diff options
Diffstat (limited to '40031-8.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 40031-8.txt | 11896 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 11896 deletions
diff --git a/40031-8.txt b/40031-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index dbec707..0000000 --- a/40031-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11896 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nooks and Corners of English Life, Past and -Present, by John Timbs - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Nooks and Corners of English Life, Past and Present - -Author: John Timbs - -Release Date: June 20, 2012 [EBook #40031] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NOOKS AND CORNERS OF ENGLISH *** - - - - -Produced by Annie R. McGuire. This book was produced from -scanned images of public domain material from the Internet -Archive. - - - - - - - - - -[Illustration: Book Cover] - - - - -[Illustration: HORSELYDOWN FAIR, IN THE TIME OF QUEEN ELIZABETH.--Page -255.] - - - - -NOOKS AND CORNERS -OF -ENGLISH LIFE, -Past and Present. - - -BY -JOHN TIMBS, - -AUTHOR OF "STRANGE STORIES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD," -"THINGS NOT GENERALLY KNOWN," ETC. - - -SECOND EDITION. -_WITH ILLUSTRATIONS._ - - -LONDON: -GRIFFITH AND FARRAN, -(_Successors to Newbery and Harris_,) -CORNER OF ST. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD. -M DCCC LXVII. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Pictures of the Domestic Manners of our forefathers, at some of the most -attractive periods of English History, form the staple of the present -volume. These Pictures are supplemented by Sketches of subordinate -Scenes and Incidents which illustrate great changes in Society, and tend -to show, in different degrees, the Past as the guide for the Present and -the Future. - -The value and interest of Archæological studies in bringing home to our -very doors the information required of special localities, and their -former life, have, it is hoped, been made available by the Author of -this work, so far as to render it acceptable as well for the soundness -of its information as for its entertaining character. The antiquary of -old was but, in many instances, "a gatherer of other men's stuff;" -whereas the archæologist of the present day adds to the worth of -antiquarian studies by placing their results in new lights, and thus -extending the utility and amusement which they afford. - -The materials for writing English History are inexhaustible; and one of -the aims of this work is to seize upon and group from such stores -leading facts and transitions, and by means of condensation to present -their narratives in a more tangible form than that in which they were -originally written. In this task the Author has brought to bear, from a -variety of accredited sources, evidences of the condition of the English -people--in their "woods and caves, and painted skins"--their homes and -modes of living, in cavern and castle, mansion and cottage; the origin -of their Domestic Inventions and Contrivances in the several stages of -comfort; House-furnishing, Dress and Personal Ornament; Provisions and -Olden Cookery, and Housewifery; Peasant Life, with its curious Customs, -Laws, and Ceremonies; Fairs and Festivals and Amusements. To these -succeed a few Historic Sketches: Traditions of Battle-fields, and other -memorable sites; Mansions and their Families: romantic Narratives, -Portraits of eminent Persons, &c. - -The authorities and sources of information conveyed in the following -pages, are fully acknowledged. "Quotation," said Johnson, "is a good -thing; there is a community of mind in it;" although some writers seem -to ride upon their readers, like Pyrrhus on his elephant, forgetting -that "there is not so poor a book in the world, that would not be a -prodigious effort, were it wrought out entirely by a single hand, -without the aid of prior investigation." Real antiquarianism has been -well defined as a lively knowledge of the Past, comprehending the spirit -of a period through the details of its customs, events, and -institutions; the language of its writers, the movements of its sciences -and arts; and, by keeping in view these points, the writer of the -present volume hopes he has succeeded in producing a recreative result -worthy of the acceptance of the reader. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -I. Early English Life. - PAGE - - Aboriginal Britons--British Caves--Bosphrennis Bee-hive Hut and - Picts' House--On the Brigantes of Yorkshire; by Prof. Phillips 1-7 - - -BRITAIN BEFORE THE ROMAN COLONIZATION. - - Lappenberg's Picture of South Britain--War Chariots--Druidism, its - Rites and Customs--Arch-Druid and Mistletoe--Legend of - Stonehenge--Charles II. at Stonehenge--Fire Worship--Druidical - Serpents' Eggs--Druids' Medicines--Druid Schools and - Priests--Trade of the Phoenicians--Tin-trade of - Cornwall--Ornamental Art--British War-chiefs--Britain and New - Zealand compared 8-23 - - -THE ROMANS IN ENGLAND. - - Civilization of Ancient Britain--British and Roman - Encampments--British Trackways and Roman Roads--British - Railways--Country of the Brigantes--London of Roman origin--The - Romans leave Britain--Roman London in Leadenhall Street--Mr. Roach - Smith's Museum--Roman Wall, Pottery, and Glass--Roman City of - Uriconium, Wroxeter, described--Owen Glendower's Oak--Shropshire - Legends of Giants--Silchester explored--Conquest by Cæsar: - Condition of the People then and now 24-45 - - -DOMESTIC LIFE OF THE SAXONS. - - Saxon Architecture--Saxon Houses--Mead-hall, or Beer-hall--Saxon - Beds--Story of Vortigern and Rowena--Origin of the Wassail Cup and - the Loving Cup--Dinner in the Middle Ages--Peg Tankards and - Drinking Horns--Mazer Bowls--The Hanap--Saxon - Metal-working--Alfred's Jewel, and Ethelwulf's Ring--Saxon - Coins--Glass-making--Saxon Cloths and - Dyeing--Embroidery--Iron-smelting--Alfred's Inventions--Travelling - in the Saxon Times--Sussex Roads--Stirrups, Spurs, and Bridles - 46-60 - - -MEALS--BRITISH, ANGLO-ROMAN, AND SAXON. - - Britons' Early Living--Roman Luxury--British Oysters--Roman - Supper--Saxon Law of Host and Guest--Canute's Dinner-law--Origin - of "Lady"--Saxon Provisions--Saxon Feasts--Early - Baking--Elecampane--Ale and Beer--Brewing in Monasteries and - Colleges--Oxford Ale--Ancient Vineyards--Danish Drinking--Ancient - Names of Provisions 61-70 - - -II. Castle Life. - - Castles of England--Roman Castles--Pevensey--Maiden Castle and - Poundbury--Introduction of Bricks--Norman Castles--Conisborough - and _Ivanhoe_--Tonbridge Castle--Bedford Castle Siege--Raby - Castle, Durham--Kitchen of Raby--Durham Castle, Kitchen and - Buttery--Legend of Mulgrave Castle--Corfe Castle, and King Edward - the Martyr--Lady Bankes's Defence of Corfe--Castles _temp._ Edward - III.--Windsor Castle, its History and Description--St. George's - Chapel--Round Tower and Round Table--William of Wykeham and - Chaucer, Clerks of the Works, Windsor Castle--Restoration of - Windsor Castle, by George IV.--Sir Jeffrey Wyatville's - Gothic--Canon Bowles on Windsor Castle--Pictures at Windsor; Keep, - and Private Apartments--Warwick Castle, its History: Pictures, - Warwick Vase--Guy's apocryphal Curiosities--Historical Earls of - Warwick--Kenilworth Castle--Leicester and Queen - Elizabeth--Arundel Castle--Dukes of Norfolk--Bevis's Tower and its - Legend--Norman Remains, Interior, Vineyards, Historical Picture - 71-108 - - -III. Household Antiquities. - - The Old English House--Norman Houses--The Manor-house--The - Hall--City Companies' Halls--Embattled Mansions--Wingfield and - Cowdray--Mary Queen of Scots at Wingfield--Thornbury Castle and - its History--Longleat, Wilts--John Thorpe, the Elizabethan - Architect--Holland House, Kensington--Burghley, - Northamptonshire--Hatfield House, Herts--Campden, - Gloucestershire--Haddon Hall, Derbyshire--Lines on Haddon--The - Great Hall--Hall at Hampton Court--Hall Windows--Hall - Fires--College and Inns of Court Halls--Hall in Aubrey's - Time--Queen Victoria at Hatfield--Eltham Palace Hall, its present - Condition--Early Mansions of the English Gentry--The Oldest - Dwelling-house in England--Wood and Stone in building--London - built of Wood--Chestnut Timber and Ornamental - Carpentry--Kenilworth Hall Roof--Half-Timbered Houses in - London--English Cottages--Sussex Cottages, by Cobbett--Brambletye - House and the Comptons 109-134 - - -THE ENGLISHMAN'S FIRESIDE. - - Warmth and Ventilation--Count Rumford and Dr. Arnott--Introduction - of Chimneys--The Hall Louvre or Lantern--Chimneys of Wood--Smoke - Farthings and Hearth-money--Crosby Hall--The Hall Fire and God's - Sunday--Rushes used--Coal introduced--Awnd-irons--Hever - Castle--Christmas in the Great Hall--Silver Fire - Implements--Invention of Grates--Prof. Faraday on Ventilation by - the Chimney--The Open Coal Fire--Roman Mode of heating - Houses--Flue-Tiles and Hypocausts--History of the Curfew, and - Curfew ringing 135-147 - - -PRIVATE LIFE OF A QUEEN OF ENGLAND. - - Last Days of Isabella, Queen of Edward II.--Private Life of Five - Hundred Years since--Mortimer and the Queen--The Castle of Castle - Rising--Daily Expenses--Visitors and Pilgrimages--Ancient Meal - Hours--Queen Isabella at Windsor, Tottenham, and Canterbury--Death - of Queen Isabella--Messenger, Alms, and Doles--Repairs--The - Queen's Love of Jewels--Minstrels' and New Year's Gifts--Murder of - Edward II. (_note_) 148-160 - - -THE ENGLISH HOUSEWIFE. - - Gervase Markham's Tract--Olden Cookery--Banquet Bills of - Fare--Brewing and Wine-making--The Bakehouse--Spinning--Domestic - Medicines--Carving by Ladies--Lady Mary Wortley Montague on - Carving 161-166 - - -A HEREFORDSHIRE LADY IN THE TIME OF THE CIVIL WAR. - - Hereford, the ancient City--Mrs. Joyce Jeffries and her - Servants--Gifts to Country Cousins--Lending Money--Dress of the - Lady, 1638--Housekeeping Expenses--Amusements and Social - Customs--Civil War Imposts--Lord Strafford's Trial--Mrs. Jeffries' - Generosity 167-176 - - -HOUSE-FURNISHING IN THE MIDDLE AGES. - - Cabinet-work--Bedsteads--Beds--Tapestried Chambers--Blanket and - Worsted--Great Bed of Ware--Warming-pan, ancient--Chairs--Chamber - at Hengrave--Rushes and Carpets--Hall Furniture--Court - Cupboard--Wardrobes--Loseley, near Guildford, described 177-183 - - -DRESS--PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. - - Laundry Accounts--Hangings--Woollen Clothing--Pomanders--Country - Life, 17th century 184-187 - - -PINS AND PIN-MONEY. - - Pins introduced from France--Pins first made in England--Pinners' - Company--Pins, _temp._ Elizabeth--Pinners on London Bridge--Origin - of Pin Money--What becomes of all the Pins?