The child should be applied to the breast +the first day to induce the flow of milk. The first week the child +should be fed at intervals of two hours, the second week eight to nine +times, and the fourth week eight times at intervals of two and a half +hours. At two months the child is being suckled six times daily at +intervals of three hours, the last feed being at 11 P.M. Where a mother +cannot nurse a child the child must be artificially fed. Cow's milk must +be largely diluted to suit the new-born infant. Armstrong gives the +following table of dilution:-- + + 1st week, milk 1 tablespoonful, water 2 tablespoonfuls + at 3 months, " 3½ tablespoonfuls, " 3 " \ added + at 6 months, " 9 " " 3 " > with + at 9 months, " 12 " " 3 " / sugar. + +Koplik has drawn out a table of the amounts to be given as follows:-- + + 1st day 3 feeds of 10 cc total 1 oz. in 24 hours + 2nd day 8 " 20 cc " 5½ " + 3rd day 8 " 30 cc (1 oz.) " 8 " + 7th day 9 " 50 cc " 13½ " + 4th week 8 " 60 cc (2 oz.) " 16 " + 3 months 7 " 4 oz. " 28 " + 6 months 6 " 7 oz. " 42 " + 9 months 6 " 8½ oz. " 50 " + +In cities it is advisable that milk should be either sterilized by +boiling or pasteurized, i.e. subjected to a form of heating which, while +destroying pathogenic bacteria, does not alter the taste. The milk in a +suitable apparatus is subjected to a temperature of 65° C. (149° F.) for +half an hour and is then rapidly cooled to 20° C. (68° F.). Children fed +on pasteurized milk should be given a teaspoonful of fresh orange juice +daily to supply the missing acid and salts. + +Artificial feeding is given by means of a bottle. In France all bottles +with rubber tubes have been made illegal. They are a fruitful source of +infection, as it is impossible to keep them clean. The best bottle is +the boat-shaped one, with a wide mouth at one end, to which is attached +a rubber teat, while the other end has a screw stopper. This is readily +cleansed and a stream of water can be made to flow through it. All +bottle teats should be boiled at least once a day for ten minutes with +soda and kept in a glass-covered jar until required. A feed should be +given at the temperature of 100° F. + +At the ninth month a cereal may be added to the food. Before that the +infant is unable to digest starchy foods. Much starch tends to +constipation, and it is rarely wise to give starchy preparations in a +proportion of more than 3% to children under a year old. A child who is +carefully fed in a cleanly manner should not have diarrhoea, and its +appearance indicates carelessness somewhere. The English +registrar-general's returns for 1906 show that in the seventy-six +largest towns in England and Wales 14,306 deaths of infants under one +year from diarrhoea took place in July, August and September alone. +These deaths are largely preventable; when Dr Budin of Paris established +his "Consultations de Nourissons" the infant mortality of Paris amounted +to 178 per 1000, but at the consultation the rate was 46 per 1000. At +Varengeville-sur-mer a consultation for nurslings was instituted under +Dr Poupalt of Dieppe in 1904. During the seven previous years the infant +mortality had averaged 145 per 1000. In 1904-1905 not one infant at the +consultation died, though it was a summer of extreme heat, and in 1898 +when similar heat had prevailed the infant mortality was 285 per 1000. +The deaths of infants under one year in England and Wales, taken from +the registrar-general's returns for 1907, amounted to 117.62 per 1000 +births, an alarming sacrifice of life. France has been turning her +attention to the establishment of infant consultations on the lines of +Dr Budin's, and similar dispensaries under the designation "Gouttes de +lait" have been widely established in that country; gratifying results +in the fall in infant mortality have followed. At the Fécamp dispensary +the mortality from diarrhoea has fallen to 2.8, while that in +neighbouring towns is from 50 to 76 per 1000 (Sir A. Simpson). It has +been left to private enterprise in England to deal with this problem. +The St Pancras "School for Mothers" was established in 1907 in +north-west London. Though started by private persons it was in 1909 +worked in connexion with the Health Department of the Borough Council, +but was supported by charitable subscriptions and by a small +contribution from the student mothers. There are classes for mothers on +the care of their health during pregnancy, infant feeding, home nursing, +cooking and needlework. Poor mothers unable to contribute get free +dinners for three months previous to the birth of their child and for +nine months after if the child is breast-fed. Two doctors are in +attendance, and mothers are encouraged to bring their children +fortnightly to be weighed, and receive advice. The average attendance is +ninety. A baby is said to have "graduated" when it is a year old. An +interesting development in connexion with the scheme is a class for +fathers at which the medical officer of health for the district lectures +on the duties of fatherhood. Similar schools for mothers are now +established in Fulham and Stepney. Weighing centres have been +established at Dundee, Sheffield, Nottingham, Birmingham, Aberdeen, +Bolton, Belfast, and Newcastle-on-Tyne. An infants' milk depôt has been +established at Finsbury, and effort is being made to establish milk +laboratories where separate nursing portions of sterile milk could be +supplied to poor mothers. The Walker-Gordon milk laboratories in the +United States are a step in this direction. + +The average length of a child at birth is 19-½ in. and during the first +year the average increase is 7(7/8) in. A new-born infant is deaf +(Koplik). This is supposed to be due to the blocking of the eustachian +tubes with mucus. On the fourth day there is some evidence of hearing, +and at the fifth week noises in the room disturb it. A healthy infant +may be taken out of doors when a fortnight old in summer, after which it +should have a daily outing, the eyes being protected from the direct +rays of the sun. On the second day the eyes are sensitive to light, in +the second month the infant notices colours, at the sixth month it knows +its parents, and should be able to hold its head up. At the sixth month +the baby begins to cut its temporary teeth. After their appearance they +should be cleaned once a day by a piece of gauze moistened in boric acid +solution. Attempts to stand are made about the tenth month, and walking +begins about the fourteenth month. By this time the intelligence should +be developed and memory is observed. A child a year old should be able +to articulate a few small words. With the advent of walking and speech +the period of infancy may be said to end. + + See Pierre Budin, The Nursling (1907); Henry Koplik, _Disease of + Infancy and Childhood_ (1906); Eric Pritchard, _The Physiological + Feeding of Infants_ (1904); Eric Pritchard, _Infant Education_ (1907); + John Grimshaw, _Your Child's Health_ (1908). (H. L. H.) + + + + +INFANT (in early forms _enfaunt_, _enfant_, through the Fr. _enfant_, +from Lat. _infans_, _in_, not, and _fans_, the present participle of +_fari_, to speak), a child; in non-legal use, a very young child, a +baby, or one of an age suitable to be taught in an "infant school"; in +law, a person under full age, and therefore subject to disabilities not +affecting persons who have attained full age. + +This article deals with "infants" in the last sense; for the more +general sense see INFANCY and CHILD. The period of full age varies +widely in different systems, as do also the disabilities attaching to +nonage (non-age). In Roman law, the age of puberty, fixed at fourteen +for males and twelve for females, was recognized as a dividing line. +Under that age a child was under the guardianship of a tutor, but +several degrees of infancy were recognized. The first was absolute +infancy; after that, until the age of seven, a child was _infantiae +proximus_; and from the eighth year to puberty he was _pubertati +proximus_. An infant in the last stage could, with the assent of his +tutor, act so as to bind himself by stipulations; in the earlier stages +he could not, although binding stipulations could be made to him in the +second stage. After puberty, until the age of twenty-five years, a +modified infancy was recognized, during which the minor's acts were not +void altogether, but voidable, and a curator was appointed to manage his +affairs. The difference between the tutor and the curator in Roman law +was marked by the saying that the former was appointed for the care of +the person, the latter for the estate of the pupil. These principles +apply only to children who are _sui juris_. The _patria potestas_, so +long as it lasts, gives to the father the complete control of the son's +actions. The right of the father to appoint tutors to his children by +will (_testamentarii_) was recognized by the Twelve Tables, as was also +the tutorship of the _agnati_ (or legal as distinct from natural +relations) in default of such an appointment. Tutors who held office in +virtue of a general law were called _legitimi_. Besides and in default +of these, tutors _dativi_ were appointed by the magistrates. These terms +are still used in much the same sense in modern systems founded on the +Roman law, as may be seen in the case of Scotland, noticed below. + +By the law of England full age is twenty-one, and all minors alike are +subject to incapacities. The period of twenty-one years is regarded as +complete at the beginning of the day before the birthday: for example, +an infant born on the first day of January attains his majority at the +first moment of the 31st of December. The incapacity of an infant is +designed for his own protection, and its general effect is to prevent +him from binding himself absolutely by obligations. Of the contracts of +an infant which are binding _ab initio_, the most important are those +relating to "necessaries." By the Sale of Goods Act 1893, an infant +liable on a contract for necessaries can be sued only for a reasonable +price, not necessarily the price he agreed to pay. The same statute +declares "necessaries" to mean "goods suitable to the condition in life +of the infant, and to his actual requirements at the time of the sale +and delivery." In the case of goods having a market price, the market +price is reasonable. In all other cases the question is one of fact for +the jury. The protection of infants extends sometimes to transactions +completed after full age; the relief of heirs who have been induced to +barter away their expectations is an example. "Catching bargains," as +they are called, throw on the persons claiming the benefit of them the +burden of proving their substantial righteousness. + +At common law a bargain made by an infant might be ratified by him after +full age, and would then become binding. Lord Tenterden's act required +the ratification to be in writing. But now, by the Infants' Relief Act +1874, "all contracts entered into by infants for the repayment of money +lent or to be lent, or for goods supplied or to be supplied (other than +contracts for necessaries), and all accounts stated, shall be absolutely +void," and "no action shall be brought whereby to charge any person upon +any promise made after full age to pay any debt contracted during +infancy, or upon any ratification made after full age of any promise or +contract made during infancy, whether there shall or shall not be any +new consideration for such promise or ratification after full age." For +some years after the passage of this statute highly conflicting views +were held as to the meaning of the part of section 2 whereby it was +enacted that "no action shall be brought whereby to charge any person +... upon any ratification made after full age of any promise or contract +made during infancy." Some authorities were of opinion that the section +only applied to the three classes of contract made void by the previous +section, viz. for goods supplied, money lent and on account stated. +Others thought the effect to be that no contract, except for +necessaries, made during infancy could be enforced after the infant came +to full age. After several conflicting decisions it has been settled +that both these views were wrong. Of the infant's contracts voidable at +common law there were two kinds. The first kind became void at full age, +unless expressly ratified. The second kind were valid, unless repudiated +within a reasonable time after full age was attained by the infant. The +Infants' Relief Act (section 2) strikes only at the first class and +leaves the second untouched. Thus a promise of marriage made during +infancy cannot be ratified so as to become actionable: but an infant's +marriage settlement, being of the second class, is valid, unless it is +repudiated within a reasonable time after the infant attains full age. +What is a reasonable time depends on all the circumstances of the case. +In a case decided in 1893 a settlement made by a female infant was +allowed to be repudiated thirty years after she attained full age, but +the circumstances were exceptional. A contract of marriage may be +lawfully made by persons under age. Marriageable age is fourteen in +males and twelve in females. So, generally, an infant may bind himself +by contract of apprenticeship or service. Since the passing of the Wills +Act, an infant, except he be a soldier in actual military service or a +seaman at sea, is unable to make a will. Infancy is in general a +disqualification for public offices and professions, e.g. to be a member +of parliament or an elector, a mayor or burgess, a priest or deacon, a +barrister or solicitor, &c. + +Before 1886 the custody of an infant belonged in the first place, and +against all other persons, to the father, who was said to be "the +guardian of his children by nature and nurture"; and the father might by +deed or will dispose of the custody or tuition of his children until the +age of twenty-one. + +The Guardianship of Infants Act 1886 placed the mother almost on the +same footing as the father as to guardianship of infants. On the death +of the father the mother becomes guardian under the statute, either +alone when no guardian has been appointed by the father, or jointly with +any guardian appointed by him under 12 Chas. II. c. 24. A change of the +law even more important is that whereby the mother may by deed or will +appoint a guardian or guardians of her infant children to act after her +death. If the father survives the mother, the mother's guardian can only +act if it be shown to the satisfaction of the court that the father is +unfitted to be the sole guardian. On the death of the father, the +guardian so appointed by the mother acts jointly with any guardian +appointed by the father. The Guardianship of Infants Act 1886 also gives +power to the high court and to county courts to make orders, upon the +application of the mother, regarding the custody of an infant, and the +right of access thereto of either parent. The court must take into +consideration "the welfare of the infant, and ... the conduct of the +parents, and ... the wishes as well of the mother as of the father." The +same statute also empowers the high court of justice, "on being +satisfied that it is for the welfare of the infant," to "remove from his +office any testamentary guardian or any guardian appointed or acting by +virtue of this act," and also to appoint another in place of the +guardian so removed. + +The same statute gives power to a court sitting in divorce practically +to take away from a parent guilty of a matrimonial offence all rights of +guardianship. When a decree for judicial separation or divorce is +pronounced, the court pronouncing it may at the same time declare the +parent found guilty of misconduct to be unfit to have the custody of the +children of the marriage. "In such case the parent so declared to be +unfit shall not, upon the death of the other parent, be entitled as of +right to the custody or guardianship of such children." The court +exercises this power very sparingly. When the declaration of unfitness +is made, the practical effect is to give to the innocent parent the sole +guardianship, as well as power to appoint a testamentary guardian to the +exclusion of the guilty parent. + +Another radical change has been made in the rights of parents as to +guardianship of their children. In consequence of several cases where, +after children had been rescued by philanthropic persons from squalid +homes and improper surroundings, the courts had felt bound by law to +redeliver them to their parents, the Custody of Children Act 1891 was +passed. It provides that when the parent of a child applies to the court +for a writ or order for the production of the child, and the court is of +opinion that the parent has abandoned or deserted the child, or that he +has otherwise so conducted himself that the court should refuse to +enforce his right to the custody of the child, the court may, in its +discretion, decline to issue the writ or make the order. If the child, +in respect of whom the application is made, is being brought up by +another person ("person" includes "school or institution"), or is being +boarded out by poor-law guardians, the court may, if it orders the child +to be given up to the parent, further order the parent to pay all or +part of the cost incurred by such person or guardians in bringing up the +child. + +A parent who has abandoned or deserted his child is, prima facie, unfit +to have the custody of the child. And before the court can make an order +giving him the custody, the onus lies on him to prove that he is fit. +The same rule applies where the child has been allowed by the parent "to +be brought up by another person at that person's expense, or by the +guardians of a poor-law union, for such a length of time and under such +circumstances as to satisfy the court that the parent was unmindful of +his parental duties." + +The 4th section of the Custody of Children Act 1891 preserves the right +of the parent to control the religious training of the infant. The +father, however unfit he may be to have the custody of his child, has +the legal right to require the child to be brought up in his own +religion. If the father is dead, and has left no directions on the +point, the mother may assert a similar right. But the court may consult +the wishes of the child; and when an infant has been allowed by the +father to grow up in a faith different from his own, the court will not, +as a rule, order any change in the character of religious instruction. +This is especially the case where the infant appears to be settled in +his convictions. + +In the same direction as the Custody of Children Act 1891 is the +Children Act 1908, whereby considerable powers have been conferred on +courts of summary jurisdiction (see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO). + +There is not at common law any corresponding obligation on the part of +either parent to maintain or educate the children. The legal duties of +parents in this respect are only those created by the poor laws, the +Education Acts and the Children Act 1908. + +An infant is liable to a civil action for torts and wrongful acts +committed by him. But, as it is possible so to shape the pleadings as to +make what is in substance a right arising out of contract take the form +of a right arising from civil injury, care is taken that an infant in +such a case shall not be held liable. With respect to crime, mere +infancy is not a defence, but a child under seven years of age is +presumed to be incapable of committing a crime, and between seven and +fourteen his capacity requires to be affirmatively proved. After +fourteen an infant is _doli capax_. + + The law of Scotland follows the leading principles of the Roman law. + The period of minority (which ends at twenty-one) is divided into two + stages, that of absolute incapacity (until the age of fourteen in + males, and twelve in females), during which the minor is in + pupilarity, and that of partial incapacity (between fourteen and + twenty-one), during which he is under curators. The guardians (or + tutors) of the pupil are either tutors-nominate (appointed by the + father in his will); tutors-at-law (being the next male agnate of + twenty-five years of age), in default of tutors-nominate; or + tutors-dative, appointed by royal warrant in default of the other two. + No act done by the pupil, or action raised in his name, has any effect + without the interposition of a guardian. After fourteen, all acts done + by a minor having curators are void without their concurrence. Every + deed in nonage, whether during pupilarity or minority, and whether + authorized or not by tutors or curators, is liable to reduction on + proof of "lesion," i.e. of material injury, due to the fact of nonage, + either through the weakness of the minor himself or the imprudence or + negligence of his curators. Damage in fact arising on a contract in + itself just and reasonable would not be lesion entitling to + restitution. Deeds in nonage, other than those which are absolutely + null _ab initio_, must be challenged within the _quadriennium utile_, + or four years after majority. + + The Guardianship of Infants Act 1886, the Custody of Children Act 1891 + and the Children Act 1908, mentioned above, all apply to Scotland. + + In the United States, the principles of the English common law as to + infancy prevail, generally the most conspicuous variations being those + affecting the age at which women attain majority. In many states this + is fixed at eighteen. There is some diversity of practice as to the + age at which a person can make a will of real or personal estate. + + + + +INFANTE (Spanish and Portuguese form of Lat. _infans_, young child), a +title of the sons of the sovereign of Spain and Portugal, the +corresponding _infanta_ being given to the daughters. The title is not +borne by the eldest son of the king of Spain, who is prince of Asturias, +_Il principe de Asturias_. Until the severance of Brazil from the +Portuguese monarchy, the eldest son was prince of Brazil. While a son or +daughter of the sovereign of Spain is by right infante or infanta of +Spain, the title, alone, is granted to other members of the blood royal +by the sovereign. + + + + +INFANTICIDE, the killing of a newly-born child or of the matured foetus. +When practised by civilized peoples the subject of infanticide concerns +the criminologist and the jurist; but its importance in anthropology, as +it involves a widespread practice among primitive or savage nations, +requires more detailed attention. J. F. McLennan (_Studies in Ancient +History_, pp. 75 et seq.) suggests that the practice of female +infanticide was once universal, and that in it is to be found the origin +of exogamy. Much evidence, however, has been adduced against this +hypothesis by Herbert Spencer and Edward Westermarck. Infanticide, both +of males and females, is far less widespread among savage races than +McLennan supposed. It certainly is common in many lands, and more +females are killed than males; but among many fierce and savage peoples +it is almost unknown. Thus among the Tuski, Ahts, Western Eskimo and the +Botocudos new-born children are killed now and then, if they are weak +and deformed, or for some other reason (such as the superstition +attaching to birth of twins) but without distinction of sex. Among the +Dakota Indians and Crees female infanticide is rare. The Blackfoot +Indians believe that a woman guilty of such an act will never reach "the +Happy Mountain" after death, but will hover round the scene of her +misdeed with branches of trees tied to her legs. The Aleutians hold that +child-murder brings misfortune on the whole village. Among the Abipones +it is common, but the boys are usually the victims, because it is +customary to buy a wife for a son, whereas a grown daughter will always +command a price. In Africa, where a warm climate and abundance of food +simplify the problem of existence, the crime is not common. Herr Valdau +relates that a Bakundu woman, accused of it, was condemned to death. In +Samoa, in the Mitchell and Hervey Islands, and in parts of New Guinea, +it was unheard of; while among the cannibals, the Solomon Islanders, it +occurred rarely. A theory has been advanced by L. Fison (_Kamilaroi and +Kurnai_, 1880) that female infanticide is far less common among the +lower savages than among the more advanced tribes. Among some of the +most degraded of human beings, such as the Yahgans of Tierra del Fuego, +the crime was unknown, except when committed by the mother "from +jealousy or hatred of her husband or because of desertion and +wretchedness." It is said that certain Californian Indians were never +guilty of child-murder before the arrival of the whites; while Wm. Ellis +(_Polynesian Researches_, i. 249) thinks it most probable that the +custom was less prevalent in earlier than later Polynesian history. The +weight of evidence tends to support Darwin's theory that during the +earliest period of human development man did not lose that strong +instinct, the love of his young, and consequently did not practice +infanticide; that, in short, the crime is not characteristic of +primitive races. + +Infanticide may be said to arise from four reasons. It may be (1) an act +of callous brutality or to satisfy cannibalistic cravings. A Fuegian, +Darwin relates, dashed his child's brains out for upsetting a basket of +fish. An Australian, seeing his infant son ill, killed, roasted and ate +him. In some parts of Africa the negroes bait lion-traps with their own +children. Some South American Indians, such as the Moxos, abandon or +kill them without reason; while African and Polynesian cannibals eat +them without the excuse of the periodic famines which made the +Tasmanians regard the birth of a child as a piece of good fortune. + +2. Or infanticide may be the result of the struggle for existence. Thus +in Polynesia, while the climate ensures food in plenty, the relative +smallness of the islands imposed the custom on all families without +distinction. In the Hawaiian Islands all children, after the third or +fourth, were strangled or buried alive. At Tahiti fathers had the right +(and used it) of killing their newly-born children by suffocation. The +chiefs were obliged by custom to kill all their daughters. The society +of the Areois, famous in the Society Islands, imposed infanticide upon +the women members by oath. In other islands all girl-children were +spared, but only two boys in each family were reared. The difficulties +of suckling partly explain the custom of killing twins. For the same +reason the Eskimo and Red Indians used to bury the infant with the +mother who died in childbirth. Among warrior and hunter tribes, where +women could not act as beasts of burden as in agricultural communities, +and where a large number of girls were likely to attract the hostile +attentions of neighbouring tribesmen, girl-babies were murdered. Arabs, +in ancient times, buried alive the majority of female children. In many +lands infanticide was regarded as a meritorious act on the part of a +parent, done, as a precaution against famine, in the interests of the +tribe. In other parts of the world, infanticide results from customs +which impose heavy burdens on child-rearing. Of these artificial +hardships the best example is afforded by India. There the practice, +though forbidden by both the Vedas and the Koran, prevailed among the +Rajputs and certain aboriginal tribes. Among the aristocratic Rajputs, +it was thought dishonourable that a girl should remain unmarried. +Moreover, a girl may not marry below her caste; she ought to marry her +superior, or at least her equal. This reasoning was most powerful with +the highest castes, in which the disproportion of the sexes was +painfully apparent. But, assuming marriage to be possible, it was +ruinously expensive to the bride's father, the cost in the case of some +rajahs having been known to exceed £100,000. To avoid all this, the +Rajput killed a proportion of his daughters--sometimes in a very +singular way. A pill of tobacco and bhang might be given to the new-born +child; or it was drowned in milk;[1] or the mother's breast was smeared +with opium or the juice of the poisonous _datura_. A common method was +to cover the child's mouth with a plaster of cow-dung, before it drew +breath. Infanticide was also practised to a small extent by some sects +of the aboriginal Khonds and by the poorer hill-tribes of the Himalayas. +Where infanticide occurs in India, though it really rests on the +economic facts stated, there is usually some poetical tradition of its +origin. Infanticide from motives of prudence was common among some +American Indian tribes of the north-west, with whom the "potlatch" was +an essential part of their daughter's marriage ceremonies. + +3. Or infanticide may be in the nature of a religious observance. The +gods must be appeased with blood, and it is believed that no sacrifice +can be so pleasing to them as the child of the worshipper. Such were the +motives impelling parents to the burning of children in the worship of +Moloch. In India children were thrown into the sacred river Ganges, and +adoration paid to the alligators who fed on them. Where the custom +prevails as a sacrifice the male child is usually the victim. + +4. Or, finally, infanticide may have a social or political reason. Thus +at Sparta (and in other places in early Greek and Roman history) weakly +or deformed children were killed by order of the state, a custom +approved in the ideal systems of Aristotle and Plato, and still observed +among the Eskimo and the Kamchadales. + + AUTHORITIES.--Herbert Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i. 614-619; + McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_, pp. 75 et seq.; McLennan, + "Exogamy and Endogamy" in the _Fortnightly Review_, xxi. 884 et seq.; + Darwin, Descent of Man, ii. 400 et seq.; L. Fison, and A. W. Howitt, + _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_ (1880); Westermarck, _History of Human + Marriage_ (1894); Browne, _Infanticide: Its Origin, Progress and + Suppression_ (London, 1857); Lord Avebury, _Prehistoric Times_ (1900), + and _Origin of Civilization_ (1902). + +_Law._--The crime of infanticide among civilized nations is still +frequent. It is however due in most cases to abnormal causes, such as a +sudden access of insanity, privation, unreasoning dislike to the child, +&c. It is most closely connected with illegitimacy in the class of farm +and domestic servants, the more common motive being the terror of the +mother of incurring the disgrace with which society visits the more +venial offence. Often, however, it is inspired by no better motive than +the wish to escape the burden of the child's support. The granting of +affiliation orders thus tends to save the lives of many children, though +it provides a motive for the paramour sometimes to share in the crime. +The laws of the European states differ widely on this subject--some of +them treating infanticide as a special crime, others regarding it merely +as a case of murder of unusually difficult proof. In the law of England +infanticide is murder or manslaughter according to the presence or +absence of deliberation. The infant must be a human being in the legal +sense; and "a child becomes a human being when it has completely +proceeded in a living state from the body of its mother, whether it has +breathed or not, and whether it has an independent circulation or not, +and whether the navel-string is severed or not; and the killing of such +a child is homicide when it dies after birth in consequence of injuries +received before, during or after birth." À child in the womb or in the +act of birth, though it may have breathed, is therefore not a human +being, the killing of which amounts to homicide. The older law of child +murder under a statute of James I. consisted of cruel presumptions +against the mother, and it was not till 1803 that trials for that +offence were placed under the ordinary rules of evidence. The crown now +takes upon itself the onus of proving in every case that the child has +been alive. This is often a matter of difficulty, and hence a frequent +alternative charge is that of concealment of birth (see BIRTH), or +concealment of pregnancy in Scotland. It is the opinion of the most +eminent of British medical jurists that this presumption has tended to +increase infanticide. Apart from this, the technical definition of human +life has excited a good deal of comment and some indignation. The +definition allows many wicked acts to go unpunished. The experience of +assizes in England shows that many children are killed when it is +impossible to prove that they were wholly born. The distinction taken by +the law was probably comprehended by the minds of the class to which +most of the unhappy mothers belong. Partly to meet this complaint it was +suggested to the Royal Commission of 1866 that killing during birth, or +within seven days thereafter, should be an offence punishable with penal +servitude. The second complaint is of an opposite character--partly that +infanticide by mothers is not a fit subject for capital punishment, and +partly that, whatever be the intrinsic character of the act, juries will +not convict or the executive will not carry out the sentence. Earl +Russell gave expression to this feeling when he proposed that no capital +sentence should be pronounced upon mothers for the killing of children +within six months after birth. When there has been a verdict of murder, +sentence of death must be passed, but the practice of the Home Office, +as laid down in 1908, is invariably to commute the death sentence to +penal servitude for life. The circumstances of the case and the +disposition and general progress of the prisoners under discipline in a +convict prison are then determining factors in the length of subsequent +detention, which rarely exceeds three years. After release, the +prisoner's further progress is carefully watched, and if it is seen to +be to her advantage the conditions of her release are cancelled and she +is restored to complete freedom. + +In India measures against the practice were begun towards the end of the +18th century by Jonathan Duncan and Major Walker. They were continued by +a series of able and earnest officers during the 19th century. One of +its chief events, representing many minor occurrences, was the Amritsar +durbar of 1853, which was arranged by Lord Lawrence. At that meeting the +chiefs residing in the Punjab and the trans-Sutlej states signed an +agreement engaging to expel from caste every one who committed +infanticide, to adopt fixed and moderate rates of marriage expenses, and +to exclude from these ceremonies the minstrels and beggars who had so +greatly swollen the expense. According to the present law, if the female +children fall below a certain percentage in any tract or among any tribe +in northern India where infanticide formerly prevailed, the suspected +village is placed under police supervision, the cost being charged to +the locality. By these measures, together with a strictly enforced +system of reporting births and deaths, infanticide has been almost +trampled out; although some of the Rajput clans keep their female +offspring suspiciously close to the lowest average which secures them +from surveillance. + +It is difficult to say to what extent infanticide prevails in the United +Kingdom. At one time a large number of children were murdered in England +for the purpose of obtaining the burial money from a benefit club,[2] +but protection against this risk has been provided for by the Friendly +Societies Act 1896, and the Collecting Societies Act 1896. The neglect +or killing of nurse-children is treated under BABY-FARMING, and +CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO. + +In the United States, the elements of this offence are practically the +same as in England. The wilful killing of an unborn child is not +manslaughter unless made so by statute. To constitute manslaughter under +Laws N.Y. 1869, ch. 631, by attempts to produce miscarriage, the +"quickening" of the child must be averred and proved (_Evans_ v. +_People_, 49 New York Rep. 86; see also _Wallace_ v. _State_, 7 Texas +app. 570). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In Baluchistan, where children are often drowned in milk, there + is a euphemistic proverb: "The lady's daughter died drinking milk." + + [2] See _Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Classes_, + "Supplementary Report on Interment in Towns," by Edwin Chadwick + (_Parl. Papers_, 1843, xii. 395); and _The Social Condition and + Education of the People_, by Joseph Kay (1850). + + + + +INFANTRY, the collective name of soldiers who march and fight on foot +and are armed with hand-weapons. The word is derived ultimately from +Lat. _infans_, infant, but it is not clear how the word came to be used +to mean soldiers. The suggestion that it comes from a guard or regiment +of a Spanish infanta about the end of the 15th century cannot be +maintained in view of the fact that Spanish foot-soldiers of the time +were called _soldados_ and contrasted with French _fantassins_ and +Italian _fanteria_. The _New English Dictionary_ suggests that a +foot-soldier, being in feudal and early modern times the varlet or +follower of a mounted noble, was called a boy (cf. _Knabe_, _garçon_, +footman, &c., and see VALET). + + +HISTORICAL SKETCH + +The importance of the infantry arm, both in history and at the present +time, cannot be summed up better and more concisely than in the phrase +used by a brilliant general of the Napoleonic era, General +Morand--"_L'infanterie, c'est l'armée_." + +It may be confidently asserted that the original fighting man was a +foot-soldier. But infantry was differentiated as an "arm" considerably +later than cavalry; for when a new means of fighting (a chariot or a +horse) presented itself, it was assimilated by relatively picked men, +chiefs and noted warriors, who _ipso facto_ separated themselves from +the mass or reservoir of men. How this mass itself ceased to be a mere +residue and developed special characteristics; how, instead of the +cavalry being recruited from the best infantry, cavalry and infantry +came to form two distinct services; and how the arm thus constituted +organized itself, technically and tactically, for its own work--these +are the main questions that constitute the historical side of the +subject. It is obvious that as the "residue" was far the greatest part +of the army, the history of the foot-soldier is practically identical +with the history of soldiering. + +It was only when a group of human beings became too large to be +surprised and assassinated by a few lurking enemies, that proper +fighting became the normal method of settling a quarrel or a rivalry. +Two groups, neither of which had been able to surprise the other, had to +meet face to face, and the instinct of self-preservation had to be +reconciled with the necessity of victory. From this it was an easy step +to the differentiation of the champion, the proved excellent fighting +man, and to providing this man, on whom everything depended, with all +assistance that better arms, armour, horse or chariot could give him. +But suppose our champion slain, how are we to make head against the +opposing champion? For long ages, we may suppose, the latter, as in the +_Iliad_, slaughtered the sheep who had lost their shepherd, but in the +end the "residue" began to organize itself, and to oppose a united front +to the enemy's champions--in which term we include all selected men, +whether horsemen, charioteers or merely specially powerful axemen and +swordsmen. But once the individual had lost his commanding position, the +problem presented itself in a new form--how to ensure that every member +of the group did his duty by the others--and the solution of this +problem for the conditions of the ancient hand-to-hand struggle marks +the historical beginning of infantry tactics. + + + The phalanx and the legion. + +Gallic warriors bound themselves together with chains. The Greeks +organized the city state, which gave each small army solidarity and the +sense of duty to an ideal, and the phalanx, in which the file-leaders +were in a sense champions yet were made so chiefly by the unity of the +mass. But the Romans went farther. Besides developing solidarity and a +sense of duty, they improved on this conception of the battle to such a +degree that as a nation they may be called the best tacticians who ever +existed. Giving up the attempt to make all men fight equally well, they +dislocated the mass of combatants into three bodies, of which the first, +formed of the youngest and most impressionable men, was engaged at the +outset, the rest, more experienced men, being kept out of the turmoil. +This is the very opposite of the "champion" system. Those who would have +fled after the fall of the champions are engaged and "fought out" before +the champions enter the area of the contest, while the champions, who +possess in themselves the greatest power of resisting and mastering the +instinct of self-preservation, are kept back for the moment when +ordinary men would lose heart. + +It might be said with perfect justice that without infantry there would +never have been discipline, for cavalry began and continued as a crowd +of champions. Discipline, which created and maintained the intrinsic +superiority of the Roman legion, depended first on the ideal of +patriotism. This was ingrained into every man from his earliest years +and expressed in a system of rewards and punishments which took effect +from the same ideal, in that rewards were in the main honorary in +character (mural crowns, &c.), while no physical punishment was too +severe for the man who betrayed, by default or selfishness, the cause of +Rome. Secondly, though every man knew his duty, not every man was equal +to doing it, and in recognition of this fact the Romans evolved the +system of three-line tactics in which the strong parts of the machine +neutralized the weak. The first of these principles, being psychological +in character, rose, flourished and decayed with the _moral_ of the +nation. The second, deduced from the first, varied with it, but as it +was objectively expressed in a system of tactics, which had to be +modified to suit each case, it varied also in proportion as the combat +took more or less abnormal forms. So closely knit were the parts of the +system that not only did the decadence of patriotism sap the legionary +organization, but also the unsuitability of that organization to new +conditions of warfare reacted unfavourably, even disastrously, on the +moral of the nation. Between them, the Roman infantry fell from its +proud place, and whereas in the Republic it was familiarly called the +"strength" (_robur_), by the 4th century A.D. it had become merely the +background for a variety of other arms and corps. Luxury produced +"egoists," to whom the rewards meant nothing and the punishments were +torture for the sake of torture. When therefore the Roman _imperium_ +extended far enough to bring in silks from China and ivory from the +forests of central Africa, the citizen-army ceased to exist, and the +mere necessity for garrisoning distant savage lands threw the burden of +service upon the professional soldier. + + + The Roman Imperial Army. + +The natural consequence of this last was the uniform training of every +man. There were no longer any primary differences between one cohort and +another, and though the value of the three-line system in itself ensured +its continuance, any cohort, however constituted, might find itself +serving in any one of the three lines, i.e. the _moral_ of the last line +was no better than that of the first. The best guarantee of success +became _uniform_ regimental excellence, and whereas Camillus or Scipio +found useful employment in battle for every citizen, Caesar complained +that a legion which had been sent him was too raw, though it had been +embodied for nine years. The conditions which were so admirably met by +the old system never reappeared; for before armies resumed a "citizen" +character the invention of firearms had subjected all ranks and lines +alike to the same ordeal of facing unseen death, and the old soldiers +were better employed in standing shoulder to shoulder with the young. In +brief, the old Roman organization was based on patriotism and +experience, and when patriotism gave place to "egoism," and the +experience of the citizen who spent every other summer in the field of +war gave place to the formal training of the paid recruit, it died, +unregretted either by the citizen or by the military chieftain. The +latter knew how to make the army his devoted servant, while the former +disliked military service and failed to prepare himself for the day when +the military chief and the mercenary overrode his rights and set up a +tyranny, and ultimately the inner provinces of the empire came to be +called _inermes_--unarmed, defenceless--in contrast to the borderland +where the all-powerful professional legions lay in garrison. + +In these same frontier provinces the tactical disintegration of the +legion slowly accomplished itself. Originally designed for the +exigencies of the normal pitched battle on firm open fields, and even +after its professionalization retaining its character as a large battle +unit, it was soon fragmented through the exigencies of border warfare +into numerous detachments of greater or less size, and when the military +frontier of the empire was established, the legion became an almost +sedentary corps, finding the garrisons for the blockhouses on its own +section of the line of defence. Further, the old heavy arms and armour +which had given it the advantage in wars of conquest--in which the +barbarians, gathering to defend their homes, offered a target for the +blow of an army--were a great disadvantage when it became necessary to +police the conquered territory, to pounce upon swiftly moving bodies of +raiders before they could do any great harm. Thus gradually cavalry +became more numerous, and light infantry of all sorts more useful, than +the old-fashioned linesman. To these corps went the best recruits and +the smartest officers, the opportunities for good service and the +rewards for it. The legion became once more the "residue." Thus when the +"champion" reappeared on the battlefield the solidarity that neutralized +his power had ceased to exist. + +The battle of Adrianople, the "last fight of the legion," illustrates +this. The frontal battle was engaged in the ordinary way, and the +cohorts of the first line of the imperial army were fighting man to man +with the front ranks of the Gothic infantry (which had indeed a +solidarity of its own, unlike the barbarians of the early empire, and +was further guaranteed against moral over-pressure by a wagon laager), +when suddenly the armoured heavy cavalry of the Goths burst upon their +flank and rear. There were no longer _Principes_ and _Triarii_ of the +old Republican calibre, but only average troops, in the second and third +lines, and they were broken at once. The first line felt the battle in +rear as well as in front and gave way. Thereafter the victors, horse and +foot, slaughtered unresisting herds of men, not desperate soldiers, and +on this day the infantry arm, as an arm, ceased to exist. + + + The Dark Ages. + +Of course, not every soldier became a horseman, and still fewer could +provide themselves with armour. Regular infantry, too, was still +maintained for siege, mountain and forest warfare. But the _robur_, the +kernel of the line of battle, was gone, and though a few of the peoples +that fought their way into the area of civilization in the dark ages +brought with them the natural and primitive method of fighting on foot, +it was practically always a combination of mighty champions and +"residue," even though the latter bound themselves together by locked +shields, as the Gauls had bound themselves long before with chains, to +prevent "skulking." These infantry nations, without any infantry system +comparable to that of the Greeks and Romans, succumbed in turn to the +crowd of mounted warriors--not like the Greeks and Romans for want of +good military qualities, but for want of an organization which would +have distributed their fighting powers to the best advantage. One has +only to study the battle of Hastings to realize how completely the +infantry masses of the English slipped from the control of their leaders +directly the front ranks became seriously engaged. For many generations +after Hastings there was no attempt to use infantry as the kernel of +armies, still less to organize it as such beforehand. Indeed, except in +the Crusades, where men of high and of low degree alike fought for their +common faith, and in sieges, where cavalry was powerless and the +services of archers and labourers were at a premium, it became quite +unusual for infantry to appear on the field at all. + + + Bouvines. + + The tactics of feudal infantry at its best were conspicuously + illustrated in the battle of Bouvines, where besides the barons, + knights and sergeants, the Brabançon mercenaries (heavy foot) and the + French communal militia opposed one another. On the French right wing, + the opportune arrival of a well-closed mass of cavalry and infantry in + the flank of a loose crowd of men-at-arms which had already been + thoroughly engaged, decided the fight. In the centre, the respective + infantries were in first line, the nobles and knights, with their + sovereigns, in second, yet it was a mixed mass of both that, after a + period of confused fighting, focussed the battle in the persons of the + emperor and the king of France, and if the personal encounters of the + two bodies of knights gave the crowded German infantry a momentary + chance to strike down the king, the latter was soon rescued by a + half-dozen of heavy cavalrymen. On the left wing, the count of + Boulogne made a living castle of his Brabançon pikes, whence with his + men-at-arms he sallied forth from time to time and played the + champion. Lastly, the Constable Montmorency brought over what was + still manageable of the corps that had defeated the cavalry on the + right (nearly all mounted men) and gave the final push to the allied + centre and right in succession. Then the imperial army fled and was + slaughtered without offering much resistance. Of infantry in this + battle there was enough and to spare, but its only opportunities for + decisive action were those afforded by the exhaustion of the armoured + men or by the latter becoming absorbed in their own single combats to + the exclusion of their proper work in the line of battle. As usual the + infantry suffered nine-tenths of the casualties. For all their numbers + and apparent tactical distribution on this field, they were "residue," + destitute of special organization, training or utility; and the only + suggestion of "combined tactics" is the expedient adopted by the count + of Boulogne, rings of spearmen to serve as pavilions served in the + tournament--to secure a decorous setting for a display of knightly + prowess. + +In those days in truth the infantry was no more the army than to-day the +shareholders of a limited company are the board of directors. They were +deeply, sometimes vitally, interested in the result, but they +contributed little or nothing to bringing it about, except when the +opposing cavalries were in a state of moral equilibrium, and in these +cases anything suffices--the appearance of camp followers on a "Gillies +Hill," as at Bannockburn or the sound of half-a-dozen trumpets--to turn +the scale. Once it turned, the infantry of the beaten side was cut down +unresistingly, while the more valuable prisoners were admitted to +ransom. Thereafter, feudal tactics were based principally on the ideas +of personal glory--won in single combat, champion against champion, and +of personal profit--won by the knight in holding a wealthy and +well-armed baron to ransom and by the foot-soldier in plundering while +his masters were fighting. In the French army, the term _bidaux_, +applied in the days of Bouvines to all the infantry other than archers +and arblasters, came by a quite natural process to mean the laggards, +malingerers and skulkers of the army. + + + Revival of infantry. + +But even this infantry contained within itself two half-smothered sparks +of regeneration, the idea of _archery_ and the idea of _communal +militia_. Archery, in whatever form practised, was the one special form +of military activity with which the heavy _gendarme_ (whether he fought +on horseback or dismounted) had no concern. Here therefore infantry had +a special function, and in so far ceased to be "residue." The communal +militia was an early and inadequate expression of the town-spirit that +was soon to produce the solid burgher-militia of Flanders and Germany +and after that the trained bands of the English cities and towns. It +therefore represented the principles of solidarity, of combination, of +duty to one's comrade and to the common cause--principles which had +disappeared from feudal warfare.[1] It was under the influence of these +two ideas or forces that infantry as an arm began once again, though +slowly and painfully, to differentiate itself from the mass of _bidaux_ +until in the end the latter practically contained only the worthless +elements. + + + Courtrai. + + The first true infantry battle since Hastings was fought at Courtrai + in 1302, between the burghers of Bruges and a feudal army under Count + Robert of Artois. The citizens, arrayed in heavy masses, and still + armed with miscellaneous weapons, were careful to place themselves on + ground difficult of access--dikes, pools and marshes--and to fasten + themselves together, like the Gauls of old. Their van was driven back + by the French communal infantry and professional crossbowmen, + whereupon Robert of Artois, true feudal leader as he was, ordered his + infantry to clear the way for the cavalry and without even giving them + time to do so pushed through their ranks with a formless mass of + gendarmerie. This, in attempting to close with the enemy, plunged into + the canals and swamped lands, and was soon immovably fastened in the + mud. The citizens swarmed all round it and with spear, cleaver and + flail destroyed it. Robert himself with a party of his gendarmerie + strove to break through the solid wall of spears, but in vain. He was + killed and his army perished with him, for the citizens did not regard + war as a game and ransom as the loser's forfeit. As for the communal + infantry which had won the first success, it had long since + disappeared from the field, for when count Robert ordered his heavy + cavalry forward, they had thought themselves attacked in rear by a + rush of hostile cavalry--as indeed they were, for the gendarmerie rode + them down--and melted away. + +Crécy (q.v.) was fought forty-four years after Courtrai. Here the +knights had open ground to fight on, and many boasted that they would +revenge themselves. But they encountered not merely infantry, but +infantry tactics, and were for the second, and not the last, time +destroyed. The English army included a large feudal element, but the +spirit of indiscipline had been crushed by a series of iron-handed +kings, and for more than a century the nobles, in so far as they had +been bad subjects, had been good Englishmen. The English yeomen had +reached a level of self-discipline and self-respect which few even of +the great continental cities had attained. They had, lastly, made the +powerful long-bow (see ARCHERY) their own, and Edward I. had _combined_ +the shock of the heavy cavalry with the slow searching preparatory rain +of arrows (see FALKIRK). That is, infantry tactics and cavalry tactics +were co-ordinated by a _general_, and the special point of this for the +present purpose is that instead of being, as in France, the unstable +base of the so-called "feudal pyramid," infantry has become an _arm_, +capable of offence and defence and having its own special organization, +function in the line of battle and tactical method. This last, indeed, +like every other tactical method, rested ultimately on the _moral_ of +the men who had to put it into execution. Archer tactics did not serve +against the disciplined rush of Joan of Arc's gendarmerie, for the +solidarity of the archer companies that tried to stop it had long been +undermined. + + + The English archer. + +Yet we cannot overrate the importance of the archer in this period of +military history. In the city militias solidarity had been obtained +through the close personal relationship of the trade gilds and by the +elimination of the champion. Therefore, as every offensive in war rests +upon boldness, these militias were essentially defensive, for they could +only hope to ward off the feudal champion, not to outfight him (Battle +of Legnano, 1176. See Oman, p. 442). England, however, had evolved a +weapon which no armour could resist, and a race of men as fully trained +to use it as the gendarme was to use the lance.[2] This weapon gave them +the power of killing without being killed, which the citizens' spears +and maces and voulges did not. But like all missiles, arrows were a poor +stand-by in the last resort if determined cavalry crossed the "beaten +zone" and closed in, and besides pavises and pointed stakes the English +archers were given the support of the knights, nobles and sergeants--the +armoured champions--whose steady lances guaranteed their safety. Here +was the real forward stride in infantry tactics. Archery had existed +from time immemorial, and a mere technical improvement in its weapon +could hardly account for its suddenly becoming the queen of the +battlefield. The defensive power of the "dark impenetrable wood" of +spears had been demonstrated again and again, but when the cavalry had +few or no preliminary difficulties to face, the chances of the infantry +mass resisting long-continued pressure was small. It was the combination +of the two elements that made possible a Crécy and a Poitiers, and this +combination was the result of the English social system which produced +the _camaraderie_ of knight and yeoman, champion and plain soldier. +Fortified by the knight's unshakeable steadiness, the yeoman handled his +bow and arrows with cool certainty and rapidity, and shot down every +rush of the opposing champions. This was _camaraderie de combat_ indeed, +and in such conditions the offensive was possible and even easy. The +English conquered whole countries while the Flemish and German spearmen +and vougiers merely held their own. For them, decisive victories were +only possible when the enemy played into their hands, but for the +English the guarantee of such victories was the specific character of +their army itself and the tactical methods resulting from and expressing +that character. + + + The Hundred Years' War. + +But the war of conquest embodied in these decisive victories dwindled in +its later stages to a war of raids. The feudal lord, like the feudal +vassal, returned home and gave place to the professional man-at-arms and +the professional captain. Ransom became again the chief object, and +except where a great leader, such as Bertrand Du Guesclin, compelled the +mercenaries to follow him to death or victory, a battle usually became a +mêlée of irregular duels between men-at-arms, with all the selfishness +and little of the chivalry of the purely feudal encounter. The war went +on and on, the gendarmes thickened their armour, and the archers found +more difficulty in penetrating it. Moreover, in raids for devastation +and booty, the slow-moving infantryman was often a source of danger to +his comrades. In this _guerrilla_ the archer, though he kept his place, +soon ceased to be the mainstay of battle. It had become customary since +Crécy (where the English knights and sergeants were dismounted to +protect the archers) for all mounted men to send away their horses +before engaging. Here and there cavalry masses were used by such +energetic leaders as the Black Prince and Du Guesclin, and more often a +few men remained mounted for work requiring exceptional speed and +courage,[3] but as a general rule the man-at-arms was practically a +mounted infantryman, and when he dismounted he stood still. Thus two +masses of dismounted lances, mixed with archers, would meet and engage, +but the archers, the offensive element, were now far too few in +proportion to the lances, the purely defensive element, and battles +became indecisive skirmishes instead of overwhelming victories. + +Cavalry therefore became, in a very loose sense of the word, infantry. +But we are tracing the history not of all troops that stood on their +feet to fight, but of infantry and the special tactics of infantry, and +the period before and after 1370, when the moral foundations of the new +English tactics had disappeared, and the personality of Du Guesclin gave +even the bandits of the "free companies" an intrinsic, if slight, +superiority over the invaders, is a period of deadlock. Solidarity, such +as it was, had gone over to the side of the heavy cavalry. But the +latter had deliberately forfeited their power of forcing the decision by +fighting on foot, and the English archer, the cadre of the English +tactical system, though diminished in numbers, prestige and importance, +held to existence and survived the deadlock. Infantry of that type +indeed could never return to the "residue" state, and it only needed a +fresh moral impetus, a Henry V., to set the old machinery to work again +for a third great triumph. But again, after Agincourt, the long war +lapsed into the hands of the soldiers of fortune, the basis of Edward's +and Henry's tactics crumbled, and, led by a greater than Du Guesclin, +the knights and the nobles of France, and the mercenary captains and +men-at-arms as well, _rode down_ the stationary masses of the English, +lances and bowmen alike. + +The net result of the Hundred Years' War therefore was to re-establish +the two arms, cavalry and infantry, side by side, the one acting by +shock, and the other by fire. The lesson of Crécy was "prepare your +charge before delivering it," and for that purpose great bodies of +infantry armed with bows, arblasts and handguns were brought into +existence in France. When the French king in 1448 put into force the +"lessons of the war" and organized a permanent army, it consisted in the +main of heavy cavalry (knights and squires in the "ordonnance" +companies, soldiers of fortune in the paid companies) and archers and +arblasters (_francs-archers_ recruited nationally, arblasters as a rule +mercenaries, though largely recruited in Gascony). To these _armes de +jet_ were added, in ever-increasing numbers, hand firearms. Thus the +"fire" principle of attack was established, and the defensive principle +of "mass" relegated to the background. In such circumstances cavalry was +of course the decisive arm, and the reputation of the French gendarmerie +was such as to justify this bold elimination of the means of passive +defence.[4] + + + Burgher militias. + +The foot-soldier of Germany and the Low Countries had followed a very +different line of development. Here the rich commercial cities scarcely +concerned themselves with the quarrels or revolts of neighbouring +nobles, but they resolutely defended their own rights against feudal +interference, and enforced them by an organized militia, opposing the +strict solidarity of their own institutions to the prowess of the +champion who threatened them. The struggle was between "you shall" on +the part of the baron and "we will not" on the part of the citizens, the +offensive _versus_ the defensive in the simplest and plainest form. The +latter was a policy of unbreakable squares, and wherever possible, +strong positions as well. Sometimes the citizens, sometimes the nobles +gained the day, but the general result was that steady infantry in +proper formation could not be ridden down, and as yeomen-archers of the +English type to "prepare" the charge were not obtainable from amongst +the serf populations of the countryside, the problem of the attack was, +for Central Europe, insoluble. + + + The Wagenburg. + +The unbreakable square took two forms, the _wagenburg_ with artillery, +and the infantry mass with pikes. The first was no more, in the +beginning, than an expedient for the safe and rapid crossing of wider +stretches of open country than would have been possible for dismounted +men, whom the cavalry headed off as soon as they ventured far enough +from the shelter of walls. The men rode not on horses but on carriages, +and the carriages moved over the plains in laager formation, the +infantrymen standing ready with halbert and voulge or short stabbing +spear, and the gunners crouching around the long barrelled two-pounders +and the "ribaudequins"--the early machine guns--which were mounted on +the wagons. These _wagenburgen_ combined in themselves the due +proportions of mobility and passive defence, and in the skilled hands of +Ziska they were capable of the boldest offensive. But such a tactical +system depended first of all on drill, for the armoured cavalry would +have crowded through the least gap in the wagon line, and the necessary +degree of drill in those days could only be attained by an army which +had both a permanent existence and some bond of solidarity more powerful +than the incentive to plunder--that is, in practice, it was only +attained in full by the Hussite insurgents. The cavalry, too, learned +its lesson, and pitted mobile three-pounders against the foot-soldiers' +one- and two-pounders, and the _wagenburg_ became no more than a +helpless target. Thus when, not many years after the end of the Hussite +wars, the Wars of the Roses eliminated the English model and the English +tactics from the military world of Europe, the French system of fire +tactics--masses of archers, arblasters and handgun-men, with some +spearmen and halberdiers to stiffen them--was left face to face with +that of the Swiss and Landsknechts, the system of the "long pike." + + + The Swiss. + + A series of victories ranging from Morgarten (1315) to Nancy (1477) + had made the Swiss the most renowned infantry in Europe. Originally + their struggles with would-be oppressors had taken the form, often + seen elsewhere, of arraying solid masses of men, united in purpose and + fidelity to one another rather than by any material or tactical + cohesion. Like the men of Bruges at Courtrai, the Swiss had the + advantage of broken ground, and the still greater advantage of being + opposed by reckless feudal cavalry. Their armament at this stage was + not peculiar--voulges, gisarmes, halberts and spears--though they were + specially adept in the use of the two-handed sword. But as time went + on the long pike (said to have originated in Savoy or the Milanese + about 1330) became more and more popular until at last on the verge of + their brief ascendancy (about 1475-1515) the Swiss armed as much as + one quarter of their troops with it. The use of firearms made little + or no progress amongst them, and the Swiss mercenaries of 1480, like + their forerunners of Morgarten and Sempach, fought with the _arme + blanche_ alone. But in a very few years after the Swiss nation had + become soldiers of fortune _en masse_, the more open lands of Swabia + entered into serious and bitter competition with them. From these + lands came the Landsknechts, whose order was as strong as, and far + less unwieldy than, that of the Swiss, whose armament included a far + greater proportion of firearms, and who established a regimental + system that left a permanent mark on army organization. The + Landsknecht was the prototype of the infantryman of the 16th and 17th + centuries, but his right to indicate the line of evolution had to be + wrung from many rivals. + + + The long pike. + +The year 1480 indeed was a turning-point in military history. Within the +three years preceding it the battles of Nancy and Guinegate had +destroyed both the old feudalism of Charles the Bold and the new cavalry +tactics of the French gendarmerie. The former was an anachronism, while +the latter, when the great wars came to an end and there was no longer +either a national impulse or a national leader, had lapsed into the old +vices of ransom and plunder. With these, on the same fields, the +_franc-archer_ system of infantry tactics perished ignominiously. It +rested, as we know, on the principle that the fire of the infantry was +to be combined with and completed by the shock of the gendarmerie, and +when the latter were found wanting as at Guinegate, the masses of +archers and arblasters, which were only feebly supported by a few +handfuls of pikemen and halberdiers, were swept away by the charge of +some heavy battalions of Swabian and Flemish pikes. Guinegate was the +_début_ of the Landsknecht infantry as Nancy was that of the Swiss, and +the lesson could not be misread. Louis XI. indeed hanged some of his +_franc-archers_ and dismissed the rest, and in their place raised +"bands" of regular infantry, one of which bore for the first time the +historic name of _Picardie_. But these "bands" were not self-contained. +Armed for the most part with _armes de jet_ they centred on the 6000 +Swiss pikemen whom Louis XI., in 1480, took into his service, and for +nearly fifty years thereafter the French foot armies are always composed +of two elements, the huge battalions of Swiss or Landsknechts,[5] armed +exclusively with the long pike (except for an ever-decreasing proportion +of halberts, and a few arquebuses), and for their support and +assistance, French and mercenary "bands." + +The Italian wars of 1494-1544, in which the principles of fire and shock +were readjusted to meet the conditions created by firearms, were the +nursery of modern infantry. The combinations of Swiss, Landsknechts, +Spanish "tercios" and French "bands" that figured on the battlefields of +the early 16th century were infinitely various. But it is not difficult +to find a thread that runs through the whole. + + + The Italian Wars, 1494-1525. + +The essence of the Swiss system was solidity. They arrayed themselves in +huge oblongs of 5000 men and more, at the corners of which, like the +tower bastions of a 16th-century fortress, stood small groups of +arquebusiers. The Landsknechts and the Romagnols of Italy, imitated and +rivalled them, though as a rule developing more front and less depth. At +this stage solidity was everything and fire-power nothing. At Fornuovo +(1495) the mass of arquebusiers and arblasters in the French army did +little or nothing; it was the Swiss who were _l'espérance de l'ost_. At +Agnadello or Vailá in 1509 the ground and the "encounter-battle" +character of the engagement gave special chances of effective employment +to the arquebusiers on either side. Along the front the Venetian +marksmen, secure behind a bank, picked off the leaders of the enemy as +they came near. On the outer flank of the battle the bands of Gascon +arquebusiers, which would otherwise have been relegated to an +unimportant place in the general line of battle, lapped round the +enemy's flank in broken ground and produced great and almost decisive +effect. But this was only an afterthought of the king of France and +Bayard. In the rest of the battle the huge masses of Swiss pikes were +thrown upon the enemy much as the old feudal cavalry had been, +regardless of ditches, orchards and vineyards. + +Then for a moment the problem was solved, or partially solved, by the +artillery. From Germany the material, though not--at least to the same +extent--the principle, of the _wagenburg_ penetrated, in the first years +of the 16th century, to Italy and thence to France. Thus by degrees a +very numerous and exceedingly handy light artillery--"carts with +gonnes," as they were called in England--came into play on the Italian +battlefields, and took over from the dying _franc-archer_ system the +work of preparing the assault by fire. For mere skirmishing the Swiss +and Landsknechts had arquebusiers enough, without needing to call on the +masses of Gascons, &c., and _pari passu_ with the development of this +artillery, the "bands," other than Swiss and Landsknechts, began to +improve themselves into pikemen and halberdiers. At Ravenna (1512) the +bands of Gascony and Picardy, as well as the French _aventuriers_ (the +"bands of Piedmont," afterwards the second senior regiment of the French +line) fought in the line of battle shoulder to shoulder with the +Landsknechts. On this day the fire action of the new artillery was +extraordinarily murderous, ploughing lanes in the immobile masses of +infantry. At Marignan the French gendarmerie and artillery, closely and +skilfully combined, practically destroyed the huge masses of the Swiss, +and so completely had "infantry" and "fire" become separate ideas that +on the third day of this tremendous battle we find even the "bands of +Piedmont" cutting their way into the Swiss masses. + + + The Spanish infantry and the arquebus. + +But from this point the lead fell into the hands of the Spaniards. These +were originally swift and handy light infantry, capable--like the +Scottish Highlanders at Prestonpans and Falkirk long afterwards--of +sliding under the forest of pikes and breaking into the close-locked +ranks with buckler and stabbing sword. For troops of this sort the +arquebus was an ideal weapon, and the problem of self-contained infantry +was solved by Gonsalvo de Cordoba, Pescara and the great Spanish +captains of the day by intercalating small closed bodies of arquebusiers +with rather larger, but not inordinately large, bodies of pikes. These +arquebusiers formed separate, fully organized sections of the infantry +regiment. In close defence they fought on the front and flanks of the +pikes, but more usually they were pushed well to the front +independently, their speed and excellent fire discipline enabling them +to do what was wholly beyond the power of the older type of firing +infantry--to take advantage of ground, to run out and reopen fire during +a momentary pause in the battle of lance and pike, and to run back to +the shelter of their own closed masses when threatened by an oncoming +charge. When this system of tactics was consecrated by the glorious +success of Pavia (1525), the "cart with gonnes" vanished and the system +of fighting everywhere and always "at push of pike" fell into the +background. + + + 16th Century-tactics. + + The lessons of Pavia can be read in Francis I.'s instructions to his + newly formed Provincial (militia) Legions in 1534 and in the battle of + Cerisoles ten years later. The "legion" was ordered to be composed of + six "bands"--battalions we should call them now, but in those days the + term "battalion" was consecrated to a gigantic square of the Swiss + type--each of 800 pikes (including a few halberts) and 200 + arquebusiers. The pikes, 4800 strong, of each legion were grouped in + one large battalion, and covered on the front and flanks by the 1200 + arquebuses, the latter working in small and handy squads. These + "legions" did not of course count as good troops, but their + organization and equipment, designed deliberately in peace time, and + not affected by the coming and going of soldiers of fortune, represent + therefore the theoretically perfect type for the 16th century. + Cerisoles represents the system in practice, with veteran regular + troops. On the side of the French most of the arquebuses were grouped + on the right wing, in a long irregular line of companies or strong + squads, supported at a moderate distance by companies or small + battalions of "corselets" (pikes of the French bands of Picardy and + Piedmont); the rest of the line of battle was composed of + Landsknechts, &c., similarly arrayed, except that the arquebusiers + were on the flanks and immediate front of the "corselets" and behind + the arquebuses and corselets of the right wing came a Swiss monster of + the old type. On the imperial side of the Landsknechts, Spanish and + Italian infantry were drawn up in seven or eight battalions, each with + its due proportion of pikes and "shot." The course of the battle + demonstrated both the active tactical power of the new form of + fire-action and the solidity of the pike nucleus, the former in the + attack and defence of hills, woods and localities, the latter in an + episode in which a Spanish battalion, after being ridden through from + corner to corner by the French gendarmes, continued on its way almost + unchecked and quite unbroken. This combination of arquebusiers + supported by corselets in first line and corselets with a few + arquebusiers in second, reappeared at Renty (1554), and St Quentin + (1557), and was in fact the typical disposition of infantry from about + 1530 to 1600. + +By 1550, then, infantry had entirely ceased to be an auxiliary arm. It +contained within itself, and (what is more important) within its +regimental units, the power of fighting effectively and decisively both +at close quarters and at a distance--the principal characteristic of the +arm to-day. It had, further, developed a permanent regimental existence, +both in Spain and in France, and in the former country it had progressed +so far from the "residue" state that young nobles preferred to trail a +pike in the ranks of the foot to service in the gendarmerie or light +horse. The service battalions were kept up to war strength by the +establishment of depots and the preliminary training there of recruits. +In France, apart from Picardie and the other old regiments, every +temporary regiment, on disbandment, threw off a depot company of the +best soldiers, on which nucleus the regiment was reconstituted for the +next campaign. Moreover, the permanent establishment was augmented from +time to time by the colonel-general of the foot "giving his white flag" +to temporary regiments. + + + The French infantry in 1570. + + The organization of the French infantry in 1570 presents some points + of interest. The former broad classification of _au delà_ and _en deça + des monts_ or "Picardie" and "Piedmont," representing the home and + Italian armies, had disappeared, and instead the whole of the + infantry, under one colonel-general, was divided into the regiments of + Picardie, Piedmont and French Guards, each of which had its own + colonel and its own colours. Besides these, three newer corps were + _entretenus par le Roy_--"Champagne," practically belonging to the + Guise[6] family, and two others formed out of the once enormous + regiment of Marshal de Cossé-Brissac. At the end of a campaign all + temporary regiments were disbanded, but in imitation of the Spanish + depot system, each, on disbandment, threw off a depot company of + picked men who formed the nucleus for the next year's augmentation. + The regiment consisted of 10-16 "ensigns" or companies, each of about + 150 pikemen and 50 arquebusiers. Each company had a proprietary + captain, the owners of the first two companies being the + colonel-general and the colonel (_mestre de camp_). The senior captain + was called the sergeant-major, and performed the duties of a second in + command and an adjutant or brigade-major. Unlike the regimental + commander, the sergeant-major was always mounted, and it is recorded + that one officer newly appointed to the post incurred the ridicule of + the army by dismounting to speak to the king. "Some veteran officers," + wrote a contemporary, "are inclined to think that the regimental + commander should be mounted as well as the sergeant-major." The + regiment was as a rule formed for parade and battle either in line 10 + deep or in "battalion" (i.e. mass), Swiss fashion. The captain + occupied the front, the ensigns with the company colours the centre, + and the lieutenants the rear place in the file. The sergeants, armed + with the halbert, marched on each side of the battalion or company. + Though the musket was gradually being introduced, and had powerful + advocates in Marshal Strozzi and the duke of Guise, the bulk of the + "shot" still carried the arquebus, the calibre of which had been, + thanks to Strozzi's efforts, standardized (see CALIVER) so that all + the arms took the same sizes of ball. The pikeman had half-armour and + a 14-ft. pike, the arquebusier beside the firearm a sword which he was + trained to use in the manner of the former Spanish light infantry. The + arquebusiers were arrayed in 3 ranks in front of the pikes or in 10 + deep files on either flank. + +The wars in which this system was evolved were wars for prestige and +aggrandizement. They were waged, therefore, by mercenary soldiers, whose +main object was to live, and who were officered either by men of their +own stamp, or by nobles eager to win military glory. But the Wars of +Religion raised questions of life and death for the Frenchmen of either +faith, and such public opinion as there was influenced the method of +operations so far that a decision and not a prolongation of the struggle +began to be the desired end of operations. Hence in those wars the +relatively immobile "battalion" of pikes diminishes in importance and +the arquebusiers and musketeers grow more and more efficient. Armies, +too, became smaller, and marched more rapidly. Encounter-battles became +more frequent than "pitched" battles, and in these the musketeer was at +a great advantage. Thus by 1600 the proportions between pikes and +musketeers in the French army had come to be 6 pikes to 4 muskets or +arquebuses, and the _bataillon de combat_ or brigade was normally no +more than 1200 strong. In the Netherlands, however, the war of +consciences was fought out between the best regular army in the world +and burgher militias. Even the French _fantassins_ were second in +importance to the Spanish _soldados_. The latter continued to hold the +pre-eminent position they had gained at Pavia.[7] They improved the +arquebus into the musket, a heavier and much more powerful weapon (fired +from a rest) which could disable a horse at 500 paces. + + + Alva. + +At this moment the professional soldier was at the high-water mark of +his supremacy. The musket was too complicated to be rapidly and +efficiently used by any but a highly trained man; the pike, probably +because it had now to protect two or three ranks of "shot" in front of +the leading rank of pikemen, as well as the pikemen themselves, had +grown longer (up to 18 ft.); and drill and manoeuvre had become more +important than ever, for in the meantime cavalry had mostly abandoned +the massive armour and the long lance in favour of half-armour and the +pistol, and their new tactics made them both swifter to charge groups of +musketeers and more deadly to the solid masses of pikemen. This +superiority of the regular over the irregular was most conspicuously +shown in Alva's war against the Netherlands patriots. Desperately as the +latter fought, Spanish captains did not hesitate to attack patriot +armies ten times their own strength. If once or twice this contempt led +them to disaster, as at Heiligerlee in 1568 (though here, after all, +Louis of Nassau's army was chiefly composed of trained mercenaries), the +normal battle was of the Jemmingen type--seven _soldados_ dead and seven +thousand rebels. + + + Infantry in 1600. + +As regards battles in the open field, such results as these naturally +confirmed the "Spanish system" of tactics. The Dutch themselves, when +they evolved reliable field armies, copied it with few modifications, +and by degrees it was spread over Europe by the professional soldiers on +both sides. There was plenty of discussion and readjustment of details. +For example, the French, with their smaller battalions and more rapid +movements, were inclined to disparage both the cuirass and the pike, and +only unwillingly hampered themselves with the long heavy Spanish musket, +which had to be fired from a rest. In 1600, nearly fifty years after the +introduction of the musket, this most progressive army still +deliberately preferred the old light arquebus, and only armed a few +selected men with the larger weapons. On the other hand, the Spaniards, +though supreme in the open, had for the most part to deal with desperate +men behind fortifications. Fighting, therefore, chiefly at close +quarters with a fierce enemy, and not disposing either of the space or +of the opportunity for "manoeuvre-battles," they sacrificed all their +former lightness and speed, and clung to armour, the long pike and the +heavy 2½ oz. bullet. But the principles first put into practice by +Gonsalvo de Cordoba, the combination, in the proportions required in +each case, of _fire_ and _shock_ elements in every body of organized +infantry however small, were maintained in full vigour, and by now the +superiority of the infantry arm in method, discipline and technique, +which had long before made the Spanish nobles proud to trail a pike in +the ranks, began to impress itself on other nations. The relative value +of horse and foot became a subject for expert discussion instead of an +axiom of class pride. The question of cavalry _versus_ infantry, hotly +disputed in all ages, is a matter affecting general tactics, and does +not come within the scope of the present article (see further CAVALRY). +Expert opinion indeed was still on the side of the horsemen. It was on +their cavalry, with its speed, its swords and its pistols that the +armies of the 16th century relied in the main to produce the decision in +battle. Sir Francis Vane, speaking of the battle of Nieupoort in 1600, +says, "Whereas most commonly in battles the success of the foot +dependeth on that of the horse, here it was clean contrary, for so long +as the foot held good the horse could not be beaten out of the field." +The "success" of the foot in Vane's eyes is clearly resistance to +disintegration rather than ability to strike a decisive blow. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + DREUX--1562. + + (_From Hardÿ de Périni's Batailles Françaises, by permission._) + + LÜTZEN--1632.] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + PRUSSIAN VOLLEYS, 1740. EVOLUTIONS OF THE COLUMN AND SKIRMISHERS. + WELLINGTON. + + VIONVILLE DE CISSEY'S COUNTER-ATTACK (SEEN FROM REAR OF PRUSSIAN 38th + BRIGADE). + + APPROACH-MARCH UNDER ARTILLERY FIRE, FRENCH PRINCIPLES (FROM ENEMY'S + ARTILLERY POSITION). + + (_From Revue d'Infanterie, 1909._)] + +It must be remembered, however, that Vane is speaking of the Low +Countries, and that in France at any rate the solidity which saved the +day at Nieupoort was less appreciated than the _élan_ which had won so +many smart engagements in the Wars of Religion. Moreover, it was the +_offensive_, the decision-compelling faculty of the foot that steadily +developed during the 17th century. To this, little by little, the powers +of passive resistance to which Vane did homage, valuable as they were, +were sacrificed, until at last the long pike disappeared altogether and +the firearm, provided with a bayonet, was the uniform weapon of the +foot-soldier. This stage of infantry history covers almost exactly a +century. As far as France was concerned, it was a natural evolution. But +the acceptance of the principle by the rest of the military world, +imposed by the genius of Gustavus Adolphus, was rather revolution than +evolution. + + + Gustavus Adolphus. + +In the army which Louis XIII. led against his revolted barons of Anjou +in 1620, the old regiments (_les vieux_--Picardie, Piedmont, &c.) seem +to have marched in an open chequer-wise formation of companies which is +interesting not only as a deliberate imitation of the Roman legion (all +soldiers of that time, in the prevailing confusion of tactical ideas, +sought guidance in the works of Xenophon, Aelian and Vegetius), but as +showing that flexibility and handiness was not the monopoly of the +Swedish system that was soon to captivate military Europe. The +formations themselves are indeed found in the Spanish and Dutch armies, +but the equipment of the men, and the general character of the +operations in which they were engaged, probably failed to show off the +advantages of this articulation, for the generals of the Thirty Years' +War, trained in this school, formed their infantry into large battalions +(generally a single line of masses). Experience certainly gave the +troops that used these unwieldy formations a relatively high manoeuvring +capacity, for Tilly's army at Breitenfeld (1631) "changed front +half-left" in the course of the battle itself. But the manoeuvring power +of the Swedes was higher still. Each party represented one side of the +classical revival, the Swedes the Roman three-line manipular tactics, +the Imperialists and Leaguers those of the Greek line of phalanxes. The +former, depending as it did on high _moral_ in the individual +foot-soldier, was hardly suitable to such a congeries of mercenaries as +those that Wallenstein commanded, and later in the Thirty Years' War, +when the old native Swedish and Scottish brigades had been annihilated, +the Swedish infantry was little if at all better than the rest. + +But its tactical system, sanctified by victory, was eagerly caught up by +military Europe. The musket, though it had finally driven out the +arquebus, had been lightened by Gustavus Adolphus so far that it could +be fired without a rest. Rapidity in loading had so far improved that a +company could safely be formed six deep instead of ten, as in the +Spanish and Dutch systems. Its fire power was further augmented by the +addition of two very light field-guns to each battalion; these could +inflict loss at twice the effective range of the shortened musket. Above +all, Gustavus introduced into the military systems of Europe a new +discipline based on the idea of exact performance of duty, which made +itself felt in every part of the service, and was a welcome substitute +for the former easy-going methods of regimental existence.[8] The +adoption of Swedish methods indeed was facilitated by the disrepute into +which the older systems had fallen. Men were beginning to see that +armies raised by contract for a few months' work possessed inherent +vices that made it impossible to rely upon them in small things. Courage +the mercenary certainly possessed, but his individual sense of honour, +code of soldierly morals, and sometimes devotion to a particular leader +did not compensate for the absence of a strong motive for victory and +for his general refractoriness in matters of detail, such as +march-discipline and punctuality, which had become essential since the +great Swedish king had reintroduced order, method and definiteness of +purpose into the conduct of military operations. In the old-fashioned +masses, moreover, individual weaknesses, both moral and physical, +counted for little or were suppressed in the general soldierly feeling +of the whole body. But the six-deep line used by Gustavus demanded more +devotion and exact obedience in the individual and a more uniform method +of drill and handling arms. So shallow an order was not strong enough, +under any other conditions, to resist the shock of cavalry or even of +pikemen. Indeed, had not the cavalry (who, after Gustavus's death, were +uninspired mercenaries like the rest) ceased to charge home in the +fashion that Gustavus exacted of them, it is possible that the +new-fashioned line would not have stood the test, and that infantry +would have reverted to the early 16th-century type. + + + The Great Rebellion. + +The problem of combining the maximum of fire power with the maximum of +control over the individual firer was not fully solved until 1740, but +the necessity of attempting the problem was realised from the first. In +the Swedish army, before it was corrupted by the atmosphere of the +Thirty Years' War, duty to God and to country were the springs of the +punctual discipline, in small things and in great, which made it the +most formidable army, unit for unit, in the world. In the English Civil +War (in which the adherents of the "Swedish system" from the first +ousted those of the "Dutch") the difficulty was more acute, for although +the mainsprings of action were similar, the technical side of the +soldier's business--the regimental organization, drill and handling of +arms--had all to be improvised. Now in the beginning the Royalist +cavalry was recruited from "gentlemen that have honour and courage and +resolution"; later, Cromwell raised a cavalry force that was even more +thoroughly imbued with the spirit of duty, "men who made some conscience +of what they did," and throughout the Civil War, consequently, the +mounted arm was the queen of the battlefield. + +The Parliamentary foot too "made some conscience of what it did," more +especially in the first years of the war. But its best elements--the +drilled townsmen--were rather of a defensive than of an offensive +character, and towards the close of the struggle, when the foot on both +sides came to be formed of professional soldiers, the defensive element +decreased, as it had decreased in France and elsewhere. The war was like +Gustavus's German campaign, one of rapid and far-ranging marches, and +the armoured pikeman had either to shorten his pike and to cast off his +armour or to be left at home with the heavy artillery (see Firth's +_Cromwell's Army_, ch. iv.). Fights "at push of pike" were rare enough +to be specially mentioned in reports of battles. Sir James Turner says +that in 1657, when he was commissioned with others to raise regiments +for the king of Denmark, "those of the Privy Council would not suffer +one word to be mentioned of a pike in our Commissions." It was the same +with armour. In 1658 Lockhart, the commander of the English contingent +in France, specially asked for a supply of cuirasses and headpieces for +his pikemen in order to impress his allies. In 1671 Sir James Turner +says, "When we see battalions of pikes, we see them everywhere naked +unless it be in the Netherlands." But a small proportion of pikes was +still held to be necessary by experienced soldiers, for as yet the +socket bayonet had not been invented, and there was still cavalry in +Europe that could be trusted to ride home. + + + Disuse of the pike. + +While such cavalry existed, the development of fire power was everywhere +hindered by the necessity of self-defence. On the other hand the +hitherto accepted defensive means militated against efficiency in many +ways, and about 1670, when Louis XIV. and Louvois were fashioning the +new standing army that was for fifty years the model for Europe, the +problem was how to improve the drill and efficiency of the musketeers so +far that the pikes could be reduced to a minimum. In 1680 the firelock +was issued instead of the matchlock to all grenadiers and to the four +best shots in each French Company. The bayonet--in its primitive form +merely a dagger that was fixed into the muzzle of the musket--was also +introduced, and the pike was shortened. The proportion of pikes to +muskets in Henry IV.'s day, 2 to 1 or 3 to 2, and in Gustavus's 2 to 3, +had now fallen to 1 to 3. + +The day of great causes that could inspire the average man with the +resolution to conquer or die was, however, past, and the "shallow order" +(_l'ordre mince_), with all its demands on the individual's sense of +duty, had become an integral part of the military system. How then was +the sense of duty to be created? Louis and Louvois and their +contemporaries sought to create it by taking raw recruits in batches, +giving them a consistent training, quartering them in barracks and +uniforming them. Henceforward the soldier was not a unit, self-taught +and free to enter the service of any master. He had no existence as a +soldier apart from his regiment, and within it he was taught that the +regiment was everything and the individual nothing. Thus by degrees the +idea of implicit obedience to orders and of _esprit de corps_ was +absorbed. But the self-respecting Englishman or the quick ardent +Frenchman was not the best raw material for quasi-automatic regiments, +and it was not until an infinitely more rigorous system of discipline +was applied to an unimaginative army that the full possibilities of this +enforced sense of duty were realized. + + + Methods of fire before 1740. + + The method of delivering fire originally used by the Spaniards, in + which each man in succession fired and fell back to the rear of the + file to reload, required for its continued and exact performance a + degree of coolness and individual smartness which was probably rarely + attained in practice. This was not of serious moment when the "shot" + were simple auxiliaries, but when under Gustavus the offensive idea + came to the front, and the bullets of the infantry were expected to do + something more than merely annoy the hostile pikemen, a more effective + method had to be devised. First, the handiness of the musket was so + far improved that one man could reload while five, instead of as + formerly ten, fired. Then, as the enhanced rate of fire made the + file-firing still more disorderly than before, two ranks and three + were set to fire "volews" or "salvees" together, and before 1640 it + had become the general custom for the musketeers to fire one or two + volleys and then, along with the pikemen, to "fall on." It was of + course no mean task to charge even a disordered mass of pikes with a + short sword or a clubbed musket, and usually after a few minutes the + combatants would drift apart and the musketeers on either side would + keep up an irregular fire until the officers urged the whole forward + for a second attempt. + + + The bayonet. + + With the general disuse of the lance, the disappearance of the + personal motives that formerly made the cavalryman charge home, the + adoption of the flintlock musket and the invention of the socket + bayonet (the fixing of which did not prevent fire being delivered), + all reason for retaining the pike vanished, and from about 1700 to the + present day, therefore, the invariable armament of infantry has been + the musket (or rifle) and bayonet. The manner of employing the + weapons, however, changed but slowly. In the French army in 1688, for + instance (15 years before the abolition of the pike), the old + file-fire was still officially recognized, though rarely employed, the + more usual method being for the musketeers in groups of 12 to 30 men + to advance to the front and deliver their volleys in turn, these + groups corresponding in size to one of the musketeer wings (_manches_) + of a company or double company. But the fire and shock action of + infantry were still distinct, the idea of "push of pike" remained, the + bayonet (as at Marsaglia) taking the place of the pike, and musketry + methods were still and throughout the War of the Spanish Succession + somewhat half-hearted and tentative. Two generals so entirely + different in genius and temperament as Saxe and Catinat could agree on + this point, that attacking infantry ought to close with the enemy, + bayonets fixed, without firing a shot. Catinat's orders to his army in + 1690, indeed, seem rather to indicate that he expected his troops to + endure the enemy's first fire without replying in order that their own + volley, when it was at last delivered at a few paces distance, should + be as murderous as possible, while Saxe, who was a dreamer as well as + a practical commander of troops, advocated the pure bayonet charge. + But the fact that is common to both is the relative ineffectiveness of + musketry before the Prussian era, whether this musketry was delivered + by groups of men running forward and returning in line or even by + companies in a long line of battle. + + This ineffectiveness was due chiefly to the fact that _fire_ and + _movement_ were separate matters. The enemy's volley, that Catinat and + others ordered their troops to endure without flinching, was sometimes + (as at Fontenoy) absolutely crushing. But as a rule it inflicted an + amount of loss that was not sufficient to put the advancing troops out + of action, and experienced officers were aware that to halt to reply + gave the enemy time to reload, and that once the fight became an + interchange of partial and occasional volleys or a general + _tiraillerie_, there was an end to the attack. + + + Linear tactics. + +Meanwhile, the tactics of armies had been steadily crystallizing into +the so-called "linear" form, which, as far as concerns the infantry, is +simply two long lines of battalions (three, four or five deep) and gave +the utmost possible development to fire-power. The object of the "line" +was to break or beat down the opposing line in the shortest possible +time, whether by fire action or shock action, but fire action was only +decisive at so short a range that the principal volley could be followed +immediately by a charge over a few score paces at most and the crossing +of bayonets. Fire was, however, effective at ranges outside charging +distance, especially from the battalion guns, and however the decision +was achieved in the end, it was necessary to cross the zone between +about 300 yds. and 50 yds. range as quickly as possible. It was +therefore the business of the regimental officer to force his men across +this zone before fire was opened. If, as Catinat recommended, decisive +range was reached with every musket loaded and the troops well in hand, +their fire when finally it was delivered might well be decisive. But in +practice this rarely happened, and though here and there such expedients +as a skirmishing line were employed to assist the advance by disturbing +the enemy's fire the most that was hoped by the average colonel or +captain was that in the advance fire should be opened as late as +possible and that the officers should strive to keep in their hands the +power of breaking off the fire-fight and pushing the troops forward +again. Theorists were already proposing column formations for shock +action, and initiating the long controversy between _l'ordre mince_ and +_l'ordre profonde_, but this was for the time being pure speculation. +The linear system rested on the principle that the maximum weight of +controlled fire at short range was decisive, and the practical problem +of infantry tactics was how to obtain this. The question of _fire versus +shock_ had been answered in favour of the former, and henceforward for +many years the question of _fire versus movement_ held the first place. +The purpose was settled, and it remained to discover the means. + +This means was Prussian fire-discipline, which was elaborated by Leopold +of Dessau and Frederick William I., and practically applied by Frederick +the Great. It consisted first in the combination, instead of the +alternation, of fire and movement, and secondly in the thorough +efficiency of the fire in itself. But both these demanded a more +stringent and technically more perfect drill than had ever before been +imagined, or, for that matter, has ever since been attained. A hundred +years before the steady drill of the Spanish veterans at Rocroi, who at +the word of command opened their ranks to let the cannon fire from the +rear and again closed them, impressed every soldier in Europe. But such +drill as this was child's play compared with the Old Dessauer's. + + + Prussian fire discipline, 1740. + + On approaching the enemy the marching columns of the Prussians, which + were generally open columns of companies 4 deep, wheeled, in + succession to the right or left (almost always to the right) and thus + passed along the front of the enemy at a distance of 800-1200 yds. + until the rear company had wheeled. Then the whole together (or in the + case of a deployment to the left, in succession) wheeled into line + facing the enemy. These movements, if intervals and distances were + preserved with proper precision, brought the infantry into two long + well-closed lines, and parade-ground precision was actually attained, + thanks to remorseless drilling and to the reintroduction of the march + in step to music. Of course such movements were best executed on a + firm plain, and as far as possible the attack and defence of woods and + villages was left to light infantry and grenadiers. But even in + marshes and scrub, the line managed to manoeuvre with some approach to + the precision of the barrack square.[9] Now, this precision allowed + Frederick to take risks that no former commander would have dared to + take. At Hohenfriedberg the infantry columns crossed a marshy stream + almost within cannon shot of the enemy; at Kolin (though there this + insolence was punished) the army filed past the Imperialist + skirmishers within less than musket shot, and the climax of this + daring was the "oblique order" attack of Leuthen. With this was bound + up a fire discipline that was more extraordinary than any perfection + of manoeuvre. Before Hohenfriedberg the king gave orders that + "pelotonfeuer" was to be opened at 200 paces from the enemy and + continued up to 30 paces, when the line was to fall on with the + bayonet. The possibility of this combination of fire and movement was + the work of Leopold, who gave the Prussian infantry iron ramrods, and + by sheer drill made the soldier a machine capable of delivering (with + the flintlock muzzle-loading muskets, be it observed) five volleys a + minute. This _pelotonfeuer_ or company volleys replaced the old fire + by ranks practised in other armies. Fire began from the flanks of the + battalion, which consisted of eight companies (for firing, 3 deep). + When the right company commander gave "fire," the commander of No. 2 + gave "ready," followed in turn by other companies up to the centre. + The same process having been gone through on the left flank, by the + time the two centre companies had fired the two flank companies were + ready to recommence, and thus a continuous series of rolling volleys + was delivered, at one or two seconds' interval only between companies. + In attack this fire was combined with movement, each company in turn + advancing a few paces after "making ready." In square, old-fashioned + methods of fire were employed. Square was an indecisive and defensive + formation, rarely used, and in the advance of the deployed line, the + offensive and decision-seeking formation _par excellence_, the special + Prussian fire-discipline gave Frederick an advantage of five shots to + two against all opponents. The bayonet-attack, if the rolling volleys + had done their work, was merely "presenting the cheque for payment" as + a modern German writer puts it. The cheque had been drawn, the + decision given, in the fire-fight. + + + Leuthen. + +For some years this method of infantry training gave the Prussians a +decisive superiority in whatever order they fought. But their enemies +improved and also grew in numbers, while the Prussian army's resources +were strictly limited. Thus in the Seven Years' War, after the two +costly battles of Prague and Kolin (1757) especially, it became +necessary to manoeuvre with the object of bringing the Prussian infantry +into contact with an equal or if possible smaller portion of the enemy's +line. If this could be achieved, victory was as certain as ever, but the +difficulties of bringing about a successful manoeuvre were such that the +classical "oblique order" attack was only once completely executed. This +was at Leuthen, December 5th, 1757, perhaps the greatest day in the +history of the Prussian army. Here, in a rolling plain country +occasionally broken by marshes and villages, the "oblique order" was +executed at high speed and with clockwork precision. Frederick's object +was to destroy the left of the Austrian army (which far outnumbered his +own) before the rest of their deployed line of battle could change front +to intervene. His method was to place his own line, by a concealed flank +march, opposite the point where he desired to strike, and then to +advance, not in two long lines but in échelon of battalions from the +right (see LEUTHEN). The échelon was not so deep but that each battalion +was properly supported by the following one on its left (100 paces +distance), and each, as it came within 200 yds. of the Austrian +battalion facing it, opened its "rolling volleys" while continuing to +advance; thus long before the left and most backward battalions were +committed to the fight, the right battalions were crumbling the Austrian +infantry units one by one from left to right. It was the same, without +parade manoeuvres, when at last the Austrians managed to organize a line +of defence about Leuthen village. Unable to make an elaborate change of +front with the whole centre and right wing for want of time, they could +do no more than crowd troops about Leuthen, on a short fighting front, +and this crumbled in turn before the Prussian volleys. + +One lesson of Leuthen that contemporary soldiers took to heart was that +even a two-to-one superiority in numbers could not remedy want of +manoeuvring capacity. It might be hoped that with training and drill an +Austrian battalion could be made equal to a Prussian one in the +front-to-front fight, and in fact, as losses told more and more heavily +on Frederick's army as years went on, the specific superiority of his +infantry disappeared. From 1758 therefore, to the end of the war, there +were no more Rossbachs and Leuthens. Superiority in efficiency through +previous training having exhausted its influence, superiority in force +through manoeuvre began to be the general's ideal, and as it was a more +familiar notion to the average Prussian general, trained to manoeuvre, +than to his opponent, whose idea of "manoeuvre" was to sidle carefully +from one _position_ to another, Prussian generalship maintained its +superiority, in spite of many reverses, to the end. The last campaigns +were indeed a war of positions, because Frederick had no longer the men +available for forcing the Austrians out of them, and on many occasions +he was so weak that the most passive defensive and the most elaborate +entrenchments barely sufficed to save him. But whenever opportunity +offered itself, the king sought a decisive success by bringing the whole +of his infantry against part of the enemy's--the principle of Leuthen +put in practice over a wider area and with more elastic manoeuvre +methods. The long échelon of battalions directed against a part of the +hostile line developed quite naturally into an irregular échelon of +brigade columns directed against a part of the enemy's position. But the +history of the "cordon system" which followed this development belongs +rather to the subject of tactics in general than to that of infantry +fighting methods. Within the unit the tactical method scarcely varied. +In a battle each battalion or brigade fought as a unit in line, using +company volleys and seeking the decision by fire. + + + Controversies and developments, 1760-1790. + +In this, and in even the most minute details of drill and uniform, +military Europe slavishly copied Prussia for twenty years after the +Seven Years' War. The services of ex-Prussian officers were at a premium +just as those of Gustavus's officers had been 150 years before. Military +missions from all countries went to Potsdam or to the "Reviews" to study +Prussian methods, with as simple a faith in their adequacy as that shown +to-day by small states and half-civilized kingdoms who send military +representatives to serve in the great European armies. And withal, the +period 1763-1792 is full of tactical and strategical controversies. The +principal of these, as regards infantry, was that between "fire" and +"shock" revived about 1710 by Folard, and about 1780 the American War of +Independence complicated it by introducing a fresh controversy between +_skirmishing_ and _close order_. As to the first, in Folard's day as in +Frederick's, fire action at close range was the deciding factor in +battle, but in Frederick's later campaigns, wherein he no longer +disposed of the old Prussian infantry and its swift mechanical +fire-discipline, there sprang up a tendency to trust to the bayonet for +the decision. If the (so-called) Prussian infantry of 1762 could be in +any way brought to close with the enemy, it had a fair chance of victory +owing to its leaders' previous dispositions, and then the advocates of +"shock," who had temporarily been silenced by Mollwitz and +Hohenfriedberg, again took courage. The ordinary line was primarily a +formation for fire, and only secondarily or by the accident of +circumstances for shock, and, chiefly perhaps under Saxe's influence, +the French army had for many years been accustomed to differentiate +between "linear" formations for fire and "columnar" for attack--thus +reverting to 16th-century practice. While, therefore, the theoreticians +pleaded for battalion columns and the bayonet or for line and the +bullet, the practical soldier used both. Many forms of combined line and +column were tried, but in France, where the question was most +assiduously studied, no agreement had been arrived at when the advent of +the skirmisher further complicated the issues. + + In the early Silesian wars, when armies fought in open country in + linear order, the outpost service scarcely concerned the line troops + sufficiently to cause them to get under arms at the sound of firing on + the sentry line. It was performed by irregular light troops, recruited + from wild characters of all nations, who were also charged with the + preliminary skirmishing necessary to clear up the situation before the + deployment of the battle-army, but once the line opened fire their + work was done and they cleared away to the flanks (generally in search + of plunder). Later, however, as the preliminary manoeuvring before the + battle grew in importance and the ground taken into the manoeuvring + zone was more varied and extended than formerly, light infantry was + more and more in demand--in a "cordon" defensive for patrolling the + intervals between the various detachments of line troops, in an attack + for clearing the way for the deployment of each column. Yet in all + this there was no suggestion that light troops or skirmishers were + capable of bringing about the decision in an armed conflict. When + Frederick gained a durable peace in 1763 he dismissed his "free + battalions" without mercy, and by 1764 not more than one Prussian + soldier in eleven was an "irregular," either of horse or foot.[10] + + + Light Infantry. + + But in the American War of Independence the line was pitted against + light infantry in difficult country, and the British and French + officers who served in it returned to Europe full of enthusiasm for + the latter. Nevertheless, their light infantry was, unlike + Frederick's, _selected line infantry_. The light infantry + duties--skirmishing, reconnaissance, outposts--were grafted on to a + thorough close-order training. At first these duties fell to the + grenadiers and light companies of each battalion, but during the + struggle in the colonies, the light companies of a brigade were so + frequently massed in one battalion that in the end whole regiments + were converted into light infantry. This combination of "line" + steadiness and "skirmisher" freedom was the keynote of Sir John + Moore's training system fifteen years later, and Moore's regiments, + above all the 52nd, 43rd (now combined as the Oxfordshire Light + Infantry) and 95th Rifles (Rifle Brigade), were the backbone of the + British Army throughout the Peninsular War. At Waterloo the 52nd, + changing front in line at the double, flung itself on the head and + flank of the Old Guard infantry, and with the "rolling volleys" + inherited from the Seven Years' War, shattered it in a few minutes. + Such an exploit would have been absolutely inconceivable in the case + of one of the old "free battalions." But the light infantry had not + merely been levelled up to the line, it had surpassed it, and in 1815 + there were no troops in Europe, whether trained to fight in line or + column or skirmishers, who could rival the three regiments named, the + "Light Division" of Peninsular annals. For meantime the infantry + organization and tactics of the old régime, elsewhere than in England, + had been disintegrated by the flames of the French Revolution, and + from their ashes a new system had arisen, which forms the real + starting-point of the infantry tactics of to-day. + + + The French Revolution. + +The controversialists of Louis XVI.'s time, foremost of whom were +Guibert, Joly de Maizeroy and Menil Durand (see Max Jähns, _Gesch. d. +Kriegswissenschaften_, vol. iii.), were agreed that shock action should +be the work of troops formed in column, but as to the results to be +expected from shock action, the extent to which it should be facilitated +by a previous fire preparation, and the formations In which fire should +be delivered (line, line with skirmishers or "swarms") discussion was so +warm that it sometimes led to wrangles in ladies' drawing-rooms and +meetings in the duelling field. The drill-book for the French infantry +issued shortly before the Revolution was a common-sense compromise, +which in the main adhered to the Frederician system as modified by +Guibert, but gave an important place in infantry tactics to the +battalion "columns of attack," that had hitherto appeared only +spasmodically on the battlefields of the French army and never +elsewhere. This, however, and the quick march (100 paces to the minute +instead of the Frederician 75) were the only prescriptions in the +drill-book that survived the test of a "national" war, to which within a +few years it was subjected (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). The rest, +like the "linear system" of organization and manoeuvre to which it +belonged (see ARMY, §§ 30-33; CONSCRIPTION, &c.) was ignored, and +circumstances and the practical troop-leaders evolved by circumstances +fashioned the combination of _close-order columns and loose-order +skirmishers_ which constituted essentially the new tactics of the +Revolutionary and Napoleonic infantry. + + + Tactical evolution in France 1792-1807. + +The process of evolution cannot be stated in exact terms, more +especially as the officers, as they grew in wisdom through experience, +learned to apply each form in accordance with ground and circumstances, +and to reject, when unsuitable, not only the forms of the drill-book, +but the forms proposed by themselves to replace those of the drill-book. +But certain tendencies are easily discernible. The first tendency was +towards the dissolution of all tactical links. The earlier battles were +fought partly in line for fire action, partly in columns for the bayonet +attack. Now the linear tactics depended on exact preservation of +dressing, intervals and distances, and what required in the case of the +Prussians years of steady drill at 76 paces to the minute was hardly +attainable with the newly levied ardent Frenchmen marching at 100 to +120. Once, therefore, the line moved, it broke up into an irregular +swarm of excited firers, and experience soon proved that only the troops +kept out of the turmoil, whether in line or in column, were susceptible +of manoeuvre and united action. Thus from about 1795 onwards the forms +of the old régime, with half the troops in front in line of battle +(practically in dense hordes of firers) and the other half in rear in +line or line of columns, give way to new ones in which the skirmishers +are fewer and the closed troops more numerous, and the decision rests no +longer with the fire of the leading units (which of course could not +compare in effectiveness with the rolling volleys of the drilled line) +but with the bayonets of the second and third lines--the latter being +sometimes in line but more often, owing to the want of preliminary +drill, in columns. The skirmishers tended again to become pure light +infantry, whose rôle was to prepare, not to give, the decision, and who +fought in a thin line, taking every advantage of cover and marksmanship. +In the Consulate and early Empire, indeed, we commonly find, in the +closed troops destined for the attack, mixed line and column formations +combining in themselves shock and controlled close-order +fire--absolutely regardless of the skirmishers in front. + +In sum, then, from 1792 to 1795 the fighting methods of the French +infantry, of which so much has been written and said, are, as they have +aptly been called, "horde-tactics." From 1796 onwards to the first +campaigns of the Empire, on the other hand, there is an ever-growing +tendency to combine skirmishers, properly so called, with controlled and +well-closed bodies in rear, the first to prepare the attack to the best +of their ability by individual courage and skill at arms, the second to +deliver it at the right moment (thanks to their retention of manoeuvre +formations), and with all possible energy (thanks to the cohesion, moral +and material, which carried forward even the laggards). Even when in the +long wars of the Empire the quality of the troops progressively +deteriorated, infantry tactics within the regiment or brigade underwent +no radical alteration. The actual formations were most varied, but they +always contained two of the three elements, column, line and +skirmishers. Column (generally two lines of battalions in columns of +double-companies) was for shock or attack, line for fire-effect, and +skirmishers to screen the advance, to scout the ground and to disturb +the enemy's aim. Of these, except on the defensive (which was rare in a +Napoleonic battle), the "column" of attack was by far the most +important. The line formations for fire, with which it was often +combined, rarely accounted for more than one-quarter of the brigade or +division, while the skirmishers were still less numerous. Withal, these +formations in themselves were merely fresh shapes for old ideas. The +armament of Napoleon's troops was almost identical with that of +Frederick's or Saxe's. Line, column and combinations of the two were as +old as Fontenoy and were, moreover, destined to live for many years +after Napoleon had fallen. "Horde-tactics" did not survive the earlier +Revolutionary campaigns. Wherein then lies the change which makes 1792 +rather than 1740 the starting-point of modern tactics? + + + Napoleon's infantry and artillery tactics, 1807-1815. + +The answer, in so far as so comprehensive a question can be answered +from a purely infantry standpoint, is that whereas Frederick, disposing +of a small and highly finished instrument, used its manoeuvre power and +regimental efficiency to destroy one part of his enemy so swiftly that +the other had no time to intervene, Napoleon, who had numbers rather +than training on his side, only delivered his decisive blow after he had +"fixed" all bodies of the enemy which would interfere with his +preparations--i.e. had set up a physical barrier against the threatened +intervention. This new idea manifested itself in various forms. In +strategy (q.v.) and combined tactics it is generally for convenience +called "economy of force." In the domain of artillery (see ARTILLERY) it +marked a distinction, that has revived in the last twenty years, between +slow disintegrating fire and sudden and overpowering "fire-preparation." +As regards infantry the effect of it was revolutionary. Regiments and +brigades were launched to the attack to compel the enemy to defend +himself, and fought until completely dissolved to force him to use up +his reserves. "On s'engage partout et puis l'on voit" is Napoleon's own +description of his _holding attack_, which in no way resembled the +"feints" of previous generations. The self-sacrifice of the men thus +engaged enabled their commander to "see," and to mass his reserves +opposite a selected point, while little by little the enemy was +hypnotized by the fighting. Lastly, when "the battle was ripe" a hundred +and more guns galloped into close range and practically annihilated a +part of the defender's line. They were followed up by masses of reserve +infantry, often more solidly formed at the outset than the old Swiss +masses of the 16th century.