--Pin Wells 188-191 - - -PROVISIONS--BREAD-MAKING, GROCERY, AND CONFECTIONERY. - - Olden Bread-making--Manchets, Recipes for--The - Manciple--Pastry-making taught in Schools--Christmas Game Pie, - 1394--Cookery, _temp._ Richard II.--History of Sugar, 195--Tea and - Coffee introduced--Spices and other Condiments--Olden - Confectionery--March-pane and Biscuits--Dessert Fruits, 13th - century--Oranges introduced--Lincoln's Inn Fruit and Vegetable - Garden--Ornamental Fruit Trenchers--Vegetables in early - use--Conveyance of perishable Food--Antiquity of Cheese--Banbury - and Cheshire Cheese--Ballad on Cheshire Cheese--Sage Cheese--Ale - and Beer--Hops introduced--Our National Drink 192-216 - - -IV. Peasant Life. - - "A bold Peasantry, their Country's Pride"--Serfdom--Were and - Wergild--Operative Tenants--Rent paid in - Labour--Monday-men--Villeins--Stocks for Vagrants and unruly - Servants--Services of Tillage--Ploughing Boon--Harrowing and - Bed-weeding--Threshing, Thatching, Delving, - &c.--Inclosures--Malting for the Lord--Malt-silver--Ancient - Harvest--Reaping Boon--Hayward--Love-boons or Law-days--Autumnal - Precations, _temp._ Edward II.--Ram Feast--Beltane - Superstition--Hayfield cut and cleared--Mutton Rewards--Hock-day - Court and Sports--Hardicanute's Death--Scot Ales--Sheep Shearing - and Clipping-time Customs--Conveyance Service--Arriage and - Carriage--Farming a Castle or Monastery--Vraic in the Channel - Islands--Langerode--Watch and Ward--The Beadle--Sleeping in - Church--"Firm Locks make faithful Servants" 217-234 - - Olden Housemarks: Land, Cattle, Sheep, Swans, and Ducks; Houses - and Cottages--Merchants' and Tradesmen's Marks--Picture - Marks--Ancient Conveyancing 235-237 - - -V. Customs and Ceremonies. - - May-day Carol on Magdalen College Tower, Oxford--Flower Customs at - Oxford--May-day Song at Saffron Walden--May-poles still - extant--Raine's Charity--Picture of Oxford 238-244 - - -BANBURY CAKES, CONGLETON CAKES, ETC. - - Banbury Cakes abolished by the Puritans--Banbury Cross--Banbury - _zeal_ and _veal_--Old Fuller on Banbury--High Church - Banburians--Congleton Triangular Cakes and Gingerbread--Sale of - Banbury Cakes--Banbury Cheese--Banbury Cross restored--Sack - Brewage at Congleton--Shrewsbury Cakes--Islington and Holloway - Cheesecakes 245-253 - - -HORSELYDOWN FAIR IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. - - Horselydown--Curious Picture at Hatfield House, of the Fair, - described--Hermitage 254-258 - - -WAKE FESTIVALS IN THE BLACK COUNTRY. - - Bull-baiting, Cock-fighting, &c.--Wake-time, better - spent--Bloxwich Bull 259-263 - - -KEEPING BIRDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. - - Alexander Neckam and his Treatise--Love of Animals--Hawk and - Eagle--Parrot--Barnacle--Swan, Nightingale, Sparrow, Raven, and - Crow; Cuckoo, Cock, Wren, &c. 264-268 - - -VI. Historic Sketches. - - -THE STORY OF FAIR ROSAMUND. - - Woodstock Bower, and Rosamund's Well--The Nunnery at Godstow, near - Oxford--Rosamund born--Known to Henry II.--Maze at Woodstock--The - Silken Clue--The Poison Cup--Rosamund's Tomb at Godstow--Legend - from the _French Chronicle_ 269-277 - - -CARDINAL WOLSEY AT ESHER PLACE. - - Fall of Wolsey--Retires to Esher--His Servants and - Retainers--Henry VIII. demands a cession of York House--The - "comfortable Message"--Death of Wolsey at Leicester--The - Abbey--Esher Place embellished by Kent--Dr. Johnson's Portrait of - Wolsey--At Cawood--Weighing his Plate--Wolsey and - Christchurch--Death and Interment of Wolsey--Tomb-house and - Sarcophagus--Cavendish's _Life of Wolsey_ 278-292 - - -TRADITIONS OF BATTLE-FIELDS. - - Worth of Tradition--Antiquity of Tenure--The Wapshotts--Flodden - Field Tradition--BATTLE OF HASTINGS described--Roll of the - Conqueror's Companions--TOWTON FIELD described--TEWKESBURY FIELD - explored--BOSWORTH FIELD--The Battle--Relics of Richard, Duke of - Gloucester--His Autograph--Black Boy Inn, Chelmsford, a - Plantagenet Lodge--Baynard's Castle and Crosby Place--King - Richard's Inn, Leicester--Omens to the King--Oxford, Norfolk, and - Surrey--Richard's Last Charge--Sir John Cheney--Combat of Richard - and Richmond--Richard's Body carried to Leicester--Legend on the - Corporation Bridge--Wars of York and Lancaster--Rose-tree at - Longleat--False Traditions 293-314 - - -CURIOSITIES OF HATFIELD. - - Princess Elizabeth kept Prisoner here--Old Palace--Park--Queen - Elizabeth's Oak--The Vineyard--Historical Documents at - Hatfield--Olden Furniture--Portraits of Queen Elizabeth, and other - Pictures--Elizabeth's Abode at Hatfield--The Mansion built by the - Earl of Salisbury 315-322 - - - THE GRAND REMONSTRANCE 323-325 - - - CAVALIERS AND ROUNDHEADS 326-328 - - -THE EVELYNS AT WOTTON. - - The Evelyn Family--Wotton House built--Grounds planned and laid - out by John Evelyn--His Tour in France and Italy--Public - Services--Sayes Court--Retires to Wotton--Great Storm of - 1703--Mills on the rivulet at Wotton--Lord Abinger--Lines, to the - Countess of Donegal, by Swift--Abinger Church--Kneller's Portrait - of Evelyn--Historical Curiosities--Character of Mrs. - Evelyn--Evelyn's "Elysium Britannicum"--His Planting--Milton - Court and Jeremiah Markland 329-342 - - -LORD BOLINGBROKE AT BATTERSEA. - - Battersea Parish and Manor--Sir Robert Walpole and - Bolingbroke--Pope, Swift, Arbuthnot, Thomson, and Mallet at - Bolingbroke House--Burning of 500 Copies of the _Patriot - King_--Death of Bolingbroke--Tomb, by Roubiliac--Site of - Bolingbroke House--Horizontal Mill--"Pope's Parlour," and _Essay - on Man_--Rose's _Diaries_, and Mallet's treacherous - Executorship--Bolingbroke's Ingratitude--Lord Brougham's - Comments--York House, Battersea--Archbishop Holgate--Residence of - Sir Thomas Boleyn at Battersea--A Shakespearian Query 343-352 - - -THE LAST OF EPPING FOREST. - - Inclosure of the Forest--A Royal Chase--Hainault--Forest - Scenery--History of Epping Forest--Visit to Queen Elizabeth's - Hunting Lodge--Chingford Hall--Curious Tenure Custom--Elizabeth's - Fondness for Hunting--Conclusion 353-361 - - -APPENDIX. - - Ancient British Dwellings--The Saxon Hall--Abury and Stonehenge - 362-364 - - - - -I. Early English Life. - -DWELLING-PLACES OF THE EARLY BRITONS. - - -It has been well observed that the structure of a house reveals much of -the mode of life adopted by its inhabitants. The representations of the -dwellings of the people of the less cultivated parts of Europe, -contrasted with those of the more cultivated countries, should afford us -the means of comparing their different degrees of civilization. In the -same manner we may measure the growth of improvement in any one country -by an attentive consideration of the structure and arrangement of the -homes of the people at different periods. - -The aboriginal Britons are described as dwelling in slight cabins of -reeds and wattles, and in some instances in _caverns of the earth_, many -sets of which, arranged with some degree of symmetry, antiquaries have -recognised; but Cæsar tells us that the maritime tribes had buildings in -the fashion of the Gauls--that is, of wood, of a circular figure, and -thatched. Such towns as they had were clusters of huts erected on a -cleared portion of the forest, which covered the greater part of the -island; and they were invariably surrounded by a rampart, constructed of -felled trees strongly interlaced and wattled, and a deep fosse, which -together formed a fortification. The site of the modern city of London, -with the river Thames in front, the river Fleet on the west, and an -almost inpenetrable forest in the rear, may be taken as a fair specimen -of the locality usually selected for the residence of the British -Chief.[1] - -That our ancestors lived in caves is attested by the existence of a -group of these abodes near Penzance, the most remarkable of all ancient -British Caves hitherto discovered in Cornwall, and thus described by Mr. -J. Edwards, to the Royal Institution of that county:--"Half of a mile -W.S.W. of Caër Bran, and four and a half miles W. by S. of Penzance, -there is, in the village of Chapel Euny, a cave, consisting for the most -part of a deep trench, walled with stones, and roofed with huge slabs. -It extends 30 feet from N.N.W. to S.S.E., and then branches eastward, -and probably also to the S. or S.W. So far it accords with the -description of an ordinary British cave. But its floor (as I was -informed by the miner who opened it about three years ago) was well -paved with large granite blocks, beneath which, in the centre, ran a -narrow gutter or bolt, made, I imagine, for admitting the external air -into the innermost part of the building; from whence, after flowing back -through the cave, it escaped by the cave's mouth--a mode of ventilation -practised immemorially by the miners in this neighbourhood, when driving -adits or horizontal galleries under ground. - -"Another peculiarity is still more remarkable. Its higher or northern -end consisted of a circular floor, 12 feet in diameter, covered with a -dome of granite, two-thirds of which are still exposed to view; and my -informant had observed a still greater portion of the dome-roofed -chamber. Every successive layer of the stones forming the dome overhangs -considerably the layer immediately beneath it; so that the stones -gradually approach each other as they rise, until the top stones must -originally have completed the dome; not, however, like the key-stones of -an arch, but by resting horizontally on the immediately subjacent -circular layer. The miner found no pottery, or anything else, in the -cave. The height of the present wall of the dome is about 6 feet above -the lowest part I could see; how much lower the original floor might -have been, I could not ascertain. - -"Another British cave, not even referred to in any publication, is to be -seen at Chyoster, nearly three miles north of Penzance, the walls of -which, instead of being perpendicular, are constructed on the same -principle as the inmost part of the cave at Chapel Euny; so that the -tops of these walls which support the huge slabs forming the roof, are -much nearer each other than their bases. Each cave formed part of a -British village, that of old Chyoster being decidedly in the best state -of preservation of all the British villages in this neighbourhood."