[11] If the moment was rightly chosen these +masses, dissolved though they soon were into dense formless crowds, +penetrated the gap made by the guns (with their arms at the slope) and +were quickly followed by cavalry divisions to complete the enemy's +defeat. Here, too, it is to be observed there is no true shock. The +infantry masses merely "present the cheque for payment," and apart from +surprises, ambushes and fights in woods and villages there are few +recorded cases of bayonets being crossed in these wars. Napoleon himself +said "Le feu est tout, le reste peu de chose," and though a mere plan of +his dispositions suggests that he was the disciple of Folard and Menil +Durand, in reality he simply applied "fire-power" in the new and grander +form which his own genius imagined. + +The problem, then, was not what it had been one hundred and fifty years +before. The business of the attack was not to break down the passive +resistance of the defence, but to destroy or to evade its fire-power. No +attack with the bayonet could succeed if this remained effective and +unbroken, and no resistance (in the open field at least) availed when it +had been mastered or evaded. In Napoleon's army, the circumstance that +the infantry was (after 1807) incapable of carrying out its own +fire-preparation forced the task into the hands of the field artillery. +In other armies the 18th-century system had been discredited by repeated +disasters, and the infantry, as it became "nationalized," was passing +slowly through the successive phases of irregular lines, "swarms," +skirmishers and line-and-column formations that the French Revolutionary +armies had traversed before them--none of them methods that in +themselves had given decisive results. + + + The British Peninsular infantry. + +In all Europe the only infantry that represented the Frederician +tradition and prepared its own charge by its own fire was the British. +Eye-witnesses who served in the ranks of the French have described the +sensation of powerlessness that they felt as their attacking column +approached the line and watched it load and come to the present. The +column stopped short, a few men cheered, others opened a ragged +individual fire, and then came the volleys and the counter-attack that +swept away the column. Sometimes this counterstroke was made, as in the +famous case of Busaco, from an apparently unoccupied ridge, for the +British line, under Moore's guidance, had shaken off the Prussian +stiffness, fought 2 deep instead of 3 and was able to take advantage of +cover. The "blankness of the battlefield" noted by so many observers +to-day in the South African and Manchurian Wars was fully as +characteristic of Wellington's battles from Vimeiro to Waterloo, in +spite of close order and red uniforms. But these battles were of the +offensive-defensive type in the main, and for various reasons this type +could not be accepted as normal by the rest of Europe. Nonchalance was +not characteristic of the eager national levies of 1813 and 1814, and +the Wellington method of infantry tactics, though it had brought about +the failure of Napoleon's last effort, was still generally regarded as +an illustration of the already recognized fact that on the defensive the +fire-power of the line, unless partly or wholly evaded by rapidity in +the advance and manoeuvring power or mastered and extinguished by the +fire-power of the attack, made the front of the defence impregnable. +There was indeed nothing in the English tactics at Waterloo that, +standing out from the incidents of the battle, offered a new principle +of winning battles. + + + Infantry methods, 1815-1870. + +Nor indeed did Europe at large desire a fresh era of warfare. Only the +French, and a few unofficial students of war elsewhere, realized the +significance of the rejuvenated "line." For every one else, the later +Napoleonic battle was the model, and as the great wars had ended before +the "national" spirit had been exhausted or misused in wars of +aggrandizement, infantry tactics retained, in Germany, Austria and +Russia, the characteristic Napoleonic formations, lines of battalion or +regimental columns, sometimes combined with linear formations for fire, +and always covered by skirmishers. That these columns must in action +dissolve sooner or later into dense irregular swarms was of course +foreseen, but Napoleon had accustomed the world to long and costly +fire-fighting as the preliminary to the attack of the massed reserves, +and for the short remainder of the period of smooth-bore muskets, troops +were always launched to the attack in columns covered by a thin line of +picked shots as skirmishers. The moral power of the offensive "will to +conquer" and the rapidity of the attack itself were relied upon to evade +and disconcert the fire-power of the defence. If the attack failed to do +so, the ranges at which infantry fire was really destructive were so +small that it was easy for the columns to deploy or disperse and open a +fire-fight to prepare the way for the next line of columns. And after a +careful study of the battle of the Alma, in which the British line won +its last great victory in the open field, Moltke himself only proposed +such modifications in the accepted tactical system as would admit of the +troops being deployed for _defence_ instead of meeting attack, as the +Russians met it, in solid and almost stationary columns. Fire in the +attack, in fact, had come to be considered as chiefly the work of +artillery, and as artillery, being an expensive arm, had been reduced +during the period of military stagnation following Waterloo, and was no +longer capable of Napoleonic feats, the attack was generally a bayonet +attack pure and simple. Waterloo and the Alma were credited, not to +fire-power, but to English solidity, and as Ardant du Picq observes, +"All the peoples of Europe say 'no one can resist our bayonet attack if +it is made resolutely'--and _all are right_.... Bayonet fixed or in the +scabbard, it is all the same." Since the disappearance of the "dark +impenetrable wood" of spears, the question has always turned on the word +"resolute." If the defence cannot by any means succeed in mastering the +resolution of the assailant, it is doomed. But the means (moral and +material) at the disposal of the defence for the purpose of mastering +this resolution were, within a few years of the Crimean War, +revolutionized by the general adoption of the rifle, the introduction of +the breech-loader and the revival of the "nation in arms." + +Thirty years before the Crimea the flint-lock had given way to the +percussion lock (see GUN), which was more certain in its action and +could be used in all weathers. But fitting a copper cap on the nipple +was not so simple a matter for nervous fingers as priming with a pinch +of powder, and the usual rate of fire had fallen from the five rounds a +minute of Frederick's day to two or three at the most. "Fire-power" +therefore was at a low level until the general introduction[12] of the +rifled barrel, which while further diminishing the rate of fire, at any +rate greatly increased the range at which volleys were thoroughly +effective. Artillery (see ARTILLERY, § 13), the fire-weapon of the +attack, made no corresponding progress, and even as early as the Alma +and Inkerman (where the British troops used the Minie rifle) the dense +columns had suffered heavily without being able to retaliate by +"crossing bayonets." Fire power, therefore, though still the special +prerogative of the defence, began to reassert its influence, and for a +brief period the defensive was regarded as the best form of tactics. But +the low rate of fire was still a serious objection. Many incidents in +the American Civil War showed this, notably Fredericksburg, where the +key of the Confederate position was held--against a simple frontal +attack unsupported by effective artillery fire--by three brigades in +line one behind the other, i.e. by a _six-deep_ firing line. No less +force could guarantee the "inviolability of the front," and even when, +in this unnatural and uneconomical fashion, the rate of fire was +augmented as well as the effective range, a properly massed and well-led +attack in column (or in a rapid succession of deployed lines) generally +reached the defender's position, though often in such disorder that a +resolute counterstroke drove it back again. The American fought over +more difficult country and with less previous drill-training than the +armies of the Old World. The fire-power of the defence, therefore, that +even in America did not always prevail over the resolution of the +attack, entirely failed in the Italian war of 1859 to stop the swiftly +moving, well-drilled columns of the French professional army, in which +the national _élan_ had not as yet been suppressed, as it was a few +years later, by the doctrine that "the new arms found their greatest +scope in the defence." The Austrians, who had pinned their faith to this +doctrine, deserted their false gods, forbade any mention of the +defensive in their drill-books, and brought back into honour the bayonet +tactics of the old wars. + +The need of artillery support for the attack was indeed felt (though the +gunners had not as yet evolved any substitute for the case-shot +preparation of Napoleon's time), but men remembered that artillery was +used by the great captain, not so much to enable good troops to close +with the enemy, as to win battles with masses of troops of an inferior +stamp, and contemporary experience seemed to show that (if losses were +accepted as inevitable) good and resolute troops could overpower the +defence, even in face of the rifle and without the aid of case shot. But +a revolution was at hand. + + + The breech-loading rifle. + +In 1861 Moltke, discussing the war in Italy, wrote, "General Niel +attributes his victory (at Solferino) to the bayonet. But that does not +imply that the attack was often followed by a hand-to-hand fight. In +principle, when one makes a bayonet charge, it is because one supposes +that the enemy will not await it.... _To approach the enemy closely, +pouring an efficacious fire into him_--as Frederick the Great's infantry +did--_is also a method of the offensive_." This method was applicable at +that time for the Prussians alone, for they alone possessed a +breech-loading firearm. The needle-gun was a rudimentary weapon in many +respects, but it allowed of maintaining more than twice the rate of fire +that the muzzle-loader could give, and, moreover, it permitted the full +use of cover, because the firer could lie down to fire without having to +rise between every round to load. Further, he could load while actually +running forward, whereas with the old arms loading not only required +complete exposure but also checked movement. The advantages of the +Prussian weapon were further enhanced, in the war against Austria, by +the revulsion of feeling in the Imperial army in favour of the pure +bayonet charge in masses that had followed upon Magenta and Solferino. + +With the stiffly drilled professional soldier of England, Austria and +Russia the handiness of the new weapon could hardly have been exploited, +for (in Russia at any rate) even skirmishers had to march in step. The +Prussians were drilled nominally in accordance with regulations dating +from 1812, and therefore suitable, if not to the new weapon, at least to +the "swarm" fighting of an enthusiastic national army, but upon these +regulations a mass of peace-time amendments had been superposed, and in +theory their drill was as stiff as that of the Russians. But, as in +France in 1793-1796, the composition of their army--a true "nation in +arms"--and the character of the officers evolved by the universal +service system saved them from their regulations. The offensive spirit +was inculcated as thoroughly as elsewhere, and in a much more practical +form. Dietrich von Bülow's predictions of the future battle of +"skirmishers" (meaning thereby a dense but irregular firing line) had +captivated the younger school of officers, while King William and the +veterans of Napoleon's wars were careful to maintain small columns +(sometimes company[13] columns of 240 rifles, but quite as often +half-battalion and battalion columns) as a solid background to the +firing line. Thus in 1866 (see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR), as Moltke had +foreseen, the attacking infantry fought its way to close quarters by +means of its own fire, and the bayonet charge again became, in his own +words, "not the first, but the last, phase of the combat," immediately +succeeding a last burst of rapid fire at short range and carried out by +the company and battalion reserves in close order. Against the +Austrians, whose tactics alternated between unprepared bayonet rushes by +whole brigades and a passive slow-firing defensive, victory was easily +achieved. + + + Infantry in the war of 1870. + +But immediately after Königgrätz the French army was served out with a +breech-loading rifle greatly superior in every respect to the +needle-gun, and after four years' tension France pitted breech-loader +against breech-loader. In the first battles (see WÖRTH, and METZ: +_Battles_) the decision-seeking spirit of the "armed nation," the +inferior range of the needle-gun as compared with that of the chassepot, +and the recollections of easy triumphs in 1864 and 1866, all combined to +drive the German infantry forward to within easy range before they began +to make use of their weapons. Their powerful artillery would have +sufficed of itself to enable them to do this (see SEDAN), had they but +waited for its fire to take effect. But they did not, and they suffered +accordingly, for, owing to the ineffectiveness of their rifle between +1000 and 400 yds. range, they had to advance, as the Austrians and +Russians had done in previous wars, without firing a shot. In these +circumstances their formations, whether line or column, broke up, and +the whole attacking force dissolved into long irregular swarms. These +swarms were practically composed only of the brave men, while the rest +huddled together in woods and valleys. When, therefore, at last the +firing line came within 400 or 500 yds. of the French, it was both +severely tried and numerically weak, but the fact that it was composed +of the best men only enabled it to open and to maintain an effective +fire. Even then the French, highly disciplined professional soldiers +that they were, repeatedly swept them back by counterstrokes, but these +counterstrokes were subjected to the fire of the German guns and were +never more than locally and momentarily effective. More and more German +infantry was pushed forward to support the firing line, and, like its +predecessors, each reinforcement, losing most of its unwilling men as it +advanced over the shot-swept ground, consisted on arrival of really +determined men, and closing on the firing line pushed it forward, +sometimes 20 yds., sometimes 100, until at last rapid fire at the +closest ranges dislodged the stubborn defenders. Bayonets (as usual) +were never actually used, save in sudden encounters in woods and +villages. The decisive factors were, first the superiority of the +Prussian guns, secondly, heavy and effective fire delivered at short +range, and above all the high moral of a proportion of resolute soldiers +who, after being subjected for hours to the most demoralizing +influences, had still courage left for the final dash. These three +factors, in spite of changes in armament, rule the infantry attack of +to-day. + + +INFANTRY TACTICS SINCE 1870 + +The net result of the Franco-German War on infantry tactics, as far as +it can be summed up in a single phrase, was to transfer the fire-fight +to the line of skirmishers. Henceforward the old and correct sense of +the word "skirmishers" is lost. They have nothing to do with a +"skirmish," but are the actual organ of battle, and their old duties of +feeling the way for the battle-formations have been taken over by +"scouts." The last-named were not, however, fully recognized in Great +Britain[14] till long after the war--not in fact until the war in South +Africa had shown that the "skirmisher" or firing line was too powerful +an engine to be employed in mere "feeling." In most European armies +"combat patrols," which work more freely, are preferred to scouts, but +the idea is the same. + + + Lessons of 1870. + +The fire-fight on the line of skirmishers, now styled the _firing line_, +is the centre of gravity of the modern battle. In 1870, owing to the +peculiar circumstances of unequal armament, the "fire-fight" was +insufficiently developed and uneconomically used, and after the war +tacticians turned their attention to the evolution of better methods +than those of Wörth and Gravelotte, Europe in general following the lead +of Prussia. Controversy, in the early stages, took the form of a contest +between "drill" and "individualism," irrespective of formations and +technical details, for until about 1890 the material efficiency of the +gun and the rifle remained very much what it had been in 1870, and the +only new factor bearing on infantry tactics was the general adoption of +a "national army" system similar to Prussia's and of rifles equal, and +in some ways superior, to the chassepot. All European armies, therefore, +had to consider equality in artillery power, equality in the ballistics +of rifles, and equal intensity of fighting spirit as the normal +conditions of the next battle of nations. Here, in fact, was an +equilibrium, and in such conditions how was the attacking infantry to +force its way forward, whether by fire or movement or by both? France +sought the answer in the domain of artillery. Under the guidance of +General Langlois, she re-created the Napoleonic hurricane of case-shot +(represented in modern conditions by time shrapnel), while from the +doctrine formed by Generals Maillard and Bonnal there came a system of +infantry tactics derived fundamentally from the tactics of the +Napoleonic era. This, however, came later; for the moment (viz. from +1871 to about 1890) the lead in infantry training was admittedly in the +hands of the Prussians. + +German officers who had fought through the war had seen the operations, +generally speaking, either from the staff officer's or from the +regimental officer's point of view. To the former and to many of the +latter the most indelible impression of the battlefield was what they +called _Massen-Drückebergertum_ or "wholesale skulking." The rest, who +had perhaps in most cases led the brave remnant of their companies in +the final assaults, believed that battles were won by the individual +soldier and his rifle. The difference between the two may be said to lie +in this, that the first sought a remedy, the second a method. The remedy +was _drill_, the method _extended order_. + +The extreme statement of the case in favour of drill pure and simple is +to be found in the famous anonymous pamphlet _A Summer Night's Dream_, +in which a return to the "old Prussian fire-discipline" of Frederick's +day was offered as the solution of the problem, how to give "fire" its +maximum efficacity. Volleys and absolutely mechanical obedience to word +of command represent, of course, the most complete application of +fire-power that can be conceived. But the proposals of the extreme +close-order school were nevertheless merely pious aspirations, not so +much because of the introduction of the breech-loader as because the +short-service "national" army can never be "drilled" in the Frederician +sense. The proposals of the other school were, however, even more +impracticable, in that they rested on the hypothesis that all men were +brave, and that, consequently, all that was necessary was to teach the +recruit how to shoot and to work with other individuals in the squad or +company. Disorder of the firing line was accepted, not as an unavoidable +evil, but as a condition in which individuality had full play, and as +dense swarm formations were quite as vulnerable as an ordinary line, it +was an easy step from a thick line of "individuals" to a thin one. The +step was, in fact, made in the middle of the war of 1870, though it was +hardly noticed that extension only became practicable in proportion as +the quality of the enemy decreased and the Germans became acclimatized +to fire. + +Between these extremes, a moderate school, with the emperor William (who +had more experience of the human being in battle than any of his +officers) at its head, spent a few years in groping for close-order +formations which admitted of control without vulnerability, then laid +down the principle and studied the method of developing the greatest +fire-power of which short-service infantry was supposed capable, +ultimately combined the "drill" and teaching ideas in the German +infantry regulations of 1888, which at last abolished those of 1812 with +their multitudinous amendments. + + + Conditions of the modern battle. + +The necessity for "teaching" arose partly out of the new conditions of +service and the relative rarity of wars. The soldier could no longer +learn the ordinary rules of safety in action and comfort in bivouac by +experience, and had to be taught. But it was still more the new +conditions of fighting that demanded careful individual training. Of +old, the professional soldier (other than the man belonging to light +troops or the ground scout) was, roughly speaking, either so far out of +immediate danger as to preserve his reasoning faculties, or so deep in +battle that he became the unconscious agent of his inborn or acquired +instincts. But the increased range of modern arms prolonged the time of +danger, and although (judged by casualty returns) the losses to-day are +far less than those which any regiment of Frederick's day was expected +to face without flinching, and actual fighting is apparently spasmodic, +the period in which the individual soldier is subjected to the fear of +bullets is greatly increased. Zorndorf, the most severe of Frederick's +battles, lasted seven hours, Vionville twelve and Wörth eleven. The +battle of the future in Europe, without being as prolonged as Liao-Yang, +Shaho and Mukden, will still be undecided twenty-four hours after the +advanced guards have taken contact. Now, for a great part of this time, +the "old Prussian fire-discipline," which above all aims at a rapid +decision, will be not only unnecessary, but actually hurtful to the +progress of the battle as a whole. As in Napoleon's day (for reasons +presently to be mentioned) the battle must resolve itself into a +preparative and a decisive phase.[15] In the last no commander could +desire a better instrument (if such were attainable with the armies of +to-day) than Frederick's forged steel machine, in which every company +was human mitrailleuse. But the preparatory combat not only will be +long, but also must be graduated in intensity at different times and +places in accordance with the commander's will, and the Frederician +battalion only attained its mechanical perfection by the absolute and +permanent submergence of the individual qualities of each soldier, with +the result that, although it furnished the maximum effort in the minimum +time, it was useless once it fell apart into ragged groups. The +individual spirit of earnestness and intelligence in the use of ground +by small fractions, which in Napoleon's day made the _combat d'usure_ +possible, was necessarily unknown in Frederick's. On the other hand, +graduation implies control on the part of the leaders, and this the +method of irregular swarms of individual fighters imagined by the German +progressives merely abdicates. At most such swarms--however close or +extended--can only be tolerated as an evil that no human power can avert +when the battle has reached a certain stage of intensity. Even the +latest _German Infantry Training_ (1906) is explicit on this point. "It +must never be forgotten that the obligation of abandoning close order is +an evil which can often be avoided when" &c. &c. (par. 342). The +consequences of this evil, further, are actually less serious in +proportion as the troops are well drilled--not to an unnecessary and +unattainable ideal of mechanical perfection, but to a state of +instinctive self-control in danger. Drill, therefore, carried to such a +point that it has eliminated the bad habits of the recruit without +detriment to his good habits, is still the true basis of all military +training, whether training be required for the swift controlled +movements of bodies of infantry in close order, for the cool and steady +fire of scattered groups of skirmishers, or for the final act of the +resolute will embodied in the "decisive attack." Unfortunately for the +solution of infantry problems "drill" and "close order" are often +confused, owing chiefly to the fact that in the 1870 battles the +dissolution of close order formations practically meant the end of +control as control was then understood. Both the material and objective, +and the inward and spiritual significances of "drill" are, however, +independent of "close order." In fact, in modern history, when a +resolute general has made a true decisive attack with half-drilled +troops, he has generally arrayed them in the closest possible +formations. + + + Drill. + + Drill is the military form of education by repetition and association + (see G. le Bon, _Psychologie de l'éducation_). Materially it consists + in exercises frequently repeated by bodies of soldiers with a view to + ensuring the harmonious action of each individual in the work to be + performed by the mass--in a word, rehearsals. Physical "drill" is + based on physiology and gymnastics, and aims at the development of the + physique and the individual will power.[16] But the psychological or + moral is incomparably the most important side of drill. It is the + method or art of discipline. Neither self-control nor devotion in the + face of imminent danger can as a rule come from individual reasoning. + A commander-in-chief keeps himself free from the contact with the + turmoil of battle so long as he has to calculate, to study reports or + to manoeuvre, and commanders of lower grades, in proportion as their + duty brings them into the midst of danger, are subjected to greater or + less disturbing influences. The man in the fighting line where the + danger is greatest is altogether the slave of the unconscious. + Overtaxed infantry, whether defeated or successful, have been observed + to present an appearance of absolute insanity. It is true that in the + special case of great war experience reason resumes part of its + dominion in proportion as the fight becomes the soldier's habitual + _milieu_. Thus towards the end of a long war men become skilful and + cunning individual fighters; sometimes, too, feelings of respect for + the enemy arise and lead to interchange of courtesies at the outposts, + and it has also been noticed that in the last stage of a long war men + are less inclined to sacrifice themselves. All this is "reason" as + against inborn or inbred "instinct." But in the modern world, which is + normally at peace, some method must be found of ensuring that the + peace-trained soldier will carry out his duties when his reason is + submerged. Now we know that the constant repetition of a certain act, + whether on a given impulse or of the individual's own volition, will + eventually make the performance of that act a reflex action. For this + reason peace-drilled troops have often defeated a war-trained enemy, + even when the motives for fighting were equally powerful on each side. + The mechanical performance of movements, and loading and firing at the + enemy, under the most disturbing conditions can be ensured by bringing + the required self-control from the domain of reason into that of + instinct. "_L'éducation_," says le Bon, "_est l'art de faire passer le + conscient dans l'inconscient_." Lastly, the instincts of the recruit + being those special to his race or nation, which are the more powerful + because they are operative through many generations, it is the drill + sergeant's business to bring about, by disuse, atrophy of the + instincts which militate against soldierly efficiency, and to develop, + by constant repetition and special preparation, other useful instincts + which the Englishman or Frenchman or German does not as such possess. + In short, as regards infantry training, there is no real distinction + between drill and education, save in so far as the latter term covers + instruction in small details of field service which demand alertness, + shrewdness and technical knowledge (as distinct from technical + training). As understood by the controversialists of the last + generation, drill was the antithesis of education. To-day, however, + the principle of education having prevailed against the old-fashioned + notion of drill, it has been discovered that after all drill is merely + an intensive form of education. This discovery (or rather definition + and justification of an existing empirical rule) is attributable + chiefly to a certain school of French officers, who seized more + rapidly than civilians the significance of modern psycho-physiology. + In their eyes, a military body possesses in a more marked degree than + another, the primary requisite of the "psychological crowd," studied + by Gustave le Bon, viz. the orientation of the wills of each and all + members of the crowd in a determined direction. Such a crowd generates + a collective will that dominates the wills of the individuals + composing it. It coheres and acts on the common property of all the + instincts and habits in which each shares. Further it tends to + extremes of baseness and heroism--this being particularly marked in + the military crowd--and lastly it reacts to a stimulus. The last is + the keynote of the whole subject of infantry training as also, to a + lesser degree, of that of the other arms. The officer can be regarded + practically as a hypnotist playing upon the unconscious activities of + his subject. In the lower grades, it is immaterial whether reason, + caprice or a fresh set of instincts stimulated by an outside + authority, set in motion the "suggestion." The true leader, whatever + the provenance of his "suggestion," makes it effective by dominating + the "psychological crowd" that he leads. On the other hand, if he + fails to do so, he is himself dominated by the uncontrolled will of + the crowd, and although leaderless mobs have at times shown extreme + heroism, it is far more usual to find them reverting to the primitive + instinct of brutality or panic fear. A mob, therefore, or a raw + regiment, requires greater powers of suggestion in its leader, whereas + a thorough course of drill tunes the "crowd" to respond to the + stimulus that average officers can apply. + +So far from diminishing, drill has increased in importance under modern +conditions of recruiting. It has merely changed in form, and instead of +being repressive it has become educative. The force of modern +short-service troops, as _troops_, is far sooner spent than that of the +old-fashioned automatic regiments, while the reserve force of its +component parts, remaining after the dissolution, is far higher than of +old. But this uncontrolled, force is liable to panic as well as amenable +to an impulse of self-sacrifice. In so far, then, it is necessary to +adopt the catchword of the Bülow school and to "organize disorder," and +the only known method of doing so is drill. "Individualism" pure and +simple had certainly a brief reign during and after the South African +War, especially in Great Britain, and both France and Germany coquetted +with "Boer tactics," until the Russo-Japanese war brought military +Europe back to the old principles. + + + The South African War. + + Formulation of the British "Doctrine." + +But the South African War came precisely at the point of time when the +controversies of 1870 had crystallized into a form of tactics that was +not suitable to the conditions of that war, while about the same time +the relations of infantry and artillery underwent a profound change. As +regards the South African War, the clear atmosphere, the trained sight +of the Boers, and the alternation of level plain and high concave kopjes +which constituted the usual battlefield, made the front to front +infantry attacks not merely difficult but almost impossible. For years, +indeed ever since the Peninsular War, the tendency of the British army +to deploy early had afforded a handle to European critics of its +tactical methods. It was a tendency that survived with the rest of the +"linear" tradition. But in South Africa, owing to the special advantages +of the defenders, which denied to the assailant all reliable indications +of the enemy's strength and positions, this early deployment had to take +a non-committal form--viz. many successive lines of skirmishers. The +application of this form was, indeed, made easy by the openness of the +ground, but like all "schematic" formations, open or close, it could not +be maintained under fire, with the special disadvantage that the +extensions were so wide as to make any manoeuvring after the fight had +cleared up a situation a practical impossibility. Hence some +_preconceived idea_ of an objective was an essential preliminary, and as +the Boer mounted infantry hardly ever stood to defend any particular +position to the last (as they could always renew the fight at some other +point in their vast territory), the preconceived idea was always, after +the early battles, an envelopment in which the troops told off to the +frontal holding attack were required, not to force their advance to its +logical conclusion, but to keep the fight alive until the flank attack +made itself felt. The principal tendency of British infantry tactics +after the Boer War was therefore quite naturally, under European as well +as colonial conditions, to deploy at the outset in great depth, i.e. in +many lines of skirmishers, each line, when within about 1400 yds. of the +enemy's position, extending to intervals of 10 to 20 paces between +individuals. The reserves were strong and their importance was well +marked in the 1902 training manual, but their functions were rather to +extend or feed the firing line, to serve as a rallying point in case of +defeat and to take up the pursuit (par. 220, _Infantry Training_, 1902), +than to form the engine of a decisive attack framed by the +commander-in-chief after "engaging everywhere and then seeing" as +Napoleon did. The 1905 regulations adhered to this theory of the attack +in the main, only modifying a number of tactical prescriptions which had +not proved satisfactory after their transplantation from South Africa to +Europe, but after the Russo-Japanese War a series of important +amendments was issued which gave greater force and still greater +elasticity to the attack procedure, and in 1909 the tactical "doctrine" +of the British army was definitively formulated in _Field Service +Regulations_, paragraph 102, of which after enumerating the advantages +and disadvantages of the "preconceived idea" system, laid it down, as +the normal procedure of the British Army, that the general should +"obtain the decision by _manoeuvre on the battlefield_ with a large +general reserve maintained in his own hand" and "_strike with his +reserve at the right place and time_." + +The rehabilitation of the Napoleonic attack idea thus frankly accepted +in Great Britain had taken place in France several years before the +South African War, and neither this war nor that in Manchuria +effectively shook the faith of the French army in the principle, while +on the other hand Germany remains faithful to the "preconceived idea," +both in strategy and tactics.[17] This essential difference in the two +rival "doctrines" is intimately connected with the revival of the +Napoleonic artillery attack, in the form of concentrated time shrapnel. + + The Napoleonic artillery preparation, it will be remembered, was a + fire of overwhelming intensity delivered against the selected point of + the enemy's position, at the moment of the massed and decisive assault + of the reserves. In Napoleon's time the artillery went in to within + 300 or 400 yds. range for this act, i.e. in front of the infantry, + whereas now the guns fire over the heads of the infantry and + concentrate shells instead of guns on the vital point. The principle + is, however, the same. A model infantry attack in the Napoleonic + manner was that of Okasaki's brigade on the Terayama hill at the + battle of Shaho, described by Sir Ian Hamilton in his _Staff Officer's + Scrap-Book_. The Japanese, methodical and cautious as they were, only + sanctioned a pure open force assault as a last resort. Then the + brigadier Okasaki, a peculiarly resolute leader, arrayed his brigade + in a "schematic" attack formation of four lines, the first two in + single rank, the third in line and the fourth in company columns. + Covered by a powerful converging shrapnel fire, the brigade covered + the first 900 yds. of open plain without firing a shot. Then, however, + it disappeared from sight amongst the houses of a village, and the + spectators watched the thousands of flashes fringing the further edge + that indicated a fire-fight at decisive range (the Terayama was about + 600 yds. beyond the houses). Forty minutes passed, and the army + commander Kuroki said, "He cannot go forward. We are in check to-day + all along the line." But at that moment Okasaki's men, no longer in a + "schematic" formation but in many irregularly disposed groups--some of + a dozen men and some of seventy, some widely extended and some + practically in close order--rushed forward at full speed over 600 yds. + of open ground, and stormed the Terayama with the bayonet. + + + The decisive attack. + +Such an attack as that at the battle of Shaho is rare, but so it has +always been with masterpieces of the art of war. We have only to +multiply the front of attack by two and the forces engaged by five--and +to find the resolute general to lead them--to obtain the ideal decisive +attack of a future European war. Instead of the bare open plain over +which the advance to decisive range was made, a European general would +in most cases dispose of an area of spinneys, farm-houses and undulating +fields. The schematic approach-march would be replaced in France and +England by a forward movement of bodies in close order, handy enough to +utilize the smallest covered ways. Then the fire of both infantry and +artillery would be augmented to its maximum intensity, overpowering that +of the defence, and the whole of the troops opposite the point to be +stormed would be thrown forward for the bayonet charge. The formation +for this scarcely matters. What is important is speed and the will to +conquer, and for this purpose small bodies (sections, half-companies or +companies), not in the close order of the drill book but grouped closely +about the leader who inspires and controls them, are as potent an +instrument as a Frederician line or a Napoleonic column. + +Controversy, in fact, does not turn altogether on the method of the +assault, or even on the method of obtaining the fire-superiority of guns +and rifles that justifies it. Although one nation may rely on its guns +more than on the rifles, or vice versa, all are agreed that at decisive +range the firing line should contain as many men as can use their rifles +effectually. Perhaps the most disputed point is the form of the +"approach-march," viz. the dispositions and movements of the attacking +infantry between about 1400 and about 600 yds. from the position of the +enemy. + + + The approach-march. + +The condition of the assailant's infantry when it reaches decisive +ranges is largely governed by the efforts it has expended and the losses +it has suffered in its progress. Sometimes even after a firing line of +some strength has been established at decisive range, it may prove too +difficult or too costly for the supports (sent up from the rear to +replace casualties and to augment fire-power) to make their way to the +front. Often, again, it may be within the commander's intentions that +his troops at some particular point in the line should not be committed +to decisive action before a given time--perhaps not at all. It is +obvious then that no "normal" attack procedure which can be laid down in +a drill book (though from time to time the attempt has been made, as in +the French regulations of 1875) can meet all cases. But here again, +though all armies formally and explicitly condemn the normal attack, +each has its own well-marked tendencies. + + + Current views on the infantry attack. + +The German regulations of 1906 define the offensive as "transporting +fire towards the enemy, if necessary to his immediate proximity"; the +bayonet attack "confirms" the victory. Every attack begins with +deployment into extended order, and the leading line advances as close +to the enemy as possible before opening fire. In ground offering cover, +the firing line has practically its maximum density at the outset. In +open ground, however, half-sections, groups and individuals, widely +spaced out, advance stealthily one after the other till all are _in +position_. It is on this position, called the "first fire position" and +usually about 1000 yds. from the enemy, that the full force of the +attack is deployed, and from this position, as simultaneously as +possible, it opens the fight for fire-superiority. Then, each unit +covering the advance of its neighbours, the whole line fights its way by +open force to within charging distance. If at any point a decision is +not desired, it is deliberately made impossible by employing there such +small forces as possess no offensive power. Where the attack is intended +to be pushed home, the infantry units employed act as far as possible +simultaneously, resolutely and in great force (see the German _Infantry +Regulations_, 1906, §§ 324 et seq.). + +While in Germany movement "transports the fire," in France fire is +regarded as the way to make movement possible. It is considered (see +Grandmaison, _Dressage de l'infanterie_) that a premature and excessive +deployment enervates the attack, that the ground (i.e. covered ways of +approach for small columns, not for troops showing a fire front) should +be used as long as possible to march "en troupe" and that a firing line +should only be formed when it is impossible to progress without acting +upon the enemy's means of resistance. Thereafter each unit, in such +order as its chief can keep, should fight its way forward, and help +others to do so--like Okasaki's brigade in the last stage of its +attack--utilizing bursts of fire or patches of wood or depressions in +the ground, as each is profitable or available to assist the advance. +"From the moment when a fighting unit is 'uncoupled,' its action must be +ruled by two conditions, and by those only: the one material, an object +to be reached; the other moral, the will to reach the object." + +The British _Field Service Regulations_ of 1909 are in spirit more +closely allied to the French than to the German. "The climax of the +infantry attack is the assault, which is made possible by superiority of +fire" is the principle (emphasized in the book itself by the use of +conspicuous type), and a "gradual _building up of the firing line within +close range_ of the position," coupled with the closest artillery +support, and the final blow of the reserves delivered "unexpectedly and +in the greatest possible strength" are indicated as the means.[18] + + + Defence. + +The _defence_, as it used to be understood, needs no description. To-day +in all armies the defence is looked upon not as a means of winning a +battle, but as a means of temporizing and avoiding the decision until +the commander of the defending party is enabled, by the general military +situation or by the course and results of the defensive battle itself, +to take the offensive. In the British _Field Service Regulations_ it is +laid down that when an army acts on the defensive no less than half of +it should if possible be earmarked, suitably posted and placed under a +single commander, for the purpose of delivering a decisive +counter-attack. The object of the purely defensive portion, too, is not +merely to hold the enemy's firing line in check, but to drive it back so +that the enemy may be forced to use up his local reserve resources to +keep the fight alive. A firing line covered and steadied by +entrenchments, and restless local reserves ever on the look-out for +opportunities of partial counterstrokes, are the instruments of this +policy. + + + Entrenchments. + + A word must be added on the use of entrenchments by infantry, a + subject the technical aspect of which is fully dealt with and + illustrated in FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT: _Field Defences_. + Entrenchments of greater or less strength by themselves have always + been used by infantry on the defensive, especially in the wars of + position of the 17th and 18th centuries. In the Napoleonic and modern + "wars of movement," they are regarded, not as a passive defence--they + have long ceased to present a physical barrier to assault--but as fire + positions so prepared as to be defensible by relatively few men. Their + purpose is, by economizing force elsewhere, to give the maximum + strength to the troops told off for the counter-offensive. In the + later stages of the American Civil War, and also in the Russo-Japanese + War of 1904-1905--each in its way an example of a "war of + positions"--the assailant has also made use of the methods of + fortification to secure every successive step of progress in the + attack. The usefulness and limitations of this procedure are defined + in generally similar terms in the most recent training manuals of + nearly every European army. Section 136, § 7 of the British _Infantry + Training_ (1905, amended 1907) says: "During the process of + establishing a superiority of fire, successive fire positions will be + occupied by the firing line. As a rule those affording natural cover + will be chosen, but if none exist and the intensity of the hostile + fire preclude any immediate further advance, it may be expedient for + the firing line to create some. This hastily constructed protection + will enable the attack to cope with the defender's fire and thus + prepare the way for a farther advance. The construction of cover + during an attack, however, will entail delay and a temporary loss of + fire effect _and should therefore be resorted to only when absolutely + necessary..._. As soon as possible the advance should be resumed, &c." + The German regulations are as follows (_Infantry Training_, 1906, § + 313): "In the offensive the entrenching tool may be used where it is + desired, for the moment, to content one's self with maintaining the + ground gained.... The entrenching tool is only to be used with the + greatest circumspection, because of the great difficulty of getting an + extended line to go forward under fire when it has expended much + effort in digging cover for itself. The construction of trenches must + never paralyze the desire for the irresistible advance, _and above all + must not kill the spirit of the offensive_." + + + ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT + + The organization of infantry varies rather more than that of other + arms in different countries. Taking the British system first, the + battalion (and not as elsewhere the regiment of two, three or more + battalions) is the administrative and manoeuvre unit. It is about 1000 + strong, and is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel, who has a major and + an adjutant (captain or lieutenant) to assist him, and an officer of + lieutenant's or captain's rank (almost invariably promoted from the + ranks), styled the quartermaster, to deal with supplies, clothing, &c. + There are eight companies of a nominal strength of about 120 each. + These are commanded by captains (or by junior majors), and each + captain has or should have two lieutenants or second lieutenants to + assist him. Machine guns are in Great Britain distributed to the + battalions and not massed in permanent batteries. In addition there + are various regimental details, such as orderly-room staff, cooks, + cyclists, signallers, band and ambulance men. The company is divided + into four sections of thirty men each and commanded by sergeants. A + half-company of two sections is under the control of a subaltern + officer. A minor subdivision of the section into two "squads" is made + unless the numbers are insufficient to warrant it. In administrative + duties the captain's principal assistant is the colour-sergeant or + pay-sergeant, who is not assigned to a section command. The + lieutenant-colonel, the senior major and the adjutant are mounted. The + commanding officer is assisted by a battalion staff, at the head of + which is the adjutant. The sergeant-major holds a "warrant" from the + secretary of state for war, as does the bandmaster. Other members of + the battalion staff are non-commissioned officers, appointed by the + commanding officer. The most important of these is the + quartermaster-sergeant, who is the assistant of the quartermaster. The + two colours ("king's" and "regimental") are in Great Britain carried + by subalterns and escorted by colour-sergeants (see COLOURS). + + The "tactical" unit of infantry is now the _company_, which varies + very greatly in strength in the different armies. Elsewhere the + company of 250 rifles is almost universal, but in Great Britain the + company has about 110 men in the ranks, forming four sections. These + sections, each of about 28 rifles, are the normal "fire-units," that + is to say, the unit which delivers its fire at the orders of and with + the elevation and direction given by its commander. This, it will be + observed, gives little actual executive work for the junior officers. + But a more serious objection than this (which is modified in practice + by arrangement and circumstances) is the fact that a small unit is + more affected by detachments than a large one. In the home battalions + of the Regular Army such detachments are very large, what with finding + drafts for the foreign service battalions and for instructional + courses, while in the Territorial Force, where it is so rarely + possible to assemble all the men at once, the company as organized is + often too small to drill as such. On the other hand, the full + war-strength company is an admirable unit for control and manoeuvre in + the field, owing to its rapidity of movement, handiness in using + accidents of ground and cover, and susceptibility to the word of + command of one man. But as soon as its strength falls below about 80 + the advantages cease to counterbalance the defects. The sections + become too small as fire-units to effect really useful results, and + the battalion commander has to coordinate and to direct 8 + comparatively ineffective units instead of 4 powerful ones. The + British regular army, therefore, has since the South African War, + adopted the _double company_ as the unit of training. This gives at + all times a substantial unit for fire and manoeuvre training, but the + disadvantage of having a good many officers only half employed is + accentuated. As to the tactical value of the large or double company, + opinions differ. Some hold that as the small company is a survival + from the days when the battalion was the tactical unit and the company + was the unit of volley-fire, it is unsuited to the modern exigencies + that have broken up the old rigid line into several independent and + co-operating fractions. Others reply that the strong continental + company of 250 rifles came into existence in Prussia in the years + after Waterloo, not from tactical reasons, but because the state was + too poor to maintain a large establishment of officers, and that in + 1870, at any rate, there were many instances of its tactical + unwieldiness. The point that is common to both organizations is the + fact that there is theoretically one subaltern to every 50 or 60 + rifles, and this reveals an essential difference between the British + and the Continental systems, irrespective of the sizes or groupings of + companies. The French or German subaltern effectively commands his 50 + men as a unit, whereas the British subaltern supervises two groups of + 25 to 30 men under responsible non-commissioned officers. That is to + say, a British sergeant may find himself in such a position that he + has to be as expert in controlling and obtaining good results from + collective fire as a German lieutenant. For reasons mentioned in ARMY, + § 40, non-commissioned officers, of the type called by Kipling the + "backbone of the army," are almost unobtainable with the universal + service system, and the lowest unit that possesses any independence is + the lowest unit commanded by an officer. But apart from the rank of + the fire-unit commander, it is questionable whether the section, as + understood in England, is not too small a fire-unit, for European + warfare at any rate. The regulations of the various European armies, + framed for these conditions, practically agree that the fire-unit + should be commanded by an officer and should be large enough to ensure + good results from collective fire. The number of rifles meeting this + second condition is 50 to 80 and their organization a "section" + (corresponding to the British half-company) under a subaltern officer. + The British army has, of course, to be organized and trained for an + infinitely wider range of activity, and no one would suggest the + abolition of the small section as a fire-unit. But in a great European + battle it would be almost certainly better to group the two sections + into a real unit for fire effect. (For questions of infantry fire + tactics see RIFLE: § _Musketry_.) + + On the continent of Europe the "regiment," which is a unit, acting in + peace and war as such, consists normally of three battalions, and each + battalion of four companies or 1000 rifles. The company of 250 rifles + is commanded by a captain, who is mounted. In France the company has + four sections, commanded in war by the three subalterns and the + "adjudant" (company sergeant-major); the sections are further grouped + in pairs to constitute _pelotons_ (platoons) or half-companies under + the senior of the two section leaders. In peace there are two + subalterns only, and the _peloton_ is the normal junior officer's + command. The battalion is commanded by a major (_commandant_ or + strictly _chef de bataillon_), the regiment (three or four battalions) + by a colonel with a lieutenant-colonel as second. An organization of + 3-battalion regiments and 3-company battalions was proposed in 1910. + + In Germany, where what we have called the continental company + originated, the regiment is of three battalions under majors, and the + battalion of four companies commanded by captains. The company is + divided into three _Züge_ (sections), each under a subaltern, who has + as his second a sergeant-major, a "vice-sergeant-major" or a + "sword-knot ensign" (aspirant officer). In war there is one additional + officer for company. The _Zug_ at war-strength has therefore about 80 + rifles in the ranks, as compared with the French "section" of 50, and + the British section of 30. + + The system prevailing in the United States since the reorganization of + 1901 is somewhat remarkable. The regiment, which is a tactical as well + as an administrative unit, consists of three battalions. Each + battalion has four companies of (at war-strength) 3 officers and 150 + rifles each. The regiment in war therefore consists of about 1800 + rifles in three small and handy battalions of 600 each. The + circumstances in which this army serves, and in particular the + maintenance of small frontier posts, have always imposed upon + subalterns the responsibilities of small independent commands, and it + is fair to assume that the 75 rifles at a subaltern's disposal are + regarded as a tactical unit. + + In sum, then, the infantry battalion is in almost every country about + 1000 rifles strong in four companies. In the United States it is 600 + strong in four companies, and in Great Britain it is 1000 strong in + eight. The captain's command is usually 200 to 250 men, in the United + States 150, and in Great Britain 120. The lieutenant or second + lieutenant commands in Germany 80 rifles, in France 50, in the United + States 75, as a unit of fire and manoeuvre. In Great Britain he + commands, with relatively restricted powers, 60. + + A short account of the infantry equipments--knapsack or valise, belt, + haversack, &c.--in use in various countries will be found in UNIFORMS, + NAVAL AND MILITARY. The armament of infantry is, in all countries, the + magazine rifle (see RIFLE) and bayonet (q.v.), for officers and for + certain under-officers sword (q.v.) and pistol (q.v.). Ammunition + (q.v.) in the British service is carried (a) by the individual + soldier, (b) by the reserves (mules and carts) in regimental charge, + some of which in action are assembled from the battalions of a brigade + to form a brigade reserve, and (c) by the ammunition columns. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following works are selected to show (1) the + historical development of the arm, and (2) the different "doctrines" + of to-day as to its training and functions:--Ardant du Picq, _Études + sur le combat_; C. W. C. Oman, _The Art of War: Middle Ages_; Biottot, + _Les Grands Inspirés--Jeanne d'Arc_; Hardy de Périni, _Batailles + françaises_; C. H. Firth, _Cromwell's Army_; German official history + of Frederick the Great's wars, especially _Erster Schlesische Krieg_, + vol. i.; Susane, _Histoire de l'infanterie française_; French General + Staff, _La Tactique au XVIII^me--l'infanterie_ and _La Tactique et la + discipline dans les armées de la Révolution--Général Schauenbourg_; J. + W. Fortescue, _History of the British Army_; Moorsom, _History of the + 52nd Regiment_; de Grandmaison, _Dressage de l'infanterie_ (Paris, + 1908); works of W. v. Scherff; F. N. Maude, _Evolution of Infantry + Tactics and Attack and Defence_; [Meckel] _Ein Sommernachtstraum_ + (Eng. trans, in _United Service Magazine_, 1890); J. Meckel, _Taktik_; + Malachowski, _Scharfe- und Revuetaktik_; H. Langlois, _Enseignements + de deux guerres_; F. Hoenig, _Tactics of the Future_ and _Twenty-four + Hours of Moltke's Strategy_ (Eng. trans.); works of A. von + Boguslowski; _British Officers' Reports on the Russo-Japanese War_; H. + W. L. Hime, _Stray Military Papers_; Grange, "Les Réalités du champ de + bataille--Woerth" (_Rev. d'infanterie_, 1908-1909); V. Lindenau, "The + Boer War and Infantry Attack" (_Journal R. United Service + Institution_, 1902-1903); Janin, "Aperçus sur la + tactique--Mandchourie" (_Rev. d'infanterie_, 1909); Soloviev, + "Infantry Combat in the Russo-Jap. War" (Eng. trans. _Journal + R.U.S.I._, 1908); British Official _Field Service Regulations_, part + i. (1909), and _Infantry Training_ (1905); German drill regulations of + 1906 (Fr. trans.); French drill regulations of 1904; Japanese + regulations 1907 (Eng. trans.). The most important journals devoted to + the infantry arm are the French official _Revue d'infanterie_ (Paris + and Limoges), and the _Journal of the United Stales Infantry + Association_ (Washington, D. C). (C. F. A.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] At Bouvines, it is recorded with special emphasis that Guillaume + des Barres, when in the act of felling the emperor, heard the call to + rescue King Philip Augustus and, forfeiting his rich prize, made his + way back to help his own sovereign. + + [2] Crossbows indeed were powerful, and also handled by professional + soldiers (e.g. the Genoese at Crécy), but they were slow in action, + six times as slow as the long bow, and the impatient gendarmerie + generally became tired of the delay and crowded out or rode over the + crossbowmen. + + [3] As for instance when thirty men-at-arms "cut out" the Captal de + Buch from the midst of his army at Cocherel. + + [4] This tendency of the French military temperament reappears at + almost every stage in the history of armies. + + [5] The term _landsknecht_, it appears, was not confined to the right + bank of the Rhine. The French "lansquenets" came largely from Alsace, + according to General Hardy de Périni. In the Italian wars Francis I. + had in his service a famous corps called the "black bands" which was + recruited, in the lower Rhine countries. + + [6] This practice of "maintenance" on a large scale continued to + exist in France long afterwards. As late as the battle of Lens (1648) + we find figuring in the king of France's army three "regiments of the + House of Condé." + + [7] Even as late as 1645 a battalion of infantry in England was + called a "tercio" or "tertia" (see ARMY; _Spanish army_). + + [8] In France it is recorded that the _Gardes françaises_, when + warned for duty at the Louvre, used to stroll thither in twos and + threes. + + [9] About this time there was introduced, for resisting cavalry, the + well-known hollow battalion square, which, replacing the former + masses of pikes, represented up to the most modern times the + defensive, as the line or column represented the offensive formation + of infantry. + + [10] The Prussian Grenadier battalions in the Silesian and Seven + Years' Wars were more and more confined strictly to line-of-battle + duties as the irregular light infantry developed in numbers. + + [11] Even when the hostile artillery was still capable of fire these + masses were used, for in no other formation could the heterogeneous + and ill-trained infantry of Napoleon's vassal states (which + constituted half of his army) be brought up at all. + + [12] Rifles had, of course, been used by corps of light troops (both + infantry and mounted) for many years. The British Rifle Brigade was + formed in 1800, but even in the Seven Years' War there were + rifle-corps or companies in the armies of Prussia and Austria. These + older rifles could not compare in rapidity or volume of fire with the + ordinary firelock. + + [13] The Prussian company was about 250 strong (see below under + "Organization"). This strength was adopted after 1870 by practically + all nations which adopted universal service. The battalion had 4 + companies. + + [14] The 1902 edition of _Infantry Training_ indeed treated the new + scouts as a thin advanced firing line, but in 1907, at which date + important modifications began to be made in the "doctrine" of the + British Army, the scouts were expressly restricted to the + old-fashioned "skirmishing" duties. + + [15] This is no new thing, but belongs, irrespective of armament, to + the "War of masses." The king of Prussia's fighting instructions of + the 10th of August 1813 lay down the principle as clearly as any + modern work. + + [16] In the British Service, men whose nerves betray them on the + shooting range are ordered more gymnastics (_Musketry Regulations_, + 1910). + + [17] In 1870 the "preconceived idea" was practically confined to + strategy, and the tactical improvisations of the Germans themselves + deranged the execution of the plan quite as often as the act of the + enemy. Of late years, therefore, the "preconceived idea" has been + imposed on tactics also in that country. Special care and study is + given to the once despised "early deployments" in cases where a fight + is part of the "idea," and to the difficult problem of breaking off + the action, when it takes a form that is incompatible with the + development of the main scheme. + + [18] In February 1910 a new _Infantry Training_ was said to be in + preparation. The _I.T._ of 1905 is in some degree incompatible with + the later and ruling doctrine of the _F.S. Regulations_, and in the + winter of 1909 the Army Council issued a memorandum drawing attention + to the different conceptions of the decisive attack as embodied in + the latter and as revealed in manoeuvre procedure. + + + + +INFANT SCHOOLS. The provision in modern times of systematized training +for children below the age when elementary education normally begins may +be dated from the village school at Waldbach founded by Jean Frédéric +Oberlin in 1774. Robert Owen started an infant school at New Lanark in +1800, and great interest in the question was taken in Great Britain +during the early years of the 19th century, leading to the foundation in +1836 of the Home and Colonial School Society for the training of +teachers in infant schools; this in turn reacted upon other countries, +especially Germany. Further impetus and a new direction were given to +the movement by Friedrich W. A. Froebel, and the methods of training +adopted for children between the ages of three and six have in most +countries been influenced by, if not based on, that system of directed +activities which was the foundation of the type of "play-school" called +by him the _Kinder Garten_, or "children's garden." The growing tendency +in England to lay stress on the mental training of very young children, +and to use the "infant school" as preparatory to the elementary school, +has led to a considerable reaction; medical officers of health have +pointed out the dangers of infection to which children up to the age of +five are specially liable when congregated together--also the physical +effects of badly ventilated class-rooms, and there is a consensus of +opinion that formal mental teaching is directly injurious before the age +of six or even seven years. At the same time the increase in the +industrial employment of married women, with the consequent difficulty +of proper care of young children by the mother in the home, has somewhat +shifted the ground from a purely educational to a social and physical +aspect. While it is agreed that the ideal place for a young child is the +home under the supervision of its mother, the present industrial +conditions often compel a mother to go out to work, and leave her +children either shut up alone, or free to play about the streets, or in +the care of a neighbour or professional "minder." In each case the +children must suffer. The provision by a public authority of +opportunities for suitable training for such children seems therefore a +necessity. The moral advantages gained by freeing the child from the +streets, by the superintendence of a trained teacher over the games, by +the early inculcation of habits of discipline and obedience; the +physical advantages of cleanliness and tidiness, and the opportunity of +disclosing incipient diseases and weaknesses, outweigh the disadvantages +which the opponents of infant training adduce. It remains to give a +brief account of what is done in Great Britain, the United States of +America, and certain other countries. A valuable report was issued for +the English Board of Education by a Consultative Committee upon the +school attendance of children below the age of five (vol. 22 of the +_Special Reports_, 1909), which also gives some account of the provision +of day nurseries or _crèches_ for babies. + +_United Kingdom._--Up to 1905 it was the general English practice since +the Education Act of 1870 for educational authorities to provide +facilities for the teaching of children between three and five years old +whose parents desired it. In 1905, of an estimated 1,467,709 children +between those ages, 583,268 were thus provided for in England and Wales. +In 1905 the objections, medical and educational, already stated, coupled +with the increasing financial strain on the local educational +authorities, led to the insertion in the code of that year of Article +53, as follows: "Where the local education authority have so determined +in the case of any school maintained by them, children who are under +five years may be refused admission to that school." In consequence in +1907 the numbers were found to have fallen to 459,034 out of an +estimated 1,480,550 children, from 39.74% in 1905 to 31%. In the older +type of infant school stress was laid on the mental preparation of +children for the elementary teaching which was to come later. This +forcing on of young children was encouraged by the system under which +the government grant was allotted; children in the infant division +earned an annual grant of 17s. per head, on promotion to the upper +school this would be increased to 22s. In 1909 the system was altered; a +rate of 21s. 4d. was fixed as the grant for all children above five, and +the grant for those below the age was reduced to 13s. 4d. Different +methods of training the teachers in these schools as well as the +children themselves have been now generally adopted. These methods are +largely based on the Froebelian plan, and greater attention is being +paid to physical development. In one respect England is perhaps behind +the more progressive of other European countries, viz. in providing +facilities for washing and attending to the personal needs of the +younger children. There is no _femme de service_ as in Belgium on the +staff of English schools. While in Ireland the children below the age of +five attend the elementary schools in much the same proportion as in +England and Wales, in Scotland it has never been the general custom for +such children to attend school. + +_United States of America._--In no country has the kindergarten system +taken such firm root, and the provision made for children below the +compulsory age is based upon it. In 1873 there were 42 kindergartens +with 1252 pupils; in 1898 the numbers had risen to 2884 with 143,720 +pupils; more than half these were private schools, managed by charitable +institutions or by individuals for profit. In 1904-1905 there were 3176 +public kindergartens with 205,118 pupils. + + _Austria Hungary._--Provision in Austria is made for children under + six by two types of institution, the Day Nursery + (_Kinderbewahranstalten_) and the Kindergarten. In 1872 as the result + of a State Commission the Kindergarten was established in the state + system of education. Its aim is to "confirm and complete the home + education of children under school age, so that through regulated + exercise of body and mind they may be prepared for institution in the + primary school." No regular teaching in ordinary school subjects is + allowed; games, singing and handwork, and training of speech and + observation by objects, tales and gardening are the means adopted. The + training for teachers in these schools is regulated by law. No + children are to be received in a kindergarten til! the beginning of + the fourth and must leave at the end of the sixth year. In 1902-1903 + there were 77,002 children in kindergartens and 74,110 in the day + nurseries. In Hungary a law was passed in 1891 providing for the + education and care of children between three and six, either by asyle + or nurseries open all the year round in communes which contribute from + £830 to £1250 in state taxation, or during the summer in those whose + contribution is less. Communes above the higher sum must provide + kindergartens. In 1904 there were over 233,000 children in such + institutions. + + _Belgium._--For children between three and six education and training + are provided by _Écoles gardiennes_ or _Jardins d'enfants_. They are + free but not compulsory, are provided and managed by the communes, + receive a state grant, and are under government inspection. Schools + provided by private individuals or institutions must conform to the + conditions of the communal schools. There is a large amount of + voluntary assistance especially in the provision of clothes and food + for the poorer children. The state first recognized these schools in + 1833. In 1881 there were 708 schools with accommodation for over + 56,000 children; in 1907 there were 2837 and 264,845 children, + approximately one-half of the total number of children in the country + between the ages of three and six. In 1890 the minister of Public + Instruction issued a code of rules on which is based the organization + of the _Écoles gardiennes_ throughout Belgium, but some of the + communes have regulations of their own. A special examination for + teachers in the _Écoles gardiennes_ was started in 1898. All + candidates must pass this examination before a _certificat de + capacité_ is granted. The training includes a course in Froebelian + methods. While Froebel's system underlies the training in these + schools, the teaching is directed very much towards the practical + education of the child, special stress being laid on manual dexterity. + Reading, writing and arithmetic are also allowed in the classes for + the older children. A marked feature of the Belgian schools is the + close attention paid to health and personal cleanliness. In all + schools there is a _femme de service_, not a teacher, but an + attendant, whose duty it is to see to the tidiness and cleanliness of + the children, and to their physical requirements. + + _France._--The first regular infant school was established in Paris at + the beginning of the 19th century and styled a _Salle d'essai_. In + 1828 a model school, called a _Salle d'asile_, was started, followed + shortly by similar institutions all over France. State recognition and + inspection were granted, and by 1836 there were over 800 in Paris and + the provinces. In 1848 they became establishments of public + instruction, and the name _École maternelle_ which they have since + borne was given them. Every commune with 2000 inhabitants must have + one of these schools or a _Classe enfantine_. Admission is free, but + not compulsory, for children between two and six. Food and clothes are + provided in exceptional cases. Formal mental instruction is still + given to a large extent, and the older children are taught reading, + writing and arithmetic. Though the staffs of the school include + _femmes de service_, not so much attention is paid to cleanliness as + in Belgium, nor is so much stress laid on hygiene. In 1906-1907 there + were 4111 public and private _Écoles maternelles_ in France, with over + 650,000 pupils. The closing of the clerical schools has led to some + diminution in the numbers. + + _Germany.___--There are two classes of institution in Germany for + children between the ages of 2½ or 3 and 6. These are the + _Kleinkinderbewahranstalten_ and _Kindergarten_. The first are + primarily social in purpose, and afford a place for the children of + mothers who have to leave their homes for work. These institutions, + principally conducted by religious or charitable societies, remain + open all day and meals are provided. Many of them have a kindergarten + attached, and others provide some training on Froebelian principles. + The kindergartens proper are also principally in private hands, though + most municipalities grant financial assistance. They are conducted on + advanced Froebelian methods, and formal teaching in reading, writing + and arithmetic is excluded. In Cologne, Düsseldorf, Frankfort and + Munich there are municipal schools. The state gives no recognition to + these institutions and they form no part of the public system of + education. + + _Switzerland._--In the German speaking cantons the smaller towns and + villages provide for the younger children by _Bewahranstalten_, + generally under private management with public financial help. The + larger towns provide kindergartens where the training is free but not + compulsory for children from four to six. These are generally + conducted on Froebel's system and there is no formal instruction. In + the French speaking cantons the _Écoles enfantines_ are recognized as + the first stage of elementary education. They are free and not + compulsory for children from three to six years of age. (C. We.) + + + + +INFINITE (from Lat. _in_, not, _finis_, end or limit; cf. _findere_, to +cleave), a term applied in common usage to anything of vast size. +Strictly, however, the epithet implies the absence of all limitation. As +such it is used specially in (1) theology and metaphysics, (2) +mathematics. + +1. Tracing the history of the world to the earliest date for which there +is any kind of evidence, we are faced with the problem that for +everything there is a prior something: the mind is unable to conceive an +absolute beginning ("ex nihilo nihil"). Mundane distances become trivial +when compared with the distance from the earth of the sun and still more +of other heavenly bodies: hence we infer infinite space. Similarly by +continual subdivision we reach the idea of the infinitely small. For +these inferences there is indeed no actual physical evidence: infinity +is a mental concept. As such the term has played an important part in +the philosophical and theological speculation. In early Greek philosophy +the attempt to arrive at a physical explanation of existence led the +Ionian thinkers to postulate various primal elements (e.g. water, fire, +air) or simply the infinite [Greek: to ápeiron] (see IONIAN SCHOOL). +Both Plato and Aristotle devoted much thought to the discussion as to +which is most truly real, the finite objects of sense, or the universal +idea of each thing laid up in the mind of God; what is the nature of +that unity which lies behind the multiplicity and difference of +perceived objects? The same problem, variously expressed, has engaged +the attention of philosophers throughout the ages. In Christian theology +God is conceived as infinite in power, knowledge and goodness, uncreated +and immortal: in some Oriental systems the end of man is absorption into +the infinite, his perfection the breaking down of his human limitations. +The metaphysical and theological conception is open to the agnostic +objection that the finite mind of man is by hypothesis unable to cognize +or apprehend not only an infinite object, but even the very conception +of infinity itself; from this standpoint the Infinite is regarded as +merely a postulate, as it were an unknown quantity (cf. [root]-1 in +mathematics). The same difficulty may be expressed in another way if we +regard the infinite as unconditioned (cf. Sir William Hamilton's +"philosophy of the unconditioned," and Herbert Spencer's doctrine of the +infinite "unknowable"); if it is argued that knowledge of a thing arises +only from the recognition of its differences from other things (i.e. +from its limitations), it follows that knowledge of the infinite is +impossible, for the infinite is by hypothesis unrelated. + +With this conception of _the_ infinite as absolutely unconditioned +should be compared what may be described roughly as lesser infinities +which can be philosophically conceived and mathematically demonstrated. +Thus a point, which is by definition infinitely small, is as compared +with a line a unit: the line is infinite, made up of an infinite number +of points, any pair of which have an infinite number of points between +them. The line itself, again, in relation to the plane is a unit, while +the plane is infinite, i.e. made up of an infinite number of lines; +hence the plane is described as doubly infinite in relation to the +point, and a solid as trebly infinite. This is Spinoza's theory of the +"infinitely infinite," the limiting notion of infinity being of a +numerical, quantitative series, each term of which is a qualitative +determination itself quantitatively little, e.g. a line which is +quantitatively unlimited (i.e. in length) is qualitatively limited when +regarded as an infinitely small unit of a plane. A similar relation +exists in thought between the various grades of species and genera; the +highest genus is the "infinitely infinite," each subordinated genus +being infinite in relation to the particulars which it denotes, and +finite when regarded as a unit in a higher genus. + +2. In mathematics, the term "infinite" denotes the result of increasing +a variable without limit; similarly, the term "infinitesimal," meaning +indefinitely small, denotes the result of diminishing the value of a +variable without limit, with the reservation that it never becomes +actually zero. The application of these conceptions distinguishes +ancient from modern mathematics. Analytical investigations revealed the +existence of series or sequences which had no limit to the number of +terms, as for example the fraction 1/(1 - x) which on division gives the +series. 1 + x + x²+ ...; the discussion of these so-called infinite +sequences is given in the articles SERIES and FUNCTION. The doctrine of +geometrical continuity (q.v.) and the application of algebra to +geometry, developed in the 16th and 17th centuries mainly by Kepler and +Descartes, led to the discovery of many properties which gave to the +notion of infinity, as a localized space conception, a predominant +importance. A line became continuous, returning into itself by way of +infinity; two parallel lines intersect in a point at infinity; all +circles pass through two fixed points at infinity (the circular points); +two spheres intersect in a fixed circle at infinity; an asymptote became +a tangent at infinity; the foci of a conic became the intersections of +the tangents from the circular points at infinity; the centre of a conic +the pole of the line at infinity, &c. In analytical geometry the line at +infinity plays an important part in trilinear coordinates. These +subjects are treated in GEOMETRY. A notion related to that of +infinitesimals is presented in the Greek "method of exhaustion"; the +more perfect conception, however, only dates from the 17th century, when +it led to the infinitesimal calculus. A curve came to be treated as a +sequence of infinitesimal straight lines; a tangent as the extension of +an infinitesimal chord; a surface or area as a sequence of +infinitesimally narrow strips, and a solid as a collection of +infinitesimally small cubes (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). + + + + +INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS. 1. The infinitesimal calculus is the body of +rules and processes by means of which continuously varying magnitudes +are dealt with in mathematical analysis. The name "infinitesimal" has +been applied to the calculus because most of the leading results were +first obtained by means of arguments about "infinitely small" +quantities; the "infinitely small" or "infinitesimal" quantities were +vaguely conceived as being neither zero nor finite but in some +intermediate, nascent or evanescent, state. There was no necessity for +this confused conception, and it came to be understood that it can be +dispensed with; but the calculus was not developed by its first founders +in accordance with logical principles from precisely defined notions, +and it gained adherents rather through the impressiveness and variety of +the results that could be obtained by using it than through the cogency +of the arguments by which it was established. A similar statement might +be made in regard to other theories included in mathematical analysis, +such, for instance, as the theory of infinite series. Many, perhaps all, +of the mathematical and physical theories which have survived have had a +similar history--a history which may be divided roughly into two +periods: a period of construction, in which results are obtained from +partially formed notions, and a period of criticism, in which the +fundamental notions become progressively more and more precise, and are +shown to be adequate bases for the constructions previously built upon +them. These periods usually overlap. Critics of new theories are never +lacking. On the other hand, as E. W. Hobson has well said, "pertinent +criticism of fundamentals almost invariably gives rise to new +construction." In the history of the infinitesimal calculus the 17th +and 18th centuries were mainly a period of construction, the 19th +century mainly a period of criticism. + + +I. _Nature of the Calculus._ + + + Geometrical representation of Variable Quantities. + +2. The guise in which variable quantities presented themselves to the +mathematicians of the 17th century was that of the lengths of variable +lines. This method of representing variable quantities dates from the +14th century, when it was employed by Nicole Oresme, who studied and +afterwards taught at the Collège de Navarre in Paris from 1348 to 1361. +He represented one of two variable quantities, e.g. the time that has +elapsed since some epoch, by a length, called the "longitude," measured +along a particular line; and he represented the other of the two +quantities, e.g. the temperature at the instant, by a length, called the +"latitude," measured at right angles to this line. He recognized that +the variation of the temperature with the time was represented by the +line, straight or curved, which joined the ends of all the lines of +"latitude." Oresme's longitude and latitude were what we should now call +the abscissa and ordinate. The same method was used later by many +writers, among whom Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei may be +mentioned. In Galileo's investigation of the motion of falling bodies +(1638) the abscissa OA represents the time during which a body has been +falling, and the ordinate AB represents the velocity acquired during +that time (see fig. 1). The velocity being proportional to the time, the +"curve" obtained is a straight line OB, and Galileo showed that the +distance through which the body has fallen is represented by the area of +the triangle OAB. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + + The problems of Maxima and Minima, Tangents, and Quadratures. + +The most prominent problems in regard to a curve were the problem of +finding the points at which the ordinate is a maximum or a minimum, the +problem of drawing a tangent to the curve at an assigned point, and the +problem of determining the area of the curve. The relation of the +problem of maxima and minima to the problem of tangents was understood +in the sense that maxima or minima arise when a certain equation has +equal roots, and, when this is the case, the curves by which the problem +is to be solved touch each other. The reduction of problems of maxima +and minima to problems of contact was known to Pappus. The problem of +finding the area of a curve was usually presented in a particular form +in which it is called the "problem of quadratures." It was sought to +determine the area contained between the curve, the axis of abscissae +and two ordinates, of which one was regarded as fixed and the other as +variable. Galileo's investigation may serve as an example. In that +example the fixed ordinate vanishes. From this investigation it may be +seen that before the invention of the infinitesimal calculus the +introduction of a curve into discussions of the course of any +phenomenon, and the problem of quadratures for that curve, were not +exclusively of geometrical import; the purpose for which the area of a +curve was sought was often to find something which is not an area--for +instance, a length, or a volume or a centre of gravity. + + + Greek methods. + +3. The Greek geometers made little progress with the problem of +tangents, but they devised methods for investigating the problem of +quadratures. One of these methods was afterwards called the "method of +exhaustions," and the principle on which it is based was laid down in +the lemma prefixed to the 12th book of Euclid's _Elements_ as follows: +"If from the greater of two magnitudes there be taken more than its +half, and from the remainder more than its half, and so on, there will +at length remain a magnitude less than the smaller of the proposed +magnitudes." The method adopted by Archimedes was more general. It may +be described as the enclosure of the magnitude to be evaluated between +two others which can be brought by a definite process to differ from +each other by less than any assigned magnitude. A simple example of its +application is the 6th proposition of Archimedes' treatise On the +_Sphere and Cylinder_, in which it is proved that the area contained +between a regular polygon inscribed in a circle and a similar polygon +circumscribed to the same circle can be made less than any assigned area +by increasing the number of sides of the polygon. The methods of Euclid +and Archimedes were specimens of rigorous limiting processes (see +FUNCTION). The new problems presented by the analytical geometry and +natural philosophy of the 17th century led to new limiting processes. + + + Differentiation. + + 4. In the _problem of tangents_ the new process may be described as + follows. Let P, P´ be two points of a curve (see fig. 2). Let x, y be + the coordinates of P, and x + [Delta]x, y + [Delta]y those of P´. The + symbol [Delta]x means "the difference of two x's" and there is a like + meaning for the symbol [Delta]y. The fraction [Delta]y/[Delta]x is the + trigonometrical tangent of the angle which the secant PP´ makes with + the axis of x. Now let [Delta]x be continually diminished towards + zero, so that P´ continually approaches P. If the curve has a tangent + at P the secant PP´ approaches a limiting position (see § 33 below). + When this is the case the fraction [Delta]y/[Delta]x tends to a limit, + and this limit is the trigonometrical tangent of the angle which the + tangent at P to the curve makes with the axis of x. The limit is + denoted by + + dy + --. + dx + + If the equation of the curve is of the form y = [f](x) where [f] is a + functional symbol (see FUNCTION), then + + [Delta]y [f](x + [Delta]x) - [f](x) + -------- = --------------------------, + [Delta]x [Delta]x + + and + + dy [f](x + [Delta]x) - [f](x) + -- = lim. --------------------------. + dx [Delta]x = 0 [Delta]x + + The limit expressed by the right-hand member of this defining equation + is often written + + [f]´(x), + + and is called the "derived function" of [f](x), sometimes the + "derivative" or "derivate" of [f](x). When the function [f](x) is a + rational integral function, the division by [Delta]x can be performed, + and the limit is found by substituting zero for [Delta]x in the + quotient. For example, if [f](x) = x², we have + + [f](x + [Delta]x) - [f](x) (x + [Delta]x)² - x² 2x[Delta]x + ([Delta]x)² + -------------------------- = -------------------- = ------------------------ = 2x + [Delta]x, + [Delta]x [Delta]x [Delta]x + + and + + [f]´(x) = 2x. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + The process of forming the derived function of a given function is + called _differentiation_. The fraction [Delta]y/[Delta]x is called the + "quotient of differences," and its limit dy/dx is called the + "differential coefficient of y with respect to x." The rules for + forming differential coefficients constitute the _differential + calculus_. + + The problem of tangents is solved at one stroke by the formation of + the differential coefficient; and the problem of maxima and minima is + solved, apart from the discrimination of maxima from minima and some + further refinements, by equating the differential coefficient to zero + (see MAXIMA and MINIMA). + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + + Integration. + + 5. The _problem of quadratures_ leads to a type of limiting process + which may be described as follows: Let y = [f](x) be the equation of a + curve, and let AC and BD be the ordinates of the points C and D (see + fig. 3). Let a, b be the abscissae of these points. Let the segment AB + be divided into a number of segments by means of intermediate points + such as M, and let MN be one such segment. Let PM and QN be those + ordinates of the curve which have M and N as their feet. On MN as base + describe two rectangles, of which the heights are the greatest and + least values of y which correspond to points on the arc PQ of the + curve. In fig. 3 these are the rectangles RM, SN. Let the sum of the + areas of such rectangles as RM be formed, and likewise the sum of the + areas of such rectangles as SN. When the number of the points such as + M is increased without limit, and the lengths of all the segments such + as MN are diminished without limit, these two sums of areas tend to + limits. When they tend to the same limit the curvilinear figure ACDB + has an area, and the limit is the measure of this area (see § 33 + below). The limit in question is the same whatever law may be adopted + for inserting the points such as M between A and B, and for + diminishing the lengths of the segments such as MN. Further, if P´ is + any point on the arc PQ, and P´M´ is the ordinate of P´, we may + construct a rectangle of which the height is P´M´ and the base is MN, + and the limit of the sum of the areas of all such rectangles is the + area of the figure as before. If x is the abscissa of P, x + [Delta]x + that of Q, x´ that of P´, the limit in question might be written + + _b + lim. \ [f](x´)[Delta]x, + /_a + + where the letters a, b written below and above the sign of summation + [Sigma] indicate the extreme values of x. This limit is called "the + definite integral of [f](x) between the limits a and b," and the + notation for it is + _ + / b + | [f](x)dx. + _/ a + + The germs of this method of formulating the problem of quadratures are + found in the writings of Archimedes. The method leads to a definition + of a definite integral, but the direct application of it to the + evaluation of integrals is in general difficult. Any process for + evaluating a definite integral is a process of integration, and the + rules for evaluating integrals constitute the _integral calculus_. + + + Theorem of Inversion. + + 6. The chief of these rules is obtained by regarding the extreme + ordinate BD as variable. Let [xi] now denote the abscissa of B. The + area A of the figure ACDB is represented by the integral [int] {a to + [xi]} [f](x)dx, and it is a function of [xi]. Let BD be displaced to + B´D´ so that [xi] becomes [xi] + [delta][xi] (see fig. 4). The area of + the figure ACD´B´ is represented by the integral [int] {a to [xi] + + [Delta][xi]} [f](x)dx, and the increment [Delta]A of the area is given + by the formula + + _[xi]+[Delta][xi] + / + [Delta]A = | [f](x) dx, + _/ [xi] + + which represents the area BDD´B´. This area is intermediate between + those of two rectangles, having as a common base the segment BB´, and + as heights the greatest and least ordinates of points on the arc DD´ + of the curve. Let these heights be H and h. Then [Delta]A is + intermediate between H[Delta][xi] and h[Delta][xi], and the quotient + of differences [Delta]A/[Delta][xi] is intermediate between H and h. + If the function [f](x) is continuous at B (see Function), then, as + [Delta][xi] is diminished without limit, H and h tend to BD, or + [f]([xi]), as a limit, and we have + + dA + ----- = [f]([xi]). + d[xi] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + The introduction of the process of differentiation, together with the + theorem here proved, placed the solution of the problem of quadratures + on a new basis. It appears that we can always find the area A if we + know a function F(x) which has [f](x) as its differential coefficient. + If [f](x) is continuous between a and b, we can prove that + _ + / b + A = | [f](x) dx = F(b) - F(a). + _/ a + + When we recognize a function F(x) which has the property expressed by + the equation + + dF(x) + ----- = [f](x), + dx + + we are said to _integrate_ the function [f](x), and F(x) is called the + _indefinite integral_ of [f](x) _with respect to_ x, and is written + _ + / + | [f](x)dx. + _/ + + + Differentials. + + 7. In the process of § 4 the increment [Delta]y is not in general + equal to the product of the increment [Delta]x and the derived + function [f]´(x). In general we can write down an equation of the form + + [Delta]y = [f]´(x)[Delta]x + R, + + in which R is different from zero when [Delta]x is different from + zero; and then we have not only + + lim. R = 0, + [Delta]x=0 + + but also + + R + lim. -------- = 0. + [Delta]x=0 [Delta]x + + We may separate [Delta]y into two parts: the part [f]´(x)[Delta]x and + the part R. The part [f]´(x)[Delta]x alone is useful for forming the + differential coefficient, and it is convenient to give it a name. It + is called the _differential_ of [f](x), and is written d[f](x), or dy + when y is written for [f](x). When this notation is adopted dx is + written instead of [Delta]x, and is called the "differential of x," so + that we have + + d[f](x) = [f]´(x) dx. + + Thus the differential of an independent variable such as x is a finite + difference; in other words it is any number we please. The + differential of a dependent variable such as y, or of a function of + the independent variable x, is the product of the differential of x + and the differential coefficient or derived function. It is important + to observe that the differential coefficient is not to be defined as + the ratio of differentials, but the ratio of differentials is to be + defined as the previously introduced differential coefficient. The + differentials are either finite differences, or are so much of + certain finite differences as are useful for forming differential + coefficients. + + Again let F(x) be the indefinite integral of a continuous function + [f](x), so that we have + _ + dF(x) / b + ----- = [f](x), | [f](x) dx = F(b) - F(a). + dx _/a + + When the points M of the process explained in § 5 are inserted between + the points whose abscissae are a and b, we may take them to be n - 1 + in number, so that the segment AB is divided into n segments. Let x1, + x2, ... x_(n-1) be the abscissae of the points in order. The integral + is the limit of the sum + + [f](a)(x1 - a) + [f](x1)(x2 - x1) + ... + [f](x_r) [x_(r+1) - x_r] + + ... + [f] [x_(n-1)] [b - x_(n-1)], + + every term of which is a differential of the form [f](x)dx. Further + the integral is equal to the sum of differences + + {F(x1) - F(a)} + {F(x2) - F(x1)} + ... + {F[x_(r+1)] - F(x_r)} + + ... + {F(b) - F[x(n-1)]}, + + for this sum is F(b) - F(a). Now the difference F(x_(r+1)) - F(x_r) is + _not_ equal to the differential [f](x_r) [x_(r+1) - x_r], but the sum + of the differences is equal to the _limit_ of the sum of these + differentials. The differential may be regarded as so much of the + difference as is required to form the integral. From this point of + view a differential is called a _differential element of an integral_, + and the integral is the limit of the sum of differential elements. In + like manner the differential element ydx of the area of a curve (§ 5) + is not the area of the portion contained between two ordinates, + however near together, but is so much of this area as need be retained + for the purpose of finding the area of the curve by the limiting + process described. + + + Notation. + + 8. The notation of the infinitesimal calculus is intimately bound up + with the notions of differentials and sums of elements. The letter "d" + is the initial letter of the word _differentia_ (difference) and the + symbol [int] is a conventionally written "S," the initial letter of + the word _summa_ (sum or whole). The notation was introduced by + Leibnitz (see §§ 25-27, below). + + + Fundamental Artifice. + + 9. The fundamental artifice of the calculus is the artifice of forming + differentials without first forming differential coefficients. From an + equation containing x and y we can deduce a new equation, containing + also [Delta]x and [Delta]y, by substituting x + [Delta]x for x and y + + [Delta]y for y. If there is a differential coefficient of y with + respect to x, then [Delta]y can be expressed in the form + [phi].[Delta]x + R, where lim.{[Delta]x = 0} (R/[Delta]x) = 0, as in § + 7 above. The artifice consists in rejecting _ab initio_ all terms of + the equation which belong to R. We do not form R at all, but only + [phi].[Delta]x, or [phi].dx, which is the differential dy. In the same + way, in all applications of the integral calculus to geometry or + mechanics we form the _element_ of an integral in the same way as the + element of area y·dx is formed. In fig. 3 of § 5 the element of area + y·dx is the area of the rectangle RM. The actual area of the + curvilinear figure PQNM is greater than the area of this rectangle by + the area of the curvilinear figure PQR; but the excess is less than + the area of the rectangle PRQS, which is measured by the product of + the numerical measures of MN and QR, and we have + + MN·QR + lim. ------ = 0. + MN=0 MN + + Thus the artifice by which differential elements of integrals are + formed is in principle the same as that by which differentials are + formed without first forming differential coefficients. + + + Orders of small quantities. + + 10. This principle is usually expressed by introducing the notion of + orders of small quantities. If x, y are two variable numbers which are + connected together by any relation, and if when x tends to zero y also + tends to zero, the fraction y/x may tend to a finite limit. In this + case x and y are said to be "of the same order." When this is not the + case we may have either + + x + lim. --- = 0, + x=0 y + + or + y + lim. --- = 0, + x=0 x + + In the former case y is said to be "of a lower order" than x; in the + latter case y is said to be "of a higher order" than x. In accordance + with this notion we may say that the fundamental artifice of the + infinitesimal calculus consists in the rejection of small quantities + of an unnecessarily high order. This artifice is now merely an + incident in the conduct of a limiting process, but in the 17th + century, when limiting processes other than the Greek methods for + quadratures were new, the introduction of the artifice was a great + advance. + + + Rules of Differentiation. + + 11. By the aid of this artifice, or directly by carrying out the + appropriate limiting processes, we may obtain the rules by which + differential coefficients are formed. These rules may be classified as + "formal rules" and "particular results." The formal rules may be + stated as follows:-- + + (i.) The differential coefficient of a _constant_ is zero. (ii.) For a + _sum_ u + v + ... + z, where u, v, ... are functions of x, + + d(u + v + ... + z) du dv dz + ----------------- = -- + -- + ... + --. + dx dx dx dx + + (iii.) For a _product_ uv + + d(uv) dv du + ----- = u -- + v --. + dx dx dx + + (iv.) For a _quotient_ u/v + + d(u/v) / du dv\ / + ------ = ( v -- - u -- ) / v². + dx \ dx dx/ / + + (v.) For a _function of a function_, that is to say, for a function y + expressed in terms of a variable z, which is itself expressed as a + function of x, + + dy dy dz + -- = -- · --. + dx dz dx + + In addition to these formal rules we have particular results as to the + differentiation of simple functions. The most important results are + written down in the following table:-- + + +---------+---------------------+ + | y | dy/dx | + +---------+---------------------+ + | x^n | nx^(n-1) | + | | for all values of n | + +---------+---------------------+ + | log_a x | x^-1 log_a e | + +---------+---------------------+ + | a^x | a^x log_e a | + +---------+---------------------+ + | sin x | cos x | + +---------+---------------------+ + | cos x | -sin x | + +---------+---------------------+ + | sin^-1 x| (1 - x²)^-½ | + +---------+---------------------+ + | tan^-1 x| (1 + x²)^-1 | + +---------+---------------------+ + + Each of the formal rules, and each of the particular results in the + table, is a theorem of the differential calculus. All functions (or + rather expressions) which can be made up from those in the table by a + finite number of operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication + or division can be differentiated by the formal rules. All such + functions are called _explicit_ functions. In addition to these we + have _implicit_ functions, or such as are determined by an equation + containing two variables when the equation cannot be solved so as to + exhibit the one variable expressed in terms of the other. We have also + functions of several variables. Further, since the derived function of + a given function is itself a function, we may seek to differentiate + it, and thus there arise the second and higher differential + coefficients. We postpone for the present the problems of differential + calculus which arise from these considerations. Again, we may have + explicit functions which are expressed as the results of limiting + operations, or by the limits of the results obtained by performing an + infinite number of algebraic operations upon the simple functions. For + the problem of differentiating such functions reference may be made to + FUNCTION. + + + Indefinite Integrals. + + 12. The processes of the integral calculus consist largely in + transformations of the functions to be integrated into such forms that + they can be recognized as differential coefficients of functions which + have previously been differentiated. Corresponding to the results in + the table of § 11 we have those in the following table:-- + + +----------------+-------------------------------+ + | [f](x) | [int][f](x)dx | + +----------------+-------------------------------+ + | | x^(n+1) | + | x^n | ------- | + | | n + 1 | + | | for all values of n except -1 | + +----------------+-------------------------------+ + | 1 | | + | --- | log_e x | + | x | | + +----------------+-------------------------------+ + | e^(ax) | a^-1 e^(ax) | + +----------------+-------------------------------+ + | cos x | sin x | + +----------------+-------------------------------+ + | sin x | -cos x | + +----------------+-------------------------------+ + | | x | + | (a² - x²)^-½ | sin^-1 --- | + | | a | + +----------------+-------------------------------+ + | 1 | 1 x | + | ------- | --- tan^-1 --- | + | a² + x² | a a | + +----------------+-------------------------------+ + + The formal rules of § 11 give us means for the transformation of + integrals into recognizable forms. For example, the rule (ii.) for a + sum leads to the result that the integral of a sum of a finite number + of terms is the sum of the integrals of the several terms. The rule + (iii.) for a product leads to the method of integration by parts. The + rule (v.) for a function of a function leads to the method of + substitution (see § 48 below.) + + +II. _History._ + + + Kepler's methods of Integration. + +13. The new limiting processes which were introduced in the development +of the higher analysis were in the first instance related to problems of +the integral calculus. Johannes Kepler in his _Astronomia nova ... de +motibus stellae Martis_ (1609) stated his laws of planetary motion, to +the effect that the orbits of the planets are ellipses with the sun at a +focus, and that the radii vectores drawn from the sun to the planets +describe equal areas in equal times. From these statements it is to be +concluded that Kepler could measure the areas of focal sectors of an +ellipse. When he made out these laws there was no method of evaluating +areas except the Greek methods. These methods would have sufficed for +the purpose, but Kepler invented his own method. He regarded the area as +measured by the "sum of the radii" drawn from the focus, and he verified +his laws of planetary motion by actually measuring a large number of +radii of the orbit, spaced according to a rule, and adding their +lengths. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + He had observed that the focal radius vector SP (fig. 5) is equal to + the perpendicular SZ drawn from S to the tangent at p to the auxiliary + circle, and he had further established the theorem which we should now + express in the form--the differential element of the area ASp as Sp + turns about S, is equal to the product of SZ and the differential + ad[phi], where a is the radius of the auxiliary circle, and [phi] is + the angle ACp, that is the eccentric angle of P on the ellipse. The + area ASP bears to the area ASp the ratio of the minor to the major + axis, a result known to Archimedes. Thus Kepler's radii are spaced + according to the rule that the eccentric angles of their ends are + equidifferent, and his "sum of radii" is proportional to the + expression which we should now write + _ + / [phi] + | (a + ae cos [phi]) d[phi], + _/ 0 + + where e is the eccentricity. Kepler evaluated the sum as proportional + to [phi] + e sin [phi]. + +Kepler soon afterwards occupied himself with the volumes of solids. The +vintage of the year 1612 was extraordinarily abundant, and the question +of the cubic content of wine casks was brought under his notice. This +fact accounts for the title of his work, _Nova stereometria doliorum; +accessit stereometriae Archimedeae supplementum_ (1615). In this +treatise he regarded solid bodies as being made up, as it were +(_veluti_), of "infinitely" many "infinitely" small cones or +"infinitely" thin disks, and he used the notion of summing the areas of +the disks in the way he had previously used the notion of summing the +focal radii of an ellipse. + + + Logarithms. + +14. In connexion with the early history of the calculus it must not be +forgotten that the method by which logarithms were invented (1614) was +effectively a method of infinitesimals. Natural logarithms were not +invented as the indices of a certain base, and the notation e for the +base was first introduced by Euler more than a century after the +invention. Logarithms were introduced as numbers which increase in +arithmetic progression when other related numbers increase in geometric +progression. The two sets of numbers were supposed to increase together, +one at a uniform rate, the other at a variable rate, and the increments +were regarded for purposes of calculation as very small and as accruing +discontinuously. + + + Cavalieri's Indivisibles. + +15. Kepler's methods of integration, for such they must be called, were +the origin of Bonaventura Cavalieri's theory of the summation of +indivisibles. The notion of a continuum, such as the area within a +closed curve, as being made up of indivisible parts, "atoms" of area, if +the expression may be allowed, is traceable to the speculations of early +Greek philosophers; and although the nature of continuity was better +understood by Aristotle and many other ancient writers yet the unsound +atomic conception was revived in the 13th century and has not yet been +finally uprooted. It is possible to contend that Cavalieri did not +himself hold the unsound doctrine, but his writing on this point is +rather obscure. In his treatise _Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum +nova quadam ratione promota_ (1635) he regarded a plane figure as +generated by a line moving so as to be always parallel to a fixed line, +and a solid figure as generated by a plane moving so as to be always +parallel to a fixed plane; and he compared the areas of two plane +figures, or the volumes of two solids, by determining the ratios of the +sums of all the indivisibles of which they are supposed to be made up, +these indivisibles being segments of parallel lines equally spaced in +the case of plane figures, and areas marked out upon parallel planes +equally spaced in the case of solids. By this method Cavalieri was able +to effect numerous integrations relating to the areas of portions of +conic sections and the volumes generated by the revolution of these +portions about various axes. At a later date, and partly in answer to an +attack made upon him by Paul Guldin, Cavalieri published a treatise +entitled _Exercitationes geometricae sex_ (1647), in which he adapted +his method to the determination of centres of gravity, in particular for +solids of variable density. + + Among the results which he obtained is that which we should now write + _ + / x x^(m+1) + | x^m dx = -------, (m integral). + _/ 0 m + 1 + + He regarded the problem thus solved as that of determining the sum of + the mth powers of all the lines drawn across a parallelogram parallel + to one of its sides. + + + Successors of Cavalieri. + + Fermat's method of Integration. + +At this period scientific investigators communicated their results to +one another through one or more intermediate persons. Such +intermediaries were Pierre de Carcavy and Pater Marin Mersenne; and +among the writers thus in communication were Bonaventura Cavalieri, +Christiaan Huygens, Galileo Galilei, Giles Personnier de Roberval, +Pierre de Fermat, Evangelista Torricelli, and a little later Blaise +Pascal; but the letters of Carcavy or Mersenne would probably come into +the hands of any man who was likely to be interested in the matters +discussed. It often happened that, when some new method was invented, or +some new result obtained, the method or result was quickly known to a +wide circle, although it might not be printed until after the lapse of a +long time. When Cavalieri was printing his two treatises there was much +discussion of the problem of quadratures. Roberval (1634) regarded an +area as made up of "infinitely" many "infinitely" narrow strips, each of +which may be considered to be a rectangle, and he had similar ideas in +regard to lengths and volumes. He knew how to approximate to the +quantity which we express by [int] (0 to 1) x^m dx by the process of +forming the sum + + 0^m + 1^m + 2^m + ... (n - 1)^m + -------------------------------, + n^(m+1) + +and he claimed to be able to prove that this sum tends to 1/(m + 1), as +n increases for all positive integral values of m. The method of +integrating x^m by forming this sum was found also by Fermat (1636), who +stated expressly that he arrived at it by generalizing a method employed +by Archimedes (for the cases m = 1 and m = 2) in his books on _Conoids +and Spheroids_ and on _Spirals_ (see T. L. Heath, _The Works of +Archimedes_, Cambridge, 1897). Fermat extended the result to the case +where m is fractional (1644), and to the case where m is negative. This +latter extension and the proofs were given in his memoir, _Proportionis +geometricae in quadrandis parabolis et hyperbolis usus_, which appears +to have received a final form before 1659, although not published until +1679. Fermat did not use fractional or negative indices, but he regarded +his problems as the quadratures of parabolas and hyperbolas of various +orders. His method was to divide the interval of integration into parts +by means of intermediate points the abscissae of which are in geometric +progression. In the process of § 5 above, the points M must be chosen +according to this rule. This restrictive condition being understood, we +may say that Fermat's formulation of the problem of quadratures is the +same as our definition of a definite integral. + + + Various Integrations. + +The result that the problem of quadratures could be solved for any curve +whose equation could be expressed in the form + + y = x^m (m [Not Equal] -1), + +or in the form + + y = a1 x^m1 + a2 x^m2 + ... + a_n x^m_n, + +where none of the indices is equal to - 1, was used by John Wallis in +his _Arithmetica infinitorum_ (1655) as well as by Fermat (1659). The +case in which m = - 1 was that of the ordinary rectangular hyperbola; +and Gregory of St Vincent in his _Opus geometricum quadraturae circuli +et sectionum coni_ (1647) had proved by the method of exhaustions that +the area contained between the curve, one asymptote, and two ordinates +parallel to the other asymptote, increases in arithmetic progression as +the distance between the ordinates (the one nearer to the centre being +kept fixed) increases in geometric progression. Fermat described his +method of integration as a logarithmic method, and thus it is clear that +the relation between the quadrature of the hyperbola and logarithms was +understood although it was not expressed analytically. It was not very +long before the relation was used for the calculation of logarithms by +Nicolaus Mercator in his _Logarithmotechnia_ (1668). He began by writing +the equation of the curve in the form y = 1/(1 + x), expanded this +expression in powers of x by the method of division, and integrated it +term by term in accordance with the well-understood rule for finding the +quadrature of a curve given by such an equation as that written at the +foot of p. 325. + + + Integration before the Integral Calculus. + +By the middle of the 17th century many mathematicians could perform +integrations. Very many particular results had been obtained, and +applications of them had been made to the quadrature of the circle and +other conic sections, and to various problems concerning the lengths of +curves, the areas they enclose, the volumes and superficial areas of +solids, and centres of gravity. A systematic account of the methods then +in use was given, along with much that was original on his part, by +Blaise Pascal in his _Lettres de Amos Dettonville sur quelques-unes de +ses inventions en géométrie_ (1659). + + + Fermat's methods of Differentiation. + +16. The problem of maxima and minima and the problem of tangents had +also by the same time been effectively solved. Oresme in the 14th +century knew that at a point where the ordinate of a curve is a maximum +or a minimum its variation from point to point of the curve is slowest; +and Kepler in the _Stereometria doliorum_ remarked that at the places +where the ordinate passes from a smaller value to the greatest value and +then again to a smaller value, its variation becomes insensible. Fermat +in 1629 was in possession of a method which he then communicated to one +Despagnet of Bordeaux, and which he referred to in a letter to Roberval +of 1636. He communicated it to René Descartes early in 1638 on receiving +a copy of Descartes's _Géométrie_ (1637), and with it he sent to +Descartes an account of his methods for solving the problem of tangents +and for determining centres of gravity. + + Fermat's method for maxima and minima is essentially our method. + Expressed in a more modern notation, what he did was to begin by + connecting the ordinate y and the abscissa x of a point of a curve by + an equation which holds at all points of the curve, then to subtract + the value of y in terms of x from the value obtained by substituting x + + E for x, then to divide the difference by E, to put E = 0 in the + quotient, and to equate the quotient to zero. Thus he differentiated + with respect to x and equated the differential coefficient to zero. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + Fermat's method for solving the problem of tangents may be explained + as follows:--Let (x, y) be the coordinates of a point P of a curve, + (x´, y´), those of a neighbouring point P´ on the tangent at P, and + let MM´ = E (fig. 6). + + From the similarity of the triangles P´TM´, PTM we have + + y´:A - E = y:A, + + where A denotes the subtangent TM. The point P´ being near the curve, + we may substitute in the equation of the curve x - E for x and (yA - + yE)/A for y. The equation of the curve is approximately satisfied. If + it is taken to be satisfied exactly, the result is an equation of the + form [phi](x, y, A, E) = 0, the left-hand member of which is divisible + by E. Omitting the factor E, and putting E = 0 in the remaining + factor, we have an equation which gives A. In this problem of tangents + also Fermat found the required result by a process equivalent to + differentiation. + +Fermat gave several examples of the application of his method; among +them was one in which he showed that he could differentiate very +complicated irrational functions. For such functions his method was to +begin by obtaining a rational equation. In rationalizing equations +Fermat, in other writings, used the device of introducing new variables, +but he did not use this device to simplify the process of +differentiation. Some of his results were published by Pierre Hérigone +in his _Supplementum cursus mathematici_ (1642). His communication to +Descartes was not published in full until after his death (Fermat, +_Opera varia_, 1679). Methods similar to Fermat's were devised by René +de Sluse (1652) for tangents, and by Johannes Hudde (1658) for maxima +and minima. Other methods for the solution of the problem of tangents +were devised by Roberval and Torricelli, and published almost +simultaneously in 1644. These methods were founded upon the composition +of motions, the theory of which had been taught by Galileo (1638), and, +less completely, by Roberval (1636). Roberval and Torricelli could +construct the tangents of many curves, but they did not arrive at +Fermat's artifice. This artifice is that which we have noted in § 10 as +the fundamental artifice of the infinitesimal calculus. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + + Barrow's Differential Triangle. + +17. Among the comparatively few mathematicians who before 1665 could +perform differentiations was Isaac Barrow. In his book entitled +_Lectiones opticae et geometricae_, written apparently in 1663, 1664, +and published in 1669, 1670, he gave a method of tangents like that of +Roberval and Torricelli, compounding two velocities in the directions of +the axes of x and y to obtain a resultant along the tangent to a curve. +In an appendix to this book he gave another method which differs from +Fermat's in the introduction of a differential equivalent to our dy as +well as dx. Two neighbouring ordinates PM and QN of a curve (fig. 7) are +regarded as containing an indefinitely small (_indefinite parvum_) arc, +and PR is drawn parallel to the axis of x. The tangent PT at P is +regarded as identical with the secant PQ, and the position of the +tangent is determined by the similarity of the triangles PTM, PQR. The +increments QR, PR of the ordinate and abscissa are denoted by a and e; +and the ratio of a to e is determined by substituting x + e for x and y ++ a for y in the equation of the curve, rejecting all terms which are of +order higher than the first in a and e, and omitting the terms which do +not contain a or e. This process is equivalent to differentiation. +Barrow appears to have invented it himself, but to have put it into his +book at Newton's request. The triangle PQR is sometimes called "Barrow's +differential triangle." + + + Barrow's Inversion-theorem. + + The reciprocal relation between differentiation and integration (§ 6) + was first observed explicitly by Barrow in the book cited above. If + the quadrature of a curve y = f(x) is known, so that the area up to + the ordinate x is given by F(x), the curve y = F(x) can be drawn, and + Barrow showed that the subtangent of this curve is measured by the + ratio of its ordinate to the ordinate of the original curve. The curve + y = F(x) is often called the "quadratrix" of the original curve; and + the result has been called "Barrow's inversion-theorem." He did not + use it as we do for the determination of quadratures, or indefinite + integrals, but for the solution of problems of the kind which were + then called "inverse problems of tangents." In these problems it was + sought to determine a curve from some property of its tangent, e.g. + the property that the subtangent is proportional to the square of the + abscissa. Such problems are now classed under "differential + equations." When Barrow wrote, quadratures were familiar and + differentiation unfamiliar, just as hyperbolas were trusted while + logarithms were strange. The functional notation was not invented till + long afterwards (see FUNCTION), and the want of it is felt in reading + all the mathematics of the 17th century. + + + Nature of the discovery called the Infinitesimal Calculus. + +18. The great secret which afterwards came to be called the +"infinitesimal calculus" was almost discovered by Fermat, and still more +nearly by Barrow. Barrow went farther than Fermat in the theory of +differentiation, though not in the practice, for he compared two +increments; he went farther in the theory of integration, for he +obtained the inversion-theorem. The great discovery seems to consist +partly in the recognition of the fact that differentiation, known to be +a useful process, could always be performed, at least for the functions +then known, and partly in the recognition of the fact that the +inversion-theorem could be applied to problems of quadrature. By these +steps the problem of tangents could be solved once for all, and the +operation of integration, as we call it, could be rendered systematic. A +further step was necessary in order that the discovery, once made, +should become accessible to mathematicians in general; and this step was +the introduction of a suitable notation. The definite abandonment of the +old tentative methods of integration in favour of the method in which +this operation is regarded as the inverse of differentiation was +especially the work of Isaac Newton; the precise formulation of simple +rules for the process of differentiation in each special case, and the +introduction of the notation which has proved to be the best, were +especially the work of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz. This statement +remains true although Newton invented a systematic notation, and +practised differentiation by rules equivalent to those of Leibnitz, +before Leibnitz had begun to work upon the subject, and Leibnitz +effected integrations by the method of recognizing differential +coefficients before he had had any opportunity of becoming acquainted +with Newton's methods. + + + Newton's investigations. + +19. Newton was Barrow's pupil, and he knew to start with in 1664 all +that Barrow knew, and that was practically all that was known about the +subject at that time. His original thinking on the subject dates from +the year of the great plague (1665-1666), and it issued in the invention +of the "Calculus of Fluxions," the principles and methods of which were +developed by him in three tracts entitled _De analysi per aequationes +numero terminorum infinitas, Methodus fluxionum et serierum infinitarum, +and De quadratura curvarum_. None of these was published until long +after they were written. The _Analysis per aequationes_ was composed in +1666, but not printed until 1711, when it was published by William +Jones. The _Methodus fluxionum_ was composed in 1671 but not printed +till 1736, nine years after Newton's death, when an English translation +was published by John Colson. In Horsley's edition of Newton's works it +bears the title _Geometria analytica_. The _Quadratura_ appears to have +been composed in 1676, but was first printed in 1704 as an appendix to +Newton's _Opticks_. + + + Newton's method of Series. + + 20. The tract _De Analysi per aequationes ..._ was sent by Newton to + Barrow, who sent it to John Collins with a request that it might be + made known. One way of making it known would have been to print it in + the _Philosophical Transactions_ of the Royal Society, but this course + was not adopted. Collins made a copy of the tract and sent it to Lord + Brouncker, but neither of them brought it before the Royal Society. + The tract contains a general proof of Barrow's inversion-theorem which + is the same in principle as that in § 6 above. In this proof and + elsewhere in the tract a notation is introduced for the momentary + increment (_momentum_) of the abscissa or area of a curve; this + "moment" is evidently meant to represent a moment of time, the + abscissa representing time, and it is effectively the same as our + differential element--the thing that Fermat had denoted by E, and + Barrow by e, in the case of the abscissa. Newton denoted the moment of + the abscissa by o, that of the area z by ov. He used the letter v for + the ordinate y, thus suggesting that his curve is a velocity-time + graph such as Galileo had used. Newton gave the formula for the area + of a curve v = x^m (m ± -1) in the form z = x^(m+1)/(m + 1). In the + proof he transformed this formula to the form z^n = c^n x^p, where n + and p are positive integers, substituted x + o for x and z + ov for z, + and expanded by the binomial theorem for a positive integral exponent, + thus obtaining the relation + + z^n + nz^(n-1) ov + ... = c^n (x_p + px^(p-1)o + ...), + + from which he deduced the relation + + nz_(n-1)v = c^n px^(p-1) + + by omitting the equal terms z^n and c^n·x^p and dividing the remaining + terms by o, tacitly putting o = 0 after division. This relation is the + same as v = x^m. Newton pointed out that, conversely, from the + relation v = x^m the relation z = x^(m+1) / (m + 1) follows. He + applied his formula to the quadrature of curves whose ordinates can be + expressed as the sum of a finite number of terms of the form ax^m; and + gave examples of its application to curves in which the ordinate is + expressed by an infinite series, using for this purpose the binomial + theorem for negative and fractional exponents, that is to say, the + expansion of (1 + x)^n in an infinite series of powers of x. This + theorem he had discovered; but he did not in this tract state it in a + general form or give any proof of it. He pointed out, however, how it + may be used for the solution of equations by means of infinite series. + He observed also that all questions concerning lengths of curves, + volumes enclosed by surfaces, and centres of gravity, can be + formulated as problems of quadratures, and can thus be solved either + in finite terms or by means of infinite series. In the _Quadratura_ + (1676) the method of integration which is founded upon the + inversion-theorem was carried out systematically. Among other results + there given is the quadrature of curves expressed by equations of the + form y = x^n·(a + bx^m)^p; this has passed into text-books under the + title "integration of binomial differentials" (see § 49). Newton + announced the result in letters to Collins and Oldenburg of 1676. + + + Newton's method of Fluxions. + + 21. In the _Methodus fluxionum_ (1671) Newton introduced his + characteristic notation. He regarded variable quantities as generated + by the motion of a point, or line, or plane, and called the generated + quantity a "fluent" and its rate of generation a "fluxion." The + fluxion of a fluent x is represented by x, and its moment, or + "infinitely" small increment accruing in an "infinitely" short time, + is represented by [.x]o. The problems of the calculus are stated to be + (i.) to find the velocity at any time when the distance traversed is + given; (ii.) to find the distance traversed when the velocity is + given. The first of these leads to differentiation. In any rational + equation containing x and y the expressions x + [.x]o and y +[.y]o are + to be substituted for x and y, the resulting equation is to be divided + by o, and afterwards o is to be omitted. In the case of irrational + functions, or rational functions which are not integral, new variables + are introduced in such a way as to make the equations contain rational + integral terms only. Thus Newton's rules of differentiation would be + in our notation the rules (i.), (ii.), (v.) of § 11, together with the + particular result which we write + + dx^m + ---- = mx^(m-1), (m integral). + dx + + a result which Newton obtained by expanding (x = [.x]o)^m by the + binomial theorem. The second problem is the problem of integration, + and Newton's method for solving it was the method of series founded + upon the particular result which we write + _ + / x^(m+1) + | x^m dx = -------. + _/ m + 1 + + Newton added applications of his methods to maxima and minima, + tangents and curvature. In a letter to Collins of date 1672 Newton + stated that he had certain methods, and he described certain results + which he had found by using them. These methods and results are those + which are to be found in the _Methodus fluxionum_; but the letter + makes no mention of fluxions and fluents or of the characteristic + notation. The rule for tangents is said in the letter to be analogous + to de Sluse's, but to be applicable to equations that contain + irrational terms. + + + Publication of the Fluxional Notation. + + 22. Newton gave the fluxional notation also in the tract De + _Quadratura curvarum_ (1676), and he there added to it notation for + the higher differential coefficients and for indefinite integrals, as + we call them. Just as x, y, z, ... are fluents of which [.x], [.y], + [.z], ... are the fluxions, so [.x], [.y], [.z], ... can be treated as + fluents of which the fluxions may be denoted by [:x], [:y], [:z],... + In like manner the fluxions of these may be denoted by [:x], [:y], + [:z], ... and so on. Again x, y, z, ... may be regarded as fluxions of + which the fluents may be denoted by ['x], ['y], ['z], ... and these + again as fluxions of other quantities denoted by ["x], ["y], ["z], ... + and so on. No use was made of the notation ['x], ["x], ... in the + course of the tract. The first publication of the fluxional notation + was made by Wallis in the second edition of his _Algebra_ (1693) in + the form of extracts from communications made to him by Newton in + 1692. In this account of the method the symbols 0, [.x], [:x], ... + occur, but not the symbols ['x], ["x], .... Wallis's treatise also + contains Newton's formulation of the problems of the calculus in the + words _Data aequatione fluentes quotcumque quantitates involvente + fluxiones invenire et vice versa_ ("an equation containing any number + of fluent quantities being given, to find their fluxions and vice + versa"). In the _Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica_ (1687), + commonly called the "Principia," the words "fluxion" and "moment" + occur in a lemma in the second book; but the notation which is + characteristic of the calculus of fluxions is nowhere used. + + + Retarded Publication of the method of Fluxions. + +23. It is difficult to account for the fragmentary manner of publication +of the Fluxional Calculus and for the long delays which took place. At +the time (1671) when Newton composed the _Methodus fluxionum_ he +contemplated bringing out an edition of Gerhard Kinckhuysen's treatise +on algebra and prefixing his tract to this treatise. In the same year +his "Theory of Light and Colours" was published in the _Philosophical +Transactions_, and the opposition which it excited led to the +abandonment of the project with regard to fluxions. In 1680 Collins +sought the assistance of the Royal Society for the publication of the +tract, and this was granted in 1682. Yet it remained unpublished. The +reason is unknown; but it is known that about 1679, 1680, Newton took up +again the studies in natural philosophy which he had intermitted for +several years, and that in 1684 he wrote the tract _De motu_ which was +in some sense a first draft of the _Principia_, and it may be +conjectured that the fluxions were held over until the _Principia_ +should be finished. There is also reason to think that Newton had become +dissatisfied with the arguments about infinitesimals on which his +calculus was based. In the preface to the _De quadratura curvarum_ +(1704), in which he describes this tract as something which he once +wrote ("_olim scripsi_") he says that there is no necessity to introduce +into the method of fluxions any argument about infinitely small +quantities; and in the _Principia_ (1687) he adopted instead of the +method of fluxions a new method, that of "Prime and Ultimate Ratios." By +the aid of this method it is possible, as Newton knew, and as was +afterwards seen by others, to found the calculus of fluxions on an +irreproachable method of limits. For the purpose of explaining his +discoveries in dynamics and astronomy Newton used the method of limits +only, without the notation of fluxions, and he presented all his results +and demonstrations in a geometrical form. There is no doubt that he +arrived at most of his theorems in the first instance by using the +method of fluxions. Further evidence of Newton's dissatisfaction with +arguments about infinitely small quantities is furnished by his tract +_Methodus diferentialis_, published in 1711 by William Jones, in which +he laid the foundations of the "Calculus of Finite Differences." + + + Leibnitz's course of discovery. + +24. Leibnitz, unlike Newton, was practically a self-taught +mathematician. He seems to have been first attracted to mathematics as a +means of symbolical expression, and on the occasion of his first visit +to London, early in 1673, he learnt about the doctrine of infinite +series which James Gregory, Nicolaus Mercator, Lord Brouncker and +others, besides Newton, had used in their investigations. It appears +that he did not on this occasion become acquainted with Collins, or see +Newton's _Analysis per aequationes_, but he purchased Barrow's +_Lectiones_. On returning to Paris he made the acquaintance of Huygens, +who recommended him to read Descartes' _Géométrie_. He also read +Pascal's _Lettres de Dettonville_, Gregory of St Vincent's _Opus +geometricum_, Cavalieri's _Indivisibles_ and the _Synopsis geometrica_ +of Honoré Fabri, a book which is practically a commentary on Cavalieri; +it would never have had any importance but for the influence which it +had on Leibnitz's thinking at this critical period. In August of this +year (1673) he was at work upon the problem of tangents, and he appears +to have made out the nature of the solution--the method involved in +Barrow's differential triangle--for himself by the aid of a diagram +drawn by Pascal in a demonstration of the formula for the area of a +spherical surface. He saw that the problem of the relation between the +differences of neighbouring ordinates and the ordinates themselves was +the important problem, and then that the solution of this problem was to +be effected by quadratures. Unlike Newton, who arrived at +differentiation and tangents through integration and areas, Leibnitz +proceeded from tangents to quadratures. When he turned his attention to +quadratures and indivisibles, and realized the nature of the process of +finding areas by summing "infinitesimal" rectangles, he proposed to +replace the rectangles by triangles having a common vertex, and obtained +by this method the result which we write + + 1 1 1 1 + --- [pi] = 1 - --- + --- - --- + ... + 4 3 5 7 + +In 1674 he sent an account of his method, called "transmutation," along +with this result to Huygens, and early in 1675 he sent it to Henry +Oldenburg, secretary of the Royal Society, with inquiries as to Newton's +discoveries in regard to quadratures. In October of 1675 he had begun to +devise a symbolical notation for quadratures, starting from Cavalieri's +indivisibles. At first he proposed to use the word _omnia_ as an +abbreviation for Cavalieri's "sum of all the lines," thus writing +_omnia_ y for that which we write "[int] ydx," but within a day or two +he wrote "[int] y". He regarded the symbol "[int]" as representing an +operation which raises the dimensions of the subject of operation--a +line becoming an area by the operation--and he devised his symbol "d" to +represent the inverse operation, by which the dimensions are diminished. +He observed that, whereas "[int]" represents "sum," "d" represents +"difference." His notation appears to have been practically settled +before the end of 1675, for in November he wrote [int] y dy = ½y², just +as we do now. + + + Correspondence of Newton and Leibnitz. + +25. In July of 1676 Leibnitz received an answer to his inquiry in regard +to Newton's methods in a letter written by Newton to Oldenburg. In this +letter Newton gave a general statement of the binomial theorem and many +results relating to series. He stated that by means of such series he +could find areas and lengths of curves, centres of gravity and volumes +and surfaces of solids, but, as this would take too long to describe, he +would illustrate it by examples. He gave no proofs. Leibnitz replied in +August, stating some results which he had obtained, and which, as it +seemed, could not be obtained easily by the method of series, and he +asked for further information. Newton replied in a long letter to +Oldenburg of the 24th of October 1676. In this letter he gave a much +fuller account of his binomial theorem and indicated a method of proof. +Further he gave a number of results relating to quadratures; they were +afterwards printed in the tract _De quadratura curvarum_. He gave many +other results relating to the computation of natural logarithms and +other calculations in which series could be used. He gave a general +statement, similar to that in the letter to Collins, as to the kind of +problems relating to tangents, maxima and minima, &c., which he could +solve by his method, but he concealed his formulation of the calculus in +an anagram of transposed letters. The solution of the anagram was given +eleven years later in the _Principia_ in the words we have quoted from +Wallis's _Algebra_. In neither of the letters to Oldenburg does the +characteristic notation of the fluxional calculus occur, and the words +"fluxion" and "fluent" occur only in anagrams of transposed letters. The +letter of October 1676 was not despatched until May 1677, and Leibnitz +answered it in June of that year. In October 1676 Leibnitz was in +London, where he made the acquaintance of Collins and read the _Analysis +per aequationes_, and it seems to have been supposed afterwards that he +then read Newton's letter of October 1676, but he left London before +Oldenburg received this letter. In his answer of June 1677 Leibnitz gave +Newton a candid account of his differential calculus, nearly in the form +in which he afterwards published it, and explained how he used it for +quadratures and inverse problems of tangents. Newton never replied. + + + Leibnitz's Differential Calculus. + +26. In the _Acta eruditorum_ of 1684 Leibnitz published a short memoir +entitled _Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis, itemque tangentibus, +quae nec fractas nec irrationales quantitates moratur, et singulare pro +illis calculi genus_. In this memoir the differential dx of a variable +x, considered as the abscissa of a point of a curve, is said to be an +arbitrary quantity, and the differential dy of a related variable y, +considered as the ordinate of the point, is defined as a quantity which +has to dx the ratio of the ordinate to the subtangent, and rules are +given for operating with differentials. These are the rules for forming +the differential of a constant, a sum (or difference), a product, a +quotient, a power (or root). They are equivalent to our rules (i.)-(iv.) +of § 11 and the particular result + + d(x^m) = mx^(m-1) dx. + +The rule for a function of a function is not stated explicitly but is +illustrated by examples in which new variables are introduced, in much +the same way as in Newton's _Methodus fluxionum_. In connexion with the +problem of maxima and minima, it is noted that the differential of y is +positive or negative according as y increases or decreases when x +increases, and the discrimination of maxima from minima depends upon the +sign of ddy, the differential of dy. In connexion with the problem of +tangents the differentials are said to be proportional to the momentary +increments of the abscissa and ordinate. A tangent is defined as a line +joining two "infinitely" near points of a curve, and the "infinitely" +small distances (e.g., the distance between the feet of the ordinates of +such points) are said to be expressible by means of the differentials +(e.g., dx). The method is illustrated by a few examples, and one example +is given of its application to "inverse problems of tangents." Barrow's +inversion-theorem and its application to quadratures are not mentioned. +No proofs are given, but it is stated that they can be obtained easily +by any one versed in such matters. The new methods in regard to +differentiation which were contained in this memoir were the use of the +second differential for the discrimination of maxima and minima, and the +introduction of new variables for the purpose of differentiating +complicated expressions. A greater novelty was the use of a letter (d), +not as a symbol for a number or magnitude, but as a symbol of operation. +None of these novelties account for the far-reaching effect which this +memoir has had upon the development of mathematical analysis. This +effect was a consequence of the simplicity and directness with which the +rules of differentiation were stated. Whatever indistinctness might be +felt to attach to the symbols, the processes for solving problems of +tangents and of maxima and minima were reduced once for all to a +definite routine. + + + Development of the Calculus. + +27. This memoir was followed in 1686 by a second, entitled _De Geometria +recondita et analysi indivisibilium atque infinitorum_, in which +Leibnitz described the method of using his new differential calculus for +the problem of quadratures. This was the first publication of the +notation [int] ydx. The new method was called _calculus summatorius_. +The brothers Jacob (James) and Johann (John) Bernoulli were able by 1690 +to begin to make substantial contributions to the development of the new +calculus, and Leibnitz adopted their word "integral" in 1695, they at +the same time adopting his symbol "[int]." In 1696 the marquis de +l'Hospital published the first treatise on the differential calculus +with the title _Analyse des infiniment petits pour l'intelligence des +lignes courbes_. The few references to fluxions in Newton's _Principia_ +(1687) must have been quite unintelligible to the mathematicians of the +time, and the publication of the fluxional notation and calculus by +Wallis in 1693 was too late to be effective. Fluxions had been +supplanted before they were introduced. + +The differential calculus and the integral calculus were rapidly +developed in the writings of Leibnitz and the Bernoullis. Leibnitz +(1695) was the first to differentiate a logarithm and an exponential, +and John Bernoulli was the first to recognize the property possessed by +an exponential (a^x) of becoming infinitely great in comparison with any +power (x^n) when x is increased indefinitely. Roger Cotes (1722) was the +first to differentiate a trigonometrical function. A great development +of infinitesimal methods took place through the founding in 1696-1697 of +the "Calculus of Variations" by the brothers Bernoulli. + + + Dispute concerning Priority. + +28. The famous dispute as to the priority of Newton and Leibnitz in the +invention of the calculus began in 1699 through the publication by +Nicolas Fatio de Duillier of a tract in which he stated that Newton was +not only the first, but by many years the first inventor, and insinuated +that Leibnitz had stolen it. Leibnitz in his reply (_Acta Eruditorum_, +1700) cited Newton's letters and the testimony which Newton had rendered +to him in the _Principia_ as proofs of his independent authorship of the +method. Leibnitz was especially hurt at what he understood to be an +endorsement of Duillier's attack by the Royal Society, but it was +explained to him that the apparent approval was an accident. The dispute +was ended for a time. On the publication of Newton's tract _De +quadratura curvarum_, an anonymous review of it, written, as has since +been proved, by Leibnitz, appeared in the _Acta Eruditorum_, 1705. The +anonymous reviewer said: "Instead of the Leibnitzian differences Newton +uses and always has used fluxions ... just as Honoré Fabri in his +_Synopsis Geometrica_ substituted steps of movements for the method of +Cavalieri." This passage, when it became known in England, was +understood not merely as belittling Newton by comparing him with the +obscure Fabri, but also as implying that he had stolen his calculus of +fluxions from Leibnitz. Great indignation was aroused; and John Keill +took occasion, in a memoir on central forces which was printed in the +_Philosophical Transactions_ for 1708, to affirm that Newton was without +doubt the first inventor of the calculus, and that Leibnitz had merely +changed the name and mode of notation. The memoir was published in 1710. +Leibnitz wrote in 1711 to the secretary of the Royal Society (Hans +Sloane) requiring Keill to retract his accusation. Leibnitz's letter was +read at a meeting of the Royal Society, of which Newton was then +president, and Newton made to the society a statement of the course of +his invention of the fluxional calculus with the dates of particular +discoveries. Keill was requested by the society "to draw up an account +of the matter under dispute and set it in a just light." In his report +Keill referred to Newton's letters of 1676, and said that Newton had +there given so many indications of his method that it could have been +understood by a person of ordinary intelligence. Leibnitz wrote to +Sloane asking the society to stop these unjust attacks of Keill, +asserting that in the review in the _Acta Eruditorum_ no one had been +injured but each had received his due, submitting the matter to the +equity of the Royal Society, and stating that he was persuaded that +Newton himself would do him justice. A committee was appointed by the +society to examine the documents and furnish a report. Their report, +presented in April 1712, concluded as follows: + + "The _differential method_ is one and the same with the _method of + fluxions_, excepting the name and mode of notation; Mr Leibnitz + calling those quantities _differences_ which Mr Newton calls _moments_ + or _fluxions_, and marking them with the letter d, a mark not used by + Mr Newton. And therefore we take the proper question to be, not who + invented this or that method, but who was the first inventor of the + method; and we believe that those who have reputed Mr Leibnitz the + first inventor, knew little or nothing of his correspondence with Mr + Collins and Mr Oldenburg long before; nor of Mr Newton's having that + method above fifteen years before Mr. Leibnitz began to publish it in + the _Acta Eruditorum_ of Leipzig. For which reasons we reckon Mr + Newton the first inventor, and are of opinion that Mr Keill, in + asserting the same, has been no ways injurious to Mr Leibnitz." + +The report with the letters and other documents was printed (1712) under +the title _Commercium Epistolicum D. Johannis Collins et aliorum de +analysi promota, jussu Societatis Regiae in lucem editum_, not at first +for publication. An account of the contents of the _Commercium +Epistolicum_ was printed in the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1715. A +second edition of the _Commercium Epistolicum_ was published in 1722. +The dispute was continued for many years after the death of Leibnitz in +1716. To translate the words of Moritz Cantor, it "redounded to the +discredit of all concerned." + + + British and Continental Schools of Mathematics. + +29. One lamentable consequence of the dispute was a severance of British +methods from continental ones. In Great Britain it became a point of +honour to use fluxions and other Newtonian methods, while on the +continent the notation of Leibnitz was universally adopted. This +severance did not at first prevent a great advance in mathematics in +Great Britain. So long as attention was directed to problems in which +there is but one independent variable (the time, or the abscissa of a +point of a curve), and all the other variables depend upon this one, the +fluxional notation could be used as well as the differential and +integral notation, though perhaps not quite so easily. Up to about the +middle of the 18th century important discoveries continued to be made by +the use of the method of fluxions. It was the introduction of partial +differentiation by Leonhard Euler (1734) and Alexis Claude Clairaut +(1739), and the developments which followed upon the systematic use of +partial differential coefficients, which led to Great Britain being left +behind; and it was not until after the reintroduction of continental +methods into England by Sir John Herschel, George Peacock and Charles +Babbage in 1815 that British mathematics began to flourish again. The +exclusion of continental mathematics from Great Britain was not +accompanied by any exclusion of British mathematics from the continent. +The discoveries of Brook Taylor and Colin Maclaurin were absorbed into +the rapidly growing continental analysis, and the more precise +conceptions reached through a critical scrutiny of the true nature of +Newton's fluxions and moments stimulated a like scrutiny of the basis of +the method of differentials. + + + Oppositions to the calculus. + + The "Analyst" controversy. + + Cauchy's method of limits. + +30. This method had met with opposition from the first. Christiaan +Huygens, whose opinion carried more weight than that of any other +scientific man of the day, declared that the employment of differentials +was unnecessary, and that Leibnitz's second differential was meaningless +(1691). A Dutch physician named Bernhard Nieuwentijt attacked the method +on account of the use of quantities which are at one stage of the +process treated as somethings and at a later stage as nothings, and he +was especially severe in commenting upon the second and higher +differentials (1694, 1695). Other attacks were made by Michel Rolle +(1701), but they were directed rather against matters of detail than +against the general principles. The fact is that, although Leibnitz in +his answers to Nieuwentijt (1695), and to Rolle (1702), indicated that +the processes of the calculus could be justified by the methods of the +ancient geometry, he never expressed himself very clearly on the subject +of differentials, and he conveyed, probably without intending it, the +impression that the calculus leads to correct results by compensation of +errors. In England the method of fluxions had to face similar attacks. +George Berkeley, bishop and philosopher, wrote in 1734 a tract entitled +_The Analyst; or a Discourse addressed to an Infidel Mathematician_, in +which he proposed to destroy the presumption that the opinions of +mathematicians in matters of faith are likely to be more trustworthy +than those of divines, by contending that in the much vaunted fluxional +calculus there are mysteries which are accepted unquestioningly by the +mathematicians, but are incapable of logical demonstration. Berkeley's +criticism was levelled against all infinitesimals, that is to say, all +quantities vaguely conceived as in some intermediate state between +nullity and finiteness, as he took Newton's moments to be conceived. The +tract occasioned a controversy which had the important consequence of +making it plain that all arguments about infinitesimals must be given +up, and the calculus must be founded on the method of limits. During the +controversy Benjamin Robins gave an exceedingly clear explanation of +Newton's theories of fluxions and of prime and ultimate ratios regarded +as theories of limits. In this explanation he pointed out that Newton's +_moment_ (Leibnitz's "differential") is to be regarded as so much of the +actual difference between two neighbouring values of a variable as is +needful for the formation of the fluxion (or differential coefficient) +(see G. A. Gibson, "The Analyst Controversy," _Proc. Math. Soc._, +Edinburgh, xvii., 1899). Colin Maclaurin published in 1742 a _Treatise +of Fluxions_, in which he reduced the whole theory to a theory of +limits, and demonstrated it by the method of Archimedes. This notion was +gradually transferred to the continental mathematicians. Leonhard Euler +in his _Institutiones Calculi differentialis_ (1755) was reduced to the +position of one who asserts that all differentials are zero, but, as the +product of zero and any finite quantity is zero, the ratio of two zeros +can be a finite quantity which it is the business of the calculus to +determine. Jean le Rond d'Alembert in the _Encyclopédie méthodique_ +(1755, 2nd ed. 1784) declared that differentials were unnecessary, and +that Leibnitz's calculus was a calculus of mutually compensating errors, +while Newton's method was entirely rigorous. D'Alembert's opinion of +Leibnitz's calculus was expressed also by Lazare N. M. Carnot in his +_Réflexions sur la métaphysique du calcul infinitésimal_ (1799) and by +Joseph Louis de la Grange (generally called Lagrange) in writings from +1760 onwards. Lagrange proposed in his _Théorie des fonctions +analytiques_ (1797) to found the whole of the calculus on the theory of +series. It was not until 1823 that a treatise on the differential +calculus founded upon the method of limits was published. The treatise +was the _Résumé des leçons ... sur le calcul infinitésimal_ of Augustin +Louis Cauchy. Since that time it has been understood that the use of the +phrase "infinitely small" in any mathematical argument is a figurative +mode of expression pointing to a limiting process. In the opinion of +many eminent mathematicians such modes of expression are confusing to +students, but in treatises on the calculus the traditional modes of +expression are still largely adopted. + + + Arithmetical basis of modern analysis. + +31. Defective modes of expression did not hinder constructive work. It +was the great merit of Leibnitz's symbolism that a mathematician who +used it knew what was to be done in order to formulate any problem +analytically, even though he might not be absolutely clear as to the +proper interpretation of the symbols, or able to render a satisfactory +account of them. While new and varied results were promptly obtained by +using them, a long time elapsed before the theory of them was placed on +a sound basis. Even after Cauchy had formulated his theory much remained +to be done, both in the rapidly growing department of complex variables, +and in the regions opened up by the theory of expansions in +trigonometric series. In both directions it was seen that rigorous +demonstration demanded greater precision in regard to fundamental +notions, and the requirement of precision led to a gradual shifting of +the basis of analysis from geometrical intuition to arithmetical law. A +sketch of the outcome of this movement--the "arithmetization of +analysis," as it has been called--will be found in FUNCTION. Its general +tendency has been to show that many theories and processes, at first +accepted as of general validity, are liable to exceptions, and much of +the work of the analysts of the latter half of the 19th century was +directed to discovering the most general conditions in which particular +processes, frequently but not universally applicable, can be used +without scruple. + + +III. _Outlines of the Infinitesimal Calculus._ + +32. The general notions of functionality, limits and continuity are +explained in the article FUNCTION. Illustrations of the more immediate +ways in which these notions present themselves in the development of the +differential and integral calculus will be useful in what follows. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + + Geometrical limits. + + Tangents. + + 33. Let y be given as a function of x, or, more generally, let x and y + be given as functions of a variable t. The first of these cases is + included in the second by putting x = t. If certain conditions are + satisfied the aggregate of the points determined by the functional + relations form a curve. The first condition is that the aggregate of + the values of t to which values of x and y correspond must be + continuous, or, in other words, that these values must consist of all + real numbers, or of all those real numbers which lie between assigned + extreme numbers. When this condition is satisfied the points are + "ordered," and their order is determined by the order of the numbers + t, supposed to be arranged in order of increasing or decreasing + magnitude; also there are two senses of description of the curve, + according as t is taken to increase or to diminish. The second + condition is that the aggregate of the points which are determined by + the functional relations must be "continuous." This condition means + that, if any point P determined by a value of t is taken, and any + distance [delta], however small, is chosen, it is possible to find two + points Q, Q´ of the aggregate which are such that (i.) P is between Q + and Q´, (ii.) if R, R´ are any points between Q and Q´ the distance + RR´ is less than [delta]. The meaning of the word "between" in this + statement is fixed by the ordering of the points. Sometimes additional + conditions are imposed upon the functional relations before they are + regarded as defining a curve. An aggregate of points which satisfies + the two conditions stated above is sometimes called a "Jordan curve." + It by no means follows that every curve of this kind has a tangent. In + order that the curve may have a tangent at P it is necessary that, if + any angle [alpha], however small, is specified, a distance [delta] can + be found such that when P is between Q and Q´, and PQ and PQ´ are less + than [delta], the angle RPR´ is less than [alpha] for all pairs of + points R, R´ which are between P and Q, or between P and Q´ (fig. 8). + When this condition is satisfied y is a function of x which has a + differential coefficient. The only way of finding out whether this + condition is satisfied or not is to attempt to form the differential + coefficient. If the quotient of differences [Delta]y/[Delta]x has a + limit when [Delta]x tends to zero, y is a differentiable function of + x, and the limit in question is the differential coefficient. The + derived function, or differential coefficient, of a function [f](x) is + always defined by the formula + + d[f](x) [f](x + h) - [f](x) + [f]´(x) = ------- = lim. -------------------. + dx h=0 h + + Rules for the formation of differential coefficients in particular + cases have been given in § 11 above. The definition of a differential + coefficient, and the rules of differentiation are quite independent of + any geometrical interpretation, such as that concerning tangents to a + curve, and the tangent to a curve is properly defined by means of the + differential coefficient of a function, not the differential + coefficient by means of the tangent. + + + Progressive and Regressive Differential Coefficients. + + It may happen that the limit employed in defining the differential + coefficient has one value when h approaches zero through positive + values, and a different value when h approaches zero through negative + values. The two limits are then called the "progressive" and + "regressive" differential coefficients. In applications to dynamics, + when x denotes a coordinate and t the time, dx/dt denotes a velocity. + If the velocity is changed suddenly the progressive differential + coefficient measures the velocity just after the change, and the + regressive differential coefficient measures the velocity just before + the change. Variable velocities are properly defined by means of + differential coefficients. + + + Areas. + + Lengths of Curves. + + All geometrical limits may be specified in terms similar to those + employed in specifying the tangent to a curve; in difficult cases they + must be so specified. Geometrical intuition may fail to answer the + question of the existence or non-existence of the appropriate limits. + In the last resort the definitions of many quantities of geometrical + import must be analytical, not geometrical. As illustrations of this + statement we may take the definitions of the areas and lengths of + curves. We may not assume that every curve has an area or a length. To + find out whether a curve has an area or not, we must ascertain whether + the limit expressed by [f]ydx exists. When the limit exists the curve + has an area. The definition of the integral is quite independent of + any geometrical interpretation. The length of a curve again is defined + by means of a limiting process. Let P, Q be two points of a curve, and + R1, R2, ... R_(n-1) a set of intermediate points of the curve, + supposed to be described in the sense in which Q comes after P. The + points R are supposed to be reached successively in the order of the + suffixes when the curve is described in this sense. We form a sum of + lengths of chords + + PR1 + R1R2 + ... + R_(n-1)Q. + + If this sum has a limit when the number of the points R is increased + indefinitely and the lengths of all the chords are diminished + indefinitely, this limit is the length of the arc PQ. The limit is the + same whatever law may be adopted for inserting the intermediate points + R and diminishing the lengths of the chords. It appears from this + statement that the differential element of the arc of a curve is the + length of the chord joining two neighbouring points. In accordance + with the fundamental artifice for forming differentials (§§ 9, 10), + the differential element of arc ds may be expressed by the formula + + ds = [root] {(dx)² + (dy)²}, + + of which the right-hand member is really the measure of the distance + between two neighbouring points on the tangent. The square root must + be taken to be positive. We may describe this differential element as + being so much of the actual arc between two neighbouring points as + need be retained for the purpose of forming the integral expression + for an arc. This is a description, not a definition, because the + length of the short arc itself is only definable by means of the + integral expression. Similar considerations to those used in defining + the areas of plane figures and the lengths of plane curves are + applicable to the formation of expressions for differential elements + of volume or of the areas of curved surfaces. + + + Constants of Integration. + + 34. In regard to differential coefficients it is an important theorem + that, if the derived function [f]´(x) vanishes at all points of an + interval, the function [f](x) is constant in the interval. It follows + that, if two functions have the same derived function they can only + differ by a constant. Conversely, indefinite integrals are + indeterminate to the extent of an additive constant. + + + Higher Differential Coefficients. + + 35. The differential coefficient dy/dx, or the derived function + [f]´(x), is itself a function of x, and its differential coefficient + is denoted by [f]´´(x) or d²y/dx². In the second of these notations + d/dx is regarded as the symbol of an operation, that of + differentiation with respect to x, and the index 2 means that the + operation is repeated. In like manner we may express the results of n + successive differentiations by [f]^(n)(x) or by d^n·y/dx^n. When the + second differential coefficient exists, or the first is + differentiable, we have the relation + + [f](x + h) - 2[f](x) + [f](x - h) + [f]´´(x) = lim. --------------------------------- (i.) + h=0 h² + + The limit expressed by the right-hand member of this equation may + exist in cases in which [f]´(x) does not exist or is not + differentiable. The result that, when the limit here expressed can be + shown to vanish at all points of an interval, then [f](x) must be a + linear function of x in the interval, is important. + + The relation (i.) is a particular case of the more general relation + + [f]^(n)(x) = lim.(h=0) h^-n [[f](x + nh) -n[f] {(x + (n - 1)h} + + n(n - 1) + + -------- [f]{x + (n - 2)h} - ... +(-1)^n [f](x)]. (ii.) + 2! + + As in the case of relation (i.) the limit expressed by the right-hand + member may exist although some or all of the derived functions + [f]´(x), [f]´´(x), ... [f]^(n-1)(x) do not exist. + + Corresponding to the rule iii. of § 11 we have the rule for forming + the nth differential coefficient of a product in the form + + d^n(uv) d^n v du d^(n-1)v n(n - 1) d²u d^(n-2)v d^n u + ------- = u ----- + n -- -------- + -------- ---- -------- + ... + ----- v, + dx^n dx^n dx dx^(n-1) 1.2 dx² dx^(n-2) dx^n + + where the coefficients are those of the expansion of (1 + x)^n in + powers of x (n being a positive integer). The rule is due to Leibnitz, + (1695). + + _Differentials of higher orders_ may be introduced in the same way as + the differential of the first order. In general when y = [f](x), the + nth differential d^n·y is defined by the equation + + d^n·y = [f]^n(x)(dx)^n, + + in which dx is the (arbitrary) differential of x. + + + Symbols of operation. + + When d/dx is regarded as a single symbol of operation the symbol [f] + ... dx represents the inverse operation. If the former is denoted by + D, the latter may be denoted by D^-1. D^n means that the operation D + is to be performed n times in succession; D^-n that the operation of + forming the indefinite integral is to be performed n times in + succession. Leibnitz's course of thought (§ 24) naturally led him to + inquire after an interpretation of D^n. where n is not an integer. For + an account of the researches to which this inquiry gave rise, + reference may be made to the article by A. Voss in _Ency. d. math. + Wiss._ Bd. ii. A, 2 (Leipzig, 1889). The matter is referred to as + "fractional" or "generalized" differentiation. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + + Theorem of Intermediate Value. + + 36. After the formation of differential coefficients the most + important theorem of the differential calculus is the _theorem of + intermediate value_ ("theorem of mean value," "theorem of finite + increments," "Rolle's theorem," are other names for it). This theorem + may be explained as follows: Let A, B be two points of a curve y = + [f](x) (fig. 9). Then there is a point P between A and B at which the + tangent is parallel to the secant AB. This theorem is expressed + analytically in the statement that if [f]´(x) is continuous between a + and b, there is a value x1 of x between a and b which has the property + expressed by the equation + + [f](b) - [f](a) + --------------- = [f]´(x1). (i.) + b - a + + The value x1 can be expressed in the form a + [theta](b - a) where + [theta] is a number between 0 and 1. + + A slightly more general theorem was given by Cauchy (1823) to the + effect that, if [f]´(x) and F´(x) are continuous between x = a and x = + b, then there is a number [theta] between 0 and 1 which has the + property expressed by the equation + + F(b) - F(a) F´{a + [theta](b - a)} + --------------- = ------------------------. + [f](b) - [f](a) [f]´{a + [theta](b - a)} + + The theorem expressed by the relation (i.) was first noted by Rolle + (1690) for the case where [f](x) is a rational integral function which + vanishes when x = a and also when x = b. The general theorem was given + by Lagrange (1797). Its fundamental importance was first recognized by + Cauchy (1823). It may be observed here that the theorem of integral + calculus expressed by the equation + _ + / b + F(b) - F(a) = | F´(x) dx + _/ a + + follows at once from the definition of an integral and the theorem of + intermediate value. + + The theorem of intermediate value may be generalized in the statement + that, if [f](x) and all its differential coefficients up to the nth + inclusive are continuous in the interval between x = a and x = b, then + there is a number [theta] between 0 and 1 which has the property + expressed by the equation + + (b - a)² (b - a)^(n-1) + [f](b) = [f](a) + (b - a)[f]´(a) + -------- [f]´´ (a) + ... + ------------- [f]^(n-1)(a) + 2! (n - 1)! + + (b - a)^n + + --------- [f]^(n) {a + [theta](b - a)}. (i.) + n! + + + Taylor's Theorem. + + 37. This theorem provides a means for computing the values of a + function at points near to an assigned point when the value of the + function and its differential coefficients at the assigned point are + known. The function is expressed by a terminated series, and, when the + remainder tends to zero as n increases, it may be transformed into an + infinite series. The theorem was first given by Brook Taylor in his + _Methodus Incrementorum_ (1717) as a corollary to a theorem concerning + finite differences. Taylor gave the expression for [f](x + z) in terms + of [f](x), [f]´(x), ... as an infinite series proceeding by powers of + z. His notation was that appropriate to the method of fluxions which + he used. This rule for expressing a function as an infinite series is + known as Taylor's theorem. The relation (i.), in which the remainder + after n terms is put in evidence, was first obtained by Lagrange + (1797). Another form of the remainder was given by Cauchy (1823) viz., + + (b - a)^n + --------- (1 - [theta])^(n-1) [f]^n {a + [theta](b - a)}. + (n - 1)! + + The conditions of validity of Taylor's expansion in an infinite series + have been investigated very completely by A. Pringsheim (_Math. Ann._ + Bd. xliv., 1894). It is not sufficient that the function and all its + differential coefficients should be finite at x = a; there must be a + _neighbourhood_ of a within which Cauchy's form of the remainder tends + to zero as n increases (cf. FUNCTION). + + An example of the necessity of this condition is afforded by the + function f(x) which is given by the equation + + __ n = [oo] + 1 \ (-1)^n 1 + [f](x) = ------ + ) ------ ------------ (i.) + 1 + x² /__ n = 1 n! 1 + 3^(2n)x² + + The sum of the series + + x² + [f](0) + x[f]´(0) + -- [f]´´(0) + ... (ii.) + 2! + + is the same as that of the series + + e^-1 - x² e^-3² + x^4 e^(-3^4) - ... + + It is easy to prove that this is less than e^-1 when x lies between 0 + and 1, and also that f(x) is greater than e^-l when x = 1/[root]3. + Hence the sum of the series (i.) is not equal to the sum of the series + (ii.). + + The particular case of Taylor's theorem in which a = 0 is often called + Maclaurin's theorem, because it was first explicitly stated by Colin + Maclaurin in his _Treatise of Fluxions_ (1742). Maclaurin like Taylor + worked exclusively with the fluxional calculus. + + + Expansions in power series. + + Examples of expansions in series had been known for some time. The + series for log (1 + x) was obtained by Nicolaus Mercator (1668) by + expanding (1 + x)^-1 by the method of algebraic division, and + integrating the series term by term. He regarded his result as a + "quadrature of the hyperbola." Newton (1669) obtained the expansion of + sin^-1 x by expanding (l - x²)^-½ by the binomial theorem and + integrating the series term by term. James Gregory (1671) gave the + series for tan^-1 x. Newton also obtained the series for sin x, cos x, + and e^x by reversion of series (1669). The symbol e for the base of + the Napierian logarithms was introduced by Euler (1739). All these + series can be obtained at once by Taylor's theorem. James Gregory + found also the first few terms of the series for tan x and sec x; the + terms of these series may be found successively by Taylor's theorem, + but the numerical coefficient of the general term cannot be obtained + in this way. + + Taylor's theorem for the expansion of a function in a power series was + the basis of Lagrange's theory of functions, and it is fundamental + also in the theory of analytic functions of a complex variable as + developed later by Karl Weierstrass. It has also numerous applications + to problems of maxima and minima and to analytical geometry. These + matters are treated in the appropriate articles. + + The forms of the coefficients in the series for tan x and sec x can be + expressed most simply in terms of a set of numbers introduced by James + Bernoulli in his treatise on probability entitled _Ars Conjectandi_ + (1713). These numbers B1, B2, ... called Bernoulli's numbers, are the + coefficients so denoted in the formula + + x x B1 B2 B3 + ------- = 1 - --- + -- x² - -- x^4 + -- x^6 - ..., + e^x - 1 2 2! 4! 6! + + and they are connected with the sums of powers of the reciprocals of + the natural numbers by equations of the type + + (2n)! / 1 1 1 \ + B_n = ------------------ ( ------ + ------ + ------ + ... ). + 2^(2n-1) [pi]^(2n) \ 1^(2n) 2^(2n) 3^(2n) / + + The function + + m m·m - 1 + x^m - --- x^(m-1) + ------- B1 x^(m-2) - ... + 2 2! + + has been called Bernoulli's function of the mth order by J. L. Raabe + (Crelle's _J. f. Math._ Bd. xlii., 1851). Bernoulli's numbers and + functions are of especial importance in the calculus of finite + differences (see the article by D. Seliwanoff in _Ency. d. math. + Wiss._ Bd. i., E., 1901). + + When x is given in terms of y by means of a power series of the form + + x = y(C0 + C1y + C2y² + ...) (C0 [not eq.] 0) = y [f]0(y), say, + + there arises the problem of expressing y as a power series in x. This + problem is that of _reversion of series_. It can be shown that + provided the absolute value of x is not too great, + + __n=[oo] _ _ + x \ | x^n d^(n-1) 1 | + y = ------ + ) | --- -------- ----------- | + [f](0) /__n=2 |_ n! dy^(n-1) {[f]0(y)}^n _| y=0 + + To this problem is reducible that of expanding y in powers of x when x + and y are connected by an equation of the form + + y = a + x[f](y), + + for which problem Lagrange (1770) obtained the formula + + __n=[oo] _ _ + \ | x^n d^(n-1) | + y = a + x[f](a) + ) | --- · -------- {[f](a)}^n |. + /__n=2 |_ n! da^(n-1) _| + + For the history of the problem and the generalizations of Lagrange's + result reference may be made to O. Stolz, _Grundzüge d. Diff. u. Int. + Rechnung_, T. 2 (Leipzig, 1896). + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + + Indeterminate forms. + + 38. An important application of the theorem of intermediate value and + its generalization can be made to the problem of evaluating certain + limits. If two functions [phi](x) and [psi](x) both vanish at x = a, + the fraction [phi](x)/[psi](x) may have a finite limit at a. This + limit is described as the limit of an "indeterminate form." Such + indeterminate forms were considered first by de l'Hospital (1696) to + whom the problem of evaluating the limit presented itself in the form + of tracing the curve y = [phi](x)/[psi](x) near the ordinate x = a, + when the curves y = [phi](x) and y = [psi](x) both cross the axis of x + at the same point as this ordinate. In fig. 10 PA and QA represent + short arcs of the curves [phi], [psi], chosen so that P and Q have the + same abscissa. The value of the ordinate of the corresponding point R + of the compound curve is given by the ratio of the ordinates PM, QM. + De l'Hospital treated PM and QM as "infinitesimal," so that the + equations PM : AM =[phi]´(a) and QM : AM = [psi]´(a) could be assumed + to hold, and he arrived at the result that the "true value" of + [phi](a)/[psi](a) is [phi]´(a)/[psi]´(a). It can be proved rigorously + that, if [psi]´(x) does not vanish at x = a, while [phi](a) = 0 and + [psi](a) = 0, then + + [phi](x) [phi]´(a) + lim. -------- = ---------. + x=a [psi](x) [psi]´(a) + + It can be proved further if that [phi]^m (x) and [psi]^n (x) are the + differential coefficients of lowest order of [phi](x) and [psi](x) + which do not vanish at x = a, and if m = n, then + + [phi](x) [phi]^n(a) + lim. -------- = ----------. + x=a [psi](x) [psi]^n(a) + + If m > n the limit is zero; but if m < n the function represented by + the quotient [phi](x)/[psi](x) "becomes infinite" at x = a. If the + value of the function at x = a is not assigned by the definition of + the function, the function does not exist at x = a, and the meaning of + the statement that it "becomes infinite" is that it has no finite + limit. The statement does not mean that the function has a value which + we call infinity. There is no such value (see FUNCTION). + + Such indeterminate forms as that described above are said to be of the + form 0/0. Other indeterminate forms are presented in the form 0 × + [oo], or 1^[oo], or [oo]/[oo], or [oo] - [oo]. The most notable of the + forms 1^[oo] is lim.(x=0) (1 + x)^(1/x), which is e. The case in which + [phi](x) and [psi](x) both tend to become infinite at x = a is + reducible to the case in which both the functions tend to become + infinite when x is increased indefinitely. If [phi]´(x) and [psi]´(x) + have determinate finite limits when x is increased indefinitely, while + [phi](x) and [psi](x) are determinately (positively or negatively) + infinite, we have the result expressed by the equation + + [phi](x) lim.x=[oo] [psi]´(x) + lim. -------- = --------------------. + x=[oo] [psi](x) lim.x=[oo] [psi](x) + + For the meaning of the statement that [phi](x) and [psi](x) are + determinately infinite reference may be made to the article FUNCTION. + The evaluation of forms of the type [oo]/[oo] leads to a scale of + increasing "infinities," each being infinite in comparison with the + preceding. Such a scale is + + log x,...x, x²,...x^n,...e^x,...x^x; + + each of the limits expressed by such forms as lim.x=[oo] + [phi](x)/[psi](x), where [phi](x) precedes [psi](x) in the scale, is + zero. The construction of such scales, along with the problem of + constructing a complete scale was discussed in numerous writings by + Paul du Bois-Reymond (see in particular, _Math. Ann._ Bd. xi., 1877). + For the general problem of indeterminate forms reference may be made + to the article by A. Pringsheim in _Ency. d. math. Wiss._ Bd. ii., A. + 1 (1899). Forms of the type 0/0 presented themselves to early writers + on analytical geometry in connexion with the determination of the + tangents at a double point of a curve; forms of the type [oo]/[oo] + presented themselves in like manner in connexion with the + determination of asymptotes of curves. The evaluation of limits has + innumerable applications in all parts of analysis. Cauchy's _Analyse + algébrique_ (1821) was an epoch-making treatise on limits. + + If a function [phi](x) becomes infinite at x = a, and another function + [psi](x) also becomes infinite at x = a in such a way that + [phi](x)/[psi](x) has a finite limit C, we say that [phi](x) and + [psi](x) become "infinite of the same order." We may write [phi](x) = + C[psi](x) + [phi]1(x), where lim. x=a [phi]1(x)/[psi](x) = 0, and thus + [phi]1(x) is of a lower order than [phi](x); it may be finite or + infinite at x = a. If it is finite, we describe C[psi](x) as the + "infinite part" of [phi](x). The resolution of a function which + becomes infinite into an infinite part and a finite part can often be + effected by taking the infinite part to be infinite of the same order + as one of the functions in the scale written above, or in some more + comprehensive scale. This resolution is the inverse of the process of + evaluating an indeterminate form of the type [oo] - [oo]. + + For example lim.x=0 {(e^x - 1)^-1 - x^-1} is finite and equal to = + ½, and the function (e^x - 1)^-1 - x^-1 can be expanded in a power + series in x. + + + Functions of several variables. + + 39. The nature of a function of two or more variables, and the meaning + to be attached to continuity and limits in respect of such functions, + have been explained under FUNCTION. The theorems of differential + calculus which relate to such functions are in general the same + whether the number of variables is two or any greater number, and it + will generally be convenient to state the theorems for two variables. + + + Partial differentiation. + + 40. Let u or [f](x, y) denote a function of two variables x and y. If + we regard y as constant, u or f becomes a function of one variable x, + and we may seek to differentiate it with respect to x. If the function + of x is differentiable, the differential coefficient which is formed + in this way is called the "partial differential coefficient" of u or f + with respect to x, and is denoted by ðu/ðx or ð[f]/ðx. The symbol "ð" + was appropriated for partial differentiation by C. G. J. Jacobi + (1841). It had before been written indifferently with "d" as a symbol + of differentiation. Euler had written (df/dx) for the partial + differential coefficient of f with respect to x. Sometimes it is + desirable to put in evidence the variable which is treated as + constant, and then the partial differential coefficient is written + "(df/dx)_y" or "(ð[f]/ðx)_y". This course is often adopted by writers + on Thermodynamics. Sometimes the symbols d or ð are dropped, and the + partial differential coefficient is denoted by u_x or [f]_x. As a + definition of the partial differential coefficient we have the formula + + ð[f] [f](x + h, y) - f(x, y) + ---- = lim. -----------------------. + ðx h=0 h + + In the same way we may form the partial differential coefficient with + respect to y by treating x as a constant. + + The introduction of partial differential coefficients enables us to + solve at once for a surface a problem analogous to the problem of + tangents for a curve; and it also enables us to take the first step in + the solution of the problem of maxima and minima for a function of + several variables. If the equation of a surface is expressed in the + form z = [f](x, y), the direction cosines of the normal to the surface + at any point are in the ratios ð[f]/ðx : ð[f]/ðy : = 1. If f is a maximum + or a minimum at (x, y), then ð[f]/ðx and ð[f]/ðy vanish at that point. + + In applications of the differential calculus to mathematical physics + we are in general concerned with functions of three variables x, y, z, + which represent the coordinates of a point; and then considerable + importance attaches to partial differential coefficients which are + formed by a particular rule. Let F(x, y, z) be the function, P a point + (x, y, z), P´ a neighbouring point (x + [Delta]x, y + [Delta]y, z + + [Delta]z), and let [Delta]s be the length of PP´. The value of F(x, y, + z) at P may be denoted shortly by F(P). A limit of the same nature as + a partial differential coefficient is expressed by the formula + + F(P´) = F(P) + lim. ------------, + [Delta]s=0 [Delta]s + + in which [Delta]s is diminished indefinitely by bringing P´ up to P, + and P´ is supposed to approach P along a straight line, for example, + the tangent to a curve or the normal to a surface. The limit in + question is denoted by ðF/ðh, in which it is understood that h + indicates a direction, that of PP´. If l, m, n are the direction + cosines of the limiting direction of the line PP´, supposed drawn from + P to P´, then + + ðF ðF ðF ðF + -- = l -- + m -- + n --. + ðh ðx ðy ðz + + The operation of forming ðF/ðh is called "differentiation with respect + to an axis" or "vector differentiation." + + + Theorem of the Total Differential. + + 41. The most important theorem in regard to partial differential + coefficients is the _theorem of the total differential_. We may write + down the equation + + [f](a + h, b + k) - [f](a, b) = [f](a + h, b + k) - [f](a, b + k) + + [f](a, b + k) - [f](a, b). + + If [f]x is a continuous function of x when x lies between a and a + h + and y = b + k, and if further [f]y is a continuous function of y when + y lies between b and d + k, there exist values of [Theta] and [eta] + which lie between 0 and 1 and have the properties expressed by the + equations + + [f](a + h, b + k) - [f](a, b + k) = h[f]_x (a + [Theta]h, b + k), + [f](a, b + k) - [f](a, b) = k[f]_y (a, b + [eta]k). + + Further, [f]x(a + [Theta]h, b + k) and [f]_y (a, b + [eta]k) tend to + the limits [f]_x (a, b) and [f]_y (a, b) when h and k tend to zero, + provided the differential coefficients [f]_x, [f]_y, are continuous + at the point (a, b). Hence in this case the above equation can be + written + + [f](a + h, b + k) - [f](a, b) = h[f]_x (a, b) + k[f]_y (a, b) + R, + + where + + R R + lim. --- = 0 and lim. --- = 0. + h=0, k=0 h h=0, k=0 k + + In accordance with the notation of differentials this equation gives + + ð[f] ðy + d[f] = ---- dx + -- dy. + ðx ðy + + Just as in the case of functions of one variable, dx and dy are + arbitrary finite differences, and d[f] is not the difference of two + values of [f], but is so much of this difference as need be retained + for the purpose of forming differential coefficients. + + The theorem of the total differential is immediately applicable to the + differentiation of _implicit functions_. When y is a function of x + which is given by an equation of the form [f](x, y) = 0, and it is + either impossible or inconvenient to solve this equation so as to + express y as an explicit function of x, the differential coefficient + dy/dx can be formed without solving the equation. We have at once + + dy ð[f] / ðf + -- = - ---- / --. + dx ðx / ðy + + This rule was known, in all essentials, to Fermat and de Sluse before + the invention of the algorithm, of the differential calculus. + + An important theorem, first proved by Euler, is immediately deducible + from the theorem of the total differential. If [f](x, y) is a + homogeneous function of degree n then + + ð[f] ð[f] + x ---- + y ---- = n[f](x, y). + ðx ðy + + The theorem is applicable to functions of any number of variables and + is generally known as _Euler's theorem of homogeneous functions_. + + + Jacobians. + + 42. Many problems in which partial differential coefficients occur are + simplified by the introduction of certain determinants called + "Jacobians" or "functional determinants." They were introduced into + Analysis by C. G. J. Jacobi (_J. f. Math._, Crelle, Bd. 22, 1841, p. + 319). The Jacobian of u1, u2, ... u_n with respect to x1, x2, ... x_n + is the determinant + + | ðu1 ðu1 ðu1 | + | --- --- ... ---- | + | ðx1 ðx2 ðx_n | + | | + | ðu2 ðu2 ðu2 | + | --- --- ... ---- | + | ðx1 ðx2 ðx_n | + | . | + | . | + | . | + | ðu_n ðu_n ðu_n | + | ---- ---- ... ----- | + | ðx1 ðx2 ðx_n | + + in which the constituents of the rth row are the n partial + differential coefficients of u_r, with respect to the n variables x. + This determinant is expressed shortly by + + ð(u1, u2, ..., u_n) + -------------------. + ð(x1, x2, ..., x_n) + + Jacobians possess many properties analogous to those of ordinary + differential coefficients, for example, the following:-- + + ð(u1, u2, ..., u_n) ð(x1, x2, ..., x_n) + ------------------- × ------------------- = 1, + ð(x1, x2, ..., x_n) ð(u1, u2, ..., u_n) + + ð(u1, u2, ..., u_n) ð(y1, y2, ..., y_n) ð(u1, u2, ..., u_n) + ------------------- × ------------------- = -------------------. + ð(y1, y2, ..., y_n) ð(x1, x2, ..., x_n) ð(x1, x2, ..., x_n) + + If n functions (u1, u2, ... u_n) of n variables (x1, x2, ..., x_n) are + not independent, but are connected by a relation [f](u1, u2, ... u_n) + = 0, then + + ð(u1, u2, ..., u_n) + ------------------- = 0; + ð(x1, x2, ..., x_n) + + and, conversely, when this condition is satisfied identically the + functions u1, u2 ..., u_n are not independent. + + + Interchange of order of differentiations. + + 43. Partial differential coefficients of the second and higher orders + can be formed in the same way as those of the first order. For + example, when there are two variables x, y, the first partial + derivatives ð[f]/ðx and ð[f]/ðy are functions of x and y, which we may + seek to differentiate partially with respect to x or y. The most + important theorem in relation to partial differential coefficients of + orders higher than the first is the theorem that the values of such + coefficients do not depend upon the order in which the + differentiations are performed. For example, we have the equation + + ð /ð[f]\ ð /ð[f]\ + -- ( ---- ) = -- ( ---- ) (i.) + ðx \ ðy / ðy \ ðx / + + This theorem is not true without limitation. The conditions for its + validity have been investigated very completely by H. A. Schwarz (see + his _Ges. math. Abhandlungen_, Bd. 2, Berlin, 1890, p. 275). It is a + sufficient, though not a necessary, condition that all the + differential coefficients concerned should be continuous functions of + x, y. In consequence of the relation (i.) the differential + coefficients expressed in the two members of this relation are written + + ð²f ð²f + ---- or ----. + ðxðy ðyðx + + The differential coefficient + + ð^_n [f] + --------------, + ðx^p ðy^q ðz^r + + in which p + g + r = n, is formed by differentiating p times with + respect to x, q times with respect to y, r times with respect to z, + the differentiations being performed in any order. Abbreviated + notations are sometimes used in such forms as + + (p, q, r) + [f] or [f] . + x^p y^q z^r x, y, z + + _Differentials_ of higher orders are introduced by the defining + equation + + / ð ð \ n + d^n [f] = ( dx -- + dy -- ) [f] + \ ðx ðy/ + + ð^n [f] ð^n [f] + = (dx)^n ------- + n(dx)^(n-1) dy ----------- + ... + ðx^n ðx^(n-1) ðy + + in which the expression (dx·ð/ðx + dy·ð/ðy)^n is developed by the + binomial theorem in the same way as if dx·ð/ðx and dy·ð/ðy were + numbers, and (ð/ðx)^r·(ð/ðy)^(n-r) [f] is replaced by ð^n [f]/[ðx^r + ðy^(n-r)]. When there are more than two variables the multinomial + theorem must be used instead of the binomial theorem. + + The problem of forming the second and higher differential coefficients + of _implicit functions_ can be solved at once by means of partial + differential coefficients, for example, if [f](x, y) = 0 is the + equation defining y as a function of x, we have + _ _ + d²y /ð[f]\ -3 | /ð[f]\² ð²[f] ð[f] ð[f] ð²[f] /ð[f]\² ð²[f] | + --- = ( ---- ) | ( ---- ) ----- - 2 ---- · ---- · ----- + ( ---- ) ----- |. + dx² \ ðy / |_ \ ðy / ðx² ðx ðy ðxðy \ ðx / ðy² _| + + The differential expression Xdx + Ydy, in which both X and Y are + functions of the two variables x and y, is a _total differential_ if + there exists a function [f] of x and y which is such that + + ð[f]/ðx = X, ð[f]/ðy = Y. + + When this is the case we have the relation + + ðY/ðx = ðX/ðy. (ii.) + + Conversely, when this equation is satisfied there exists a function + [f] which is such that + + d[f] = Xdx + Ydy. + + The expression Xdx + Ydy in which X and Y are connected by the + relation (ii.) is often described as a "perfect differential." The + theory of the perfect differential can be extended to functions of n + variables, and in this case there are ½n(n - 1) such relations as + (ii.). + + In the case of a function of two variables x, y an abbreviated + notation is often adopted for differential coefficients. The function + being denoted by z, we write + + ðz ðz ð²z ð²z ð²z + p, q, r, s, t for --, --, ---, ----, ---. + ðx ðy ðx² ðxðy ðy² + + Partial differential coefficients of the second order are important in + geometry as expressing the curvature of surfaces. When a surface is + given by an equation of the form z = [f](x, y), the lines of curvature + are determined by the equation + + {(l + q²)s - pqt} (dy)² + {(1 + q²)r - (1 + p²)t} dx dy + - {(1 + p²)s - pqr} (dx)² = 0, + + and the principal radii of curvature are the values of R which satisfy + the equation + + R²(rt - s²) - R{(1 + q²)r - 2pqs + (1 + p²)t} [root](1 + p² + q²) + + (1 + p² + q²)² = 0. + + + Change of variables. + + 44. The problem of change of variables was first considered by Brook + Taylor in his _Methodus incrementorum_. In the case considered by + Taylor y is expressed as a function of z, and z as a function of x, + and it is desired to express the differential coefficients of y with + respect to x without eliminating z. The result can be obtained at once + by the rules for differentiating a product and a function of a + function. We have + + dy dy dz + -- = -- · --, + dx dz dx + + d²y dy d²z d²y /dz\² + --- = -- · --- + --- · ( -- ), + dx² dz dx² dz² \dx/ + + d³y dy d³z, d²y dz d²z, d³y /dz\³ + --- = -- · --- + 3 --- · -- · --- + --- · ( -- ) , + dx³ dz dx³ dz² dx dx² dz³ \dx/ + + . . . . . . . + + The introduction of partial differential coefficients enables us to + deal with more general cases of change of variables than that + considered above. If u, v are new variables, and x, y are connected + with them by equations of the type + + x = [f]1(u, v), y = [f]2(u, v), (i.) + + while y is either an explicit or an implicit function of x, we have + the problem of expressing the differential coefficients of various + orders of y with respect to x in terms of the differential + coefficients of v with respect to u. We have + + dy /ð[f]2 ð[f]2 dv \ / /ð[f]1 ð[f]1 dv \ + -- = ( ----- + ----- -- ) / ( ----- + ----- -- ) + dx \ ðu ðv du / / \ ðu ðv du / + + + by the rule of the total differential. In the same way, by means of + differentials of higher orders, we may express d²y/dx², and so on. + + Equations such as (i.) may be interpreted as effecting a + _transformation_ by which a point (u, v) is made to correspond to a + point (x, y). The whole theory of transformations, and of functions, + or differential expressions, which remain invariant under groups of + transformations, has been studied exhaustively by Sophus Lie (see, in + particular, his _Theorie der Transformationsgruppen_, Leipzig, + 1888-1893). (See also DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS and GROUPS). + + A more general problem of change of variables is presented when it is + desired to express the partial differential coefficients of a function + V with respect to x, y, ... in terms of those with respect to u, v, + ..., where u, v, ... are connected with x, y, ... by any functional + relations. When there are two variables x, y, and u, v are given + functions of x, y, we have + + ðV ðV ðu ðV ðv + -- = -- -- + -- --, + ðx ðu ðx ðv ðx + + ðV ðV ðu ðV ðv + -- = -- -- + -- --, + ðy ðu ðy ðv ðy + + and the differential coefficients of higher orders are to be formed by + repeated applications of the rule for differentiating a product and + the rules of the type + + ð ðu ð ðv ð + -- = -- -- + -- --. + ðx ðx ðu ðx ðx + + When x, y are given functions of u, v, ... we have, instead of the + above, such equations as + + ðV ðV ðx ðV ðy + -- = -- -- + -- --; + ðu ðx ðu ðy ðu + + and ðV/ðx, ðV/ðy can be found by solving these equations, provided the + Jacobian ð(x, y) / ð(u, v) is not zero. The generalization of this + method for the case of more than two variables need not detain us. + + In cases like that here considered it is sometimes more convenient not + to regard the equations connecting x, y with u, v as effecting a point + transformation, but to consider the loci u = const., v = const. as two + "families" of curves. Then in any region of the plane of (x, y) in + which the Jacobian ð(x, y) / d(u, v) does not vanish or become + infinite, any point (x, y) is uniquely determined by the values of u + and v which belong to the curves of the two families that pass through + the point. Such variables as u, v are then described as "curvilinear + coordinates" of the point. This method is applicable to any number of + variables. When the loci u = const., ... intersect each other at right + angles, the variables are "orthogonal" curvilinear coordinates. + Three-dimensional systems of such coordinates have important + applications in mathematical physics. Reference may be made to G. + Lamé, _Leçons sur les coordonnées curvilignes_ (Paris, 1859), and to + G. Darboux, _Leçons sur les coordonnées curvilignes et systèmes + orthogonaux_ (Paris, 1898). + + When such a coordinate as u is connected with x and y by a functional + relation of the form [f](x, y, u) = 0 the curves u = const. are a + family of curves, and this family may be such that no two curves of + the family have a common point. When this is not the case the points + in which a curve [f](x, y, u) = 0 is intersected by a curve [f](x, y, + u + [Delta]u) = 0 tend to limiting positions as [Delta]u is diminished + indefinitely. The locus of these limiting positions is the "envelope" + of the family, and in general it touches all the curves of the family. + It is easy to see that, if u, v are the parameters of two families of + curves which have envelopes, the Jacobian ð(x, y) / ð(u, v) vanishes + at all points on these envelopes. It is easy to see also that at any + point where the reciprocal Jacobian ð(u, v) / ð(x, y) vanishes, a + curve of the family u touches a curve of the family v. + + If three variables x, y, z are connected by a functional relation + [f](x, y, z) = 0, one of them, z say, may be regarded as an _implicit + function_ of the other two, and the partial differential coefficients + of z with respect to x and y can be formed by the rule of the total + differential. We have + + ðz ð[f] / ð[f] ðz ð[f] / ð[f] + -- = - ---- / ----, -- = - ---- / ----; + ðx ðx / ðz ðy ðy / ðz + + and there is no difficulty in proceeding to express the higher + differential coefficients. There arises the problem of expressing the + partial differential coefficients of x with respect to y and z in + terms of those of z with respect to x and y. The problem is known as + that of "changing the dependent variable." It is solved by applying + the rule of the total differential. Similar considerations are + applicable to all cases in which n variables are connected by fewer + than n equations. + + + Extension of Taylor's theorem. + + 45. Taylor's theorem can be extended to functions of several + variables. In the case of two variables the general formula, with a + remainder after n terms, can be written most simply in the form + + [f](a + h, b + k) = [f](a, b) + d[f](a, b) + (1/2!) d²[f](a, b) + ... + + 1 1 + + -------- d^(n-1) [f](a, b) + -- d^n [f](a+[Theta]h, b + [theta]k), + (n - 1)! n! + + in which + _ _ + | / ð ð \r | + d^r [f](a, b) = | ( h -- + k -- ) [f](x, y) | , + |_ \ ðx ðy / _| x=a, y=b + + and + + d^n [f](a + [Theta]h, b + [Theta]k) = + _ _ + | / ð ð \n | + | ( h -- + k -- ) [f](x, y) |. + |_ \ ðx ðy/ _| x=a+[Theta]h, y=b+[Theta]k + + The last expression is the remainder after n terms, and in it [Theta] + denotes some particular number between 0 and 1. The results for three + or more variables can be written in the same form. The extension of + Taylor's theorem was given by Lagrange (1797); the form written above + is due to Cauchy (1823). For the validity of the theorem in this form + it is necessary that all the differential coefficients up to the nth + should be continuous in a region bounded by x = a ± h, y = b ± k. When + all the differential coefficients, no matter how high the order, are + continuous in such a region, the theorem leads to an expansion of the + function in a multiple power series. Such expansions are just as + important in analysis, geometry and mechanics as expansions of + functions of one variable. Among the problems which are solved by + means of such expansions are the problem of maxima and minima for + functions of more than one variable (see MAXIMA and MINIMA). + + + Plane curves. + + 46. In treatises on the differential calculus much space is usually + devoted to the differential geometry of curves and surfaces. A few + remarks and results relating to the differential geometry of plane + curves are set down here. + + (i.) If [psi] denotes the angle which the radius vector drawn from the + origin makes with the tangent to a curve at a point whose polar + coordinates are r, [Theta] and if p denotes the perpendicular from the + origin to the tangent, then + + cos [psi] = dr/ds, sin [psi] = r d[Theta]/ds = p/r, + + where ds denotes the element of arc. The curve may be determined by an + equation connecting p with r. + + (ii.) The locus of the foot of the perpendicular let fall from the + origin upon the tangent to a curve at a point is called the _pedal_ of + the curve with respect to the origin. The angle [psi] for the pedal is + the same as the angle [psi] for the curve. Hence the (p, r) equation + of the pedal can be deduced. If the pedal is regarded as the primary + curve, the curve of which it is the pedal is the "negative pedal" of + the primary. We may have pedals of pedals and so on, also negative + pedals of negative pedals and so on. Negative pedals are usually + determined as envelopes. + + (iii.) If [phi] denotes the angle which the tangent at any point makes + with a fixed line, we have + + r² = p² + (dp/d[phi])². + + (iv.) The "average curvature" of the arc [Delta]s of a curve between + two points is measured by the quotient + + | [Delta][phi] | + | ------------ | + | [Delta]s | + + where the upright lines denote, as usual, that the absolute value of + the included expression is to be taken, and [phi] is the angle which + the tangent makes with a fixed line, so that [Delta][phi] is the angle + between the tangents (or normals) at the points. As one of the points + moves up to coincidence with the other this average curvature tends to + a limit which is the "curvature" of the curve at the point. It is + denoted by + + | d[phi] | + | ------ | + | ds | + + Sometimes the upright lines are omitted and a rule of signs is + given:--Let the arc s of the curve be measured from some point along + the curve in a chosen sense, and let the normal be drawn towards that + side to which the curve is concave; if the normal is directed towards + the left of an observer looking along the tangent in the chosen sense + of description the curvature is reckoned positive, in the contrary + case negative. The differential d[phi] is often called the "angle of + contingence." In the 14th century the size of the angle between a + curve and its tangent seems to have been seriously debated, and the + name "angle of contingence" was then given to the supposed angle. + + (v.) The curvature of a curve at a point is the same as that of a + certain circle which touches the curve at the point, and the "radius + of curvature" [rho] is the radius of this circle. We have 1/[rho] = + |d[phi]/ds|. The centre of the circle is called the "centre of + curvature"; it is the limiting position of the point of intersection + of the normal at the point and the normal at a neighbouring point, + when the second point moves up to coincidence with the first. If a + circle is described to intersect the curve at the point P and at two + other points, and one of these two points is moved up to coincidence + with P, the circle touches the curve at the point P and meets it in + another point; the centre of the circle is then on the normal. As the + third point now moves up to coincidence with P, the centre of the + circle moves to the centre of curvature. The circle is then said to + "osculate" the curve, or to have "contact of the second order" with it + at P. + + (vi.) The following are formulae for the radius of curvature:-- + + 1 | { /dy\² }-3/2 d²y | + ----- = | { 1 + ( -- ) } --- |, + [rho] | { \dx/ } dx² | + + | dr | | d²p | + [rho] = | r -- | = | p + ------- |. + | dp | | d[phi]² | + + (vii.) The points at which the curvature vanishes are "points of + inflection." If P is a point of inflection and Q a neighbouring point, + then, as Q moves up to coincidence with P, the distance from P to the + point of intersection of the normals at P and Q becomes greater than + any distance that can be assigned. The equation which gives the + abscissae of the points in which a straight line meets the curve being + expressed in the form [f](x) = 0, the function [f](x) has a factor (x + - x0)³, where x0 is the abscissa of the point of inflection P, and the + line is the tangent at P. When the factor (x - x0) occurs (n + 1) + times in [f](x), the curve is said to have "contact of the nth order" + with the line. There is an obvious modification when the line is + parallel to the axis of y. + + (viii.) The locus of the centres of curvature, or envelope of the + normals, of a curve is called the "evolute." A curve which has a given + curve as evolute is called an "involute" of the given curve. All the + involutes are "parallel" curves, that is to say, they are such that + one is derived from another by marking off a constant distance along + the normal. The involutes are "orthogonal trajectories" of the + tangents to the common evolute. + + (ix.) The equation of an algebraic curve of the nth degree can be + expressed in the form u0 + u1 + u2 + ... + u_n = 0, where u0 is a + constant, and u_r is a homogeneous rational integral function of x, y + of the rth degree. When the origin is on the curve, u0 vanishes, and + u1 = 0 represents the tangent at the origin. If u1 also vanishes, the + origin is a double point and u2 = o represents the tangents at the + origin. If u2 has distinct factors, or is of the form a(y - p1x)(y - + p2x), the value of y on either branch of the curve can be expressed + (for points sufficiently near the origin) in a power series, which is + either + + p1x + ½ q1x² + ..., or p2x + ½ q2X² + ..., + + where q1, ... and q2, ... are determined without ambiguity. If p1 and + p2 are real the two branches have radii of curvature [rho]1, [rho]2 + determined by the formulae + + 1 | | 1 | | + ------ = |(1 + p1²)^{-3/2} q1 |, ------ = |(1 + p2²)^{-3/2} q2 |. + [rho]1 | | [rho]2 | | + + When p1 and p2 are imaginary the origin is the real point of + intersection of two imaginary branches. In the real figure of the + curve it is an _isolated point_. If u2 is a square, a(y - px)², the + origin is a _cusp_, and in general there is not a series for y in + integral powers of x, which is valid in the neighbourhood of the + origin. The further investigation of cusps and multiple points belongs + rather to analytical geometry and the theory of algebraic functions + than to differential calculus. + + (x.) When the equation of a curve is given in the form u0 + u1 + ... + + u_(n-1) + u_n = 0 where the notation is the same as that in (ix.), the + factors of u_n determine the directions of the _asymptotes_. If these + factors are all real and distinct, there is an asymptote corresponding + to each factor. If u_n = L1 L2 ... L_n, where L1, ... are linear in x, + y, we may resolve u_(n-1)/u_n into partial fractions according to the + formula + + u_(n-1) A1 A2 A_n + ------- = -- + -- + ... + ---, + u{n} L1 L2 L_n + + and then L1 + A1 = 0, L2 + A2 = 0, ... are the equations of the + asymptotes. When a real factor of u_n is repeated we may have two + parallel asymptotes or we may have a "parabolic asymptote." Sometimes + the parallel asymptotes coincide, as in the curve x²(x² + y² - a²) = + a^4, where x = 0 is the only real asymptote. The whole theory of + asymptotes belongs properly to analytical geometry and the theory of + algebraic functions. + + + Integral calculus. + + 47. The formal definition of an integral, the theorem of the existence + of the integral for certain classes of functions, a list of classes of + "integrable" functions, extensions of the notion of integration to + functions which become infinite or indeterminate, and to cases in + which the limits of integration become infinite, the definitions of + multiple integrals, and the possibility of defining functions by means + of definite integrals--all these matters have been considered in + FUNCTION. The definition of integration has been explained in § 5 + above, and the results of some of the simplest integrations have been + given in § 12. A few theorems relating to integrations have been noted + in §§ 34, 35, 36 above. + + + Methods of integration. + + 48. The chief methods for the evaluation of indefinite integrals are + the method of integration by parts, and the introduction of new + variables. + + From the equation d(uv) = udv + vdu we deduce the equation + _ _ + / dv / du + | u -- dx = uv - | v -- dx, + _/ dx _/ dx + + or, as it may be written + _ _ _ _ + / / / du / / \ + | uw dx = u | w dx - | -- ( | w dx ) dx. + _/ _/ _/ dx \ _/ / + + This is the rule of "integration by parts." + + As an example we have + _ _ + / e^(ax) / e^(ax) / x 1 \ + | xe^(ax) dx = x ------ - | ------ dx = ( --- - -- ) e^(ax). + _/ a _/ a \ a a² / + + When we introduce a new variable z in place of x, by means of an + equation giving x in terms of z, we express [f](x) in terms of z. Let + [phi](z) denote the function of z into which [f](x) is transformed. + Then from the equation + + dx + dx = -- dz + dz + + we deduce the equation + _ _ + / / dx + | [f](x) dx = | [phi](z) -- dz. + _/ _/ dz + + As an example, in the integral + _ + / + | [root](1 - x²) dx + _/ + + put x = sin z; the integral becomes + + _ _ + / / + | cos z · cos zdz = | ½(1 + cos 2z)dz = ½(z + ½ sin 2z) = ½(z + sin z cos z). + _/ _/ + + + Integration in terms of elementary functions. + + 49. The indefinite integrals of certain classes of functions can be + expressed by means of a finite number of operations of addition or + multiplication in terms of the so-called "elementary" functions. The + elementary functions are rational algebraic functions, implicit + algebraic functions, exponentials and logarithms, trigonometrical and + inverse circular functions. The following are among the classes of + functions whose integrals involve the elementary functions only: (i.) + all rational functions; (ii.) all irrational functions of the form + [f](x, y), where [f] denotes a rational algebraic function of x and y, + and y is connected with x by an algebraic equation of the second + degree; (iii.) all rational functions of sin x and cos x; (iv.) all + rational functions of e^x; (v.) all rational integral functions of the + variables x, e^(ax), e^(bx), ... sin mx, cos mx, sin nx, cos nx, ... + in which a, b, ... and m, n, ... are any constants. The integration of + a rational function is generally effected by resolving the function + into partial fractions, the function being first expressed as the + quotient of two rational integral functions. Corresponding to any + simple root of the denominator there is a logarithmic term in the + integral. If any of the roots of the denominator are repeated there + are rational algebraic terms in the integral. The operation of + resolving a fraction into partial fractions requires a knowledge of + the roots of the denominator, but the algebraic part of the integral + can always be found without obtaining all the roots of the + denominator. Reference may be made to C. Hermite, _Cours d'analyse_, + Paris, 1873. The integration of other functions, which can be + integrated in terms of the elementary functions, can usually be + effected by transforming the functions into rational functions, + possibly after preliminary integrations by parts. In the case of + rational functions of x and a radical of the form [root](ax² + bx + c) + the radical can be reduced by a linear substitution to one of the + forms [root](a² - x²), [root](x² - a²), [root](x² + a²). The + substitutions x = a sin [theta], x = a sec [theta], x = a tan [theta] + are then effective in the three cases. By these substitutions the + subject of integration becomes a rational function of sin [theta] and + cos [theta], and it can be reduced to a rational function of t by the + substitution tan ½[theta] = t. There are many other substitutions by + which such integrals can be determined. Sometimes we may have + information as to the functional character of the integral without + being able to determine it. For example, when the subject of + integration is of the form (ax^4 + bx³ + cx² + dx + e)^-½ the integral + cannot be expressed explicitly in terms of elementary functions. Such + integrals lead to new functions (see FUNCTION). + + Methods of reduction and substitution for the evaluation of indefinite + integrals occupy a considerable space in text-books of the integral + calculus. In regard to the functional character of the integral + reference may be made to G. H. Hardy's tract, _The Integration of + Functions of a Single Variable_ (Cambridge, 1905), and to the memoirs + there quoted. A few results are added here + _ + / + (i.) | (x² + a) - ½ dx = log {x + (x² + a)^½ }. + _/ + _ + / dx + (ii.) | ----------------------------- + _/ (x - p) [root](ax² + 2bx + c) + + can be evaluated by the substitution x - p = 1/z, and + _ + / dx + | --------------------------------- + _/ (x - p)^{n} [root](ax² + 2bx + c) + + can be deduced by differentiating (n - 1) times with respect to p. + _ + / (Hx + K)dx + (iii.) | ------------------------------------------------------ + _/ ([alpha]x² + 2[beta]x + [gamma]) [root](ax² + 2bx + c) + + can be reduced by the substitution y² = (ax² + 2bx + c)/([alpha]x² + + 2[beta]x + [gamma]) to the form + _ _ + / dy / dy + A | ---------------------- + B | ---------------------- + _/ [root]([lambda]1 - y²) _/ [root](y² - [lambda]2) + + where A and B are constants, and [lambda]1 and [lambda]2 are the two + values of [lambda] for which (a - [lambda][alpha])x² + 2(b - + [lambda][beta])x + c - [lambda][gamma] is a perfect square (see A. G. + Greenhill, _A Chapter in the Integral Calculus_, London, 1888). + + (iv.) [f]x^m (ax^n + b)^p dx, in which m, n, p are rational, can be + reduced, by putting ax^n = bt, to depend upon [f]t^q (1 + t)^p dt. If + p is an integer and q a fraction r/s, we put t = u^s. If q is an + integer and p = r/s we put 1 + t = u^s. If p + q is an integer and p = + r/s we put 1 + t = tu^s. These integrals, called "binomial integrals," + were investigated by Newton (_De quadratura curvarum_). + _ _ + / dx x / dx + (v.) | ----- = log tan ---, (vi.) | ----- = log (tan x + sec x). + _/ sin x 2 _/ cos x + + (vii.) [f] e^(ax) sin (bx + [alpha]) dx = (a² + b²)^-1 e^(ax){a sin + (bx + [alpha]) - b cos (bx + [alpha])}. + + (viii.) [f] sin^m x cos^n x dx can be reduced by differentiating a + function of the form sin^p x cos^q x; + + d sin x 1 q sin² x 1 - q q + e.g. -- ------- = ----------- + ----------- = ----------- + -----------. + dx cos^q x cos^(q-1) x cos^(q+1) x cos^(q-1) x cos^(q+1) x + + Hence + _ _ + / dx sin x n - 2 / dx + | ------- = ------------------- + ----- | -----------. + _/ cos^n x (n - 1) cos^(n-1) x n - 1 _/ cos^(n-2) x + _ _ + / ½[pi] / ½[pi] + (ix.) | sin^(2n) x dx = | cos^(2n) x dx = + _/ 0 _/ 0 + + 1·3 ... (2n - 1) [pi] + ---------------- · ----, (n an integer). + 2·4 ... 2n 2 + _ _ + / ½[pi] / ½[pi] + (x.) | sin^(2n+1) x dx = | cos^(2n+1) x dx = + _/ 0 _/ 0 + + 2·4 ... (2n) + --------------, (n an integer). + 3·5 ... (2n+1) + _ + / dx + (xi.) | --------------- can be reduced by one of the substitutions + _/ (1 + e cos x)^n + + e + cos x e + cos x + cos [phi] = -----------, cosh u = -----------, + 1 + e cos x 1 + e cos x + + of which the first or the second is to be employed according as e < or > 1. + + + New transcendents. + + 50. Among the integrals of transcendental functions which lead to new + transcendental functions we may notice + _ _ + / x dx / log x e^z + | ----- or | --- dz, + _/ 0 log x´ _/ -x z + + called the "logarithmic integral," and denoted by "Li x," also the + integrals + _ _ + / x sin x / x cos x + | ----- dx and | ----- dx, + _/ 0 x _/ [oo] x + + called the "sine integral" and the "cosine integral," and denoted by + "Si x" and "Ci x," also the integral + _ + / x + | e^-x² dx + _/ 0 + + called the "error-function integral," and denoted by "Erf x." All + these functions have been tabulated (see TABLES, MATHEMATICAL). + + + Eulerian integrals. + + 51. New functions can be introduced also by means of the definite + integrals of functions of two or more variables with respect to one of + the variables, the limits of integration being fixed. Prominent among + such functions are the Beta and Gamma functions expressed by the + equations + _ + / 1 + B(l, m) = | x^(l-1) (1 - x)^(m-1) dx, + _/ 0 + _ + / [oo] + [Gamma](n) = | e^-t t^(n-1) dt. + _/ 0 + + When n is a positive integer [Gamma](n + 1) = n!. The Beta function + (or "Eulerian integral of the first kind") is expressible in terms of + Gamma functions (or "Eulerian integrals of the second kind") by the + formula + + B(l, m)·[Gamma](l+m) = [Gamma](l)·[Gamma](m). + + The Gamma function satisfies the difference equation + + [Gamma](x + 1) = x [Gamma](x), + + and also the equation + + [Gamma](x)·[Gamma](1-x) = [pi]/sin (x[pi]), + + with the particular result + + [Gamma](½)= [root][pi]. + + The number + _ _ + | d | + - | -- {log [Gamma](1 + x)} | , or -[Gamma]´(1), + |_ dx _|x=0 + + is called "Euler's constant," and is equal to the limit + _ _ + | / \ | + lim. | ( 1 + ½ + 1/3 + ... + 1/n ) - log n |; + n=[oo] |_ \ / _| + + its value to 15 decimal places is 0.577 215 664 901 532. + + The function log [Gamma](1 + x) can be expanded in the series + + / x[pi] \ + log [Gamma](1 + x) = ½ log ( --------- ) + \ sin x[pi] / + 1 + x + - ½ log ----- + {1 + [Gamma]´(1)} x + 1 - x + + - 1/3 (S3 - 1)x³ - 1/5 (S5 - 1)x^5 - ..., + + where + + 1 1 + S_(2r+1) = 1 + -------- + -------- + ..., + 2^(2r+1) 3^(2r+1) + + and the series for log [Gamma](1 + x) converges when x lies between - + 1 and 1. + + + Definite integrals. + + 52. Definite integrals can sometimes be evaluated when the limits of + integration are some particular numbers, although the corresponding + indefinite integrals cannot be found. For example, we have the result + _ + / 1 + | (1 - x²)^-½ log x dx = -½ [pi] log 2, + _/ 0 + + although the indefinite integral of (1 - x²)^-½ log x cannot be found. + Numbers of definite integrals are expressible in terms of the + transcendental functions mentioned in § 50 or in terms of Gamma + functions. For the calculation of definite integrals we have the + following methods:-- + + (i.) Differentiation with respect to a parameter. + (ii.) Integration with respect to a parameter. + (iii.) Expansion in infinite series and integration term by term. + (iv.) Contour integration. + + The first three methods involve an interchange of the order of two + limiting operations, and they are valid only when the functions + satisfy certain conditions of continuity, or, in case the limits of + integration are infinite, when the functions tend to zero at infinite + distances in a sufficiently high order (see FUNCTION). The method of + contour integration involves the introduction of complex variables + (see FUNCTION: § _Complex Variables_). + + A few results are added + _ + / [oo] x^(a-1) [pi] + (i.) | ------- dx = ---------, (1 > a > 0), + _/ 0 1 + x sin a[pi] + + _ + / [oo] x^(a-1) - x^(b-1) + (ii.) | ----------------- dx = [pi](cot a[pi] - cot b[pi]), (0 < a or b < 1), + _/ 0 1 - x + + _ + / [oo] x^(a-1) log x [pi]² + (iii.) | ------------ dx = ----------, (a > 1), + _/ 0 x - 1 sin² a[pi] + + _ + / [oo] + (iv.) | x²·cos 2x·e^-x² dx = -¼ e^-1 [root][pi], + _/ 0 + + _ + / 1 1 - x² dx [pi] + (v.) | ------- ----- = log tan ----, + _/ 0 1 + x^4 log x 8 + + _ + / [oo] sin mx / 1 1 1 \ + (vi.) | -------------- dx = ½ ( ------- - --- + --- ), + _/ 0 e^(2[pi]x) - 1 \ e^m - 1 m 2 / + + _ + / [pi] + (vii.) | log(1 - 2[alpha] cos x + [alpha]²) dx = 0 + _/ 0 + + or 2[pi]log [alpha] according as [alpha] < or > 1, + _ + / [oo] sin x + (viii.) | ----- dx = ½[pi], + _/ 0 x + + _ + / [oo] cos ax + (ix.) | ------- dx = ½[pi]b^-1 e^(-ab), + _/ 0 x² + b² + + _ + / [oo] cos ax - cos bx + (x.) | --------------- dx = ½[pi](b - a), + _/ 0 x² + + _ + / [oo] cos ax - cos bx b + (xi.) | --------------- dx = log ---, + _/ 0 x a + + _ + / [oo] cos x - e ^(-mx) + (xii.) | ---------------- dx = log m, + _/ 0 x + + _ + / [oo] + (xiii.) | e^(-x²+2ax) dx = [root][pi].e^(a2), + _/ -[oo] + + _ _ + / [oo] / [oo] + (xiv.) | x^-½ sin x dx = | x^-½ cos x dx = [root](½[pi]), + _/ 0 _/ 0 + + + Multiple Integrals. + + 53. The meaning of integration of a function of n variables through a + domain of the same number of dimensions is explained in the article + FUNCTION. In the case of two variables x, y we integrate a function + [f](x, y) over an area; in the case of three variables x, y, z we + integrate a function [f](x, y, z) through a volume. The integral of a + function [f](x, y) over an area in the plane of (x, y) is denoted by + _ _ + / / + | | [f](x, y) dx dy. + _/_/ + + The notation refers to a method of evaluating the integral. We may + suppose the area divided into a very large number of very small + rectangles by lines parallel to the axes. Then we multiply the value + of [f] at any point within a rectangle by the measure of the area of + the rectangle, sum for all the rectangles, and pass to a limit by + increasing the number of rectangles indefinitely and diminishing all + their sides indefinitely. The process is usually effected by summing + first for all the rectangles which lie in a strip between two lines + parallel to one axis, say the axis of y, and afterwards for all the + strips. This process is equivalent to integrating [f](x, y) with + respect to y, keeping x constant, and taking certain functions of x as + the limits of integration for y, and then integrating the result with + respect to x between constant limits. The integral obtained in this + way may be written in such a form as + _ _ + / b { / [f]2(x) } + | dx { | [f](x, y) dy }, + _/ a { _/ [f]1(x) } + + and is called a "repeated integral." The identification of a surface + integral, such as [int][int][f](x, y)dxdy, with a repeated integral + cannot always be made, but implies that the function satisfies certain + conditions of continuity. In the same way volume integrals are usually + evaluated by regarding them as repeated integrals, and a volume + integral is written in the form + _ _ _ + / / / + | | | [f](x, y, z) dx dy dz. + _/_/_/ + + Integrals such as surface and volume integrals are usually called + "multiple integrals." Thus we have "double" integrals, "triple" + integrals, and so on. In contradistinction to multiple integrals the + ordinary integral of a function of one variable with respect to that + variable is called a "simple integral." + + + Surface Integrals. + + A more general type of surface integral may be defined by taking an + arbitrary surface, with or without an edge. We suppose in the first + place that the surface is closed, or has no edge. We may mark a large + number of points on the surface, and draw the tangent planes at all + these points. These tangent planes form a polyhedron having a large + number of faces, one to each marked point; and we may choose the + marked points so that all the linear dimensions of any face are less + than some arbitrarily chosen length. We may devise a rule for + increasing the number of marked points indefinitely and decreasing the + lengths of all the edges of the polyhedra indefinitely. If the sum of + the areas of the faces tends to a limit, this limit is the area of the + surface. If we multiply the value of a function [f] at a point of the + surface by the measure of the area of the corresponding face of the + polyhedron, sum for all the faces, and pass to a limit as before, the + result is a surface integral, and is written + _ _ + / / + | | [f] dS. + _/_/ + + + Line Integrals. + + The extension to the case of an open surface bounded by an edge + presents no difficulty. A line integral taken along a curve is defined + in a similar way, and is written + _ + / + | [f] ds + _/ + + where ds is the element of arc of the curve (§ 33). The direction + cosines of the tangent of a curve are dx/ds, dy/ds, dz/ds, and line + integrals usually present themselves in the form + _ _ + / / dx dy dz \ / + | ( u -- + v -- + w -- ) ds or | (u dx + v dy + w dz). + _/ \ ds ds ds / _/ s + + In like manner surface integrals usually present themselves in the + form + _ _ + / / + | | (l[xi] + m[eta] + n[zeta]) dS + _/_/ + + where l, m, n are the direction cosines of the normal to the surface + drawn in a specified sense. + + The area of a bounded portion of the plane of (x, y) may be expressed + either as + _ + / + ½ | (x dy - y dx), + _/ + + or as + _ _ + / / + | | dx dy, + _/_/ + + the former integral being a line integral taken round the boundary of + the portion, and the latter a surface integral taken over the area + within this boundary. In forming the line integral the boundary is + supposed to be described in the positive sense, so that the included + area is on the left hand. + + + Theorems of Green and Stokes. + + 53_a_. We have two theorems of transformation connecting volume + integrals with surface integrals and surface integrals with line + integrals. The first theorem, called "Green's theorem," is expressed + by the equation + _ _ _ _ _ + / / / / ð[xi] ð[eta] ð[zeta]\ / / + | | | ( ----- + ------ + ------- )dx dy dz = | | (l[xi] + m[eta] + n[zeta]) dS, + _/_/_/ \ ðx ðy ðz / _/_/ + + where the volume integral on the left is taken through the volume + within a closed surface S, and the surface integral on the right is + taken over S, and l, m, n denote the direction cosines of the normal + to S drawn outwards. There is a corresponding theorem for a closed + curve in two dimensions, viz., + _ _ _ + / / / ð[xi] ð[eta]\ / / dy dx \ + | | ( ----- + ------ ) dx dy = | ( [xi] -- - [eta] -- ) ds, + _/_/ \ ðx ðy / _/ \ ds ds / + + the sense of description of s being the positive sense. This theorem + is a particular case of a more general theorem called "Stokes's + theorem." Let s denote the edge of an open surface S, and let S be + covered with a network of curves so that the meshes of the network are + nearly plane, then we can choose a sense of description of the edge of + any mesh, and a corresponding sense for the normal to S at any point + within the mesh, so that these senses are related like the directions + of rotation and translation in a right-handed screw. This convention + fixes the sense of the normal (l, m, n) at any point on S when the + sense of description of s is chosen. If the axes of x, y, z are a + right-handed system, we have Stokes's theorem in the form + _ _ _ + / / / { /ðw ðv\ /ðu ðw\ /ðv ðu\ } + | (u dx + v dy + w dz) = | | { l( -- - -- ) + m( -- - -- ) + n( -- - -- ) }dS, + _/ s _/_/ { \ðy ðz/ \ðz ðx/ \ðx ðy/ } + + where the integral on the left is taken round the curve s in the + chosen sense. When the axes are left-handed, we may either reverse the + sense of l, m, n and maintain the formula, or retain the sense of l, + m, n and change the sign of the right-hand member of the equation. For + the validity of the theorems of Green and Stokes it is in general + necessary that the functions involved should satisfy certain + conditions of continuity. For example, in Green's theorem the + differential coefficients ð[xi]/ðx, ð[eta]/ðy, ð[zeta]/ðz must be + continuous within S. Further, there are restrictions upon the nature + of the curves or surfaces involved. For example, Green's theorem, as + here stated, applies only to simply-connected regions of space. The + correction for multiply-connected regions is important in several + physical theories. + + + Change of Variables in a Multiple Integral. + + 54. The process of changing the variables in a multiple integral, such + as a surface or volume integral, is divisible into two stages. It is + necessary in the first place to determine the differential element + expressed by the product of the differentials of the first set of + variables in terms of the differentials of the second set of + variables. It is necessary in the second place to determine the limits + of integration which must be employed when the integral in terms of + the new variables is evaluated as a repeated integral. The first part + of the problem is solved at once by the introduction of the Jacobian. + If the variables of one set are denoted by x1, x2, ..., x_n, and those + of the other set by u1, u2, ..., u_n, we have the relation + + ð(x1, x2, ..., x_n) + dx1 dx2 ...dx_n = ------------------- du1 du2 ... du_n. + ð(u1, u2, ..., u_n) + + In regard to the second stage of the process the limits of integration + must be determined by the rule that the integration with respect to + the second set of variables is to be taken through the same domain as + the integration with respect to the first set. + + For example, when we have to integrate a function [f](x, y) over the + area within a circle given by x² + y² = a², and we introduce polar + coordinates so that x = r cos [theta], y = r sin [theta], we find that + r is the value of the Jacobian, and that all points within or on the + circle are given by a [>=] r [>=] o, 2[pi][>=][theta][>=]o, and we have + _ _ _ _ + / a / [root](a²-x²) / a /2[pi] + | dx | [f](x, y) dy = | dr | f(r cos [theta], r sin [theta]) r d[theta]. + _/-a _/-[root](a²-x²) _/ 0 _/ 0 + + If we have to integrate over the area of a rectangle a [>=] x [>=] 0, + b [>=] y [>=] 0, and we transform to polar coordinates, the integral + becomes the sum of two integrals, as follows:-- + _ _ _ _ + /a / b /tan^-1 b/a /a sec [theta] + | dx | [f](x, y) dy = | d[theta] | [f](r cos [theta], r sin [theta]) r dr + _/0 _/ 0 _/ 0 _/0 + _ _ + / ½[pi] /b cosec [theta] + + | d[theta] | [f](r cos [theta], r sin [theta]) r dr. + _/tan^-1 b/a _/ 0 + + 55. A few additional results in relation to line integrals and + multiple integrals are set down here. + + + Line Integrals and Multiple Integrals. + + (i.) Any simple integral can be regarded as a line-integral taken + along a portion of the axis of x. When a change of variables is made, + the limits of integration with respect to the new variable must be + such that the domain of integration is the same as before. This + condition may require the replacing of the original integral by the + sum of two or more simple integrals. + + (ii.) The line integral of a perfect differential of a one-valued + function, taken along any closed curve, is zero. + + (iii.) The area within any plane closed curve can be expressed by + either of the formulae + _ _ + / / + | ½ r² d[theta] or | ½ p ds, + _/ _/ + + where r, [theta] are polar coordinates, and p is the perpendicular + drawn from a fixed point to the tangent. The integrals are to be + understood as line integrals taken along the curve. When the same + integrals are taken between limits which correspond to two points of + the curve, in the sense of line integrals along the arc between the + points, they represent the area bounded by the arc and the terminal + radii vectores. + + (iv.) The volume enclosed by a surface which is generated by the + revolution of a curve about the axis of x is expressed by the formula + _ + / + [pi] | y² dx, + _/ + + and the area of the surface is expressed by the formula + _ + / + 2[pi] | y ds, + _/ + + where ds is the differential element of arc of the curve. When the + former integral is taken between assigned limits it represents the + volume contained between the surface and two planes which cut the axis + of x at right angles. The latter integral is to be understood as a + line integral taken along the curve, and it represents the area of the + portion of the curved surface which is contained between two planes at + right angles to the axis of x. + + (v.) When we use curvilinear coordinates [xi], [eta] which are + conjugate functions of x, y, that is to say are such that + + ð[xi]/ðx = ð[eta]/ðy and ð[xi]/ðy = -ð[eta]/ðx, + + the Jacobian ð([xi], [eta])/ð(x, v) can be expressed in the form + + /ð[xi]\² /ð[eta]\² + ( ----- ) + ( ------ ), + \ ðx / \ ðx / + + and in a number of equivalent forms. The area of any portion of the + plane is represented by the double integral + _ _ + / / + | | J^-1 d[xi] d[eta], + _/_/ + + where J denotes the above Jacobian, and the integration is taken + through a suitable domain. When the boundary consists of portions of + curves for which [xi] = const., or [eta] = const., the above is + generally the simplest way of evaluating it. + + (vi.) The problem of "rectifying" a plane curve, or finding its + length, is solved by evaluating the integral + _ + / { /dy\² }½ + | { 1 + ( -- ) } dx, + _/ { \dx/ } + + or, in polar coordinates, by evaluating the integral + _ + / { / dr \² }½ + | { r² + ( -------- ) } d[theta]. + _/ { \d[theta]/ } + + In both cases the integrals are line integrals taken along the curve. + + (vii.) When we use curvilinear coordinates [xi], [eta] as in (v.) + above, the length of any portion of a curve [xi] = const. is given by + the integral + _ + / + | J^-½ d[eta] + _/ + + taken between appropriate limits for [eta]. There is a similar formula + for the arc of a curve [eta] = const. + + (viii.) The area of a surface z = [f](x, y) can be expressed by the + formula + _ _ + / / { /ðz\² /ðz\² }½ + | | { 1 + ( -- ) + ( -- ) } dx dy. + _/_/ { \ðx/ \ðy/ } + + When the coordinates of the points of a surface are expressed as + functions of two parameters u, v, the area is expressed by the + formula + _ _ _ _ + / / | { ð(y, z) }² { ð(z, x) }² { ð(x, y) }² |½ + | | | { ------- } + { ------- } + { ------- } | du dv. + _/_/ |_ { ð(u, v) } { ð(u, v) } { ð(u, v) } _| + + When the surface is referred to three-dimensional polar coordinates r, + [theta], [phi] given by the equations + + x = r sin [theta] cos [phi], y = r sin [theta] sin [phi], + z = r cos [theta], + + and the equation of the surface is of the form r = [f]([theta], + [phi]), the area is expressed by the formula + _ _ _ _ + / / | { / ðr \² } / ðr \² |½ + | | r | { r² + ( -------- ) } sin² [theta] + ( ------ ) | d[theta] d[phi]. + _/_/ |_ { \ð[theta]/ } \ð[phi]/ _| + + The surface integral of a function of ([theta], [phi]) over the + surface of a sphere r = const. can be expressed in the form + + _ _ + /2[pi] /[pi] + | d[phi] | F([theta], [phi]) r² sin [theta] d[theta]. + _/ 0 _/ 0 + + In every case the domain of integration must be chosen so as to + include the whole surface. + + (ix.) In three-dimensional polar coordinates the Jacobian + + ð(x, y, z) + -------------------- = r² sin [theta] + ð(r, [theta], [phi]) + + The volume integral of a function F (r, [theta], [phi]) through the + volume of a sphere r = a is + _ _ _ + / a /2[pi] /[pi] + | dr | d[phi] | F(r, [theta], [phi]) r² sin [theta] d[theta]. + _/ 0 _/ 0 _/ 0 + + (x.) Integrations of rational functions through the volume of an + ellipsoid x²/a² + y²/b² + z²/c² = 1 are often effected by means of a + general theorem due to Lejeune Dirichlet (1839), which is as follows: + when the domain of integration is that given by the inequality + + /x1\[alpha]1 /x2\^[alpha]2 /x_n\[alpha]_n + ( -- ) + ( -- ) + ... + ( --- ) [<=] 1 + \a1/ \a2/ \a_n/ + + where the a's and [alpha]'s are positive, the value of the integral + _ _ + / / + | | ... x1^(n1-1)·x2^(n2-1) ... dx1 dx2 ... + _/_/ + + a1^(n1) a2^(n2) ... [Gamma] (n1/[alpha]1) [Gamma] (n2/[alpha]2) + is --------------------- ---------------------------------------------. + [alpha]1 [alpha]2 ... [Gamma](1 + n1/[alpha]1 + n2/[alpha]2 + ... ) + + If, however, the object aimed at is an integration through the volume + of an ellipsoid it is simpler to reduce the domain of integration to + that within a sphere of radius unity by the transformation x = a[xi], + y = b[eta], z = c[zeta], and then to perform the integration through + the sphere by transforming to polar coordinates as in (ix). + + + Approximate and Mechanical Integration. + + 56. Methods of approximate integration began to be devised very early. + Kepler's practical measurement of the focal sectors of ellipses (1609) + was an approximate integration, as also was the method for the + quadrature of the hyperbola given by James Gregory in the appendix to + his _Exercitationes geometricae_ (1668). In Newton's _Methodus + differentialis_ (1711) the subject was taken up systematically. + Newton's object was to effect the approximate quadrature of a given + curve by making a curve of the type + + y = a0 + a1x + a2x² + ... + a_n x^n + + pass through the vertices of (n + 1) equidistant ordinates of the + given curve, and by taking the area of the new curve so determined as + an approximation to the area of the given curve. In 1743 Thomas + Simpson in his _Mathematical Dissertations_ published a very + convenient rule, obtained by taking the vertices of three consecutive + equidistant ordinates to be points on the same parabola. The distance + between the extreme ordinates corresponding to the abscissae x = a and + x = b is divided into 2n equal segments by ordinates y1, y2, ... + y(2n-1), and the extreme ordinates are denoted by y0, y(2n). The + vertices of the ordinates y0, y1, y2 lie on a parabola with its axis + parallel to the axis of y, so do the vertices of the ordinates y2, y3, + y4, and so on. The area is expressed approximately by the formula + + {(b - a)/6n} [y0 + y_(2n) + 2 (y2 + y4 + ... + y_(2n-2)) + + 4(y1 + y3 + ... + y_(2n-1)], + + which is known as Simpson's rule. Since all simple integrals can be + represented as areas such rules are applicable to approximate + integration in general. For the recent developments reference may be + made to the article by A. Voss in _Ency. d. Math. Wiss._, Bd. II., A. + 2 (1899), and to a monograph by B. P. Moors, _Valeur approximative + d'une intégrale définie_ (Paris, 1905). + + Many instruments have been devised for registering mechanically the + areas of closed curves and the values of integrals. The best known are + perhaps the "planimeter" of J. Amsler (1854) and the "integraph" of + Abdank-Abakanowicz (1882). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For historical questions relating to the subject the + chief authority is M. Cantor, _Geschichte d. Mathematik_ (3 Bde., + Leipzig, 1894-1901). For particular matters, or special periods, the + following may be mentioned: H. G. Zeuthen, _Geschichte d. Math. im + Altertum u. Mittelalter_ (Copenhagen, 1896) and _Gesch. d. Math. im + XVI. u. XVII. Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig, 1903); S. Horsley, _Isaaci + Newtoni opera quae exstant omnia_ (5 vols., London, 1779-1785); C. I. + Gerhardt, _Leibnizens math. Schriften_ (7 Bde., Leipzig, 1849-1863); + Joh. Bernoulli, _Opera omnia_ (4 Bde., Lausanne and Geneva, 1742). + Other writings of importance in the history of the subject are cited + in the course of the article. A list of some of the more important + treatises on the differential and integral calculus is appended. The + list has no pretensions to completeness; in particular, most of the + recent books in which the subject is presented in an elementary way + for beginners or engineers are omitted.--L. Euler, _Institutiones + calculi differentialis_ (Petrop., 1755) and _Institutiones calculi + integralis_ (3 Bde., Petrop., 1768-1770); J. L. Lagrange, _Leçons sur + le calcul des fonctions_ (Paris, 1806, _Oeuvres_, t. x.), and _Théorie + des fonctions analytiques_ (Paris, 1797, 2nd ed., 1813, _Oeuvres_, t. + ix.); S. F. Lacroix, _Traité de calcul diff. et de calcul int._ (3 + tt., Paris, 1808-1819). There have been numerous later editions; a + translation by Herschel, Peacock and Babbage of an abbreviated edition + of Lacroix's treatise was published at Cambridge in 1816. G. Peacock, + _Examples of the Differential and Integral Calculus_ (Cambridge, + 1820); A. L. Cauchy, _Résumé des leçons ... sur le calcul + infinitésimale_ (Paris, 1823), and _Leçons sur le calcul différentiel_ + (Paris, 1829; _Oeuvres_, sér. 2, t. iv.); F. Minding, _Handbuch d. + Diff.-u. Int.-Rechnung_ (Berlin, 1836); F. Moigno, _Leçons sur le + calcul diff._ (4 tt., Paris, 1840-1861); A. de Morgan, _Diff. and Int. + Calc._ (London, 1842); D. Gregory, _Examples on the Diff. and Int. + Calc._ (2 vols., Cambridge, 1841-1846); I. Todhunter, _Treatise on the + Diff. Calc._ and _Treatise on the Int. Calc._ (London, 1852), numerous + later editions; B. Price, _Treatise on the Infinitesimal Calculus_ (2 + vols., Oxford, 1854), numerous later editions; D. Bierens de Haan, + _Tables d'intégrales définies_ (Amsterdam, 1858); M. Stegemann, + _Grundriss d. Diff.- u. Int.-Rechnung_ (2 Bde., Hanover, 1862) + numerous later editions; J. Bertrand, _Traité de calc. diff. et int._ + (2 tt., Paris, 1864-1870); J. A. Serret, _Cours de calc. diff. et + int._ (2 tt., Paris, 1868, 2nd ed., 1880, German edition by Harnack, + Leipzig, 1884-1886, later German editions by Bohlmann, 1896, and + Scheffers, 1906, incomplete); B. Williamson, _Treatise on the Diff. + Calc._ (Dublin, 1872), and _Treatise on the Int. Calc._ (Dublin, 1874) + numerous later editions of both; also the article "Infinitesimal + Calculus" in the 9th ed. of the _Ency. Brit._; C. Hermite, _Cours + d'analyse_ (Paris, 1873); O. Schlömilch, _Compendium d. höheren + Analysis_ (2 Bde., Leipzig, 1874) numerous later editions; J. Thomae, + _Einleitung in d. Theorie d. bestimmten Integrale_ (Halle, 1875); R. + Lipschitz, _Lehrbuch d. Analysis_ (2 Bde., Bonn, 1877, 1880); A. + Harnack, _Elemente d. Diff.- u. Int.-Rechnung_ (Leipzig, 1882, Eng. + trans. by Cathcart, London, 1891); M. Pasch, _Einleitung in d. Diff.- + u. Int.-Rechnung_ (Leipzig, 1882); Genocchi and Peano, _Calcolo + differenziale_ (Turin, 1884, German edition by Bohlmann and Schepp, + Leipzig, 1898, 1899); H. Laurent, _Traité d'analyse_ (7 tt., Paris, + 1885-1891); J. Edwards, _Elementary Treatise on the Diff. Calc._ + (London, 1886), several later editions; A. G. Greenhill, _Diff. and + Int. Calc._ (London, 1886, 2nd ed., 1891); É. Picard, _Traité + d'analyse_ (3 tt., Paris, 1891-1896); O. Stolz, _Grundzüge d. Diff.- + u. Int.-Rechnung_ (3 Bde., Leipzig, 1893-1899); C. Jordan, _Cours + d'analyse_ (3 tt., Paris, 1893-1896); L. Kronecker, _Vorlesungen ü. d. + Theorie d. einfachen u. vielfachen Integrale_ (Leipzig, 1894); J. + Perry, _The Calculus for Engineers_ (London, 1897); H. Lamb, _An + Elementary Course of Infinitesimal Calculus_ (Cambridge, 1897); G. A. + Gibson, _An Elementary Treatise on the Calculus_ (London, 1901); É. + Goursat, _Cours d'analyse mathématique_ (2 tt., Paris, 1902-1905); + C.-J. de la Vallée Poussin, _Cours d'analyse infinitésimale_ (2 tt., + Louvain and Paris, 1903-1906); A. E. H. Love, _Elements of the Diff. + and Int. Calc._ (Cambridge, 1909); W. H. Young, _The Fundamental + Theorems of the Diff. Calc._ (Cambridge, 1910). A résumé of the + infinitesimal calculus is given in the articles "Diff.- u. + Int-Rechnung" by A. Voss, and "Bestimmte Integrale" by G. Brunel in + _Ency. d. math. Wiss._ (Bde. ii. A. 2, and ii. A. 3, Leipzig, 1899, + 1900). Many questions of principle are discussed exhaustively by E. W. + Hobson, _The Theory of Functions of a Real Variable_ (Cambridge, + 1907). (A. E. H. L.) + + + + +INFINITIVE, a form of the verb, properly a noun with verbal functions, +but usually taken as a mood (see GRAMMAR). The Latin grammarians gave it +the name of _infinitus_ or _infinitivus modus_, i.e. indefinite, +unlimited mood, as not having definite persons or numbers. + + + + +INFLEXION (from Lat. _inflectere_, to bend), the action of bending +inwards, or turning towards oneself, or the condition of being bent or +curved. In optics, the term "inflexion" was used by Newton for what is +now known as "diffraction of light" (q.v.). For inflexion in geometry +see CURVE. Inflexion when used of the voice, in speaking or singing, +indicates a change in tone, pitch or expression. In grammar (q.v.) +inflexion indicates the changes which a word undergoes to bring it into +correct relations with the other words with which it is used. In English +grammar nouns, pronouns, adjectives (in their degrees of comparison), +verbs and adverbs are inflected. Some grammarians, however, regard the +inflexions of adverbs more as an actual change in word-formation. + + + + +INFLUENCE (Late Lat. _influentia_, from _influere_, to flow in), a word +whose principal modern meaning is that of power, control or action +affecting others, exercised either covertly or without visible means or +direct physical agency. It is one of those numerous terms of astrology +(q.v.) which have established themselves in current language. From the +stars was supposed to flow an ethereal stream which affected the course +of events on the earth and the fortunes and characters of men. For the +law as to "undue influence" see CONTRACT. + + + + +INFLUENZA (syn. "grip," _la grippe_), a term applied to an infectious +febrile disorder due to a specific bacillus, characterized specially by +catarrh of the respiratory passages and alimentary canal, and occurring +mostly as an epidemic. The Italians in the 17th century ascribed it to +the influence of the stars, and hence the name "influenza." The French +name _grippe_ came into use in 1743, and those of _petite poste_ and +_petit courier_ in 1762, while _général_ became another synonym in 1780. +Apparently the scourge was common; in 1403 and 1557 the sittings of the +Paris law courts had to be suspended through it, and in 1427 sermons had +to be abandoned through the coughing and sneezing; in 1510 masses could +not be sung. Epidemics occurred in 1580, 1676, 1703, 1732 and 1737, and +their cessation was supposed to be connected with earthquakes and +volcanic eruptions. + +The disease is referred to in the works of the ancient physicians, and +accurate descriptions of it have been given by medical writers during +the last three centuries. These various accounts agree substantially in +their narration of the phenomena and course of the disease, and +influenza has in all times been regarded as fulfilling all the +conditions of an epidemic in its sudden invasion, and rapid and +extensive spread. Among the chief epidemics were those of 1762, 1782, +1787, 1803, 1833, 1837 and 1847. It appeared in fleets at sea away from +all communication with land, and to such an extent as to disable them +temporarily for service. This happened in 1782 in the case of the +squadron of Admiral Richard Kempenfelt (1718-1782), which had to return +to England from the coast of France in consequence of influenza +attacking his crews. + +Like cholera and plague, influenza reappeared in the last quarter of the +19th century, after an interval of many years, in epidemic or rather +pandemic form. After the year 1848, in which 7963 deaths were directly +attributed to influenza in England and Wales, the disease continued +prevalent until 1860, with distinct but minor epidemic exacerbations in +1851, 1855 and 1858; during the next decade the mortality dropped +rapidly though not steadily, and the diminution continued down to the +year 1889, In which only 55 deaths were ascribed to this cause. It is +not clear whether the disease ever disappears wholly, and the deaths +registered in 1889 are the lowest recorded in any year since the +registrar-general's returns began. Occasionally local outbreaks of +illness resembling epidemic influenza have been observed during the +period of abeyance, as in Norfolk in 1878 and in Yorkshire in 1887; but +whether such outbreaks and the so-called "sporadic" cases are +nosologically identical with epidemic influenza is open to doubt. The +relation seems rather to be similar to that between Asiatic cholera and +"cholera nostras." Individual cases may be indistinguishable, but as a +factor in the public health the difference between sporadic and epidemic +influenza is as great and unmistakable as that between the two forms of +cholera. This fact, which had been forgotten by some since 1847 and +never learnt by others, was brought home forcibly to all by the +visitation of 1889. + +According to the exhaustive report drawn up by Dr H. Franklin Parsons +for the Local Government Board, the earliest appearances were observed +in May 1889, and three localities are mentioned as affected at the same +time, all widely separated from each other--namely, Bokhara in Central +Asia, Athabasca in the north-west Territories of Canada and Greenland. +About the middle of October it was reported at Tomsk in Siberia, and by +the end of the month at St Petersburg. During November Russia became +generally affected, and cases were noticed in Paris, Berlin, Vienna, +London and Jamaica (?). In December epidemic influenza became +established over the whole of Europe, along the Mediterranean, in Egypt +and over a large area in the United States. It appeared in several towns +in England, beginning with Portsmouth, but did not become generally +epidemic until the commencement of the new year. In London the full +onset of unmistakable influenza dated from the 1st of January 1890. +Everywhere it seems to have exhibited the same explosive character when +once fully established. In St Petersburg, out of a government staff of +260 men, 220 were taken ill in one night, the 15th of November. During +January 1890 the epidemic reached its height in London, and appeared in +a large number of towns throughout the British Islands, though it was +less prevalent in the north and north-west than in the south. January +witnessed a great extension of the disease in Germany, Holland, +Switzerland, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Spain and Portugal; but in Russia, +Scandinavia and France it was already declining. The period of greatest +activity in Europe was the latter half of December and the earlier half +of January, with the change of the year for a central point. Other parts +of the world affected in January 1890 were Cape Town, Canada, the United +States generally, Algiers, Tunis, Cairo, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, +Honolulu, Mexico, the West Indies and Montevideo. In February the +provincial towns of England were most severely affected, the death-rate +rising to 27.4, but in London it fell from 28.1 to 21.2, and for Europe +generally the back of the epidemic was broken. At the same time, +however, it appeared in Ceylon, Penang, Japan, Hong Kong and India; also +in West Africa, attacking Sierra Leone, and Gambia in the middle of the +month; and finally in the west, where Newfoundland and Buenos Aires were +invaded. In March influenza became widely epidemic in India, +particularly in Bengal and Bombay, and made its appearance in Australia +and New Zealand. In April and May it was epidemic all over Australasia, +in Central America, Brazil, Peru, Arabia and Burma. During the summer +and autumn it reached a number of isolated islands, such as Iceland, St +Helena, Mauritius and Réunion. Towards the close of the year it was +reported from Yunnan in the interior of China, from the Shiré Highlands +in Central Africa, Shoa in Abyssinia, and Gilgit in Kashmir. In the +course of fifteen months, beginning with its undoubted appearance in +Siberia in October 1889, it had traversed the entire globe. + +The localities attacked by influenza in 1889-1890 appear in no case to +have suffered severely for more than a month or six weeks. Thus in +Europe and North America generally the visitation had come to an end in +the first quarter of 1890. The earliest signs of an epidemic revival on +a large scale occurred in March 1891, in the United States and the north +of England. It was reported from Chicago and other large towns in the +central states, whence it spread eastwards, reaching New York about the +end of March. In England it began in the Yorkshire towns, particularly +in Hull, and also independently in South Wales. In London influenza +became epidemic for the second time about the end of April, and soon +afterwards was widely distributed in England and Wales. The large towns +in the north, together with London and Wales, suffered much more heavily +in mortality than in the previous attack, but the south-west of England, +Scotland and Ireland escaped with comparatively little sickness. The +same may be said of the European continent generally, except parts of +Russia, Scandinavia and perhaps the north of Germany. This second +epidemic coincided with the spring and early summer; it had subsided in +London by the end of June. The experience of Sheffield is interesting. +In 1890 the attack, contrary to general experience, had been undecided, +lingering and mild; in 1891 it was very sudden and extremely severe, the +death-rate rising to 73.4 during the month of April, and subsiding with +equal rapidity. During the third quarter of the year, while Europe was +free, the antipodes had their second attack, which was more severe than +the first. As in England, it reversed the previous order of things, +beginning in the provinces and spreading thence to the capital towns. +The last quarter of the year was signalized by another recrudescence in +Europe, which reached its height during the winter. All parts, including +Great Britain, were severely affected. In England those parts which had +borne the brunt of the epidemic in the early part of the year escaped. +In fact, these two revivals may be regarded as one, temporarily +interrupted by the summer quarter. + +The recrudescence at the end of 1891 lasted through mid-winter, and in +many places, notably in London, it only reached its height in January +1892, subsiding slowly and irregularly in February and March. Brighton +suffered with exceptional severity. The continent of Europe seems to +have been similarly affected. In Italy the notifications of influenza +were as follow: 1891--January to October, 0; November, 30; December, +6461; 1892--January, 84,543; February, 55,352; March, 28,046; April, +7962; May, 1468; June, 223. Other parts of the world affected were the +West Indies, Tunis, Egypt, Sudan, Cape Town Teheran, Tongking and China. +In August 1892 influenza was reported from Peru, and later in the year +from various places in Europe. + +A fourth recrudescence, but of a milder character, occurred in Great +Britain in the spring of 1893, and a fifth in the following winter, but +the year 1894 was freer from influenza than any since 1890. In 1895 +another extensive epidemic took place. In 1896 influenza seemed to have +spent its strength, but there was an increased prevalence of the disease +in 1897, which was repeated on a larger scale in 1898, and again in +1899, when 12,417 deaths were recorded in England and Wales. This was +the highest death-rate since 1892. After this the death-rate declined to +half that amount and remained there with the slight upward variations +until 1907, in which the total death-rate was 9257. The experience of +other countries has been very similar; they have all been subjected to +periodical revivals of epidemic influenza at irregular intervals and of +varying intensity since its reappearance in 1889, but there has been a +general though not a steady decline in its activity and potency. Its +behaviour is, in short, quite in keeping with the experience of +1847-1860, though the later visitation appears to have been more violent +and more fatal than the former. Its diffusion was also more rapid and +probably more extensive. + +The foregoing general summary may be supplemented by some further +details of the incidence in Great Britain. The number of deaths directly +attributed to influenza, and the death-rates per million in each year in +England and Wales, are as follow:-- + + +------+--------+-------------+ + | Year.| Deaths.| Death-rates | + | | | per million.| + +------+--------+-------------+ + | 1890 | 4,523 | 157 | + | 1891 | 16,686 | 574 | + | 1892 | 15,737 | 534 | + | 1893 | 9,669 | 325 | + | 1894 | 6,625 | 220 | + | 1895 | 12,880 | 424 | + | 1896 | 3,753 | 122 | + | 1897 | 6,088 | 196 | + | 1898 | 10,405 | 331 | + | 1899 | 12,417 | 389 | + | 1900 | 16,245 | 504 | + | 1901 | 5,666 | 174 | + | 1902 | 7,366 | 223 | + | 1903 | 6,322 | 189 | + | 1904 | 5,694 | 168 | + | 1905 | 6,953 | 204 | + | 1906 | 6,310 | 183 | + | 1907 | 9,257 | 265 | + +------+--------+-------------+ + +It is interesting to compare these figures with the corresponding ones +for the previous visitation:-- + + +------+--------+-------------+ + | Year.| Deaths.| Death-rates | + | | | per million.| + +------+--------+-------------+ + | 1847 | 4,881 | 285 | + | 1848 | 7,963 | 460 | + | 1849 | 1,611 | 92 | + | 1850 | 1,380 | 78 | + | 1851 | 2,152 | 120 | + | 1852 | 1,359 | 76 | + | 1853 | 1,789 | 99 | + | 1854 | 1,061 | 58 | + | 1855 | 3,568 | 193 | + +------+--------+-------------+ + +The two sets of figures are not strictly comparable, because, during the +first period, notification of the cause of death was not compulsory; but +it seems clear that the later wave was much the more deadly. The average +annual death-rate for the nine years is 320 in the one case against 162 +in the other, or as nearly as possible double. In both epidemic periods +the second year was far more fatal than the first, and in both a marked +revival took place in the ninth year; in both also an intermediate +recrudescence occurred, in the fifth year in one case, in the sixth in +the other. The chief point of difference is the sudden and marked drop +in 1849-1850, against a persistent high mortality in 1892-1893, +especially in 1892, which was nearly as fatal as 1891. + +To make the significance of these epidemic figures clear, it should be +added that in the intervening period 1861-1889 the average annual +death-rate from influenza was only fifteen, and in the ten years +immediately preceding the 1890 outbreak it was only three. Moreover, in +epidemic influenza, the mortality directly attributed to that disease is +only a fraction of that actually caused by it. For instance, in January +1890 the deaths from influenza in London were 304, while the excess of +deaths from respiratory diseases was 1454 and from all causes 1958 above +the average. + +We have seen above that the mortality was far greater in the second +epidemic year than in the first, and this applies to all parts of +England, and to rural as well as to urban communities, as the following +table shows:-- + + _Deaths from Influenza._ + + +--------------------------------------+------+------+ + | | 1890.| 1891.| + +--------------------------------------+------+------+ + | London | 624 | 2302 | + | 24 Great Towns over 80,000 population| 439 | 2417 | + | 35 Towns between 20,000 and 80,000 | 186 | 765 | + | 21 Towns between 10,000 and 20,000 | 46 | 196 | + | 60 Towns under 10,000 | 62 | 196 | + | 85 Rural Sanitary Districts | 317 | 841 | + +--------------------------------------+------+------+ + +In spite of these figures, it appears that the 1890 attack, which was in +general much more sudden in its onset than that of 1891, also caused a +great deal more sickness. More people were "down with influenza," though +fewer died. For Instance, the number of persons treated at the Middlesex +Hospital in the two months' winter epidemic of 1890 was 1279; in the far +more fatal three months' spring epidemic of 1891 it was only 726. One +explanation of this discrepancy between the incidence of sickness and +mortality is that in the second attack, which was more protracted and +more insidious, the stress of the disease fell more upon the lungs. +Another is that its comparative mildness, combined with the time of +year, in itself proved dangerous, because it tempted people to disregard +the illness, whereas in the first epidemic they were too ill to resist. +On the whole, rural districts showed a higher death-rate than towns, and +small towns a higher one than large ones in both years. This is +explained by the age distribution in such localities; influenza being +particularly fatal to aged people, though no age is exempt. Certain +counties were much more severely affected than others. The eastern +counties, namely, Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk, together with Hampshire +and one or two others, escaped lightly in both years; the western +counties, namely, North and South Wales, with the adjoining counties of +Monmouth, Hereford and Shropshire, suffered heavily in both years. + +It will be convenient to discuss _seriatim_ the various points of +interest on which light has been thrown by the experience described +above. + +The bacteriology of influenza is discussed in the article on PARASITIC +DISEASES. The disease is often called "Russian" influenza, and its +origin in 1889 suggests that the name may have some foundation in fact. +A writer, who saw the epidemic break out in Bokhara, is quoted by him to +the following effect:--"The summer of 1888 was exceptionally hot and +dry, and was followed by a bitterly cold winter and a rainy spring. The +dried-up earth was full of cracks and holes from drought and subsequent +frost, so that the spring rains formed ponds in these holes, inundated +the new railway cuttings, and turned the country into a perfect marsh. +When the hot weather set in the water gave off poisonous exhalations, +rendering malaria general." On account of the severe winter, the people +were enfeebled from lack of nourishment, and when influenza broke out +suddenly they died in large numbers. Europeans were very severely +affected. Russians, hurrying home, carried the disease westwards, and +caravans passing eastwards took it into Siberia. There is a striking +similarity in the conditions described to those observed in connexion +with outbreaks of other diseases, particularly typhoid fever and +diphtheria, which have occurred on the supervention of heavy rain after +a dry period, causing cracks and fissures in the earth. Assuming the +existence of a living poison in the ground, we can easily understand +that under certain conditions, such as an exceptionally dry season, it +may develop exceptional properties and then be driven out by the +subsequent rains, causing a violent outbreak of illness. Some such +explanation is required to account for the periodical occurrence of +epidemic and pandemic diffusions starting from an endemic centre. We may +suppose that a micro-organism of peculiar robustness and virulence is +bred and brought into activity by a combination of favourable +conditions, and is then disseminated more or less widely according to +its "staying power," by human agency. Whether central Asia is an endemic +centre for influenza or not there is no evidence, but the disease seems +to be more often prevalent in the Russian Empire than elsewhere. +Extensive outbreaks occurred there in 1886 and 1887, and it is certain +that the 1889 wave was active in Siberia at an earlier date than in +Europe, and that it moved eastwards. The hypothesis that it originated +in China is unsupported by evidence. But whatever may be the truth with +regard to origin, the dissemination of influenza by human agency must be +held to be proved. This is the most important addition to our knowledge +of the subject contributed by recent research. The upshot of the inquiry +by Dr Parsons was to negative all theories of atmospheric influence, and +to establish the conclusion that the disease was "propagated mainly, +perhaps entirely, by human intercourse." + + He found that it prevailed independently of climate, season and + weather; that it moved in a contrary direction to the prevailing + winds; that it travelled along the lines of human intercourse, and not + faster than human beings can travel; that in 1889 it travelled much + faster than in previous epidemics, when the means of locomotion were + very inferior; that it appeared first in capital towns, seaports and + frontier towns, and only affected country districts later; that it + never commenced suddenly with a large number of cases in a place + previously free from disease, but that epidemic manifestations were + generally preceded for some days or weeks by scattered cases; that + conveyance of infection by individuals and its introduction into fresh + places had been observed in many instances; that persons brought much + into contact with others were generally the first to suffer; that + persons brought together in large numbers in enclosed spaces suffered + more in proportion than others, and that the rapidity and extent of + the outbreak in institutions corresponded with the massing together of + the inmates. + +These conclusions, based upon the 1889-1890 epidemic, have been +confirmed by subsequent experience, especially in regard to the complete +independence of season and weather shown by influenza. It has appeared +and disappeared at all seasons and in all weathers and only popular +ignorance continues to ascribe its behaviour to atmospheric conditions. +In Europe, however, it has prevailed more often in winter than in +summer, which may be due to the greater susceptibility of persons in +winter, or, more probably, to the fact that they congregate more in +buildings and are less in the open air during that part of the year. No +doubt is any longer entertained of its infectious character, though the +degree of infectivity appears to vary considerably. Many cases have been +recorded of individuals introducing it into houses, and of all or most +of the other inmates then taking it from the first case. Difficulties in +preventing the spread of infection are due to (1) the shortness of the +period of incubation, (2) the disease being infectious in the earliest +stages before the nature of the illness is recognized, (3) the milder +varieties being equally infectious with the severe attacks, and the +patient going to work and spreading the infection, (4) the diagnosis +often being difficult, influenza being possibly confused with ordinary +catarrhal attacks, typhoid fever and other diseases. Domestic animals +seem to be free from any suspicion of being liable to human influenza. +Sanitary conditions, other than overcrowding, do not appear to exercise +any influence on the spread of influenza. + +Influenza has been shown to be an acute specific fever having nothing +whatever to do with a "bad cold." There may be some inflammation of the +respiratory passages, and then symptoms of catarrh are present, but that +is not necessarily the case, and in some epidemics such symptoms are +quite exceptional. This had been recognized by various writers before +the 1889 visitation, but it had not been generally realized, as it has +been since, and some medical authorities, who persisted in regarding +influenza as essentially a "catarrhal" affection, were chiefly to blame +for a widespread and tenacious popular fallacy. + +Leichtenstern, in his masterly article in Nothnagel's _Handbuch_, +divides the disease as follows:--(1) Epidemic influenza vera caused by +Pfeiffer's bacillus; (2) Endemic-epidemic influenza vera, which occurs +several years after a pandemic and is caused by the same bacillus; (3) +Endemic influenza nostras or eatarrhal fever, called _la grippe_, and +bearing the same relation to true influenza as cholera nostras does to +Asiatic cholera. + +The "period of incubation" is one to four days. Susceptibility varies +greatly, but the conditions that influence it are matters of conjecture +only. It appears that the inhabitants of Great Britain are less +susceptible than those of many other countries. Dr Parsons gives the +following list, showing the proportion of the population estimated to +have been attacked in the 1889-1890 epidemic in different localities:-- + + +---------------------+---------+---------------------+---------+ + | Place. |Per cent.| Place. |Per cent.| + +---------------------+---------+---------------------+---------+ + | St Petersburg | 50 | Portugal | 90 | + | Berlin | 33 | Vienna | 30-40 | + | Nuremberg | 67 | Belgrade | 33 | + | Grand-Duchy of Hesse| 25-30 | Antwerp | 33 | + | Grand-Duchy, other | | Gaeta | 50-77 | + | Districts | 50-75 | Massachusetts | 39 | + | Heligoland | 50 | Peking | 50 | + | Budapest | 50 | St Louis (Mauritius)| 67 | + +---------------------+---------+---------------------+---------+ + +In and about London he reckoned roughly from a number of returns that +the proportion was about 12½% among those employed out of doors and +25% among those in offices, &c. The proportion among the troops in the +Home District was 9.3%. The General Post Office made the highest return +with 33.6%, which is accounted for partly by the enormous number of +persons massed together in the same room in more than one department, +and partly by the facilities for obtaining medical advice, which would +tend to bring very light cases, unnoticed elsewhere, upon the record. No +public service was seriously disorganized in England by sickness in the +same manner as on the continent of Europe. Some individuals appear to be +totally immune; others take the disease over and over again, deriving no +immunity, but apparently greater susceptibility from previous attacks. + +The symptoms were thus described by Dr Bruce Low from observations made +in St Thomas's Hospital, London, in January 1890:-- + + The invasion is sudden; the patients can generally tell the time when + they developed the disease; e.g. acute pains in the back and loins + came on quite suddenly while they were at work or walking in the + street, or in the case of a medical student, while playing cards, + rendering him unable to continue the game. A workman wheeling a barrow + had to put it down and leave it; and an omnibus driver was unable to + pull up his horses. This sudden onset is often accompanied by vertigo + and nausea, and sometimes actual vomiting of bilious matter. There are + pains in the limbs and general sense of aching all over; frontal + headache of special severity; pains in the eyeballs, increased by the + slightest movement of the eyes; shivering; general feeling of misery + and weakness, and great depression of spirits, many patients, both men + and women, giving way to weeping; nervous restlessness; inability to + sleep, and occasionally delirium. In some cases catarrhal symptoms + develop, such as running at the eyes, which are sometimes injected on + the second day; sneezing and sore throat; and epistaxis, swelling of + the parotid and submaxillary glands, tonsilitis, and spitting of + bright blood from the pharynx may occur. There is a hard, dry cough of + a paroxysmal kind, worst at night. There is often tenderness of the + spleen, which is almost always found enlarged, and this persists after + the acute symptoms have passed. The temperature is high at the onset + of the disease. In the first twenty-four hours its range is from 100° + F. in mild cases to 105° in severe cases. + +Dr J. S. Bristowe gave the following description of the illness during +the same epidemic:-- + + The chief symptoms of influenza are, coldness along the back, with + shivering, which may continue off and on for two or three days; severe + pain in the head and eyes, often with tenderness in the eyes and pain + in moving them; pains in the ears; pains in the small of the back; + pains in the limbs, for the most part in the fleshy portions, but also + in the bones and joints, and even in the fingers and toes; and febrile + temperature, which may in the early period rise to 104° or 105° F. At + the same time the patient feels excessively ill and prostrate, is apt + to suffer from nausea or sickness and diarrhoea, and is for the most + part restless, though often (and especially in the case of children + and those advanced in age) drowsy.... In ordinary mild cases the above + symptoms are the only important ones which present themselves, and the + patient may recover in the course of three or four days. He may even + have it so mildly that, although feeling very ill, he is able to go + about his ordinary work. In some cases the patients have additionally + some dryness or soreness of the throat, or some stiffness and + discharge from the nose, which may be accompanied by slight bleeding. + And in some cases, for the most part in the course of a few days, and + at a time when the patient seems to be convalescent, he begins to + suffer from wheezing in the chest, cough, and perhaps a little + shortness of breath, and before long spits mucus in which are + contained pellets streaked or tinged with blood.... Another + complication is diarrhoea. Another is a roseolous spotty rash.... + Influenza is by no means necessarily attended with the catarrhal + symptoms which the general public have been taught to regard as its + distinctive signs, and in a very large proportion of cases no + catarrhal condition whatever becomes developed at any time. + +Several writers have distinguished four main varieties of the +disease--namely, (1) nervous, (2)gastro-intestinal, (3)respiratory, (4) +febrile, a form chiefly found in children. Clifford Allbutt says, +"Influenza simulates other diseases." Many forms are of typhoid or +comatose types. Cardiac attacks are common, not from organic disease but +from the direct poisoning of the heart muscle by influenza. + +Perhaps the most marked feature of influenza, and certainly the one +which victims have learned to dread most, is the prolonged debility and +nervous depression that frequently follow an attack. It was remarked by +Nothnagel that "Influenza produces a specific nervous toxin which by its +action on the cortex produces psychoses." In the Paris epidemic of 1890 +the suicides increased 25%, a large proportion of the excess being +attributed to nervous prostration caused by the disease. Dr Rawes, +medical superintendent of St Luke's hospital, says that of insanities +traceable to influenza melancholia is twice as frequent as all other +forms of insanity put together. Other common after-effects are +neuralgia, dyspepsia, insomnia, weakness or loss of the special senses, +particularly taste and smell, abdominal pains, sore throat, rheumatism +and muscular weakness. The feature most dangerous to life is the special +liability of patients to inflammation of the lungs. This affection must +be regarded as a complication rather than an integral part of the +illness. The following diagram gives the annual death-rate per million +in England and Wales, and is taken from an article by Dr Arthur +Newsholme in _The Practitioner_ (January 1907). + +The deaths directly attributed to influenza are few in proportion to the +number of cases. In the milder forms it offers hardly any danger to life +if reasonable care be taken, but in the severer forms it is a fairly +fatal disease. In eight London hospitals the case-mortality among +in-patients in the 1890 outbreak was 34.5 per 1000; among all patients +treated it was 1.6 per 1000. In the army it was rather less. + +The infectious character of influenza having been determined, +suggestions were made for its administrative control on the familiar +lines of notification, isolation and disinfection, but this has not +hitherto been found practicable. In March 1895, however, the Local +Government Board issued a memorandum recommending the adoption of the +following precautions wherever they can be carried out:-- + + 1. The sick should be separated from the healthy. This is especially + important in the case of first attacks in a locality or a household. + + 2. The sputa of the sick should, especially in the acute stage of the + disease, be received into vessels containing disinfectants. Infected + articles and rooms should be cleansed and disinfected. + + 3. When influenza threatens, unnecessary assemblages of persons should + be avoided. + + 4. Buildings and rooms in which many people necessarily congregate + should be efficiently aerated and cleansed during the intervals of + occupation. + +There is no routine treatment for influenza except bed. In all cases bed +is advisable, because of the danger of lung complications, and in mild +ones it is sufficient. Severer ones must be treated according to the +symptoms. Quinine has been much used. Modern "anti-pyretic" drugs have +also been extensively employed, and when applied with discretion they +may be useful, but patients are not advised to prescribe them for +themselves. + +[Illustration] + +Sir Wm. Broadbent in a note on the prophylaxis of influenza recommends +quinine in a dose of two grains every morning, and remarks: "I have had +opportunities of obtaining extraordinary evidence of its protective +power. In a large public school it was ordered to be taken every +morning. Some of the boys in the school were home boarders, and it was +found that while the boarders at the school took the quinine in the +presence of a master every morning, there were scarcely any cases of +influenza among them, although the home boarders suffered nearly as much +as before." He continues, "In a large girls' school near London the same +thing was ordered, and the girls and mistresses took their morning dose +but the servants were forgotten. The result was that scarcely any girl +or mistress suffered while the servants were all down with influenza." + +The liability to contract influenza, and the danger of an attack if +contracted, are increased by depressing conditions, such as exposure to +cold and to fatigue, whether mental or physical. Attention should, +therefore, be paid to all measures tending to the maintenance of health. +Persons who are attacked by influenza should at once seek rest, warmth +and medical treatment, and they should bear in mind that the risk of +relapse, with serious complications, constitutes a chief danger of the +disease. + + In addition to the ordinary text-books, see the series of articles by + experts on different aspects in _The Practitioner_ (London) for + January 1907. + + + + +IN FORM PAUPERIS (Latin, "in the character of pauper"), the legal +phrase for a method of bringing or defending a case in court on the part +of persons without means. By an English statute of 1495 (11 Hen. VII. c. +12), any poor person having cause of action was entitled to have a writ +according to the nature of the case, without paying the fees thereon. +The statute of 1495 was repealed by the Statute Law Revision and Civil +Procedure Act 1883, but its provisions, as well as the chancery +practice were incorporated into one code and embodied in the rules of +the Supreme Court (O. xvi. rr. 22-31). Now any person may be admitted to +sue as a pauper, on proof that he is not worth £25, his wearing apparel +and the subject matter of the cause or matter excepted. He must lay his +case before counsel for opinion, and counsel's opinion thereon, with an +affidavit of the party suing that the case contains a full and true +statement of all the material facts to the best of his knowledge and +belief, must be produced before the proper officers to whom the +application is made. A person who desires to defend as a pauper must +enter an appearance to a writ in the ordinary way and afterwards apply +for an order to defend as a pauper. Where a person is admitted to sue or +defend as a pauper, counsel and solicitor may be assigned to him, and +such counsel and solicitor are not at liberty to refuse assistance +unless there is some good reason for refusing. If any person admitted to +sue or defend as a pauper agrees to pay fees to any person for the +conduct of his business he will be dispaupered. Costs ordered to be paid +to a pauper are taxed as in other cases. Appeals to the House of Lords +_in formâ pauperis_ were regulated by the Appeal (Formâ Pauperis) Act +1893, which gave the House of Lords power to refuse a petition for leave +to sue. + + + + +INFORMATION (from Lat. _informare_, to give shape or form to, to +represent, describe), the communication of knowledge; in English law, a +proceeding on behalf of the crown against a subject otherwise than by +indictment. A criminal information is a proceeding in the King's bench +by the attorney-general without the intervention of a grand jury. The +attorney-general, or, in his absence, the solicitor-general, has a right +_ex officio_ to file a criminal information in respect of any +indictments, but not for treason, felonies or misprision of treason. It +is, however, seldom exercised, except in cases which might be described +as "enormous misdemeanours," such as those peculiarly tending to disturb +or endanger the king's government, e.g. seditions, obstructing the +king's officers in the execution of their duties, &c. In the form of the +proceedings the attorney-general is said to "come into the court of our +lord the king before the king himself at Westminster, and gives the +court there to understand and be informed that, &c." Then follows the +statement of the offence as in an indictment. The information is filed +in the crown office without the leave of the court. An information may +also be filed at the instance of a private prosecutor for misdemeanours +not affecting the government, but being peculiarly flagrant and +pernicious. Thus criminal informations have been granted for bribing or +attempting to bribe public functionaries, and for aggravated libels on +public or private persons. Leave to file an information is obtained +after an application to show cause, founded on a sworn statement of the +material facts of the case. + +Certain suits might also be filed in Chancery by way of information in +the name of the attorney-general, but this species of information was +superseded by Order 1, rule 1 of the Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, +under which they are instituted in the ordinary way. Informations in the +Court of Exchequer in revenue cases, also filed by the attorney-general, +are still resorted to (see _A.-G._ v. _Williamson_, 1889, 60 L.T. 930). + + + + +INFORMER, in a general sense, one who communicates information. The term +is applied to a person who prosecutes in any of the courts of law those +who break any law or penal statute. Such a person is called a common +informer when he furnishes evidence on criminal trials or prosecutes for +breaches of penal laws solely for the purpose of obtaining the penalty +recovered, or a share of it. An action by a common informer is termed a +_popular_ or _qui tam_ action, because it is brought by a person _qui +tam pro domino rege quam pro se ipso sequitur_. A suit by an informer +must be brought within a year of the offence, unless a specific time is +prescribed by the statute. The term informer is also used of an +accomplice in crime who turns what is called "king's evidence" (see +ACCOMPLICE). In Scotland, informer is the term applied to the party who, +in criminal proceedings, sets the lord advocate in motion. + + + + +INFUSORIA, the name given by Bütschli (following O.F. Ledermüller, 1763) +to a group of Protozoa. The name arose from the procedure adopted by the +older microscopists to obtain animalcules. Infusions of most varied +organic substances were prepared (hay and pepper being perhaps the +favourite ones), the method of obtaining them including maceration and +decoction, as well as infusion in the strict sense; they were then +allowed to decompose in the air, so that various living beings developed +therein. As classified by C. G. Ehrenberg in his monumental +_Infusionstierchen als volkommene Organismen_, they included (1) +Desmids, Diatoms and Schizomycetes, now regarded as essentially Plant +Protista or Protophytes; (2) Sarcodina (excluding Foraminifera, as well +as Radiolaria, which were only as yet known by their skeletons, and +termed Polycystina), and (3) Rotifers, as well as (4) Flagellates and +Infusoria in our present sense. F. Dujardin in his _Histoire des +zoophytes_ (1841) gave nearly as liberal an interpretation to the name; +while C. T. Van Siebold (1845) narrowed it to its present limits save +for the admission of several Flagellate families. O. Bütschli limited +the group by removing the Flagellata, Dinoflagellata and Cystoflagellata +(q.v.) under the name of "Mastigophora" proposed earlier by R. M. +Diesing (1865). We now define it thus:--Protozoa bounded by a permanent +plasmic pellicle and consequently of definite form, never using +pseudopodia for locomotion or ingestion, provided (at least in the young +state) with numerous cilia or organs derived from cilia and equipped +with a double nuclear apparatus: the larger (mega-) nucleus usually +dividing by constriction, and disappearing during conjugation: the +smaller (micro-) nucleus (sometimes multiple) dividing by mitosis, and +entering into conjugation and giving rise to the cycle of nuclei both +large and small of the race succeeding conjugation. + +[Illustration: FIG. i. Ciliata. + + 1. _Opalinopsis sepiolae_, Foett.: a parasitic Holotrichous mouthless + Ciliate from the liver of the Squid. a, branched meganucleus; b, + vacuoles (non-contractile). + + 2. A similar specimen treated with picrocarmine, showing a remarkably + branched and twisted meganucleus (a), in place of several nuclei. + + 3. _Anoplophrya naidos_, Duj.; a mouthless Holotrichous Ciliate + parasitic in the worm Nais. a, the large axial meganucleus; b, + contractile vacuoles. + + 4. _Anoplophrya prolifera_, C. and L.; from the intestine of + _Clitellio_. Remarkable for the adhesion of incomplete + fission-products in a metameric series. a, meganucleus. + + 5. _Amphileptus gigas_, C. and L. (Gymnostomaceae). b, contractile + vacuoles; c, trichocysts (see fig. 2); d, meganucleus; e. pharynx. + + 6, 7. _Prorodon niveus_, Ehr. (Gymnostomaceae). a, meganucleus; b, + contractile vacuole; c, pharynx with horny cuticular lining. + + 6. The fasciculate cuticle of the pharynx isolated. + + 8. _Trachelius ovum_, Ehr. (Gymnostomaceae); showing the reticulate + arrangement of the endosarc, b, contractile vacuoles; c, the + cuticle-lined pharynx. + + 9, 10, 11, 12. _Icthyophthirius multifilius_, Fouquet + (Gymnostomaceae). Free individual and successive stages of division to + form spores. a, meganucleus; b, contractile vacuoles. + + 13. _Didinium nasutum_, Müll. (Gymnostomaceae). The pharynx is everted + and has seized a _Paramecium_ as food. a, meganucleus; b, contractile + vacuole; c, everted pharynx. + + 14. _Euplotes charon_, Müll. (Hypotrichaceae); lateral view of the + animal when using its great cirrhi, x, as ambulatory organs. + + 15. _Euplotes harpa_, Stein (Hypotrichaceae); h, mouth; x, cirrhi. + + 16. _Nyctotherus cordiformis_, Stein (a Heterotriceae), parasitic in + the intestine of the Frog; a, meganucleus; b, contractile vacuole; c, + food particle; d, anus; e, heterotrichous band of membranelles; f, g, + mouth; h, pharynx; i, small cilia.] + +Thus defined, the Infusoria fall into two groups:--(1) _Ciliata_, with +cilia or organs derived from cilia throughout their lives, provided with +a single permanent mouth (absent in the parasitic _Opalinopsidae_) flush +with the body or at the base of an oral depression, and taking in food +by active swallowing or by ciliary action: (2) _Suctoria_, rarely +ciliated except in the young state, and taking in their food by suction +through protrusible hollow tentacles, usually numerous. + + The pellicle of the Infusoria is stronger and more permanent than in + many Protozoa, and sometimes assumes the character of a mail of hard + plates, closely fitting; but even in this case it undergoes solution + soon after death. It is continuous with a firm ectosarc, highly + differentiated in the Ciliata, and in both groups free from coarse + movable granules. The endosarc is semifluid and rich in granules + mostly "reserve" in nature, often showing proteid or fat reactions. + One or more contractile vacuoles are present in some of the marine and + all the freshwater species, and open to the surface by pores of + permanent position: a system of canals in the deeper layers of the + ectoplasm is sometimes connected with the vacucle. The body is often + provided with not-living external formations "stalk" and "theca" (or + "lorica"). + + The character of the nuclear apparatus excludes two groups both + parasitic and mouthless: (1) the Trichonymphidae, with a single + nucleus of Leidy, parasitic in Insects, especially Termites; (2) the + Opalinidae, with several (often numerous) uniform nuclei, parasitic in + the gut of Batrachia, &c., and producing 1-nuclear zoospores which + conjugate. Both these families we unite into a group of Pseudociliata, + which may be referred to the _Flagellata_ (q.v.). Lankester in the + last edition of this Encyclopaedia called attention to the doubtful + position of _Opalina_, and Delage and Hérouard placed Trichonymphidae + among Flagellates. + + The theca or shell is present in some pelagic species (fig. iii. 3, 5) + and in many of the attached species, notably among the Peritricha + (fig. iii. 21, 22, 25, 26) and Suctoria (fig. viii. 11); and is found + in some free-swimming forms (fig. iii. 3, 5): it is usually chitinous, + and forms a cup into which the animal, protruded when at its utmost + elongation, can retract itself. In _Metacineta mystacina_ it has + several distinct slits (pylomes) for the passage of tufts of + tentacles. In _Stentor_ it is gelatinous; and in the Dictyocystids it + is beautifully latticed. + + The stalk is usually solid, and expanded at the base into a disk in + Suctoria. In Peritrichaceae (fig. iii. 8-22, 25, 26), the only ciliate + group with a stalk, it grows for some time after its formation, and on + fission two new stalks continue the old one, so as to form a branched + colony (fig. iii. 18). In _Vorticella_ (fig. iii. 11, 12, 14, &c.) the + stalk is hollow and elastic, and attached to it along a spiral is a + prolongation of the ectosarc containing a bundle of myonemes, so that + by the contractions of the bundle the stalk is pulled down into a + corkscrew spiral, and on the relaxation of the muscle the elasticity + of the hollow stalk straightens it out. + + On fission the stalk may become branched, as the solid one of + _Epistylis_ and _Opercularia_ (fig. iii. 20); and the myoneme also in + the tubular stem of _Zoothaminum_; or the branch-myoneme for the one + offspring may be inserted laterally on that for the other in + _Carchesium_ (fig. iii. 18). In several tubicolous Peritrichaceae + there is some arrangement for closing their tubes. In _Thuricola_ + (fig. iii. 25-26) there is a valve which opens by the pressure of the + animal on its protrusion, and closes automatically by elasticity on + retraction. In _Lagenophrys_ the animal adheres to the cup a little + below the opening, so that its withdrawal closes the cup: at the + adherent part the body mass is hardened, and so differentiated as to + suggest the frame of the mouth of a purse. In _Pyxicola_ (fig. iii. + 21-22) the animal bears some way down the body a hardened shield + ("operculum") which closes the mouth of the shell on retraction. + + [Illustration: FIG. ii. + + 1, Surface view of _Paramecium_, showing the disposition of the + cilia in longitudinal rows. + + 2, a, mega-; b, micronucleus; c, junction of ecto- and endosarc; D, + pellicle; E, endosarc; f, cilia (much too numerous and crowded); g, + trichocysts; g', same with thread; h, discharged; i, pharynx, its + undulating membrane not shown; k, food granules collecting into a + bolus; l, m, n, o, food vacuoles, their contents being digested as + they pass in the endosarc along the path indicated by the arrows. + + 3, Outline showing contractile vacuoles in commencing diastole, + surrounded by five afferent canals. + + 4-7 Successive stages of diastole of contractile vacuole.] + + The cytoplasm of the Infusoria is very susceptible to injuries; and + when cut or torn, unless the pellicle contracts rapidly to enclose the + wounded surface, the substance of the body swells up, becoming frothy, + with bubbles which rapidly enlarge and finally burst; the cell thus + disintegrates, leaving only a few granules to mark where it was. This + phenomenon, observed by Dujardin, is called "diffluence." The + contractile vacuole appears to be one of the means by which diffluence + is avoided in cells with no strong wall to resist the absorption of + water in excess; for after growing in size for some time, its walls + contract suddenly, and its contents are expelled to the outside by a + pore, which is, like the anus, usually invisible, but permanent in + position. The contractile vacuole may be single or multiple; it may + receive the contents of a canal, or of a system of canals, which only + become visible at the moment of the contraction of the vacuole (fig. + ii. 4-7), giving liquid time to accumulate in them, or when the + vacuole is acting sluggishly or imperfectly, as in the approach of + asphyxia (fig. ii. 3). Besides this function, since the system passes + a large quantity of water from without through the substance of the + cell, it must needs act as a means of respiration and excretion. In + all Peritrichaceae it opens to the vestibule, and in some of them it + discharges through an intervening reservoir, curiously recalling the + arrangements in the Flagellate Euglenaceae. + + The nuclear apparatus consists of two parts, the meganucleus, and the + micronucleus or micronuclei (fig. iii. 17d, iv. 1). The meganucleus + alone regarded and described as "the nucleus" by older observers is + always single, subject to a few reservations. It is most frequently + oval, and then is indented by the micronucleus; but it may be lobed, + the lobes lying far apart and connected by a slender bridge or + moniliform, or horseshoe-shaped (Peritrichaceae). It often contains + darker inclusions, like nucleoles. + + It has been shown, more especially by Gruber, that many Ciliata are + multinucleate, and do not possess merely a single meganucleus and a + micronucleus. In _Oxytricha_ the nuclei are large and numerous (about + forty), scattered through the protoplasm, whilst in other cases the + nucleus is so finely divided as to appear like a powder diffused + uniformly through the medullary protoplasm (_Trachelocerca_). Carmine + staining, after treatment with absolute alcohol, has led to this + remarkable discovery. The condition described by Foettinger in his + _Opalinopsis_ (fig. i. 1, 2) is an example of this pulverization of + the nucleus. The condition of pulverization had led in some cases to a + total failure to detect any nucleus in the living animal, and it was + only by the use of reagents that the actual state of the case was + revealed. Before fission, whatever be its habitual character, it + condenses, becomes oval, and divides by constriction; and though it + usually is then fibrillated, only in a few cases does it approach the + typical mitotic condition. The micronucleus described by older writers + as the "nucleolus" or "paranucleus" ("endoplastule" of Huxley), may be + single or multiple. When the meganucleus is bilobed there are always + two micronuclei, and at least one is found next to every enlargement + of the moniliform meganucleus. In the fission of the Infusoria, every + micronucleus divides by a true mitotic process, during which, however, + its wall remains intact. From their relative sizes the meganucleus + would appear to discharge during cell-life, exclusively, the functions + of the nucleus in ordinary cells. Since in conjugation, however, the + meganucleus degenerates and is in great part either digested or + excreted as waste matter, while the new nuclear apparatus in both + exconjugates arises, as we shall see, from a conjugation-nucleus of + exclusively micronuclear origin, we infer that the micronucleus has + for its function the carrying on of the nuclear functions of the race + from one fission cycle to the next from which the meganucleus is + excluded. + + Fission is the ordinary mode of reproduction in the Infusoria, and is + usually transverse, but oblique in _Stentor_, &., as in Flagellata, + longitudinal in Peritrichaceae; in some cases it is always more or + less unequal owing to the differentiation of the body, and + consequently it must be followed by a regeneration of the missing + organs in either daughter-cell. In some cases it becomes very uneven, + affording every transition to budding, which process assumes especial + importance in the Suctoria. Multiple fission (brood-formation or + sporulation) is exceptional in Infusoria, and when it occurs the + broods rarely exceed four or eight--another difference from + Flagellata. The nuclear processes during conjugation suggest the + phylogenetic loss of a process of multiple fission into active + gametes. As noted, in fission the meganucleus divides by direct + constriction; each micronucleus by a mode of mitosis. The process of + fission is subject in its activity to the influences of nutrition and + temperature, slackening as the food supply becomes inadequate or as + the temperature recedes from the optimum for the process. Moreover, if + the descendants of a single animal be raised, it is found that the + rapidity of fission, other conditions being the same, varies + periodically, undergoing periods of depression, which may be followed + by either (1) spontaneous recovery, (2) recovery under stimulating + food, (3) recovery through conjugation, or (4) the death of the cycle, + which would have ensued if 2 or 3 had been omitted at an earlier + stage, but which ultimately seems inevitable, even the induction of + conjugation failing to restore it. These physiological conditions were + first studied by E. Maupas, librarian to the city of Algiers, in his + pioneering work in the later 'eighties, and have been confirmed and + extended by later observers, among whom we may especially cite G. N. + Calkins. + + Syngamy, usually termed conjugation or "karyogamy," is of exceptional + character in the majority of this group--the Peritrichaceae alone + evincing an approximation to the usual typical process of the + permanent fusion of two cells (pairing-cells or gametes), cytoplasm to + cytoplasm, nucleus to nucleus, to form a new cell (coupled cell, + zygote). + + This process was elucidated by E. Maupas in 1889, and his results, + eagerly questioned and repeatedly tested, have been confirmed in every + fact and in every generalization of importance. + + Previously all that had been definitely made out was that under + certain undetermined conditions a fit of pairing two and two occurred + among the animals of the same species in a culture or in a locality in + the open; that after a union prolonged over hours, and sometimes even + days, the mates separated; that during the union the meganucleus + underwent changes of a degenerative character; and that the + micronucleus underwent repeated divisions, and that from the offspring + of the micronuclei the new nuclear apparatus was evolved for each + mate. Maupas discovered the biological conditions leading to + conjugation: (1) the presence of individuals belonging to distinct + stocks; (2) their belonging to a generation sufficiently removed from + previous conjugation, but not too far removed therefrom; (3) a + deficiency of food. He also showed that during conjugation a + "migratory" nucleus, the offspring of the divisions of the + micronucleus, passes from either mate to the other, while its sister + nucleus remains "stationary"; and that reciprocal fusion of the + migratory nucleus of the one mate with the stationary nucleus of the + other takes place to form a zygote nucleus in either mate; and that + from these zygote nuclei in each by division, at least two nuclei are + formed, the one of which enlarges to form a meganucleus, while the + other remains small as the first micronucleus of the new reorganized + animal, which now separates as an "exconjugate" (fig. iv). Moreover, + if pairing be prevented, or be not induced, the individuals produced + by successive fissions become gradually weaker, their nuclear + apparatus degenerates, and finally they cannot be induced under + suitable conditions to pair normally, so that the cycle becomes + extinct by senile decay. In Peritrichaceae the gametes are of unequal + sizes (fig. iii. 11, 12), the smaller being formed by brood fissions + (4 or 8); syngamy is here permanent, not temporary, the smaller (male) + being absorbed into the body of the larger (female); and there are + only two nuclei that pair. Thus we have a derived binary sexual + process, comparable to that of ordinary bisexual organisms. + + [Illustration: FIG. iii.-- Ciliata: 1, 2, Heterotrichaceae; 3-7, + 23-24, Oligotrichaceae; 8-22, 25, 26, Peritrichaceae. + + 1, _Spirostomum ambiguum_, Ehr.; on its left side oral groove and + wreath of membranellae; a, moniliform meganucleus; b, position of + contractile vacuole. + + 2, Group of _Stentor polymorphus_, O. F. Müller; the twisted end of + the peristome indicating the position of the mouth. + + 3, _Tintinnus lagenula_, Cl. and L., in free shell. + + 4, _Strombidium claparedii_, S. Kent. + + 5, Shell of _Codonella campanella_, Haeck. + + 6, 7, _Torquatella typica_, Lank. (= _Strombidium_ according to + Bütschli); p, oral tube seen through peristomial wreath of + apparently coalescent membranellae. + + 8. Basal, and 9, side (inverted) views of _Trichodina pediculus_, + Ehr.; a, meganucleus; c, basal collar and ring of hooks; d, mouth; + contractile vacuole and oral tube seen by transparency in 8. + + 10, _Spirochona gammipara_, Stein; a, meganucleus; g, bud. + + 11, 12, _Vorticella microstoma_, Ehr.; d, formation of a brood of 8 + microgametes c by multiple fission; b, contr. vacuole. + + 13, Same sp. in binary fission; a, meganucleus. + + 14, _V. nebulifera_, Ehr.; bud swimming away by posterior wreath, + peristome contracted; e, peristomial disk; f, oral tube. + + 15, _V. microstoma_; b, contr. vacuole; c, d, two microgametes + seeking to conjugate. + + 16, _V. nebulifera_, contracted, with body encysted. + + 17, Same sp. enlarged; c, myonemes converging posteriorly to muscle + of stalk; d, micronucleus. + + 18, _Carchesium spectabile_, Ehr.; (×50). + + 19, Nematocysts of _Epistylis flavicans_. Ehr. (after Greeff). + + 20, _Opercularia stenostoma_, St.; (×200); a small colony showing + upstanding ("opercular") peristomial disk, protruded oral undulating + membranejand cilia in oral tube. + + 21, 22, _Pyxicola affinis_, S.K., with stalk and theca; x, chitinous + disk, or true "operculum" closing theca in retracted state. + + 23, 24, _Caenomorpha medusula_, Perty, (×250), with spiral + peristomial wreath. + + 25, 26, _Thuricola valvata_, Str. Wright, in sessile theca, with + internal valve (v) to close tube, as in gastropod _Clausilia_; owing + to recent fission two animals occupy one tube.] + + [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. + + FIG. iv.--Diagrammatic Sketch of Changes during Conjugation in + Ciliata. (From Hickson after Delage and Maupas.) + + 1, Two individuals at commencement of conjugation showing + meganucleus (dotted) and micronucleus; successive stages of the + disintegration of the meganucleus shown in all figures up to 9. + + 2, 3, First mitotic division of micronuclei. + + 4, 5, Second ditto. + + 6, One of the four nuclei resulting from the second division again + dividing to form the pairing-nuclei in either mate, while the other + 3 nuclei degenerate. + + 7, Migration of the migratory nuclei. + + 8, 9, Fusion of the incoming migratory with the stationary nucleus + in either mate. + + 10, Fission of Zygote nucleus into two, the new mega- and + micronucleus whose differentiation is shown in 11, 12. The vertical + dotted line indicates the separation of the mates.] + +CILIATA.--The _Ciliate_ Infusoria represent the highest type of +Protozoa. They are distinctly animal in function, and the Gymnostomaceae +are active predaceous beings preying on other Infusoria or Flagellates. +Some possess shells (fig. iii. 3, 5, 21, 22, 25, 26), most have a +distinct swallowing apparatus, and in _Dysteria_ there is a complex +jaw--or tooth-apparatus, which needs new investigation. In the active +Ciliata we find locomotive organs of most varied kinds: tail-springs, +cirrhi for crawling and darting, cilia and membranellae for continuous +swimming in the open or gliding over surfaces or waltzing on the +substratum (_Trichodina_, fig. iii. 8) or for eddying in wild turns +through the water (_Strombidium_, _Tintinnus_, _Halteria_). Their forms +offer a most interesting variety, and the flexibility of many adds to +their easy grace of movement, especially where the front of the body is +produced and elongated like the neck of a swan (_Amphileptus_, fig. iii. +5; _Lacrymaria_). + + The cytoplasm is very highly differentiated: especially the ectoplasm + or ectosarc. This has always a distinct elastic "pellicle" or limiting + layer, in a few cases hard, or even with local hardenings that affect + the disposition of a coat of mail (_Coleps_) or a pair of valves + (_Dysteria_); but is usually only marked into a rhomboidal network by + intersecting depressions, with the cilia occupying the centres of the + areas or meshes defined. The cytoplasm within is distinctly + alveolated, and frequently contains tubular alveoli running along the + length of the animal. Between these are dense fibrous thickenings, + which from their double refraction, from their arrangement, and from + their shortening in contracted animals are regarded as of muscular + function and termed "myonemes." Other threads running alongside of + these, and not shortening but becoming wavy in the general contraction + have been described in a few species as "neuronemes" and as possessing + a _nervous_, conducting character. On this level, too, lie the + dot-like granules at the bases of the cilia, which form definite + groups in the case of such organs as are composed of fused cilia; in + the deeper part of the ectoplasm the vacuoles or alveoli are more + numerous, and reserve granules are also found; here too exist the + canals, sometimes developed into a complex network, which open into + the contractile vacuole. + + [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. + + FIG. v.--Diagram 1 illustrating changes during conjugation of + _Colpidium colpoda_. (From Hickson, after Maupas.) + + M, Old meganucleus undergoing disintegration. + + m, Micronucleus. + + N, migratory, and + + S, Stationary pairing-nucleus. + + M´, M´, the new meganuclei, and + + m´, The new micronuclei in the products of the first fission of each + of the exconjugates; the continuous vertical line indicates period + of fusion, its cessation, separation; dotted lines indicate fission; + the spaces lettered 1-7 successive stages in the process; the clear + circles indicate functionless nuclei which degenerate.] + + The cilia themselves have a stiffer basal part, probably strengthened + by an axial rod, and a distal flexible lash; when cilia are united by + the outer plasmatic layer, they form (1) "Cirrhi," stiff and either + hook-like and pointed at the end, or brush-like, with a frayed apex; + (2) membranelles, flattened organs composed of a number of cilia fused + side by side, sometimes on a single row, sometimes on two rows + approximated at either end so as to form a narrow oval, the + membranelle thus being hollow; (3) the oral "undulating membrane," + merely a very elongated membranelle whose base may extend over a + length nearly equal to the length of the animal; such membranes are + present in the mouth oral depression and pharynx of all but + Gymnostomaceae, and aid in ingestion; a second or third may be + present, and behave like active lips; (4) in Peritrichaceae the cilia + of the peristomial wreath are united below into a continuous + undulating membrane, forming a spiral of more than one turn, and fray + out distally into a fringe; (5) the dorsal cilia of Hypotrichaceae are + slender and motionless, probably sensory. + + Embedded in the ectosarc of many Ciliates are trichocysts, little + elongated sacs at right angles to the surface, with a fine hair-like + process projecting. On irritation these elongate into strong prominent + threads, often with a more or less barb-like head, and may be ejected + altogether from the body. Those over the surface of the body appear to + be protective; but in the Gymnostomaceae specially strong ones + surround the mouth. They can be injected into the prey pursued, and + appear to have a distinctly poisonous effect on it. They are combined + also into defensive batteries in the Gymnostome _Loxophyllum_. They + are absent from most Heterotrichaceae and Hypotrichaceae, and from + Peritrichaceae, except for a zone round the collar of the peristome. + + The openings of the body are the _mouth_, absent in a few parasital + species (_Opalinopsis_, fig. i. 1, 2), the _anus_ and the _pore_ of + the contractile vacuole. The _mouth_ is easily recognizable; in the + most primitive forms of the Gymnostomaceae and some other groups, it + is terminal, but it passes further and further back in more modified + species, thereby defining a ventral, and correspondingly a dorsal + surface; it usually lies on the left side. The anus is usually only + visible during excretion, though its position is permanent; in a few + genera it is always visible (e.g. _Nyctotherus_, fig. i. 16). The pore + of the contractile vacuole might be described in the same terms. + + The endoplasm has also an alveolar structure, and contains besides + large food-vacuoles or digestive vacuoles, and shows movements of + rotation within the ectoplasm, from which, however, it is not usually + distinctly bounded. In _Ophryoscolex_ and _Didinium_ (fig. i. 13) a + permanent cavity traverses it from mouth to anus. + + [Illustration: From Calkins' _Protozoa_, by permission of the + Macmillan Company, N.Y. + + FIG. vi.--Diagrammatic view of behaviour of the motile reaction of + Paramecium after meeting a mechanical obstruction at A. (From G. N. + Calkins after H. S. Jennings.) For clearness and simplicity the normal + motion is supposed to be straight instead of spiral.] + + Ingestion of food is of the same character in all the Hymenostomata. + The ciliary current drives a powerful stream into the mouth, which + impinges against the endosarc, carrying with it the food particles; + these adhere and accumulate to form a pellet, which ultimately is + pushed by an apparently sudden action into the substance of the + endosarc which closes behind it (fig. ii. 2). In some of the + Aspirotrichaceae accessory undulating membranes play the part of lips, + and there is a closer approximation to true deglutition. The mouth is + rarely terminal, more frequently at the bottom of a depression, the + "vestibule," which may be prolonged into a slender canal, sometimes + called the "pharynx" or "oral tube," ciliated as well as provided with + a membrane, and extending deep down into the body in many + Peritrichaceae. + + In Spirostomaceae the "adoral wreath" of membranelles encloses more or + less completely an anterior part of the body, the "peristome," within + which lies the vestibule. This area may be depressed, truncate, convex + or produced into a short obconical disk or into one or more lobes, or + finally form a funnel, or a twisted spiral like a paper cone. In most + Peritrichaceae a collar-like rim surrounds the peristome, and marks + out a gutter from which the vestibule opens; the peristome can be + retracted, and the collar close over it. This rim forms a deep + permanent spiral funnel in _Spirochona_ (fig. iii. 10). + + _Movements of Ciliata._--H. S. Jennings has made a very detailed study + of these movements, which resemble those of most minute free-swimming + organisms. The following account applies practically to all active + "Infusoria" in the widest sense. + + [Illustration: FIG. vii.--Diagram of a mode of progression of a + Ciliate like _Paramecium_; m, mouth and pharynx; the straight line A, + B, represents the axis of progression described by the posterior end, + and the spiral line the curve described by the anterior end; the clear + circles are the contractile vacuoles on the dorsal side.] + + The position of the free-swimming Infusoria, like that of Rotifers and + other small swimming animals, is with the front end of the body + inclined outward to the axis of advance, constantly changing its + azimuth while preserving its angle constant or nearly so; if advance + were ignored the body would thus rotate so as to trace out a cone, + with the hinder end at the apex, and the front describing the base. On + any irritation, (1) the motion is arrested, (2) the animal reverses + its cilia and swims backwards, (3) it swerves outwards away from the + axis so as to make a larger angle with it, and (4) then swims forwards + along a new axis of progression, to which it is inclined at the same + angle as to the previous axis (figs. vi., vii.). In this way it alters + its axis of progression when it finds itself under conditions of + stimulation. Thus a _Paramecium_ coming into a region relatively too + cold, too hot, or too poor in CO2 or in nutriment, alters its + direction of swimming; in this way individuals come to assemble in + crowds where food is abundant, or even where there is a slight excess + of CO2. This reaction may lead to fatal results; if a solution of + corrosive sublimate (Mercuric chloride) diffuses towards the hinder + end of the animal faster than it progresses, the stimulus affecting + the hinder end first, the axis of progression is altered so as to + bring the animal after a few changes into a region where the solution + is strong enough to kill it. This "motile reaction," first noted by H. + S. Jennings, is the explanation of the general reactions of minute + swimming animals to most stimuli of whatever character, including + light; the practical working out is, as he terms it, a method of + "trial and error." The action, however, of a current of electricity is + distinctly and immediately directive; but such a stimulus is not to be + found in nature. The motile reaction in the Hypotrichaceae which crawl + or dart in a straight line is somewhat different, the swerve being a + simple turn to the right hand--i.e. away from the mouth. + + Parasitism in the Infusoria is by no means so important as among + Flagellates. _Ichthyophthirius_ alone causes epidemics among Fishes, + and _Balantidium coli_ has been observed in intestinal disease in Man. + The Isotricheae, among Aspirotrichaceae and the Ophryoscolecidae among + Heterotrichaceae are found in abundance in the stomachs of Ruminants, + and are believed to play a part in the digestion of cellulose, and + thus to be rather commensals than parasites. A large number of + attached species are epizoic commensals, some very indifferent in + choice of their host, others particular not only in the species they + infest, but also in the special organs to which they adhere. This is + notably the case with the shelled Peritrichaceae. _Lichnophora_ and + _Trichodina_ (fig. iii. 8, 9) among Peritrichaceae are capable of + locomotion by their permanent posterior wreath or of attaching + themselves by the sucker which surrounds it; _Kerona polyporum_ glides + habitually over the body of Hydra, as does _Trichodina pediculus_. + + Several Suctoria are endoparasitic in Ciliata, and their occurrence + led to the view that they represented stages in the life-history of + these. Again, we find in the endosarc of certain Ciliates green + nucleated cells, which have a cellulose envelope and multiply by + fission inside or outside the animal. They are symbiotic Algae, or + possibly the resting state of a Chlamydomonadine Flagellate + (_Carteria_?), and have received the name _Zoochlorella_. They are of + constant occurrence in _Paramecium bursaria_, frequent in _Stentor + polymorphus_ and _S. igneus_, and _Ophrydium versatile_, and a few + other species, which become infected by swallowing them. + + + _Classification._ + + Order I.--Section A.--Gymnostomaceae. Mouth habitually closed; + swallowing an active process; cilia (or membranelles) uniform, usually + distributed evenly over the body; form variable, sometimes of circular + transverse section. + + Section B.--Trichostomata. Mouth permanently open against the + endosarc, provided with 1 or 2 undulating membranes often prolonged + into an inturned pharynx; ingestion by action of oral ciliary + apparatus. + + Order 2.--Subsection (a).--Aspirotrichaceae. Cilia nearly uniform, not + associated with cirrhi or membranelles, nor forming a peristomial + wreath. Form usually flattened, mouth unilateral. (N.B.--Orders 1, 2 + are sometimes united into the single order Holotrichaceae.) + + Subsection (b).--Spirotricha. Wreath of distinct membranelles--or of + cilia fused at the base--enclosing a peristomial area and leading into + the mouth. + + §§ i.--Wreath of separate membranelles. + + Order 3.--Heterotrichaceae; body covered with fine uniform cilia, + usually circular in transverse section. + + Order 4.--Oligotrichaceae; body covering partial or wholly absent; + transverse section usually circular. + + Order 5.--Hypotrichaceae; body flattened; body cilia represented + chiefly by stiff cirrhi in ventral rows, and fine motionless dorsal + sensory hairs. + + Order 6.--§§ ii.--Peritrichaceae. Peristomial ciliary wreath, spiral, + of cilia united at the base; posterior wreath circular of long + membranelles; body circular in section, cylindrical, taper, or + bell-shaped. + + + _Illustrative Genera (selected)._ + + 1. Gymnostomaceae. (a) Ciliation general or not confined to one + surface. _Coleps_ Ehr., with pellicle locally hardened into mailed + plates; _Trachelocerca_ Ehr.; _Prorodon_ Ehr. (fig. i. 6, 7); + _Trachelius_ Ehr., with branching endosarc (fig. i. 8); _Lacrymaria_ + Ehr. (fig. i. 5), body produced into a long neck with terminal mouth + surrounded by offensive trichocysts; _Dileptus_ Duj., of similar form, + but anterior process, blind, preoral; _Ichthyophthirius_ Fouquet (fig. + i. 9-12), cilia represented by two girdles of membranellae; _Didinium_ + St. (fig. i. 13), cilia in tufts, surface with numerous tentacles each + with a strong terminal trichocyst; _Actinobolus_ Stein, body with one + adoral tentacle; Ileonema Stokes. (b) Cilia confined to dorsal + surface. _Chilodon_ Ehr.; _Loxodes_ Ehr., body flattened, ciliated on + one side only, endosarc as in _Trachelius_; _Dysteria_ Huxley, with + the dorsal surface hardened and hinged along the median line into a + bivalve shell, ciliated only on ventral surface, with a protrusible + foot-like process, and a complex pharyngeal armature. (c) Cilia + restricted to a single equatorial girdle, strong (probably + membranelles); _Mesodinium_, mouth 4-lobed. + + 2. Aspirotrichaceae. _Paramecium_ Hill (fig. ii. 1-3); _Ophryoglena_ + Ehr.; _Colpoda_ O. F. Müller; _Colpidium_ St.; _Lembus_ Cohn, with + posterior strong cilium for springing; _Leucophrys_ St.; _Urocentrum_ + Nitsch, bare, with polar and equatorial zones and a posterior tuft of + long cilia; _Opalinopsis_ Foetlinger (fig. i. 1, 2); _Anoplophyra_ + St. (fig. i. 3, 4). (The last two parasitic mouthless genera are + placed here doubtfully.) + + 3. Heterotrichaceae. (a) Wreath spiral; _Stentor_ Oken. (fig. iii. 2), + oval when free, trumpet-shaped when attached by pseudopods at apex, + and then often secreting a gelatinous tube; _Blepharisma_ Perty, + sometimes parasitic in Heliozoa; _Spirostomum_ Ehr., cylindrical, up + to 1´´ in length; (b) Wreath straight, often oblique; _Nyctotherus_ + Leidy, parasitic anus always visible; _Balantidium_ Cl. and L., + parasitic (_B. coli_ in man); _Bursaria_, O.F.M., hollowed into an + oval pouch, with the wreath inside. + + 4. Oligotrichaeceae. _Tintinnus_ Schranck (fig. iii. 3); + _Trichodinopsis_ Cl. and L.; _Codonella_ Haeck. (fig. iii. 5); + _Strombidium_ Cl. and L. (fig. iii. 4), including _Torquatella_ Lank. + (fig. iii. 6, 7), according to Bütschli; _Halteria_ Duj., with an + equatorial girdle of stiff bristle-like cilia; _Caenomorpha_ Perty + (fig. iii. 23, 24); _Ophryoscolex_ St., with straight digestive + cavity, and visible anus, parasitic in Ruminants. + + 5. Hypotrichaceae. _Stylonychia_ Ehr.; _Oxytricha_ Ehr.; _Euplotes_ + Ehr. (fig. i. 14, 15); _Kerona_ Ehr. (epizoic on _Hydra_). + + 6. Peritrichaceae. 1. Peristomial wreath projecting when expanded + above a circular contractile collar-like rim. + + (a) Fam. Urceolaridae: posterior wreath permanently present around + sucker-like base. _Trichodina_ Ehr. (fig. iii. 8, 9), epizoic on + Hydra; _Lichnophora_ Cl. and L.; _Cyclochaeta_ Hatchett Jackson; + _Gerda_ Cl. and L.; _Scyphidia_ Duj. + + (b) Fam. Vorticellidae = Bell Animalcules: posterior wreath + temporarily present, shed after fixation. + + Subfam. 1. Vorticellinae animals naked. (i.) Solitary; _Vorticella_ + Linn. (fig. iii. 11-17), stalk hollow with spiral muscle; _Pyxidium_ + S. Kent, stalk non-contractile. (ii.) Forming colonies by budding on a + branched stalk: _Carchesium_ Ehr., hollow branches and muscles + discontinuous; _Zoothamnium_. Ehr., branched hollow stem and muscle + continuous through colony; _Epistylis_ Ehr., stalk rigid--(the animal + body in these three genera has the same characters as + _Vorticella_)--_Campanella_ Goldf., stalked like _Epistylis_, wreath + of many turns (nematocysts sometimes present) (fig. iii. 19); + _Opercularia_, stalk of _Epistylis_, disk supporting wreath obconical, + collar very high (fig. iii. 20). + + Subfam. 2. Vaginicolinae; body enclosed in a firm theca: _Vaginicola_ + Lam., shell simple, sessile; _Thuricola_ St. Wright, shell sessile, + with a valve opening inwards (fig. iii. 25-26); _Cothurnia_ Ehr., + shell stalked, simple; _Pyxicola_ S. Kent, shell stalked, closed by an + infraperistomial opercular thickening on the body (fig. iii. 21-22). + + Subfam. 3. Shells gelatinous; those of the colony aggregated into a + floating spheroidal mass several inches in diameter _Ophrydium_ Bory, + _O. versatile_ contains _Zoochlorella_, which secretes oxygen, and the + gas-bubbles float the colonies like green lumps of jelly. + + 2. Peristomial wreath, not protrusible, surrounded by a very high + usually spiral collar. + + Fam. Spirochonina. _Spirochona_ St. (fig. iii. 10); _Kentrochona_ + Rompel; both genera epizoic on gills, &c., of small Crustacea. + +SUCTORIA.--These are distinguished from Ciliata by their possession of +hollow tentacles (one only in _Rhyncheta_, fig. viii. 1, and _Urnula_) +through which they ingest food, and by not possessing cilia, except in +the young stage. Fission approximately equal is very rare. Usually it is +unequal, or if nearly equal one of the halves remains attached, and the +other, as an embryo or gemmule, develops cilia and swims off to attach +itself elsewhere; _Sphaerophrya_ (fig. viii. 2-6) alone, often occurring +as an endoparasite in Ciliata, may be free, tentaculate and unattached. + + The ectosarc is usually provided with a firm pellicle which shows a + peculiar radiate "milling" in optical section, so fine that its true + nature is difficult to make out; it may be due to radial rods, + regularly imbedded, or may be the expression of radial vacuoles. The + tentacles vary in many respects, but are always retractile. They are + tubes covered by an extension of the pellicle; this is invaginated + into the body round the base of the tentacle as a sheath, and then + evaginated to form the outer layer of the tentacle itself, over which + it is frequently raised into a spiral ridge, which may be traced down + into the part sunk and ensheathed within the body: in _Choanophrya_, + where the tentacles are largest, the pellicle is further continued + into the interior of the tentacle. The tentacles are always pierced by + a central canal opening at the apex, which may be (1) enlarged into a + terminal capitate sucker, (2) slightly flared, (3) truncate and closed + in the resting state to become widely opened into a funnel, or (4) + pointed. The tentacles are always capable of being waved from side to + side, or turned in a definite direction for the reception or + prehension of food; in _Rhyncheta_, the movements of the long single + tentacle recall those of an elephant's trunk, only they are more + extensive and more varied. In the majority of cases the food consists + of Ciliata; and the contents of the prey may be seen passing down the + canal of the sucker beyond where it becomes free from the general + surface. In _Choanophrya_ the food appears to consist of the débris of + the prey of the carnivorous host (_Cyclops_), which is sucked into the + wide funnel-shaped mouths of the tentacles--by what mechanism is + unknown. The endosarc is full of food-granules and reserve-granules + (oil, colouring matter and proteid). + + [Illustration: FIG. viii.--Suctoria (in all a, meganucleus; b, + contractile vacuole). + + 1, _Rhyncheta cyclopum_, Zenker; only a single tentacle and that + suctorial; epizoic on Cyclops. + + 2, _Sphaerophrya urostylae_, Maupas; normal adult; parasitic in + Ciliate _Urostyla_. + + 3, The same dividing by transverse fission, the anterior moiety with + temporarily developed cilia. + + 4, 5, 6, _Sphaerophrya stentorea_, Maupas. Parasitic in _Stentor_, + and at one time mistaken for its young. + + 7, _Trichophrya epistylidis_, Cl. and L. + + 8, _Hemiophrya gemmipara_, Hertwig. Example with six buds, into each + of which a branch of the meganucleus a is extended. + + 9, The same species, showing the two kinds of tentacles (the + suctorial and the pointed), and two contractile vacuoles b. + + 10, Ciliated embryo of _Podophrya steinii_, Cl. and L. + + 11, _Acineta grandis_, Saville Kent; showing pedunculated cup, and + animal with two bunches of entirely suctorial tentacles. + + 12, _Sphaerophrya magna_, Maupas. It has seized with its tentacles, + and is in the act of sucking out the juices of six examples of the + Ciliate _Colpoda parvifrons_. + + 13, _Podophrya elongata_, Cl. and L. + + 14, _Hemiophrya benedenii_, Fraip.; the suctorial tentacles + retracted. + + 15, _Dendrocometes paradoxus_, Stein. Parasitic on Gammarus pulex; + captured prey. + + 16, A single tentacle of _Podophrya_. R. Hertwig. + + 17-20, _Dendrosoma radians_, Ehr.:--17, free-swimming ciliated + embryo. 18, Earliest fixed condition of the embryo. 19, Later stage, + a single tentaculiferous process now developed. 20, Adult colony; c, + enclosed ciliated embryos; d, branching stolon; e, more minute + reproductive (?) bodies. + + 21, _Ophryodendron pedicellatum_, Hincks.] + + The meganucleus and the micronucleus are both usually single, but in + _Dendrosoma_ (fig. viii. 20), of which the body is branched, and the + meganucleus with it, there are numerous micronuclei. In most cases the + micronucleus has not been recorded, though from the similarity of + conjugation, and its presence in most cases of fission and budding + that have been accurately described, we may infer that it is always + present. In unequal fission the meganucleus sends a process into the + bud, while the micronucleus divides as in Ciliata. The bud may be + nearly equal to the remains of the original animal, or much smaller, + and in that case a depression surrounds it which may deepen so as to + form a brood-cavity, either communicating by a mere "birth-pore" with + the outside or entirely closed. In some cases the budding is multiple + (fig. viii. 8), and a large number of buds are formed and liberated at + the same time. In all cases the bud escapes without tentacles, and + possesses a characteristic supply of cilia, whose arrangement is + constant for the species. + + In some cases an adult may withdraw its tentacles, moult its pellicle + and develop an equipment of cilia and swim away: this is the case with + _Dendrocometes_, parasitic on _Gammarus_, when its host moults. + + The numerous species of Suctoria, often so abundant on various species + of _Cyclops_, are not found on the other freshwater Copepoda, + _Diaptomus_ and _Canthocamptus_, belonging indeed to other families. + Again, these Suctoria affect different positions, those found on the + antennae not being present on the mouth parts; the ventral part of the + thorax has another set; and the inside of the pleural fold another. + _Rhyncheta_ occupies the front of the "couplers" or median downgrowths + uniting the coxopodites of the swimming legs, and _Choanophrya_ + settles in the immediate neighbourhood of the mouth, preferably on the + epistoma, labrum and metastomatic region, but also on the adoral + appendages and in rare cases extends, when the settlement is + extensive, to the bases of the two pairs of antennae; while distinct + species of _Podophrya_ settle on the antennae, the front of the thorax + and the inside of the pleural folds. _Dendrocometes_ is common on the + gills of the freshwater shrimp (Amphipod) _Gammarus_ and + _Stylocometes_ on the gills and gill-covers of the Isopod Asellus, the + water-slater. The independence of the Acinetaria was threatened by the + erroneous view of Stein that they were phases in the life-history of + Vorticellidae. Small parasitic forms (_Sphaerophrya_) were also + regarded erroneously as the "acinetiform young" of Ciliata. They now + must be regarded as an extreme modification of the Protozoon series, + in which the differentiation of organs in a unicellular animal reaches + its highest point. + + + _Principal Genera._ + + 1. Unstalked simple forms. _Urnula_ Cl. and L., permanently ciliate; + _Rhyncheta_ Zenker (fig. viii. 1), on the limb couplers of _Cyclops_; + _Sphaerophrya_ Cl. and L. (fig. viii. 2-6, 12), endoparasitic in + Ciliata and formerly taken for embryos thereof, never attached; + _Trichophrya_ Cl. and L. (fig. viii. 7), of similar habits, but + temporarily attached, sessile. + + 2. Stalked simple forms; _Podophrya_ Ehr. (fig. viii. 10, 13, 16), + tentacles all knobbed or flared; _Ephelota_ Strethill Wright, + tentacles all pointed; _Hemiophrya_ S. Kent (fig. viii. 8, 9, 14), + tentacles of both kinds; _Choanophrya_ Hartog, tentacles thick, + truncate, very retractile, when expanded opening into funnels for + aspiration of floating prey, never for attachment--epizoic on + antero-ventral parts of _Cyclops_. + + 3. Cupped forms; _Solenophrya_ Cl. and L., cup sessile; _Acineta_ + Ehr., cup stalked; _Acinetopsis_ Bütschli, like _Acineta_, but the cup + flattened, closed distally with only slit-like apertures ("pylomes") + for the bundles of tentacles; _Podocyathus_, like _Acineta_, but with + pointed as well as knobbed tentacles. + + 4. Tentacles in bundles at the tips of one or more processes or + branches of the body. _Ophryodendron_ Cl. and L., tentaculiferous + process single (fig. viii. 21); _Dendrocometes_ Stein (fig. viii. 15), + body rounded, processes repeatedly branched, epizoic on gills of + _Gammarus pulex_; _Dendrosoma_ Ehr. (fig. viii. 17-20), body freely + branched from a basal attached stolon, meganucleus branching with the + body. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(a) Infusoria in the widest sense: C. E. Ehrenberg. + _Die Infusionstierchen als vollkommene Organismen_ (1838); F. + Dujardin, _Zoophytes infusoires_ (1841). (b) Infusoria, including + Mastigophora: M. Perty, _Zur Kenntniss Kleinster Lebensformen_ (1852); + E. Claparède and J. Lachmann, _Études sur les infusoires_ _et les + Rhizopodes_ (1858-1861); F. von Stein, _Der Organismus der + Infusionstiere_ (1859-1883); W. Saville Kent, _A Manual of the + Infusoria_, including a description of all known Flagellate, Ciliate + and Tentaculiferous Protozoa (1880-1882). (c) Infusoria, as limited by + Bütschli. O. Bütschli, _Bronn's Tierreich_, vol. i. _Protozoa_, pt. 3 + _Infusoria_ (1887-1889), the most complete work existing, but without + specific diagnoses; S. J. Hickson, "The Infusoria" in Lankester's + _Treatise on Zoology_, vol. i. fasc. 2 (1903), a general account, well + illustrated, with a diagnosis of all genera. See also Delage and + Hérouard, _Traité de Zoologie concrète_, vol. i. "La Cellule et les + Protozoaires" (1896), with an illustrated conspectus of the genera; E. + Maupas, "Recherches expérimentales sur la multiplication des + Infusoires ciliés," _Arch. zool. exp._ vi. (1888); and "Le + Rajeunissement karyogomique chez les Ciliés," _ib._ vii. (1889); R. + Sand, _Étude monographique sur le groupe des Infusoires + tentaculifères_ (Suctoria), (1899), with diagnoses of species; A. + Lang, _Lehrb. der vergleich, Anatomie der wirbellosen Tiere_, vol. i. + "Protozoa" (1901) (a view of comparative anatomy, physiology and + bionomics); Marcus Hartog, "Protozoa," in _Cambridge Natural History_, + i. (1906); H. S. Jennings, _Contributions to the Study of the + Behaviour of Lower Organisms_ (1904); G. N. Calkins, "Studies on the + Life History of Protozoa" (Life cycle of Paramecium), I. _Arch. Entw._ + xv. (1902), II. _Arch. Prot._ i. (1902), III. _Biol. Bull._ iii. + (1902), IV. _J. Exp. Zool._ i. (1904). Numerous papers dealing + especially with advances in structural knowledge have appeared in the + _Archiv für Protistenkunde_, founded by F. Schaudinn in 1902. + (M. Ha.) + + + + +INGEBORG [INGEBURGE, INGELBURGE, INGELBORG, ISEMBURGE, Dan. INGIBJÖRG] +(c. 1176-1237 or 1238), queen of France, was the daughter of Valdemar +I., king of Denmark. She married in 1193 Philip II. Augustus, king of +France, but on the day after his marriage the king took a sudden +aversion to her, and wished to obtain a separation. During almost twenty +years he strained every effort to obtain from the church the declaration +of nullity of his marriage. The council of Compiègne acceded to his wish +on the 5th of November 1193, but the popes Celestine III. and Innocent +III. successively took up the defence of the unfortunate queen. Philip, +having married Agnes of Meran in June 1196, was excommunicated, and as +he remained obdurate, the kingdom was placed under an interdict. Agnes +was finally sent away, but Ingeborg, shut up in the château of Étampes, +had to undergo all sorts of privations and vexations. The king attempted +to induce her to solicit a divorce herself, or to enter a convent. At +last, however (1213), hoping perhaps to justify by his wife's claims his +pretensions to England, Philip was reconciled with Ingeborg, whose life +from henceforth was devoted to religion. She survived him more than +fourteen years, passing the greater part of the time in the priory of St +Jean at Corbeil, which she had founded. + + See Robert Davidson, _Philip II. August von Frankreich und Ingeborg_ + (Stuttgart, 1888); and E. Michael, "Zur Geschichte der Königin + Ingelborg" in the _Zeitschrift für Katholische Theologie_ (1890). + + + + +INGELHEIM (Ober-Ingelheim and Nieder-Ingelheim), the name of two +contiguous market-towns of Germany, in the grand-duchy of +Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Selz, near its confluence with the Rhine, 9 m. +W.N.W. of Mainz on the railway to Coblenz. Ober-Ingelheim, formerly an +imperial town, is still surrounded by walls. It has an Evangelical +church with painted windows representing scenes in the life of +Charlemagne, a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue. Its chief industry +is the manufacture of red wine. Pop. (1900) 3402. Nieder-Ingelheim has +an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and, in addition to wine, +manufactories of paper, chemicals, cement and malt. Pop. 3435. + +Nieder-Ingelheim is, according to one tradition, the birthplace of +Charlemagne, and it possesses the ruins of an old palace built by that +emperor between 768 and 774. The building contained one hundred marble +pillars, and was also adorned with sculptures and mosaics sent from +Ravenna by Pope Adrian I. It was extended by Frederick Barbarossa, and +was burned down in 1270, being restored by the emperor Charles IV. in +1354. Having passed into the possession of the elector palatine of the +Rhine, the building suffered much damage during a war in 1462, the +Thirty Years' War, and the French invasion in 1689. Only few remains of +it are now standing; but of the pillars, several are in Paris, one is in +the museum at Wiesbaden and another on the Schillerplatz in Mainz. +Inside its boundaries there is the restored Remigius Kirche, apparently +dating from the time of Frederick I. + + See Hilz, _Der Reichspalast zu Ingelheim_ (Ober-Ingelheim, 1868); and + Clemen, "Der Karolingische Kaiserpalast zu Ingelheim," in + _Westdeutsche Zeitschrift_, Band ix. (Trier, 1890). + + + + +INGELOW, JEAN (1820-1897), English poet and novelist, was born at +Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the 17th of March 1820. She was the daughter +of William Ingelow, a banker of that town. As a girl she contributed +verses and tales to the magazines under the pseudonym of "Orris," but +her first (anonymous) volume, _A Rhyming Chronicle of Incidents and +Feelings_, did not appear until her thirtieth year. This Tennyson said +had "very charming things" in it, and he declared he should "like to +know" the author, who was later admitted to his friendship. Miss Ingelow +followed this book of verse in 1851 with a story, _Allerton and Dreux_, +but it was the publication of her _Poems_ in 1863 which suddenly raised +her to the rank of a popular writer. They ran rapidly through numerous +editions, were set to music, and sung in every drawing-room, and in +America obtained an even greater hold upon public estimation. In 1867 +she published _The Story of Doom and other Poems_, and then gave up +verse for a while and became industrious as a novelist. _Off the +Skelligs_ appeared in 1872, _Fated to be Free_ in 1873, _Sarah de +Berenger_ in 1880, and _John Jerome_ in 1886. She also wrote _Studies +for Stories_ (1864), _Stories told to a Child_ (1865), _Mopsa the Fairy_ +(1869), and other excellent stories for children. Her third series of +_Poems_ was published in 1885. She resided for the last years of her +life in Kensington, and somewhat outlived her popularity as a poet. She +died on the 20th of July 1897. Her poems, which were collected in one +volume in 1898, have often the genuine ballad note, and as a writer of +songs she was exceedingly successful. "Sailing beyond Seas" and "When +Sparrows build" in _Supper at the Mill_ were deservedly among the most +popular songs of the day; but they share, with the rest of her work, the +faults of affectation and stilted phraseology. Her best-known poem was +the "High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire," which reached the highest +level of excellence. The blemishes of her style were cleverly indicated +in a well-known parody of Calverley's; a false archaism and a deliberate +assumption of unfamiliar and unnecessary synonyms for simple objects +were among the most vicious of her mannerisms. She wrote, however, in +verse with a sweetness which her sentiment and her heart inspired, and +in prose she displayed feeling for character and the gift of narrative; +while a delicate underlying tenderness is never wanting in either medium +to her sometimes tortured expression. Miss Ingelow was a woman of frank +and hospitable manners, with a look of the Lady Bountiful of a country +parish. She had nothing of the professional authoress or the "literary +lady" about her, and, as with characteristic simplicity she was +accustomed to say, was no great reader. Her temperament was rather that +of the improvisatore than of the professional author or artist. + + + + +INGEMANN, BERNHARD SEVERIN (1789-1862), Danish poet and novelist, was +born at Torkildstrup, in the island of Falster, on the 28th of May 1789. +He was educated at the grammar school at Slagelse, and entered the +university of Copenhagen in 1806. His studies were interrupted by the +English invasion, and on the first night of the bombardment of the city +Ingemann stood with the young poet Blicher on the walls, while the +shells whistled past them, and comrades were killed on either side. All +his early and unpublished writings were destroyed when the English +burned the town. In 1811 he published his first volume of poems, and in +1812 his second, followed in 1813 by a book of lyrics entitled _Procne_ +and in 1814 the verse romance, _The Black Knights_. In 1815 he published +two tragedies, _Masaniello and Blanca_, followed by _The Voice in the +Desert_, _The Shepherd of Tolosa_, and other romantic plays. After a +variety of publications, all very successful, he travelled in 1818 to +Italy. At Rome he wrote _The Liberation of Tasso_, and returned in 1819 +to Copenhagen. In 1820 he began to display his real power in a volume of +delightful tales. In 1821 his dramatic career closed with the production +of an unsuccessful comedy, _Magnetism in a Barber's Shop_. In 1822 the +poet was nominated lector in Danish language and literature at Sorö +College, and he now married. _Valdemar the Great and his Men_, an +historical epic, appeared in 1824. The next few years were occupied with +his best and most durable work, his four great national and historical +novels of _Valdemar Seier_, 1826; _Erik Menved's Childhood_, 1828; _King +Erik_, 1833; and _Prince Otto of Denmark_, 1835. He then returned to +epic poetry in _Queen Margaret_, 1836, and in a cycle of romances, +_Holger Danske_, 1837. His later writings consist of religious and +sentimental lyrics, epic poems, novels, short stories in prose, and +fairy tales. His last publication was _The Apple of Gold_, 1856. In 1846 +Ingemann was nominated director of Sorö College, a post from which he +retired in 1849. He died on the 24th of February 1862. Ingemann enjoyed +during his lifetime a popularity unapproached even by that of +Öhlenschläger. His boundless facility and fecundity, his sentimentality, +his religious melancholy, his direct appeal to the domestic affections, +gave him instant access to the ear of the public. His novels are better +than his poems; of the former the best are those which are directly +modelled on the manner of Sir Walter Scott. As a dramatist he outlived +his reputation, and his unwieldy epics are now little read. + + Ingemann's works were collected in 41 vols. at Copenhagen (1843-1865). + His autobiography was edited by Galskjöt in 1862; his correspondence + by V. Heise (1879-1881); and his letters to Grundtvig by S. Grundtvig + (1882). See also H. Schwanenflügel, _Ingemanns Liv og Digtning_ + (1886); and Georg Brandes, _Essays_ (1889). + + + + +INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN (1833-1899), American lawyer and lecturer, was +born in Dresden, New York, on the 11th of August 1833. His father was a +Congregational minister, who removed to Wisconsin in 1843 and to +Illinois in 1845. Robert, who had received a good common-school +education, was admitted to the bar in 1854, and practised law with +success in Illinois. Late in 1861, during the Civil War, he organized a +cavalry regiment, of which he was colonel, until captured at Lexington, +Tennessee, on the 18th of December 1862, by the Confederate cavalry +under General N. B. Forrest. He was paroled, waited in vain to be +exchanged, and in June 1863 resigned from the service. He was +attorney-general of Illinois in 1867-1869, and in 1876 his speech in the +Republican National Convention, naming James G. Blaine for the +Presidential candidate, won him a national reputation as a public +speaker. As a lawyer he distinguished himself particularly as counsel +for the defendants in the "Star-Route Fraud" trials. He was most widely +known, however, for his public lectures attacking the Bible, and his +anti-Christian views were an obstacle to his political advancement. +Ingersoll was an eloquent rhetorician rather than a logical reasoner. He +died at Dobbs Ferry, N.Y., on the 21st of July 1899. + + His principal lectures and speeches were published under the titles: + _The Gods and Other Lectures_ (1876); _Some Mistakes of Moses_ (1879); + _Prose Poems_ (1884); _Great Speeches_ (1887). His lectures, entitled + "The Bible," "Ghosts," and "Foundations of Faith," attracted + particular attention. His complete works were published in 12 vols. in + New York in 1900. + + + + +INGERSOLL, a town and port of entry of Oxford county, Ontario, Canada, +19 m. E. of London, on the river Thames and the Grand Trunk and Canadian +Pacific railways. Pop. (1901) 4572. The principal manufactures are +agricultural implements, furniture, pianos and screws. There is a large +export trade in cheese and farm produce. + + + + +INGHAM, CHARLES CROMWELL (1796-1863), American artist, was born in +Dublin, Ireland. He was a pupil of the Dublin Academy, emigrated to the +United States at the age of twenty-one, and immediately became +identified with the art life of that country, being one of the founders +of the National Academy of New York in 1826 and its vice-president from +1845 to 1850. He painted portraits of the reigning beauties of New York +and acquired considerable reputation, continuing to practise his +profession until his death, in New York, on the 10th of December 1863. + + + + +INGHIRAMI, the name of an Italian noble family of Volterra. The +following are its most important members: + +TOMMASO INGHIRAMI (1470-1516), a humanist, is best known for his Latin +orations, seven of which were published in 1777. His success in the part +of Phaedra in a presentation of Seneca's _Hippolytus_ (or _Phaedra_) led +to his being generally known as _Fedra_. He received high honours from +Alexander VI., Leo X. and Maximilian I. + +FRANCESCO INGHIRAMI (1772-1846), a distinguished archaeologist, fought +in the French wars (1799), and afterwards devoted himself especially to +the study of Etruscan antiquities. He founded a college at Fiesole and +collected, though without critical insight, a mass of valuable material +in his _Monumenti etruschi_ (10 vols., 1820-1827), _Galleria omerica_ (3 +vols., 1829-1851), _Pitture di vasi fittili_ (1831-1837), _Museo etrusco +chiusino_ (2 vols., 1833), and the incomplete _Storia della Toscana_ +(1841-1845): these works were elaborately illustrated. + +His brother, GIOVANNI INGHIRAMI (1779-1851), was an astronomer of +repute. He was professor of astronomy at the Institute founded by +Ximenes in Florence and published beside a number of text-books +_Effemeridi dell' occultazione delle piccole stelle sotto la luna_ +(1809-1830); _Effemeridi di Venese e Giove all' uso de' naviganti_ +(1821-1824); _Tavole astronomichi universali portatili_ (1811); _Base +trigonometrica misurata in Toscana_ (1818); _Carta topografica e +geometrica della Toscana_ (1830). + + + + +INGLEBY, CLEMENT MANSFIELD (1823-1886), English Shakespearian scholar, +was born at Edgbaston, Birmingham, on the 29th of October 1823, the son +of a solicitor. After taking his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge, +he entered his father's office, eventually becoming a partner. In 1859 +he abandoned the law and left Birmingham to live near London. He +contributed articles on literary, scientific and other subjects to +various magazines, but from 1874 devoted himself almost entirely to +Shakespearian literature. His first work in this field had been an +exposure of the manipulations of John Payne Collier, entitled _The +Shakespeare Fabrications_ (1859); his work as a commentator began with +_The Still Lion_ (1874), enlarged in the following year into +_Shakespeare Hermeneutics_. In this book many of the then existing +difficulties of Shakespeare's text were explained. In the same year +(1875) he published the _Centurie of Prayse_, a collection of references +to Shakespeare and his works between 1592 and 1692. His _Shakespeare: +the Man and the Book_ was published in 1877-1881; he also wrote +_Shakespeare's Bones_ (1882), in which he suggested the disinterment of +Shakespeare's bones and an examination of his skull. This suggestion, +though not due to vulgar curiosity, was regarded, however, by public +opinion as sacrilegious. He died on the 26th of September 1886, at +Ilford, Essex. Although Ingleby's reputation now rests solely on his +works on Shakespeare, he wrote on many other subjects. He was the author +of hand-books on metaphysic and logic, and made some contributions to +the study of natural science. He was at one time vice-president of the +New Shakspere Society, and one of the original trustees of the +"Birthplace." + + + + +INGLEFIELD, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1820-1894), British admiral and +explorer, was born at Cheltenham, on the 27th of March 1820, and +educated at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth. His father was +Rear-Admiral Samuel Hood Inglefield (1783-1848), and his grandfather +Captain John Nicholson Inglefield (1748-1828), who served with Lord Hood +against the French. The boy went to sea when fourteen, took part in the +naval operations on the Syrian Coast in 1840, and in 1845 was promoted +to the rank of commander for gallant conduct at Obligado. In 1852 he +commanded Lady Franklin's yacht "Isabel" on her cruise to Smith Sound, +and his narrative of the expedition was published under the title of _A +Summer Search for Sir John Franklin_ (1853). He received the gold medal +of the Royal Geographical Society on his return and was given command of +the "Phoenix," in which he made three trips to the Arctic, bringing home +part of the Belcher Arctic expedition in 1854. In that year he was again +sent out on the last attempt made by the Admirally to find Sir John +Franklin. + +In the Crimean War Captain Inglefield took part in the siege of +Sevastopol. He was knighted in 1877, and nominated a Knight Commander of +the Bath ten years later. He was promoted admiral in 1879. Besides being +an excellent marine artist, he was the inventor of the hydraulic +steering gear and the Inglefield anchor. He died on the 5th of September +1894. His son, Captain Edward Fitzmaurice Inglefield (b. 1861), became +secretary of Lloyds in 1906. Sir Edward Inglefield's brother, +Rear-Admiral V. O. Inglefield, was the father of Rear-Admiral Frederick +Samuel Inglefield (b. 1854), director of naval intelligence in +1902-1904, and of two other sons distinguished as soldiers. + + + + +INGLE-NOOK (from Lat. _igniculus_, dim. of _ignis_, fire), a corner or +seat by the fireside, within the chimney-breast. The open Tudor or +Jacobean fire-place was often wide enough to admit of a wooden settle +being placed at each end of the embrasure of which it occupied the +centre, and yet far enough away not to be inconveniently hot. This was +one of the means by which the builder sought to avoid the draughts which +must have been extremely frequent in old houses. English literature is +full of references, appreciatory or regretful, to the cosy ingle-nook +that was killed by the adoption of small grates. Modern English and +American architects are, however, fond of devising them in houses +designed on ancient models, and owners of old buildings frequently +remove the modern grates and restore the original arrangement. + + + + +INGLIS, SIR JOHN EARDLEY WILMOT (1814-1862), British major-general, was +born in Nova Scotia on the 15th of November 1814. His father was the +third, and his grandfather the first, bishop of that colony. In 1833 he +joined the 32nd Foot, in which all his regimental service was passed. In +1837 he saw active service in Canada, and in 1848-1849 in the Punjab, +being in command at the storming of Mooltan and at the battle of Gujrat. +In 1857, on the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny, he was in command of his +regiment at Lucknow. Sir Henry Lawrence being mortally wounded during +the siege of the residency, Inglis took command of the garrison, and +maintained a successful defence for 87 days against an overwhelming +force. He was promoted to major-general and made K.C.B. After further +active service in India, he was, in 1860, given command of the British +troops in the Ionian Islands. He died at Hamburg on the 27th of +September 1862. + + + + +INGLIS, SIR WILLIAM (1764-1835), British soldier, was born in 1764, a +member of an old Roxburghshire family. He entered the army in 1781. +After ten years in America he served in Flanders, and in 1796 took part +in the capture of St Lucia. In 1809 he commanded a brigade in the +Peninsula, taking part in the battle of Busaco (1810) and the first +siege of Badajoz. At Albuera his regiment, the 57th, occupied a most +important position, and was exposed to a deadly fire. "Die hard! +Fifty-Seventh," cried Inglis, "Die hard!" The regiment's answer has gone +down to history. Out of a total strength of 579, 23 officers and 415 +rank and file were killed and wounded. Inglis himself was wounded. On +recovering, he saw further Peninsular service. In two engagements his +horse was shot under him. His services were rewarded by the thanks of +parliament and in 1825 he became lieutenant-general, and was made a +K.C.B. After holding the governorships of Kinsale and Cork, he was, in +1830, appointed colonel of the 57th. He died at Ramsgate on the 29th of +November 1835. + + + + +INGOLSTADT, a fortified town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on +the left bank of the Danube at its confluence with the Schutter, 52 m. +north of Munich, at the junction of the main lines of railway, Munich, +Bamberg and Regensburg-Augsburg. Pop. (1900) 22,207. The principal +buildings are the old palace of the dukes of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, now +used as an arsenal; the new palace on the Danube; the remains of the +earliest Jesuits' college in Germany, founded in 1555; the former +university buildings, now a school; the theatre; the large Gothic +Frauenkirche, founded in 1425, with two massive towers, containing +several interesting monuments, among them the tomb of Dr Eck, Luther's +opponent; the Franciscan convent and nunnery; and several other churches +and hospitals. Ingolstadt possesses several technical and other +schools. In 1472 a university was founded in the town by the Bavarian +duke, Louis the Rich, which at the end of the 16th century was attended +by 4000 students. In 1800 it was removed to Landshut, whence it was +transferred to Munich in 1826. Its newer public buildings include an +Evangelical church, a civil hospital, an arsenal and an orphanage. The +industries are cannon-founding, manufacture of gunpowder and cloth, and +brewing. + +Ingolstadt, known as _Aureatum_ or _Chrysopolis_, was a royal villa in +the beginning of the 9th century, and received its charter of civic +incorporation before 1255. After that date it grew in importance, and +became the capital of a dukedom which merged in that of Bavaria-Munich. +The fortifications, erected in 1539, were put to the test during the +contests of the Reformation period and in the Thirty Years' War. +Gustavus Adolphus vainly besieged Ingolstadt in 1632, when Tilly, to +whom there is a monument in the Frauenkirche, lay mortally wounded +within the walls. In the War of the Spanish Succession it was besieged +by the margrave of Baden in 1704. In 1743 it was surrendered by the +French to the Austrians, and in 1800, after three months' siege, the +French, under General Moreau, took the town, and dismantled the +fortifications. They were rebuilt on a much larger scale under King +Louis I., and since 1870 Ingolstadt has ranked as a fortress of the +first class. In 1872 even more important fortifications were +constructed, which include têtes-de-pont with round towers of massive +masonry, and the redoubt Tilly on the right bank of the river. + + See Gerstner, _Geschichte der Stadt Ingolstadt_ (Munich, 1853); and + Prantl, _Geschichte der Ludwig Maximilians Universität_ (Munich, + 1872). + + + + +INGOT, originally a mould for the casting of