[2] - -Both caves are built of uncemented stones unmarked by any tool. The cave -at Chyoster extended originally, as appears from its remains and the -rubbish left by its recent spoilers, fifty feet or more in a straight -line up the sloping side of the hill. It is 6 feet high, 4 feet wide on -the top, and 8 feet wide at the bottom, and is thought to have been -originally a storehouse. It appears to have been built on the natural -surface of the hillside, and then covered over with stones and earth, -and planted with the evergreens which still abound there. - -A few years subsequently to the above investigations, in one of those -intellectual excursions by means of which our acquaintance with the -early history of our island is so greatly extended, the following -results were arrived at:--In the autumn of 1865, in an excursion made -jointly by the Royal Institution of Cornwall and the Penzance Natural -History Society, they inspected on the north coast of the county, -Gurnard's Head, a rocky promontory, jutting some distance into the sea, -and bearing very distinct traces of having been fortified by the early -Britons against an enemy attacking from the sea, this being the only -specimen of an ancient British fortification where traces of sea -defences have been found. In all other cases they seem to have been -erected as a protection from an attack by the land side, and to have -been evidently the last retreat of the natives. - -Next was visited the Bosphrennis Bee-hive Hut, first brought to light by -the Cambrian Archæological Society: it was seen in clusters or villages -by Cæsar. And, on an eminence near the village of Porthemear, was found -a large inclosed circle, now hidden by briars and thorns, which, on -examination, showed the remains of several circular huts, leaving no -doubt that here a considerable ancient British village had once existed. - -Of the homes of the Picts, the most distinguished among the barbarous -tribes inhabiting the woods and marshes of North Britain, there remain -some specimens in the Orkneys: they are rude and miserable dwellings -underground, but they are supposed to be calculated for the requirements -of a more advanced state of society than that of the dwellers in Picts' -houses. A complete drawing of one of the Orkney specimens has been made, -and was exhibited to the British Archæological Association in 1866. - -[Illustration: PICTS' HOUSE.] - -About the year 1853, there was discovered in Aberdeenshire a Pict's -house, in the parish of Tarland. It is a subterranean vault, nearly -semicircular, and from five to six feet in height; the sides built with -stones, and roofed with large stones, six or seven feet wide, and a kind -of granite. These excavations have been found in various parishes of -Aberdeenshire, as well as in several of the neighbouring counties. In -the parish of Old Deer, some sixty years back, a whole village was met -with; and, about the same time, in a glen at the back of Stirlinghill, -in the parish of Peterhead, one was discovered which contained some -fragments of bones and several flint arrow-heads and battle-axes, in -various stages of manufacture. Such buildings underground as those -described as Picts' houses were not uncommon on the borders of the -Tweed. A number of them, apparently constructed as above, were -discovered in a field in Berwickshire about fifty years ago. They were -supposed to have been made for the detention of prisoners taken in the -frays during the border feuds; and afterwards they were employed to -conceal spirits, smuggled either across the border or from abroad. - -Professor Phillips, in his very able volume on Yorkshire, describes the -houses of the Brigantes (highlanders), inhabitants of the hilly country -towards the north of Britain, and extending from the German Ocean to the -Irish Sea. Of these huts there appear to be three varieties, of which we -have only the foundations. The first occurs in north-eastern and -south-eastern Yorkshire; the ground is excavated in a circular shape, so -as to make a pit from six to eight feet, or even sixteen or eighteen -feet in diameter, with a raised border, and three to five feet in depth. -Over this cavity we must suppose the branches of trees placed to form a -conical roof, which, perhaps, might be made weather-proof by wattling, a -covering of rushes, or turf. The opening we may believe to have been -placed on the side removed from the prevalent wind: fire in the centre -of the hut thus constructed, has left traces in many of the houses -examined. The pits in Westerdale are called "ref-holes," _i.e._ -roof-holes, for our Saxon word _roof_ has the meaning of the Icelandic -_raf_ and Swedish _ref_. In several places these pits are associated in -such considerable numbers as to give the idea of a village, or even -town. On Danby Moor, the pits are divided in two parallel lines, bounded -externally by banks, and divided internally by an open space like a -street; a stream divides the settlement into two parts; there are no -walls at the end of the streets; in the most westerly part is a circular -walled space, thirty-five feet in diameter. - -"A second type of these foundations of huts has been observed south of -the village of Skipwith, near Riccall, south-east of York. These were -oval or circular rings slightly excavated in the heathy surface, on the -drier parts of the common. On digging into this area, marks of fire were -found: they were concluded to be the foundation-lines of huts, mostly -enclosed by single or double mounds or ditches. - -"The third form of hut foundation, an incomplete ring of stone walls, -has only yet been observed in Yorkshire, on the summit of Ingleborough. -How strange to find at this commanding height," says Professor Phillips, -"encircled by a thick and strong wall, and within this wall the -unmistakeable foundations of ancient habitations! The Rev. Robert Cooke, -in 1851, concluded Ingleborough to be a great hill-fort of the Britons, -defended by a wall like others known in Wales, and furnished with houses -like the 'Cittian,' of Gwynedd. The area inclosed is about 15 acres, in -which space are nineteen horse-shoe-shaped low foundations, evidently -the foundations of ancient huts, the antecedent of the cottages of -England,--a low wall foundation, a roof formed by inclined rafters, and -covered by boughs, heath, rushes, grass, straw, or sods. The relative -dates, surely, admit of no doubt. The huts and walls of Ingleborough -exhibit principles of construction which remove them from the catalogue -of barbarian works."[3] - -The Britons, before the first Roman invasion, slept on skins spread on -the floor of their rude dwellings. Rushes and heath were afterwards -substituted by the Romans for skins; and on the introduction of -agriculture they slept upon straw, which, indeed, was used as a couch in -the royal chambers of England at the close of the 14th century. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] _Annals of England_, vol. i. 1855. - -[2] _Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal_, N. S. No. 1, 1858. - -[3] _The Rivers, Mountains, and Sea-Coasts of Yorkshire_, 2d edit. 1855. - - - - -BRITAIN BEFORE THE ROMAN COLONIZATION. - - -Hitherto we have but glanced at the dwelling-places of our ancestors, -chiefly from existing evidences. Of the general condition of the people -before the Roman Conquest, we find this picturesque account in -Lappenberg's able work on the Anglo-Saxon Kings. The earliest -inhabitants of Britain, as far as we know, were probably of that great -family, the main branches of which, distinguished by the designation of -Celts, spread themselves so widely over middle and western Europe. They -crossed over from the neighbouring country of Gaul. At a later period, -the Belgæ, actuated by martial restlessness or the love of plunder, -assailed the southern and western coasts of the island, and settled -there, driving the Celts into the inland country. Lappenberg's life-like -picture of the condition of these people is as follows:-- - -"In the southern parts of England, which had become more civilized -through commerce, the cultivation of grain, to which the mildness of the -climate was favourable, had been greatly improved by the art of marling. -The daily consumption was taken from the unthrashed corn, preserved in -caves, which they prepared for food, but did not bake as bread. -Horticulture was not in use among them, nor the art of making cheese; -yet the great number of buildings, of people, and of cattle, appeared -striking to the Romans. Copper and bits of iron, according to weight, -served as money. Their custom of painting themselves with blue and -green, for the purpose of terrifying their enemies, as well as that of -tattooing, was retained till a later period by the Picts of the North. -At certain sacrifices, even the women, painted in a similar manner, -resembling Ethiopians, went about without clothing. Long locks and -mustachios were general. Like the Gauls, they decorated the middle -finger with a ring. Their round simple huts of reeds or wood resembled -those of that people; and the Gaulish chequered coloured mantles are -still in common use in the Scottish Highlands. Their clothing, more -especially that of the Belgic tribes of the south, enveloped the whole -body; a girdle encircled the waist, and chains of metal hung about the -breast. The hilts of their huge pointless swords were adorned with the -teeth of marine animals; their shields were small. The custom of -fighting in chariots, on the axles of which scythes were fastened, and -in the management of which they showed great skill, was peculiar to this -and some other of the Celtic nations, in a generally level country, and -where the horses were not sufficiently powerful to be used for cavalry. -The charioteer was the superior person; the servant bore the weapons. -They began their attacks with taunting songs and deafening