metals, but now a mass of +metal cast in a mould, and particularly the small bars of the precious +metals, cast in the shape of an oblong brick or wedge with slightly +sloping sides, in which form gold and silver are handled as bullion at +the Bank of England and the Mint. Ingots of varying sizes and shapes are +cast of other metals, and "ingot-steel" and "ingot-iron" are technical +terms in the manufacture of iron and steel (see IRON AND STEEL). The +word is obscure in origin. It occurs in Chaucer ("The Canon's Yeoman's +Tale") as a term of alchemy, in the original sense of a mould for +casting metal, and, as the _New English Dictionary_ points out, an +English origin for such a term is unlikely. It may, however, be derived +from _in_ and the O. Eng. _géotan_ to pour; cf. Ger. _giessen_ and +_Einguss_, a mould. The Fr. _lingot_, with the second English meaning +only, has been taken as the origin of "ingot" and derived from the Lat. +_lingua_, tongue--with a supposed reference to the shape. This +derivation is wrong, and French etymologists have now accepted the +English origin for the word, _lingot_ having coalesced from _l'ingot_. + + + + +INGRAM, JAMES (1774-1850), English antiquarian and Anglo-Saxon scholar, +was born near Salisbury on the 21st of December 1774. He was educated at +Warminster and Winchester schools and at Trinity College, Oxford, of +which he became a fellow in 1803. From 1803 to 1808 he was Rawlinsonian +professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford, and in 1824 was made President of +Trinity College and D.D. His time, however, was principally spent in +antiquarian research, and especially in the study of Anglo-Saxon, in +which field he was the pre-eminent scholar of his time. He published in +1823 an edition of the _Saxon Chronicle_. His other works include +admirable _Memorials of Oxford_ (1832-1837), and _The Church in the +Middle Centuries_ (1842). He died on the 5th of September 1850. + + + + +INGRAM, JOHN KELLS (1823-1907), Irish scholar and economist, was born in +Co. Donegal, Ireland, on the 7th of July 1823. Educated at Newry School +and Trinity College, Dublin, he was elected a fellow of his college in +1846. He held the professorship of Oratory and English Literature in +Dublin University from 1852 to 1866, when he became regius professor of +Greek. In 1879 he was appointed librarian. Ingram was remarkable for his +versatility. In his undergraduate days he had written the well-known +poem "Who fears to speak of Ninety-eight?" and his _Sonnets and other +Poems_ (1900) reveal the poetic sense. He contributed many important +papers to mathematical societies on geometrical analysis, and did much +useful work in advancing the science of classical etymology, notably in +his _Greek and Latin Etymology in England_, _The Etymology of Liddell +and Scott_. His philosophical works include _Outlines of the History of +Religion_ (1900), _Human Nature and Morals according to A. Comte_ +(1901), _Practical Morals_ (1904), and the _Final Transition_ (1905). He +contributed to the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ an +historical and biographical article on political economy, which was +translated into nearly every European language. His _History of Slavery +and Serfdom_ was also written for the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_. He died in Dublin on the 18th of May 1907. + + + + +INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE (1780-1867), French painter, was born at +Montauban, on the 29th of August 1780. His father, for whom he +entertained the most tender and respectful affection, has described +himself as _sculpteur en plâtre_; he was, however, equally ready to +execute every other kind of decorative work, and now and again eked out +his living by taking portraits or obtained an engagement as a +violin-player. He brought up his son to command the same varied +resources, but in consequence of certain early successes--the lad's +performance of a concerto of Viotti's was applauded at the theatre of +Toulouse--his attention was directed chiefly to the study of music. At +Toulouse, to which place his father had removed from Montauban in 1792, +Ingres had, however, received lessons from Joseph Roques, a painter whom +he quitted at the end of a few months to become a pupil of M. Vigan, +professor at the academy of fine arts in the same town. From Vigan, +Ingres, whose vocation became day by day more distinctly evident, passed +to M. Briant, a landscape-painter who insisted that his pupil was +specially gifted by nature to follow the same line as himself. For a +while Ingres obeyed, but he had been thoroughly aroused and enlightened +as to his own objects and desires by the sight of a copy of Raphael's +"Madonna della Sedia," and, having ended his connexion with Briant, he +started for Paris, where he arrived about the close of 1796. He was then +admitted to the studio of David, for whose lofty standard and severe +principles he always retained a profound appreciation. Ingres, after +four years of devoted study, during which (1800) he obtained the second +place in the yearly competition, finally carried off the Grand Prix +(1801). The work thus rewarded--the "Ambassadors of Agamemnon in the +Tent of Achilles" (École des Beaux Arts)--was admired by Flaxman so much +as to give umbrage to David, and was succeeded in the following year +(1802) by the execution of a "Girl after Bathing," and a woman's +portrait; in 1804 Ingres exhibited "Portrait of the First Consul" (Musée +de Liége), and portraits of his father and himself; these were followed +in 1806 by "Portrait of the Emperor" (Invalides), and portraits of M, +Mme, and Mlle Rivière (the first two now in the Louvre). These and +various minor works were executed in Paris (for it was not until 1809 +that the state of public affairs admitted of the re-establishment of the +Academy of France at Rome), and they produced a disturbing impression on +the public. It was clear that the artist was some one who must be +counted with; his talent, the purity of his line, and his power of +literal rendering were generally acknowledged; but he was reproached +with a desire to be singular and extraordinary. "Ingres," writes Frau v. +Hastfer (_Leben und Kunst in Paris_, 1806) "wird nach Italien gehen, und +dort wird er vielleicht vergessen dass er zu etwas Grossem geboren ist, +und wird eben darum ein hohes Ziel erreichen." In this spirit, also, +Chaussard violently attacked his "Portrait of the Emperor" (_Pausanias +Français_, 1806), nor did the portraits of the Rivière family escape. +The points on which Chaussard justly lays stress are the strange +discordances of colour--such as the blue of the cushion against which +Mme Rivière leans, and the want of the relief and warmth of life, but he +omits to touch on that grasp of his subject as a whole, shown in the +portraits of both husband and wife, which already evidences the strength +and sincerity of the passionless point of view which marks all Ingres's +best productions. The very year after his arrival in Rome (1808) Ingres +produced "Oedipus and the Sphinx" (Louvre; lithographed by Sudre, +engraved by Gaillard), a work which proved him in the full possession of +his mature powers, and began the "Venus Anadyomene" (Collection Rieset; +engraving by Pollet), completed forty years later, and exhibited in +1855. These works were followed by some of his best portraits, that of +M. Bochet (Louvre), and that of Mme la Comtesse de Tournon, mother of +the prefect of the department of the Tiber; in 1811 he finished "Jupiter +and Thetis," an immense canvas now in the Musée of Aix; in 1812 "Romulus +and Acron" (École des Beaux Arts), and "Virgil reading the _Aeneid_"--a +composition very different from the version of it which has become +popular through the engraving executed by Pradier in 1832. The original +work, executed for a bedchamber in the Villa Aldobrandini-Miollis, +contained neither the figures of Maecenas and Agrippa nor the statue of +Marcellus; and Ingres, who had obtained possession of it during his +second stay in Rome, intended to complete it with the additions made for +engraving. But he never got beyond the stage of preparation, and the +picture left by him, together with various other studies and sketches, +to the Musée of his native town, remains half destroyed by the process +meant for its regeneration. The "Virgil" was followed by the "Betrothal +of Raphael," a small painting, now lost, executed for Queen Caroline of +Naples; "Don Pedro of Toledo Kissing the Sword of Henry IV." (Collection +Deymié; Montauban), exhibited at the Salon of 1814, together with the +"Chapelle Sistine" (Collection Legentil; lithographed by Sudre), and the +"Grande Odalisque" (Collection Seillière; lithographed by Sudre). In +1815 Ingres executed "Raphael and the Fornarina" (Collection Mme N. de +Rothschild; engraved by Pradier); in 1816 "Aretin" and the "Envoy of +Charles V." (Collection Schroth), and "Aretin and Tintoret" (Collection +Schroth); in 1817 the "Death of Leonardo" (engraved by Richomme) and +"Henry IV. Playing with his Children" (engraved by Richomme), both of +which works were commissions from M. le Comte de Blacas, then ambassador +of France at the Vatican. "Roger and Angelique" (Louvre; lithographed by +Sudre), and "Francesca di Rimini" (Musée of Angers; lithographed by +Aubry Lecomte), were completed in 1819, and followed in 1820 by "Christ +giving the Keys to Peter" (Louvre). In 1815, also, Ingres had made many +projects for treating a subject from the life of the celebrated duke of +Alva, a commission from the family, but a loathing for "cet horrible +homme" grew upon him, and finally he abandoned the task and entered in +his diary--"J'étais forcé par la nécessité de peindre un pareil tableau; +Dieu a voulu qu'il restât en ébauche." During all these years Ingres's +reputation in France did not increase. The interest which his "Chapelle +Sistine" had aroused at the Salon of 1814 soon died away; not only was +the public indifferent, but amongst his brother artists Ingres found +scant recognition. The strict classicists looked upon him as a renegade, +and strangely enough Delacroix and other pupils of Guérin--the leaders +of that romantic movement for which Ingres, throughout his long life, +always expressed the deepest abhorrence--alone seem to have been +sensible of his merits. The weight of poverty, too, was hard to bear. In +1813 Ingres had married; his marriage had been arranged for him with a +young woman who came in a business-like way from Montauban, on the +strength of the representations of her friends in Rome. Mme Ingres +speedily acquired a faith in her husband which enabled her to combat +with heroic courage and patience the difficulties which beset their +common existence, and which were increased by their removal to Florence. +There Bartolini, an old friend, had hoped that Ingres might have +materially bettered his position, and that he might have aroused the +Florentine school--a weak offshoot from that of David--to a sense of its +own shortcomings. These expectations were disappointed. The good offices +of Bartolini, and of one or two other persons, could only alleviate the +miseries of this stay in a town where Ingres was all but deprived of the +means of gaining daily bread by the making of those small portraits for +the execution of which, in Rome, his pencil had been constantly in +request. Before his departure he had, however, been commissioned to +paint for M. de Pastoret the "Entry of Charles V. into Paris," and M. +de Pastoret now obtained an order for Ingres from the Administration of +Fine Arts; he was directed to treat the "Voeu de Louis XIII." for the +cathedral of Montauban. This work, exhibited at the Salon of 1824, met +with universal approbation: even those sworn to observe the +unadulterated precepts of David found only admiration for the "Voeu de +Louis XIII." On his return Ingres was received at Montauban with +enthusiastic homage, and found himself celebrated throughout France. In +the following year (1825) he was elected to the Institute, and his fame +was further extended in 1826 by the publication of Sudre's lithograph of +the "Grande Odalisque," which, having been scorned by artists and +critics alike in 1819, now became widely popular. A second commission +from the government called forth the "Apotheosis of Homer," which, +replaced by a copy in the decoration of the ceiling for which it was +designed, now hangs in the galleries of the second storey of the Louvre. +From this date up till 1834 the studio of Ingres was thronged, as once +had been thronged the studio of David, and he was a recognized _chef +d'école_. Whilst he taught with despotic authority and admirable wisdom, +he steadily worked; and when in 1834 he produced his great canvas of the +"Martyrdom of Saint Symphorien" (cathedral of Autun; lithographed by +Trichot-Garneri), it was with angry disgust and resentment that he found +his work received with the same doubt and indifference, if not the same +hostility, as had met his earlier ventures. The suffrages of his pupils, +and of one or two men--like Decamps--of undoubted ability, could not +soften the sense of injury. Ingres resolved to work no longer for the +public, and gladly availed himself of the opportunity to return to Rome, +as director of the École de France, in the room of Horace Vernet. There +he executed "La Vierge à l'Hostie" (Imperial collections, St +Petersburg), "Stratonice," "Portrait of Cherubini" (Louvre), and the +"Petite Odalisque" for M. Marcotte, the faithful admirer for whom, in +1814, Ingres had painted the "Chapelle Sistine." The "Stratonice," +executed for the duke of Orleans, had been exhibited at the Palais Royal +for several days after its arrival in France, and the beauty of the +composition produced so favourable an impression that, on his return to +Paris in 1841, Ingres found himself received with all the deference that +he felt to be his due. A portrait of the purchaser of "Stratonice" was +one of the first works executed after his return; and Ingres shortly +afterwards began the decorations of the great hall in the Château de +Dampierre, which, unfortunately for the reputation of the painter, were +begun with an ardour which gradually slackened, until in 1849 Ingres, +having been further discouraged by the loss of his faithful and +courageous wife, abandoned all hope of their completion, and the +contract with the duc de Luynes was finally cancelled. A minor work, +"Jupiter and Antiope," marks the year 1851, but Ingres's next +considerable undertaking (1853) was the "Apotheosis of Napoleon I.," +painted for the ceiling of a hall in the Hôtel de Ville; "Jeanne d'Arc" +(Louvre) appeared in 1854; and in 1855 Ingres consented to rescind the +resolution, more or less strictly kept since 1834, in favour of the +International Exhibition, where a room was reserved for his works. +Prince Napoleon, president of the jury, proposed an exceptional +recompense for their author, and obtained from the emperor Ingres's +nomination as grand officer of the Legion of Honour. With renewed +confidence Ingres now took up and completed one of his most charming +productions--"La Source" (Louvre), a figure of which he had painted the +torso in 1823, and which seen with other works in London (1862) there +renewed the general sentiment of admiration, and procured him, from the +imperial government, the dignity of senator. After the completion of "La +Source," the principal works produced by Ingres were with one or two +exceptions ("Molière" and "Louis XIV.," presented to the Théâtre +Français, 1858; "Le Bain Turc," 1859), of a religious character; "La +Vierge de l'Adoption," 1858 (painted for Mlle Roland-Gosselin), was +followed by "La Vierge Couronnée" (painted for Mme la Baronne de +Larinthie) and "La Vierge aux Enfans" (Collection Blanc); in 1859 these +were followed by repetitions of "La Vierge à l'Hostie"; and in 1862 +Ingres completed "Christ and the Doctors" (Musée Montauban), a work +commissioned many years before by Queen Marie Amélie for the chapel of +Bizy. + +On the 17th of January 1867 Ingres died in his eighty-eighth year, +having preserved his faculties in wonderful perfection to the last. For +a moment only--at the time of the execution of the "Bain Turc," which +Prince Napoleon was fain to exchange for an early portrait of the master +by himself--Ingres's powers had seemed to fail, but he recovered, and +showed in his last years the vigour which marked his early maturity. It +is, however, to be noted that the "Saint Symphorien" exhibited in 1834 +closes the list of the works on which his reputation will chiefly rest; +for "La Source," which at first sight seems to be an exception, was +painted, all but the head and the extremities, in 1821; and from those +who knew the work well in its incomplete state we learn that the +after-painting, necessary to fuse new and old, lacked the vigour, the +precision, and the something like touch which distinguished the original +execution of the torso. Touch was not, indeed, at any time a means of +expression on which Ingres seriously calculated; his constant employment +of local tint, in mass but faintly modelled in light by half tones, +forbade recourse to the shifting effects of colour and light on which +the Romantic school depended in indicating those fleeting aspects of +things which they rejoiced to put on canvas;--their methods would have +disturbed the calculations of an art wholly based on form and line. +Except in his "Sistine Chapel," and one or two slighter pieces, Ingres +kept himself free from any preoccupation as to depth and force of colour +and tone; driven, probably by the excesses of the Romantic movement into +an attitude of stricter protest, "ce que l'on sait" he would repeat, "il +faut le savoir l'épée à la main." Ingres left himself therefore, in +dealing with crowded compositions, such as the "Apotheosis of Homer" and +the "Martyrdom of Saint Symphorien," without the means of producing the +necessary unity of effect which had been employed in due measure--as the +Stanze of the Vatican bear witness--by the very master whom he most +deeply reverenced. Thus it came to pass that in subjects of one or two +figures Ingres showed to the greatest advantage: in "Oedipus," in the +"Girl after Bathing," the "Odalisque" and "La Source"--subjects only +animated by the consciousness of perfect physical well-being--we find +Ingres at his best. One hesitates to put "Roger and Angelique" upon this +list, for though the female figure shows the finest qualities of +Ingres's work,--deep study of nature in her purest forms, perfect +sincerity of intention and power of mastering an ideal conception--yet +side by side with these the effigy of Roger on his hippogriff bears +witness that from the passionless point of view, which was Ingres's +birthright, the weird creatures of the fancy cannot be seen. + + A graphic account of "Ingres, sa vie et ses travaux," and a complete + catalogue of his works, were published by M. Delaborde in 1870, and + dedicated to Mme Ingres, _née_ Ramel, Ingres's devoted second wife, + whom he married in 1852. Allusions to the painter's early days will be + found in Delécluze's _Louis David_; and amongst less important notices + may be cited that by Théophile Silvestre in his series of living + artists. Most of Ingres's important works are engraved in the + collection brought out by Magimel. (E. F. S. D.) + + + + +INGRESS (Lat. _ingressus_, going in), entrance as opposed to exit or +egress; in astronomy, the apparent entrance of a smaller body upon the +disk of a larger one, as it passes between the latter and the observer; +in this sense it is applied especially to the beginning of a transit of +a satellite of Jupiter over the disk of the planet. + + + + +INHAMBANE, a seaport of Portuguese East Africa in 23° 50´ S., 35° 25´ E. +The town, which enjoys a reputation for healthiness, is finely situated +on the bank of a river of the same name which empties into a bay also +called Inhambane. Next to Mozambique Inhambane, which dates from the +middle of the 16th century, is architecturally the most important town +in Portuguese East Africa. The chief buildings are the fort, churches +and mosque. The principal church is built with stone and marble brought +from Portugal. The population, about 4000 in 1909, is of a motley +character: Portuguese and other Europeans, Arabs, Banyans, half-castes +and negroes. Its commerce was formerly mostly in ivory and slaves. In +1834 Inhambane was taken and all its inhabitants save ten killed by a +Zulu horde under Manikusa (see GAZALAND). It was not until towards the +close of the 19th century that the trade of the town revived. The value +of exports and imports in 1907 was about £150,000. The chief exports are +wax, rubber, mafureira and other nuts, mealies and sugar. Cotton goods +and cheap wines (for consumption by natives) are the principal imports. +The harbour, about 9 m. long by 5 wide, accommodates vessels drawing 10 +to 12 ft. of water. The depth of water over the bar varies from 17 to 28 +ft., and large vessels discharge into and load from lighters. Inhambane +is the natural port for the extensive and fertile district between the +Limpopo and Sabi rivers. This region is the best recruiting ground for +labourers in the Rand gold mines. Mineral oils have been found within a +short distance of the port. + + + + +INHERITANCE. In English law, inheritance, heir and other kindred words +have a meaning very different from that of the Latin _haeres_, from +which they are derived. In Roman law the heir or heirs represented the +entire legal personality of the deceased--his _universum jus_. In +English law the heir is simply the person on whom the real property of +the deceased devolves by operation of law if he dies intestate. He has +nothing to do as heir with the personal property; he is not appointed by +will; and except in the case of coparceners he is a single individual. +The Roman _haeres_ takes the whole estate; his appointment may or may +not be by testament; and more persons than one may be associated +together as heirs. + +The devolution of an inheritance in England is now regulated by the +rules of descent, as altered by the Inheritance Act 1833, amended by the +Law of Property Amendment Act 1859. + +1. The first rule is that inheritance shall descend to the issue of the +last "purchaser." A purchaser in law means one who acquires an estate +otherwise than by descent, e.g. by will, by gratuitous gift, or by +purchase in the ordinary meaning of the word. This rule is one of the +changes introduced by the Inheritance Act, which further provides that +"the person last entitled to the land shall be considered the purchaser +thereof unless it be proved that he inherited the same." Under the +earlier law descent was traced from the last person who had "seisin" or +feudal possession, and it was occasionally a troublesome question +whether the heir or person entitled had ever, in fact, acquired such +possession. Now the only inquiry is into title, and each person entitled +is presumed to be in by purchase unless he is proved to be in by +descent, so that the stock of descent is the last person entitled who +cannot be shown to have inherited. 2. The male is admitted before the +female. 3. Among males of equal degree in consanguinity to the +purchaser, the elder excludes the younger; but females of the same +degree take together as "coparceners." 4. Lineal descendants take the +place of their ancestor. Thus an eldest son dying and leaving issue +would be represented by such issue, who would exclude their father's +brothers and sisters. 5. If there are no lineal descendants of the +purchaser, the next to inherit is his nearest lineal ancestor. This is a +rule introduced by the Inheritance Act. Under the former law inheritance +never went to an ancestor--collaterals, however remote of the person +last seized being preferred even to his father. Various explanations +have been given of this seemingly anomalous rule--Bracton and Blackstone +being content to say that it rests on the law of nature, by which heavy +bodies gravitate downwards. Another explanation is that estates were +granted to be descendible in the same way as an ancient inheritance, +which having passed from father to son _ex necessitate_ went to +collaterals on failure of issue of the person last seized. 6. The sixth +rule is thus expressed by Joshua Williams in his treatise on _The Law of +Real Property_:-- + + "The father and all the male paternal ancestors of the purchaser and + their descendants shall be admitted before any of the female paternal + ancestors or their heirs; all the female paternal ancestors and their + heirs before the mother or any of the maternal ancestors or her or + their descendants; and the mother and all the male maternal ancestors + and her and their descendants before any of the female maternal + ancestors or their heirs." + +7. Kinsmen of the half-blood may be heirs; such kinsmen shall inherit +next after a kinsman in the same degree of the whole blood, and after +the issue of such kinsman where the common ancestor is a male and next +after the common ancestor where such ancestor is a female. The admission +of kinsmen of the half-blood into the chain of descent is an alteration +made by the Inheritance Act. Formerly a relative, however nearly +connected in blood with the purchaser through one only and not both +parents, could never inherit--a half-brother for example. 8. In the +admission of female paternal ancestors, the mother of the more remote +male paternal ancestor and her heirs shall be preferred to the mother of +the less remote male paternal and her heirs; and, in the case of female +maternal ancestors, the mother of the more remote male maternal ancestor +shall be preferred to the mother of a less remote male maternal +ancestor. This rule, following the opinion of Blackstone, settles a +point much disputed by text-writers, although its importance was little +more than theoretical. 9. When there shall be a total failure of heirs +of the purchaser, or when any lands shall be descendible as if an +ancestor had been the purchaser thereof, and there shall be a total +failure of the heirs of such ancestor, then and in every such case the +descent shall be traced from the person last entitled to the land as if +he had been the purchaser thereof. This rule is enacted by the Law of +Property Amendment Act 1859. It would apply to such a case as the +following: Purchaser dies intestate, leaving a son and no other +relations, and the son in turn dies intestate; the son's relations +through his mother are now admitted by this rule. If the purchaser is +illegitimate, his only relations must necessarily be his own issue. +Failing heirs of all kinds, the lands of an intestate purchaser, not +alienated by him, would revert by "escheat" to the next immediate lord +of the fee, who would generally be the crown. If an intermediate +lordship could be proved to exist between the crown and the tenant in +fee simple, such intermediate lord would have the escheat. But escheat +is a matter of rare occurrence. + +The above rules apply to all freehold land whether the estate therein of +the intestate is legal or equitable. Before 1884, if a sole trustee had +the legal estate in realty, and his _cestui que trust_ died intestate +and without heirs, the land escheated to the trustee. This distinction +was abolished by the Intestate Estates Act 1884. + +The descent of an estate in tail would be ascertained by such of the +foregoing rules as are not inapplicable to it. By the form of the entail +the estate descends to the "issue" of the person to whom the estate was +given in tail--in other words, the last purchaser. The preceding rules +after the fourth, being intended for the ascertainment of heirs other +than those by lineal descent, would therefore not apply; and a special +limitation in the entail, such as to heirs male or female only, would +render unnecessary some of the others. When the entail has been barred, +the estate descends according to these rules. In copyhold estates +descent, like other incidents thereof, is regulated by the custom of +each particular manor; e.g. the youngest son may exclude the elder sons. +How far the Inheritance Act applies to such estates has been seriously +disputed. It has been held in one case (_Muggleton_ v. _Barnett_) that +the Inheritance Act, which orders descent to be traced from the last +purchaser, does not override a manorial custom to trace descent from the +person last seized, but this position has been controverted on the +ground that the act itself includes the case of customary holdings. + +Husband and wife do not stand in the rank of heir to each other. Their +interests in each other's real property are secured by courtesy and +dower. + +The personal property of a person dying intestate devolves according to +an entirely different set of rules (see INTESTACY). + + In Scotland the rules of descent differ from the above in several + particulars. Descent is traced, as in England before the Inheritance + Act, to the person last seized. The first to succeed are the lineal + descendants of the deceased, and the rules of primogeniture, + preference of males to females, equal succession of females + (heirs-portioners), and representation of ancestors are generally the + same as in English law. Next to the lineal descendants, and failing + them, come the brothers and sisters, and their issue as collaterals. + Failing collaterals, the inheritance ascends to the father and his + relations, to the entire exclusion of the mother and her relations. + Even when the estate has descended from mother to son, it can never + revert to the maternal line. As to succession of brothers, a + distinction must be taken between an estate of heritage and an estate + of conquest. Conquest is where the deceased has acquired the land + otherwise than as heir, and corresponds to the English term purchase + in the technical sense explained. Heritage is land acquired by + deceased as heir. The distinction is important only in the case when + the heir of the deceased is to be sought among his brothers; when the + descent is lineal, conquest and heritage go to the same person. And + when the brothers are younger than the deceased, both conquest and + heritage go to the brother (or his issue) next in order of age. But + when the deceased leaves an elder and a younger brother (or their + issues), the elder brother takes the conquest, the younger takes the + heritage. Again, when there are several elder brothers, the one next + in age to the deceased takes the conquest before the more remote, and + when there are several younger brothers, the one next to the deceased + takes the heritage before the more remote. When heritage of the + deceased goes to an elder brother (as might happen in certain + eventualities), the younger of the elder brothers is preferred. The + position of the father, after the brothers and sisters of the + deceased, will be noticed as an important point of difference from the + English axioms; so also is the total exclusion of the mother and the + maternal line. As between brothers and sisters the half-blood only + succeeds after the full blood. Half-blood is either consanguinean, as + between children by the same father, or uterine, as between children + having the same mother. The half-blood uterine is excluded altogether. + Half-blood consanguinean succeeds thus: if the issue is by a former + marriage, the youngest brother (being nearest to the deceased of the + consanguinean) succeeds first; if by a later marriage than that from + which the deceased has sprung, the eldest succeeds first. + +_United States._--American law has borrowed its rules of descent +considerably more from the civil law than the common law. "The 118 novel +of Justinian has a striking resemblance to American law in giving the +succession of estates to all legitimate children without distinction and +disregarding all considerations of primogeniture. There is one +particular in which the American law differs from that of Justinian, +that while generally in this country lineal descendants if they stand in +an equal degree from the common ancestor share equally _per capita_, +under the Roman law regard was had to the right of representation, each +lineal branch of descendants taking only the portion which their parent +would have taken had he been living, the division being _per stirpes_ +and not _per capita_. But in some of the states the rule of the Roman +law in this respect has been adopted and retained. Among these are Rhode +Island, New Jersey, North and South Carolina, Alabama and Louisiana" (3 +Washburn's _Real Property_, pp. 408, 409; 4 Kent's _Comm._ p. 375). When +such lineal descendants stand in unequal degrees of consanguinity the +inheritance is _per stirpes_ and not _per capita_ (_In re Prote_, 1907; +104, N.Y. Supplement 581). This is the rule in practically all the +states. But as in no two states or territories are the rules of descent +identical, the only safe guides are the statutes and decisions of the +particular state in which the land to be inherited is situated. The law +of primogeniture as understood in England is generally abolished +throughout the United States, and male and female relatives inherit +equally. In some states, as in Massachusetts, relatives of the +half-blood inherit equally with chose of the whole-blood of the same +degree; in others, like Maryland, they can inherit only in case none of +whole-blood exist. In some of the states the English rule that natural +children have no inheritable blood has been greatly modified. In +Louisiana, if duly acknowledged, they may inherit from both father and +mother in the absence of lawful issue. Degrees of kindred in the United +States generally are computed according to the civil law, i.e. by adding +together the number of degrees between each of the two persons whose +relationship is to be ascertained and the common ancestor. Thus, +relationship between two brothers is in the second degree; between uncle +and nephew in the third degree; between cousins, in the fourth, &c. + + In a few states such degrees are computed according to the common law, + i.e. by counting from the common ancestor to the most remote + descendant of the two from him--thus, brothers would be related in the + first degree, uncle and nephew in the second, &c. In most states + representation amongst collaterals is restricted--in some to the + descendants of brothers and sisters, in others to their children only. + + + In some states, e.g. in California, Louisiana and Texas, the law of + "community property" of husband and wife prevails. This is derived + from the French and Spanish law existing in the territories out of + which those states were formed, as the result of the conquest of + Mexico by Spain and the colonizing of Louisiana by France. The + foundation idea is an equal division at death of either party of all + property acquired during their marriage except by gift, devise or + descent. In general the husband has the control and management thereof + during the marriage, and either survivor has the administration of the + moiety of the one deceased. There is a conflict in the laws in such + states as to the exact definition and as to whether or not the gains + or profits of such property are to be deemed separate property or + community property [Succession of Dielman (Louisiana, 1907), 43 + Southern Rep. 972]. + + + + +INHIBITION (from Lat. _inhibere_, to restrain, prevent), an act of +restraint or prohibition, an English legal term, particularly used in +ecclesiastical law, for a writ from a superior to an inferior court, +suspending proceedings in a case under appeal, also for the suspension +of a jurisdiction of a bishop's court on the visitation of an +archbishop, and for that of an archdeacon on the visitation of a bishop. +It is more particularly applied to a form of ecclesiastical _censure_, +suspending an offending clergyman from the performance of any service of +the Church, or other spiritual duty, for the purpose of enforcing +obedience to a monition or order of the bishop or judge. Such +inhibitions are at the discretion of the ordinary if he considers that +scandal might arise from the performance of spiritual duties by the +offender (Church Discipline Act 1860, re-enacted by the Clergy +Discipline Act 1892, sect. 10). By the Sequestration Act 1871, sect. 5, +similar powers of inhibition are given where a sequestration remains in +force for more than six months, and also, by the Benefices Act 1898, in +cases where a commission reports that the ecclesiastical duties of a +benefice are inadequately performed through the negligence of the +incumbent. + + + + +INISFAIL, a poetical name for Ireland. It is derived from _Faul_ or +_Lia-fail_, the celebrated stone, identified in Irish legend with the +stone on which the patriarch Jacob slept when he dreamed of the heavenly +ladder. The Lia-fail was supposed to have been brought to Ireland by the +Dedannans and set up at Tara as the "inauguration stone" of the Irish +kings; it was subsequently removed to Scone where it became the +coronation stone of the Scottish kings, until it was taken by James VI. +of Scotland to Westminster and placed under the coronation chair in the +Abbey, where it has since remained. Inisfail was thus the island of the +Fail, the island whose monarchs were crowned at Tara on the sacred +inauguration stone. + + + + +INITIALS (Lat. _initialis_, of or belonging to a beginning, _initium_), +the first letters of names. In legal and formal documents it is usually +the practice in appending a signature to write the name in full. But +this is by no means necessary, even in cases where a signature is +expressly required by statute. It has been held that it is sufficient if +a person affixes to a document the usual form in which he signs his +name, with the intent that it shall be treated as his signature. So, +signature by initials is a good signature within the Statute of Frauds +(_Phillimore_ v. _Barry_, 1818, I Camp. 513), and also under the Wills +Act 1837 (_In re Blewitt_, 1880, 5 P.D. 116). + + + + +INITIATION (Lat. _initium_, beginning, entrance, from _inire_, to go +in), the process of formally entering, and especially the rite of +admission into, some office, or religious or secret society, &c. Among +nearly all primitive races initiatory rites of a bloody character were +and are common. The savage pays homage to strength, and the purpose of +his initiatory rites is to test physical vigour, self-control and the +power of enduring pain. Initiation is sometimes religious, sometimes +social, but in primitive society it has always the same character. Thus, +in Whydah (West Africa) the young girls consecrated to the worship of +the serpent, "the brides of the Serpent," had figures of flowers and +animals burnt into their skins with hot irons; while in the neighbouring +Yorubaland the power of enduring a sound thrashing is the qualification +for the throne. In no country was the practice of initiatory rites more +general than in the Americas. The Colombian Indians compelled their +would-be chief to submit to terrible tests. He had first to bear severe +beatings without a murmur. Then, placed in a hammock with his hands +tied, venomous ants were placed on his naked body. Finally a fire was +lit beneath him. All this he had to bear without flinching. In ancient +Mexico there were several orders of chivalry, entry into which was only +permitted after brutal initiation. The nose of the candidate was pierced +with an eagle's talon or a pointed bone, and he was expected to dig +knives into his body. In Peru the young Inca princes had to fast and +live for weeks without sleep. Among the North American Indians +initiatory rites were universal. The Mandans held a feast at which the +young "braves" supported the weight of their bodies on pieces of wood +skewered through the muscles of shoulders, breasts and arms. With the +Sioux, to become a medicine-man, it was necessary to submit to the +ordeal known as "looking at the sun." The sufferer, nearly naked, was +bound on the earth by cords passed through holes made in the pectoral +muscles. With bow and arrow in hand, he lay in this position all day +gazing at the sun. Around him his friends gathered to applaud his +courage. + +Religious brotherhoods of antiquity, too, were to be entered only after +long and complicated initiation. But here the character of the ordeal is +rather moral than physical. Such were the rites of admission to the +Mysteries of Isis and Eleusis. Secret societies of all ages have been +characterized by more or less elaborate initiation. That of the +Femgerichte, the famous medieval German secret tribunal, took place at +night in a cave, the neophyte kneeling and making oath of blind +obedience. Imitations of such tests are perpetuated to-day in +freemasonry; while the Mafia, the Camorra, the Clan-na-Gael, the Molly +Maguires, the Ku-Klux Klan, are among more recent secret associations +which have maintained the old idea of initiation. + + + + +INJECTOR (from Lat. _injicere_, to throw in), an appliance for supplying +steam-boilers with water, and especially used with locomotive boilers. +It was invented by the French engineer H. V. Giffard in 1858, and +presents the paradox that by the pressure of the steam in the boiler, or +even, as in the case of the exhaust steam injector, by steam at a much +lower pressure, water is forced into the boiler against that pressure. A +diagrammatic section illustrating its construction is shown in figure. +Steam enters at A and blows through the annular orifice C, the size of +which can be regulated by a valve not shown in the figure. The feed +water flows in at B and meeting the steam at C causes it to condense. +Hence a vacuum is produced at C, and consequently the water rushes in +with great velocity and streams down the combining cone D, its velocity +being augmented by the impact of steam on the back of the column. In the +lower part of the nozzle E the stream expands; it therefore loses +velocity and, by a well-known hydrodynamic principle, gains pressure, +until at the bottom the pressure is so great that it is able to enter +the boiler through a check valve which opens only in the direction of +the stream. An overflow pipe F, by providing a channel through which +steam and water may escape before the stream has acquired sufficient +energy to force its way into the boiler, allows the injector to start +into action. Means are also provided for regulating the amount of water +admitted between D and C. In the _exhaust-steam_ injector, which works +with steam from the exhaust of non-condensing engines, the steam orifice +is larger in proportion to other parts than in injectors working with +boiler steam, and the steam supply more liberal. In _self-starting_ +injectors an arrangement is provided which permits free overflow until +the injector starts into action, when the openings are automatically +adjusted to suit delivery into the boiler. + +[Illustration] + + + + +INJUNCTION (from Lat. _injungere_, to fasten, or attach to, to lay a +burden or charge on, to enjoin), a term-meaning generally a command, and +in English law the name for a judicial process whereby a party is +required to refrain from doing a particular thing according to the +exigency of the writ. Formerly it was a remedy peculiar to the court of +chancery, and was one of the instruments by which the jurisdiction of +that court was established in cases over which the courts of common law +were entitled to exercise control. The court of chancery did not presume +to interfere with the action of the courts, but, by directing an +injunction to the person whom it wished to restrain from following a +particular remedy at common law, it effected the same purpose +indirectly. Under the present constitution of the judicature, the +injunction is now equally available in all the divisions of the high +court of justice, and it can no longer be used to prevent an action in +any of them from proceeding in the ordinary course. + +Although an injunction is properly a restraining order, there are +instances in which, under the form of a prohibition, a positive order to +do something is virtually expressed. Thus in a case of nuisance an +injunction was obtained to restrain the defendant from preventing water +from flowing in such regular quantities as it had ordinarily done before +the day on which the nuisance commenced. But generally, if the relief +prayed for is to compel something to be done, it cannot be obtained by +injunction, although it may be expressed in the form of a +prohibition--as in the case in which it was sought to prevent a person +from discontinuing to keep a house as an inn. The injunction was used to +stay proceedings in other courts "wherever a party by fraud, accident, +mistake or otherwise had obtained an advantage in proceeding in a court +of ordinary jurisdiction, which must necessarily make that court an +instrument of injustice." As the injunction operates personally on the +defendant, it may be used to prevent applications to foreign +judicatures; but it is not used to prevent applications to parliament, +or to the legislature of any foreign country, unless such applications +be in breach of some agreement, and relate to matters of private +interest. In so far as an injunction is used to prohibit acts, it may be +founded either on an alleged contract or on a right independent of +contract. The jurisdiction of the court to prevent breaches of contract +has been described as supplemental to its power of compelling specific +performance; i.e. if the court has power to compel a person to perform a +contract, it will interfere to prevent him from doing anything in +violation of it. But even when it is not within the power of the court +to compel specific performance, it may interfere by injunction; thus, +e.g. in the case of an agreement of a singer to perform at the +plaintiff's theatre and at no other, the court, although it could not +compel her to sing, could by injunction prevent her from singing +elsewhere in breach of her agreement. + +An injunction may as a general rule be obtained to prevent acts which +are violations of legal rights, except when the same may be adequately +remedied by an action for damages at law. Thus the court will interfere +by injunction to prevent waste, or the destruction by a limited owner, +such as a tenant for life, of things forming part of the inheritance. +Injunctions may also be obtained to prevent the continuance of +nuisances, public or private, the infringement of patents, copyrights +and trade marks. Trespass might also in certain cases be prevented by +injunction. Under the Common Law Procedure Act of 1854, and by other +statutes in special cases, a limited power of injunction was conferred +on the courts of common law. But the Judicature Act, by which all the +superior courts of common law and chancery were consolidated, enacts +that an injunction may be granted by an interlocutory order of the court +in all cases in which it shall appear to be just or convenient; ... and, +if an injunction is asked either before or at or after the hearing of +any cause or matter, to prevent any threatened or apprehended waste or +trespass, such injunction may be granted whether the person against whom +it is sought is or is not in possession under any claim of title or +otherwise, or if not in possession does or does not claim to do the act +sought to be restrained under colour of any title, and whether the +estates claimed are legal or equitable. + +An injunction obtained on interlocutory application during the progress +of an action is superseded by the trial. It may be continued either +provisionally or permanently. In the latter case the injunction is said +to be perpetual. The distinction between "special" and "common" +injunctions--the latter being obtained as of course--is now abolished in +English law. + +In the courts of the United States the writ of injunction remains purely +an equitable remedy. It may be issued at the instance of the president +to prevent any organized obstruction to inter-state commerce or to the +passage of the mails (_in re_ Debs, 158 United States Reports, 564). +Temporary restraining orders may be issued, _ex parte_, pending an +application for a temporary injunction. In the state courts temporary +injunctions are often issued, _ex parte_, subject to the defendant's +right to move immediately for their dissolution. Generally, however, +notice of an application for a temporary injunction is required. + + For the analogous practice in Scots law see INTERDICT. + + + + +INK (from Late Lat. _encaustum_, Gr. [Greek: enkauston], the purple ink +used by Greek and Roman emperors, from [Greek: enkaiein], to burn in), +in its widest signification, a substance employed for producing graphic +tracings, inscriptions, or impressions on paper or similar materials. +The term includes two distinct conditions of pigment or colouring +matter: the one fluid, and prepared for use with a pen or brush, as +writing ink; the other a glutinous adhesive mass, printing ink, used for +transferring to paper impressions from types, engraved plates and +similar surfaces. + +The ancient Egyptians prepared and used inks (Flinders Petrie discovered +a papyrus bearing written characters as old as 2500 B.C.), and in China +the invention of an ink is assigned to Tien-Tcheu, who lived between +2697 B.C. and 2597 B.C. These early inks were prepared from charcoal or +soot mixed with gum, glue or varnish. Sepia (q.v.), the black pigment +secreted by the cuttle-fish, was used as a writing fluid by the Romans. +The iron-gall ink, i.e. an ink prepared from an iron salt and tannin, +appears to have been first described by the monk Theophilus, who lived +in the 11th century A.D., although Pliny, in the 1st century A.D., was +acquainted with the blackening of paper containing green vitriol by +immersion in an infusion of nut-galls. Iron-gall inks, prepared by +mixing extracts of galls, barks, &c., with green vitriol, subsequently +came into common use, and in the 16th century recipes for their +preparation were given in domestic encyclopaedias. Their scientific +investigation was first made by William Lewis in 1748. The earlier +iron-inks were essentially a suspension of the pigment in water. In the +early part of the 19th century the firm of Stephens introduced the first +of the so-called blue-black inks under the name of "Stephens' writing +fluid." Solutions of green vitriol and tannin, coloured by indigo and +logwood, were prepared, which wrote with a blue tint and blackened on +exposure, this change being due to the production of the pigment within +the pores of the paper. The "alizarine" inks, patented by Leonhardi in +1856, are similar inks with the addition of a little madder. The +application of aniline colours to ink manufacture in England dates from +Croc's patent of 1861. + +_Writing Inks._--Writing inks are fluid substances which contain +colouring matter either in solution or in suspension, and commonly +partly in both conditions. They may be prepared in all shades of colour, +and contain almost every pigment which can be dissolved or suspended in +a suitable medium. The most important of all varieties is black ink, +after which red and blue are most commonly employed. Apart from colour +there are special qualities which recommend certain inks for limited +applications, such as marking inks, ineradicable ink, sympathetic ink, +&c. A good writing ink for ordinary purposes should continue limpid, and +flow freely and uniformly from the pen; it should not throw down a thick +sludgy deposit on exposure to the air; nor should a coating of mould +form on its surface. It should yield distinctly legible characters +immediately on writing, not fading with age; and the fluid ought to +penetrate into the paper without spreading, so that the characters will +neither wash out nor be readily removed by erasure. Further, it is +desirable that ink should be non-poisonous, that it should as little as +possible corrode steel pens, that characters traced in it should dry +readily on the application of blotting paper without smearing, and that +the writing should not present a glossy, varnished appearance. + +_Tannin Inks._--These inks are prepared from galls, or other sources of +tannin, and a salt of iron, with the addition of some agglutinant in the +case of the so-called oxidized inks, or a colouring matter in the case +of unoxidized inks. Such mixtures form the staple black inks of +commerce; they are essentially an insoluble iron gallate in extremely +fine division held in suspension in water or a soluble compound +dissolved in water. + +On long exposure to air, as in inkstands, or otherwise, tannin inks +gradually become thick and ropy, depositing a slimy sediment. This +change on exposure is inevitable, resulting from the gradual oxidation +of the ferrous compound, and it can only be retarded by permitting +access of air to as small surfaces as possible. The inks also have a +tendency to become mouldy, an evil which may be obviated by the use of a +minute proportion of carbolic acid; or salicylic acid may be used. + +The essential ingredients of ordinary black ink are--first, +tannin-yielding bodies, for which Aleppo or Chinese galls are the most +eligible materials; second, a salt of iron, ferrous sulphate (green +vitriol) being alone employed; and third, a gummy or mucilaginous agent +to keep in suspension the insoluble tinctorial matter of the ink. For +ink-making the tannin has first to be transformed into gallic acid. In +the case of Aleppo galls this change takes place by fermentation when +the solution of the galls is exposed to the air, the tannin splitting up +into gallic acid and sugar. Chinese galls do not contain the ferment +necessary for inducing this change; and to induce the process yeast must +be added to their solution. To prepare a solution of Aleppo galls for +ink-making, the galls are coarsely powdered, and intimately mixed with +chopped straw. This mixture is thrown into a narrow deep oak vat, +provided with a perforated false bottom, and having a tap at the bottom +for drawing off liquid. Over the mixture is poured lukewarm water, +which, percolating down, extracts and carries with it the tannin of the +galls. The solution is drawn off and repeatedly run through the mixture +to extract the whole of the tannin, the water used being in such +proportion to the galls as will produce as nearly as possible a solution +having 5% of tannin. The object of using straw in the extraction process +is to maintain the porosity of the mixture, as powdered galls treated +alone become so slimy with mucilaginous extract that liquid fails to +percolate the mass. For each litre of the 5% solution about 45 grammes +of the iron salt are used, or about 100 parts of tannin for 90 parts of +crystallized green vitriol. These ingredients when first mixed form a +clear solution, but on their exposure to the air oxidation occurs, and +an insoluble blue-black ferrosoferric gallate in extremely fine +division, suspended in a coloured solution of ferrous gallate, is +formed. To keep the insoluble portion suspended, a mucilaginous agent is +employed, and those most available are gum senegal and gum arabic. An +ink so prepared develops its intensity of colour only after some +exposure; and after it has partly sunk into the paper it becomes +oxidized there, and so mordanted into the fibre. As the first faintness +of the characters is a disadvantage, it is a common practice to add some +adventitious colouring matter to give immediate distinctness, and for +that purpose either extract of logwood or a solution of indigo is used. +When logwood extract is employed, a smaller proportion of extract of +galls is required, logwood itself containing a large percentage of +tannin. For making an unoxidized or blue-black ink indigo is dissolved +in strong sulphuric acid, and the ferrous sulphate, instead of being +used direct, is prepared by placing in this indigo solution a proper +quantity of scrap iron. To free the solution from excess of uncombined +acid, chalk or powdered limestone is added, whereby the free acid is +fixed and a deposit of sulphate of lime formed. A solution so prepared, +mixed with a tannin solution, yields a very limpid sea-green writing +fluid, and as all the constituents remain in solution, no gum or other +suspending medium is necessary. In consequence the ink flows freely, is +easily dried and is free from the glossy appearance which arises through +the use of gum. + +_China ink_ or _Indian ink_ is the form in which ink was earliest +prepared, and in which it is still used in China and Japan for writing +with small brushes instead of pens. It is extensively used by +architects, engineers and artists generally, and for various special +uses. China ink is prepared in the form of sticks and cakes, which are +rubbed down in water for use. It consists essentially of lamp-black in +very fine condition, baked up with a glutinous substance; and the finer +Oriental kinds are delicately perfumed. The following description of the +manufacture as conducted in Japan is from a native source:-- + + "The body of the ink is soot obtained from pine wood or rosin, and + lamp-black from sesamum oil for the finest sort. This is mixed with + liquid glue made of ox-skin. This operation is effected in a large + round copper bowl, formed of two spherical vessels, placed 1 in. + apart, so that the space between can be filled up with hot water to + prevent the glue from hardening during the time it is being mixed by + hand with the lamp-black. The cakes are formed in wooden moulds, and + dried between paper and ashes. Camphor, or a peculiar mixture of + scents which comes from China, and a small quantity of carthamine (the + red colouring substance of safflower), are added to the best kinds for + improving the colour as well as for scenting the ink. There is a great + difference both in price and in quality of the various kinds of ink, + the finest article being rather costly." + +It is said that the size used in Chinese kinds is of vegetable origin. + +_Logwood Ink._--Under the name of chrome ink a black ink was discovered +by Runge, which held out the promise of cheapness combined with many +excellent qualities. It is prepared by dissolving 15 parts of extract of +logwood in 900 parts of water, to which 4 parts of crystallized sodium +carbonate are added. A further solution of 1 part of potassium chromate +(not bichromate) in 100 parts of water is prepared, and is added very +gradually to the other solution with constant agitation. The ink so +obtained possesses an intense blue-black colour, flows freely and dries +readily, is neutral in reaction and hence does not corrode steel pens, +and adheres to and sinks into paper so that manuscripts written with it +may be freely washed with a sponge without danger of smearing or +spreading. It forms a good copying ink, and it possesses all the +qualities essential to the best ink; but on exposure to air it very +readily undergoes decomposition, the colouring matter separating in +broad flakes, which swim in a clear menstruum. It is affirmed by Viedt +that this drawback may be overcome by the use of soda, a method first +suggested by Böttger. + +Logwood forms the principal ingredient in various other black inks used, +especially as copying ink. A very strong decoction of logwood or a +strong solution of the extract with ammonium-alum yields a violet ink +which darkens slowly on exposure. Such an ink is costly, on account of +the concentrated condition in which the logwood must be used. If, +however, a metallic salt is introduced, a serviceable ink is obtained +with the expenditure of much less logwood. Either sulphate of copper or +sulphate of iron may be used, but the former, which produces a pleasing +blue-black colour, is to be preferred. The following is the formula most +highly recommended for this ink. A clear solution of 20 kilos of extract +of logwood in 200 litres of water is obtained, to which is added, with +agitation, 10 kilos of ammonium-alum dissolved in 20 litres of boiling +water. The solution is acidified with 0.2 kilo of sulphuric acid, which +has the effect of preventing any deposit, and finally there is added a +solution of 1.5 kilos of sulphate of copper dissolved in 20 litres of +water. This compound is exposed to the air for a few days to allow the +colour to develop by oxidation, after which it is stored in well-corked +bottles. The acid condition of this ink has a corrosive influence on +steel pens; in all other respects it is a most valuable writing fluid. + +_Aniline Inks._--Solutions of aniline dye-stuffs in water are widely +used as inks, especially coloured varieties. They are usually fugitive. +Nigrosine is a black ink, which, although not producing a black so +intense as common ink, possesses various advantages. Being perfectly +neutral, it does not attack pens; it can easily be kept of a proper +consistency by making up with water; and its colour is not injuriously +affected by the action of acids. Its ready flow from stylographic pens +led to the name "stylographic ink." Other aniline inks are mentioned +below. + +_Copying Ink._--Ink which yields by means of pressure an impression, on +a sheet of damped tissue paper, of characters written in it is called +copying ink. Any ink soluble in water, or which retains a certain degree +of solubility, may be used as copying ink. Runge's chrome ink, being a +soluble compound, is, therefore, so available; and the other logwood +inks as well as the ordinary ferrous gallate inks contain also soluble +constituents, and are essentially soluble till they are oxidized in and +on the paper after exposure to the air. To render these available as +copying inks it is necessary to add to them a substance which will +retard the oxidizing effect of the air for some time. For this purpose +the bodies most serviceable are gum arabic or senegal, with glycerin, +dextrin or sugar, which last, however, renders the ink sticky. These +substances act by forming a kind of glaze or varnish over the surface of +the ink which excludes the air. At the same time when the damp sheet of +tissue paper is applied to the writing, they dissolve and allow a +portion of the yet soluble ink to be absorbed by the moistened tissue. +As copying ink has to yield two or more impressions, it is necessary +that it should be made stronger, i.e. that it should contain more +pigment or body than common ink. It, therefore, is prepared with from 30 +to 40% less of water than non-copying kinds; but otherwise, except in +the presence of the ingredients above mentioned, the inks are the same. +Copying ink pencils consist of a base of graphite and kaolin impregnated +with a very strong solution of an aniline colour, pressed into sticks +and dried. + +_Red Ink._--The pigment most commonly employed as the basis of red ink +is Brazil-wood. Such an ink is prepared by adding to a strong decoction +of the wood a proportion of stannous chloride (tin spirits), and +thickening the resulting fluid with gum arabic. In some instances alum +and cream of tartar are used instead of the stannous chloride. Cochineal +is also employed as the tinctorial basis of red ink; but, while the +resulting fluid is much more brilliant than that obtained from +Brazil-wood, it is not so permanent. A very brilliant red ink may be +prepared by dissolving carmine in a solution of ammonia, but this +preparation must be kept in closely stoppered bottles. A useful red ink +may also be made by dissolving the rosein of Brook, Simpson and Spiller +in water, in the proportion of 1 to from 150 to 200 parts. + +_Blue Ink._--For the production of blue ink the pigment principally used +is Prussian blue. It is first digested for two or three days with either +strong hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid or nitric acid, the digested +mass is next very largely diluted with water, and after settling the +supernatant liquid is siphoned away from the sediment. This sediment is +repeatedly washed, till all traces of iron and free acid disappear from +the water used, after which it is dried and mixed with oxalic acid in +the proportion of 8 parts of Prussian blue to 1 of the acid, and in this +condition the material is ready for dissolving in water to the degree of +colour intensity necessary. An aniline blue ink may be prepared by +dissolving 1 part of bleu de Paris in from 200 to 250 parts of water. + +_Marking Ink._--The ink so called, used principally for marking linen, +is composed of a salt of silver, usually the nitrate, dissolved in water +and ammonia, with a little provisional colouring matter and gum for +thickening. The colour resulting from the silver salt is developed by +heat and light; and the stain it makes, although exceedingly obstinate, +gradually becomes a faint brownish-yellow. The following yields a good +marking ink. Equal parts of nitrate of silver and dry tartaric acid are +triturated in a mortar, and treated with water, when a reaction takes +place, resulting in the formation of tartrate of silver and the +liberation of nitric acid. The acid is neutralized, and at the same time +the silver tartrate is dissolved by the addition of ammonia, and this +solution with colouring matter and gum forms the ink, which may be used +with an ordinary steel pen. + +Many vegetable juices, e.g. of _Coriaria thymifolia_, _Semecarpus_ +_anacardium_, _Anacardium occidentale_ (Cashew), are inks of this type. + +_Gold_ and _silver inks_ are writing fluids in which gold and silver, or +imitations of these metals, are suspended in a state of fine division. +In place of gold, Dutch leaf or mosaic gold is frequently substituted, +and bronze powders are used for preparing a similar kind of ink. The +metallic foil is first carefully triturated into a fine paste with +honey, after which it is boiled in water containing a little alkali, and +then repeatedly washed in hot water and dried at a gentle heat. A +solution is prepared consisting of 1 part of pure gum arabic and 1 part +of soluble potash glass in 4 parts of distilled water, into which the +requisite quantity of the metallic powder prepared is introduced. Owing +to the superior covering nature of pure gold, less of the metal is +required than is necessary in the case of silver and other foils. In +general 1 part of foil to 3 or 4 parts of solution is sufficient. The +metallic lustre of writing done with this solution may be greatly +heightened by gently polishing with a burnishing point. Another gold ink +depends upon the formation of purple of Cassius; the linen is mordanted +with stannous chloride, and the gold applied as a gummy solution of the +chloride. + +_Indelible_ or _incorrodible ink_ is the name given to various +combinations of lamp-black or other carbonaceous material with resinous +substances used for writing which is exposed to the weather or to the +action of strong acids or alkaline solutions. An ink having great +resisting powers may be conveniently prepared by rubbing down Indian ink +in common ink till the mixture flows easily from the pen. Other +combinations have more the character of coloured varnishes. + +_Sympathetic inks_ are preparations used for forming characters which +only become visible on the application of heat or of some chemical +reagent. Many chemicals which form in themselves colourless solutions, +but which develop colour under the influence of reagents, may be used as +sympathetic ink, but they are of little practical utility. Characters +written in a weak solution of galls develop a dark colour on being +treated with a solution of copperas; or, vice versa, the writing may be +done in copperas and developed by the galls solution. Writing done in +various preparations develops colour on heating which fades as the paper +cools. Among such substances are solutions of the chlorides of cobalt +and of nickel. Very dilute solutions of the mineral acids and of common +salt and a solution of equal parts of sulphate of copper and +sal-ammoniac act similarly. Writing with rice water and developing with +iodine was a device much used during the Indian Mutiny. + +_Printing Inks._--Printing inks are essentially mixtures of a pigment +and a varnish. The varnish is prepared from linseed oil, rosin and soap; +the oil must be as old as possible; the rosin may be black or amber; and +the soap, which is indispensable since it causes the ink to adhere +uniformly to the type and also to leave the type clean after taking an +impression, is yellow, or turpentine soap for dark inks, and curd soap +for light inks. The varnish is prepared as follows: The oil is carefully +heated until it "strings" properly, i.e. a drop removed from the vessel +on a rod, when placed upon a plate and the rod drawn away, forms a +thread about ½ in. long. The rosin is carefully and slowly added and the +mixture well stirred. The soap is then stirred in. The ink is prepared +by mixing the varnish with the pigment, and grinding the mass to +impalpable fineness either in a levigating mill or by a stone and +muller. For black ink, lamp-black mixed with a little indigo or Prussian +blue is the pigment employed; for wood engravings it may be mixed with +ivory black, and for copper plates with ivory or Frankfurt black; for +lithographic reproductions Paris black is used. Red inks are made with +carmine or cochineal; red lead is used in cheap inks, but it rapidly +blackens. Blue inks are made with indigo or Prussian blue; yellow with +lead chromate or yellow ochre; green is made by mixing yellow and blue; +and purple by mixing red and blue. + + See C. A. Mitchell and T. C. Hepworth, _Inks, their Composition and + Manufacture_ (1904); S. Lehner, _Ink Manufacture_ (1902); A. F. + Gouillon, _Encres et cirages_ (1906); L. E. Andés, _Schreib-, Kopier- + und andere Tinten_ (1906). + + + + + +INKERMAN, BATTLE OF, fought on the 5th of November 1854 between a +portion of the Allied English and French army besieging Sevastopol and a +Russian army under Prince Menshikov (see CRIMEAN WAR). This battle +derives its name from a ruin on the northern bank of the river Tchernaya +near its mouth, but it was fought some distance away, on a nameless +ridge (styled Mount Inkerman after the event) between the Tchernaya and +the Careenage Ravine, which latter marked the right of the siege-works +directed against Sevastopol itself. Part of this ridge, called Home +Ridge and culminating in a knoll, was occupied by the British, while +farther to the south, facing the battleground of Balaklava, a corps +under General Bosquet was posted to cover the rear of the besiegers +against attacks from the direction of Traktir Bridge. The Russians +arranged for a combined attack on the ridge above-mentioned by part of +Menshikov's army (16,000) and a corps (19,000) that was to issue from +Sevastopol. This attack was to have, beside its own field artillery, the +support of fifty-four heavy guns, and the Russian left wing on the +Balaklava battleground was to keep Bosquet occupied. If successful, the +attack on the ridge was to be the signal for a general attack all along +the line. It was apparently intended by Menshikov that the column from +the field army should attack the position from the north, and that the +Sevastopol column should advance along the west side of the Careenage +Ravine. But he only appointed a commander to take charge of both columns +at the last moment, and the want of a clear understanding as to what was +to be done militated against success from the first. General Soimonov, +with the Sevastopol column, after assembling his troops before dawn on +the 5th, led them on to the upland east of Careenage Ravine, while the +field army column, under General Pavlov, crossed the Tchernaya near its +mouth, almost at right angles to Soimonov's line of advance. + +[Illustration: Map of Inkerman.] + +The British troops on or near the ground were the 2nd Division, 3000, +encamped on the ridge; Codrington's brigade of the Light Division, 1400, +on the slopes west of the Careenage Ravine; and the Guards' brigade, +1350, about ¾ m. in rear of the 2nd Division camp. No other forces, +French or British, were within 2 m. except another part of Sir George +Brown's Light Division. A mist overhung the field and the hillsides were +slippery with mud. Soimonov, with his whole force deployed in a normal +attack formation (three lines of battalion columns covered by a few +hundred skirmishers) pushed forward along the ridge (6 A.M.) without +waiting for Pavlov or for Dannenberg, the officer appointed to command +the whole force. Shell Hill, guarded only by a picquet, was seized at +once. The heavy guns that had been brought from the fortress were placed +in position on this hill, and opened fire (7 A.M.) on the knoll, 1400 +yds. to the S., behind which the 2nd Division was encamped. The Russian +infantry halted for the guns to prepare the way, and the heavy +projectiles both swept the crest of the British knoll and destroyed the +camp in rear. But already General Pennefather, commanding the division, +had pushed forward one body of his infantry after another down the +forward slope, near the foot of which they encountered the Russians in +great force. On his side, Soimonov had been compelled to break up his +regular lines of columns at the narrowest part of the ridge and to push +his battalions forward a few at a time. This and the broken character of +the ground made the battle even in the beginning a mêlée. The obscurity +of the mist, which had at first allowed the big battalions to approach +unobserved, now favoured the weaker side. Soimonov himself, however, +formed up some 9000 men, who drove back the British left wing--for the +whole of Pennefather's force at the time was no more than 3600 men. But +the right wing, not as yet attacked, either by Soimonov or by Pavlov, +held on to its positions on the forward slope, and a column of Russian +sailors and marines, who had been placed under Soimonov's command and +had moved up the Careenage Ravine to turn the British left, were caught, +just as they emerged on to the plateau in rear of Pennefather's line, +between two bodies of British troops hurrying to the scene of action. On +the front, too, the Russian attack came to a standstill and ebbed, for +Soimonov's overcrowded battalions jostled one another and dissolved on +the narrow and broken plateau. Soimonov himself was killed, and the +disciplined confidence and steady volleys of the defenders dominated the +chaotic _élan_ of the Russians. Thus 3300 defenders were able to repulse +and even to "expunge from the battlefield" the whole of the Sevastopol +column, except that portion of it which drifted away to its left and +joined Pavlov. This stage of the battle had lasted about forty minutes. +But, brilliant as was this overture, it is the second stage of the +battle that gives it its epic interest. + +The first attack made by Pavlov's advanced guard, aided by parts of +Soimonov's corps, was relatively slight, but General Dannenberg now +arrived on the field, and arranged for an assault on the British centre +and right, to be delivered by 10,000 men (half his intact forces) +chiefly by way of the Quarry Ravine, the attack to be prepared by the +guns on Shell Hill. Pennefather had been reinforced by the Guards' +brigade and a few smaller units. Not the least extraordinary feature of +the battle that followed is the part played by a sangar of stones at the +head of Quarry Ravine and a small battery, called the Sandbag Battery, +made as a temporary emplacement for two heavy guns a few days before. +The guns had done their work and been sent back whence they came. +Nevertheless these two insignificant works, as points to hold and lines +to defend on an otherwise featureless battlefield, became the centres of +gravity of the battle. + +The sangar at first fell into the hands of the Russians, but they were +soon ejected, and small British detachments reoccupied and held it, +while the various Russian attacks flowed up and past it and ebbed back +into the Quarry Ravine. Possession of the Sandbag Battery was far more +fiercely contested. The right wing was defended by some 700 men of the +2nd Division, who were reinforced by 1300 of the Guards. The line of +defence adjacent to the battery looked downhill for about 300 yds., +giving a clear field of fire for the new Enfield rifle the English +carried; but a sharp break in the slope beyond that range gave the +assailants plenty of "dead ground" on which to form up. For a time, +therefore, the battle was a series of attacks, delivered with great +fierceness by the main body of Pavlov's corps, the repulse of each being +followed by the disappearance of the assailants. But the arrival of part +of the British 4th Division under Sir George Cathcart gave the impulse +for a counter-attack. Most of the division indeed had to be used to +patch up the weaker parts of the line, but Cathcart himself with about +400 men worked his way along the lower and steeper part of the eastern +slope so as to take the assailants of the battery in flank. He had not +proceeded far, however, when a body of Russians moving higher up +descended upon the small British corps and scattered it, Cathcart +himself being killed. Other counterstrokes that his arrival had inspired +were at the same time made from different parts of the defensive front, +and had the effect of breaking up what was a solid line into a number of +disconnected bands, each fighting for its life in the midst of the +enemy. The crest of the position was laid open and parts of the Russian +right wing seized it. But they were flung back to the lower slopes of +the Quarry Ravine by the leading French regiment sent by Bosquet. This +regiment was quickly followed by others. The last great assault was +delivered with more precision, if with less fury than the others, and +had Dannenberg chosen to employ the 9000 bayonets of his reserve, who +stood idle throughout the day, to support the 6000 half-spent troops who +made the attack, it would probably have been successful. + +As it was, supported by the heavy guns on Shell Hill, the assailants, +though no longer more than slightly superior in numbers, carried not +only the sangar, but part of the crest line of the allied position. But +they were driven back into the Quarry Ravine, and, relieving the +exhausted British, the French took up the defence along the edge of the +ravine, which, though still not without severe fighting, they maintained +till the close of the battle. Inkerman, however, was not a drawn battle. +The allied field artillery, reinforced by two long 18-pr. guns of the +British siege train and assisted by the bold advance of two French +horse-artillery batteries which galloped down the forward slope and +engaged the Russians at close range, gained the upper hand. Last of all, +the dominant guns on Shell Hill thus silenced, the resolute advance of a +handful of British infantry decided the day, and the Russians retreated. +The final shots were fired about 1.30 P.M. + + The total British force engaged was 8500, of whom 2357 were killed and + wounded. The French lost 939 out of about 7000 who came on to the + field, though not all these were engaged. The Russians are said to + have lost 11,000 out of about 42,000 present. The percentage (27.7) of + loss sustained by the British is sufficient evidence of the intensity + of the conflict, and provides a convincing answer to certain writers + who have represented the battle as chiefly a French affair. On the + other hand, the reproaches addressed by some British writers to + General Bosquet for not promptly supporting the troops at Inkerman + with his whole strength are equally unjustifiable, for apparently Sir + George Brown and Sir George Cathcart both declined his first offers of + support, and he had Prince Gorchakov with at least 20,000 Russians in + his own immediate front. He would therefore have risked the failure of + his own mission in order to take part in a battle where his + intervention was not, so far as he could tell, of vital importance. + When Lord Raglan definitely asked him for support, he gave it + willingly and eagerly, sending his troops up at the double, and it + must be remembered that several British divisions took no part in the + action for the same reason that actuated Bosquet. But, in spite of the + seemingly inevitable controversies attendant on an "allied" battle, it + is now generally admitted that, as a "soldiers' battle," Inkerman is + scarcely to be surpassed in modern history. + + + + +INLAYING, a method of ornamentation, by incrusting or otherwise +inserting in one material a substance or substances differing therefrom +in colour or nature. The art is practised in the fabrication of +furniture and artistic objects in all varieties of wood, metal, shell, +ivory and coloured, and hard stone, and in compound substances; and the +combinations, styles and varieties of effect are exceedingly numerous. +Several special classes of inlaying may be here enumerated and defined, +details regarding most of which will be found under their separate +headings. In the ornamental treatment of metal surfaces _Niello_ +decoration, applied to silver and gold, is an ancient and much-practised +species of inlaying. It consists in filling up engraved designs with a +composition of silver, copper, lead and sulphur incorporated by heat. +The composition is black, and the finished work has the appearance of a +drawing in black on a metallic plate. An art, analogous in effect, +called _bidri_, from Bider in the Deccan, is practised in India. In +bidri work the ground is an alloy of zinc, with small proportions of +copper and lead, in which shallow patterns and devices are traced, and +filled up with thin plates of silver. When the surface has been evened +and smoothed, the bidri ground is stained a permanent black by a paste +the chief ingredients of which are sal-ammoniac and nitre, leaving a +pleasing contrast of bright metallic silver in a dead black ground. The +inlaying of gold wire in iron or steel is known as Damascening (q.v.). +It has been very largely practised in Persia and India for the +ornamentation of arms and armour, being known in the latter country as +Kuft work or Kuftgari. In Kashmir, vessels of copper and brass are very +effectively inlaid with tin--an art which, like many other decorative +arts, appears to have originated in Persia. In the ornamental inlaying +of metal surfaces the Japanese display the most extraordinary skill and +perfection of workmanship. In the inlaying of their fine bronzes they +use principally gold and silver, but for large articles and also for +common cast hollow ware commoner metals and alloys are employed. In +inlaying bronzes they generally hollow out and somewhat undercut the +design, into which the ornamenting metal, usually in the form of wire, +is laid and hammered over. Frequently the lacquer work of the Japanese +is inlaid with mother-of-pearl and other substances, in the same manner +as is practised in ornamenting lacquered papier-mâché among Western +communities. The Japanese also practise the various methods of inlaying +referred to under DAMASCENING. The term _Mosaic_ (q.v.) is generally +applied to inlaid work in hard stones, marble and glass, but the most +important class of mosaics--those which consist of innumerable small +separate pieces--do not properly come under the head of inlaying. Inlaid +mosaics are those in which coloured designs are inserted in spaces cut +in a solid ground or basis, such as the modern Florentine mosaic, which +consists of thin veneers of precious coloured stones set in slabs of +marble. The Taj Mahal at Agra is an example of inlaid mosaic in white +marble, and the art, carried to that city by a French artist, is still +practised by native workmen. _Pietra dura_ is a fine variety of inlaid +mosaic in which hard and expensive stones--agate, cornelian, amethyst +and the like--are used in relief. Certain kinds of enamel might also be +included among the varieties of inlaying. (See also MARQUETRY and BOMBAY +FURNITURE.) + + + + +INMAN, HENRY (1801-1846), American artist, was born in Utica, New York, +on the 20th of October 1801. Apprenticed to the painter John W. Jarvis +at the age of fourteen, he left him after seven years and set up for +himself, painting portraits, genre and landscape. He was one of the +organizers of the National Academy of Design in New York and its first +vice-president (from 1826 until 1832). As a portrait painter he was +highly successful both in New York and Philadelphia, and going to +England in 1844, he had for sitters the Lord Chancellor (Cottenham), the +poet Wordsworth, Doctor Chalmers, Lord Macaulay and others. His American +sitters included President Van Buren and Chief Justice Marshall. He died +in New York City on the 17th of January 1846. + + + + +INN, a river of Europe, an important right bank tributary of the Danube. +It rises at an elevation of 7800 ft., in a small lake under the Piz +Longhino, in the Swiss canton of the Grisons. After flowing for a +distance of 55 m., through the Engadine it leaves Swiss territory at +Martinsbruck and enters Austria. It next plunges through the deep ravine +of Finstermünz, and, continuing in the main a north-easterly direction, +receives at Landeck the Rosanna. Hence its course becomes more rapid, +until, after swirling through the narrow and romantic Oberinnthal, it +enters the broader and pastoral Unterinnthal. It next passes Innsbruck +and from Hall, a few miles lower down, begins to be navigable for +barges. At Kufstein, down to which point it has still pursued a +north-easterly direction, it breaks through the north Tirol limestone +formation, and, now keeping a northerly course, enters at Rosenheim the +Bavarian high plateau. Its bed is now broad, studded with islands and +enclosed by high banks. Its chief tributaries on this last portion of +its course are the Alz and the Salzach, and at Passau, 309 m. from its +source, it joins the Danube, which river down to that point it equals in +length and far exceeds in volume of water. Its rapid current does not +permit of extensive navigation, but timber rafts are floated down from +above Innsbruck. + + See Greinz, _Eine Wanderung durch das Unterinntal_ (Stuttgart, 1902). + + + + +INN and INNKEEPER. An inn is a house where travellers are fed and lodged +for reward. A distinction has been drawn between tavern, inn and hotel, +the tavern supplying food and drink, the hotel lodging, the inn both; +but this is fanciful. "Hotel" now means "inn," and "inn" is often +applied to a mere public-house, whilst "tavern" is less used. "Inn," +still the legal and best, as it is the oldest, is a form of the word +"in" or "within." This sense is retained in the case of the English +legal societies still known as INNS OF COURT (q.v.). In the Bible "inn" +means "lodging-place for the night." Hospitality has always been a +sacred duty in the East. The pilgrim or the traveller claims it as a +right. But some routes were crowded, as that from Bagdad to Babylon. On +these, _khans_ (in or near a town) and _caravanserais_ (in waste places) +were erected at the expense of the benevolent. They consisted of a +square building surrounded by a high wall; on the roof there was a +terrace and over the gateway a tower; inside, was a large court +surrounded by compartments in which was some rude provision for the +animals and baggage of the traveller as well as for himself. The latter +purchased his own food where he chose, and had to "do for himself." In +some such place Jesus was born. Tavern is mentioned once in Scripture +(Acts xxviii. 15) where it is said the brethren from Rome met Paul at +"the Three Taverns." This was a station on the Appian Way, referred to +also in Cicero's _Letters_ (_Ad Att._ ii. 12). So, in modern London, +stations are called "Elephant and Castle," or "Bricklayers' Arms," from +adjacent houses of entertainment. Among the Greeks inns and innkeepers +were held in low repute. The houses were bad and those who kept them had +a bad name. A self-respecting Greek entered them as seldom as possible; +if he travelled he relied on the hospitality of friends. In Rome under +the emperors something akin to the modern inn grew up. There is, +however, scarcely any mention of such institutions in the capital as +distinguished from mere wine-shops or eating-houses. Ambassadors were +lodged in apartments at the expense of the state. But along the great +roads that radiated from Rome there were inns. Horace's account of his +journey to Brundisium (_Sat._ i. 5), that brilliant picture of +contemporary travel, tells us of their existence, and the very name of +the Three Taverns shows that there was sufficient custom to support a +knot of these institutions at one place. Under the Roman law, the +innkeeper was answerable for the property of his guests unless the +damage was due to _damnum fatale_ or _vis major_, in modern language the +act of God or the king's enemies. He was also liable for damage done by +his servant or his slave or other inhabitant of the house. + +In the middle ages hospitality was still regarded as a duty, and +provision for travellers was regularly made in the monasteries. People +of rank were admitted to the house itself, others sought the +guest-chamber, which sometimes stood (as at Battle Abbey) outside the +precincts. It consisted of a hall, round which were sleeping-rooms, +though the floor of the hall itself was often utilized. Again, +hospitality was rarely denied at the castle or country house. The knight +supped with his host at the daïs or upper part of the great hall, and +retired with him into his own apartment. His followers, or the meaner +strangers, sat lower down at meat, and after the tables had been removed +stretched themselves to rest upon the floor. In desolate parts hospices +were erected for the accommodation of pilgrims. Such existed in the +Alps and on all the great roads to the Holy Land or to famous shrines, +notably to that of Canterbury. The still impressive remains of the +Travellers' Hospital at Maidstone, founded by Archbishop Boniface in +1260, give an idea of the extent of such places. The mention of +Canterbury recalls two inns celebrated by Chaucer. The pilgrims started +from the "Tabard" at Southwark under the charge of Harry Baily the host, +and they put up at the "Checquers of the Hope," in Mercery Lane, +Canterbury. It is easy to infer that, as time went on, the meagre +hospitality of the monastery or the hospice was not sufficient for an +increasing middle class, and that the want was met by the development of +the mere ale-house into the inn. The "ale-house," to give it the old +English name, was always in evidence, and even in pre-Reformation days +was a favourite subject for the satirist. In Langland's _Piers the +Plowman_ and in Skelton's _Elynour Rummynge_ we have contemporary +pictures of ale-houses of the 14th and 16th centuries, but the Tabard is +quite a modern inn, with a _table d'hôte_ supper, a sign, a landlord +("right a mery man") and a reckoning! + +It has been conjectured (Larwood and Hotten, _History of Signboards_, +1874) that the inn sign was taken or imitated from that displayed on the +town houses or _inns_ of noblemen and prelates. The innkeeper alone of +tradesmen retains his individual sign. The inn shared with the tavern +the long projecting pole garnished with branches. These poles had become +of such inordinate length in London that in 1375 they were restricted to +7 ft. But the inn of those times was still a simple affair. In each room +there were several beds, the price of which the prudent traveller +inquired beforehand. Extortion was frequent, though it was forbidden by +a statute of Edward III. The fare was simple; bread, meat and beer, with +fish on Fridays. The tavern sentiment is strong in Elizabethan +literature. The "Boar's Head" in Eastcheap is inseparably connected with +Sir John Falstaff and Dame Quickly. "Shall I not take mine ease in mine +Inn?" (1 Henry IV., Act iii. sc. 3) is well-nigh the most famous word of +the famous knight. A passage in Holinshed's _Chronicle_ (1587, i. 246) +explains the inner meaning of this. He assures us that the inns of +England are not as those of other lands. Abroad the guest is under the +tyranny of the host, but in England your inn is as your own house; in +your chamber you can do what you will, and the host is rather your +servant than your master. The "Mermaid" in Bread Street is associated +with the memory of many wits and poets--Raleigh, Shakespeare, Beaumont, +Fletcher, Ben Jonson--who frequented it and praised it. + +Shenstone's lines as to "the warmest welcome at an inn" vent a common +but rather cheap cynicism. Doctor Johnson was a great frequenter of inns +and was outspoken in praise and blame. In the time immediately preceding +railways the inn, which was also a post-house where the public coach as +well as that of the private traveller changed horses, was a place of +much importance. We have it presented over and over again in the pages +of Dickens. The "Maypole" in _Barnaby Rudge_ may be singled out for +mention; it survives at Chigwell, Essex, as the "King's Head." + +The effect of railways was to multiply hotels in great centres and +gradually increase their size till we have the huge structures so +plentiful to-day. The bicycle and later the motor car, through the +enormous traffic they caused on the country roads, have restored the old +wayside inns to more than their former prosperity. + +In Scotland a statute (1424) of James I. ordained inns for man and +beast, with food and drink at reasonable prices, in each borough, and a +subsequent act prohibited lodging in private houses in places where +there were inns, under a penalty of 40s. But for centuries the Scots inn +was a poor affair. The Clachan of Aberfoyle in _Rob Roy_, kept by the +widow MacAlpine, was probably typical. In _St Ronan's Well_ Scott gives +the more pleasing picture of the Cleikum Inn, kept by the delightful Meg +Dods, and mention should be made of St Mary's Cottage, with its hostess +Tibby Shiels, the scene of one of the _Noctes Ambrosianae_, with +memories not merely of Scott but of Christopher North and the Ettrick +Shepherd. Burns had much to do with inns and taverns. If Poosie +Nancie's, where the Jolly Beggars held wild revel, is long vanished, the +Globe at Dumfries still exists, a fair sample of an inn of the period. +As late as 1841 Dickens, writing to John Foster during his first visit +to Scotland, describes the Highland inns as very poor affairs, "a mere +knot of little outhouses" he says of one; and even in Queen Victoria's +_Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands_ the inn is +described as invariably small and unassuming. Thus the development of +hotels in Scotland did not begin much before the middle of the 19th +century. + +In America the first hotel mentioned in New York is "Kriger's Tavern" +about 1642, replaced in 1703 by the "King's Arms." When the town came to +be English a proclamation was issued regulating the inns. Meals were not +to cost more than 8d. or beer 2d. per quart. + +_Law Relating to Innkeepers._--Whether any special building is an inn is +a question of fact. A temperance hotel is an inn, but a mere +public-house is not. An innkeeper is bound to receive, lodge and feed +travellers if he has accommodation, if they are able and willing to pay, +and are not obviously objectionable. If he refuse he is liable at common +law to indictment, or an action will lie against him at the suit of the +would-be guest. Under the Army Act soldiers of all kinds may be billeted +on the innkeeper, even beyond his power to provide in his own house; he +must find accommodation for them elsewhere. An innkeeper must keep the +goods and chattels of his guest in safety, unless they are destroyed by +the act of God or the king's enemies. Under this last the king's +rebellious subjects are not included. He is not liable for goods stolen +or destroyed by the companion of the guest or through the guest's own +negligence. There are two theories as to the origin of this common law +liability of the innkeeper: (1) it was a survival of the liability of +the common trader, or (2) specially imposed from the nature of his +calling. Old English law held him to some extent suspect. The traveller +amongst strangers seemed forlorn and unprotected, and conspiracy with +thieves was dreaded. In modern times the landlord's responsibilities +were cut down by the Innkeepers Liability Act 1863. He is not liable +(save for horses and other live animals with their gear and carriages) +to a greater extent than £30, unless the loss is caused by the default +or neglect of himself or his servants, or the goods have been formally +deposited with him. He must conspicuously exhibit a copy of the material +parts of the act. The innkeeper may contract himself out of his common +law obligation, and, apart from negligence, he is not liable for injury +to the person or clothes of his guest. In return for these +responsibilities the law gives him a lien over his guest's goods till +his bill be paid. This is a particular and not a general lien. It +attaches only to the special goods brought by the guest to the inn, and +housed by the innkeeper with him. When several guests go together, the +lien extends to all their goods. The innkeeper is only bound to take +ordinary care of goods thus held, but he cannot use them or charge for +their house-room. By the custom of London and Exeter, "when a horse eats +out the price of his head," namely, when the cost of keep exceeds value, +the host may have him as his own. By the Innkeepers Act 1878, if goods +have been kept for six weeks they may be advertised and then sold after +the interval of a month. Although an advertisement in a London paper is +directed, this act (it would seem) applies to Scotland (J. A. Fleming, +in Green's _Encyclopaedia of the Law of Scotland_, vi. 363). In that +country the law is generally the same as in England, though it has been +held that the innkeeper is not responsible for loss by accidental fire. +Nor is his refusal to receive a guest a criminal offence. In the United +States the common law follows that of England, though laws of the +various states have diminished the liability of the innkeeper in much +the same fashion as in England. Innkeepers as retailers of intoxicating +liquors are subject to the provisions of the Licensing Laws. + + See Angus, _Bible Handbook_ (new ed., 1904); Beckmann's _Inventions_, + tr. by Johnson (1846); Jusserand, _Les Anglais au moyen âge_ (1884); + Liebenau, _Das Gasthof- und Wirtshauswesen der Schweiz_ _in älterer + Zeit_ (1891); Kempt, _Convivial Caledonia_ (1893); F. W. Hackwood, + _Inns, Ales and Drinking Customs of Old England_ (1909); Jelf and + Hurst, _The Law of Innkeepers_ (1904). English and Roman law are + compared in Pymar's _Law of Innkeepers_ (1892). For Scots law, see + Bell's _Principles_. An American treatise is S. H. Wandell, _Law of + Inns, Hotels and Boarding Houses_ (1888). (F. Wa.) + + + + +INNERLEITHEN, a police burgh and health resort of Peeblesshire, +Scotland, on Leithen Water, near its junction with the Tweed, 6½ m. S.E. +of Peebles by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 2181. In olden +times it seems to have been known as Hornehuntersland, and to have been +mentioned as early as 1159, when a son of Malcolm IV. (the Maiden) was +drowned in a pool of the Tweed, close to Leithenfoot. Its chief industry +is the manufacture of tweeds and fine yarns, which, together with the +fame of its medicinal springs, brought the burgh into prominence towards +the end of the 18th century. The spa, alleged to be the St Ronan's well +of Scott's novel of that name, has a pump-room, baths, &c. The saline +waters are useful in minor cases of dyspepsia and liver complaints. The +town is flanked on the W. by the hill fort of Caerlee (400 ft. long) and +on the E. by that of the Pirn (350 ft. long). Farther E., close to the +village of Walkerburn, are Purvis Hill terraces, a remarkable series of +earthen banks, from 50 ft. to more than 100 ft. wide, and with a length +varying up to 900 ft., the origin and purpose of which are unknown. +Traquair House, or Palace, on the right bank of the Tweed, is believed +to be the oldest inhabited house in Scotland, the most ancient portion +dating from the 10th century, and including a remnant of the castle. It +was largely added to by Sir John Stewart, first earl of Traquair (d. +1659) and is a good example of the Scottish Baronial mansion with +high-pitched roof and turreted angles. To the west of the house was the +arbour which formed the "bush aboon Traquair" of the songs by Robert +Crawford (d. 1733) and John Campbell Shairp, its site being indicated by +a few birch trees. James Nicol (1769-1819), the poet, was minister of +Traquair, and his son James Nicol (1810-1879), the geologist and +professor of natural history in Aberdeen University, was born in the +manse. + + + + +INNESS, GEORGE (1825-1894), American landscape painter, was born near +Newburgh, N.Y., on the 1st of May 1825. Before he was five years of age +his parents had moved to New York and afterwards to Newark, N.J., in +which latter city his boyhood was passed. He would not "take education" +at the town academy, nor was he a success as a greengrocer's boy. He had +a strong bent towards art, and his parents finally placed him with a +drawing-master named Barker. At sixteen he went to New York to study +engraving, but soon returned to Newark, where he continued sketching and +painting after his own initiative. In 1843 he was again in New York, and +is said to have passed a month in Gignoux's studio. But he was too +impetuous, too independent in thought, to accept teaching; and, besides, +the knowledge of his teachers must have been limited. Practically he was +self-taught, and always remained a student. In 1851 he went to Europe, +and in Italy got his first glimpse of real art. He was there two years, +and imbibed some traditions of the classic landscape. In 1854 he went to +France, and there studied the Barbizon painters, whom he greatly +admired, especially Daubigny and Rousseau. After his return to America +he opened a studio in New York, then went to Medfield, Mass., where he +resided for five years. A pastoral landscape near this town inspired the +characteristic painting "The Medfield Meadows." Again he went abroad and +spent six years in Europe. He came back to New York in 1876, and lived +there, or near there, until the year of his death, which took place at +Bridge of Allan on the 3rd of August 1894 while he was travelling in +Scotland. He was a National Academician, a member of the Society of +American Artists, and had received many honours at home and abroad. He +was married twice, his son, George Inness (b. 1854), being also a +painter. Inness was emphatically a man of temperament, of moods, +enthusiasms, convictions. He was fond of speculation and experiment in +metaphysics and religion, as in poetry and art. Swedenborgianism, +symbolism, socialism, appealed to him as they might to a mystic or an +idealist. He aspired to the perfect unities, and was impatient of +structural foundations. This was his attitude towards painting. He +sought the sentiment, the light, air, and colour of nature, but was put +out by nature's forms. How to subordinate form without causing weakness +was his problem, as it was Corot's. His early education gave him no +great technical facility, so that he never was satisfied with his +achievement. He worked over his pictures incessantly, retouching with +paint, pencil, coal, ink--anything that would give the desired +effect--yet never content with them. In his latter days it was almost +impossible to get a picture away from him, and after his death his +studio was found to be full of experimental canvases. He was a very +uneven painter, and his experiments were not always successful. His was +an original--a distinctly American--mind in art. Most of his American +subjects were taken from New York state, New Jersey and New England. His +point of view was his own. At his best he was often excellent in poetic +sentiment, and superb in light, air and colour. He had several styles: +at first he was somewhat grandiloquent in Roman scenes, but sombre in +colour; then under French influence his brush grew looser, as in the +"Grey Lowering Day"; finally he broke out in full colour and light, as +in the "Niagara" and the last "Delaware Water-Gap." Some of his pictures +are in American museums, but most of them are in private hands. + (J. C. Van D.) + + + + +INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS), the name of thirteen popes and one antipope. + +INNOCENT I., pope from 402 to 417, was the son of Pope Anastasius I. It +was during his papacy that the siege of Rome by Alaric (408) took place, +when, according to a doubtful anecdote of Zosimus, the ravages of plague +and famine were so frightful, and help seemed so far off, that papal +permission was granted to sacrifice and pray to the heathen deities; the +pope was, however, absent from Rome on a mission to Honorius at Ravenna +at the time of the sack in 410. He lost no opportunity of maintaining +and extending the authority of the Roman see as the ultimate resort for +the settlement of all disputes; and his still extant communications to +Victricius of Rouen, Exuperius of Toulouse, Alexander of Antioch and +others, as well as his action on the appeal made to him by Chrysostom +against Theophilus of Alexandria, show that opportunities of the kind +were numerous and varied. He took a decided view on the Pelagian +controversy, confirming the decisions of the synod of the province of +proconsular Africa held in Carthage in 416, which had been sent to him. +He wrote in the same year in a similar sense to the fathers of the +Numidian synod of Mileve who, Augustine being one of their number, had +addressed him. Among his letters are one to Jerome and another to John, +bishop of Jerusalem, regarding annoyances to which the first named had +been subjected by the Pelagians at Bethlehem. He died on the 12th of +March 417, and in the Roman Church is commemorated as a confessor along +with Saints Nazarius, Celsus and Victor, martyrs, on the 28th of July. +His successor was Zosimus. + +INNOCENT II. (Gregorio Paparesci dei Guidoni), pope from 1130 to 1143, +was originally a Benedictine monk. His ability, pure life and political +connexions raised him rapidly to power. Made cardinal deacon of Sant +Angelo in Pescheria by Paschal II. he was employed in various diplomatic +missions. Calixtus II. appointed him one of the ambassadors who made +peace with the Empire and drew up the Concordat of Worms (1122), and in +the following year, with his later enemy Cardinal Peter Pierleoni, he +was papal legate in France. On the 13th of February 1130 Honorius II. +died, and on that night a minority of the Sacred College elected +Paparesci, who took the name of Innocent II. After a hasty consecration +he was forced to take refuge with a friendly noble by the faction of +Pierleoni, who was elected pope under the name of Anacletus II. by a +majority of the cardinals. Declaring that the cardinals had been +intimidated, Innocent refused to recognize their choice; by June, +however, he was obliged to flee to France. Here his title was recognized +by a synod called by Bernard of Clairvaux at Étampes. Similar action was +taken in Germany by the synod of Würzburg. In January 1131 Innocent held +a personal interview with King Henry I. of England at Chartres, and in +March, at Liége, with the German King Lothair, whom he induced to +undertake a campaign against Anacletus. The German army invaded Italy in +August 1132, and occupied Rome, all except St Peter's church and the +castle of St Angelo which held out against them. Lothair was crowned +emperor at the Lateran in June 1133, and as a further reward Innocent +gave him the territories of the Countess Mathilda as a fief, but refused +to surrender the right of investiture. Left to himself Innocent again +had to flee, this time to Pisa. Here he called a council which condemned +Anacletus. A second expedition of Lothair expelled Roger of Sicily (to +whom Anacletus had given the title of king in return for his support) +from southern Italy, but a quarrel with Innocent prevented the emperor +attacking Rome. At this crisis, in January 1138, Anacletus died, and a +successor elected by his faction, as Victor IV., resigned after two +months. The Lateran council of 1139 restored peace to the Church, +excommunicating Roger of Sicily, against whom Innocent undertook an +expedition which proved unsuccessful. In matters of doctrine the pope +supported Bernard of Clairvaux in his prosecution of Abelard and Arnold +of Brescia, whom he condemned as heretics. The remaining years of +Innocent's life were taken up by a quarrel with the Roman commune, which +had set up an independent senate, and one with King Louis VII. of +France, about an appointment. France was threatened with the interdict, +but before matters came to a head Innocent died on the 22nd of September +1143. + + See Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, "Innocenz II.," with full + references. Gregorovius, _History of Rome in the Middle Ages_, trans. + by Hamilton (London, 1896), vol. iv. part ii. pp. 420-453. (P. Sm.) + +INNOCENT III. (Lando da Sezza), antipope (1179-1180), sprang from a +noble Lombard family. Opponents of Alexander III. tried to make him pope +in September 1179. Alexander, however, bribed his partisans to give him +up, and imprisoned him in the cloister of La Cava in January 1180. + +INNOCENT III. (Lotario de' Conti di Segni), pope from 1198 to 1216, was +the son of Trasimondo, count of Segni, and of Claricia, a Roman lady of +the noble family of Scotti, and was born at Anagni about 1160. His early +education he received at Rome, whence he went to the university of Paris +and subsequently to that of Bologna. At Paris, where he attended the +lectures of Peter of Corbeil, he laid the foundations of his profound +knowledge of the scholastic philosophy; at Bologna he acquired an +equally profound knowledge of the canon and civil law. Thus +distinguished by birth, intellect and attainments, on his return to Rome +he rose rapidly in the church. He at once became a canon of St Peter's; +he was made subdeacon of the Roman Church by Gregory VIII.; and in 1190 +his uncle, Pope Clement III., created him cardinal-deacon of Santi +Sergio e Baccho. The election of Celestine III. in the following year +withdrew Lotario for a while from the active work of the Curia, the new +pope belonging to the family of the Orsini, who were at feud with the +Scotti. Lotario, however, employed his leisure in writing several works: +_Mysteriorum evangelicae legis ac sacramenti eucharistiae libri VI._, +_De contemtu mundi, sive de miseria humanae conditionis_, and _De +quadrapartita specie nuptiarum_. Of these only the two first are extant; +they are written in the scholastic style, a sea of quotations balanced +and compared, and they witness at once to the writer's profound +erudition and to the fact that his mind had not yet emancipated itself +from the morbid tendencies characteristic of one aspect of medieval +thought. Yet Lotario was destined to be above all things a man of +action, and, though his activities to the end were inspired by +impracticable ideals, they were in their effects intensely practical; +and Innocent III. is remembered, not as a great theologian, but as a +great ruler and man of affairs. + +On the 8th of January 1198 Celestine III. died, and on the same day +Lotario, though not even a priest, was unanimously elected pope by the +assembled cardinals. He took the name of Innocent III. On the 21st of +February he was ordained priest, and on the 22nd consecrated bishop. +Innocent was but thirty-seven years old at this time, and the vigour of +youth, guided by a master mind, was soon apparent in the policy of the +papacy. His first acts were to restore the prestige of the Holy See in +Italy, where it had been overshadowed by the power of the emperor Henry +VI. As pope it was his object to shake off the imperial yoke, as an +Italian prince to clear the land of the hated Germans. The circumstances +of the time were highly favourable to him. The early death of Henry VI. +(September 1197) had left Germany divided between rival candidates for +the crown, Sicily torn by warring factions of native and German barons. +It was, then, easy for Innocent to depose the imperial prefect in Rome +itself and to oust the German feudatories who held the great Italian +fiefs for the Empire. Spoleto fell; Perugia surrendered; Tuscany +acknowledged the leadership of the pope; papal _rectores_ once more +governed the patrimony of St Peter. Finally, Henry's widow, Constance, +in despair, acknowledged the pope as overlord of the two Sicilies, and +on her death (November 27, 1198) appointed him guardian of her infant +son Frederick. Thus in the first year of his pontificate Innocent had +established himself as the protector of the Italian nation against +foreign aggression, and had consolidated in the peninsula a secure basis +on which to build up his world-power. + +The effective assertion of this world-power is the characteristic +feature of Innocent's pontificate. Other popes before him--from Gregory +VII. onwards--had upheld the theory of the supremacy of the spiritual +over the temporal authority, with various fortune; it was reserved for +Innocent to make it a reality. The history of the processes by which he +accomplished this is given elsewhere. Here it will suffice to deal with +it in the broadest outline. In Germany his support of Otto IV. against +Philip of Swabia, then of Philip against Otto and finally, after +Philip's murder (June 21, 1208), of the young Frederick II. against +Otto, effectually prevented the imperial power, during his pontificate, +from again becoming a danger to that of the papacy in Italy. Concessions +at the cost of the Empire in Italy were in every case the price of his +support (see GERMANY: _History_). In his relations with the German +emperors Innocent acted partly as pope, partly as an Italian prince; his +victories over other and more distant potentates he won wholly in his +spiritual capacity. Thus he forced the masterful Philip Augustus of +France to put away Agnes of Meran and take, back his Danish wife +Ingeborg, whom he had wrongfully divorced; he compelled Peter of Aragon +to forgo his intended marriage with Bianca of Navarre and ultimately +(1204) to receive back his kingdom as a fief of the Holy See; he forced +Alphonso IX. of Leon to put away his wife Berengaria of Castile, who was +related to him within the prohibited degrees, though he pronounced their +children legitimate. Sancho of Portugal was compelled to pay the tribute +promised by his father to Rome, and Ladislaus of Poland to cease from +infringing the rights of the church. Even the distant north felt the +weight of Innocent's power, and the archbishop of Trondhjem was called +to order for daring to remove the ban of excommunication from the +repentant King Haakon IV., as an infringement of the exclusive right of +the pope to impose or remove the ban of the church in the case of +sovereigns. So widespread was the prestige of the pope that Kaloyan, +prince of Bulgaria, hoping to strengthen himself against internal foes +and the aggressions of the Eastern Empire, submitted to Rome and, in +November 1204, received the insignia of royalty from the hands of the +papal legates as the vassal of the Holy See. + +Meanwhile Innocent had been zealous in promoting the crusade which +ultimately, under the Doge Dandolo, led to the Latin occupation of +Constantinople (see CRUSADES). This diversion from its original object +was at first severely censured by Innocent; but an event which seemed to +put an end to the schism of East and West came to wear a different +aspect; he was the first pope to nominate a patriarch of Constantinople, +and he expressed the hope that henceforth the church would be "one fold +under one shepherd." By a bull of October 12, 1204, moreover, Innocent +proclaimed the same indulgences for a crusade to Livonia as the Holy +Land. The result was the "conversion" of the Livonians (1206) and the +Letts (1208) by the crusaders headed by the knights of the Teutonic +Order. The organization of the new provinces thus won for the church +Innocent kept in his own hands, instituting the new archbishopric of +Riga and defining the respective jurisdictions of the archbishops and +the Teutonic Knights, a process which, owing to the ignorance at Rome of +the local geography, led to curious confusion. + +Another crusade, horrible in its incidents and momentous in its +consequences, was that proclaimed by Innocent in 1207 against the +Albigenses. In this connexion all that can be said in his favour is that +he acted from supreme conviction; that the heresies against which he +appealed to the sword were really subversive of Christian civilization; +and that he did not use force until for ten years he had tried all the +arts of persuasion in vain (see ALBIGENSES). + +Of all Innocent's triumphs, however, the greatest was his victory over +King John of England. The quarrel between the pope and the English king +arose out of a dispute as to the election to the vacant see of +Canterbury, which Innocent had settled by nominating Stephen Langton +over the heads of both candidates. John refusing to submit, Innocent +imposed an interdict on the kingdom and threatened him with a crusade; +and, to avert a worse fate, the English king not only consented to +recognize Langton but also to hold England and Ireland as fiefs of the +Holy See, subject to an annual tribute (May 1213). The submission was no +idle form; for years the pope virtually ruled England through his +legates (see ENGLISH HISTORY and JOHN, KING OF ENGLAND). So great had +the secular power of the papacy become that a Byzantine visitor to Rome +declared Innocent to be "the successor not of Peter but of Constantine." + +As in the affairs of the world at large, so also in those of the church +itself, Innocent's authority exceeded that of all his predecessors. +Under him the centralization of the ecclesiastical administration at +Rome received a great impulse, and the independent jurisdiction of +metropolitans and bishops was greatly curtailed. In carrying out this +policy his unrivalled knowledge of the canon law gave him a great +advantage. To his desire to organize the discipline of the church was +due the most questionable of his expedients: the introduction of the +system of provisions and reservations, by which he sought to bring the +patronage of sees and benefices into his own hands--a system which led +later to intolerable abuses. + +The year before Innocent's death the twelfth ecumenical council +assembled at the Lateran under his presidency. It was a wonderful proof +at once of the world-power of the pope and of his undisputed personal +ascendancy. It was attended by the plenipotentiaries of the emperor, of +kings and of princes, and by some 1500 archbishops, bishops, abbots and +other dignitaries. The business before it, the disciplining of heretics +and Jews, and the proclamation of a new crusade, &c., vitally concerned +the states represented; yet there was virtually no debate and the +function of the great assembly was little more than to listen to and +endorse the decretals read by the pope (see LATERAN COUNCILS). Shortly +after this crowning exhibition of his power the great pope died on the +16th of July 1216. + +Innocent III. is one of the greatest historical figures, both in the +grandeur of his aims and the force of character which brought him so +near to their realization. An appreciation of his work and personality +will be found in the article PAPACY; here it will suffice to say that, +whatever judgment posterity may have passed on his aims, opinion is +united as to the purity of the motives that inspired them and the +tireless self-devotion with which they were pursued. "I have no +leisure," Innocent once sighed, "to meditate on supermundane things; +scarce I can breathe. Yea, so much must I live for others, that almost I +am a stranger to myself." Yet he preached frequently, both at Rome and +on his journeys--many of his sermons, inspired by a high moral +earnestness, have come down to us--and, towards the end of his life, he +found time to write a pious exposition of the Psalms. His views on the +papal supremacy are best explained in his own words. Writing to the +patriarch of Constantinople (_Inn. III., lib._ ii. _ep._ 200) he says: +"The Lord left to Peter the governance not of the church only but of the +whole world;" and again in his letter to King John of England (_lib._ +xvi. ep. 131): "The King of Kings ... so established the kingship and +the priesthood in the church, that the kingship should be priestly, and +the priesthood royal (_ut sacerdotale sit regnum et sacerdotium sit +regale_), as is evident from the epistle of Peter and the law of Moses, +setting one over all, whom he appointed his vicar on earth." In his +answer to the ambassadors of Philip Augustus he states the premises from +which this stupendous claim is logically developed:-- + + "To princes power is given on earth, but to priests it is attributed + also in heaven; to the former only over bodies, to the latter also + over souls. Whence it follows that by so much as the soul is superior + to the body, the priesthood is superior to the kingship.... Single + rulers have single provinces, and single kings single kingdoms; but + Peter, as in the plenitude, so in the extent of his power is + pre-eminent over all, since he is the Vicar of Him whose is the earth + and the fullness thereof, the whole wide world and all that dwell + therein." + +To the emperor of Constantinople, who quoted 1 Peter ii. 13, 14, to the +contrary, he replied in perfect good faith that the apostle's admonition +to obey "the king as supreme was addressed to lay folk and not to the +clergy." The more intelligent laymen of the time were not convinced even +when coerced. Even so pious a Catholic as the minnesinger Walther von +der Vogelweide, giving voice to the indignation of German laymen, +ascribed Innocent's claims, not to soundness of his scholastic logic, +but to the fact that he was "too young" (_owê der babest ist ze junc_). + + The literature on Innocent III. is very extensive; a carefully + analysed bibliography will be found in Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed., 1901) s. "Innocenz III." In A. Potthast, + _Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi_ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), p. 650, is a + bibliography of the literature on Innocent's writings. In the _Corpus + juris canonici_, ed. Aemilius Friedberg (Leipzig, 1881), vol. ii., pp. + xiv.