howls. Their -fortresses or towns consisted in the natural defence of impenetrable -forests. In the interior of the country were found only the more rugged -characteristics of a people engaged in the rearing of cattle; which, -together with the chase, supplied skins for clothing, and milk and flesh -for food. The northern part of the country seems in great measure to -have been abandoned to the shaft and javelin of the roving hunter, as -skilful as he was bold. Simplicity, integrity, temperance, with a -proneness to dissension, are mentioned as the leading characteristics of -the nation. The reputation of bravery was more especially ascribed to -the Norman races." - -The only persons in Britain who possessed any knowledge before the Roman -invasion, and even for some considerable time after it, were the Druids: -the real extent of their attainments is, however, doubtful and -superficial, from the fact that, though they were acquainted with -the Greek letters, they taught almost entirely by memory, and -committed little or nothing to writing. A summary of what is known -concerning Druidical knowledge is contained in the following -particulars:--Concerning the universe, they believed that it should -never be entirely destroyed or annihilated, though it was expected to -suffer a succession of violent changes and revolutions, by the -predominating powers of fire and water. They professed to have great -knowledge of the movements of the heavens and stars; indeed, their -religion required some attention to astronomy, since they paid -considerable regard to the changes of the moon. Their time was computed -by nights, according to very ancient practice, by moons or months; and -by years, when the planet had gone the revolutions of the seasons. That -at least they knew the reversion of the seasons, as adapted to -agricultural purposes, is evident from the fact, that Cæsar landed in -Britain on the 26th day of August, when he states that the harvest was -all completed, excepting one field, which was more backward than the -rest of the country. - -The sacred animal of the Druids' religion was the milk-white bull; the -sacred bird, the wren; the sacred tree, the oak; the sacred plant, the -mistletoe; the sacred herbs, the trefoil and the vervain; the sacred -form, that of three divine letters or rays, in the shape of a cross, -symbolizing the triple aspect of God. The sacred herbs and plant, with -another plant, hyssop, the emblem of fortitude in adversity, were -gathered on the sixth day of the moon. The great festivals of Druidism -were three: the solstitial festivals of the rise and fall of the year, -and the winter festival. At the spring festival, the bâltân, or sacred -fire, was brought down by means of a burning-glass from the sun. No -hearth in the island was held sacred till the fire on it had been relit -from the bâltân. The bâltân became the Easter festival of Christianity, -as the mid-winter festival, in which the mistletoe was cut with the -golden sickle from the sacred oak, became Christmas. The mistletoe, with -its three berries, was the symbol of the Deity in his triple aspect--its -growth on the oak, of the incarnation of the Deity in man. - -The canonicals of the Arch-Druid were extremely gorgeous. On his head he -wore a tiara of gold, in his girdle the gem of augury, on his breast the -_ior morain_, or breast-plate of judgment; below it, the _glan neidr_, -or draconic egg: on the forefinger of the right hand, the signet ring of -the order; on the forefinger of the left, the gem of inspiration. Before -him were borne the volume of esoteric mysteries, and the golden -implement with which the mistletoe was gathered. His robe was of a white -linen, with a broad purple border. - -The sickle with which the mistletoe was cut could not have been of gold, -though so described. Stukeley maintains that the Druids cut the -mistletoe with their upright hatchets of brass, called celts, put at the -end of their staffs. The kind of mistletoe found to this day in Greece -is the same with that found in England; and Sir James Smith, the -distinguished botanist, contends that when the superstitions of the East -travelled westward, our Druids adopted the Greek mistletoe as being more -holy or efficacious than any other. The Druids, doubtless, dispensed the -plant at a high price: "as late as the seventeenth century peculiar -efficacy was attached to it, and a piece hung round the neck was -considered a safeguard against witches." (_W. Sandys, F.S.A._) - -It is concluded that the Druids possessed some knowledge of arithmetic, -using the Greek characters as figures, in the public and private -computations mentioned by Cæsar; they were not unacquainted with -mensuration, geometry, and geography, because, as judges, they decided -disputes about the limits of fields, and are even said to have been -engaged in determining the measure of the world. Their mechanical skill, -and particularly their acquaintance with the lever, is generally argued -from the enormous blocks of Stonehenge, and the numerous other massive -erections of rude stone which are yet remaining in many parts of the -kingdom, and which are