-xvii., are lists of the official documents of Innocent III. + excerpted in the _Decretales Gregorii IX_. The most important later + works on Innocent III. are Achille Luchaire's _Innocent III, Rome et + l'Italie_ (Paris, 1904), _Innocent III, la croisade des Albigeois_ + (_ib._ 1905), _Innocent III, la papauté et l'empire_ (_ib._ 1906), + _Innocent III, la question d'orient_ (_ib._ 1906); _Innocent III, les + royautés vassales du Saint-Siège_ (_ib._ 1908); and _Innocent III, la + concile de latran et la réforme de l'église_ (1908); _Innocent the + Great_, by C. H. C. Pirie-Gordon (London, 1907); is the only English + monograph on this pope and contains some useful documents, but is + otherwise of little value. See also H. H. Milman, _History of Latin + Christianity_, vol. v.; F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, + translated by A. Hamilton (1896), vol. v. pp. 5-110; J. C. L. + Gieseler, _Ecclesiastical Hist._, translated by J. W. Hull, vol. iii. + (Edinburgh, 1853), which contains numerous excerpts from his letters, + &c. Innocent's works are found in Migne, _Patrologiae Cursus + Completus, Series Latina_, vols. ccxiv.-ccxvii. For a translation of + Innocent's answer to King John on the interdict, and John's surrender + of England and Ireland to Innocent, see Gee and Hardy, _Documents + illustrative of Church History_ (London, 1896), pp. 73 et seq. + (W. A. P.) + +INNOCENT IV. (Sinibaldo Fiesco), pope 1243-1254, belonged to the noble +Genoese family of the counts of Lavagna. Born at Genoa, he was educated +under the care of his uncle Opizo, bishop of Parma. After taking orders +at Parma, when he was made canon of the cathedral, he studied +jurisprudence at Bologna. His first recorded appearance in political +affairs was in 1218-1219, when he was associated with Cardinal Hugolinus +(afterwards Gregory IX.) in negotiating a peace between Genoa and Pisa. +This led to his rapid promotion. In 1223 Pope Honorius III. gave him a +benefice in Parma, and in 1226 he was established at the curia as +_auditor contradictarum literarum_ of the pope, a post he held also +under Gregory IX., until promoted (1227) to be vice-chancellor of the +Roman Church. In September of the same year he was created cardinal +priest of San Lorenzo in Lucina. He was papal _rector_ (governor) of the +March of Ancona from 1235 to 1240. On the 25th of June 1243 he was +elected pope by the cardinals assembled at Anagni. + +Innocent was raised to the Holy See when it was at deadly feud with the +emperor Frederick II., who lay under excommunication. Frederick at first +greeted the elevation of a member of an imperialist family with joy; but +it was soon clear that Innocent intended to carry on the traditions of +his predecessors. Embassies and courtesies were, indeed, interchanged, +and on the 31st of March 1244 a treaty was signed at Rome, whereby the +emperor undertook to satisfy the pope's claims in return for his own +absolution from the ban. Neither side, however, was prepared to take +the first steps to carry out the agreement, and Innocent, who had +ventured back to Rome, began to feel unsafe in the city, where the +imperial partisans had the ascendancy. Fearing a plan to kidnap him, he +left Rome, ostensibly to meet the emperor, and from Sutri fled by night +on horseback, pursued by 300 of the emperor's cavalry, to Civitavecchia, +whence he took ship for Genoa and thence proceeded across the Alps to +Lyons, at that time a merely nominal dependence of the Empire. Thence he +wrote to the French king, Louis IX., asking for an asylum in France; but +this Louis cautiously refused. Innocent, therefore, remained at Lyons, +whence he issued a summons to a general council, before which he cited +Frederick to appear in person, or by deputy. The council, which met on +the 5th of June 1245, was attended only by those prepared to support the +pope's cause; and though Frederick condescended to be represented by his +justiciar, Thaddeus of Suessa, the judgment was a foregone conclusion. +On the 17th of July Innocent formally renewed the sentence of +excommunication on the emperor, and declared him deposed from the +imperial throne and that of Naples. Frederick retorted by announcing his +intention of reducing "the clergy, especially the highest, to a state of +apostolic poverty," and by ordaining the severest punishments for those +priests who should obey the papal sentence. Innocent thereupon +proclaimed a crusade against the emperor and armed his ubiquitous +agents, the Franciscan and Dominican friars, with special indulgences +for all those who should take up the cross against the imperial heretic. +At the same time he did all in his power to undermine Frederick's +authority in Germany and Italy. In Naples he fomented a conspiracy among +the feudal lords, who were discontented with the centralized government +established under the auspices of Frederick's chancellor, Piero della +Vigna. In Germany, at his instigation, the archbishops with a few of the +secular nobles in 1246 elected Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, +German king; but the "priests' king," as he was contemptuously called, +died in the following year, William II., count of Holland, being after +some delay elected by the papal party in his stead. + +Innocent's relentless war against Frederick was not supported by the lay +opinion of his time. In Germany, where it wrought havoc and misery, it +increased the already bitter resentment against the priests. From +England the pope's legate was driven by threats of personal violence. In +France not even the saintly King Louis IX., who made several vain +attempts to mediate, approved the pope's attitude; and the failure of +the crusade which, in 1248, he led against the Mussulmans in Egypt, was, +with reason, ascribed to the deflection of money and arms from this +purpose to the war against the emperor. Even the clergy were by no means +altogether on Innocent's side; the council of Lyons was attended by but +150 bishops, mainly French and Spanish, and the deputation from England, +headed by Robert Grossetête of Lincoln and Roger Bigod, came mainly in +order to obtain the canonization of Edmund of Canterbury and to protest +against papal exactions. Yet, for better or for worse, Innocent +triumphed. His financial position was from the outset strong, for not +only had he the revenue from the accustomed papal dues but he had also +the support of the powerful religious orders; e.g. in November 1245 he +visited the abbey of Cluny and was presented by the abbot with gifts, +the value of which surprised even the papal officials. At first the war +went in Frederick's favour; then came the capture of the strategically +important city of Parma by papal partisans (June 16th, 1247). From this +moment fortune changed. On the 18th of February 1248 Frederick's camp +before Parma (the temporary town of Vittoria) was taken and sacked, the +imperial insignia--of vast significance in those days--being captured. +From this blow the emperor never recovered; and when on the 13th of +December 1250 he died Innocent greeted the news by quoting from Psalm +xcvi. 11, "Let the heavens rejoice and let the earth be glad." + +On the 19th of April 1251 Innocent left Lyons, which had suffered +severely from his presence, and returned to Italy. He continued the +struggle vigorously with Frederick's son and successor, Conrad IV., who +in 1252 descended into Italy, reduced the rebellious cities and claimed +the imperial crown. Innocent, determined that the Hohenstaufen should +not again dominate Italy, offered the crown of Sicily in turn to Richard +of Cornwall, Charles of Anjou, and Henry III. of England, the last of +whom accepted the doubtful gift for his son Edmund. Even after Conrad's +capture of Naples Innocent remained inexorable; for he feared that Rome +itself might fall into the hands of the German king. But fortune +favoured him. On the 20th of May 1254 Conrad died, leaving his infant +son Conradin, as Henry VI. had left Frederick II., under the pope's +guardianship. Innocent accepted the charge and posed as the champion of +the infant king. He held, indeed, to his bargain with Henry III. and, +with all too characteristic nepotism, exercised his rights over the +Sicilian kingdom by nominating his own relations to its most important +offices. Finally, when Manfred, who by Frederick's will had been charged +with the government of the two Sicilies, felt obliged to acknowledge the +pope's suzerainty, Innocent threw off the mask, ignored Conradin's +claims, and on the 24th of October formally asserted his own claims to +Calabria and Sicily. He entered Naples on the 27th; but meanwhile +Manfred had fled and had raised a considerable force; and the news of +his initial successes against the papal troops reached Innocent as he +lay sick and hastened his end. He died on the 7th of December 1254. + +Innocent IV. is comparable to his greater predecessor Innocent III. +mainly in the extreme assertion of the papal claims. "The emperor," he +wrote, "doubts and denies that all men and all things are subject to the +See of Rome. As if we who are judges of angels are not to give sentence +on earthly things.... The ignorant assert that Constantine first gave +temporal power to the See of Rome; it was already bestowed by Christ +Himself, the true King and Priest, as inalienable from its nature and +absolutely unconditional. Christ established not only a pontifical but a +royal sovereignty (_principatus_) and committed to blessed Peter and his +successors the empire both of earth and heaven, as is sufficiently +proved by the plurality of the keys" (_Codex epist. Vatic._ No. 4957, +49, quoted in Raumer, _Hohenstaufen_, iv. 78). But this language, which +in the mouth of Innocent III. had been consecrated by the greatness of +his character and aims, was less impressive when it served as a cloak +for an unlimited personal ambition and a family pride which displayed +itself in unblushing nepotism. Yet in some respects Innocent IV. carried +on the high traditions of his great predecessors. Thus he admonished +Sancho II. of Portugal to turn from his evil courses and, when the king +disobeyed, absolved the Portuguese from their allegiance, bestowing the +crown on his brother Alphonso. He also established an ecclesiastical +organization in the newly converted provinces of Prussia, which he +divided into four dioceses; but his attempt to govern the Baltic +countries through a legate broke on the opposition of the Teutonic +Order, whose rights in Prussia he had confirmed. + +It was Innocent IV. who, at the council of Lyons, first bestowed the red +hat on the Roman cardinals, as a symbol of their readiness to shed their +blood in the cause of the church. + +Innocent was a canon lawyer of some eminence. His small work _De +exceptionibus_ was probably written before he became pope; but the +_Apparatus in quinque libros decretalium_, which displays both practical +sense and a remarkable mastery of the available materials, was written +at Lyons immediately after the council. His _Apologeticus_, a defence of +the papal claims against the Empire, written--as is supposed--in +refutation of Piero della Vigna's argument in favour of the independence +of the Empire, has been lost. Innocent was also a notable patron of +learning, he encouraged Alexander of Hales to write his _Summa universae +theologiae_, did much for the universities, notably the Sorbonne, and +founded law schools at Rome and Piacenza. + + Innocent's letters, the chief source for his life, are collected by E. + Berger in _Les Registres d'Innocent IV_ (3 vols., Paris, 1884-1887). + For English readers the account in Milman's _Latin Christianity_, vol. + vi. (3rd ed., 1864) is still useful. Full references will be found in + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, vol. ix. (1901). (W. A. P.) + +INNOCENT V. (Pierre de Champagni or de Tarentaise), pope from the 21st +of January to the 22nd of June 1276, was born about 1225 in Savoy and +entered the Dominican order at an early age. He studied theology under +Thomas Aquinas, Albertus Magnus and Bonaventura, and in 1262 was elected +provincial of his order in France. He was made archbishop of Lyons in +1271; cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri, and grand penitentiary in +1275; and, partly through the influence of Charles of Anjou, was elected +to succeed Gregory X. As pope he established peace between the republics +of Lucca and Pisa, and confirmed Charles of Anjou in his office of +imperial vicar of Tuscany. He was seeking to carry out the Lyons +agreement with the Eastern Church when he died. His successor was Adrian +V. Innocent V., before he became pope, prepared, in conjunction with +Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, a rule of studies for his order, +which was accepted in June 1259. He was the author of several works in +philosophy, theology and canon law, including commentaries on the +Scriptures and on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and is sometimes +referred to as _famosissimus doctor_. He preached the funeral sermon at +Lyons over St Bonaventura. His bulls are in the Turin collection (1859). + + See F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs + G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); A. Potthast, _Regesta, pontif. + Roman._ vol. ii. (Berlin, 1875); E. Bourgeois, _Le Bienheureux + Innocent V_ (Paris, 1899); J. E. Borel, _Notice biogr. sur Pierre de + Tarentaise_ (Chambéry, 1890); P. J. Béthaz, _Pierre des Cours de la + Salle, pape sous le nom Innocent V_ (Augustae, 1891); L. Carboni, _De + Innocentio V. Romano pontifice_ (1894). (C. H. Ha.) + +INNOCENT VI. (Étienne Aubert), pope from the 18th of December 1352 to +the 12th of September 1362, was born at Mons in Limousin. He became +professor of civil law at Toulouse and subsequently chief judge of the +city. Having taken orders, he was raised to the see of Noyon and +translated in 1340 to that of Clermont. In 1342 he was made +cardinal-priest of Sti Giovanni e Paolo, and ten years later +cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri, grand penitentiary, and +administrator of the bishopric of Avignon. On the death of Clement VI., +the cardinals made a solemn agreement imposing obligations, mainly in +favour of the college as a whole, on whichever of their number should be +elected pope. Aubert was one of the minority who signed the agreement +with the reservation that in so doing he would not violate any law, and +was elected pope on this understanding; not long after his accession he +declared the agreement null and void, as infringing the +divinely-bestowed power of the papacy. Innocent was one of the best +Avignon popes and filled with reforming zeal; he revoked the +reservations and commendations of his predecessor and prohibited +pluralities; urged upon the higher clergy the duty of residence in their +sees, and diminished the luxury of the papal court. Largely through the +influence of Petrarch, whom he called to Avignon, he released Cola di +Rienzo, who had been sent a prisoner in August 1352 from Prague to +Avignon, and used the latter to assist Cardinal Albornoz, vicar-general +of the States of the Church, in tranquillizing Italy and restoring the +papal power at Rome. Innocent caused Charles IV. to be crowned emperor +at Rome in 1355, but protested against the famous "Golden Bull" of the +following year, which prohibited papal interference in German royal +elections. He renewed the ban against Peter the Cruel of Castile, and +interfered in vain against Peter IV. of Aragon. He made peace between +Venice and Genoa, and in 1360 arranged the treaty of Bretigny between +France and England. In the last years of his pontificate he was busied +with preparations for a crusade and for the reunion of Christendom, and +sent to Constantinople the celebrated Carmelite monk, Peter Thomas, to +negotiate with the claimants to the Greek throne. He instituted in 1354 +the festival of the Holy Lance. Innocent was a strong and earnest man of +monastic temperament, but not altogether free from nepotism. He was +succeeded by Urban V. + + The chief sources for the life of Innocent VI. are in Baluzius, _Vitae + Pap. Avenion_, vol. i. (Paris, 1693); _Magnum bullarium Romanum_, vol. + iv. (Turin, 1859); E. Werunsky, _Excerpta ex registris Clementis VI. + et Innocentii VI._ (Innsbruck, 1885). See also L. Pastor _History of + the Popes_, vol. i. trans. by F. I. Antrobus (London, 1899); F. + Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 6, trans. by Mrs G. W. + Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); D. Cerri, _Innocenzo Papa VI._ (Turin, + 1873); J. B. Christophe, _Histoire de la papauté pendant le XIV^e + siècle_, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853); M. Souchon, _Die Papstwahlen_ + (Brunswick, 1888); G. Daumet, _Innocent VI. et Blanche de Bourbon_ + (Paris, 1899); E. Werunsky, _Gesch. Kaiser Karls IV._ (Innsbruck, + 1892). There is an excellent article by M. Naumann in Hauck's + _Realencyklopädie_, 3rd ed. (C. H. Ha.) + +INNOCENT VII. (Cosimo dei Migliorati), pope from the 17th of October +1404 to the 6th of November 1406, was born of middle-class parentage at +Sulmona in the Abruzzi in 1339. On account of his knowledge of civil and +canon law, he was made papal vice-chamberlain and archbishop of Ravenna +by Urban VI., and appointed by Boniface IX. cardinal priest of Sta Croce +in Gerusalemme, bishop of Bologna, and papal legate to England. He was +unanimously chosen to succeed Boniface, after each of the cardinals had +solemnly bound himself to employ all lawful means for the restoration of +the church's unity in the event of his election, and even, if necessary, +to resign the papal dignity. The election was opposed at Rome by a +considerable party, but peace was maintained by the aid of Ladislaus of +Naples, in return for which Innocent made a promise, inconsistent with +his previous oath, not to come to terms with the antipope Benedict +XIII., except on condition that he should recognize the claims of +Ladislaus to Naples. Innocent issued at the close of 1404 a summons for +a general council to heal the schism, and it was not the pope's fault +that the council never assembled, for the Romans rose in arms to secure +an extension of their liberties, and finally maddened by the murder of +some of their leaders by the pope's nephew, Ludovico dei Migliorati, +they compelled Innocent to take refuge at Viterbo (6th of August 1405). +The Romans, recognizing later the pope's innocence of the outrage, made +their submission to him in January 1406. He returned to Rome in March, +and, by bull of the 1st of September, restored the city's decayed +university. Innocent was extolled by contemporaries as a lover of peace +and honesty, but he was without energy, guilty of nepotism, and showed +no favour to the proposal that he as well as the antipope should resign. +He died on the 6th of November 1406 and was succeeded by Gregory XII. + + See L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i., trans. by F. I. + Antrobus (London, 1899); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, vol. + i. (London, 1899); N. Valois, _La France et le grand schisme + d'occident_ (Paris, 1896-1902); Louis Gayet, _Le Grand Schisme + d'occident_ (Paris, 1898); J. Loserth, _Geschichte des späteren + Mittelalters_ (1903); Theodorici de Nyem, _De schismate libri tres_, + ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 1890); K. J. von Hefele, + _Conciliengeschichte_, Bd. 6, 2nd ed.; J. von Haller, _Papsttum u. + Kirchenreform_ (Berlin, 1903). (C. H. Ha.) + +INNOCENT VIII. (Giovanni Battista Cibo), pope from the 29th of August +1484 to the 25th of July 1492, successor of Sixtus IV., was born at +Genoa (1432), the son of Arano Cibo, who under Calixtus III. had been a +senator of Rome. His youth, spent at the Neapolitan court, was far from +blameless, and it is not certain that he was married to the mother of +his numerous family. He later took orders, and, through the favour of +Cardinal Calandrini, half-brother of Nicholas V., obtained from Paul II. +the bishopric of Savona. Sixtus IV. translated him to the see of +Molfetta, and in 1473 created him cardinal-priest of Sta Balbina, +subsequently of Sta Cecilia. As pope, he addressed a fruitless summons +to Christendom to unite in a crusade against the infidels, and concluded +in 1489 a treaty with Bayezid II., agreeing in consideration of an +annual payment of 40,000 ducats and the gift of the Holy Lance, to +detain the sultan's fugitive brother Jem in close confinement in the +Vatican. Innocent excommunicated and deposed Ferdinand, king of Naples, +by bull of the 11th of September 1489, for refusal to pay the papal +dues, and gave his kingdom to Charles VIII. of France, but in 1492 +restored Ferdinand to favour. He declared (1486) Henry VII. to be lawful +king of England by the threefold right of conquest, inheritance and +popular choice, and approved his marriage with Elizabeth, the daughter +of Edward IV. Innocent, like his predecessor, hated heresy, and in the +bull _Summis desiderantes_ (5th of December 1484) he instigated very +severe measures against magicians and witches in Germany; he prohibited +(1486) on pain of excommunication the reading of the propositions of +Pico della Mirandola; he appointed (1487) T. Torquemada to be grand +inquisitor of Spain; and he offered plenary indulgence to all who would +engage in a crusade against the Waldenses. He took the first steps +towards the canonization of Queen Margaret of Scotland, and sent +missionaries under Portuguese auspices to the Congo. An important event +of his pontificate was the capture of Granada (2nd of January 1492), +which was celebrated at Rome with great rejoicing and for which Innocent +gave to Ferdinand of Aragon the title of "Catholic Majesty." Innocent +was genial, skilled in flattery, and popular with the Romans, but he +lacked talent and relied on the stronger will of Cardinal della Rovere, +afterwards Julius II. His Curia was notoriously corrupt, and he himself +openly practised nepotism in favour of his children, concerning whom the +epigram is quoted: "Octo nocens pueros genuit, totidemque puellas:--Hunc +merito poterit dicere Roma patrem." Thus he gave to his undeserving son +Franceschetto several towns near Rome and married him to the daughter of +Lorenzo de' Medici. Innocent died on the 25th of July 1492, and was +succeeded by Alexander VI. + + The sources for the life of Innocent VIII. are to be found in L. + Muratori, _Rerum Italicarum Scriptores_, vol. 3, and in Raynaldus, a. + 1484-1492. See also L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. 5, trans. + by F. I. Antrobus (London, 1898); M. Creighton, _History of the + Papacy_, vol. 4 (London, 1901); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle + Ages_, vol. 7, trans. by Mrs. G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); T. + Hagen, _Die Papstwahlen von 1484 u. 1492_ (Brizen, 1885); S. Riezler, + _Die Hexenprozesse_ (1896); G. Viani, _Memorie della famiglia Cybo_ + (Pisa, 1808); F. Serdonati, _Vita e fatti d'Innocenzo VIII._ (Milan, + 1829). (C. H. Ha.) + +INNOCENT IX. (Giovanni Antonio Fachinetti) was born in 1519. He filled +the offices of apostolic vicar of Avignon, legate at the council of +Trent, nuncio to Venice, and president of the Inquisition. He became +cardinal in 1583; and under the invalid Gregory XIV. assumed almost the +entire conduct of affairs. His election to the papacy, on the 29th of +October 1591, was brought about by Philip II., who profited little by +it, however, inasmuch as Innocent soon succumbed to age and feebleness, +dying on the 30th of December 1591. + + See Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, + 1601-1602); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, _De Vitis Pontiff. + Rom._ (both contemporaries of Innocent); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., + Austin), ii. 233 sq. (all brief accounts). (T. F. C.) + +INNOCENT X. (Giovanni Battista Pamfili) was born in Rome on the 6th of +May 1574, served successively as auditor of the Rota, nuncio to Naples, +legate apostolic to Spain, was made cardinal in 1627, and succeeded +Urban VIII. as pope on the 15th of September 1644. Throughout his +pontificate Innocent was completely dominated by his sister-in-law, +Donna Olimpia Maidalchini, a woman of masculine spirit. There is no +reason to credit the scandalous reports of an illicit attachment. +Nevertheless, the influence of Donna Olimpia was baneful; and she made +herself thoroughly detested for her inordinate ambition and rapacity. +Urban VIII. had been French in his sympathies; but the papacy now +shifted to the side of the Habsburgs, and there remained for nearly +fifty years. Evidences of the change were numerous: Innocent promoted +pro-Spanish cardinals; attacked the Barberini, protégés of Mazarin, and +sequestered their possessions; aided in quieting an insurrection in +Naples, fomented by the duke of Guise; and refused to recognize the +independence of Portugal, then at war with Spain. As a reward he +obtained from Spain and Naples the recognition of ecclesiastical +immunity. In 1649 Castro, which Urban VIII. had failed to take, was +wrested from the Farnese and annexed to the Papal States. The most +worthy efforts of Innocent were directed to the reform of monastic +discipline (1652). His condemnation of Jansenism (1653) was met with the +denial of papal infallibility in matters of _fact_, and the controversy +entered upon a new phase (see JANSENISM). Although the pontificate of +Innocent witnessed the conversion of many Protestant princes, the most +notable being Queen Christina of Sweden, the papacy had nevertheless +suffered a perceptible decline in prestige; it counted for little in the +negotiations at Münster, and its solemn protest against the peace of +Westphalia was entirely ignored. Innocent died on the 7th of January +1655, and was succeeded by Alexander VII. + + For contemporary lives of Innocent see Oldoin, continuator of + Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom._; and _Palazzi, + Gesta Pontiff. Rom._ (Venice, 1687-1688) iv. 570 sqq.; Ciampi's + _Innoc. X. Pamfili, et la sua Corte_ (Rome, 1878), gives a very full + account of the period. Gualdus' (pseud. of Gregorio Leti; v. bibliog. + note, art. "SIXTUS V.") _Vita de Donna Olimpia Maidalchina_ (1666) is + gossipy and untrustworthy; Capranica's _Donna Olympia Pamfili_ (Milan, + 1875, 3rd ed.) is fanciful and historically of no value. See also + Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), iii. 40 sqq.; v. Reumont, + _Gesch. der Stadt Rom._ iii. 2, p. 623 sqq.; Brosch, _Gesch. des + Kirchenstaates_ (1880) i. 409 sqq.; and the extended bibliography in + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, s.v. "Innocenz X." (T. F. C.) + +INNOCENT XI. (Benedetto Odescalchi), pope from 1676 to 1689, was born at +Como on the 16th of May 1611. He studied law in Rome and Naples, entered +the Curia under Urban VIII. (his alleged military service seems to be +questionable), and became successively protonotary, president of the +Apostolic Chamber, governor of Macerate and commissary of Ancona. +Innocent X. made him a cardinal (1647), legate to Ferrara, and, in 1650, +bishop of Novara. His simple and blameless life, his conscientious +discharge of duty, and his devotion to the needs of the poor had won for +him such a name that, despite the opposition of France, he was chosen to +succeed Clement X. on the 21st of September 1676. He at once applied +himself to moral and administrative reform; declared against nepotism, +introduced economy, abolished sinecures, wiped out the deficit (at the +same time reducing rents), closed the gaming-houses, and issued a number +of sumptuary ordinances. He held monks strictly to the performance of +their vows; took care to satisfy himself of the fitness of candidates +for bishoprics; enjoined regular catechetical instruction, greater +simplicity in preaching, and greater reverence in worship. The moral +teaching of the Jesuits incurred his condemnation (1679) (see LIGUORI), +an act which the society never forgave, and which it partially revenged +by forcing, through the Inquisition, the condemnation of the quietistic +doctrines of Molinos (1687), for which Innocent entertained some +sympathy (see MOLINOS). + +The pontificate of Innocent fell within an important period in European +politics, and he himself played no insignificant rôle. His protest +against Louis XIV.'s extended claim to regalian rights called forth the +famous Declaration of Gallican Liberties by a subservient French synod +under the lead of Bossuet (1682), which the pope met by refusing to +confirm Louis's clerical appointments. His determination to restrict the +ambassadorial right of asylum, which had been grossly abused, was +resented by Louis, who defied him in his own capital, seized the papal +territory of Avignon, and talked loudly of a schism, without, however, +shaking the pope in his resolution. The preponderance of France Innocent +regarded as a menace to Europe. He opposed Louis's candidate for the +electorate of Cologne (1688), approved the League of Augsburg, +acquiesced in the designs of the Protestant William of Orange, even in +his supplanting James II., whom, although a Roman Catholic, he +distrusted as a tool of Louis. The great object of Innocent's desire was +the repulse of the Turks, and his unwearying efforts to that end +entitled him to share in the glory of relieving Vienna (1683). + +Innocent died on the 12th of August 1689, lamented by his subjects. His +character and life were such as to suggest the propriety of +canonization, but hostile influences have defeated every move in that +direction. + + The life of Innocent has been frequently written. See Guarnacci, + _Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1751), i. 105 sqq.; + Palazzi, _Gesta Pontiff. Rom._ (Venice, 1690); also the lives by + Albrizzi (Rome, 1695); Buonamici (Rome, 1776); and Immich (Berlin, + 1900). Particular phases of Innocent's activity have been treated by + Michaud, _Loius XIV. et Innoc. XI._ (Paris, 1882 sqq., 4 vols.); + Dubruel, _La Correspond.... du Card. Carlo Pio_, &c. (see _Rev. des + quest. hist._ lxxv. (1904) 602 sqq.); and Gerin, in _Rev. des quest. + hist._, 1876, 1878, 1886. For correspondence of Innocent see Colombo, + _Notizie biogr. e lettere di P. Innoc. XI._ (Turin, 1878); and + Berthier, _Innoc. PP. XI. Epp. ad Principes_ (Rome, 1890 sqq.). An + extended bibliography may be found in Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopädie_, s.v. "Innocenz XI." (T. F. C.) + +INNOCENT XII. (Antonio Pignatelli), pope from 1691 to 1700 in succession +to Alexander VIII., was born in Naples on the 13th of March 1615, was +educated at the Jesuit College in Rome, entered upon his official career +at the age of twenty, and became vice-legate of Urbino, governor of +Perugia, and nuncio to Tuscany, to Poland and to Austria. He was made +cardinal and archbishop of Naples by Innocent XI., whose pontificate he +took as a model for his own, which began on the 12th of July 1691. Full +of reforming zeal, he issued ordinances against begging, extravagance +and gambling; forbade judges to accept presents from suitors; built new +courts of justice; prohibited the sale of offices, maintaining the +financial equilibrium by reducing expenses; and, an almost revolutionary +step, struck at the root of nepotism, in a bull of 1692 ordaining that +thenceforth no pope should grant estates, offices or revenues to any +relative. Innocent likewise put an end to the strained relations that +had existed between France and the Holy See for nearly fifty years. He +adjusted the difficulties over the regalia, and obtained from the French +bishops the virtual repudiation of the Declaration of Gallican +Liberties. He confirmed the bull of Alexander VIII. against Jansenism +(1696); and, in 1699, under pressure from Louis XIV., condemned certain +of Fénelon's doctrines which Bossuet had denounced as quietistic (see +FÉNELON). When the question of the Spanish succession was being agitated +he advised Charles II. to make his will in favour of the duke of Anjou. +Innocent died, on the eve of the great conflict, on the 27th of +September 1700. Moderate, benevolent, just, Innocent was one of the best +popes of the modern age. + + See Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1751), i. + 389 sqq.; Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), iii. 186 sqq.; v. + Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom._ iii. 2, p. 640 sqq.; and the + _Bullarium Innoc. XII._ (Rome, 1697). (T. F. C.) + +INNOCENT XIII. (Michele Angelo Conti), pope from 1721 to 1724, was the +son of the duke of Poli, and a member of a family that had produced +several popes, among them Innocent III., was born in Rome on the 13th of +May 1655, served as nuncio in Switzerland, and, for a much longer time, +in Portugal, was made cardinal and bishop of Osimo and Viterbo by +Clement XI., whom he succeeded on the 8th of May 1721. One of his first +acts was to invest the emperor Charles VI. with Naples (1722); but +against the imperial investiture of Don Carlos with Parma and Piacenza +he protested, albeit in vain. He recognized the Pretender, "James III.," +and promised him subsidies conditional upon the re-establishment of +Roman Catholicism in England. Moved by deep-seated distrust of the +Jesuits and by their continued practice of "Accommodation," despite +express papal prohibition (see CLEMENT XI.), Innocent forbade the Order +to receive new members in China, and was said to have meditated its +suppression. This encouraged the French Jansenist bishops to press for +the revocation of the bull _Unigenitus_; but the pope commanded its +unreserved acceptance. He weakly yielded to pressure and bestowed the +cardinal's hat upon the corrupt and debauched Dubois. Innocent died on +the 7th of March 1724, and was succeeded by Benedict XIII. + + See Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1751), ii. + 137 sqq., 381 sqq.; Sandini, _Vitae Pontiff. Rom._ (Padua, 1739); M. + v. Mayer, _Die Papstwahl Innocenz XIII._ (Vienna, 1874); Michaud, "La + Fin du Clement XI. et le commencement du pontificat d'Innocent XIII." + in the _Internat. Theol. Zeitschr._ v. 42 sqq., 304 sqq. (T. F. C.) + + + + +INNOCENTS' DAY, or CHILDERMAS, a festival celebrated in the Latin church +on the 28th of December, and in the Greek church on the 29th (O.S.) in +memory of the massacre of the children by Herod. The Church early +regarded these little ones as the first martyrs. It is uncertain when +the day was first kept as a saint's day. At first it seems to have been +absorbed into the celebration of the Epiphany, but by the 5th century it +was kept as a separate festival. In Rome it was a day of fasting and +mourning. In the middle ages the festival was the occasion for much +indulgence to the children. The boy-bishop (q.v.), whose tenure of +office lasted till Childermas, had his last exercise of authority then, +the day being one of the series of days which were known as the Feast of +Fools. Parents temporarily abdicated authority, and in nunneries and +monasteries the youngest nun and monk were for the twenty-four hours +allowed to masquerade as abbess and abbot. These mockeries of religion +were condemned by the Council of Basel (1431); but though shorn of its +extravagances the day is still observed as a feast day and merry-making +for children in Catholic countries, and particularly as an occasion for +practical joking like an April Fool's Day. In Spanish-America when such +a joke has been played, the phrase equivalent to "You April fool!" is +_Que la inocencia le valga!_ May your innocence protect you! The society +of Lincoln's Inn specially celebrated Childermas, annually electing a +"king of the Cockneys." Innocents' Day was ever accounted unlucky. +Nothing was begun and no marriages took place then. Louis XI. prohibited +all state business. The coronation of Edward IV., fixed for a Sunday, +was postponed till the Monday when it was found the Sunday fell on the +28th of December. In rural England it was deemed unlucky to do +housework, put on new clothes or pare the nails. At various places in +Gloucestershire, Somerset and Worcestershire muffled peals were rung +(_Notes and Queries_, 1st series, vol. viii. p. 617). In Northampton the +festival was called "Dyzemas Day" (possibly from Gr. [Greek: dys-] "ill" +and "mass"), and there is a proverb "What is begun on Dyzemas will never +be finished." The Irish call the day _La Croasta na bliana_, "the cross +day of the year," or _Diar dasin darg_, "blood Thursday," and many +legends attach to it (_Notes and Queries_, 4th series, vol. xii. p. +185). In medieval England the children were reminded of the mournfulness +of the day by being whipped in bed on Innocents' morning. This custom +survived to the 17th century. + + + + +INNSBRUCK, the capital of the Austrian province of Tirol, and one of the +most beautifully situated towns in Europe. In 1900 the population was +26,866 (with a garrison of about 2000 men), mainly German-speaking and +Romanist. Built at a height of 1880 ft., in a wide plain formed by the +middle valley of the Inn and on the right bank of that river, it is +surrounded by lofty mountains that seem to overhang the town. It +occupies a strong military position (its commercial and industrial +importance is now but secondary) at the junction of the great highway +from Germany to Italy over the Brenner Pass, by which it is by rail 109½ +m. from Munich and 174½ m. from Verona, with that from Bregenz in the +Vorarlberg, distant 122 m., by rail under the Arlberg Pass. It takes its +name from its position, close to the chief bridge over the Inn. It is +the seat of the supreme judicial court of the Tirol, the Diet of which +meets in the Landhaus. The streets are broad, there are several open +places and the houses are handsome, many of those in the old town dating +from the 17th and 18th centuries, and being adorned with frescoes, while +the arcades beneath are used as shops. + +The principal monument is the Franciscan or Court church (1553-1563). In +it is the magnificent 16th-century cenotaph (his body is elsewhere) of +the emperor Maximilian (d. 1519), who, as count of the Tirol from 1490 +onwards, was much beloved by his subjects. It represents the emperor +kneeling in prayer on a gigantic marble sarcophagus, surrounded by +twenty-eight colossal bronze statues of mourners, of which twenty-three +figure ancestors, relatives or contemporaries of Maximilian, while five +represent his favourite heroes of antiquity--among these five are the +two finest statues (both by Peter Vischer of Nuremberg), those of King +Arthur of Britain and of Theodoric, the Ostrogothic king. On the sides +of the sarcophagus are twenty-four marble reliefs, depicting the +principal events in the life of Maximilian, nearly all by Alexander +Colin of Malines, while the general design of the whole monument is +attributed to Gilg Sesselschreiber, the court painter. In one of the +aisles of the same church is the Silver Chapel, so called from a silver +Madonna and silver bas-reliefs on the altar; it contains the tombs of +Archduke Ferdinand, count of the Tirol (d. 1595) and his non-royal wife, +Philippine Welser of Augsburg (d. 1580), whose happy married life spent +close by is one of the most romantic episodes in Tirolese history. In +the other aisle are the tombs, with monuments, of the heroes of the War +of Independence of 1809, Hofer, Haspinger and Speckbacher. It was in +this church that Queen Christina of Sweden, daughter of Gustavus +Adolphus, abjured Protestantism, in 1655. There are also several other +churches and convents, among the latter the first founded (1593) in +Germany by the Capuchins. + +The university of Innsbruck was formally founded in 1677, and refounded +(after two periods of suspension, 1782-1792 and 1810-1826) in 1826. It +is attended by about 1000 students and has a large staff of professors, +the theological faculty being controlled by the Jesuits. It has a +library of 176,000 books, and 1049 MSS. The University or Jesuit church +dates from the early 17th century. The Ferdinandeum is the provincial +museum (founded in 1823, though the present building is later). The +house known as the Goldne Dachl has its roof covered with gilded copper +tiles; it was built about 1425, by Frederick, count of the Tirol, +nicknamed "with the empty pockets," but the balcony and gilded roof were +added in 1500 by the emperor Maximilian. Among the other monuments of +Innsbruck may be mentioned the Pillar of St Anne, erected in 1706 to +commemorate the repulse of the French and the Bavarians in 1703; the +Triumphal Arch, built in 1765, on the occasion of the marriage of the +future emperor Leopold II. with the Infanta Maria Louisa of Spain; and a +fountain, with a bronze statue of Archduke Leopold V., set up in +1863-1877, in memory of the five-hundredth anniversary of the union of +the Tirol with Austria. + +The Roman station of Veldidena was succeeded by the Premonstratensian +abbey of Wilten, both serving to guard the important strategical bridge +over the Inn. In 1180 the count of Andechs (the local lord) moved the +market-place over to the right bank of the river (where is the convent), +and in 1187 we first hear of the town by its present name. Between 1233 +and 1235 it was fortified, and a castle built for the lord. But it was +only about 1420 that Archduke Frederick IV. ("with the empty pockets") +built himself a new castle in Innsbruck, which then replaced Meran as +the capital of Tirol. The county of Tirol was generally held by a cadet +line of the Austrian house, the count being almost an independent ruler. +But the last princeling of this kind died in 1665, since which date +Innsbruck and Tirol have been governed from Vienna. In 1552 Maurice of +Saxony surprised and nearly took Innsbruck, almost capturing the emperor +Charles V. himself, who escaped owing to a mutiny among Maurice's +troops. In the patriotic war of 1809, Innsbruck played a great part and +suffered much, while in 1848, at the time of the revolution in Vienna, +it joyfully received the emperor Ferdinand. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +INNS OF COURT. The Inns of Court and Chancery are voluntary +non-corporate legal societies seated in London, having their origin +about the end of the 13th and the commencement of the 14th century. + +Dugdale (_Origines Juridiciales_) states that the learned in English law +were anciently persons in holy orders, the justices of the king's court +being bishops, abbots and the like. But in 1207 the clergy were +prohibited by canon from acting in the temporal courts. The result +proving prejudicial to the interests of the community, a commission of +inquiry was issued by Edward I. (1290), and this was followed up (1292) +by a second commission, which among other things directed that students +"apt and eager" should be brought from the provinces and placed in +proximity to the courts of law now fixed by Magna Carta at Westminster +(see INN). These students were accordingly located in what became known +as the Inns of Court and Chancery, the latter designated by Fortescue +(_De Laudibus_) as "the earliest settled places for students of the +law," the germ of what Sir Edward Coke subsequently spoke of as our +English juridical university. In these Inns of Court and Chancery, thus +constituted, and corresponding to the ordinary college, the students, +according to Fortescue, not only studied the laws and divinity, but +further learned to dance, sing and play instrumental music, "so that +these hostels, being nurseries or seminaries of the court, were +therefore called Inns of Court." + +Stow in his _Survey_ (1598) says: "There is in and about this city a +whole university, as it were, of students, practisers or pleaders and +judges of the laws of this realm"; and he goes on to enumerate the +several societies, fourteen in number, then existing, corresponding +nearly with those recognized in the present day, of which the Inns of +Court, properly so-called, are and always have been four, namely +_Lincoln's Inn_, the _Inner Temple_, the _Middle Temple_ and _Gray's +Inn_. To these were originally attached as subordinate Inns of Chancery, +Furnival's Inn, Thavie's Inn (to Lincoln's Inn), Clifford's Inn, +Clement's Inn (to the Inner Temple), New Inn (to the Middle Temple), +Staple's Inn, Barnard's Inn (to Gray's Inn), but they were cut adrift by +the older Inns and by the middle of the 18th century had ceased to have +any legal character (_vide infra_). In addition to these may be +specified _Serjeant's Inn_, a society composed solely of +serjeants-at-law, which ceased to exist in 1877. Besides the Inns of +Chancery above enumerated, there were others, such as Lyon's Inn, which +was pulled down in 1868, and Scrope's Inn and Chester or Strand Inn, +spoken of by Stow, which have long been removed, and the societies to +which they belonged have disappeared. The four Inns of Court stand on a +footing of complete equality, no priority being conceded to or claimed +by one inn over another. Their jurisdictions and privileges are equal, +and upon affairs of common interest the benchers of the four inns meet +in conference. From the earliest times there has been an interchange of +fellowship between the four houses; nevertheless the Middle Temple and +Lincoln's Inn, and the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn, have maintained a +closer alliance. + +The members of an Inn of Court consist of benchers, barristers and +students. The benchers are the senior members of the society, who are +invested with the government of the body to which they belong. They are +more formally designated "masters of the bench," are self-elected and +unrestricted as to numbers. Usually a member of an inn, on attaining the +rank of king's counsel, is invited to the bench. Other members of long +standing are also occasionally chosen, but no member by becoming a +king's counsel or by seniority of standing acquires the right of being +nominated a bencher. The benchers vary in number from twenty in Gray's +Inn to seventy and upwards in Lincoln's Inn and the Inner Temple. The +powers of the benchers are practically without limit within their +respective societies; their duties, however, are restricted to the +superintendence and management of the concerns of the inn, the admission +of candidates as students, the calling of them to the bar and the +exercise of discipline generally over the members. The meetings of the +benchers are variously denominated a "parliament" in the Inner and +Middle Temples, a "pension" in Gray's Inn and a "council" in Lincoln's +Inn. The judges of the superior courts are the visitors of the inns, and +to them alone can an appeal be had when either of the societies refuses +to call a member to the bar, or to reinstate in his privileges a +barrister who has been disbarred for misconduct. The presiding or chief +officer is the treasurer, one of the benchers, who is elected annually +to that dignity. Other benchers fulfil the duties of master of the +library, master of the walks or gardens, dean of the chapel and so +forth, while others are readers, whose functions are referred to below. + +The usages of the different inns varied somewhat formerly in regard both +to the term of probationary studentship enforced and to the procedure +involved in a "call" to the bar by which the student is converted into +the barrister. In the present day the entrance examination, the course +of study and the examinations to be passed on the completion of the +curriculum are identical and common to all the inns (see ENGLISH LAW). +When once called to the bar, no hindrance beyond professional etiquette +limits a barrister's freedom of action; so also members may on +application to the benchers, and on payment of arrears of dues (if any), +leave the society to which they belong, and thus cease altogether to be +members of the bar likewise. A member of an Inn of Court retains his +name on the lists of his inn for life by means of a small annual payment +varying from £1 to £5, which at one or two of the inns is compounded for +by a fixed sum taken at the call to the bar. + +The ceremony of the "call" varies in detail at the different inns. It +takes place after dinner (before dinner at the Middle Temple, which is +the only inn at which students are called in their wigs and gowns), in +the "parliament," "pension" or "council" chamber of the benchers. The +benchers sit at a table round which are ranged the students to be +called. Each candidate being provided with a glass of wine, the +treasurer or senior bencher addresses them and the senior student +briefly replies. "Call Parties" are also generally held by the new +barristers; at the Middle Temple they are allowed in hall. + +During the reign of Edward III. the Inns of Court and Chancery, based on +the collegiate principle, prospered under the supervision and protection +of the crown. In 1381 Wat Tyler invaded the Temple, and in the +succeeding century (1450) Jack Cade meditated pulling down the Inns of +Court and killing the lawyers. It would appear, moreover, that the +inmates of the inns were themselves at times disorderly and in conflict +with the citizens. Fortescue (c. 1464) describing these societies thus +speaks of them: "There belong to the law ten lesser inns, which are +called the Inns of Chancery, in each of which there are one hundred +students at least, and in some a far greater number, though not +constantly residing. After the students have made some progress here +they are admitted to the Inns of Court. Of these there are four, in the +least frequented of which there are about two hundred students. The +discipline is excellent, and the mode of study well adapted for +proficiency." This system had probably existed for two centuries before +Fortescue wrote, and continued to be enforced down to the time of Sir +Thomas More (1498), of Chief Justice Dyer (1537) and of Sir Edward Coke +(1571). By the time of Sir Matthew Hale (1629) the custom for law +students to be first entered to an Inn of Chancery before being admitted +to an Inn of Court had become obsolete, and thenceforth the Inns of +Chancery have been abandoned to the attorneys. Stow in his _Survey_ +succinctly points out the course of reading enforced at the end of the +16th century. He says that the Inns of Court were replenished partly by +students coming from the Inns of Chancery, who went thither from the +universities and sometimes immediately from grammar schools; and, having +spent some time in studying the first elements of the law, and having +performed the exercises called "bolts," "moots" and "putting of cases," +they proceeded to be admitted to, and become students in, one of the +Inns of Court. Here continuing for the space of seven years or +thereabouts, they frequented readings and other learned exercises, +whereby, growing ripe in the knowledge of the laws, they were, by the +general consent either of the benchers or of the readers, called to the +degree of barrister, and so enabled to practise in chambers and at the +bar. This ample provision for legal study continued with more or less +vigour down to nearly the commencement of the 18th century. A languor +similar to that which affected the church and the universities then +gradually supervened, until the fulfilment of the merest forms sufficed +to confer the dignity of advocate and pleader. This was maintained until +about 1845, when steps were taken for reviving and extending the ancient +discipline and course of study, bringing them into harmony with modern +ideas and requirements. + +The fees payable vary slightly at the different inns, but average about +£150. This sum covers all expenses from admission to an inn to the call +at the bar, but the addition of tutorial and other expenses may augment +the cost of a barrister's legal education to £400 or £500. The period of +study prior to call must not be less than twelve terms, equivalent to +about three years. Solicitors, however, may be called without keeping +any terms if they have been in practice for not fewer than five +consecutive years. + +It has been seen that the studies pursued in ancient times were +conducted by means of "readings," "moots" and "bolts." The _readings_ +were deemed of vital importance, and were delivered in the halls with +much ceremony; they were frequently regarded as authorities and cited as +such at Westminster in argument. Some statute or section of a statute +was selected for analysis and explanation, and its relation to the +common law pointed out. Many of these readings, dating back to Edward +I., are extant, and well illustrate the importance of the subjects and +the exhaustive and learned manner in which they were treated. The +function of "reader" involved the holder in very weighty expenses, +chiefly by reason of the profuse hospitality dispensed--a constant and +splendid table being kept during the three weeks and three days over +which the readings extended, to which were invited the nobility, judges, +bishops, the officers of state and sometimes the king himself. In 1688 +the readers were paid £200 for their reading, but by that time the +office had become a sinecure. In the present day the readership is +purely honorary and without duties. The privilege formerly assumed by +the reader of calling to the bar was taken away in 1664 by an order of +the lord chancellor and the judges. _Moots_ were exercises of the nature +of formal arguments on points of law raised by the students and +conducted under the supervision of a bencher and two barristers sitting +as judges in the halls of the inns. _Bolts_ were of an analogous +character, though deemed inferior to moots. + +In the early history of the inns discrimination was exercised in regard +to the social status of candidates for admission to them. Sir John +Ferne, a writer of the 16th century, referred to by Dugdale, states that +none were admitted into the houses of court except they were gentlemen +of blood. So also Pliny, writing in the 1st century of the Christian era +(_Letters_, ii. 14), says that before his day young men even of the +highest families of Rome were not admitted to practice except upon the +introduction of some man of consular rank. But he goes on to add that +all barriers were then broken down, everything being open to +everybody--a remark applicable to the bar of England and elsewhere in +the present day. It may here be noted that no dignity or title confers +any rank at the bar. A privy councillor, a peer's son, a baronet, the +speaker of the House of Commons or a knight--all rank at the bar merely +according to their legal precedence. Formerly orders were frequently +issued both by the benchers and by the crown on the subject of the +dress, manners, morals and religious observances of students and +members. Although some semblance of a collegiate discipline is still +maintained, this is restricted to the dining in hall, where many ancient +usages survive, and to the closing of the gates of the inns at night. + +Each inn maintains a chapel, with the accompaniment of preachers and +other clergy, the services being those of the Church of England. The +Inner and the Middle Temple have joint use of the Temple church. The +office of preacher is usually filled by an ecclesiastic chosen by the +benchers. The principal ecclesiastic of the Temple church is, however, +constituted by letters patent by the crown without episcopal institution +or induction, enjoying, nevertheless, no authority independently of the +benchers. He bears the title of Master of the Temple. + +It has already been stated, on the authority of Fortescue, that the +students of the Inns of Court learned to dance, sing and play +instrumental music; and those accomplishments found expression in the +"masques" and "revels" for which the societies formerly distinguished +themselves, especially the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn. These +entertainments were of great antiquity and much magnificence, involving +very considerable expense. Evelyn (_Diary_) speaks of the revels at the +Middle Temple as an old and riotous custom, having relation neither to +virtue nor to policy. The last revel appears to have been held at the +Inner Temple in 1734, to mark the occasion of the elevation of Lord +Chancellor Talbot to the woolsack. The plays and masques performed were +sometimes repeated elsewhere than in the hall of the inn, especially +before the sovereign at court. A master of the revels was appointed, +commonly designated Lord of Misrule. There is abundant information as to +the scope and nature of these entertainments: one of the festivals is +minutely described by Gerard Leigh in his _Accedence of Armorie_, 1612; +and a tradition ascribes the first performance of Shakespeare's _Twelfth +Night_ to a revel held in the Middle Temple hall in February 1601. The +hospitality of the inns now finds expression mainly in the "Grand Day," +held once in each of the four terms, when it is customary for the judges +and other distinguished visitors to dine with the benchers (who sit +apart from the barristers and students on a daïs in some state), and +"Readers' Feast," on both which occasions extra commons and wine are +served to the members attending. But the old customs also found some +renewal in the shape of balls, concerts, garden-parties and other +entertainments. In 1887 there was a revival (the first since the 17th +century) of the Masque of Flowers at both the Inner Temple and Gray's +Inn. The Royal Horticultural Society's annual exhibition of flowers and +fruit is held in May in the Temple Gardens. Plays are also occasionally +performed in the Temple, Robert Browning's _Sordello_ being acted in +1902 by a company of amateurs, most of whom were either members of the +bar or connected with the legal profession. + + The _Inner_ and the _Middle Temple_, so far as their history can be + traced, have always been separate societies. Fortescue, writing + between 1461 and 1470, makes no allusion to a previous junction of the + two inns. Dugdale (1671) speaks of the Temple as having been one + society, and states that the students so increased in number that at + length they divided, becoming the Inner and Middle Temple + respectively. He does not, however, give any authority for this + statement, or furnish the date of the division. The first trustworthy + mention of the Temple as an inn of court is found in the _Paston + Letters_, where, under date November 1440, the Inner Temple is spoken + of as a college, as is also subsequently the Middle Temple. The Temple + had been the seat in England of the Knights Templars, on whose + suppression in 1312 it passed with other of their possessions to the + crown, and after an interval of some years to the Knights Hospitallers + of St John of Jerusalem, who in the reign of Edward III. demised the + mansion and its surroundings to certain professors of the common law + who came from Thavie's Inn. Notwithstanding the destruction of the + muniments of the Temple by fire or by popular commotion, sufficient + testimony is attainable to show that in the reigns of Edward III. and + Richard II. the Temple had become the residence of the legal + communities which have since maintained there a permanent footing. The + two societies continued as tenants to the Knights Hospitallers of St + John until the dissolution of the order in 1539; they then became the + lessees of the crown, and so remained until 1609, when James I. made a + grant by letters patent of the premises in perpetuity to the benchers + of the respective societies on a yearly payment by each of £10, a + payment bought up in the reign of Charles II. In this grant the two + inns are described as "the Inner and the Middle Temple or New Temple," + and as "being two out of those four colleges the most famous of all + Europe" for the study of the law. Excepting the church, nothing + remains of the edifices belonging to the Knights Templars, the present + buildings having been almost wholly erected since the reign of Queen + Elizabeth or since the Great Fire, in which the major part of the + Inner Temple perished. The church has been in the joint occupation of + the Inner and Middle Temple from time immemorial--the former taking + the southern and the latter the northern half. The round portion of + the church was consecrated in 1185, the nave or choir in 1240. It is + the largest and most complete of the four remaining round churches in + England, and is built on the plan of the church of the Holy Sepulchre + at Jerusalem. Narrowly escaping the ravages of the fire of 1666, this + beautiful building is one of the most perfect specimens of early + Gothic architecture in England. In former times the lawyers awaited + their clients for consultation in the Round Church, as similarly the + serjeants-at-Law were accustomed to resort to St Paul's Cathedral, + where each serjeant had a pillar assigned him. + + The _Inner Temple_, comprehending a hall, parliament chamber, library + and other buildings, occupies the site of the ancient mansion of the + Knights Templars, built about the year 1240, and has from time to time + been more or less rebuilt and extended, the present handsome range of + buildings, including a new dining hall, being completed in 1870. The + library owes its existence to William Petyt, keeper of the Tower + Records in the time of Queen Anne, who was also a benefactor to the + library of the Middle Temple. The greatest addition by gift was made + by the Baron F. Maseres in 1825. The number of volumes now in the + library is 37,000. Of the Inns of Chancery belonging to the Inner + Temple _Clifford's Inn_ was anciently the town residence of the Barons + Clifford, and was demised in 1345 to a body of students of the law. It + was the most important of the Inns of Chancery, and numbered among its + members Coke and Selden. At its dinners a table was specially set + aside for the "Kentish Mess," though it is not clear what connexion + there was between the Inn and the county of Kent. It was governed by a + principal and twelve rulers. _Clement's Inn_ was an Inn of Chancery + before the reign of Edward IV., taking its name from the parish church + of St Clement Danes, to which it had formerly belonged. Clement's Inn + was the inn of Shakespeare's Master Shallow, and was the Shepherd's + Inn of Thackeray's _Pendennis_. The buildings of Clifford's Inn + survive (1910), but of Clement's Inn there are left but a few + fragments. + + The _Middle Temple_ possesses in its hall one of the most stately of + existing Elizabethan buildings. Commenced in 1562, under the auspices + of Edmund Plowden, then treasurer, it was not completed until 1572, + the richly carved screen at the east end in the style of the + Renaissance being put up in 1575. The belief that the screen was + constructed of timber taken from ships of the Spanish Armada (1588) is + baseless. The hall, which has been preserved unaltered, has been the + scene of numerous historic incidents, notably the entertainments given + within its walls to regal and other personages from Queen Elizabeth + downwards. The library, which contains about 28,000 volumes, dates + from 1641, when Robert Ashley, a member of the society, bequeathed his + collection of books in all classes of literature to the inn, together + with a large sum of money; other benefactors were Ashmole (the + antiquary), William Petyt (a benefactor of the Inner Temple) and Lord + Stowell. From 1711 to 1826 the library was greatly neglected; and many + of the most scarce and valuable books were lost. The present handsome + library building, which stands apart from the hall, was completed in + 1861, the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) attending the + inauguration ceremony on October 31st of that year, and becoming a + member and bencher of the society on the occasion. He afterwards held + the office of treasurer (1882). The MSS. in the collection are few and + of no special value. In civil, canon and international law, as also in + divinity and ecclesiastical history, the library is very rich; it + contains also some curious works on witchcraft and demonology. There + was but one Inn of Chancery connected with the Middle Temple, that of + _New Inn_, which, according to Dugdale, was formed by a society of + students previously settled at St George's Inn, situated near St + Sepulchre's Church without Newgate; but the date of this transfer is + not known. The buildings have now been pulled down. + + _Lincoln's Inn_ stands on the site partly of an episcopal palace + erected in the time of Henry III. by Ralph Nevill, bishop of + Chichester and chancellor of England, and partly of a religious house, + called Black Friars House, in Holborn. In the reign of Edward II., + Henry Lacy, earl of Lincoln, possessed the place, which from him + acquired the name of Lincoln's Inn, probably becoming an Inn of Court + soon after his death (in 1310), though of its existence as a place of + legal study there is little authentic record until the time of Henry + VI. (1424), to which date the existing muniments reach back. The fee + simple of the inn would appear to have remained vested in the see of + Chichester; and it was not until 1580 that the society which for + centuries had occupied the inn as tenants acquired the absolute + ownership of it. The old hall, built about 1506, still remains, but + has given place to a modern structure designed by Philip Hardwick, + R.A., which, along with the buildings containing the library, was + completed in 1845, Queen Victoria attending the inauguration ceremony + (October 13). The chapel, built after the designs of Inigo Jones, was + consecrated in 1623. The library--as a collection of law books the + most complete in the country--owes its foundation to a bequest of John + Nethersale, a member of the society, in 1497, and is the oldest of the + existing libraries in London. Various entries in the records of the + inn relate to the library, and notably in 1608, when an effort was + made to extend the collection, and the first appointment of a master + of the library (an office now held in annual rotation by each bencher) + was made. The library has been much enriched by donations and by the + acquisition by purchase of collections of books on special subjects. + It includes also an extensive and valuable series of MSS., the whole + comprehending 50,000 volumes. The prince of Wales (George V.), a + bencher of the society, filled the office of treasurer in 1904. The + Inns of Chancery affiliated to Lincoln's Inn were Thavie's Inn and + Furnival's Inn. _Thavie's Inn_ was a residence of students of the law + in the time of Edward III., and is mentioned by Fortescue as having + been one of the lesser houses of Lincoln's Inn for some centuries. It + thus continued down to 1769, when the inn was sold by the benchers, + and thenceforth it ceased to have any character as a place of legal + education. _Furnival's Inn_ became the resort of students about the + year 1406, and was purchased by the society of Lincoln's Inn in 1547. + It was governed by a principal and twelve antients. In 1817 the Inn + was rebuilt, but from that date it ceased to exist as a legal + community and is now demolished. + + The exact date of _Gray's Inn_ becoming the residence of lawyers is + not known, though it was so occupied before the year 1370. The inn + stands upon the site of the manor of Portpoole, belonging in ancient + times to the dean and chapter of St Paul's, but subsequently the + property of the family of Grey de Wilton and eventually of the crown, + from which a grant of the manor or inn was obtained, many years since + discharged from any rent or payment. The hall of the inn is of + handsome design, similar to the Middle Temple hall in its general + character and arrangements, and was completed about the year 1560. The + chapel, of much earlier date than the hall, has, notwithstanding its + antiquity, little to recommend it to notice, being small and + insignificant, and lacking architectural features of any kind. The + library, including about 13,000 volumes, contains a small but + important collection of MSS. and missals, and also some valuable works + on divinity. Little is known of the origin or early history of the + library, though mention is incidentally made of it in the society's + records in the 16th and 17th centuries. The gardens, laid out about + 1597, it is believed under the auspices of the lord chancellor Bacon, + at that time treasurer of the society, continue to this day as then + planned, though with some curtailment owing to the erection of + additional buildings. Among many curious customs maintained in this + inn is that of drinking a toast on grand days "to the glorious, pious + and immortal memory of Queen Elizabeth." Of the special circumstances + originating this display of loyalty there is no record. The Inns of + Chancery connected with Gray's Inn are Staple and Barnard's Inns. + _Staple Inn_ was an Inn of Chancery in the reign of Henry V., and is + probably of yet earlier date. Readings and moots were observed here + with regularity. Sir Simonds d'Ewes mentions attending a moot in + February 1624. The Inn, with its picturesque Elizabethan front, faces + Holborn. It was sold by the antients in 1884 lor £68,000. It is in a + very good state of preservation, and it is the intention of the + purchasers, the Prudential Assurance Company, to preserve it as a + memorial of vanishing London. _Barnard's Inn_, anciently designated + Mackworth Inn, was an Inn of Chancery in the reign of Henry VI. It was + bequeathed by him to the dean and chapter of Lincoln. It is now the + property of the Mercer's Company and is used as a school. + + The _King's Inns, Dublin_, the legal school in Ireland, corresponds + closely to the English Inns of Court, and is in many respects in + unison with them in its regulations with regard to the admission of + students into the society, and to the degree of barrister-at-law, as + also in the scope of the examinations enforced. Formerly it was + necessary to keep a number of terms at one of the Inns in London--the + stipulation dating as far back as 1542 (33 Henry VIII. c. 3). Down to + 1866 the course of education pursued at the King's Inns differed from + the English Inns of Court in that candidates for admission to the + legal profession as attorneys and solicitors carried on their studies + with those studying for the higher grade of the bar in the same + building under a professor specially appointed for this + purpose,--herein following the usage anciently prevailing in the Inns + of Chancery in London. This arrangement was put an end to by the + Attorneys and Solicitors Act (Ireland) 1866. The origin of the King's + Inns may be traced to the reign of Edward I., when a legal society + designated Collett's Inn was established without the walls of the + city; it was destroyed by an insurrectionary band. In the reign of + Edward III. Sir Robert Preston, chief baron of the exchequer, gave up + his residence within the city to the legal body, which then took the + name of Preston's Inn. In 1542 the land and buildings known as + Preston's Inn were restored to the family of the original donor, and + in the same year Henry VIII. granted the monastery of Friars Preachers + for the use of the professors of the law in Ireland. The legal body + removed to the new site, and thenceforward were known by the name of + the King's Inns. Possession of this property having been resumed by + the government in 1742, and the present Four Courts erected thereon, a + plot of ground at the top of Henrietta Street was purchased by the + society, and the existing hall built in the year 1800. The library, + numbering over 50,000 volumes, with a few MSS., is housed in buildings + specially provided in the year 1831, and is open, not only to the + members of the society, but also to strangers. The collection + comprises all kinds of literature. It is based principally upon a + purchase made in 1787 of the large and valuable library of Mr Justice + Robinson, and is maintained chiefly by an annual payment made from the + Consolidated Fund to the society in lieu of the right to receive + copyright works which was conferred by an Act of 1801, but abrogated + in 1836. + + In discipline and professional etiquette the members of the bar in + Ireland differ little from their English brethren. The same style of + costume is enforced, the same gradations of rank--attorney-general, + solicitor-general, king's counsel and ordinary barristers--being + found. There are also serjeants-at-law limited, however, to three in + number, and designated 1st, 2nd and 3rd Serjeant. The King's Inns do + not provide chambers for business purposes; there is consequently no + aggregation of counsel in certain localities, as is the case in London + in the Inns of Court and their immediate vicinity. + + The corporation known as the _Faculty of Advocates_ in Edinburgh + corresponds with the Inns of Court in London and the King's Inns in + Dublin (see ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF). + + AUTHORITIES.--Fortescue, _De laudibus legum Angliae_, by A. Amos + (1825); Dugdale, _Origines juridicales_ (2nd ed., 1671); _History and + Antiquities of the Four Inns of Court_, &c. (1780, 2nd ed.); Foss, + _Judges of England_ (1848-1864, 9 vols.); Herbert, _Antiquities of the + Inns of Court_ (1804); Pearce, _History of the Inns of Court_ (1848); + _Report_ of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Inns of + Court and Chancery, 1855; Ball, _Student's Guide to the Bar_ (1878); + Stow, _Survey of London and Westminster_, by Strype (1754-1755); + Nichols, _Progresses of Elizabeth and James I._; Lane, _Student's + Guide through Lincoln's Inn_ (2nd ed., 1805); Spilsbury, _Lincoln's + Inn, with an Account of the Library_ (2nd ed., 1873); Douthwaite, + _Notes illustrative of the History and Antiquities of Gray's Inn_ + (1876), and _Gray's Inn, its History and Associations_ (1886); _Paston + Letters_ (1872); _Law Magazine_, 1859-1860; _Quarterly Review_, + October, 1871; Cowel, _Law Dictionary_ (1727); Duhigg, _History of the + King's Inns in Ireland_ (1806); Mackay, _Practice of the Court of + Session_ (1879); Bellot, _The Inner and Middle Temple_ (1902); + Inderwick, _The King's Peace_ (1895); Fletcher, _The Pension Book of + Gray's Inn_ (1901); Loftie, _The Inns of Court_ (1895); Hope, + _Chronicles of an Old Inn_ (Gray's Inn) (1887); _A Calendar of the + Inner Temple Records_ (ed. F. A. Inderwick, 3 vols.). (J. C. W.) + + + + +INNUENDO (Latin for "by nodding," from _innuere_, to indicate by +nodding), an insinuation, suggestion, in prima facie innocent words, of +something defamatory or disparaging of a person. The word appears in +legal documents in Medieval Latin, to explain, in parenthesis, that to +which a preceding word refers; thus, "he, _innuendo_, the plaintiff, is +a thief." The word is still found in pleadings in actions for libel and +slander. The innuendo, in the plaintiff's statement of claim, is an +averment that words written or spoken by the defendant, though prima +facie not actionable, have, in fact, a defamatory meaning, which is +specifically set out (see LIBEL AND SLANDER). + + + + +INOUYE, KAORU, MARQUESS (1835- ), Japanese statesman, was born in 1835, +a _samurai_ of the Choshu fief. He was a bosom friend of his +fellow-clansman Prince Ito, and the two youths visited England in 1863, +serving as common sailors during the voyage. At that time all travel +abroad was forbidden on pain of death, but the veto did not prove +deterrent in the face of a rapidly growing conviction that, as a matter +of self-protection, Japan must assimilate the essentials of Western +civilization. Shortly after the departure of Inouye and Ito, the Choshu +fief, having fired upon foreign vessels passing the strait of +Shimonoseki, was menaced by war with the Yedo government or with the +insulted powers, and Inouye and Ito, on receipt of this news, hastened +home hoping to avert the catastrophe. They repaired to the British +legation in Yedo and begged that the allied squadron, then about to sail +for Shimonoseki to call Choshu to account, should be delayed that they +might have an opportunity of advising the fief to make timely +submission. Not only was this request complied with, but a British +frigate was detailed to carry the two men to Shimonoseki, and, pending +her departure, the British legation assisted them to lie _perdu_. Their +mission proved futile, however, and Inouye was subsequently waylaid by a +party of conservative _samurai_, who left him covered with wounds. This +experience did not modify his liberal views, and, by the time of the +Restoration in 1867, he had earned a high reputation as a leader of +progress and an able statesman. Finance and foreign affairs were +supposed to be the spheres specially suited to his genius, but his name +is not associated with any signal practical success in either, though +his counsels were always highly valued by his sovereign and his country +alike. As minister of foreign affairs he conducted the long and abortive +negotiations for treaty revision between 1883 and 1886, and in 1885 he +was raised to the peerage with the title of count, being one of the +first group of _Meiji_ statesmen whose services were thus rewarded. +Prior to his permanent retirement from office in 1898, he held the +portfolios of foreign affairs, finance, home affairs, and agriculture +and commerce, and throughout the war with Russia he attended all +important state councils, by order of the emperor, being also specially +designated adviser to the minister of finance. In 1907 he was raised to +the rank of marquess. His name will go down in his country's history as +one of the five _Meiji_ statesmen, namely, Princes Ito and Yamagata, +Marquesses Inouye and Matsukata and Count Okuma. + + + + +INOWRAZLAW, the Polish form of the German _Jung-Breslau_, by which the +place was formerly known, a town in the Prussian province of Posen, +situated on an eminence in the most fertile part of the province, 21 m. +S.W. of Thorn. Pop. (1900) 26,141. Iron-founding, the manufacture of +machinery and chemicals, and an active trade in cattle and country +produce are carried on. In the vicinity are important salt works and a +sulphur mine, and since 1876 a brine bath has been within the town. +Inowrazlaw is mentioned as early as 1185, and in 1772 it passed to +Prussia. + + + + +INQUEST (O. Fr. _enqueste_, modern _enquête_, from Lat. _inquisitum_, +_inquirere_, to inquire), an inquiry, particularly a formal legal +inquiry into facts. The word is now chiefly confined to the inquiry held +by a coroner and jury into the causes of certain deaths, in matters of +treasure trove, and, in the city of London, in cases of fires (see +CORONER). Formerly the term was applied to many formal and official +inquiries for fixing prices, &c. + + + + +INQUISITION, THE (Lat. _inquisitio_, an inquiry), + + + Punishment of heresy in the Roman Empire. + + Opinions of the Fathers. + + In the early Middle Ages. + + Conflicting views as to the punishment of heresy. + + The Church Councils. + + Influence of the Canon Law. + + The Council of Tours, 1163. + + Definition of the procedure under Lucius III. and the Emperor Frederick + I. + + The death penalty. + + Innocent III. + +the name given to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction dealing both in the +middle ages and in modern times with the detection and punishment of +heretics and all persons guilty of any offence against Catholic +orthodoxy. It is incorrect to say that the Inquisition made its +appearance in the 13th century complete in all its principles and +organs. It was the result of, or rather one step in, a process of +evolution, the beginnings of which are to be traced back to the origins +of Christianity. St Paul (1 Tim. i. 20) "delivered unto Satan" +Hymenaeus and Alexander, "that they might learn not to blaspheme." The +penalty of death by stoning inflicted by the book of Deuteronomy upon +those who deserted the true faith (Deut. xiii. 6-9, xvii. 1-6) is thus +reduced to a purely spiritual excommunication. During the first three +centuries of the Church there is no trace of any persecution, and the +earlier Fathers, especially Origen and Lactantius, reject the idea of +it. Constantine, by the edict of Milan (313), inaugurated an era of +official tolerance, but from the time of Valentinian I. and Theodosius +I. onwards, laws against heretics began to appear, and increased with +astonishing regularity and rapidity. We can count sixty-eight +distributed over fifty-two years; heretics are subjected to exile or +confiscation, disqualified from inheriting property, and even, in the +case of a few groups of Manichaeans and Donatists, condemned to death; +but it should be noticed that these penalties apply only to the outward +manifestations of heresy, and not, as in the middle ages, to crimes of +conscience. Within the Church, St Optatus alone (_De schismate +Donatistarum_, _lib._ iii. cap. iii.) approved of this violent +repression of the Donatist heresy; St Augustine only admitted a +_temperata severitas_, such as scourging, fines or exile, and at the end +of the 4th century the condemnation of the Spanish heretic Priscillian, +who was put to death in 385 by order of the emperor Maximus, gave rise +to a keen controversy. St Martin of Tours, St Ambrose and St Leo +vigorously attacked the Spanish bishops who had obtained the +condemnation of Priscillian. St John Chrysostom considered that a +heretic should be deprived of the liberty of speech and that assemblies +organized by heretics should be dissolved, but declared that "to put a +heretic to death would be to introduce upon earth an inexpiable crime." +From the 6th to the 9th century the heterodox, with the exception of the +Manichaean sects in certain places, were hardly subjected to +persecution. They were, moreover, rare and generally isolated, for +groups of sectaries only began to appear to any extent at the time of +the earliest appearances of Catharism. However, at the end of the 10th +century, the disciples of Vilgard, a heretic of Ravenna, were destroyed +in Italy and Sardinia, according to Glaber, _ferro et incendio_, +probably by assimilation to the Manichaeans. Perhaps this was the +precedent for the punishment of the thirteen Cathari who were burnt at +Orleans in 1022 by order of King Robert, a sentence which has been +commonly quoted as the first action of the "secular arm" (or lay power) +against heresy in the West during the middle ages. However that may be, +after 1022 there were numerous cases of the execution of heretics, +either by burning or strangling, in France, Italy, the Empire and +England. Up till about 1200 it is not quite easy to determine what part +was taken by the Church and its bishops and doctors in this series of +executions. At Orleans the people, supported by the Crown, were +responsible for the death of the heretics; the historians give only the +faintest indications of any direct intervention of the clergy, except +perhaps for the examination of doctrine. At Goslar (1051-1052) the +proceedings were the same. At Asti (1034) the bishop's name appears side +by side with those of the other lords who attacked the Cathari, but it +seems clear that it was not he who had the chief voice in their +execution; at Milan, it was again the civil magistrates, and this time +against the wish of the archbishop--who gave the heretics the choice +between the adoration of the cross and death. At Soissons (1114) the +mob, distrusting the weakness of the clergy, took advantage of their +bishop's absence to burn heretics at the stake. It was also the mob who, +infuriated at seeing him destroy and burn crosses, burnt the heresiarch +Peter of Bruis (c. 1140). At Liége (1144) the bishop saved from the +flames certain persons whom the faithful were attempting to burn. At +Cologne (1163) the archbishop was less successful, and the mob put the +heretics to death without even a trial. The condemnation of Arnold of +Brescia was entirely political, though he was denounced as a heretic to +the secular arm by Bernard of Clairvaux, and his execution was the act +of the prefect of Rome (1155). At Vézelay, on the contrary (1167), the +heretics were burnt after ecclesiastical judgment had been pronounced +by the abbot and several bishops. From 1183 to 1206 Hugh, bishop of +Auxerre, took upon himself the discretionary power of exiling, +dispossessing or burning heretics, while about the same time William of +the White Hands, archbishop of Reims, in concert with Philip, count of +Flanders, stamped out heresy from his diocese by fire. There was a +similar unanimity between the lay and ecclesiastical authorities in the +famous condemnation of the disciples of Amalric of Bena, who were burnt +at Paris in 1209 by order of Philip Augustus after an ecclesiastical +inquiry and judgment. The theory in these matters was at first as +uncertain as the practice; in the 11th century one bishop only, Theodwin +of Liége (d. 1075), affirms the necessity for the punishment of heretics +by the secular arm (1050). His predecessor, Wazo, bishop of Liége from +1041 to 1044, had expressly condemned any capital punishment and advised +the bishop of Chalons to resort to peaceful conversion. In the 12th +century Peter the Cantor[1] protested against the death penalty, +admitting at the most imprisonment. It was imprisonment again, or exile, +but not death, which the German abbot Gerhoh of Reichersperg (1093-1169) +demanded in the case of Arnold of Brescia, and in dealing with the +heretics of Cologne, St Bernard, who cannot be accused of leniency where +heterodoxy was concerned, recommended pacific refutation, followed by +excommunication or prison, but never the death penalty (see BERNARD, ST, +of Clairvaux). In the councils, too, it is clear that the appeal to the +secular arm was equally guarded: at Reims (1049) excommunication alone +is decreed against heretics; and when, as at Toulouse (1119) and the +Lateran council (1139), it is laid down that heretics, in addition to +excommunication, should be dealt with _per potestates exteras_, or when, +as at the council of Reims (1148), the secular princes are forbidden to +support or harbour heretics, there is never any suggestion of capital +punishment. But it must be noticed that from the opening years of the +12th century date the beginnings of a decided evolution in the canon +law, continuing up to the time of Innocent III., which substituted for +arbitrary decisions according to circumstances an organized and +particularized legislation, in which judgment was given _secundum +canonicas et legitimas sanctiones_. Anselm of Lucca and the _Panormia_ +attributed to Ivo of Chartres reproduced word for word under the rubric +_De edicto imperatorum in dampnationem hoereticorum_, law 5 of the title +_De hereticis_ of Justinian's code, which pronounces the sentence of +death against the Manichaeans; and we should remember that the Cathari, +and in general all heretics in the West in the 11th and 12th centuries +were considered by contemporary theologians as Manichaeans. Gratian in +the _Decretum_ proclaims the views of St Augustine (exile and fines). +Certain of his commentators (_2^a pars Caus._ xxiii.), and notably +Rufinus Johannes Teutonicus, and the anonymous glossator (in Uguccio's +Great Summa of the _Decretum_) declare that impenitent heretics may, or +even should, be punished by death. As early as 1163, the council of +Tours suggested to the ecclesiastical authorities definite penalties to +be inflicted on heretics, namely, imprisonment and loss of all their +property. Pope Alexander III., who had attended the council of Tours of +1163, renewed at the Lateran council (1179) the decisions which had +already been made with regard to the heterodox in the south of France, +and at Verona in 1184 Pope Lucius III., in concert with the emperor +Frederick Barbarossa, took still more severe measures: obstinate +heretics were to be excommunicated, and then handed over to the secular +arm, which would inflict a suitable penalty. The emperor, on his side, +laid them under the imperial ban (exile, confiscation, demolition of +their houses, _infamia_, loss of civil rights, disqualification from +public offices, &c.). The usage, then, was already quite clear; but the +death penalty had not as yet been demanded or inflicted. Possibly it was +Count Raymond V. of Toulouse, in whose territories heretics abounded, +who in 1194 enacted a law threatening them with the penalty of death; +but the authenticity of this act has been questioned. It was more +probably Peter II. of Aragon who was the first to decree, in 1197, the +punishment of death by burning against the heretics who should not have +left his kingdom within a given time. But it was Innocent III. who gave +the most powerful impetus to the anti-heretical movement in the secular +world by his frequent exhortations (beginning in 1198) to the secular +princes (letters of March 25th, 1199, and September 22nd, 1207). As a +jurist he henceforward assimilated the crime of high treason against God +to that of high treason against temporal rulers, and admitted all the +terrible consequences of this assimilation. + + + Albigensian Crusade. No regular Inquisition. + + The Emperor Frederick II. + + Gregory IX. creates the monastic Inquisition. + + The Dominicans. + +It is therefore incorrect to believe that the Inquisition arose out of, +and at the time of, the crusade against the Albigenses. These executions +_en masse_ certainly created a definitive precedent for violent +repression, but there was still no regular organization: the council of +Toulouse, held in November 1229 by the Roman legate after the treaty of +peace, attempted to organize one, and constituted itself the tribunal. +But the procedure was still uncertain; in the north, from 1200 to 1222, +at Paris (execution of the disciples of Amalric of Bena), at Strassburg, +Cambrai, Troyes and Besançon executions took place, after trials in +which the bishops were the judges, the exercise of the secular power +being based on vague phrases in the decrees of Louis VIII. (that +heretics be punished _animadversione debita_), or in those of Louis IX., +ordering his _baillis_ or barons to do to them _quod debebunt_. The +emperor Frederick II. defined his jurisprudence more clearly: from 1220 +to 1239, supported by Pope Honorius III., and above all by Gregory IX., +he established against the heretics of the Empire in general a +legislation in which the penalties of death, banishment and confiscation +of property were formulated so clearly as to be henceforth +incontestable. Gregory IX. felt his influence, and also that of the +Dominican Guala, bishop of Brescia, who had subjected his episcopal town +to the full rigour of the imperial laws. The pope no longer hesitated as +to the principle or the degree of repression; but introduced new methods +of inquiry and judgment: he created out of the material furnished him by +the mendicant orders, and especially the Dominicans, who were more +disciplined than the rest and better theologians, the monastic +inquisition, which was more elastic, more constant in its activities and +more numerous than the inquisition by legate, and better disciplined +than the episcopal inquisition. In November 1232 the Dominican Alberic +went round Lombardy with the title of _Inquisitor haereticae +pravitatis_. In 1231 a similar commission was given to the Dominicans of +Friesach and to the terrible Conrad of Marburg, whose zeal in Germany +even exceeded the pope's wishes. In 1233 Gregory IX. addressed a letter +to the bishops in the south of France, in which he announced his +intention of employing the preaching friars in future for the discovery +and repression of heresy. + + + Beginnings of the Inquisition. + + Inquisitorial districts. + + The Inquisitors and their auxiliaries. + +The inquisition was now regularly instituted, but its jurisprudence was +elaborated by successive additions or limitations, by the force of +custom and the detailed prescriptions added by the papal constitutions. +The pope's commissioners "in the matter of heresy" at first travelled +from place to place. On arriving in a district they addressed its +inhabitants, called upon them to confess, if they were heretics, or to +denounce those whom they knew to be heretics: a "time of grace" was +opened, during which those who freely confessed were dispensed from all +penalties, or only given a secret and very light penance; while those +whose heresy had been openly manifested were exempted from the penalties +of death and perpetual imprisonment. But this time could not exceed one +month. After that began the inquisition. As soon as their mission was at +an end, and heresy was considered to be stamped out, the inquisitors +left the country. Later, inquisitorial districts were formed. The seat +of the Inquisition in each district was the monastery of the order +(Dominican or Franciscan) to which the inquisitors for that part +belonged. There was never any special court or prison: the _murus_ +(prison) was lent to the Inquisition by the ecclesiastical or secular +authorities. The maintenance of the prisoners and the duty of providing +the prison fell in principle upon the bishops (council of Toulouse, +1229), but they tried to evade it. The kings of France, and in +particular Louis VIII., granted subsidies to the inquisitors. For each +district the inquisitors were chosen by the provincials of their order, +approved or rejected by the pope, and removable by him only. Their +discretionary powers were absolute. They conducted their interrogations +before two persons (laymen or ecclesiastics) and only pronounced their +sentence after consultation with leading men in the district +(_communicato bonorum virorum consilio_). This was the only protection +for the accused. It was in vain that the civil lawyers tried to prove +that the secular authorities had a right to see the documents bearing on +the case; the Inquisition always succeeded in setting aside these +claims. The share taken in the proceedings by the bishops, the accused +or their representatives, though admitted in principle, was as a rule +merely illusory. The Inquisition had in addition to these _boni viri_ +certain other lay assistant officials, its sworn notaries, messengers +and familiars, all of whom were closely bound to it. + + + Procedure of the Inquisition. + + Use of torture. + + Punishments. + + "Handing over to the secular arm." + +Bernard Guy (Bernardus Guidonis),[2] one of the earliest and most +complete exponents of the theory of the Inquisition, admits distinctly +that in its procedure _multa sunt specialia_. The procedure was secret +and in the highest degree arbitrary, proceeding _sine strepitu et figura +judicii_, its object being to ascertain not so much particular offences +as tendencies: the murderers of the inquisitor Peter Martyr[3] were +tried, not as assassins, but as guilty of heresy and adversaries of the +Inquisition; and on the other hand, external acts of piety and verbal +professions of faith were held of no value. Moreover the Inquisition was +not bound by the ordinary rules of procedure in its inquiries: the +accused was surprised by a sudden summons, and as a rule imprisoned on +suspicion. All the accused were presumed to be guilty, the judge being +at the same time the accuser. Absence was naturally considered as +contumacy, and only increased the presumption of guilt by seeming to +admit it. The accused had the right to demand a written account of the +offences attributed to him (_capitula accusationis_), but the names of +the witnesses were withheld from him (Innocent IV.; bulls Cum negocium +and _Licet sicut accepimus_), he did not know who had denounced him, nor +what weight was attached by the judges to the denunciations made against +him. The utmost that was allowed him was the unsatisfactory privilege of +the _recusationes divinatrices_, i.e. at his first examination he was +asked for the names of any enemies of whom he knew, and the causes of +their enmity. Heretics or persons deprived of civil rights (_infames_) +were admitted as witnesses in cases of heresy. Women, children or slaves +could be witnesses for the prosecution, but not for the defence, and +cases are even to be found in which the witnesses were only ten years of +age. Langhino Ugolini states that a witness who should retract his +hostile evidence should be punished for false witness, but that his +evidence should be retained, and have its full effect on the sentence. +No witness might refuse to give evidence, under pain of being considered +guilty of heresy. The prosecution went on in the utmost secrecy. The +accused swore that he would tell the whole truth, and was bound to +denounce all those who were partners of his heresy, or whom he knew or +suspected to be heretics. If he confessed, and denounced his +accomplices, relatives or friends, he was "reconciled" with the Church, +and had to suffer only the humiliating penalties prescribed by the canon +law. If further examination proved necessary, it was continued by +various methods. Bernardus Guidonis enumerates many ways of obtaining +confessions, sometimes by means of moral subterfuges, but sometimes also +by a process of weakening the physical strength. And as a last expedient +torture was resorted to. The Church was originally opposed to torture, +and the canon law did not admit confessions extorted by that means; but +by the bull _Ad extirpanda_ (1252) Innocent IV. approved its use for the +discovery of heresy, and Urban IV. confirmed this usage, which had its +origin in secular legislation (cf. the Veronese Code of 1228, and +Sicilian Constitution of Frederick II. in 1231). In 1312 excessive +cruelty had to be suppressed by the council of Vienna. Canonically the +torture could only be applied once, but it might be "continued." The +next step was the torture of witnesses, a practice which was left to the +discretion of the inquisitors. Moreover, all confessions or depositions +extorted in the torture-chamber had subsequently to be "freely" +confirmed. The confession was always considered as voluntary. The +procedure was of course not litigious; any lawyer defending the accused +would have been held guilty of heresy. The inquiry might last a long +time, for it was interrupted or resumed according to the discretion of +the judges, who disposed matters so as to obtain as many confessions or +denunciations as possible. After the different phases of the +examination, the accused were divided into two categories: (1) those who +had confessed and abjured, (2) those who had not confessed and were +consequently convicted of heresy. There was a third class, by no means +the least numerous, namely, those who having previously confessed and +abjured had relapsed into error. Next came the moment of the sentence: +"there was never any case of an acquittal pure and simple" (H. C. Lea). +The formula for full and complete acquittal given by Bernardus Guidonis +in his _Practica_, should, he says, never or very rarely be employed. +The sentences were solemnly pronounced on a Sunday, in a church or +public place, in the presence of the inquisitors, their auxiliaries, the +bishops, the secular magistrates and the people. This was the _sermo +generalis_ (see AUTO DA FÉ). The accused who had confessed were +reconciled, and the penalties were then pronounced; these were, in order +of severity, penances, fasting, prayers, pilgrimages (Palestine, St +James of Compostella, Canterbury, &c.), public scourging, the compulsory +wearing on the breast or back of crosses of yellow felt sewn on to the +clothes or sometimes of tongues of red, letters, &c. These were the +_poenae confusibiles_ (humiliating). The inquisitors eventually acquired +the right of inflicting fines at discretion. In 1244 and 1251 Innocent +IV. reproved them for their exactions. All these minor penalties could +be commuted for payments in money in the same way as absolution from the +crusader's vow, and the council of Vienna tried to put an end to these +extortions. Beyond these minor penalties came the severer ones of +imprisonment for a period of time, perpetual imprisonment and +imprisonment of various degrees of severity (_murus largus_, _murus +strictus vel strictissimus_). The _murus strictus_ consisted in the +deepest dungeon, with single or double fetters, and "the bread and water +of affliction"; but the severity of the prison régime varied very much. +The _murus largus_, especially for a rich prisoner, amounted to a fairly +mild imprisonment, but the mortality among those confined in the _murus +strictus_ became so high that Clement V. ordered an inquiry to be made +into the prison régime in Languedoc, in spite of Bernard Guy's protest +against the investigation as likely to diminish the prestige of the +inquisitors. After the sentences had been pronounced, the obstinate +heretics and renegades were for the last time called upon to submit and +to confess and abjure. If they consented, they were received as +penitents, and condemned on the spot to perpetual imprisonment; if they +did not consent, they were handed over to the secular arm. When the +heretic was handed over to the secular arm, the agents of the secular +power were recommended to punish him _debita animadversione_, and the +form of recommending him to mercy was gone through. But, as M. Vacandard +says, "If the secular judges had thought fit to take this formula +literally, they would soon have been brought back to a recognition of +the true state of affairs by excommunication." In effect, handing over +to the secular arm was equivalent to a sentence of death, and of death +by fire. The Dominican Jacob Sprenger, provincial of his order in +Germany (1494) and inquisitor, does not hesitate to speak of the victims +_quas incinerari fecimus_ ("whom we [the inquisitors] caused to be burnt +to ashes"). But we must accept the conclusions of H. C. Lea and +Vacandard that comparatively few people suffered at the stake in the +medieval Inquisition. Between 1308 and 1323, Bernard Guy, who cannot be +accused of inactivity, only handed over to the secular arm 42 persons, +out of 930 who were convicted of heresy. + + + Punishment by confiscation of goods. + + Abuse of the system. + + Economic and political importance of the system. + +From the point of view of jurisprudence of the Inquisition, the +confiscation of the condemned man's property by the ecclesiastical and +secular powers is only the accompaniment to the more severe penalties of +perpetual imprisonment or death; but from the point of view of its +economic history the importance of the confiscation is supreme. The +practice originated in the Roman law, and all secular princes had +already, in their own interest, recognized it as lawful (Frederick +Barbarossa, Decree of Verona; Louis VIII., ordinances of 1226, 1229; +Louis IX., ordinance of 1234; Raymond VII. of Toulouse, &c.). In the +kingdom of France there was a special official, the _procureur des +encours_ (confiscation in the matter of heresy), whose duty it was to +collect the personal property of the heretics, and to incorporate their +landed estates in the royal domain; in Languedoc crying abuses arose, +especially under the reign of Alphonse of Poitiers. Soon the papacy +managed to gain a share of the spoils, even outside the states of the +Church, as is shown by the bulls _ad extirpanda_ of Innocent IV. and +Alexander IV., and henceforward the inquisitors had, in varying +proportions, a direct interest in these spoliations. In Spain this +division only applied to the property of the clergy and vassals of the +Church, but in France, Italy and Germany, the property of all those +convicted of heresy was shared between the lay and ecclesiastical +authorities. Venice alone decided that all the receipts of the Holy +Office should be handed over in full to the state. Clement V., in his +attempted reform and regularization of inquisitorial procedure, +endeavoured to reduce the confiscations to a fairly reasonable minimum, +and in 1337-1338 a series of papal inquiries was held into this +financial aspect of the matter. The Assize of Clarendon, the +Constitutions of Frederick II. (1232) and of Count Raymond of Toulouse +(1234) had also come to a joint decision with the councils on this +question. King Charles V. of France prevailed upon the papacy to abolish +this regulation (1378). Confiscation was, indeed, most profitable to the +secular princes, and there is no doubt that the hope of considerable +gain was what induced many princes to uphold the inquisitorial +administration, especially in the days of the decay of faith. The +resistance of the south of France to the Capetian monarchs was to a +large extent broken owing to the decimation of the bourgeoisie by the +Inquisition and their impoverishment by the extortions of the _encours_. +The same was the case in certain of the Italian republics; while in +districts such as the north of France, where heretics were both poor and +few and far between, the Inquisition did not easily take root, nor did +it prove very profitable. These confiscations, the importance of which +in the political and economic history of the middle ages was first shown +fully by H. C. Lea, were a constant source of uncertainty in +transactions of all kinds; there was, for instance, always a risk in +entering into a contract in a place where the existence of heretics was +suspected, since any contract entered into with a heretic was void in +itself. Nor was there any more security in the transmission of +inheritances for posthumous trials were frequent; the _Liber +sententiarum inquisitionis_ of Bernardus Guidonis (1307-1323) records +sentences pronounced after death against 89 persons during a period of +15 years. But not only was their property confiscated and their heirs +disinherited; they were subject to still further penalties. Frederick +II. extended to heresy the application of the Roman law disqualifying +from holding office, and even included under its operation the children +and grandchildren of the guilty man. Alexander IV. and Boniface VIII. +lightened the severity of this law, and removed certain +disqualifications, notably in the case of ecclesiastical offices and +property. + + + Condemnation of books. + +Among other accessory penalties, we must notice the condemnation of +books. There were many precedents for this: Constantine had had the +Arian writings burnt, Theodosius II. and Valentinian III. those of the +Nestorians and Manichaeans, Justinian the Talmud. In 1210 were burnt the +books of David of Dinant and the Periphyseon of Aristotle. In 1255 the +_De periculis novissimorum temporum_ of William of St Amour[4] was burnt +by order of Pope Alexander IV., and from 1248 to 1319 was pronounced a +series of condemnations of the Talmud. Nicholas Eymerich (c. 1320-1399), +the Spanish inquisitor, demanded from Pope Gregory XI. the condemnation +of Raymond Lully's books, and in 1376 obtained it, but before long the +Lullists returned into favour with the pope and Eymerich was banished. +This rebuff suffered by an inquisitor shows how uncertain the censure of +books still was, even in a country where in less than two centuries' +time it was to become one of the chief spheres of inquisitorial +activity. + + + Sorcery and magic. + +The definite object of the Inquisition was the prosecution of heresy; +but its sphere of action was gradually extended by the theologians and +casuists until sorcery and magic ranked with dogmatic heresy. The +council of Valence (1248) dealt with sorcerers as well as sacrilegious +persons, but did not treat them as heretics. Alexander IV. went further, +declaring that divination and sorcery should only come within the +competence of the inquisitor when they directly affected the unity or +faith of the Church (9th December 1257; cf. bull _Quod super nonnullis_, +10th January 1260). Cases of simple sorcery were left to be dealt with +by the ordinary judges. The distinction was very subtle, but it was not +tampered with until 1451, at which date Nicholas V. gave the inquisitor +Hugues Lenoir the cognizance of cases of divination, even when the crime +did not savour of heresy. In dealing with such a subtle question, great +variations had naturally arisen in practice, and the repression of +sorcery was carried on jointly by the inquisitors, the bishops and the +secular courts. John XXII., in consequence of a perfect epidemic of +sorcery about 1320, handed over to the inquisitors for a time +(1320-1333) all cases of crimes involving magic; but this measure was +temporary and exceptional and only confirms the rule. There were various +occasions during the middle ages when men's minds became infatuated, and +it seemed as if the scourge of magic were likely entirely to destroy the +Catholic faith; and during such times, morbidly infected with fear and +the spirit of persecution, the ecclesiastical judges regained all their +prestige. One of these crises culminated in the affair of the +"Vauderie"[5] of Arras (1459), in which twelve unfortunates perished at +the stake; and there were similar occurrences at the same period in +Dauphiné and Gascony; of this nature again was the violent persecution +in the Germanic countries begun by the bull _Summis desiderantes_ of +Innocent VIII. (5th December 1484), in the course of which the two +authors of the _Malleus maleficorum_, the inquisitors Sprenger and +Institoris (Heinrich Krämer), distinguished themselves as much by their +knowledge of theoretical demonology as by their zeal as persecutors. In +France the secular authority was not long in claiming and obtaining +jurisdiction over sorcerers (parlement of Paris, 1374), and as early as +1378 the university of Paris gave judgment in a case of demonology. +Those unfortunates who were charged with sorcery gained, however, +nothing by this change of jurisdiction, for they were invariably put to +death. + + + The Inquisition and the Jews. + +The inquisitors could not take proceedings against Jews as such. They +might profess their religion and observe its rites without being in a +state of heresy; they were only heretic when they attacked the Christian +faith or community, made proselytes, or returned to Judaism after being +converted. Further, those who practised usury were "suspected of not +holding very orthodox doctrine as to theft" (Vacandard), and on this +account the Inquisition gained a hold on them. Pope Martin V. (6th +November 1419) authorized inquisitors to take proceedings against +usurers. + + + Treatment of heresy in the various countries. + + England. + + Scotland. + + Ireland. + +But these are merely extensions of competence resulting from the works +of the casuists; the Inquisition was primarily the instrument for the +repression of all kinds of breaches of orthodoxy. Its work in this +capacity we will now describe in outline for each of the great countries +of medieval Christendom. England, whether before or after the +establishment of the Inquisition, had but few trials for heresy and, +particularist in this as in all her religious activity, judged them +according to her own discipline, without asking Rome for laws or special +judges. In 1166, a few heretics having been apprehended, Henry II. +called a council at Oxford and summoned them to appear before it; they +all confessed, and were condemned to be scourged, branded on the face +with the mark of a key, and expelled from the country, and by the 21st +article of the Assize of Clarendon the king forbade any one to harbour +on their lands or in the house any "of that sect of renegades who had +been excommunicated at Oxford." Any one offending against this law was +to be "at the king's mercy" and his house was to be "carried outside the +town and burnt." The sheriffs were obliged to swear observance of this +law and to require a similar oath from all barons' stewards, knights and +free tenants. This was the first civil law against heresy since the end +of the Roman empire, and preceded the famous rescripts of Frederick II. +against sectaries in the 13th century. It should, however, be noted that +the political acts of Henry II. and Frederick II. drew down the most +explicit condemnation of the church. Orthodoxy remained almost +unimpaired in England up till the time of Wycliffe. Apparently neither +the Catharist, Waldensian nor Pantheistic heresies gained any footing in +Great Britain. The affair of the Templars in France, which was quite +political, was repeated in England: Clement V. having ordered their +arrest, Edward II., after much hesitation, gave orders to the sheriffs +to execute it and then decided that the _ecclesiastical law_ should be +applied. The papal inquisitors sent to England met with a bad reception, +and the pope was obliged to forbid them to use torture, which was +contrary to the laws of the kingdom. It was found impossible to +establish the Templars' guilt and only canonical penalties were +inflicted on them. The rising of the Lollards having alarmed both the +church and the state, the article _De haeretico comburendo_ was +established by statute in 1401, and gained a melancholy notoriety during +the religious struggles of the 16th century; it seems to have been not +so much a measure for the safeguarding of dogma as a violent assertion +of the secular absolutism. It was not till 1676 that Charles II. caused +it to be abrogated, and obtained a decision that in cases of atheism, +blasphemy, heresy, schism and other religious offences, the +ecclesiastical courts should be confined to the penalties of +excommunication, removal from office, degradation and other +ecclesiastical means of censure, to the exclusion of the death penalty. +Scotland was much later than England in giving up persecution and +bloodshed; and so late as 1696 a student of medicine aged eighteen and +named Aikenhead was accused of heresy and hanged at Edinburgh. In +Ireland Richard de Lederede or Ledred, a Franciscan and bishop of +Ossory, in 1324 prosecuted on suspicion of heresy and for sorcery a +certain Dame Alice Kettle or Kyteler and her accomplices, Petronilla of +Meath and her daughter Bassilla, who were accused of holding "nightly +conference with a spirit called Robert Artisson, to whom she sacrificed +in the high way nine red cocks and nine peacocks' eyes." The lady had +powerful connexions, and her brother-in-law, Arnold le Powre, seneschal +of Kilkenny, even went so far as to imprison the bishop. But in spite of +the refusal of the secular authorities to co-operate with him, the +bishop was strong enough to force them in 1325 to burn some of the +accused. Dame Kettle herself, however, who had been cited to appear at +Dublin before the dean of St Patrick's, escaped with the assistance of +some of the nobles to England. Meanwhile the bishop, who had attempted +to involve Arnold le Powre in the same charge, became involved in a +quarrel with the administrators of the English government in Ireland; +counter charges were brought against him, he was excommunicated by his +metropolitan, Alexander de Bicknor, archbishop of Dublin; and in +defiance of the king's commands, after publishing counter charges +against the archbishop, he appealed to Rome and left the country. In +1335 Benedict XII. wrote to Edward III. deploring the absence of any +inquisition in the king's dominions, and exhorting him to lend the aid +of the secular arm in repressing heresy. Archbishop Alexander, who in +1347 was denounced as an abettor of heresy, died in 1349, and his +successor was ordered to chastise those heretics who had taken refuge in +the diocese from Richard de Lederede's violence, and whom his +predecessor had protected. Finally, in 1354, Richard de Lederede himself +was allowed to return to his diocese, where his zeal for persecution +does not, however, seem to have found much further scope. He died in +1360. + + + France. + +The scene of the activities of the monastic Inquisition in France lay +chiefly in the south. The repression of the Albigensian heresy (see +ALBIGENSES) went on even when its importance had quite disappeared. The +chronicle of the inquisitor Guilhem Pelhisso (d. 1268) shows us the most +tragic episodes of the reign of terror which wasted Languedoc for a +century. Guillaume Arnaud, Peter Cella, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St +Pierre, Nicholas of Abbeville, Foulques de St Georges, were the chief of +the inquisitors who played the part of absolute dictators, burning at +the stake, attacking both the living and the dead, confiscating their +property and land, and enclosing the inhabitants both of the towns and +the country in a network of suspicion and denunciation. The secular +authorities were of the utmost assistance to them in this task; owing to +the confiscations, the crown had too direct an interest in the success +of the inquisitorial trials not to connive at all their abuses. Under +the regency of Alphonse of Poitiers Languedoc was regularly laid under +contribution by the _procureur des encours_. There were frequent +attempts at retaliation, directed for the most part against the +inquisitors, and isolated attacks were made on Dominicans. In 1234-1235 +there were regular risings of the people at Albi and Narbonne, which +forced the inquisitors to retreat. In 1235 the inquisitors were driven +out of Toulouse. These risings were followed by terrible measures of +repression, which, in turn, led to violent outbreaks on the part of the +relatives, friends or compatriots of the sufferers. During the night of +the 28th or 29th of May 1242 the inquisitors and their agents were +massacred at the castle of Avignonet. This massacre led to a persecution +which went on without opposition and almost without a lull for nearly +fifty years. At the beginning of the 14th century the terrified people +found a defender in the heroic Franciscan Bernard Délicieux. For a +moment King Philip the Fair and Pope Clement V. seemed to interest +themselves in the misfortunes of Languedoc, and the king of France sent +down reformers; but they had no effect, their activity being restrained +by the king himself, who was alarmed at a separatist movement which was +arising in Languedoc. The work of repression which followed this moment +of hope was carried out, between 1308 and 1323, by the inquisitor +Bernard Guy, and completed the destruction of the Catharist heresy, the +appearances of which after the middle of the 14th century became less +and less frequent. Other heretics, for a time at least, took their +place, namely the Spirituals, who had developed out of a branch of the +Franciscans, and were remotely disciples of Joachim, abbot of Floris +(q.v.), and whom their rigid rule of absolute poverty led, by a reaction +against the cupidity of the ordinary ecclesiastics, to repudiate any +hierarchy and to uphold the doctrines of Peter John de Oliva against the +word of the pope. On the 17th of February 1317 John XXII. condemned all +these irregular followers of St Francis, "_fraticelli, fratres de +paupere vita, bizochi_ or _beghini_," and the Inquisition of Languedoc +was at once set in motion against them. Four _spirituales_ were burnt at +Marseilles in 1318, and soon the persecution was extended to the +Franciscan _beguins_ or _tertiarii_, many people being burnt about 1320 +at Narbonne, Lunel, Béziers, Carcassonne, &c. The persecution stopped +for lack of an object, for the small groups of beguins were soon +destroyed, and those of the _Spirituales_ who were not sent to the stake +or to prison were compelled by the papacy to enter other orders than the +Franciscan. The Waldenses (q.v.) were more difficult to destroy: +originally less dangerous to the church than the Cathari, they resisted +longer, and their dispersal in scattered communities aided their long +resistance. + +In the north of France the workings of the Inquisition were very +intermittent; for there were fewer heretics there than in the south, and +as they were poorer, there was less zeal on the part of the secular arm +to persecute them. At its outset, however, the Inquisition in the north +of France was marked by a series of melancholy events: the inquisitor +Robert le Bougre, formerly a Catharist, spent six years (1233-1239) in +going through the Nivernais, Burgundy, Flanders and Champagne, burning +at the stake in every place unfortunates whom he condemned without a +judgment, supported as he was by the ecclesiastical authorities and by +princes such as Theobald of Champagne. The pope was forced to put a +check on his zeal, and, after an inquiry, condemned him to imprisonment +for life. We know that there were inquisitors settled in Île de France, +Orléanais, Touraine, Lorraine and Burgundy during the 12th century, but +we know next to nothing of what they did. In the 14th century, the +Flemish and German heresies of the Free Spirit made their appearance in +France; in 1310 a heretic named Marguerite Porette was burnt at Paris, +and in 1373 another named Jeanne Daubenton, both of whom seem to have +professed a kind of rudimentary pantheism, the latter being the head of +a sect called the Turlupins. The Turlupins reappeared in 1421 at Arras +and Douai and were persecuted in a similar way. But in the 15th century, +with the exception of a few condemnations aimed against the Hussites, +the Inquisition acted but feebly against heresy, which, as in the famous +case of the "Vauderie" of Arras, was often nothing but fairly ordinary +sorcery. + +From the middle of the 14th century onward, the parlement had taken upon +itself the right of hearing appeals from persons sentenced by the +Inquisition. And the University again, by its faculty of theology, +escaped the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. It was these two great +bodies which at the time of the Reformation took the place of the +Inquisition in dealing with heresy. + + + Italy. + +In Italy heresy not infrequently took on a social or political +character; it was sometimes almost indistinguishable from the opposition +of the Ghibellines or the communalist spirit of independence. Lombardy, +besides a number of Cathari, contained a certain number of +vaguely-defined sects against whom the efforts of the Apostolic Visitors +sent by Innocent III. were not of much effect. From the very earliest +days of the Inquisition, John of Vicenza, Roland of Cremona and Rassiero +Sacchoni directed their persecutions against Lombardy, and especially +against Milan. St Peter Martyr, who was conspicuous for his bigoted +violence, was assassinated in 1252. On the 20th of March 1256 Alexander +IV. ordered the provincial of the friar preachers of Lombardy to +increase the number of inquisitors in that province from four to eight. +At Florence both heresy and Ghibellinism were alike crushed by the +terrible severities of Fra Ruggieri, and indulgences were promised to +all who should aid in the extinction of heresy in Tuscany. Certain +districts revolted against this violence, which threatened to devastate +Italy as it had devastated Provence; in 1277 Fra Corrado Pagano was +killed on an expedition against the heretics of the Vattelline, and two +years after the people of Parma rose against the inquisitors. Besides, +this reign of terror only raised to a furious pitch the passionate and +independent piety of the Italian peoples. The body of a heretic, Armanno +Ponzilupo, who was killed at Ferrara in 1269, was venerated by the +people, and his mediation was even invoked, until the Inquisition had to +suppress this cult. But it had a harder struggle against the successes +of Gerard Legarelli, and especially Dolcino (see APOSTOLICI), which only +came to an end after a long and difficult trial of the adepts of the +Messianist sect of Guglielma, some of whom belonged to the noble +families of Lombardy. Up till the beginning of the 14th century, +however, the power of the Inquisition steadily increased, and at this +period Zanghino Ugolini appeared as the most skilful exponent of its +theory and procedure. About the same time Charles of Anjou introduced +the Inquisition into the Two Sicilies, but it could rarely effect +anything there; the religious cohesion of the country was weak, and +refugees were sure of safe hiding, both Waldenses and Fraticelli being +frequently harboured there. When Sicily passed into the hands of Peter +III. of Aragon, moreover, it came into a position of open hostility to +the Holy See and became a refuge for heretics. + +Venice always preserved its autonomy as regards the repression of +heresy; she was perfectly orthodox, but remained entirely independent of +Rome; Innocent IV. sent inquisitors there, but the heretics continued +actually to be subject to the secular tribunals. In 1288 a compromise +was arrived at, and the papal Inquisition was admitted into the +republic, but only on condition that it should remain under the control +of the secular power; thus there was established a mixed régime which +survived till the last days of the Venetian state. In Savoy the +Inquisition constantly carried on severe measures against the Waldenses +of the Alps. During the 14th and 15th centuries there was an +uninterrupted succession of trials. + + + States of the Church. + +As regards the papal states, "it was in the nature of things that, by a +confusion of the two personages, the pope should consider all opposition +to him _qua_ Italian prince as resistance offered to the head of the +church, i.e. to the church" (Ch. V. Langlois). The Colonna had a +personal animosity against the Gaetani; therefore Boniface VIII., a +Gaetano, declared the Colonna to be heretics. Rienzi was accused of +heresy for having questioned the temporal sovereignty of the pope at +Rome. The Venetians, who in 1309 opposed the annexation of Ferrara by +Clement V. to the detriment of the house of Este, were proclaimed +heretics and placed under the ban of Christendom. Savonarola was +attacked because he interfered with the policy of Alexander VI. at +Florence. It was this same desire for the hegemony of Italy which +inspired the attitude of the popes throughout the middle ages, causing +them to excommunicate, apparently without reason so far as doctrine was +concerned, the Visconti of Milan, the Della Scala of Verona, the +Maffredi of Faenza, &c., and prompting them to lay under an interdict or +preach a crusade against certain rebellious great towns (Clement V. +against Venice, John XXII. against Milan). Further, in each of the great +cities of Lombardy and Tuscany, the papal party directed the local +inquisition, and this power was rarely abused. + + + Germany. + +In Germany heresies, especially of a mystical character, were numerous +in the middle ages; some of them affected the mass of the people, and +led to religious and social movements of no little importance. The +repression of heresy went on by fits and starts, and the Inquisition was +never exercised so regularly in the Germanic as in certain of the Latin +countries. At the outset of the 13th century persecutions of the +Waldenses and Ortlibarii (followers of Ortlieb of Strassburg, c. 1200) +took place at Strassburg; measures were taken locally until, in 1231, +Gregory IX. issued definite instructions to the German prelates with a +view to a regular repression of heresy, and gave full powers to execute +them to Conrad of Marburg. Certain nobles having offered him +resistance, he preached a crusade against them, but died by the hand of +an assassin. The council of Mainz (April 1234) dealt gently with +Conrad's murderers, but severely with the false witnesses whom he had +employed. Shortly before (February 1234), the diet of Frankfort had +decided, in spite of the pope's injunctions, that the destruction of +heresy should be entrusted to the ordinary magistrates. And besides, +thanks to the struggle between the Empire and the papacy, the German +prelates always limited the prerogatives of the papal Inquisition. +Again, by the municipal laws of the north (_Sachsenspiegel_) the +ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the matter of heresy was very much +limited, while the _Schwabenspiegel_ (municipal laws for southern +Germany) does not seem to be aware of the existence of any inquisitional +jurisdiction or procedure. When in the 14th century communities of +Beghards developed with extraordinary rapidity, it was the episcopal +authority, both at Cologne and Strassburg, which undertook to deal with +these groups of sectaries, and at the very height of the conflict +between the Empire and the papacy. Marsilius of Padua, the theoretical +exponent of the imperial rights, attributes to the secular judge the +right and obligation to punish heresy, the priest's rôle being merely +advisory. In 1353 Innocent VI. tried to implant the papal Inquisition in +Germany once for all; its success was but short, and Urban V.'s attempt +in 1362 succeeded little better, in spite of the fact that Charles IV. +(edicts of Lucca, June 1369) gave him the support of the secular power. +Towards 1372, however, Gregory XI. succeeded in regularizing the +exercise of the powers of the papal inquisitors on German soil; and the +latter, notably Kerlinger, Hetstede, &c. set to work to destroy the +communities of the Beghards, to burn their books, to close those +_beguinages_ which were under suspicion, and to check by more or less +violent means mystical epidemics such as those of the "flagellants," +"dancers," &c. But these measures provoked angry protests from the +people, the secular magistrates and even the bishops, so that Gregory +XI., perceiving that he was face to face with the popular party, invited +the bishops to control the inquiries of his own envoys. At the end of +the 15th century the two inquisitions were acting concurrently. + + + Bohemia. + +In Bohemia and the provinces subject to it the Waldenses had found their +chosen country, and by the middle of the 13th century their propaganda +was very flourishing. In 1245 Innocent IV. ordered the bishops to +prosecute them with the aid of the secular arm, and in 1257, at the +request of King Premysl Ottokar II., Alexander IV. introduced the +Inquisition into Bohemia. But from this date till 1335 inquisitorial +missions succeeded one another without effecting any sensible diminution +in the material and moral strength of the heresy. The Waldenses had been +joined by other sectaries, the Luciferani, and especially the Brethren +of the Free Spirit. It was in vain that the bishops of Bohemia and +Silesia carried on during the second half of the 14th century an active +campaign against heresy; the spirit of criticism which had arisen with +regard to the morals, and even to the dogmas of the church, was already +preparing the way for Hussitism. + + + The Balkan States. + +In the regions east of the Adriatic, Catharism, the first communities of +which had very probably settled here, was supreme in the time of +Innocent III. and Honorius III. The first Dominicans who established +themselves in these parts had much to suffer from the aggression of +those very heretics whom they had come to convert. Gregory XI., +implacable in his persecution of Catharism, preached a crusade against +them in 1234, and Bosnia was laid waste by fire and sword. But in spite +of these violent measures Catharism only gained strength in the churches +of Bulgaria, Rumania, Slavonia and Dalmatia. In 1298 Boniface VIII. +tried to organize the Inquisition there, but the project remained +fruitless. The attempt was revived in 1323 by John XXII. with doubtful +success. The persecutions undertaken in the 14th and 15th centuries +merely resulted in binding the Cathari to the invading Turks, with whom +they found more tolerance than with the Slav princes converted to Roman +orthodoxy. + + + Spain. + +In Spain the papal Inquisition could gain no solid footing in the middle +ages. Spain had been, in turn or simultaneously, Arian under the +Visigoths, Catholic under the Hispano-Romans, Mussulman by conquest, and +under a régime of religious peace Judaism had developed there. After the +reconquest, and even at the height of the influence of the Cathari its +heresies had been of quite minor importance. At the end of the 12th +century Alphonso II. and Peter II. had on principle promulgated cruel +edicts against heresy, but the persecution seemed to be dormant. By the +bull _Declinante_ of the 26th of May 1232 inquisitors were sent to +Aragon by Gregory IX. on the request of Raymond of Penaforte, and by +1237-1238 the Inquisition was practically founded. But as early as 1233 +King James I. had promulgated an edict against the heretics which quite +openly put the Inquisition in a subaltern position, and secularized a +great part of its activities. The people, moreover, showed great +hostility towards it. The inquisitor Fray Pedro de Cadrayta was murdered +by the mob, and in 1235 the Cortes, with the consent of King James, +prohibited the use of inquisitorial procedure and of the torture, as +constituting a violation of the Fueros, though they made no attempt to +give effect to their prohibition. In Castile Alphonso the Wise had, by +establishing in his _Fuero Real_ and his _Siete Partidas_ an entirely +independent secular legislation with regard to heretics (1255), removed +his kingdom from all papal interference. At the opening of the 14th +century Castile and Portugal had still no Inquisition. But at that time +in Spain orthodoxy was generally threatened only by a few Fraticelli and +Waldenses, who were not numerous enough to call for active repression. +The Spanish inquisitor Nicholas Eymerich, the author of the famous +_Directorium Inquisitorum_, had rarely to exercise his functions during +the whole of his long career (end of 14th century). It was not against +heresy that the church had to direct its vigilance. A mutual tolerance +between the different religions had in fact sprung up, even after the +conquest; the Christians in the north recognized the Mahommedan and +Jewish religions, and Alphonso VI. of Castile took the title of +_imperador de los dos cultos_. But for a long time past both the +decisions of councils and papal briefs had proclaimed their surprise and +indignation at this ominous indifference. As early as 1077 the third +council of Rome, and in 1081 Gregory VII., protested against the +admission of Jews to public offices in Spain. Clement IV., in a brief of +1266, exhorted James I. of Aragon to expel the Moors from his dominions. +In 1278 Nicholas III. blamed Peter III. for having made a truce with +them. One of the canons of the council of Vienne (1311-1312) denounces +as intolerable the fact that Mahommedan prayers were still proclaimed +from the top of the mosques, and under the influence of this council the +Spanish councils of Zamora (1313) and Valladolid (1322) came to +decisions which soon led to violent measures against the Mudegares +(Mussulmans of the old Christian provinces). Already in 1210 massacres +of Jews had taken place under the inspiration of Arnold of Narbonne, the +papal legate; in 1276 fresh disturbances took place as a result of James +I.'s refusal to obey the order of Clement IV., who had called upon him +to expel the Jews from his dominions. In 1278 Nicholas IV. commanded the +general of the Dominicans to send friars into all parts of the kingdom +to work for the conversion of the Jews, and draw up lists of those who +should refuse to be baptized. It was in vain that a few princes such as +Peter III. or Ferdinand of Castile interfered; the Spanish clergy +directed the persecution with ever increasing zeal. In the 14th century +the massacres increased, and during the year 1391 whole towns were +destroyed by fire and sword, while at Valencia eleven thousand forced +baptisms took place. In the 15th century the persecution continued in +the same way; it can only be said that the years 1449, 1462, 1470, 1473 +were marked by the greatest bloodshed. Moreover, the Mudegares were also +subjected to these baptisms and massacres _en masse_. From those, or the +children of those who had escaped death by baptism, was formed the class +of _Conversos_ or _Marranos_, the latter name being confined to the +converted Jews. This class was still further increased after the +conquest of the kingdom of Granada and the completion of the conquest +by Ferdinand and Isabella, and after the pacification of the kingdoms of +Aragon and Valencia by Charles V. The Mahommedans and Jews in these +parts were given the choice between conversion and exile. Being of an +active nature, and desiring some immediate powers as a recompense for +their moral sufferings, the Jewish or Mussulman _Conversos_ soon became +rich and powerful. In addition to the hatred of the church, which feared +that it might quickly become Islamized or Judaized in this country which +had so little love for theology, hatred and jealousy arose also among +laymen and especially in the rich and noble classes. _Limpieza_, i.e. +purity of blood, and the fact of being an "old Christian" were made the +conditions of holding offices. It is true, this mistrust had assumed a +theological form even before the Mahommedan conquest. As early as 633 +the council of Toledo had declared heretics such converts, forced or +voluntary, as returned to their old religion. When this principle was +revived and, whether through secular jealousy, religious dislike or +national pride, was applied to the _Conversos_, an essentially national +Inquisition, directed against local heretics, was founded in Spain, and +founded without the help of the papacy. It was created in 1480 by +Ferdinand and Isabella. Sixtus IV. had wished the papal Inquisition to +be established after the form and spirit of the middle ages; but +Ferdinand, in his desire for centralization (his efforts in this +direction had already led to the creation of the Holy Hermandad and the +extension of the royal jurisdiction) wished to establish an inquisition +which should be entirely Spanish, and entirely royal. Rome resisted, but +at last gave way. Sixtus IV., Alexander VI., Innocent VIII., Julius II. +and after them all the popes of the 16th century, saw in this secular +attempt a great power in favour of orthodoxy, and approved it when +established, and on seeing its constant activity. The Inquisition took +advantage of this to claim an almost complete autonomy. The decisions of +the Roman Congregation of the Index were only valid for Spain if the +Holy Office of Madrid thought good to countersign them; consequently +there were some books approved at Rome and proscribed in the peninsula, +such as the _Historia pelagiana_ of Cardinal Nores, and some which were +forbidden at Rome and approved in the peninsula, such as the writings of +Fathers Mateo Moya and Juan Bautista Poza. The Spanish Holy Office +perceived long before Rome the dangers of mysticism, and already +persecuted the mystics, the _Alumbrados_ while Rome (impervious to +Molinism) still favoured them. "During the last few centuries the church +of Spain was at once the most orthodox and the most independent of the +national churches" (Ch. V. Langlois). There was even a financial dispute +between the Inquisition and the papacy, in which the Inquisition had the +better of the argument; the Roman Penitentiary sold exemptions from +penalties (involving loss of civil rights), such as prison, the galleys +and wearing the _sanbenito_, and dispensations from the crime of +_Marrania_ (secret Judaism). The inquisitors tried to gain control of +this sale, and at a much higher price, and were seconded in this by the +kings of Spain, who saw that it was to their own interest. At first they +tried a compromise; the unfortunate victims had to pay twice, to the +pope and to the Inquisition. But the payment to the pope was held by the +Inquisition to reduce too much its own share of the confiscated +property, and the struggle continued throughout the first half of the +16th century, the Curia finally triumphing, thanks to the energy of Paul +III. Since, however, the Inquisition continued to threaten the holders +of papal dispensations, most of them found it prudent to demand a +definite rehabilitation, in return for payments both to the king and the +Inquisition. As a national institution the Inquisition had first of all +the advantage of a very strong centralization and very rapid procedure, +consisting as it did of an organization of local tribunals with a +supreme council at Madrid, the _Suprema_. The grand inquisitor was _ex +officio_ president for life of the royal council of the Inquisition. It +was the grand inquisitor, General Jimenez de Cisneros, who set in motion +the inquisitorial tribunals of Seville, Cordova, Jaen, Toledo, Murcia, +Valladolid and Calahorra. There was no such tribunal at Madrid till the +time of Philip IV. The inquisitor-general of Aragon established +inquisitors at Saragossa, Barcelona, Valencia, Majorca, Sardinia, Sicily +and Pampeluna (moved later to Calahorra). From the very beginning the +papacy strengthened this organization by depriving the Spanish +metropolitans, by the bull of the 25th of September 1487, of the right +of receiving appeals from the decisions given jointly by the bishops of +the various dioceses, their suffragans and the apostolic inquisitors, +and by investing the inquisitor-general with this right. And, more than +this, Torquemada actually took proceedings against bishops, for example, +the accusation of heresy against Don Pedro Aranda, bishop of Calahorra +(1498); while the inquisitor Lucero prosecuted the first archbishop of +Granada, Don Ferdinando de Talavera. Further, when once the Inquisition +was closely allied to the crown, no Spaniard, whether clerk or layman, +could escape its power. Even the Jesuits, though not till after 1660, +were put under the authority of the Suprema. The highest nobles were +kept constantly under observation; during the reigns of Charles III. and +Charles IV. the duke of Almodovar, the count of Aranda, the great writer +Campomanes, and the two ministers Melchior de Jovellanos and the count +of Florida-Alanca, were attacked by the Suprema. But the descendants of +Moors and Jews, though they were good Christians, or even nobles, were +most held in suspicion. Even during the middle ages the descendants of +the Paterenes were known, observed and denounced. In the eyes of the +Inquisition the taint of heresy was even more indelible. A family into +which a forced conversion or a mixed marriage had introduced Moorish or +Jewish blood was almost entirely deprived of any chance of public +office, and was bound, in order to disarm suspicion, to furnish agents +or spies to the Holy Office. The Spaniards were very quick to accept the +idea of the Inquisition to such an extent as to look upon heresy as a +national scourge to be destroyed at all costs, and they consequently +considered the Inquisition as a powerful and indispensable agent of +public protection; it would be going too far to state that this +conception is unknown to orthodox present-day historians of the +Inquisition, and especially certain Spanish historians (cf. the preface +to Menendez y Pelayo's _Heterodoxos españoles_). As had happened among +the Albigenses, commerce and industry were rapidly paralysed in Spain by +this odious régime of suspicion, especially as the _Conversos_, who +inherited the industrial and commercial capacity of the Moors and Jews, +represented one of the most active elements of the population. Besides, +this system of wholesale confiscations might reduce a family to beggary +in a single day, so that all transactions were liable to extraordinary +risks. It was in vain that the counsellors of Charles V., and on several +occasions the Cortes, demanded that the inquisitors and their countless +agents should be appointed on a fixed system by the state; the state, +and above all the Inquisition, refused to make any such change. The +Inquisition preferred to draw its revenues from heresy, and this is not +surprising if we think of the economic aspect of the Albigensian +Inquisition; the system of _encours_ was simply made general in Spain, +and managed to exist there for three centuries. In the case of the +Inquisition in Languedoc, there still remained the possibility of an +appeal to the king, the inquisitors, or more rarely the pope, against +these extortions; but there was nothing of the kind in Spain. The +Inquisition and the Crown could refuse each other nothing, and appeals +to the pope met with their united resistance. As early as the reign of +Ferdinand certain rich _Conversos_ who had bought letters of indulgence +from the Holy See were nevertheless prosecuted by Ferdinand and +Torquemada, in spite of the protests of Sixtus IV. The papacy met with +the most serious checks under the Bourbons. Philip V. forbade all his +subjects to carry appeals to Rome, or to make public any papal briefs +without the royal _exequatur_. + +The political aspect of the work and character of the Inquisition has +been very diversely estimated; it is a serious error to attribute to it, +as has too often been done, extreme ideas of equality, or even to +represent it as having favoured centralization and a royal absolutism to +the same extent as the Inquisition of the 13th and 14th centuries in +Languedoc. "It was a mere coincidence," says H. C. Lea, "that the +Inquisition and absolutism developed side by side in Spain." The Suprema +did not attack all nobles as nobles; it attacked certain of them as +_Conversos_, and the Spanish feudal nobles were sure enough of their +_limpieza_ to have nothing to fear from it. But it is undeniable that it +frequently tended to constitute a state within the state. At the time of +their greatest power, the inquisitors paid no taxes, and gave no account +of the confiscations which they effected; they claimed for themselves +and their agents the right of bearing arms, and it is well known that +their declared adversaries, or even those who blamed them in some +respects, were without fail prosecuted for heresy. But that was not the +limit to their pretensions. In 1574, under Philip II., there was an idea +of instituting a military order, that of Santa Maria de la Espada +Blanca, having as its head the grand inquisitor, and to him all the +members of the order, i.e. all Spaniards distinguished by _limpieza_ of +blood, were to swear obedience in peace and in war. Moreover, they were +to recognize his jurisdiction and give up to him the reversion of their +property. Nine provinces had already consented, when Philip II. put a +stop to this theocratic movement, which threatened his authority. It +was, however, only the Bourbons, who had imbibed Gallican ideas, who by +dint of perseverance managed to make the Inquisition subservient to the +Crown, and Charles III., "the philosopher king," openly set limits to +the privileges of the inquisitors. Napoleon, on his entry into Madrid +(December 1808), at once suppressed the Inquisition, and the +extraordinary general Cortes on the 12th of February 1813 declared it to +be incompatible with the constitution, in spite of the protests of Rome. +Ferdinand VII. restored it (July 21, 1814) on his return from exile, but +it was impoverished and almost powerless. It was again abolished as a +result of the Liberal revolution of 1820, was restored temporarily in +1823 after the French military intervention under the duc d'Angoulême, +and finally disappeared on the 15th of July 1834, when Queen Christina +allied herself with the Liberals. "It was not, however, till the 8th of +May 1869 that the principle of religious liberty was proclaimed in the +peninsula; and even since then it has been limited by the constitution +of 1876, which forbids the public celebration of dissident religions" +(S. Reinach). In 1816 the pope abolished torture in all the tribunals of +the Inquisition. It is a too frequent practice to represent as peculiar +to the Spanish Inquisition modes of procedure in use for a long time in +the inquisitorial tribunals of the rest of Europe. There are no special +manuals, or _practica_, for the inquisitorial procedure in Spain; but +the few distinctive characteristics of this procedure may be mentioned. +The Suprema allowed the accused an advocate chosen from among the +members or familiars of the Holy Office; this privilege was obviously +illusory, for the advocate was chosen and paid by the tribunal, and +could only interview the accused in presence of an inquisitor and a +secretary. The theological examination was a delicate and minute +proceeding; the "qualificators of the Holy Office," special +functionaries, whose equivalent can, however, easily be found in the +medieval Inquisition, charged those books or speeches which had incurred +"theological censures," with "slight, severe or violent" suspicion. +There was no challenging of witnesses; on the contrary, witnesses who +were objected to were allowed to give evidence on the most important +points of the case. The torture, to the practice of which the Spanish +Inquisition certainly added new refinements, was originally very much +objected to by the Spaniards, and Alphonso X. prohibited it in Aragon; +later, especially in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries it was applied +quite shamelessly on the least suspicion. But by the end of the 18th +century, according to Llorente, it had not been employed for a long +time; the _fiscal_, however, habitually demanded it, and the accused +always went in dread of it. The punishment of death by burning was much +more often employed by the Spanish than by the medieval Inquisition; +about 2000 persons were burnt in Torquemada's day. Penitents were not +always reconciled, as they were in the middle ages, but those condemned +to be burnt were as a rule strangled previously. + + + Spanish and Portuguese Colonies. + +With the extension of the Spanish colonial empire the Inquisition +spread throughout it almost contemporaneously with the Catholic faith. +Ferdinand IV. decreed the establishment of the Inquisition in America, +and Jimenes in 1516 appointed Juan Quevedo, bishop of Cuba, +inquisitor-general delegate with discretionary powers. Excesses having +been committed by the agents of the Holy Office, Charles V. decreed +(October 15, 1538) that only the European colonists should be subject to +the jurisdiction of the Inquisition; but Philip II. increased the powers +of the inquisitors' delegate and, in 1541, established on a permanent +basis three new provinces of the Inquisition at Lima, Mexico and +Cartagena. The first _auto-da-fé_ took place at Mexico in 1574, the year +in which Hernando Cortez died. The Inquisition of Portugal was no less +careful to ensure the orthodoxy of the Portuguese colonies. An +Inquisition of the East Indies was established at Goa, with jurisdiction +over all the dominions of the king of Portugal beyond the Cape of Good +Hope. Finally Philip II. even wished to establish an itinerant +Inquisition, and at his request the pope created, by a brief of the 21st +of July 1571, the "Inquisition of the galleys," or "of fleets and +armies." + + + Other activities of the Spanish Inquisition. + +After the expulsion of the Jews under Isabella the Catholic (1492), +followed under Philip III. by that of the Moriscoes (1609), the +Inquisition attacked especially Catholics descended from infidels, the +_Marranes_ and _Conversos_, who were, not without reason, suspected of +often practising in secret the rites of their ancestral religions. As +late as 1715 a secret association was discovered at Madrid, consisting +of twenty families, having a rabbi and a synagogue. In 1727 a whole +community of Moriscoes was denounced at Granada, and prosecuted with the +utmost rigour. Again, a great number of people were denounced, sent to +the galleys, or burnt, for having returned to their ancestral religion, +on the flimsiest of evidence, such as making ablutions during the day +time, abstaining from swine's flesh or wine, using henna, singing +Moorish songs, or possessing Arabic manuscripts. During the 16th and +17th centuries the Inquisition in Spain was directed against +Protestantism. The inquisitor-general, Fernando de Valdés, archbishop of +Seville, asked the pope to condemn the Lutherans to be burnt even if +they were not backsliders, or wished to be reconciled, while in 1560 +three foreign Protestants, two Englishmen and a Frenchman were burnt in +defiance of all international law. But the Reformation never had enough +supporters in Spain to occupy the attention of the Inquisition for long. +After the _Marranes_ the mystics of all kinds furnished the greatest +number of victims to the terrible tribunal. Here again we should not +lose sight of the tradition of the medieval Inquisition; the mysticism +of the Beghards, the Brethren of the Free Spirit and the innumerable +pantheist sects had been pitilessly persecuted by the inquisitors of +Germany and France during the 14th and 15th centuries. The Illuminati +(_alumbrados_), who were very much akin to the medieval sectaries, and +the mystics of Castile and Aragon were ruthlessly examined, judged and +executed. Not even the most famous persons could escape the suspicious +zeal of the inquisitors Valdés and Melchior Cano. The writings of Luis +de Granada were censured as containing _cosas de alumbrados_. St +Ignatius de Loyola was twice imprisoned at the beginning of his career; +St Theresa was accused of misconduct, and several times denounced; one +of her works, _Conceptos del amor divino_, was prohibited by the +Inquisition, and she was only saved by the personal influence of Philip +II. Countless numbers of obscure visionaries, devotees both men and +women, clerks and laymen, were accused of Illuminism and perished in the +fires or the dungeons of the Inquisition. From its earliest appearance +Molinosism was persecuted with almost equal rigour. Molinos himself was +arrested and condemned to perpetual imprisonment (1685-1687), and during +the 18th century, till 1781, several Molinosists were burnt. The +Inquisition also attacked Jansenism, freemasonry (from 1738 onwards; cf. +the bull _In eminenti_) and "philosophism," the learned naturalist José +Clavigo y Faxarcho (1730-1806), the mathematician Benito Bails +(1730-1797), the poet Tomas de Iriarte, the ministers Clavigo Ricla, +Aranda and others being prosecuted as "philosophers." Subject also to +the tribunal of the Holy Office were bigamists, blasphemers, usurers, +sodomites, priests who had married or broken the secrecy of the +confessional, laymen who assumed ecclesiastical costume, &c. "In all +these matters, though the Inquisition may have been indiscreet in +meddling with affairs which did not concern it, it must be confessed +that it was not cruel, and that it was always preferable to fall into +the hands of the Inquisition rather than those of the secular judges, or +even the Roman inquisitors" (S. Reinach). Apart from certain exceptional +cruelties such as those of the Inquisition of Calahorra, perhaps the +greatest number of executions of sorcerers took place in the colonies, +in the Philippines and Mexico. In Spain the persecution was only +moderate; at certain times it disappeared almost completely, especially +in the time of the clear-sighted inquisitor Salazar. + +Two features of the Spanish Inquisition are especially noteworthy: the +prosecutions for "speeches suspected of heresy" and the censure of +books. The great scholar Pedro de Lerma, who after fifty years at Paris +(where he was dean of the faculty of theology) had returned to Spain as +abbot of Compluto, was called upon in 1537 to abjure eleven "Erasmian" +propositions, and was forced to return to Paris to die. Juan de Vergara +and his brother were summoned before the Inquisition for favouring +Erasmus and his writings, and detained several years before they were +acquitted. Fray Alonso de Virues, chaplain to Charles V., was imprisoned +on an absurd charge of depreciating the monastic state, and was only +released by the pope at the instance of the emperor. Mateo Pascual, +professor of theology at Alcala, who had in a public lecture expressed a +doubt as to purgatory, suffered imprisonment and the confiscation of his +goods. A similar fate befell Montemayor, Las Brozas and Luis de la +Cadena. + +The censure of books was established in 1502 by Ferdinand and Isabella +as a state institution. All books had to pass through the hands of the +bishops; in 1521 the Inquisition took upon itself the examination of +books suspected of Lutheran heresy. In 1554 Charles V. divided the +responsibility for the censorship between the Royal Council, whose duty +it was to grant or refuse the _imprimatur_ to manuscripts and the +Inquisition, which retained the right of prohibiting books which it +judged to be pernicious; but after 1527 it also gave the licence to +print. In 1547 the Suprema produced an Index of prohibited books, drawn +up in 1546 by the university of Louvain; it was completed especially as +regards Spanish books, in 1551, and several later editions were +published. Moreover, the _revisores de libros_ might present themselves +in the name of the Holy Office in any private library or bookshop and +confiscate prohibited books. In 1558 the penalty of death and +confiscation of property was decreed against any bookseller or +individual who should keep in his possession condemned books. The +censure of books was eventually abolished in 1812. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A critical bibliography was drawn up by P. Fredericq in + the preface to the French translation (1900) of H. C. Lea's important + standard work: _History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages_ (3 + vols., London, 1888). See also J. Havet, _L'Hérésie et le bras + séculier au moyen âge jusqu'au XIII^e siècle_ in the _Oeuvres + complètes_, vol. ii. (Paris, 1896); Ch. V. Langlois, _L'Inquisition + d'après des travaux récents_ (Paris, 1901); Douais, _L'Inquisition_ + (Paris, 1907); E. Vacandard, _L'Inquisition_ (Paris, 1907); Douais, + _Documents pour servir à l'histoire de l'inquisition dans le + Languedoc_ (2 vols., Paris, 1900); Döllinger, _Beiträge zur + Sektengeschichte des Mittelalters_ (2 vols., Munich, 1890. The second + volume is composed of documents); Molinier, _L'Inquisition dans le + midi de la France au XIII^e et au XIV^e siècle. Étude sur les sources + de son histoire_ (Paris, 1880); P. Fredericq, _Corpus documentorum + inquisitionis haereticae pravitatis neerlandicae_ (1205-1525) (4 + vols., Ghent, 1889-1900); Tanon, _Histoire des tribunaux de + l'inquisition en France_ (Paris, 1893); Hansen, _Inquisition, + Hexenwahn und Hexenverfolgung_ (Munich, 1900); Llorente, _Histoire + critique de l'inquisition d'Espagne_ (4 vols., Paris, 1818); H. C. + Lea, _History of the Inquisition of Spain_ (5 vols., London, + 1905-1908); S. Reinach, articles on Lea's _History of the Inquisition + of Spain_ in the _Revue critique_ (1906, 1907, 1908) and _Cultes, + mythes et religions_ (Paris, 1908), tome iii. (P. A.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Pierre de Beauvoisis (?), choir-master (_grand-chantre_) of the + university of Paris (1184), bishop of Tournai (1191), of Paris + (1196); died as a Cistercian in 1197. He was beatified. + + [2] He was born c. 1261, was a Dominican at Limoges in 1279, + successively prior of Albi (1294), Carcassonne (1297), Castres (1301) + and Limoges (1305), inquisitor at Toulouse (1307), bishop of Tuy + (1323) and of Lodève (1325). He died in 1331. + + [3] Peter, a Dominican, born at Verona, was murdered near Milan in + 1252 and canonized in 1253. + + [4] Guillaume de St Amour (d. 1272), named after his birthplace in + the Jura, was canon of Beauvais and rector of the university of + Paris. He was conspicuous as the mouthpiece of the secular clergy in + their attacks on the mendicant orders, the Dominicans in particular. + + [5] The name of _vauderie_, i.e. the Vaudois or Waldensian heresy, + had come to be used of witchcraft. + + + + +INSANITY (from Lat. _in_, not, and _sanus_, sound), a generic term +applied to certain morbid mental conditions produced by defect or +disease of the brain. The synonyms in more or less frequent use are +_lunacy_ (from a supposed influence of the moon), _mental disease_, +_alienation_, _derangement_, _aberration_, _madness_, _unsoundness of +mind_. The term _Psychiatry_ ([Greek: psychê], mind, and [Greek: +iatreia], treatment) is applied to the study and treatment of the +condition. + + +I. MEDICAL AND GENERAL + + Definition. + +There are many diseases of the general system productive of disturbance +of the mental faculties, which, either on account of their transient +nature, from their being associated with the course of a particular +disease, or from their slight intensity, are not included under the head +of insanity proper. From a strictly scientific point of view it cannot +be doubted that the fever patient in his delirium, or the drunkard in +his excitement or stupor, is insane; the brain of either being under the +influence of a morbific agent or of a poison, the mental faculties are +deranged; yet such derangements are regarded as functional disturbances, +i.e. disturbances produced by agencies which experience tells will, in +the majority of cases, pass off within a given period without permanent +results on the tissues of the organ. The comprehensive scientific view +of the position is that all diseases of the nervous system, whether +primary or secondary, congenital or acquired, should, in the words of +Griesinger, be regarded as one inseparable whole, of which the so-called +mental diseases comprise only a moderate proportion. However important +it may be for the physician to keep this principle before him, it may be +freely admitted that it cannot be carried out fully in practice, and +that social considerations compel the medical profession and the public +at large to draw an arbitrary line between such functional diseases of +the nervous system as _hysteria_, _hypochondriasis_ and _delirium_ on +the one hand, and such conditions as _mania_, _melancholia_, _stupor_ +and _dementia_ on the other. + +All attempts at a short definition of the term "insanity" have proved +unsatisfactory; perhaps the nearest approach to accuracy is attained by +the rough statement that it is _a symptom of disease of the brain +inducing disordered mental symptoms_--the term disease being used in its +widest acceptance. But even this definition is at once too +comprehensive, as under it might be included certain of the functional +disturbances alluded to, and too exclusive, as it does not comprehend +certain rare transitory forms. Still, taken over all, this may be +accepted as the least defective short definition; and moreover it +possesses the great practical advantage of keeping before the student +the primary fact that insanity is the result of disease of the brain +(see BRAIN, and NEUROPATHOLOGY), and that it is not a mere immaterial +disorder of the intellect. In the earliest epochs of medicine the +corporeal character of insanity was generally admitted, and it was not +until the superstitious ignorance of the middle ages had obliterated the +scientific, though by no means always accurate, deductions of the early +writers, that any theory of its purely psychical character arose. At the +present day it is unnecessary to combat such a theory, as it is +universally accepted that the brain is the organ through which mental +phenomena are manifested, and therefore that it is impossible to +conceive of the existence of an insane mind in a healthy brain. On this +basis insanity may be defined as consisting in _morbid conditions of the +brain, the results of defective formation or altered nutrition of its +substance induced by local or general morbid processes, and +characterized especially by non-development, obliteration, impairment or +perversion of one or more of its psychical functions_. Thus insanity is +not a simple condition; it comprises a large number of diseased states +of the brain, gathered under one popular term, on account of mental +defect or aberration being the predominant symptom. + + + Classification. + +The insanities are sharply divided into two great classes--the +_Congenital_ and the _Acquired_. Under the head of Congenital Insanity +must be considered all cases in which, from whatever cause, brain +development has been arrested, with consequent impotentiality of +development of the mental faculties; under that of Acquired Insanity all +those in which the brain has been born healthy but has suffered from +morbid processes affecting it primarily, or from diseased states of the +general system implicating it secondarily. In studying the causation of +these two great classes, it will be found that certain remote influences +exist which are believed to be commonly predisposing; these will be +considered as such, leaving the proximate or exciting causes until each +class with its subdivisions comes under review. + + + Causation. + +In most treatises on the subject will be found discussed the bearing +which civilization, nationality, occupation, education, &c., have, or +are supposed to have, on the production of insanity. Such discussions +are as a rule eminently unsatisfactory, founded as they are on common +observation, broad generalizations, and very imperfect statistics. As +they are for the most part negative in result, at the best almost +entirely irrelevant to the present purpose, it is proposed merely to +summarize shortly the general outcome of what has been arrived at by +those authorities who have sought to assess the value to be attached to +the influence exercised by such factors, without entering in any detail +on the theories involved. The causes of insanity may be divided into (a) +general, and (b) proximate. + + (a) GENERAL CAUSES.--1. _Civilization._--Although insanity is by no + means unknown amongst savage races, there can be no reasonable doubt + that it is much more frequently developed in civilized communities; + also that, as the former come under the influence of civilization, the + percentage of lunacy is increased. This is in consonance with the + observation of disease of whatever nature, and is dependent in the + case of insanity on the wear and tear of nerve tissue involved in the + struggle for existence, the physically depressing effects of + pauperism, and on the abuse of alcoholic stimulants; each of which + morbid factors falls to be considered separately as a proximate cause. + In considering the influence of civilization upon the production of + insanity, regard must be had to the more evolved ethical attitude + towards disease in general which exists in civilized communities as + well as to the more perfect recognition and registration of insanity. + + 2. _Nationality._--In the face of the imperfect social statistics + afforded by most European and American nations, and in their total + absence or inaccessibility amongst the rest of mankind, it is + impossible to adduce any trustworthy statement under this head. + + 3. _Occupation._--There is nothing to prove that insanity is in any + way connected with the prosecution of any trade or profession _per + se_. Even if statistics existed (which they do not) showing the + proportion of lunatics belonging to different occupations to the 1000 + of the population, it is obvious that no accurate deduction _quoad_ + the influence of occupation could be drawn. + + 4. _Education._--There is no evidence to show that education has any + influence over either the production or the prevention of insanity. + The general result of discussions on the above subjects has been the + production of a series of arithmetical statements, which have either a + misleading bearing or no bearing at all on the question. In the study + of insanity statistics are of slight value from the scientific point + of view, and are only valuable in its financial aspects. + + 5. _Inheritance._--The hereditary transmission of a liability to + mental disease must be reckoned as the most important among all + predisposing causes of insanity. It is probably well within the mark + to say that at least 50% of the insane have a direct or collateral + hereditary tendency towards insanity. The true significance of this + factor cannot as yet be explained or described shortly and clearly, + but it cannot be too definitely stated that it is not the insanity + which is inherited, but only the predisposition to the manifestation + of mental symptoms in the presence of a sufficient exciting cause. The + most widely and generally accepted view of the exciting cause of + insanity is that the predisposed brain readily breaks down under + mental stress or bodily privations. There is, however, another view + which has been recently advanced to the effect that the majority of + mental diseases are secondary to bodily disorders, hereditary + predisposition being the equally predisposing causal factor. There is + probably truth in both these views, and such an admission accentuates + the complexity of the factorship of heredity. If insanity can be + induced by physical disorders, which must essentially be of the nature + of toxic action or of mechanical agency which can alter or influence + the functional powers of the brain, then it is probable that + hereditary predisposition to insanity means, not only the transmission + of an unstable nervous system, but also a constitution which is either + peculiarly liable to the production of such toxic or poisonous + substances, or incapable of effectively dealing with the toxins or + poisonous substances normally formed during metabolic processes. Such + a view broadens our conception of the factorship of hereditary + transmission and offers explanation as to the manner in which + insanity may appear in families previously free from the taint. Very + frequently we find in the history of insane patients that although + there may be no insanity in the family there are undoubted indications + of nervous alongside of physical instability, the parental nervous + defects taking the form of extreme nervousness, vagabondage, epilepsy, + want of mental balance, inequality in mental development or endowment, + extreme mental brilliancy in one direction associated with marked + deficiency in others, the physical defects showing themselves in the + form of insanity; liability to tubercular and rheumatic infections. + The failure of constitutional power which allows of the invasion of + the tubercle bacillus and the micrococcus rheumaticus in certain + members of a family is apparently closely allied to that which favours + the development of mental symptoms in others. + + 6. _Consanguinity._--It has been strongly asserted that consanguineous + marriage is a prolific source of nervous instability. There is + considerable diversity of opinion on this subject; the general outcome + of the investigations of many careful inquirers appears to be that the + offspring of healthy cousins of a healthy stock is not more liable to + nervous disease than that of unrelated parents, but that evil + consequences follow where there is a strong tendency in the family to + degeneration, not only in the direction of the original diathesis, but + also towards instability of the nervous system. The objection to the + marriage of blood relations does not arise from the bare fact of their + relationship, but has its ground in the fear of their having a vicious + variation of constitution, which, in their children, is prone to + become intensified. There is sufficient evidence adducible to prove + that close breeding is productive of degeneration; and when the + multiform functions of the nervous system are taken into account, it + may almost be assumed, not only that it suffers concomitantly with + other organs, but that it may also be the first to suffer + independently. + + 7. _Parental Weakness._--Of the other causes affecting the parents + which appear to have an influence in engendering a predisposition to + insanity in the offspring, the abuse of alcoholic stimulants and + opiates, over-exertion of the mental faculties, advanced age and weak + health may be cited. Great stress has been laid on the influence + exercised by the first of these conditions, and many extreme + statements have been made regarding it. Such statements must be + accepted with reserve, for, although there is reason for attaching + considerable weight to the history of ancestral intemperance as a + probable causating influence, it has been generally assumed as the + proved cause by those who have treated of the subject, without + reference to other agencies which may have acted in common with it, or + quite independently of it. However unsatisfactory from a scientific + point of view it may appear, the general statement must stand that + whatever tends to lower the nervous energy of a parent may modify the + development of the progeny. Constitutional tendency to nervous + instability once established in a family may make itself felt in + various directions--epilepsy, hysteria, hypochondriasis, neuralgia, + certain forms of paralysis, insanity, eccentricity. It is asserted + that exceptional genius in an individual member is a phenomenal + indication. Confined to the question of insanity, the morbid + inheritance may manifest itself in two directions--in defective brain + organization manifest from birth, or from the age at which its + faculties are potential, i.e. congenital insanity; or in the neurotic + diathesis, which may be present in a brain to all appearance + congenitally perfect, and may present itself merely by a tendency to + break down under circumstances which would not affect a person of + originally healthy constitution. + + 8. _Periodic Influence._--The evolutional periods of puberty, + adolescence, utero-gestation, the climacteric period and old age + exercise an effect upon the nervous system. It may be freely admitted + that the nexus between physiological processes and mental disturbances + is, as regards certain of the periods, obscure, and that the causal + relation is dependent more on induction than on demonstration; but it + may be pleaded that it is not more obscure in respect of insanity than + of many other diseases. The pathological difficulty obtains mostly in + the relation of the earlier evolutional periods, puberty and + adolescence, to insanity; in the others a physiologico-pathological + nexus may be traced; but in regard to the former there is nothing to + take hold of except the purely physiological process of development of + the sexual function, the expansion of the intellectual powers, and + rapid increase of the bulk of the body. Although in thoroughly stable + subjects due provision is made for these evolutional processes, it is + not difficult to conceive that in the nervously unstable a + considerable risk is run by the brain in consequence of the strain + laid on it. Between the adolescent and climacteric periods the + constitution of the nervous, as of the other systems, becomes + established, and disturbance is not likely to occur, except from some + accidental circumstances apart from evolution. In the most healthily + constituted individuals the "change of life" expresses itself by some + loss of vigour. The nourishing (trophesial) function becomes less + active, and either various degrees of wasting occur or there is a + tendency towards restitution in bulk of tissues by a less highly + organized material. The most important instance of the latter tendency + is fatty degeneration of muscle, to which the arterial system is very + liable. In the mass of mankind those changes assume no pathological + importance: the man or woman of middle life passes into advanced age + without serious constitutional disturbance; on the other hand, there + may be a break down of the system due to involutional changes in + special organs, as, for instance, fatty degeneration of the heart. In + all probability the insanity of the climacteric period may be referred + to two pathological conditions: it may depend on structural changes in + the brain due to fatty degeneration of its arteries and cells, or it + may be a secondary result of general systemic disturbance, as + indicated by cessation of menstruation in the female and possibly by + some analogous modification of the sexual function in men. The senile + period brings with it further reduction of formative activity; all the + tissues waste, and are liable to fatty and calcareous degeneration. + Here again, the arteries of the brain are very generally implicated; + atheroma in some degree is almost always present, but is by no means + necessarily followed by insanity. + + The various and profound modifications of the system which attend the + periods of utero-gestation, pregnancy and child-bearing do not leave + the nervous centres unaffected. Most women are liable to slight + changes of disposition and temper, morbid longings, strange likes and + dislikes during pregnancy, more especially during the earlier months; + but these are universally accepted as accompaniments of the condition + not involving any doubts as to sanity. But there are various factors + at work in the system during pregnancy which have grave influence on + the nervous system, more especially in those hereditarily predisposed, + and in those gravid for the first time. There is modification of + direction of the blood towards a new focus, and its quality is + changed, as is shown by an increase of fibrin and water and a decrease + of albumen. To such physical influences are superadded the discomfort + and uneasiness of the situation, mental anxiety and anticipation of + danger, and in the unmarried the horror of disgrace. In the puerperal + (recently delivered) woman there are to be taken into pathological + account, in addition to the dangers of sepsis, the various depressing + influences of child-bed, its various accidents reducing vitality, the + sudden return to ordinary physiological conditions, the rapid call for + a new focus of nutrition, the translation as it were of the blood + supply from the uterus to the mammae--all physical influences liable + to affect the brain. These influences may act independently of moral + shock; but, where this is coincident, there is a condition of the + nervous system unprepared to resist its action. + + (b) PROXIMATE CAUSES.--The proximate causes of insanity may be divided + into (1) toxic agents, (2) mechanical injury to the brain, including + apoplexies and tumours, and (3) arterial degeneration. + + 1. _Toxic Agents._--The definite nature of the symptoms in the + majority of the forms of acute insanity leave little reason to doubt + that they result from an invasion of the system by toxins of various + kinds. The symptoms referred to may be briefly indicated as follows: + (i.) Pyrexia, or fever generally of an irregular type; (ii.) + Hyperleucocytosis, or an increase of the white blood corpuscles, which + is the chief method by which the animal organism protects itself + against the noxious influence of micro-organisms and their toxins. In + such cases as typhoid fever, which is caused by a bacillus, or Malta + fever which is caused by a coccus, it is found that if the blood serum + of the patient is mixed _in vitro_ with a broth culture of the + infecting organism in a dilution of 1 in 50, that the bacilli or the + cocci, as the case may be, when examined microscopically, are seen to + run into groups or clusters. The organisms are said to be + agglutinated, and the substance in the serum which produces this + reaction is termed an agglutinine. In many of the forms of insanity + which present the symptom of hyperleucocytosis there can also be + demonstrated the fact that the blood serum of the patients contains + agglutinines to certain members of a group of streptococci (so called + on account of their tendency to grow in the form of a chain, [Greek: + streptos]); (iii.) the rapid organic affection of the special nerve + elements depending upon the virulence of the toxin, and the resistance + of the individual to its influence; (iv.) the marked physical + deterioration as indicated by emaciation and other changes in + nutrition; (v.) the close analogy between the character of many of the + mental symptoms, e.g. delirium, hallucinations or depression, and the + symptoms produced artificially by the administration of certain + poisonous drugs. + + The toxic substances which are generally believed to be associated + with the causation of mental disorders may be divided into three great + classes: (a) those which arise from the morbific products of + metabolism within the body itself "auto-intoxicants"; (b) those due to + the invasion of the blood or tissues by micro-organisms; (c) organic + or inorganic poisons introduced into the system voluntarily or + accidentally. + + (a) Auto-intoxication may be due to defective metabolism or to + physiological instability, or to both combined. The results of + defective metabolism are most clearly manifested in the mental + symptoms which not infrequently accompany such diseases as gout, + diabetes or obesity, all of which depend primarily upon a deficient + chemical elaboration of the products of metabolism. The association of + gout and rheumatism with nervous and mental diseases is historical, + and the gravest forms of spinal and cerebral degeneration have been + found in association with diabetes. Until the pathology of these + affections is better understood we are not in a position to determine + the nature of the toxins which appear to be the cause of these + diseases and of their accompanying nervous symptoms. Physiological + instability is usually manifested by neurotic persons under the strain + of any unusual change in their environment. If, for instance, any + material change in the food supply consisting either in a decrease of + its quality or quantity, or in a failure to assimilate it properly, + the nerve-cells become exhausted and irritable, sleep is diminished + and a condition known as the delirium of collapse or exhaustion may + supervene. An extreme instance of this condition is presented by the + delirium occurring in shipwrecked persons, who having to take to the + boats are suddenly deprived of food, water or both. Poisoning of the + nervous system may also result from the defective action of special + glands such as the thyroid, the liver or the kidneys. These conditions + are specially exemplified in the mental disturbances which accompany + exophthalmic goitre, uraemic poisoning, and the conditions of + depression which are observed in jaundice and other forms of hepatic + insufficiency. + + The results of modern research point to a growing belief in the + frequency of infection of the nervous system from the hosts of + micro-organisms which infest the alimentary tract. No definite or + substantiated discoveries have as yet been formulated which would + justify us in treating this source of infection as more than a highly + probable causative influence. + + (b) When we turn, however, to the potentiality of infection by + micro-organisms introduced from without into the system we are upon + surer if not upon entirely definite ground. A special form of insanity + called by Weber, who first described it, the delirium of collapse, was + observed by him to follow certain infectious diseases such as typhus + fever and pneumonia. In later years it has been frequently observed to + follow attacks of influenza. Recently our views have broadened and we + find that the delirium of collapse is an acute, confusional insanity + which may arise without any previous febrile symptoms, and is in fact + one of the common forms of acute insanity. The nature of the physical + symptoms, the mental confusion and hallucinations which accompany it, + as well as the fact that it frequently follows some other infective + disease, leave no doubt as to its toxic origin. A similar and + analogous condition is presented by incidence of general paralysis + after a previous syphilitic infection. The symptoms of general + paralysis coupled with the extensive and rapid degeneration of not + only the nervous but of the whole of the body tissues point to a + microbic disease of intense virulence which, though probably not + syphilitic, is yet induced, and enhanced in its action by the previous + devitalizing action of the syphilitic toxin. There is abundant + evidence to show that emotions which powerfully affect the mind, if + long continued, conduce towards a condition of metabolic change, which + in its turn deleteriously affects the nervous system, and which may + terminate in inducing a true toxic insanity. + + One of the best examples of insanity arising from micro-organisms is + that form which occurs after childbirth, and which is known as + puerperal mania. Other insanities may, it is true, arise at this + period, but those which occur within the first fourteen days after + parturition are generally of infective origin. The confusional nature + of the mental symptoms, the delirium and the physical symptoms are + sufficient indications of the analogy of this form of mental + aberration with such other toxic forms of insanity as we find arising + from septic wounds and which sometimes accompany the early toxic + stages of virulent infectious diseases such as typhus, diphtheria or + malignant scarlet fever. + + The infective origin of puerperal mania is undoubted, though, as yet, + no special pathogenic organism has been isolated. Dr Douglas (_Ed. + Med. Journ._, 1897, i. 413) found the staphylococcus pyogenes aureus + present in the blood in one case; Jackman (quoted _loc. cit._) found + the micrococcus pneumonial crouposae in one case; while Haultain (_Ed. + Med. Journ._, 1897, ii. 131) found only the bacillus coli communis in + the blood and secretions of several cases. From our experience of + similar mental and physical symptoms produced as a result of septic + wounds or which succeed surgical operations there seems to be no doubt + that several forms of micrococci or streptococci of a virulent + character are capable by means of the toxins they exude of causing + acute delirium or mania of a confusional clinical type when introduced + into the body. + + (c) Accidental and voluntary poisonings of the system which result in + insanity are illustrated by the forms of insanity which follow + phosphorus or lead poisoning and by Pellagra. The voluntary + intoxication of the system by such drugs as morphia and alcohol will + be treated of below. + + 2 and 3. Mechanical injuries to the brain arise from direct violence + to the skull, from apoplectic hemorrhage or embolism, or from rapidly + growing tumours, or from arterial degeneration. + + + Forms of Insanity. + +The forms of insanity may be divided into (I.) Congenital Mental Defect +and (II.) Acquired Insanity. + +I. _Congenital Mental Defect._--The morbid mental conditions which fall +to be considered under this head are _Idiocy_ (with its modification, +Imbecility) and _Cretinism_ (q.v.). + + + Idiocy. + +IDIOCY (from Gr. [Greek: idiôtês], in its secondary meaning of a +deprived person). In treating of idiocy it must be carefully borne in +mind that we are dealing with mental phenomena dissociated for the most +part from active bodily disease, and that, in whatever degree it may +exist, we have to deal with a brain condition fixed by the pathological +circumstances under which its possessor came into the world or by such +as had been present before full cerebral activity could be developed, +and the symptoms of which are not dependent on the intervention of any +subsequent morbid process. From the earliest ages the term _Amentia_ has +been applied to this condition, in contradistinction to _Dementia_, the +mental weakness following on acquired insanity. + +The causes of congenital idiocy may be divided into four classes: (1) +hereditary predisposition, (2) constitutional conditions of one or both +parents affecting the constitution of the infant, (3) injuries of the +infant prior to or at birth, and (4) injuries or diseases affecting the +infant head during infancy. All these classes of causes may act in two +directions: they may produce either non-development or abnormal +development of the cranial bones as evidenced by microcephalism, or by +deformity of the head; or they may induce a more subtle morbid condition +of the constituent elements of the brain. As a rule, the pathological +process is more easily traceable in the case of the last three classes +than in the first. For instance, in the case of constitutional +conditions of the parents we may have a history of syphilis, a disease +which often leaves its traces on the bones of the skull; and in the +third case congenital malformation of the brain may be produced by +mechanical causes acting on the child in utero, such as an attempt to +procure abortion, or deformities of the maternal pelvis rendering labour +difficult and instrumental interference necessary. In such cases the +bones of the skull may be injured; it is only fair, however, to say that +more brains are saved than injured by instrumental interference. With +regard to the fourth class, it is evident that the term congenital is +not strictly applicable; but, as the period of life implicated is that +prior to the potentiality of the manifestation of the intellectual +powers, and as the result is identical with that of the other classes of +causes, it is warrantable to connect it with them, on pathological +principles more than as a mere matter of convenience. + +Dr Ireland, in his work _On Idiocy and Imbecility_ (1877), classifies +idiots from the standpoint of pathology as follows: (1) Genetous idiocy: +in this form, which he holds to be complete before birth, he believes +the presumption of heredity to be stronger than in other forms; the +vitality of the general system is stated to be lower than normal; the +palate is arched and narrow, the teeth misshapen, irregular and prone to +decay and the patient dwarfish in appearance; the head is generally +unsymmetrical and the commissures occasionally atrophied; (2) +Microcephalic idiocy, a term which explains itself; (3) Eclampsic +idiocy, due to the effects of infantile convulsions; (4) Epileptic +idiocy; (5) Hydrocephalic idiocy, a term which explains itself; (6) +Paralytic idiocy, a rare form, due to the brain injury causing the +paralysis; (7) Traumatic idiocy, a form produced by the third class of +causes above mentioned; (8) Inflammatory idiocy; (9) Idiocy by +deprivation of one or more of the special senses. + +The general conformation of the idiot is generally imperfect; he is +sometimes deformed, but more frequently the frame is merely awkwardly +put together, and he is usually of short stature. Only about one-fourth +of all idiots have heads smaller than the average. Many cases are on +record in which the cranial measurements exceed the average. It is the +irregularity of development of the bones of the skull, especially at the +base, which marks the condition. Cases, however, often present +themselves in which the skull is perfect in form and size. In such the +mischief has begun in the brain matter. The palate is often highly +arched; hare-lip is not uncommon; in fact congenital defect or +malformation of other organs than the brain is more commonly met with +among idiots than in the general community. Of the special senses, +hearing is most frequently affected. Sight is good, although +co-ordination may be defective. Many are mute. On account of the mental +dullness it is difficult to determine whether the senses of touch, taste +and smell suffer impairment; but the impression is that their acuteness +is below the average. It is needless to attempt a description of the +mental phenomena of idiots, which range between utter want of +intelligence and mere weakness of intellect. + +The term _Imbecility_ has been conventionally employed to indicate the +less profound degrees of idiocy, but in point of fact no distinct line +of demarcation can be drawn between the conditions. As the scale of +imbeciles ascends it is found that the condition is evidenced not so +much by obtuseness as by irregularity of intellectual development. This +serves to mark the difference between the extreme stupidity of the +lowest of the healthy and the highest forms of the morbidly deprived +type. The two conditions do not merge gradually one into the other. +Absolute stupidity and sottishness mark many cases of idiocy, but only +in the lowest type, where no dubiety of opinion can exist as to its +nature, and in a manner which can never be mistaken for the dulness of +the man who is less talented than the average of mankind. Where in +theory the morbid (in the sense of deprivation) and the healthy types +might be supposed to approach each other, in practice we find that, in +fact, no debatable ground exists. The uniformity of dulness of the +former stands in marked opposition to the irregularity of mental +conformation in the latter. Comparatively speaking, there are few idiots +or imbeciles who are uniformly deprived of mental power; some may be +utterly sottish, living a mere vegetable existence, but every one must +have heard of the quaint and crafty sayings of manifest idiots, +indicating the presence of no mean power of applied observation. In +institutions for the treatment of idiots and imbeciles, children are +found not only able to read and write, but even capable of applying the +simpler rules of arithmetic. A man may possess a very considerable meed +of receptive faculty and yet be idiotic in respect of the power of +application; he may be physically disabled from relation, and so be +manifestly a deprived person, unfit to take a position in the world on +the same platform as his fellows. + +Dr Ireland subdivides idiots, for the purpose of education, into five +grades, the first comprising those who can neither speak nor understand +speech, the second those who can understand a few easy words, the third +those who can speak and can be taught to work, the fourth those who can +be taught to read and write, and the fifth those who can read books for +themselves. The treatment of idiocy and imbecility consists almost +entirely of attention to hygiene and the building up of the enfeebled +constitution, along with endeavours to develop what small amount of +faculty exists by patiently applied educational influences. The success +which has attended this line of treatment in many public and private +institutions has been very considerable. It may be safely stated that +most idiotic or imbecile children have a better chance of amelioration +in asylums devoted to them than by any amount of care at home. + +In the class of idiots just spoken of, imperfect development of the +intellectual faculties is the prominent feature, so prominent that it +masks the arrest of potentiality of development of the moral sense, the +absence of which, even if noticed, is regarded as relatively +unimportant; but, in conducting the practical study of congenital +idiots, a class presents itself in which the moral sense is wanting or +deficient, whilst the intellectual powers are apparently up to the +average. It is the custom of writers on the subject to speak of +"intellectual" and "moral" idiots. The terms are convenient for clinical +purposes, but the two conditions cannot be dissociated, and the terms +therefore severally only imply a specially marked deprivation of +intellect or of moral sense in a given case. The everyday observer has +no difficulty in recognizing as a fact that deficiency in receptive +capacity is evidence of imperfect cerebral development; but it is not so +patent to him that the perception of right or wrong can be compromised +through the same cause, or to comprehend that loss of moral sense may +result from disease. The same difficulty does not present itself to the +pathologist; for, in the case of a child born under circumstances +adverse to brain development, and in whom no process of education can +develop an appreciation of what is right or wrong, although the +intellectual faculties appear to be but slightly blunted, or not +blunted at all, he cannot avoid connecting the physical peculiarity with +the pathological evidence. The world is apt enough to refer any fault in +intellectual development, manifested by imperfect receptivity, to a +definite physical cause, and is willing to base opinion on comparatively +slight data; but it is not so ready to accept the theory of a +pathological implication of the intellectual attributes concerned in the +perception of the difference between right and wrong. Were, however, two +cases pitted one against another--the first one of so-called +intellectual, the second one of so-called moral idiocy--it would be +found that, except as regards the psychical manifestations, the cases +might be identical. In both there might be a family history of tendency +to degeneration, a peculiar cranial conformation, a history of previous +symptoms during infancy, and of a series of indications of mental +incapacities during adolescence, differing only in this, that in the +first the prominent indication of mental weakness was inability to add +two and two together, in the second the prominent feature was incapacity +to distinguish right from wrong. What complicates the question of moral +idiocy is that many of its subjects can, when an abstract proposition is +placed before them, answer according to the dictates of morality, which +they may have learnt by rote. If asked whether it is right or wrong to +lie or steal they will say it is wrong; still, when they themselves are +detected in either offence, there is an evident non-recognition of its +concrete nature. The question of moral idiocy will always be a moot one +between the casuist and the pathologist; but, when the whole natural +history of such cases is studied, there are points of differentiation +between their morbid depravation and mere moral depravity. Family +history, individual peculiarities, the general bizarre nature of the +phenomena, remove such cases from the category of crime. + + _Statistics._--According to the census returns of 1901 the total + number of persons described as idiots and imbeciles in England and + Wales was 48,882, the equality of the sexes being remarkable, namely, + 24,480 males and 24,402 females. Compared with the entire population + the ratio is 1 idiot or imbecile to 665 persons, or 15 per 10,000 + persons living. Whether the returns are defective, owing to the + sensitiveness of persons who would desire to conceal the occurrence of + idiocy in their families, we have no means of knowing; but such a + feeling is no doubt likely to exist among those who look upon mental + infirmity as humiliating, rather than, as one of the many physical + evils which afflict humanity. Dr. Ireland estimates that there is 1 + idiot or imbecile to every 500 persons in countries that have a + census. The following table shows the number of idiots according to + official returns of the various countries:-- + + +-------------------+--------+---------+--------+------------+ + | | | | | Proportion | + | | Males. | Females.| Total. | to 100,000 | + | | | | | of Pop. | + +-------------------|--------|---------|--------|------------| + | England and Wales | 24,480 | 24,402 | 48,882 | 150 | + | | | | | | + | Scotland | 3,246 | 3,377 | 6,623 | 148 | + | | | | | | + | Ireland | 2,946 | 2,270 | 5,216 | 117 | + | | | | | | + | France (including | 20,456 | 14,677 | 35,133 | 97 | + | cretins) (1872) | | | | | + | | | | | | + | Germany (1871) | -- | -- | 33,739 | 82 | + | | | | | | + | Sweden (1870) | -- | -- | 1,632 | 38 | + | | | | | | + | Norway (1891) | 1,357 | 1,074 | 2,431 | 121 | + | | | | | | + | Denmark (1888-89) | 2,106 | 1,751 | 3,857 | 200 | + +-------------------|--------|---------|--------|------------+ + + For the United States there are no later census figures than 1890 when + the feeble-minded or idiotic were recorded as 95,571 (52,940 males and + 42,631 females). In 1904 (_Special Report of Bureau of Census_, 1906) + the "feeble-minded" were estimated at 150,000. + + The relative frequency of congenital and acquired insanity in various + countries is shown in the following table, taken from Koch's + statistics of insanity in Württemberg, which gives the number of + idiots to 100 lunatics:-- + + Prussia 158 | France 66 + Bavaria 154 | Denmark 58 + Saxony 162 | Sweden 22 + Austria 53 | Norway 65 + Hungary 140 | England and Wales 74 + Canton of Bern 117 | Scotland 68 + America 79 | Ireland 69 + + It is difficult to understand the wide divergence of these figures, + except it be that in certain states, such as Prussia and Bavaria, + dements have been taken along with aments and in others cretins. This + cannot, however, apply to the case of France, which is stated to have + only 66 idiots to every 100 lunatics. In many districts of France + cretinism is common; it is practically unknown in England, where the + proportion of idiots is stated as higher than in France; and it is + rare in Prussia, which stands at 158 idiots to 100 lunatics. + Manifestly imperfect as this table is, it shows how important an + element idiocy is in social statistics; few are aware that the number + of idiots and that of lunatics approach so nearly. + + + Acquired Insanity. + +II. _Acquired Insanity._--So far as the mental symptoms of acquired +insanity are concerned, Pinel's ancient classification, into _Mania_, +_Melancholia_ and _Dementia_, is still applicable to every case, and +although numberless classifications have been advanced they are for the +most part merely terminological variations. Classifications of the +insanities based on pathology and etiology have been held out as a +solution of the difficulty, but, so far, pathological observations have +failed to fulfil this ideal, and no thoroughly satisfactory pathological +classification has emerged from them. + +Classifications are after all matters of convenience; the following +system admittedly is so:-- + + Melancholia. + Mania. + Delusional Insanity. + Katatonia. + Hebephrenia. + Traumatic Insanity. + Insanity following upon arterial degeneration. + Insanities associated or caused by: General Paralysis; Epilepsy. + Insanities associated with or caused by Alcoholic and Drug + intoxication: Delirium Tremens, Chronic Alcoholic Insanity, + Dipsomania, Morphinism. + Senile Insanity. + +The general symptoms of acquired insanity group themselves naturally +under two heads, the physical and the mental. + + + General symptoms. + +The physical symptoms of mental disease generally, if not invariably, +precede the onset of the mental symptoms, and the patient may complain +of indefinite symptoms of malaise for weeks and months before it is +suspected that the disorder is about to terminate in mental symptoms. +The most general physical disorder common to the onset of all the +insanities is the failure of nutrition, i.e. the patient rapidly and +apparently without any apparent cause loses weight. Associated with this +nutritional failure it is usual to have disturbances of the alimentary +tract, such as loss of appetite, dyspepsia and obstinate constipation. +During the prodromal stage of such conditions as mania and melancholia +the digestive functions of the stomach and intestine are almost or +completely in abeyance. To this implication of other systems consequent +on impairment of the trophesial (nourishment-regulating) function of the +brain can be traced a large number of the errors which exist as to the +causation of idiopathic melancholia and mania. Very frequently this +secondary condition is set down as the primary cause; the insanity is +referred to derangements of the stomach or bowels, when in fact these +are, concomitantly with the mental disturbance, results of the cerebral +mischief. Doubtless these functional derangements exercise considerable +influence on the progress of the case by assisting to deprave the +general economy, and by producing depressing sensations in the region of +the stomach. To them may probably be attributed, together with the +apprehension of impending insanity, that phase of the disease spoken of +by the older writers as the _stadium melancholicum_, which so frequently +presents itself in incipient cases. + +The skin and its appendages--the hair and the nails--suffer in the +general disorder of nutrition which accompanies all insanities. The skin +may be abnormally dry and scurfy or moist and offensive. In acute +insanities rashes are not uncommon, and in chronic conditions, +especially conditions of depression, crops of papules occur on the face, +chest and shoulders. The hair is generally dry, loses its lustre and +becomes brittle. The nails become deformed and may exhibit either +excessive and irregular or diminished growth. + +Where there are grave nutritional disorders it is to be expected that +the chief excretions of the body should show departures from the state +of health. In this article it is impossible to treat this subject +fully, but it may suffice to say that in many states of depression there +is a great deficiency in the excretion of the solids of the urine, +particularly the nitrogenous waste products of the body; while in +conditions of excitement there is an excessive output of the nitrogenous +waste products. It has lately been pointed out that in many forms of +insanity indoxyl is present in the urine, a substance only present when +putrefactive processes are taking place in the intestinal tract. + +The nervous system, both on the sensory and motor side, suffers very +generally in all conditions of insanity. On the sensory side the special +senses are most liable to disorder of their function, whereby false +sense impressions arise which the patient from impairment of judgment is +unable to correct, and hence arise the psychical symptoms known as +hallucinations and delusions. Common sensibility is generally impaired. + +On the motor side, impairment of the muscular power is present in many +cases of depression and in all cases of dementia. The incontinence of +urine so frequently seen in dementia and in acute insanity complicated +with the mental symptom of confusion depends partly on impairment of +muscular power and partly on disorder of the sensory apparatus of the +brain and spinal cord. + +The outstanding mental symptom in nearly all insanities, acute and +recent or chronic, is the failure of the capacity of judgment and loss +of self-control. In early acute insanities, however, the two chief +symptoms which are most evident and easily noted are depression on the +one hand and excitement or elevation on the other. Some distinction +ought to be made between these two terms, excitement and elevation, +which at present are used synonymously. Excitement is a mental state +which may be and generally is associated with confusion and mental +impairment, while elevation is an exaltation of the mental faculties, a +condition in which there is no mental confusion, but rather an +unrestrained and rapid succession of fleeting mental processes. + + The symptoms which most strongly appeal to the lay mind as conclusive + evidence of mental disorder are hallucinations and delusions. + Hallucinations are false sense impressions which occur without normal + stimuli. The presence of hallucinations certainly indicates some + functional disorder of the higher brain centres, but is not an + evidence of insanity so long as the sufferer recognizes that the + hallucinations are false sense impressions. So soon, however, as + conduct is influenced by hallucinations, then the boundary line + between sanity on the one hand and insanity on the other has been + crossed. The most common hallucinations are those of sight and + hearing. + + Delusions are not infrequently the result of hallucinations. If the + hallucinations of a melancholic patient consist in hearing voices + which make accusatory statements, delusions of sin and unworthiness + frequently follow. Hallucinations of the senses of taste and smell are + almost invariably associated with the delusion that the patient's food + is being poisoned or that it consists of objectionable matter. On the + other hand, many delusions are apparently the outcome of the patient's + mental state. They may be pleasant or disagreeable according as the + condition is one of elevation or depression. The intensity and quality + of the delusions are largely influenced by the intelligence and + education of the patient. An educated man, for instance, who suffers + from sensory disturbances is much more ingenious in his explanations + as to how these sensory disturbances result from electricity, + marconigrams, X-rays, &c., which he believes are used by his enemies + to annoy him, than an ignorant man suffering from the same abnormal + sensations. Loss of self-control is characteristic of all forms of + insanity. Normal self-control is so much a matter of race, age, the + state of health, moral and physical upbringing, that it is impossible + to lay down any law whereby this mental quality can be gauged, or to + determine when deficiency has passed from a normal to an abnormal + state. In many cases of insanity there is no difficulty in + appreciating the pathological nature of the deficiency, but there are + others in which the conduct is otherwise so rational that one is apt + to attribute the deficiency to physiological rather than to + pathological causes. Perversion of the moral sense is common to all + the insanities, but is often the only symptom to be noticed in cases + of imbecility and idiocy, and it as a rule may be the earliest symptom + noticed in the early stages of the excitement of manic-depressive + insanity and general paralysis. + + The tendency to commit suicide, which is so common among the insane + and those predisposed to insanity, is especially prevalent in patients + who suffer from depression, sleeplessness and delusions of + persecution. Suicidal acts may be divided into accidental, impulsive + and premeditated. The accidental suicides occur in patients who are + partially or totally unconscious of their surroundings, and are + generally the result of terrifying hallucinations, to escape from + which the patient jumps through a window or runs blindly into water or + some other danger. Impulsive suicides may be prompted by suddenly + presented opportunities or means of self-destruction, such as the + sight of water, fire, a knife, cord or poison. Premeditated suicides + most frequently occur in states of long continued depression. Such + patients frequently devote their attention to only one method of + destruction and fail to avail themselves of others equally + practicable. As a rule the more educated the patient, the more + ingenious and varied are the methods adopted to attain the desired + result. + + The faculty of attention is variously affected in the subjects of + insanity. In some the attention is entirely subjective, being occupied + by sensations of misery, depression or sensory disturbances. In others + the attention is objective, and attracted by every accidental sound or + movement. In most of the early acute insanities the capacity of + attention is wholly abolished, while in hebephrenia the stage of + exhaustion which follows acute excitement, and the condition known as + secondary dementia, loss of the power of attention is one of the most + prominent symptoms. The memory for both recent and remote events is + impaired or abolished in all acute insanities which are characterized + by confusion and loss or impairment of consciousness. In the excited + stage of manic-depressive insanity it is not uncommon to find that the + memory is abnormally active. Loss of memory for recent but not remote + events is characteristic of chronic alcoholism and senility and even + the early stage of general paralysis. + + Of all the functions of the brain that of sleep is the most liable to + disorder in the insane. Sleeplessness is the earliest symptom in the + onset of insanity; it is universally present in all the acute forms, + and the return of natural sleep is generally the first symptom of + recovery. The causes of sleeplessness are very numerous, but in the + majority of acute cases the sleeplessness is due to a state of + toxaemia. The toxins act either directly on the brain cells producing + a state of irritability incompatible with sleep, or indirectly, + producing physical symptoms which of themselves alone are capable of + preventing the condition of sleep. These symptoms are high arterial + tension and a rapid pulse-rate. The arterial tension of health ranges + between 110 and 120 millimetres of mercury, and when sleep occurs the + arterial tension falls and is rarely above 100 millimetres. In + observations conducted by Bruce (_Scottish Medical and Surgical + Journal_, August 1900) on cases of insanity suffering from + sleeplessness the arterial tension was found to be as high as 140 and + 150 millimetres. When such sleep was obtained the tension always sank + at once to 110 millimetres or even lower. In a few cases suffering + from sleeplessness the arterial tension was found to be below 100 + millimetres, accompanied by a rapid pulse-rate. When sleep set in, in + these cases, no alteration was noted in the arterial tension, but the + pulse was markedly diminished. + + + Melancholia. + +MELANCHOLIA.--Melancholia is a general term applied to all forms of +insanity in which the prevailing mental symptom is that of depression +and dates back to the time of Hippocrates. Melancholic patients, +however, differ very widely from one another in their mental symptoms, +and as a consequence a perfectly unwarrantable series of subdivisions +have been invented according to the prominence of one or other mental +symptoms. Such terms as delusional melancholia, resistive melancholia, +stuporose melancholia, suicidal melancholia, religious melancholia, &c. +have so arisen; they are, however, more descriptive of individual cases +than indicative of types of disease. + +So far as our present knowledge goes, at least three different and +distinct disease conditions can be described under the general term +melancholia. These are, acute melancholia, excited melancholia and the +state of depression occurring in _Folie circulaire_ or alternating +insanity, a condition in which the patient is liable to suffer from +alternating attacks of excitement and depression. + +_Acute Melancholia_ is a disease of adult life and the decline of life. +Women appear to be more liable to be attacked than men. Hereditary +predisposition, mental worry, exhausting occupations, such as the +sick-nursing of relatives, are the chief predisposing causes, while the +direct exciting cause of the condition is due to the accumulation in the +tissues of waste products, which so load the blood as to act in a toxic +manner on the cells and fibres of the brain. + +The onset of the disease is gradual and indefinite. The patient suffers +from malaise, indigestion, constipation and irregular, rapid and +forcible action of the heart. The urine become scanty and high coloured. +The nervous symptoms are irritability, sleeplessness and a feeling of +mental confusion. The actual onset of the acute mental symptoms may be +sudden, and is not infrequently heralded by distressing hallucinations +of hearing, together with a rise in the body temperature. In the fully +developed disease the patient is flushed and the skin hot and dry; the +temperature is usually raised 1° above the normal in the evening. The +pulse is hard, rapid and often irregular. There is no desire for food, +but dryness of the mouth and tongue promote a condition of thirst. The +bowels are constipated. The urine is scanty and frequently contains +large quantities of indoxyl. The blood shows no demonstrable departure +from the normal. The patient is depressed, the face has a strained, +anxious expression, while more or less mental confusion is always +present. Typical cases suffer from distressing aural hallucinations, and +the function of sleep is in abeyance. + +Acute melancholia may terminate in recovery either gradually or by +crises, or the condition may pass into chronicity, while in a small +proportion of cases death occurs early in the attack from exhaustion and +toxaemia. The acute stage of onset generally lasts for from two to three +weeks, and within that period the patient may make a rapid and sudden +recovery. The skin becomes moist and perspiration is often profuse. +Large quantities of urine are excreted, which are laden with waste +products. The pulse becomes soft and compressible, sleep returns, and +the depression, mental confusion and hallucinations pass away. In the +majority of untreated cases, however, recovery is much more gradual. At +the end of two or three weeks from the onset cf the attack the patient +gradually passes into a condition of comparative tranquillity. The skin +becomes moister, the pulse less rapid, and probably the earliest symptom +of improvement is return of sleep. Hallucinations accompanied by +delusions persist often for weeks and months, but as the patient +improves physically the mental symptoms become less and less prominent. + +If the patient does not recover, the physical symptoms are those of +mal-nutrition, together with chronic gastric and intestinal disorder. +The skin is dull and earthy in appearance, the hair dry, the nails +brittle and the heart's action weak and feeble. Mentally there is +profound depression with delusions, and persistent or recurring attacks +of hallucinations of hearing. When death occurs, it is usually preceded +by a condition known as the "typhoid state." The patient rapidly passes +into a state of extreme exhaustion, the tongue is dry and cracked, +sordes form upon the teeth and lips, diarrhoea and congestion of the +lungs rapidly supervene and terminate life. + + _Treatment._--The patient in the early stage of the disease must be + confined to bed and nursed by night as well as day. The food to begin + with should be milk, diluted with hot water or aerated water, given + frequently and in small quantities. The large intestine should be + thoroughly cleared out by large enemata and kept empty by large normal + saline enemata administered every second day. Sleep may be secured by + lowering the blood pressure with half-grain doses of + erythrol-tetra-nitrate. If a hypnotic is necessary, as it will be if + the patient has had no natural sleep for two nights in succession, + then a full dose of paraldehyde or veronal may be given at bed-time. + Under this treatment the majority of cases, if treated early, improve + rapidly. As the appetite returns great care must be taken that the + patient does not suddenly resume a full ordinary dietary. A sudden + return to a full dietary invariably means a relapse, which is often + less amenable to treatment than the original attack. Toast should + first be added to the milk, and this may be followed by milk puddings + and farinaceous foods in small quantities. Any rise of temperature or + increase of pulse-rate or tendency to sleeplessness should be regarded + as a threatened relapse and treated accordingly. + +_Excited Melancholia._--Excited melancholia is almost invariably a +disease of old age or the decline of life, and it attacks men and women +with equal frequency. Chronic gastric disorders, deficient food and +sleep, unhealthy occupations and environments, together with worry and +mental stress, are all more or less predisposing causes of the disease. +The direct exciting cause or causes have not as yet been demonstrated, +but there is no doubt that the disease is associated with, or caused by, +a condition of bacterial toxaemia, analogous to the bacterial toxaemias +of acute and chronic rheumatism. + +The onset of the disease is always gradual and is associated with +mal-nutrition, loss of body weight, nervousness, depression, loss of the +capacity for work, sleeplessness and attacks of restlessness, these +attacks of restlessness become more and more marked as self-control +diminishes, and as the depression increases the disease passes the +borderland of sanity. + +In the fully developed disease the appearance of the patient is typical. +The expression is drawn, depressed, anxious or apprehensive. The skin is +yellow and parchment like. The hair is often dry and stands out stiffly +from the head. The hands are in constant movement, twisting and +untwisting, picking the skin, pulling at the hair or tearing at the +clothes. The patient moans continuously, or emits cries of grief and +wanders aimlessly. Mentally the patient, although depressed, miserable +and self-absorbed, is not confused. There is complete consciousness +except during the height of a paroxysm of restlessness and depression, +and the patient can talk and answer questions clearly and intelligently, +but takes no interest in the environment. Some of the patients suffer +from delusions, generally a sense of impending danger, but very few +suffer from hallucinations. + +Physically there is loss of appetite, constipation and rapid heart +action, a great increase in the number of the white blood corpuscles, +particularly of the multinucleated cells which are frequently increased +in bacterial infections. In the blood serum also there can be +demonstrated the presence of agglutinines to certain members of the +streptococci group. + +The course of the disease is prolonged and chronic. The acute symptoms +tend to remit at regular intervals, the patient becoming more quiet and +less demonstratively depressed; but as a rule these remissions are +extremely temporary. Excited melancholia is a disease characterized by +repeated relapses, and recoveries are rare in cases above the age of +forty. + + _Treatment._--There is no curative treatment for excited melancholia. + The patient must be carefully nursed; kept in bed during the + exacerbations of the disease and treated with graduated doses of + nepenthe or tincture of opium, to secure some amelioration of the + acute symptoms. Careful dieting, tonics and baths are of benefit + during the remissions of the disease, and in a few cases seem to + promote recovery. + +_Folie circulaire_, or alternating insanity, was first described by +Falret and Baillarger, and more recently Kraepelin has considerably +widened the conception of this class of disease, which he describes +under the term "manic-depressive insanity." Of the two terms (_folie +circulaire_ and manic-depressive insanity) the latter is the more +correct. _Folie circulaire_ implies that the disease invariably passes +through a complete cycle, which description is only applicable to very +few of the cases. Manic-depressive insanity implies that the patient may +either suffer from excitement or depression which do not necessarily +succeed one another in any fixed order. As a matter of fact, the +majority of patients who suffer from the disease either have marked +excited attacks with little or no subsequent depression, or marked +attacks of depression with a subsequent period of such slight exaltation +as hardly to be distinguished from a state of health. + +Depression of the manic-depressive variety, therefore, may either +precede or follow upon an attack of maniacal excitement, or it may be +the chief and only obvious symptom of the disease and may recur again +and again. The disease attacks men and women with equal frequency, and +as a rule manifests itself either late in adolescence or during the +decline of life. Hereditary predisposition has been proved to exist in +over 50% of cases, beyond which no definite predisposing cause is at +present known. A considerable number of cases follow upon attacks of +infective disease such as typhoid fever, scarlet fever or rheumatic +fever. The actual exciting cause is probably an intestinal toxaemia of +bacterial origin; at all events, mal-nutrition, gastric and intestinal +symptoms not infrequently precede an attack, and the condition of the +blood--the increase in number in the multinucleated white blood +corpuscles and the presence of agglutinines to certain members of the +streptococci group of bacteria--are symptoms which have been definitely +demonstrated by Bruce in every case so far examined. + +If the depression is the sequel to an attack of excitement, the onset +may be very sudden or it may be gradual. If, on the other hand, the +depression is not the sequel of excitement, the onset is very gradual +and the patient complains of lassitude, incapacity for mental or +physical work, loss of appetite, constipation and sleeplessness often +for months before the case is recognized as one of insanity. In the +fully developed disease the temperature is very rarely febrile, on the +contrary it is rather subnormal in character. The stomach is disordered +and the bowels confined. The urine is scanty, turbid and very liable to +rapid decomposition. The heart's action is slow and feeble and the +extremities become cold, blue and livid. In extreme cases gangrene of +the lower extremities may occur, but in all there is a tendency to +oedema of the extremities. The skin is greasy, often offensive, and the +palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are sodden. + +Mentally there is simple depression, without, in the majority of cases, +any implication of consciousness. Many patients pass through attack +after attack without suffering from hallucinations or delusions, but in +rare cases hallucinations of hearing and sight are present. Delusions of +unworthiness and unpardonable sin are not uncommon, and if once +expressed are liable to recur again during the course of each successive +attack. The disease is prolonged and chronic in its course, and the +condition of the patient varies but little from day to day. When the +depression follows excitement, the patient as a rule becomes fat and +flabby. On the other hand, if the illness commences with depression, the +chief physical symptoms are mal-nutrition and loss of body weight, and +the return to health is always preceded by a return of nutrition and a +gain in body weight. + +The attacks may last from six months to two or three years. The +intervals between attacks may last for only a few weeks or months or may +extend over several years. During the interval the patient is not only +capable of good mental work but may show capacity of a high order. In +other words this form of mental disorder does not tend to produce +dementia; the explanation probably being that between the attacks there +is no toxaemia. + + _Treatment._--There is no known curative treatment for the depression + of manic-depressive insanity, but the depression, the sleeplessness + and the gastric disorder are to some extent mitigated by common sense + attention to the general health of the body. If the patient is thin + and wasted, then treatment is best conducted in bed. The diet should + be bland, consisting largely of milk, eggs and farinaceous food, given + in small quantities and frequently. Defecation should be maintained by + enemata, and the skin kept clean by daily warm baths. What is of much + more importance is the fact that in some instances subsequent attacks + can be prevented by impressing upon the patient the necessity for + attending to the state of the bowels, and of discontinuing work when + the slightest symptoms of an attack present themselves. If these + symptoms are at all prominent, rest in bed is a wise precaution, + butcher-meat should be discontinued from the dietary and a tonic of + arsenic or quinine and acid prescribed. + + + Mania. + +MANIA.--The term mania, meaning pathological elevation or excitement, +has, like the term melancholia, been applied to all varieties of morbid +mental conditions in which the prevailing mental symptom is excitement +or elevation. As in melancholia so in mania various subdivisions have +been invented, such as delusional mania, religious mania, homicidal +mania, according to the special mental characteristics of each case, but +such varieties are of accidental origin and cannot be held to be +subdivisions. + +Under the term mania two distinct diseased conditions can be described, +viz. acute mania, and the elevated stage of _folie circulaire_ or +manic-depressive insanity. + +_Acute Mania._--Acute mania is a disease which attacks both sexes at all +ages, but its onset is most prevalent during adolescence and early adult +life. Hereditary predisposition, physical and mental exhaustion, +epileptic seizures and childbirth are all predisposing causes. The +direct exciting cause or causes are unknown, but the physical symptoms +suggest that the condition is one of acute toxaemia or poisoning, and +the changes in the blood are such as are consequent on bacterial +toxaemia. + +The onset is gradual in the large majority of cases. Histories of sudden +outbursts of mania can rarely be relied on, as the illness is almost +invariably preceded by loss of body weight, sleeplessness, bad dreams, +headaches and symptoms of general malaise, sometimes associated with +depression. The actual onset of the mental symptoms themselves, however, +are frequently sudden. A typical case of the fully developed disease is +not easily mistaken. The patient is usually anaemic and thin, the +expression of the face is unnatural, the eyes widely opened and bright; +and there is great motor restlessness, the muscular movements being +purposeless and inco-ordinate. This inco-ordination of movement affects +not only the muscles of the limbs and trunk but also those of +expression, so that the usual aspect of the face becomes entirely +altered. The temperature is generally slightly febrile. The tongue and +lips are cracked and dry through excessive shouting or speaking. There +is often no desire for food or drink. The heart's action is rapid and +forcible. The skin is soft and moist. The urine is scanty, turbid and +loaded with urates. The white blood corpuscles per cubic millimetre of +blood are markedly increased, and the blood serum contains agglutinines +to certain strains of streptococci which are not present in healthy +persons. Sensibility to pain is lost or much impaired. Such patients +will swing and jerk a broken limb apparently unaware that it is broken. +Sleep is absent or obtained in short snatches, and even when asleep the +patient is often restless and talkative as if the disease processes were +still active. + +Mentally the patient is excited, often wildly so, quite confused and +unable to recognize time or place. Answers to questions may sometimes be +elicited by repeated efforts to engage the attention of the patient. The +speech is incoherent, and for all practical purposes the patient is +mentally inaccessible. This state of acute excitement lasts usually for +two or three weeks and gradually passes into a condition of chronic +restlessness and noise, in which the movements are more coordinate and +purposeful. The confusion of the acute stage passes off and the +attention can be more readily attracted but cannot be concentrated on +any subject for any length of time. The patient will now recognize +friends, but the affections are in abeyance and the memory is defective. +The appetite becomes insatiable, but the patient does not necessarily +gain in weight. This stage of subacute excitement may last for months, +but as a rule favourable cases recover within six months from the onset +of the disease. A recovering patient gradually gains weight, sleeps +soundly at night and has periods of partial quiescence during the day, +particularly in the morning after a good night's sleep. These lucid +intervals become more and more prolonged and finally pass into a state +of sanity. Some cases on the other hand, after the acute symptoms +decline, remain confused, and this state of confusion may last for +months; by some alienists it is described as secondary stupor. + +The symptoms detailed above are those typical of an attack such as is +most frequently met with in adult cases. Acute mania, however, is a +disease which presents itself in various forms. Adolescent cases, for +instance, very commonly suffer from recurrent attacks, and the recurrent +form of the disease is also to be met with in adults. The recurrent form +at the onset does not differ in symptoms from that already described, +but the course of the attack is shorter and more acute, so that the +patient after one or two weeks of acute excitement rapidly improves, the +mental symptoms pass off and the patient is apparently perfectly +recovered. An examination of the blood, however, reveals the fact that +the patient is still suffering from some disorder of the system, +inasmuch as the white blood corpuscles remain increased above the +average of health. Subsequent attacks of excitement come on without any +obvious provocation. The pulse becomes fast and the face flushed. The +patient frequently complains of fullness in the head, ringing in the +ears and a loss of appetite. Sleeplessness is an invariable symptom. +Self-control is generally lost suddenly, and the patient rapidly passes +into a state of delirious excitement, to recover again, apparently, in +the course of a few weeks. Recurrent mania might therefore be regarded +as a prolonged toxaemia, complicated at intervals by outbursts of +delirious excitement. Acute mania in the majority of cases ends in +recovery. In the continuous attack the recovery is gradual. In the +recurrent cases the intervals between attacks become longer and the +attacks less severe until they finally cease. In such recovered cases +very frequently a persistent increase in the number of the white blood +corpuscles is found, persisting for a period of two or three years of +apparently sound mental health. A few cases die, exhausted by the +acuteness of the excitement and inability to obtain rest by the natural +process of sleep. When death does occur in this way the patient almost +invariably passes into the typhoid state. + +The residue of such cases become chronic, and chronicity almost +invariably means subsequent dementia. The chronic stage of acute mania +may be represented by a state of continuous subacute excitement in which +the patient becomes dirty and destructive in habits and liable from time +to time to exacerbations of the mental symptoms. Continuous observation +of the blood made in such cases over a period extending for weeks +reveals the fact that the leucocytosis, if represented in chart form, +shows a regular sequence of events. Just prior to the onset of an +exacerbation the leucocytosis is low. As the excitement increases in +severity the leucocytosis curve rises, and just before improvement sets +in there may be a decided rise in the curve and then a subsequent fall; +but this fall rarely reaches the normal line. In other cases, which pass +into chronicity, a state of persistent delusion, rather than excitement, +is the prevailing mental characteristic, and these cases may at +recurrent intervals become noisy and dangerous. + + _Treatment._--Acute mania can only be treated on general lines. During + the acute stage of onset the patient should be placed in bed. If there + is difficulty in inducing the patient to take a sufficient quantity of + food, this difficulty can be got over by giving food in liquid form, + milk, milk-tea, eggs beaten up in milk, meat juice and thin gruel, and + it is always better to feed such a patient with small quantities given + frequently. Cases of mania following childbirth are those which most + urgently demand careful and frequent feeding, artificially + administered if necessary. If there is any tendency to exhaustion, + alcoholic stimulants are indicated, and in some cases strychnine, + quinine and cardiac tonics are highly beneficial. The bowels should be + unloaded by large enemata or the use of saline purgatives. The + continuous use of purgatives should as a rule be avoided, as they + drain the system of fluids. On the other hand, the administration of + one large normal saline enema by supplying the tissues with fluids, + and probably thereby diluting the toxins circulating in the system, + gives considerable relief. A continuous warm bath frequently produces + sleep and reduces excitement. The sleeplessness of acute mania is best + treated by warm baths wherever possible, and if a drug must be + administered, then paraldehyde is the safest and most certain, unless + the patient is also an alcoholic, when chloral and bromide is probably + a better sedative. + +_The Elevated Stage of Folie Circulaire or Manic Depressive +Insanity._--As previously mentioned in the description of the depressed +stage of this mental disorder, the disease is equally prone to attack +men and women, generally during late adolescence or in early adult life, +and in a few cases first appears during the decline of life. Hereditary +predisposition undoubtedly plays a large part as a predisposing cause, +and after that is said it is difficult to assign any other definite +predisposing causes and certainly no exciting causes. As in the stage of +depression, so in the stage of excitement the first attack may closely +follow upon typhoid fever, erysipelas or rheumatic fever. On the other +hand many cases occur without any such antecedent disease. Another fact +which has been commented upon is that these patients at the onset of an +attack of excitement often appear to be in excellent physical health. + +The earliest symptoms of onset are moral rather than physical. The +patient changes in character, generally for the worse. The sober man +becomes intemperate. The steady man of business enters into foolish, +reckless speculation. There is a tendency for the patient to seek the +society of inferiors and to ignore the recognized conventionalities of +life and decency. The dress becomes extravagant and vulgar and the +speech loud, boastful and obscene. These symptoms may exist for a +considerable period before some accidental circumstance or some more +than usually extravagant departure from the laws and customs of +civilization draws public attention to the condition of the patient. The +symptoms of the fully developed disease differ in degree in different +cases. The face is often flushed and the expression unnatural. There is +constant restlessness, steady loss of body weight, and sleeplessness. In +very acute attacks there are frequently symptoms of gastric disorder, +while in other cases the appetite is enormous, gross and perverted. The +leucocytosis is above that usually met with in health, and the increase +in the early stages is due to the relative and absolute increase in the +multinucleated or polymorphonuclear leucocytes. The hyperleucocytosis is +not, however, so high as it is in acute mania, and upon recovery taking +place the leucocytosis always falls to normal. In the serum of over 80% +of cases there are present agglutinines to certain strains of +streptococci, which agglutinines are not present in the serum of healthy +persons. The changes in the urine are those which one would expect to +find in persons losing weight; the amount of nitrogenous output is in +excess of the nitrogen ingested in the food. + +Mentally there is always exaltation rather than excitement, and when +excitement is present it is never of a delirious nature, that is to say, +the patient is cognizant of the surroundings, and the special senses are +abnormally acute, particularly those of sight and hearing. +Hallucinations and delusion are sometimes present, but many cases pass +through several attacks without exhibiting either of these classes of +symptoms. The patient is always garrulous and delighted to make any +chance acquaintance the confidant of his most private affairs. The mood +is sometimes expansive and benevolent, interruption in the flow of talk +may suddenly change the subject of the conversation or the patient may +with equal suddenness fly into a violent rage, use foul and obscene +language, ending with loud laughter and protestations of eternal +friendship. In other words the mental processes are easily stimulated +and as easily diverted into other channels. The train of thought is, as +it were, constantly being changed by accidental associations. Although +consciousness is not impaired, the power of work is abolished as the +attention cannot be directed continuously to any subject, and yet the +patient may be capable of writing letters in which facts and fiction are +most ingeniously blended. A typical case will pass through the emotions +of joy, sorrow and rage in the course of a few minutes. The memory is +not impaired and is often hyper-acute. The speech may be rambling but is +rarely incoherent. + +The course of the attack is in some cases short, lasting for from one to +three weeks, while in others the condition lasts for years. The patient +remains in a state of constant restlessness, both of body and mind, +untidy or absurd in dress, noisy, amorous, vindictive, boisterously +happy or virulently abusive. As time passes a change sets in. The +patient sleeps better, begins to lay on flesh, the sudden mental +fluctuations become less marked and finally disappear. Many of these +patients remember every detail of their lives during the state of +elevation, and many are acutely ashamed of their actions during this +period of their illness. As a sequel to the attack of elevation there is +usually an attack of depression, but this is not a necessary sequel. + +The majority of patients recover even after years of illness, but the +attacks are always liable to recur. Even recurrent attacks, however, +leave behind them little if any mental impairment. + + _Treatment._--General attention to the health of the body, and an + abundance of nourishing food, and, where necessary, the use of + sedatives such as bromide and sulphonal, sum up the treatment of the + elevated stage of manic-depressive insanity. In Germany it is the + custom to treat such cases in continuous warm baths, extending + sometimes for weeks. The use of warm baths of several hours' duration + has not proved satisfactory. + + + Delusional Insanity. + +DELUSIONAL INSANITY.--Considerable confusion exists at the present day +regarding the term delusional insanity. It is not correct to define the +condition as a disease in which fixed delusions dominate the conduct and +are the chief mental symptom present. Such a definition would include +many chronic cases of melancholia and mania. All patients who suffer +from attacks of acute insanity and who do not recover tend to become +delusional, and any attempt to include and describe such cases in a +group by themselves and term them delusional insanity is inadmissible. +The fact that delusional insanity has been described under such various +terms as progressive systematized insanity, mania of persecution and +grandeur, monomanias of persecution, unseen agency, grandeur and +paranoia, indicates that the disease is obscure in its origin, probably +passing through various stages, and in some instances having been +confused with the terminal stages of mania and melancholia. If this is +admitted, then probably the best description of the disease is that +given by V. Magnan under the term of "systematized delusional insanity," +and it may be accepted that many cases conform very closely to Magnan's +description. + +The disease occurs with equal frequency in men and women, and in the +majority of cases commences during adolescence or early adult life. The +universally accepted predisposing cause is hereditary predisposition. As +to the exciting causes nothing is known beyond the fact that certain +forms of disease, closely resembling delusional insanity, are apparently +associated or caused by chronic alcoholism or occur as a sequel to +syphilitic infection. In the vast majority of cases the onset is lost in +obscurity, the patient only drawing attention to the diseased condition +by insane conduct after the delusional state is definitely established. +The friends of such persons frequently affirm that the patient has +always been abnormal. However this may be, there is no doubt that in a +few cases the onset is acute and closely resembles the onset of acute +melancholia. The patient is depressed, confused, suffers from +hallucinations of hearing and there are disturbances of the bodily +health. There is generally mal-nutrition with dyspepsia and vague +neuralgic pains, often referred to the heart and intestines. Even at +this stage the patient may labour under delusions. These acute attacks +are of short duration and the patient apparently recovers, but not +uncommonly both hallucinations and delusions persist, although they may +be concealed. + +The second or delusional stage sets in very gradually. This is the stage +in which the patient most frequently comes under medical examination. +The appearance is always peculiar and unhealthy. The manner is unnatural +and may suggest a state of suspicion. The nutrition of the body is below +par, and the patient frequently complains of indefinite symptoms of +malaise referred to the heart and abdomen. The heart's action is often +weak and irregular, but beyond these symptoms there are no special +characteristic symptoms. + +Mentally there may be depression when the patient is sullen and +uncommunicative. It will be found, however, that he always suffers from +hallucinations. At first hallucinations of hearing are the most +prominent, but later all the special senses may be implicated. These +hallucinations constantly annoy the patient and are always more +troublesome at night. Voices make accusations through the walls, floors, +roofs or door. Faces appear at the window and make grimaces. Poisonous +gases are pumped into the room. Electricity, Röntgen rays and +marconigrams play through the walls. The food is poisoned or consists of +filth. In many cases symptoms of visceral discomfort are supposed to be +the result of nightly surgical operations or sexual assaults. All these +persecutions are ascribed to unknown persons or to some known person, +sect or class. Under the influence of these sensory disturbances the +patient may present symptoms of angry excitement, impulsive violence or +of carefully-thought-out schemes of revenge; but the self-control may be +such that although the symptoms are concealed the behaviour is peculiar +and unreasonable. It is not uncommon to find that such patients can +converse rationally and take an intelligent interest in their +environments, but the implication of the capacity of judgment is at once +apparent whenever the subject of the persecutions is touched upon. + +All cases of delusional insanity at this stage are dangerous and their +actions are not to be depended upon. Assaults are common, houses are set +on fire, threatening letters are written and accusations are made which +may lead to much worry and trouble before the true nature of the disease +is realized. + +This, the second or persecutory stage of delusional insanity, may +persist through life. The patient becomes gradually accustomed to the +sensory disturbances, or possibly a certain amount of mental +enfeeblement sets in which reduces the mental vigour. In other cases, +the disease goes on to what Magnan calls the third stage or stage of +grandiose delusions. The onset of this stage is in some cases gradual. +The patient, while inveighing against the persecutions, hints at a +possible cause. One man is an inventor and his enemies desire to deprive +him of the results of his inventions. Another is the rightful heir to a +peerage, of which he is to be deprived. Women frequently believe +themselves to be abducted princesses or heirs to the throne. Others of +both sexes, even more ambitious, assume divine attributes and proclaim +themselves Virgin Marys, Gabriels, Holy Ghosts and Messiahs. Cases are +recorded in which the delusions of grandeur were of sudden onset, the +patient going to bed persecuted and miserable and rising the following +morning elated and grandiose. In this stage the hallucinations persist +but appear to change in character and become pleasant. The king hears +that arrangements are being made for his coronation and waits quietly +for the event. The angel Gabriel sees visions in the heavens. The heirs +and heiresses read of their prospective movements in the court columns +of the daily papers and are much soothed thereby. In short, no delusion +is too grotesque and absurd for such patients to believe and express. + +Cases of delusional insanity never become demented in the true sense of +the word, but their mental state might be described as a dream in which +an imaginary existence obliterates the experiences of their past lives. + + _Treatment._--No treatment influences the course of the disease. + During the stage of persecution such patients are a danger to + themselves, as they not infrequently commit suicide, and to their + supposed persecutors, whom they frequently assault or otherwise annoy. + + + Katatonia. + +KATATONIA.--This disease, so called on account of the symptom of +muscular spasm or rigidity which is present during certain of its +stages, was first described and named by K. L. Kahlbaum in 1874. Many +British alienists refuse to accept katatonia as a distinct disease, but +as it has been accepted and further elaborated by such an authority as +E. Kraepelin reference to it cannot be avoided. + +Katatonia attacks women more frequently than men, and is essentially a +disease of adolescence, but typical cases occasionally occur in adults. +Hereditary predisposition is present in over 50% of the cases and is the +chief predisposing cause. Childbirth, worry, physical strain and mental +shocks are all advanced as secondary predisposing causes. The disease is +one of gradual onset, with loss of physical and mental energy. Probably +the earliest mental symptom is the onset of aural hallucinations. For +convenience of description the disease may be divided into (1) the stage +of onset; (2) the stage of stupor; (3) the stage of excitement. + +The symptoms of the stage of onset are disorders of the alimentary +tract, such as loss of appetite, vomiting after food and obstinate +constipation. The pulse is rapid, irregular and intermittent. The skin +varies between extreme dryness and drenching perspirations. In women the +menstrual function is suppressed. At uncertain intervals the skeletal +muscles are thrown into a condition of rigidity, but this symptom does +not occur invariably. The instincts of cleanliness are in abeyance, +owing to the mental state of the patient, and as a result these cases +are inclined to be wet and dirty in their habits. + +Mentally there is great confusion, vivid hallucinations, which +apparently come on at intervals and are of a terrifying nature, for the +patient often becomes frightened, endeavours to hide in corners or +escape by a window or door. A very common history of such a case prior +to admission is that the patient has attempted suicide by jumping out of +a window, the attempt being in reality an unconscious effort on the part +of the patient to escape from some imaginary danger. During these +attacks the skin pours with perspiration. The patient is oblivious to +his surroundings and is mentally inaccessible. In the intervals between +these attacks the patient may be conscious and capable of answering +simple questions. This acute stage, in which sleep is abolished, lasts +from a few days to four or six weeks and then, generally quite suddenly, +the patient passes into the state of stupor. In some cases a sharp +febrile attack accompanies the onset of the stupor, while in others this +symptom is absent; but in every case examined by Bruce during the acute +stage there was an increase in the number of the white blood corpuscles, +which, just prior to the onset of stupor, were sometimes enormously +increased; the increase being entirely due to multiplication of the +multinucleated or polymorphonuclear leucocytes. + +In the second or stuporose stage of the disease the symptoms are +characteristic. The patient lies in a state of apparent placidity, +generally with the eyes shut. Consciousness is never entirely abolished, +and many of the patients give unmistakable evidence that they understand +what is being said in their presence. Any effort at passive movement of +a limb immediately sets up muscular resistance, and throughout this +stage the sternomastoid and the abdominal muscles are more or less in a +state of over-tension, which is increased to a condition of rigidity if +the patient is interfered with in any way. This symptom of restiveness +or negativism is one of the characteristics of the disease. The patient +resists while being fed, washed, dressed and undressed, and even the +normal stimuli which in a healthy man indicate that the bladder or +rectum require to be emptied are resisted, so that the bladder may +become distended and the lower bowel has to be emptied by enemata. The +temperature is low, often subnormal, the pulse is small and weak, and +the extremities cold and livid. This symptom is probably due in some +part to spasm of the terminal arterioles. Mentally the symptoms are +negative. Though conscious, the patient cannot be got to speak and +apparently is oblivious to what is passing around. Upon recovery, +however, these cases can often recount incidents which occurred to them +during their illness, and may also state that they laboured under some +delusion. Coincidently with the onset of the stupor sleep returns, and +many cases sleep for the greater part of the twenty-four hours. The +duration of the stuporose state is very variable. In some cases it lasts +for weeks, in others for months or years, and may be the terminal stage +of the disease, the patient gradually sinking into dementia or making a +recovery. The third stage or stage of excitement comes on in many cases +during the stage of stupor: the stages overlap; while in others a +distinct interval of convalescence may intervene between the termination +of the stupor and the onset of the excitement. The excitement is +characterized by sudden impulsive actions, rhythmical repetition of +words and sounds (verbigeration), and by rhythmical movements of the +body or limbs, such as swaying the whole frame, nodding the head, +swinging the arms, or walking in circles. The patient may be absolutely +mute in this stage as in the stage of stupor. Others again are very +noisy, singing, shouting or abusive. The speech is staccato in character +and incoherent. Physically the patient, who often gains weight in the +stage of stupor, again becomes thin and haggard in appearance owing to +the incessant restlessness and sleeplessness which characterize the +stage of excitement. The patient may, during the stage of onset, die +through exhaustion, or accidentally and unconsciously commit suicide +usually by leaping from a window. During the stuporose stage symptoms of +tubercular disease of the lungs may commence. All the adolescent insane +are peculiarly liable to contract and die from tubercular disease. +Accidental suicide is also liable to occur during this stage. The stage +of excitement, if at all prolonged, invariably ends in dementia. +According to Kraepelin 13% of the cases recover, 27 make partial +recoveries, and 60% become more or less demented. + + _Treatment._--No treatment arrests or diverts the course of katatonia, + and the acute symptoms of the disease as they arise must be treated on + hospital principles. + + + Hebephrenia. + +HEBEPHRENIA.--This is a disease of adolescence (Gr. [Greek: hêbê]) which +was first described by Hecker and Kahlbaum and more recently by +Kraepelin and other foreign workers. Hebephrenia is not yet recognized +by British alienists. The descriptions of the disease are indefinite and +confusing, but there are some grounds for the belief that such an entity +does exist, although it is probably more correct to say that as yet the +symptoms are very imperfectly understood. Hebephrenia is always a +disease of adolescence and never occurs during adult life. It attacks +women more frequently than men, and according to Kahlbaum hereditary +predisposition to insanity is present in over 50% of the cases attacked. +The onset of the disease is invariably associated with two symptoms. On +the physical side an arrested or delayed development and on the mental a +gradual failure of the power of attention and concentrated thought. The +onset of the condition is always gradual and the symptoms which first +attract attention are mental. The patient becomes restless, is unable to +settle to work, becomes solitary and peculiar in habits and sometimes +dissolute and mischievous. As the disease advances the patient becomes +more and more enfeebled, laughs and mutters to himself and wanders +aimlessly and without object. There is no natural curiosity, no interest +in life and no desire for occupation. Later, delusions may appear and +also hallucinations of hearing, and under their influence the patient +may be impulsive and violent. Physically the subjects are always badly +developed. The temperature is at times slightly elevated and at +intervals the white blood corpuscles are markedly increased. The +menstrual function in women is suppressed and both male and female cases +are addicted to masturbation. According to Kraepelin 5% of the cases +recover, 15% are so far relieved as to be able to live at home, but are +mentally enfeebled, the remaining 80% become hopelessly demented. The +patients who recover frequently show at the onset of their disease acute +symptoms, such as mild excitement, slightly febrile temperature and +quick pulse-rate. When recovery does take place there is marked +improvement in development. The subjects of hebephrenia are peculiarly +liable to tubercular infection and many die of phthisis. + + There is no special treatment for hebephrenia beyond attention to the + general health. + + + Traumatic Insanity. + +INSANITY FOLLOWING UPON INJURIES TO THE BRAIN, OR APOPLEXIES OR TUMOURS +OR ARTERIAL DEGENERATION. (a) _Traumatic Insanity._--Insanity following +blows on the head is divided into (1) the forms in which the insanity +immediately follows the accident; (2) the form in which there is an +intermediate prodromal stage characterized by strange conduct and +alteration in disposition; and (3) in which the mental symptoms occur +months or years after the accident, which can have at most but a remote +predisposing causal relation to the insanity. The cases which +immediately succeed injuries to the head are in all respects similar to +confusional insanity after operations or after fevers. There is +generally a noisy incoherent delirium, accompanied by hallucinations of +sight or of hearing, and fleeting unsystematized delusions. The physical +symptoms present all the features of severe nervous shock. + +In those cases in which there is an intervening prodromal condition, +with altered character and disposition, there is usually a more or less +severe accidental implication of the cortex cerebri, either by +depression of bone or local hemorrhage, or meningitic sub-inflammatory +local lesions. Most of the cases during the prodromal stage are sullen, +morose or suspicious, and indifferent to their friends and surroundings. +At the end of the prodromal stage there most usually occurs an attack of +acute mania of a furious impulsive kind. The cases which for many years +after injury are said to have remained sane will generally be found upon +examination and inquiry to exhibit symptoms of hereditary degeneration +or of acquired degeneracy, which may or may not be a consequence of the +accident. + +The most common site of vascular lesion is one of the branches of the +middle cerebral artery within the sylvian fissure, or of one of the +smaller branches of the same artery which go directly to supply the +chief basal ganglia. When an artery like the middle cerebral or one of +its branches becomes either through rupture or blocking of its lumen, +incapable of performing its function of supplying nutrition to important +cerebral areas, there ensues devitality of the nervous tissues, +frequently followed by softening and chronic inflammation. It is these +secondary changes which give rise to and maintain those peculiar mental +aberrations known as post-apoplectic insanity. + +Various characteristic physical symptoms, depending upon the seat of the +cerebral lesion, are met with in the course of this form of insanity. +These consist of paraplegias, hemiplegias and muscular contractures. +Speech defects are very common, being due either to the enfeebled mental +condition, to paralysis of the nerve supplying the muscles of the face +and tongue, or to aphasia caused by implication of those parts of the +cortex which are intimately associated with the faculty of speech. +Mental symptoms vary considerably in different cases and in accordance +with the seat and extent of the lesion. There is almost always present, +however, a certain degree of mental enfeeblement, accompanied by loss of +memory and of judgment, often by mental confusion. Another very general +mental symptom is the presence of emotionalism which leads the patient +to be affected either to tears or to laughter upon trifling and +inadequate occasions. + +Cerebral tumours do not necessarily produce insanity. Indeed it has been +computed that not one half of the cases become insane. When insanity +appears it is met with in all degrees varying from slight mental dulness +up to complete dementia, and from mere moral perversion up to the most +intense form of maniacal excitement. On the physical side the various +symptoms of cerebral tumour such as coma, ataxia, paralysis, headache, +vomiting, optic neuritis and epileptiform convulsions are met with. All +forms of so-called moral changes and of changes of disposition are met +with as mental symptoms and all the ordinary forms of insanity may occur +in varying intensity; but by far the most common mental change occurring +in connexion with cerebral tumour is a progressive enfeeblement of the +intelligence, unattended with any more harmful symptoms than mental +deterioration which ends in complete dementia. + + + Insanity due to Arterial Degeneration. + +(b) _Arterial Degeneration._--Arterial degeneration is a common cause of +mental impairment, especially of that form of mental affection known as +"Early" dementia. It also predisposes to embolism and thrombosis, which +often results in the paralytic and aphasic groups of nerve disturbance, +and which are always accompanied by more or less marked interference +with normal cerebral action. + +The commonest seat for atheroma of the cerebral vessels is the arteries +at the base of the brain and their main branches, especially the middle +cerebral. As a general rule the other arteries of the cerebrum are not +implicated to the same extent, although in a not inconsiderable number +of cases of the disease all the arteries of the brain may participate in +the change. When this is so, we obtain those definite symptoms of slowly +advancing dementia commencing in late middle life and ending in complete +dementia before the usual period for the appearance of senile dementia. +The same appearances are met with in certain patients who have attained +the age in which senile changes in the arteries are not unexpected. As a +rule atheroma in the cerebral vessels is but a part of a general +atheroma of all the arteries of the body. Atheroma is common after +middle life and increases in frequency with age. The chief causes are +syphilis, alcoholism, the gouty and rheumatic diatheses and above all +Bright's disease of the kidneys. Perhaps certain forms of Bright's +disease, owing to the tendency to raise the blood pressure, are of all +causes the most common. + +It is not easy to say to what extent, alone, the arteriosclerosis is +effectual in inducing the gradual failure of the mental powers, and to +what extent it is assisted in its operation by the action on the +brain-cells of the general toxic substances which give rise to the +arterial atheroma. In any case there can be no question that the gradual +mechanical diminution of the blood-supply to the cortex caused by the +occlusion of the lumen of the arteries is a factor of great importance +in the production of mental incapacity. + + + General Paralysis. + +GENERAL PARALYSIS OF THE INSANE (syn. General Paralysis, _dementia +paralytica_, progressive dementia) is a disease characterized by +symptoms of progressive degeneration of the central nervous system, more +particularly of the motor centres. The disease is almost invariably +fatal. Apparent recoveries do very occasionally occur, though this is +denied by the majority of alienists. The disease is in every case +associated with gradually advancing mental enfeeblement, and very +frequently is complicated by attacks of mental disease. + +General paralysis, which is a very common disease, was first recognized +in France; it was identified by J. E. D. Esquirol, and further described +and elaborated by A. L. J. Bayle, Delaye and J. L. Calmeil, the latter +giving it the name of _paralysie générale des aliénés_. + +As first described by the earlier writers the disease was regarded as +being invariably associated with delusions of grandeur. At the present +day this description does not apply to the majority of cases admitted +into asylums. The change may be explained as being either due to an +alteration in the type of the disease, or more probably the disease is +better understood and more frequently diagnosed than formerly, the +diagnosis being now entirely dependent on the physical and not on the +mental symptoms. This latter may also be the explanation why general +paralysis is much more common at the present day in British asylums than +it was. The total death-rate from this disease in English and Scottish +asylums rose from 1321 in 1894 to 1795 in 1904. + +General paralysis attacks men much more frequently than women, and +occurs between the ages of 35 and 50 years. It is essentially a disease +of town life. In asylums which draw their patients from country +districts in Scotland and Ireland, the disease is rare, whereas in those +which draw their population from large cities the disease is extremely +common. + +Considerable diversity of opinion exists at present regarding the +causation of general paralysis. Hereditary predisposition admittedly +plays a very small part in its causation. There is, however, an almost +universal agreement that the disease is essentially the result of +toxaemia or poisoning, and that acquired or inherited syphilitic +infection is an important predisposing factor. A history of syphilitic +infection occurs in from 70 to 90% of the patients affected. At first it +was held that general paralysis was a late syphilitic manifestation, but +as it was found that no benefit followed the use of anti-syphilitic +remedies the theory was advanced that general paralysis was a secondary +auto-intoxication following upon syphilitic infection. The latest view +is that the disease is a bacterial invasion, to which syphilis, +alcoholism, excessive mental and physical strain, and a too exclusively +nitrogenous diet, only act as predisposing causes. This latter theory +has been recently advanced and elaborated by Ford Robertson and McRae of +Edinburgh. + +Whatever the cause of general paralysis may be, the disease is +essentially progressive in character, marked by frequent remissions and +so typical in its physical symptoms and pathology that we regard the +bacterial theory with favour, although we are far from satisfied that +the actual causative factor has as yet been discovered. + +For descriptive purposes the disease is most conveniently divided into +three stages,--called respectively the first, second and third,--but it +must be understood that no clear line of demarcation divides these +stages from one another. + +The onset of general paralysis is slow and gradual, and the earliest +symptoms may be either physical or mental. The disease may commence +either in the brain itself or the spinal cord may be primarily the seat +of lesion, the brain becoming affected secondarily. When the disease +originates in the spinal cord the symptoms are similar to those of +locomotor ataxia, and it is now believed that general paralysis and +locomotor ataxia are one and the same disease; in the one case the cord, +in the other the brain, being the primary seat of lesion. The early +physical symptoms are generally motor. The patient loses energy, readily +becomes tired, and the capacity for finely co-ordinated motor acts, such +as are required in playing games of skill, is impaired. Transient +attacks of partial paralysis of a hand, arm, leg or one side of the +body, or of the speech centre are not uncommon. In a few cases the +special senses are affected early and the patient may complain of +attacks of dimness of vision or impairment of hearing. Or the symptoms +may be purely mental and affect the highest and most recently acquired +attributes of man, the moral sense and the faculty of self-control. The +patient then becomes irritable, bursts into violent passions over +trifles, changes in character and habits, frequently takes alcohol to +excess and behaves in an extravagant, foolish manner. Theft is often +committed in this stage and the thefts are characterized by an open, +purposeless manner of commission. The memory is impaired and the patient +is easily influenced by others, that is to say he becomes facile. In +other cases a wild attack of sudden excitement, following upon a period +of restlessness and sleeplessness may be the first symptom which +attracts attention. Whatever the mode of onset the physical symptoms +which characterize the disease come on sooner or later. The speech is +slurred and the facial muscles lose their tone, giving the face a +flattened expression. The muscular power is impaired, the gait is +straddling and the patient sways on turning. All the muscles of the +body, but particularly those of the tongue, upper lip and hands, which +are most highly innervated, present the symptom of fine fibrillary +tremors. The pupils become irregular in outline, often unequal in size +and either one or both fail to react normally to the stimuli of light, +or of accommodation for near or distant vision. + +As the disease advances there is greater excitability and a tendency to +emotionalism. In classical cases the general exaltation of ideas becomes +so great as to lead the patient to the commission of insanely +extravagant acts, such as purchases of large numbers of useless +articles, or of lands and houses far beyond his means, numerous +indiscriminate proposals of marriage, the suggestion of utterly absurd +commercial schemes, or attempts at feats beyond his physical powers. The +mental symptoms, in short, are very similar to those of the elevated +stage of manic-depressive insanity. + +Delusions of the wildest character may also be present. The patient may +believe himself to be in possession of millions of money, to be +unsurpassed in strength and agility, to be a great and overruling +genius, and the recipient of the highest honours. This grandiose +condition is by no means present in every case and is not in itself +diagnostic of the disease. But mental facility, placid contentment, +complete loss of judgment and affection for family and friends, with +impaired memory, are symptoms universally present. As the disease +advances the motor symptoms become more prominent. The patient has great +difficulty in writing, misses letters out of words, words out of +sentences, and writes in a large laboured hand. The expression becomes +fatuous. The speech is difficult and the facial muscles are thrown into +marked tremors whenever any attempt at speech is made. The voice changes +in timbre and becomes high-pitched and monotonous. The gait is weak and +uncertain and the reflexes are exaggerated. In the first stage the +patient, through restlessness and sleeplessness, becomes thin and +haggard. As the second stage approaches sleep returns, the patient lays +on flesh and becomes puffy and unhealthy in appearance. The mental +symptoms are marked by greater facility and enfeeblement, while the +paralysis of all the muscles steadily advances. The patient is now +peculiarly liable to what are called congestive seizures or epileptiform +attacks. The temperature rises, the face becomes flushed and the skin +moist. Twitchings are noticed in a hand or arm. These twitchings +gradually spread until they may involve the whole body. The patient is +now unconscious, bathed in perspiration, which is offensive. The bowels +and bladder empty themselves reflexly or become distended, and bedsores +are very liable to form over the heels, elbows and back. Congestive +seizures frequently last for days and may prove fatal or, on the other +hand, the patient may have recurrent attacks and finally die of +exhaustion or some accidental disease, such as pneumonia. In the second +stage of the disease the patient eats greedily, and as the food is +frequently swallowed unmasticated, choking is not an uncommon accident. +The special senses of taste and smell are also much disordered. We have +seen a case of general paralysis, in the second stage drink a glass of +quinine and water under the impression that he was drinking whisky. + +The third stage of the disease is characterized by sleeplessness and +rapid loss of body weight. Mentally the patient becomes quite demented. +On the physical side the paralysis advances rapidly, so that the patient +becomes bedridden and speechless. Death may occur as the result of +exhaustion, or a congestive seizure, or of some intercurrent illness. + +The duration of the disease is between eighteen months and three years, +although it has been known to persist for seven. + + No curative measures have so far proved of any avail in the treatment + of general paralysis. + + + Epileptic Insanity. + +INSANITY ASSOCIATED WITH EPILEPSY.--The term "epileptic insanity," which +has for many years been in common use, is now regarded as a misnomer. +There is in short no such disease as epileptic insanity. A brain, +however, which is so unstable as to exhibit the sudden discharges of +nervous energy which are known as epileptic seizures, is prone to be +attacked by insanity also, but there is no form of mental disease +exclusively associated with epilepsy. Many epileptics suffer from the +disease for a lifetime and never exhibit symptoms of insanity. The +majority of patients, however, who suffer from epilepsy are liable to +exhibit certain mental symptoms which are regarded as characteristic of +the disease. Some suffer from recurrent attacks of depression, +ill-humour and irritability, which may readily pass into violence under +provocation. Others are emotionally fervid in religious observances, +though sadly deficient in the practice of the religious life. A third +class are liable to attacks of semi-consciousness which may either +follow upon or take the place of a seizure, and during these attacks +actions are performed automatically and without consciousness on the +part of the patient. + +When epileptics do become insane the insanity is generally one of the +forms of mania. Either the patient suffers from sudden furious attacks +of excitement in which consciousness is entirely abolished, or the mania +is of the type of the elevated stage of folie circulaire +(manic-depressive insanity) and alternates with periods of deep +depression. In the elevated period the patient shows exaggerated +self-esteem, with passionate outbursts of anger, and periods of +religious emotionalism. While in the stage of depression the patient is +often actively suicidal. + +Epileptic patients who suffer from recurrent attacks of delirious mania +are liable to certain nervous symptoms which indicate that not only are +the motor centres in the brain damaged, but that the motor tracts in the +spinal cord are also affected. The gait becomes awkward and laboured, +the feet being lifted high off the ground and the legs thrown forward +with a jerk. The tendon reflexes are at the same time exaggerated. These +symptoms indicate descending degeneration of the motor tracts of the +cord. + +If the mental attacks partake of the character of elevation or +depression the mental functions suffer more than the motor. These +patients, in course of time, become delusional, enfeebled and childish, +and in some cases the enfeeblement ends in complete dementia of a very +degraded type. + +Where insanity is superadded to epilepsy the prognosis is unfavourable. + + + Toxic Insanity. + +INSANITY ASSOCIATED WITH OR CAUSED BY ALCOHOLIC AND DRUG +INTOXICATION.--The true rôle of alcoholic indulgence in the production +of insanity is at present very imperfectly understood. In many cases the +alcoholism is merely a symptom of the mental disease--a result, not a +cause. In others, alcohol seems to act purely as a predisposing factor, +breaking down the resistance of the patient and disordering the +metabolism to such an extent that bodily disorders are engendered which +produce well-marked and easily recognized mental symptoms. In others, +again, alcohol itself may possibly act as a direct toxin, disordering +the functions of the brain. In the latter class may be included the +nervous phenomena of drunkenness, which commence with excitement and +confusion of ideas, and terminate in stupor with partial paralysis of +all the muscles. Certain brains which, either through innate weakness or +as the result of direct injury, have become peculiarly liable to toxic +influences, under the influence of even moderate quantities of alcohol +pass into a state closely resembling delirious mania, a state commonly +spoken of as _mania a potu_. + +_Delirium Tremens._--Delirium tremens is the form of mental disorder +most commonly associated with alcoholic indulgence in the lay mind. +Considerable doubt exists, however, as to whether the disease is +directly or secondarily the result of alcoholic poisoning. Much +evidence exists in favour of the latter supposition. Delirium tremens +may occur in persons who have never presented the symptom of +drunkenness, or it may occur weeks after the patient has ceased to drink +alcohol, and in such cases the actual exciting cause of the disease may +be some accidental complication, such as a severe accident, a surgical +operation, or an attack of pneumonia or erysipelas. + +The early symptoms are always physical. The stomach is disordered. The +desire for food is absent, and there may be abdominal pain and vomiting. +The hands are tremulous, and the patient is unable to sleep. At this +stage the disease may be checked by the administration of an aperient +and some sedative such as bromide and chloral. The mental symptoms vary +greatly in their severity. In a mild case one may talk to the patient +for some time before discovering any mental abnormality, and then it +will be found that confusion exists regarding his position and the +identity of those around him, while the memory is also impaired for +recent events. Hallucinations of sight and hearing may be present. The +hallucinations of sight may be readily induced by pressure upon the +eyeballs. If the symptoms are more acute they usually come on suddenly, +generally during the evening or night. The patient becomes excited, +suffers from vivid hallucinations of sight and hearing which produce +great fear, and these hallucinations may be so engrossing as to render +him quite oblivious to the environment. The hallucinations of sight are +characterized by the false sense impressions taking the forms of animals +or insects which surround or menace the patient. Visions may also appear +in the form of flames, goblins or fairies. The hallucinations of hearing +rarely consist of voices, but are more of the nature of whistlings, and +ringings in the ears, shouts, groans or screams which seem to fill the +air, or emanate from the walls or floors of the room. All the special +senses may be affected, but sight and hearing are always implicated. +Delirium tremens is a short-lived disease, generally running its course +in from four to five days. Recovery is always preceded by the return of +the power of sleep. + + The patient must be carefully nursed and constantly watched, as + homicidal and suicidal impulses are liable to occur under the + terrifying influence of the hallucinations. The food should be + concentrated and fluid, given frequently and in small quantities. + +_Chronic Alcoholic Insanity._--Almost any mental disorder may be +associated with chronic alcoholism, but the most characteristic mental +symptoms are delusions of suspicion and persecution which resemble very +closely those of the persecution stage of systematized delusional +insanity. The appearance of the patient is bloated and heavy; the tongue +is furred and tremulous, and symptoms of gastric and intestinal disorder +are usually present. The gait is awkward and dragging, owing to the +partial paralysis of the extensor muscles of the lower limbs. All the +skeletal muscles are tremulous, particularly those of the tongue, lips +and hands. The common sensibility of the skin is disordered so that the +patient complains of sensory disturbances, such as tinglings and +prickings of the skin, which may be interpreted as electric shocks. In +some cases the mental symptoms may be concealed, but delusions and +hallucinations, particularly hallucinations of sight and hearing, are +very commonly present. The delusions are often directly the outcome of +the physical state; the disordered stomach suggesting poisoning, and the +disturbances of the special senses being interpreted as various forms of +persecution. The patient hears voices shouting foul abuse at him; all +his thoughts are read and repeated aloud; electric shocks are sent +through him at night; gases are pumped into his room. Sexual delusions +are very common and frequently affect marital relations by arousing +suspicions regarding the fidelity of wife or husband; or the delusions +may be more gross and take the form of belief in actual attempts at +sexual mutilations. The memory is always impaired. + +Patients who in addition to chronic alcoholism are also insane are +always dangerous and liable to sudden and apparently causeless outbursts +of violence. + +_Dipsomania._--Dipsomania is a condition characterized by recurrent or +periodic attacks of an irresistible craving for stimulants. The general +bodily condition has a great deal to do with the onset of the attack, +that is to say, the patient is more liable to an attack when the bodily +condition is low than when the health is good. The attacks may be +frequent or recur at very long intervals. They generally last for a few +weeks, and may be complicated by symptoms of excitement, delusions or +hallucinations. + + _Treatment_ consists in attention to the general health between + attacks, with the use of such tonics as arsenic and strychnine. During + the attack the patient should be confined to bed and treated with + sedatives. + +_Morphinism._--The morphia habit is most commonly contracted by persons +of a neurotic constitution. The mental symptoms associated with the +disease may arise either as the result of an overdose, when the patient +suffers from hallucinations, confusion and mild delirium, frequently +associated with vomiting. On the other hand, mental symptoms very +similar to those of delirium tremens may occur as the result of suddenly +cutting off the supply of morphia in a patient addicted to the habit. +Finally, chronic morphia intoxication produces mental symptoms very +similar to those of chronic alcoholism. This latter condition, +characterized by delusions of persecution, mental enfeeblement and loss +of memory, is hopelessly incurable. The patient is always thin and +anaemic on account of digestive disturbances. There is weakness or +slight paralysis of the lower limbs, and the skeletal muscles are +tremulous. + + _Treatment._--The quantity of the drug used must be gradually reduced + until it is finally discontinued, and during treatment the patient + must be confined to bed. + + + Senile Insanity. + +SENILE INSANITY.--States of mental enfeeblement are always the result of +failure of development or of structural changes in the cortical grey +matter of the brain. If the enfeeblement is due to failure of +development or brain damage occurring in early life, it is spoken of as +_idiocy_ or imbecility. Every form of insanity which occurs after a +certain period of life is apt to be regarded by some observers as +senile, but although the failing mental power may colour the character +of the symptoms it cannot be regarded as correct to designate, for +instance, a recurrent form of mania as senile merely because it +necessarily manifests itself in a subject who has lived into the senile +period. On the other hand, many persons first suffer from mental +derangement at an advanced period of life without at the same time +manifesting any marked failure of mental power, while others only +manifest their insanity as a result of the decay of their mental +faculties. + +From this statement it will be seen that senile insanity is a complex of +different conditions, some of them accompanied by dementia, others +without dementia. + +_Senile Dementia_ is distinguished occasionally into "senile" properly +so called, and "presenile" dementia, which supervenes at middle age or +even earlier. + +The occurrence of dementia is sometimes preceded by an acute +hallucinatory phase, accompanied by mania or melancholia; but as a +general rule, in the presenile cases, by neurasthenia, indifference, and +mental apathy which extends to a disregard for the ordinary conventions +and the means of subsistence. + +It has pithily been remarked that the age of a man is the age of his +blood-vessels. The two conditions of senile and presenile dementia +cannot therefore be separated scientifically. From a clinical point of +view, however, the two are distinguishable in so far as their symptoms +are concerned, for the presenile cases are more complete and the process +of dementia achieves its consummation earlier and quicker, while in the +senile the gradual disease of the arteries and the slow decay of the +mental faculties offer a different background for the manifestation of +mental symptoms. Moreover, the senile patients more frequently present +symptoms of recurrent attacks of acute insanity, a more pronounced +emotionalism, and a greater tendency to restlessness at night. The +presenile cases, on the other hand, except at the commencement of their +malady, are usually free from acute and troublesome symptoms and present +chiefly an apathetic indifference and irresponsiveness on the mental +side, and on the physical side a neurasthenic and enfeebled bodily +state. In both conditions memory is greatly impaired. + +Added to senile dementia there is often found a condition of mania or +melancholia or even of systematized delusional insanity. The chief +symptoms of the maniacal attacks are the great motor restlessness and +excitement, which are worst during the night time. Sleep is almost +always seriously disturbed, and the patients rapidly become exhausted +unless carefully nursed and tended. The actions of senile maniacs are +often puerile and foolish, and they may exhibit impulses of a homicidal, +suicidal or sexual character. The melancholic cases are also extremely +restless, and their emotion is loudly expressed in an uncontrollable +manner. They often have delusions of persecution. Their cries and groans +have an automatic character, as if the patient, though compelled to +utter them, did not experience the mental pain which he expressed. They +also, many of them, eat their food ravenously, although a few +obstinately refuse it. The senile delusional cases may manifest any of +the classical forms of paranoia described above, but their delusions are +of a rudimentary and unfinished type. The most common of all senile +delusions is that they are being robbed. They therefore often hide their +small valuables in corners and out-of-the-way places, and as their +memories are very defective they are afterwards unable to find them. +Others, who live alone, barricade their doors and try to prevent any one +entering for fear of thieves. Delusions of ambition in senile subjects +are usually of a very improbable and childish character. Hallucinations +are generally present in the senile delusional cases. + + The _treatment_ of senile insanity is from the medical point of view + not hopeful; it resolves itself largely into instructions for careful + nursing, suitable feeding, and the protection of the patient from all + the physical dangers to which he may be exposed. + + _Statistics._--The statistics of lunacy are merely of interest from a + sociological point of view; for under that term are comprised all + forms of insanity. It is needless to produce tables illustrative of + the relative numbers of lunatics in the various countries of Europe, + the systems of registration being so unequal in their working as to + afford no trustworthy basis of comparison. + + Even in Great Britain, where the systems are more perfect than in any + other country, the tables published in the Blue Books of the three + countries can only be regarded as approximately correct, the + difficulty of registering all cases of lunacy being insuperable. On + the 1st of January 1907, according to the returns made to the offices + of the Commissioners in Lunacy, the numbers of lunatics stood thus on + the registers:-- + + +------------------+--------+----------+---------+ + | | Males. | Females. | Totals. | + +------------------+--------+----------+---------+ + | England and Wales| 57,176 | 66,812 | 123,988 | + | Scotland | 8,594 | 8,999 | 17,593 | + | Ireland | 12,254 | 11,300 | 23,554 | + +------------------+--------+----------+---------+ + | Gross total | 78,024 | 87,111 | 165,135 | + +------------------+--------+----------+---------+ + + These figures show the ratio of lunatics to 100,000 of the population + to be 354 in England and Wales, 312 in Scotland, and 538 in Ireland. + + _Numbers of Lunatics on the 1st of January of the years 1857-1907 + inclusive, according to Returns made to the Offices of the + Commissioners in Lunacy for England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland._ + + +------+---------+----------+----------+ + | | England | | | + |Years.| and | Scotland.| Ireland. | + | | Wales. | | | + +------+---------+----------+----------+ + | 1858 | .. | 5,823 | .. | + | 1859 | 36,762 | 6,072 | .. | + | 1860 | 38,058 | 6,273 | .. | + | 1861 | 39,647 | 6,327 | .. | + | 1862 | 41,129 | 6,398 | 8,055 | + | 1863 | 43,118 | 6,386 | 7,862 | + | 1864 | 44,795 | 6,422 | 8,272 | + | 1865 | 45,950 | 6,533 | 8,845 | + | 1866 | 47,648 | 6,730 | 8,964 | + | 1867 | 49,086 | 6,888 | 8,962 | + | 1868 | 51,000 | 7,055 | 9,086 | + | 1869 | 53,177 | 7,310 | 9,454 | + | 1870 | 54,713 | 7,571 | 10,082 | + | 1871 | 56,755 | 7,729 | 10,257 | + | 1872 | 58,640 | 7,849 | 10,767 | + | 1873 | 60,296 | 7,982 | 10,958 | + | 1874 | 60,027 | 8,069 | 11,326 | + | 1875 | 63,793 | 8,225 | 11,583 | + | 1876 | 64,916 | 8,509 | 11,777 | + | 1877 | 66,636 | 8,862 | 12,123 | + | 1878 | 68,538 | 9,097 | 12,380 | + | 1879 | 69,885 | 9,386 | 12,585 | + | 1880 | 71,191 | 9,624 | 12,819 | + | 1881 | 73,113 | 10,012 | 13,062 | + | 1882 | 74,842 | 10,355 | 13,444 | + | 1883 | 76,765 | 10,510 | 13,882 | + | 1884 | 78,528 | 10,739 | 14,088 | + | 1885 | 79,704 | 10,918 | 14,279 | + | 1886 | 80,156 | 11,187 | 14,590 | + | 1887 | 80,891 | 11,309 | 14,702 | + | 1888 | 82,643 | 11,609 | 15,263 | + | 1889 | 84,340 | 11,954 | 15,685 | + | 1890 | 86,067 | 12,302 | 16,159 | + | 1891 | 86,795 | 12,595 | 16,251 | + | 1892 | 87,848 | 12,799 | 16,688 | + | 1893 | 89,822 | 13,058 | 17,124 | + | 1894 | 92,067 | 13,300 | 17,276 | + | 1895 | 94,081 | 13,852 | 17,665 | + | 1896 | 96,446 | 14,093 | 18,357 | + | 1897 | 99,365 | 14,500 | 18,966 | + | 1898 | 101,972 | 14,906 | 19,590 | + | 1899 | 105,086 | 15,399 | 20,304 | + | 1900 | 106,611 | 15,663 | 20,863 | + | 1901 | 107,944 | 15,899 | 21,169 | + | 1902 | 110,713 | 16,288 | 21,630 | + | 1903 | 113,964 | 16,658 | 22,138 | + | 1904 | 117,199 | 16,894 | 22,794 | + | 1905 | 119,829 | 17,241 | 22,996 | + | 1906 | 121,979 | 17,450 | 23,365 | + | 1907 | 123,988 | 17,593 | 23,554 | + +------+---------+----------+----------+ + + There is thus an increased ratio in England and Wales of lunatics to + the population (which in 1859 was 19,686,701, and in 1907 was + estimated at 34,945,600) of 186.8 per 100,000 as against 354.8, and in + Scotland of 157 as against 312 per 100,000. The Irish figures on the + same basis have increased from 130.9 in 1862 to 538.1 in 1907. The + publication of these figures has given rise to the question whether + lunacy has actually become more prevalent during the last twenty + years, whether there is real increase of the disease. There is a + pretty general consent of all authorities that if there has been an + increase it is very slight, and that the apparent increase is due, + first to the improved systems of registration, and secondly (a far + more powerful reason) to the increasing tendency among all classes, + and especially among the poorer class, to recognize the less + pronounced forms of mental disorder as being of the nature of + insanity. Thirdly, the grant of four shillings per week which in 1876 + was made by parliament from imperial sources for the maintenance of + pauper lunatics has induced parochial authorities to regard as + lunatics a large number of weak-minded paupers, and to force them into + asylums in order to obtain the benefit of the grant and to relieve the + rates. These views receive support from the fact that the increase of + private patients, i.e. patients who are provided for out of their own + funds or those of the family, has advanced in a vastly smaller ratio. + In their case the increase, small as it is, can be accounted for by + the growing disinclination on the part of the community to tolerate + irregularities of conduct due to mental disease. And again, careful + inquiry has failed to show a proportional increase of admissions into + asylums of such well-marked forms as general paralysis, puerperal + mania, &c. The main cause of the registered increase of lunatics is + thus to be sought for in the improved registration, and parochial and + family convenience. If there is an actual increase, and there is + reason for believing that there is a slight actual increase, it is due + to the tendency of the population to gravitate towards towns and + cities, where the conditions of health are inferior to those of rural + life, and where there is therefore a greater disposition to disease of + all kinds. + + The futility of seeking for accurate figures bearing on the relative + number of lunatics in other countries is illustrated by the tables set + forth in a report by the United States Census Bureau. They show that + the number of registered lunatics in 1903 was 150,151; in 1890, + 74,028; and in 1880, 40,942. An attempt was made in 1890 to estimate + the number of insane persons outside of hospitals, which was stated to + be 32,457. In 1903 no such attempt was made, as it was admitted that + so many sources of fallacy existed as to render it useless. Thus the + mere statement that of every 100,000 of the population (calculated at + 80,000,000) 186.2 were registered as insane is of no value. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following are systematic works: Bucknill and Tuke, + _Psychological Medicine_ (4th edition, 1879); Griesinger, _On Mental + Diseases_ (New Sydenham Society, 1867); Maudsley, _The Pathology of + Mind_ (1895); Bevan Lewis, _A Text-Book of Mental Diseases_ (1899); + Clouston, _Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases_ (1892); Kraepelin, + _Psychiatrie_ (1893); Krafft-Ebing, _Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie_ (1893); + Regis, _A Practical Manual of Mental Medicine_ (London, 1895); Magnan, + _Leçons cliniques sur les maladies mentales_ (1897); Mendil, + _Leitfaden der Psychiatrie_ (1902); Mercier, _A Text-Book of Insanity_ + (1902); Lewis C. Bruce, _Studies in Clinical Psychiatry_ (1906); + Macpherson, _Mental Affections_ (1899); Brower-Bannister, _Practical + Manual of Insanity_ (1902); Ford Robertson, _Text-Book of Pathology in + Relation to Mental Diseases_ (1900). (J. B. T.; J. Mn.; L. C. B.) + + +II. LEGAL ASPECTS + +The effect of insanity upon responsibility and civil capacity has been +recognized at an early period in every system of law. + +_Roman Law._--In the Roman jurisprudence its consequences were very +fully developed, and the provisions and terminology of that system have +largely affected the subsequent legal treatment of the subject. Its +leading principles were simple and well marked. The insane person having +no intelligent will, and being thus incapable of consent or voluntary +action, could acquire no right and incur no responsibility by his own +acts (see Sohm's _Inst. Roman Law_, 3rd ed. pp. 216, 217, 219); his +person and property were placed after inquiry by the magistrate under +the control of a curator, who was empowered and bound to manage the +property of the lunatic on his behalf (Sohm, p. 513; Hunter, _Roman +Law_, pp. 732-735). The different terms by which the insane were known, +such as _demens_, _furiosus_, _fatuus_, although no doubt signifying +different types of insanity, did not in Roman law infer any difference +of legal treatment. They were popular names, which all denoted the +complete deprivation of reason. + +_Medieval Law._--During the middle ages the insane were little +protected. Their legal acts were annulled, and their property placed +under control, but little or no attempt was made to supervise their +personal treatment. In England the wardship of idiots and lunatics, +which was annexed before the reign of Edward II. to the king's +prerogative, had regard chiefly to the control of their lands and +estates, and was only gradually elaborated into the systematic control +of their persons and property now exercised under the jurisdiction in +lunacy. Those whose means were insignificant were left to the care of +their relations or to charity. In criminal law the plea of insanity was +unavailing except in extreme cases. About the beginning of the 19th +century a very considerable change commenced. The public attention was +strongly attracted to the miserable condition of the insane incarcerated +in asylums without any efficient check or inspection; and at the same +time the medical knowledge of insanity entered on a new phase. The +possibility and advantages of a better treatment of insanity were +illustrated by eminent physicians, Philippe Pinel in France, H. Tuke in +England, Bond, B. Rush and I. Ray in the United States; its physical +origin became generally accepted; its mental phenomena were more +carefully observed, and its relation was established to other mental +conditions. + +_Modern Law._--From this period we date the commencement of legislation +such as that known in England as the Lunacy Acts, which aimed at the +regulation and control of all constraint applied to the insane. +Hitherto, the criteria of insanity had been very rude, and the evidence +was generally of a loose and popular character; but, whenever it was +fully recognized that insanity was a disease with which physicians who +had studied the subject were peculiarly conversant, expert evidence +obtained increased importance, and from this time became prominent in +every case. The newer medical views of insanity were thus brought into +contact with the old narrow conception of the law courts, and a +controversy arose in the field of criminal law which in England, at +least, still continues. + +_Relations between Insanity and Law._--The fact of insanity may operate +in law--(1) by excluding responsibility for crime; (2) by invalidating +legal acts; (3) by affording ground for depriving the insane person by a +legal process of the control of his person and property; or (4) by +affording ground for putting him under restraint. + +_Legal Terminology._--Before proceeding, however, to deal with these +matters in succession, it may be desirable to say something with regard +to the chief legal terms respecting persons suffering under mental +disabilities. The subject is now of less importance than formerly, +because the modern tendency of the law is to determine the capacity or +responsibility of a person alleged to be insane by considering it with +reference to the particular matter or class of matters which brings his +mental condition _sub judice_. But the literature of the law of lunacy +cannot be clearly understood unless the distinctions between the +different terms employed to describe the insane are kept in view. The +term _non compos mentis_ is as old as the statute _De praerogativa +regis_ (1325), and is used sometimes, as in that statute, to indicate a +species contrasted with idiot, sometimes (e.g. in Co. Litt. 246 (b)) as +a genus, and afterwards, chiefly in statutes relating to the insane, in +connexion with the terms "idiot" and "lunatic" as a word _ejusdem +generis_. The word "idiot" (Gr. [Greek: idios], a private person, one +who does not hold any public office, and [Greek: idiôtês], an ignorant +and illiterate person) appears in the statute _De praerogativa regis as +fatuus naturalis_, and it is placed in contradistinction to _non compos +mentis_. The "idiot" is defined by Sir E. Coke (4 Rep. 124 (b)) as one +who from his nativity, by a perpetual infirmity, is non compos mentis, +and Sir M. Hale (_Pleas of the Crown_, i. 29) describes idiocy as +"fatuity a _nativitate vel dementia naturalis_." In early times various +artificial criteria of idiocy were suggested. Fitzherbert's test was the +capacity of the alleged idiot to count twenty pence, or tell his age, or +who were his father and mother (_De natura brevium_, 233). Swinburne +proposed as a criterion of capacity, inter alia, to measure a yard of +cloth or name the days in the week (_Testaments_, 42). Hale propounded +the sounder view that "idiocy or not is a question of fact triable by +jury and sometimes by inspection" (_Pleas of the Crown_, i. 29). The +legal incidents of idiocy were at one time distinct in an important +particular from those of lunacy. Under the statute _De praerogativa +regis_ the king was to have the rents and profits of an idiot's lands to +his own use during the life of the idiot, subject merely to an +obligation to provide him with necessaries. In the case of the lunatic +the king was a trustee, holding his lands and tenements for his benefit +and that of his family. It was on account of this difference in the +legal consequences of the two states that on inquisitions distinct +writs, one _de idiota inquirendo_, the other _de lunatico inquirendo_, +were framed for each of them. But juries avoided finding a verdict of +idiocy wherever they could, and the writ _de idiota inquirendo_ fell +into desuetude. A further blow was struck at the distinction when it +came to be recognized even by the legislature (see the Idiots Act 1886) +that idiots are capable of being educated and trained, and it was +practically abolished when the Lunacy Regulation Act 1862, in a +provision reproduced in substance in the Lunacy Act 1890, limited the +evidence admissible in proof of unsoundness of mind on an inquisition +(without special leave of the Master trying the case) to a period of two +years before the date of the inquiry, and raised a uniform issue, viz. +the state of mind of the alleged lunatic at the time when the +inquisition is held. + +The term "lunatic," derived from the Latin _luna_ in consequence of the +notion that the moon had an influence on mental disorders,[1] does not +appear in the statute-book till the time of Henry VIII. (1541). Coke +defines a lunatic as a "person who has sometimes his understanding and +sometimes not, _qui gaudet lucidis intervallis_, and therefore he is +called _non compos mentis_ so long as he has not understanding" (Co. +Litt. 247 (a), 4 Rep. 124 (b)). Hale defines "lunacy" as "interpolated" +(i.e. intermittent) _dementia accidentalis vel adventitia_, whether +total or (a description, it will be observed, of "partial insanity") +_quoad hoc vel illud_ (_Pleas of the Crown_, i. 29). In modern times, +the word "lunacy" has lost its former precise signification. It is +employed sometimes in the strict sense, sometimes in contradistinction +to "idiocy" or "imbecility"; once at least--viz. in the Lunacy Act +1890--as including "idiot"; and frequently in conjunction with the +vague terms "unsound mind" (non-sane memory) and "insane." Section 116 +of the Lunacy Act 1890 has by implication extended the meaning of the +term lunacy so as to include for certain purposes the incapacity of a +person to manage his affairs through mental infirmity arising from +disease or age. "Imbecility" is a state of mental weakness "between the +limits of absolute idiocy on the one hand and of perfect capacity on the +other" (see 1 Haggard, _Eccles. Rep._ p. 401). + + + Macnaughton's Case. + +1. _The Criminal Responsibility of the Insane._--The law as to the +criminal responsibility of the insane has pursued in England a curious +course of development. The views of Coke and Hale give the best +exposition of it in the 17th century. Both were agreed that in criminal +causes the act and wrong of a madman shall not be imputed to him; both +distinguished, although in different language, between _dementia +naturalis_ (or a _nativitate_) and _dementia accidentalis_ or +_adventitia_; and the main points in which the writings of Hale mark an +advance on those of Coke are in the elaboration by the former of the +doctrine of "partial insanity," and his adoption of the level of +understanding of a child of fourteen years of age as the test of +responsibility in criminal cases (_Pleas of the Crown_, i. 29, 30; and +see Co. 4 _Rep._ 124 (b)). In the 18th century a test, still more +unsatisfactory than this "child of fourteen" theory, with its +identification of "healthy immaturity" with "diseased maturity" (Steph. +_Hist. Crim. Law_, ii. 150), was prescribed. On the trial of Edward +Arnold in 1723 for firing at and wounding Lord Onslow, Mr Justice Tracy +told the jury that "a prisoner, in order to be acquitted on the ground +of insanity, must be a man that is totally deprived of his understanding +and memory, and doth not know what he is doing, no more than an infant, +than a brute or wild beast." In the beginning of the 19th century a +fresh statement of the test of criminal responsibility in mental disease +was attempted. On the trial of Hadfield for shooting at George III. in +Drury Lane Theatre on 15th May 1800, Lord Chief Justice Kenyon charged +the jury in the following terms: "If a man is in a deranged state of +mind at the time, he is not criminally answerable for his acts; but the +material part of the case is whether at the very time when the act was +committed the man's mind was sane." The practical effect of this ruling, +had it been followed, would have been to make the question of the +amenability of persons alleged to be insane to the criminal law very +much one of fact, to be answered by juries according to the particular +circumstances of each case, and without being aided or embarrassed by +any rigid external standard. But in 1812, on the trial of Bellingham for +the murder of Mr Perceval, the First Lord of the Treasury, Sir James +Mansfield propounded yet another criterion of criminal responsibility in +mental disease, viz. whether a prisoner has, at the time of committing +an offence, a sufficient degree of capacity to distinguish between good +and evil. The objection to this doctrine consisted in the fact, to which +the writings of Continental and American jurists soon afterwards began +to give prominence, that there are very many lunatics whose general +ideas on the subject of right and wrong are quite unexceptionable, but +who are yet unable, in consequence of delusions, to perceive the +wrongness of particular acts. Sir James Mansfield's statement of the law +was discredited in the case (4 _State Tri._ (n.s.) 847; 10 Cl. and Fin. +200) of Daniel Macnaughton, who was tried in March 1843, before Chief +Justice Tindal, Mr Justice Williams and Mr Justice Coleridge, for the +murder of Mr Drummond, the private secretary of Sir Robert Peel. Mr +(afterwards Lord Chief Justice) Cockburn, who defended the prisoner, +used Hale's doctrine of partial insanity as the foundation of the +defence, and secured an acquittal, Chief Justice Tindal telling the jury +that the question was whether Macnaughton was capable of distinguishing +right from wrong _with respect to the act with which he stood charged_. +This judicial approval of the doctrine of partial insanity formed the +subject of an animated debate in the House of Lords, and in the end +certain questions were put by that House to the judges, and answered by +Chief Justice Tindal on behalf of all his colleagues except Mr Justice +Maule, who gave independent replies. The answers to those questions are +commonly called "The Rules in Macnaughton's case," and they still +nominally contain the law of England as to the criminal responsibility +of the insane. The points affirmed by the Rules that must be noted here +are the propositions that knowledge of the nature and quality of the +particular criminal act, at the time of its commission, is the test of +criminal responsibility, and that delusion is a valid exculpatory plea, +when, and only when, the fancies of the insane person, if they had been +facts, would have been so. The Rules in Macnaughton's case are open to +serious criticism. They ignore, at least on a literal interpretation, +those forms of mental disease which may, for the present purpose, be +roughly grouped under the heading "moral insanity," and in which the +moral faculties are more obviously deranged than the mental--the +affections and the will, rather than the reason, being apparently +disordered. The test propounded with reference to delusions has also +been strenuously attacked by medical writers, and especially by Dr +Maudsley in his work on _Responsibility in Mental Disease_, on the +ground that it first assumes a man to have a delusion in regard to a +particular subject, and then expects and requires him to reason sanely +upon it. It may be pointed out, however, that in thus localizing the +range of the immunity which insane delusion confers, the criminal law is +merely following the course which, _mutatis mutandis_, the civil law +has, with general acceptance, adopted in questions as to the contractual +and testamentary capacity of the insane. + +The Rules in Macnaughton's case have, as regards moral insanity, +undergone considerable modification. Soon after they were laid down, Sir +(then Mr) James Fitz-James Stephen, in an article in the _Juridical +Papers_, i. 67, on the policy of maintaining the existing law as to the +criminal responsibility of the insane, foreshadowed the view which he +subsequently propounded in his _History of the Criminal Law_, ii. 163, +that no man who was deprived by mental disease of the power of passing a +fairly rational judgment on the moral character of an act could be said +to "know" its nature and quality within the meaning of the Rules; and it +has in recent years been found possible in practice so to manipulate the +test of the criminal responsibility which they prescribed as to afford +protection to the accused in the by no means infrequent cases of +insanity which in its literal interpretation it would leave without +excuse. + +In Scotland the Rules in Macnaughton's case are recognized, but, as in +England, there is a tendency among judges to adopt a generous +construction of them. Mental unsoundness insufficient to bar trial, or +to exempt from punishment, may still, it is said, be present in a degree +which is regarded as reducing the offence from a higher to a lower +category,--a doctrine first practically applied in Scotland, it is +believed, in 1867 by Lord Deas; and the fact that a prisoner is of weak +or ill-regulated mind is often urged with success as a plea in +mitigation of punishment. The Indian Penal Code (Act XLV. of 1860, § 84) +expressly adopts the English test of criminal responsibility, but the +qualifications noted in the case of Scotland have received some measure +of judicial acceptance (see Mayne, _Crim. Law Ind._, 3rd ed., pp. +403-419; Nelson, _Ind. Pen. Code_, 3rd ed., pp. 135 et seq.). The Rules +in Macnaughton's case have also been adopted in substance in those +colonies which have codified the criminal law. The following typical +references may be given: 55 and 56 Vict. (Can.) c. 29, § 11; 57 Vict. +(N.Z.), No. 56 of 1893, § 23; No. 101 of 1888 (St Lucia), § 50; No. 5 of +1876 (Gold Coast), § 49 (b); No. 2 of 1883, art. 77 (Ceylon); No. 4 of +1871, art. 84 (Straits Settlements). On the other hand, a departure +towards a recognition of "moral insanity" is made by the Queensland +Criminal Code (No. 9 of 1899), § 27 of which provides that "a person is +not criminally responsible for an act" if at the time of doing it "he is +in such a state of mental disease ... as to deprive him ... of capacity +to control his actions": and the law has been defined in the same sense +in the Cape of Good Hope in the case of _Queen_ v. _Hay_ (1899, 16 +S.C.R. 290). The Rules were rapidly reproduced in the United States, but +the modern trend of American judicial opinion is adverse to them (see +Clevenger, _Med. Jur. of Ins._ p. 125; _Parsons_ v. _State_ (1887) 81 +Ala. 577). On the Continent of Europe moral insanity and irresistible +impulse are freely recognized as exculpatory pleas (see the French _Code +Penal_, § 64; Belgian _Code Penal_, § 71; German _Penal Code_, § 51; +Italian _Penal Code_, §§ 46, 47). + +Not only is insanity at the time of the commission of an offence a valid +exculpatory plea, but supervening insanity stays the action of the +criminal law at every stage from arrest up to punishment. High treason +was formerly an exception, but the statute making it so (33 Hen. VIII. +c. 20) was repealed in the time of Philip and Mary. The Home Secretary +has power, under the Criminal Lunatics Act 1884 to order by warrant the +removal of a prisoner, certified to be insane, to a lunatic asylum, +before[2] trial or after trial, whether under sentence of death or not. +Prisoners dealt with under these provisions are styled "Secretary of +State's lunatics." On the other hand, a prisoner who on arraignment +appears, or is found by the jury to be unfit to plead, or who is found +"guilty but insane" at the time of committing the offence--a verdict +substituted by the Trial of Lunatics Act 1883 for the old verdict of +"acquitted on the ground of insanity," in the hope that the formal +conviction recorded in the new finding might have a deterrent effect on +the mentally unstable--is committed to a criminal lunatic asylum by the +order of the judge trying the case, to be detained there "during the +king's pleasure." Lunatics of this class are called "king's pleasure +lunatics." There was no doubt at common law as to the power of the +courts to order the detention of criminal lunatics in safe custody, but, +prior to 1800, the practice was varying and uncertain. On the acquittal +of Hadfield, however, in that year for the attempted murder of George +III., a question arose as to the provision which was to be made for his +detention, and the Criminal Lunatics Act 1800, part of which is still in +force, was passed to affirm the law on the subject. + +The Criminal Lunatics Act contains provisions similar to those of the +Lunacy Act 1890, as to the discharge (conditional or absolute) and +transfer of criminal lunatics and the detention of persons becoming +pauper lunatics. The expenses of the maintenance of criminal lunatics +are defrayed out of moneys provided by Parliament (Crim. Luns. Act 1884, +and Hansard, 3rd series, vol. ccxc. p. 75; 139 Com. Jo. pp. 336, 340, +344). The Lunatics' Removal (India) Act 1851 provides for the removal to +a criminal lunatic asylum in Great Britain of persons found guilty of +crimes and offences in India, and acquitted on the ground of insanity. +Similar provisions with regard to colonial criminal lunatics are +contained in the Colonial Prisoners' Removal Act 1884; and the policy of +this statute has been followed by No 5. of 1894 (New South Wales), and +Ordin. No. 2 of 1895 (Falkland Islands). Indian law (see Act V. of 1898, +§§ 464-475) and the laws of the colonies (the Cape Act No. 1 of 1897 is +a typical example) as to the trial of lunatics are similar to the +English. In Scotland all the criminal lunatics, except those who may +have been removed to the ordinary asylums or have been discharged, are +confined in the Criminal Asylum established at Perth in connexion with +H.M.'s General Prison, and regulated by special acts (23 & 24 Vict. c. +105, and 40 & 41 Vict. c. 53). Provision similar to the English has been +made for prisoners found insane as a bar to trial, or acquitted on the +ground of insanity or becoming insane in confinement. In New York, +Michigan and other American states there are criminal lunatic asylums. +Elsewhere insane criminals are apparently detained in state prisons, &c. +The statutory rules as to the maintenance of criminal lunatic asylums, +the treatment of the criminal insane, and the plea of insanity in +criminal courts in America, closely resemble English practice. The only +special point in Continental law calling for notice is the system by +which official experts report for the guidance of the tribunals on +questions of alleged criminal irresponsibility (see, e.g., the German +_Code of Penal Procedure_, § 293, and cp. § 81). + +2. _Insanity and Civil Capacity._--The law as to the civil capacity of +the insane was for some time influenced in Great Britain by the view +propounded by Lord Brougham in 1848 in the case of _Waring_ v. _Waring_, +and by Sir J. P. Wilde in a later case, raising the question of the +validity of a marriage, that, as the mind is one and indivisible, the +least disorder of its faculties was fatal to civil capacity. In the +leading case of _Banks_ v. _Goodfellow_ in 1870, the court of queen's +bench, in an elaborate judgment delivered by Chief Justice Cockburn, +disapproved of this doctrine, and in effect laid down the principle that +the question of capacity must be considered with strict reference to the +act which has to be or has been done. Thus a certain degree of +unsoundness of mind is not now, in the absence of undue influence, a bar +to the formation of a valid marriage, if the party whose capacity is in +question knew at the time of the marriage the nature of the engagement +entered into (but see 51 Geo. III. c. 37 as to the marriage of lunatics +so found by inquisition). Again, a man whose mind is affected may make a +valid will, if he possesses at the time of executing it a memory +sufficiently active to recall the nature and extent of his property, the +persons who have claims upon his bounty, and a judgment and will +sufficiently free from the influence of morbid ideas or external control +to determine the relative strength of those claims. So far has this rule +been carried, that in 1893 probate was granted of the will of a lady who +was a Chancery lunatic at the date of its execution, and died without +the inquisition having been superseded. (_Roe_ v. _Nix_, 1893, P. 55.) +It is also now settled that the simple contract of a lunatic is voidable +and not void, and is binding upon him, unless he can show that at the +time of making it he was, to the knowledge of the other party, so insane +as not to know what he was about. (_Imperial Loan Co._ v. _Stone_, 1892, +1 Q.B. 599.) The test established by _Banks_ v. _Goodfellow_ is applied +also in a number of minor points in which civil capacity comes into +question, e.g. competency of the insane as witnesses. The law implies, +on the part of a lunatic, whether so found or not, an obligation to pay +a reasonable price for "necessaries" supplied to him; and the term +"necessaries" means goods suitable to his condition in life and to his +actual requirements at the time of sale and delivery (Sale of Goods Act +1893). + +The question of the liability of an insane person for tort appears still +to be undecided (see Pollock on _Torts_, 7th ed. p. 53; Clerk and +Lindsell on _Torts_, 2nd ed. pp. 39, 40; _Law Quart. Rev._ vol. xiii. p. +325). Supervening insanity is no bar to proceedings by or against a +lunatic husband or wife for divorce or separation for previous +matrimonial offences. It does not avoid a marriage nor constitute _per +se_ a ground either for divorce or for judicial separation. But cruelty +does not cease to be a cause of suit if it proceeds from disorderly +affections or want of moral control falling short of positive insanity; +and possibly even cruelty springing from intermittent or recurrent +insanity might be held a ground for judicial separation, since in such +case the party offended against cannot obtain protection by securing the +permanent confinement of the offending spouse. Whether insanity at the +time when an alleged matrimonial offence was committed is a bar to a +suit for divorce or separation is an open question; and in any event, in +order that it may be so, the insanity must be of such a character as to +have prevented the insane party from knowing the nature and consequences +of the act at the time of its commission. The laws of Scotland, Ireland, +India (see, e.g., Act IX. of 1872, § 12), the colonies and the United +States are substantially identical with English law on the subject of +the civil capacity of the insane. The German Civil Code (§ 1569) +recognizes the lunacy of a spouse as a ground for divorce, but only +where the malady continues during at least three years of the union, and +has reached such a pitch that intellectual intercourse between the +spouses is impossible, and that every prospect of a restoration of such +association is excluded. If one of the spouses obtains a divorce on the +ground of the lunacy of the other the former has to allow alimony, just +as a husband declared to be the sole guilty party in a divorce suit +would have to do (§§ 1585, 1578). + +3. _The Jurisdiction in Lunacy._--In order to effect a change in the +status of persons alleged to be of unsound mind, and to bring their +persons and property under control, the aid of the jurisdiction in +lunacy must be invoked. Under the unrepealed statute _De Praerogativa +Regis_ (1325) the care and custody of lunatics belong to the Crown. But +the Crown has, at least since the 16th century, exercised this branch of +the prerogative by delegates, and principally through the Lord +Chancellor--not as head of the Court of Chancery, but as the +representative and delegate of the sovereign. Under the Lunacy Acts 1890 +and 1891, the jurisdiction in lunacy is exercised first by the Lord +Chancellor and such of the Lords Justices and other judges as may be +invested with it by the sign-manual; and, secondly, by the two Masters +in Lunacy, appointed by the Lord Chancellor, from members of the bar of +at least ten years' standing, whose duties include the holding of +inquisitions and summary inquiries, and the making of most of the +consequential orders dealing with the persons and estates of lunatics. +County court judges may also exercise a limited jurisdiction in lunacy +in the case of lunatics as to whom a reception order has been made, if +their entire property is under £200 in value, and no relative or friend +is willing to undertake the management of it; in partnership cases where +the assets do not exceed £500; and upon application by the guardians of +any union for payment of expenses incurred by them in relation to any +lunatic. + +Persons of unsound mind are brought under the jurisdiction in lunacy +either by an inquisition _de lunatico inquirendo_, or, in certain cases +which will be adverted to below, by proceedings instituted under § 116 +of the Lunacy Act 1890, which is now the great practice section in the +Lunacy Office. Prior to 1853 a special commission was issued to the +Masters in each alleged case of lunacy. But by the Lunacy Regulation Act +of that year a general commission was directed to the Masters, +empowering them to proceed in each case in which the Lord Chancellor by +order required an inquisition to be held. This procedure is still in +force. A special commission would now be issued only where both Masters +were personally interested in the subject of the inquiry, or for some +other similar reason. An inquisition is ordered by the judge in lunacy +(a term which does not, for this purpose, at present include the +Masters, although this is one of the points in regard to which a change +in the law has been suggested, on the petition generally of a near +relative of the alleged lunatic). The inquiry is held before one of the +Masters, and a jury may be summoned if the alleged lunatic, being within +the jurisdiction, demands it, unless the judge is satisfied that he is +not competent to form and express such a wish; and even in that case the +Master has power to direct trial by jury if he thinks fit on +consideration of the evidence. Where the alleged lunatic is not within +the jurisdiction the trial must be by jury; and the judge in lunacy may +direct this mode of trial to be adopted in any case whatever. + +A few points of general interest in connexion with inquisitions must be +noted. In practice thirty-four jurors are summoned by the sheriff, and +not more than twenty-four are empanelled. Twelve at least must concur in +the verdict. Counsel for the petitioner ought to act in the judicial +spirit expected from counsel for the prosecution in criminal cases. The +issue to be determined on an inquisition is "whether or not the alleged +lunatic is at the time of the inquisition of unsound mind, and incapable +of managing himself and his affairs" (a special verdict may, however, be +found that the lunatic is capable of managing himself, although not his +affairs, and that he is not dangerous to others); and without the +direction of the person holding the inquisition, no evidence as to the +lunatic's conduct at any time being more than two years before the +inquisition is to be receivable. This limitation, both of the issue and +of the evidence, was imposed with a view to preventing the recurrence of +such cases as that of Mr Windham in 1861-1862, when the inquiry ranged +over the whole life of an alleged lunatic, forty-eight witnesses being +examined on behalf of the petitioners and ninety-one on behalf of the +respondents, while the hearing lasted for thirty-four days. For the +purpose of assisting the Master or jury in arriving at a decision, +provision is made for the personal examination of the alleged lunatic by +them on oath or otherwise, and either in open court or in private, as +may be directed. The proceedings on inquisition are open to the public. +When a person has been found lunatic by inquisition he becomes subject +to the jurisdiction in lunacy, and remains so (unless he succeeds in +setting aside the verdict by a "traverse"--a proceeding which ultimately +comes before, and is determined by, the King's Bench Division in London +or at the assizes) until his recovery, when the inquisition may be put +an end to by a procedure technically known as "supersedeas," or by his +death. The results of the inquisition are worked out in the Lunacy +Office. The control of the estate, and, except where he was found +incapable of managing his property only, of the person of the lunatic is +entrusted to committees of the estate and person, who are appointed by, +and accountable to, the Master in Lunacy, and whose legal position +corresponds roughly with that of the tutors and curators of the civil +law. The committee of the estate in particular exercises over the +property of the lunatic, with the sanction or by the order of the +Master, very wide powers of management and administration, including the +raising of money by sale, charge or otherwise, to pay the lunatic's +debts, or provide for his past or future maintenance, charges for +permanent improvements, the sale of any property belonging to the +lunatic, the execution of powers vested in him and the performance of +contracts relating to property. + +The alternative method of bringing a person of unsound mind under lunacy +jurisdiction was created by § 116 of the Lunacy Act 1890. The effect of +that section briefly is to enable the Master, on a summons being taken +out in his chambers and heard before him, to apply the powers of +management and administration summarized in the last preceding +paragraph, without any inquisition, to the following classes of cases: +lunatics not so found by inquisition, for the protection or +administration of whose property any order was made under earlier acts; +every person lawfully detained, within the jurisdiction of the English +courts, as a lunatic, though not so found by inquisition; persons not +coming within the foregoing categories who are "through mental infirmity +arising from disease or age" incapable of managing their affairs; +persons of unsound mind whose property does not exceed £2000 in value, +or does not yield an annual income of more than £100; and criminal +lunatics continuing insane and under confinement. + +In Scotland the insane are brought under the jurisdiction in lunacy by +alternative methods, similar to the English inquisition and summary +procedure, viz. "cognition," the trial taking place before the Lord +President of the Court of Session, or any judge of that court to whom he +may remit it, and a jury of twelve--see 31 & 32 Vict. c. 100, and Act of +Sederunt of 3rd December 1868--and an application to the Junior Lord +Ordinary of the Court of Session or (43 & 44 Vict. c. 4, § 4) to the +Sheriff Court, when the estate in question does not exceed £100 a year, +for the appointment of a _curator bonis_ or judicial factor. + +The powers of the Lord Chancellor of Ireland with regard to lunatics are +generally similar to those of the English Chancellor (see the Lunacy +Regulations (Ireland) Act 1871, 34 & 35 Vict. c. 22, and the Lunacy +(Ireland) Act 1901, 1 Ed. VII. c. 17; also Colles on _The Lunacy +Regulation (Ireland) Act_. + +The main feature of the French system is the provision made by the Civil +Code (arts. 489-512) for the interdiction of an insane person by the +Tribunal of First Instance, with a right of appeal to the Court of +Appeal, after a preliminary inquiry and a report by a family council +(arts. 407, 408), consisting of six blood relatives in as near a degree +of relationship to the lunatic as possible, or, in default of such +relatives, of six relatives by marriage. The family council is presided +over by the _Juge de Paix_ of the district in which the lunatic is +domiciled. This system is also in force in Mauritius. + +There are provisions, it may be noted, in Scots law for the interdiction +of lunatics, either voluntarily or judicially (see Bell's _Principles_, +§ 2123). The German Civil Code provides for insane persons being made +subject to guardianship (_vormundung_), on conditions similar to those +of Scots and French law (see Civil Code, §§ 6, 104 (1896, 1906), +645-679). In the United States the fundamental procedure is an +inquisition conducted on practically the same lines as in England. (Cf. +Indiana, _Rev. Stats._ (1894) §§ 2715 et seq.; Missouri, Annot. Code +(1892) §§ 2835 et seq.; New Mexico, _General Laws_ (1880) c. 74 §§ 1 et +seq.). + +4. _Asylum Administration._--Asylum administration in England is now +regulated by the Lunacy Acts 1890 and 1891. Receptacles for the insane +are divisible into the following classes: (i.) Institutions for +lunatics, including asylums, registered hospitals and licensed houses. +The asylums are provided by counties or boroughs, or by union of +counties or boroughs. Registered hospitals are hospitals holding +certificates of registration from the Commissioners in Lunacy, where +lunatics are received and supported wholly or partially by voluntary +contributions or charitable bequests, or by applying the excess of the +payments of some patients towards the maintenance of others. Licensed +houses are houses licensed by the Commissioners, or, beyond their +immediate jurisdiction, by justices; (ii.) Workhouses--see article POOR +LAW; (iii.) Houses in which patients are boarded out; (iv.) Private +houses (unlicensed) in which not more than a single patient may be +received. A person, not being a pauper or a lunatic so found by +inquisition, cannot, in ordinary cases, be received and detained as a +lunatic in any institution for the insane, except under a "reception +order" made by a county court judge or stipendiary magistrate or +specially appointed justice of the peace. The order is made on a +petition presented by a relative or friend of the alleged lunatic, and +supported by two medical certificates, and after a private hearing by +the judicial authority. The detention of a lunatic is, however, +justifiable at common law, if necessary for his safety or that of +others; and the Lunacy Act 1890, borrowing from the lunacy law of +Scotland, provides for the reception of a lunatic not a pauper into an +asylum, where it is expedient for his welfare or the public safety that +he should be confined without delay, upon an "urgency order," made if +possible by a near relative and accompanied by one medical certificate. +The urgency order only justifies detention for seven days (the +curtailment of this period to four days is proposed), and before the +expiration of that period the ordinary procedure must be followed. +"Summary reception orders" may be made by justices otherwise than on +petition. There are four classes of cases in which such orders may be +made, viz.: (i.) lunatics (not paupers and not wandering at large) who +are not under proper care and control, or are cruelly treated or +neglected; (ii.) resident pauper lunatics; (iii.) lunatics, whether +pauper or not, wandering at large; (iv.) lunatics in workhouses. (As to +pauper lunatics generally, see article POOR LAW.) A lunatic may also be +received into an institution under an order by the Commissioners in +Lunacy; and a lunatic so found by inquisition under an order signed by +the committee of his person. + +The chief features of English asylum administration requiring notice are +these. Mechanical restraint is to be applied only when necessary for +surgical or medical purposes, or in order to prevent the lunatic from +injuring himself or others. The privacy of the correspondence of +lunatics with the Lord Chancellor, the Commissioners in Lunacy, &c., is +secured. Provision is made for regular visits to patients by their +relatives and friends. The employment of males for the custody of +females is, except on occasions of urgency, prohibited. Pauper lunatics +may be boarded out with relatives and friends. Elaborate provision is +made for the official visitation of every class of receptacle for the +insane. The duties of visitation are divided between the Commissioners +in Lunacy, the Chancery Visitors and various other visitors and visiting +committees. There are ten Commissioners in Lunacy--four unpaid and six +paid, three of the latter being barristers of not less than five years' +standing at the date of appointment, and three medical. The +Commissioners in Lunacy, who are appointed by the Lord Chancellor, visit +every class of lunatics except persons so found by inquisition. These +are visited by the Chancery Visitors. There are three Chancery +Visitors, two medical and one legal (a barrister of at least five years' +standing at the date of his appointment), who are appointed and +removable by the Lord Chancellor. The Chancery Visitors (together with +the Master in Lunacy) form a Board, and have offices in the Royal Courts +of Justice. In addition to these two classes of visitors, every asylum +has a Visiting Committee of not less than seven members, appointed by +the local authority; and the justices of every county and +quarter-sessions borough not within the immediate jurisdiction of the +Commissioners in Lunacy annually appoint three or more of their number +as visitors of licensed houses. + +Provision is made for the discharge of lunatics from asylums, &c., on +recovery, or by _habeas corpus_, or by the various visiting authorities. +Any person who considers himself to have been unjustly detained is +entitled on discharge to obtain, free of expense, from the secretary to +the Lunacy Commissioners a copy of the documents under which he was +confined. + +The Irish [Lunacy Acts 1821-1890; Lunacy (Ireland) Act 1901] and +Scottish [Lunacy Acts 1857 (20 & 21 Vict. c. 71), 1887 (50 & 51 Vict. c. +39)] asylum systems present no feature sufficiently different from the +English to require separate notice, except that in Scotland "boarding +out" is a regular, and not merely an incidental, part of asylum +administration. The "boarding out" principle has, however, received its +most extended and most successful application in the Gheel colony in +Belgium. The patients, after a few days' preliminary observation, are +placed in families, and, except that they are under ultimate control by +a superior commission, composed of the governor of the province, the +Procureur du Roi and others, enjoy complete liberty indoors as well as +out of doors. The patients are visited by nurses from the infirmary, to +which they may be sent if they become seriously ill or unmanageable. +They are encouraged to work. The accommodation provided for them is +prescribed, and is to be of the same quality as that of the household in +which they live. Clothing is provided by the administration. + +In the French (see laws of 30th June 1838 and 18th December 1839) and +German (see _Journal of Comparative Legislation_, n.s. vol. i. at pp. +271, 272) asylum systems the main features of English administration are +also reproduced. + +The lunacy laws of the British colonies have also closely followed +English legislation (cf. Ontario, _R.S._ 1897, cc. 317, 318; Manitoba, +_R.S._ 1902, c. 80; Victoria (No. 1113, 1890); New Zealand (No. 34 of +1882 and Amending Acts); Mauritius (No. 37 of 1858). + +In America the different states of the Union have each their own lunacy +legislation. The national government provides only for the insane of the +army and navy, and for those residing in the District of Columbia and in +Alaska. The various laws as to the reception, &c., of the insane into +asylums closely resemble English procedure. But in several states the +verdict of a jury finding lunacy is a necessary preliminary to the +commitment of private patients (Kentucky, Act of 1883, c. 900, § 14; +Maryland, _R.S._ 1878, c. 53, § 21; Illinois, _R.S._ 1874, c. 85, § 22). + + AUTHORITIES.--The following works may be consulted: Collinson on the + _Law of Lunatics and Idiots_ (2 vols., London, 1812); Shelford on the + _Law of Lunatics and Idiots_ (London, 1847). On all points relating to + the history and development of the law these two treatises are + invaluable. Pope on _Lunacy_ (2nd ed., London, 1890); Archbold's + _Lunacy_ (4th ed., London, 1895); Elmer on _Lunacy_ (7th ed., London, + 1892); Wood Renton on _Lunacy_ (London and Edinburgh, 1896); Fry's + _Lunacy Laws_ (3rd ed., London, 1890); Pitt-Lewis, Smith and Hawke, + _The Insane and the Law_ (London, 1895); Hack-Tuke, _Dictionary of + Psychological Medicine_ (London, 1892), and the bibliographies + attached to the various legal articles in that work; Clevenger, + _Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity_ (2 vols., New York, 1899); + Semelaigne, _Les Aliénistes français_ (Paris 1849); Bertrand, _Loi sur + les aliénés_ (Paris, 1872), presents a comparative view of English and + foreign legislations. In forensic medicine the works of Taylor, + _Medical Jurisprudence_ (5th ed., London, 1905); Dixon Mann, _Foreign + Medicine and Toxicology_ (3rd ed., London, 1902); and Wharton and + Stillé, _A Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence_ (Philadelphia, 1873); + Hamilton and Godkin, _System of Legal Medicine_ (New York, 1895); are + probably the English authorities in most common use. See also Casper + and Liman, _Praktisches Handbuch_ _der gerichtlichen Medicin_ + (Berlin, 6th ed., 1876); Tardieu, _Étude médico-légale sur la folie_ + (Paris, 1872); Legrand du Saulle, _La Folie devant les tribunaux_ + (Paris, 1864); Dubrac, _Traité de jurisprudence médicale_ (Paris, + 1894); Tourdes, _Traité de médecine légale_ (Paris, 1897); and + especially Krafft-Ebing, _Lehrbuch der gerichtlichen Psychopathologie_ + (Stuttgart, 1899). (A. W. R.) + + +III. HOSPITAL TREATMENT + +The era of real hospitals for the insane began in the 19th century. +There had been established here and there in different parts of the +world, it is true, certain asylums or places of restraint before the +beginning of the 19th century. We find mention in history of such a +place established by monks at Jerusalem in the latter part of the 5th +century. There is evidence that even earlier than this in Egypt and +Greece the insane were treated as individuals suffering from disease. +Egyptian priests employed not only music and the beautiful in nature and +art as remedial agents in insanity, but recreation and occupation as +well. A Greek physician protested against mechanical restraint in the +care of the insane, and advocated kindly treatment, the use of music, +and of some sorts of manual labour. But these ancient beneficent +teachings were lost sight of during succeeding centuries. The prevailing +idea of the pathology of insanity in Europe during the middle ages was +that of demoniacal possession. The insane were not sick, but possessed +of devils, and these devils were only to be exorcised by moral or +spiritual agencies. Medieval therapeutics in insanity adapted itself to +the etiology indicated. Torture and the cruellest forms of punishment +were employed. The insane were regarded with abhorrence, and were +frequently cast into chains and dungeons. Milder forms of mental disease +were treated by other spiritual means--such as pilgrimages to the +shrines of certain saints who were reputed to have particular skill and +success in the exorcism of evil spirits. The shrine of St Dymphna at +Gheel, in Belgium, was one of these, and seems to have originated in the +7th century, a shrine so famed that lunatics from all over Europe were +brought thither for miraculous healing. The little town became a resort +for hundreds of insane persons, and as long ago as the 17th century +acquired the reputation, which still exists to this day, of a unique +colony for the insane. At the present time the village of Gheel and its +adjacent farming hamlets (with a population of some 13,000 souls) +provides homes, board and care for nearly 2000 insane persons under +medical and government supervision. Numerous other shrines and holy +wells in various parts of Europe were resorted to by the mentally +afflicted--such as Glen-na-Galt in Ireland, the well of St Winifred, St +Nun's Pool, St Fillans, &c. At St Nun's the treatment consisted of +plunging the patient backwards into the water and dragging him to and +fro until mental excitement abated. Not only throughout the middle ages, +but far down into the 17th century, demonology and witchcraft were +regarded as the chief causes of insanity. And the insane were frequently +tortured, scourged, and even burned to death. + +Until as late as the middle of the 18th century, mildly insane persons +were cared for at shrines, or wandered homeless about the country. Such +as were deemed a menace to the community were sent to ordinary prisons +or chained in dungeons. Thus large numbers of lunatics accumulated in +the prisons, and slowly there grew up a sort of distinction between them +and criminals, which at length resulted in a separation of the two +classes. In time many of the insane were sent to cloisters and +monasteries, especially after these began to be abandoned by their +former occupants. Thus "Bedlam" (Bethlehem Royal Hospital) was +originally founded in 1247 as a priory for the brethren and sisters of +the Order of the Star of Bethlehem. It is not known exactly when +lunatics were first received into Bedlam, but some were there in 1403. +Bedlam was rebuilt as an asylum for the insane in 1676. In 1815 a +committee of the House of Commons, upon investigation, found it in a +disgraceful condition, the medical treatment being of the most +antiquated sort, and actual inhumanity practised upon the patients. +Similarly the Charenton Asylum, just outside Paris, near the park of +Vincennes, was an old monastery which had been given over to the insane. +Numerous like instances could be cited, but the interesting point to be +borne in mind is, that with a general tendency to improvement in the +condition of imbeciles upon public charge, idiots and insane persons +came gradually to be separated from criminals and other paupers, and to +be segregated. The process of segregation was, however, very slow. Even +after it had been accomplished in the larger centres of civilization, +the condition of these unfortunates in provincial districts remained the +same. Furthermore, the transfer to asylums provided especially for them +was not followed by any immediate improvement in the patients. + +Twenty-five years after Pinel had, in 1792, struck the chains from the +lunatics huddled in the Salpétrière and Bicêtre of Paris, and called +upon the world to realize the horrible injustice done to this wretched +and suffering class of humanity, a pupil of Pinel, Esquirol, wrote of +the insane in France and all Europe: "These unfortunate people are +treated worse than criminals, reduced to a condition worse than that of +animals. I have seen them naked, covered with rags, and having only +straw to protect them against the cold moisture and the hard stones they +lie upon; deprived of air, of water to quench thirst, and all the +necessaries of life; given up to mere gaolers and left to their +surveillance. I have seen them in their narrow and filthy cells, without +light and air, fastened with chains in these dens in which one would not +keep wild beasts. This I have seen in France, and _the insane are +everywhere in Europe treated in the same way_." It was not until 1838 +that the insane in France were all transferred from small houses of +detention, workhouses and prisons to asylums specially constructed for +this purpose. + +In Belgium, in the middle ages, the public executioner was ordered to +expel from the towns, by flogging, the poor lunatics who were wandering +about the streets. In 1804 the Code Napoleon "punished those who allowed +the insane and mad criminals to run about free." In 1841 an +investigation showed in Belgium thirty-seven establishments for the +insane, only six of which were in good order. In fourteen of them chains +and irons were still being used. In Germany, England and America, in +1841, the condition of the insane was practically the same as in Belgium +and France. + +These facts show that no great advance in the humane and scientific care +of the insane was made till towards the middle of the 19th century. Only +then did the actual metamorphosis of asylums for detention into +hospitals for treatment begin to take place. Hand in hand with this +progress there has grown, and still is growing, a tendency to +subdivision and specialization of hospitals for this purpose. There are +now hospitals for the acutely insane, others for the chronic insane, +asylums for the criminal insane, institutions for the feeble-minded and +idiots, and colonies for epileptics. There are public institutions for +the poor, and well-appointed private retreats and homes for the rich. +All these are presided over by the best of medical authorities, +supervised by unsalaried boards of trustees or managers, and carefully +inspected by Government lunacy commissioners, or boards of charities--a +contrast, indeed, to the gaols, shrines, holy wells, chains, tortures, +monkish exorcisms, &c., of the past! + +The statistics of insanity have been fairly well established. The ratio +of insane to normal population is about 1 to 300 among civilized +peoples. This proportion varies within narrow limits in different races +and countries. It is probable that intemperance in the use of alcohol +and drugs, the spread of venereal diseases, and the over-stimulation in +many directions induced by modern social conditions, have caused an +increase of insanity in the 19th as compared with past centuries. The +amount of such increase is probably very small, but on superficial +examination might seem to be large, owing to the accumulation of the +chronic insane and the constant upbuilding of asylums in new +communities. The imperfections of census-taking in the past must also be +taken into account. + +The modern hospital for the insane does credit to latter-day +civilization. Physical restraint is no longer practised. The day of +chains--even of wristlets, covered cribs and strait-jackets--is past. +Neat dormitories, cosy single rooms, and sitting- and dining-rooms +please the eye. In the place of bare walls and floors and curtainless +windows, are pictures, plants, rugs, birds, curtains, and in many +asylums even the barred windows have been abolished. Some of the wards +for milder patients have unlocked doors. Many patients are trusted alone +about the grounds and on visits to neighbouring towns. An air of busy +occupation is observed in sewing-rooms, schools, shops, in the fields +and gardens, employment contributing not only to economy in +administration, but to improvement in mental and physical conditions. +The general progress of medical science in all directions has been +manifested in the department of psychiatry by improved methods of +treatment, in the way of sleep-producing and alleviating drugs, +dietetics, physical culture, hydrotherapy and the like. There are few +asylums now without pathological and clinical laboratories. While it is +a far cry from the prisons and monasteries of the past to the modern +hospital for the insane, it is still possible to trace a resemblance in +many of our older asylums to their ancient prototypes, particularly in +those asylums built upon the so-called corridor plan. Though each +generation contributed something new, antecedent models were more or +less adhered to. Progress in asylum architecture has hence advanced more +slowly in countries where monasteries and cloisters abounded than in +countries where fixed models did not exist. Architects have had a freer +hand in America, Australia and Germany, and even in Great Britain, than +in the Catholic countries of Europe. + +Germany approaches nearest to an ideal standard of provision for the +insane. The highest and best idea which has yet been attained is that of +small hospitals for the acutely insane in all cities of more than 50,000 +inhabitants, and of colonies for the chronic insane in the rural +districts adjacent to centres of population. The psychopathic hospital +in the city gives easy and speedy access to persons taken suddenly ill +with mental disease, aids in early diagnosis, places the patients within +reach of the best specialists in all departments of medicine, and +associated, as it should be, with a medical school or university, +affords facilities not otherwise available for scientific research and +for instruction in an important branch of medical learning. A feature of +the psychopathic hospital should be the reception of patients for a +reasonable period of time, as sufferers from disease, without the +formality of legal commitment papers. Such papers are naturally required +for the detention and restraint of the insane for long periods of time, +but in the earlier stages they should be spared the stigma, delay and +complicated procedure of commitment for at least ten days or two weeks, +since in that time many may convalesce or recover, and in this way +escape the public record of their infirmities, unavoidable by present +judicial procedures. + +There should be associated with such hospitals for the acutely insane in +cities out-door departments or dispensaries, to which patients may be +brought in still earlier stages of mental disorder, at a period when +early diagnosis and preventive therapeutics may have their best +opportunities to attain good results. In Germany a psychopathic hospital +now exists in every university town, under the name of Psychiatrische +Klinik. + +Colonies for the chronic insane are established in the country, but in +the neighbourhood of the cities having psychopathic hospitals, to +receive the overflow of the latter when the acute stage has passed. The +true colony is constructed on the principle of a farming hamlet, without +barracks, corridored buildings, or pavilions. It is similar in most +respects to any agricultural community. The question here is one of +humane care and economical administration. Humane care includes medical +supervision, agreeable home-life, recreation, and, above all things, +regular manual and out-of-door occupation in garden, farm and dairy, in +the quarry, clay-pit or well-ventilated shop. Employment for the +patients is of immense remedial importance, and of great value from the +standpoint of economical administration. In the colony system the small +cottage homes of the patients are grouped about the centres of industry. +The workers in the farmstead live in small families about the farmstead +group of buildings; the tillers of the soil adjacent to the fields, +meadows and gardens; the brickmakers, quarrymen and artizans in still +other cottages in the neighbourhood of the scenes of their activities. +In addition to these groups of cottages, which constitute the majority +of the buildings in the village, an infirmary for bedridden, excited and +crippled patients is required, and a small hospital for the sick. All +the inhabitants of the colony are under medical supervision. A +laboratory for scientific researches forms a highly important part of +the equipment. The colony is not looked upon as a refuge for the +incurable; it is still a hospital for the sick, where treatment is +carried on under the most humane and most suitable conditions, and +wherein the percentage of recoveries will be larger than in asylums and +hospitals as now conducted. In respect of the establishment of colonies +for the insane upon the plan outlined here, Germany has, as in the case +of the psychopathic hospital, led the world. It has been less difficult +for that country to set the example, because she had fewer of the +conditions of the past to fight, and with her the progress of medical +science and of methods of instruction in all departments of medicine has +been more pronounced and rapid. + +Among the German colonies for the insane, that at Alt-Scherbitz, near +Leipzig, is the oldest and most successful, and is pre-eminent in its +close approach to the ideal village or colony system. In 1899 Professor +Kraeplin of Heidelberg stated (_Psychiatrie_, 6th edition) that the +effort was made everywhere in Germany to give the exterior of asylums, +by segregation of the patients in separate home-like villas, rather the +appearance of hamlets for working-people than prisons for the insane, +and he said, further, that the whole question of the care of the insane +had found solution in the colony system, the best and cheapest method of +support. "I have myself," he writes, "had opportunity to see patients, +who had lived for years in a large closed asylum, improve in the most +extraordinary manner under the influence of the freer movement and more +independent occupation of colony life." + +In America the colony scheme has been successfully adopted by the state +of New York at the Craig Colony for Epileptics at Sonyea and elsewhere. + +That the tendency nowadays, even outside of Germany, in the direction of +the ideal standard of provision for the insane is a growing one is +manifested in all countries by a gradual disintegration of the former +huge cloister-like abodes. More asylums are built on the pavilion plan. +Many asylums have, as it were, thrown off detached cottages for the +better care of certain patients. Some asylums have even established +small agricultural colonies a few miles away from the parent plant, like +a vine throwing out feelers. What is called the boarding-out system is +an effort in a similar direction. Patients suffering from mild forms of +insanity are boarded out in families in the country, either upon public +or private charge. Gheel is an example of the boarding-out system +practised on a large scale. But the ideal system is that of the +psychopathic hospital and the colony for the insane. + + AUTHORITIES.--Sir J. B. Tuke, _Dictionary of Psychological Medicine_, + (London and Philadelphia, 1892); W. P. Letchworth, _The Insane in + Foreign Countries_ (New York, 1889); _Care and Treatment of + Epileptics_ (New York, 1900); F. Peterson, _Mental Diseases_ + (Philadelphia, 1899); "Annual Address to the American + Medico-Psychological Association," _Proceedings_ (1899). (F. P.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The word for "lunatic" in several other languages has a similar + etymology. Cp. Ital. _lunatico_, Span. _alunado_, Gr. [Greek: + selêniakos] (epileptic), Ger. _mondsüchtig_. + + [2] It has sometimes been stated that this power, which ought + clearly, in the interests alike of prisoners and of the public, to be + exercised with caution, is in fact exerted in an unduly large number + of cases. The following figures, taken from the respective volumes of + the _Criminal Judicial Statistics_, show the number of criminal + lunatics certified insane before trial. In 1884-1885, out of a total + of 938 criminal lunatics, 169 were so certified; in 1885-1886, 149 + out of 890; in 1889-1890, 108 out of 926; in 1890-1891, 95 out of + 900; in 1894, 78 out of 738; in 1895, 84 out of 757; in 1896, 88 out + of 769; in 1897, 85 out of 764; in 1898, 17 out of 209; in 1899, 13 + out of 159; in 1900, 12 out of 185; in 1901, 15 out of 205; in 1902, + 7 out of 233; in 1903, 11 out of 229. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 14, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40009 *** |