commonly attributed to these times. - -The remains of the mystic monument of Stonehenge, which stands in the -midst of Salisbury Plain, have been variously explained, as to the -purpose for which Stonehenge was reared. When perfect, it consisted of -two circles and two ellipses of upright stones, concentric, and -environed by a bank and ditch; and outside this boundary, of a single -upright stone, and a sacred way, _via sacra_, or cursus. One writer has -beheld in Stonehenge a work of antediluvians, and another, a sanctuary -of the Danes; and Inigo Jones, a temple of the Romans. By the Saxons it -was termed _Stonhengist_, the hanging stones; and thence came -Stonehenge, of which we have this terrible historic legend:-- - -Ebusa, brother of Hengist, with his brother Octa, landed on the Frith of -Forth with an armament of five hundred vessels. The Britons flew to -arms. A conference was proposed by Hengist, and accepted by Vortigern. -It was held at Stonehenge (Hengist's Stones), and attended by most of -the nobility of Britain. On the sixth day, at the high feast, when the -sun was declining, was perpetrated the "Massacre of the Long Knives," -the blackest crime, with the exception of that of St. Bartholomew, in -the annals of any nation. The signal for the Saxons to prepare to plunge -their knives, concealed in their boots and under their military cloaks, -into the breasts of their gallant, unsuspicious conquerors was, "Let us -now speak of friendship and love." The signal for action were the words, -"Nemet your Saxas," ("Out with your knives,") and the raising of the -banner of Hengist--a white horse on a red field--over the head of -Vortigern. Four hundred and eighty of the Christian chivalry of Britain -fell before sunset by the hand of the pagan assassins; three only of -name--Eidol Count of Gloucester, and the Princes of Vendotia and -Cambria--escaping, the first by almost superhuman courage and presence -of mind. Priests, ambassadors, bards, and the boyish scions of many -noble families, were piled together in one appalling spectacle on the -site of the banquet, "Moel OEore"--the Mound of Carnage, about three -hundred yards north of the great Temple. - -A learned band of inquirers are induced to consider Stonehenge as a -Druidic temple, reared on the solitary plain long before Roman, Dane, or -Saxon had set foot within the country. Still, Stonehenge was the work of -two distinct eras: the smaller circles are attributed to the Celtic -Britons, and the other to the Belgæ. There is a common notion that the -stones cannot be counted twice alike; but when Charles II. visited -Stonehenge in 1651, he counted and re-counted the stones, and proved to -his satisfaction the fallacy of this notion.[4] - -A few months since, Professor Nielson, in a paper read to the -Ethnological Society, considered that Stonehenge was a temple of early -fire-worshippers, and of pre-Druidical origin, and belonging to the -"Bronze Period" of the northern archæologists. The remains of -Stonehenge, he remarked, are placed, not on the summit, but on the -declivity of a hill surrounded by numerous barrows, from which bronze -articles have been exhumed, with others of flint, but never any of iron. -He considers that fire-worshippers preceded Druids in Britain and Gaul, -and gives what he regards as numerous proofs of the building of such -stone open temples by colonies of Phoenicians. Circles of large -stones, exactly identical in description with those called Celtic or -Druidical, he continued, are found in countries where neither Celts nor -Druids ever existed; but who knows at what time the ancient religion of -this country may be truly said to have been pre-Druidical or pre-Celtic -in its principles? From various considerations the author of the paper -thinks there may be sufficient reason to regard the remains of -Stonehenge as Phoenician, and connected with the rites of Baal, or the -early worship of fire. - -Mr. Fergusson and others say that to the Buddhists rather than to the -Druids we owe Stonehenge. It is also thought to have been an assemblage -of burial-places. - -A popular poet has thus apostrophised this mysterious circle and its -historical associations: - - "Thou noblest monument of Albion's isle! - Whether by Merlin's aid from Scythia's shore - To Amber's fatal plain Pendragon bore, - Huge frame of giant hands, the mighty pile, - To entomb his Britons slain by Hengist's guile: - Or Druid priests, sprinkled with human gore, - Taught 'mid thy mighty maze their mystic lore: - Or Danish chiefs, enrich'd with savage spoil, - To Victory's idol vast, an unhewn shrine, - Rear'd the rude heap: or in thy hallow'd round, - Repose the kings of Brutus' genuine line: - Or here those kings in solemn state were crown'd: - Studious to trace thy wondrous origin, - We muse on many an ancient tale renown'd." - - WARTON. - -The Druids were suspected of magic, which, Pliny remarks, derived its -origin from medicine. They highly esteemed a kind of stone, or fossil, -called _Anginum Ovum_, or Serpents' Egg, which should make the possessor -superior in all disputes, and procure the favour of great persons. It -was in the form of a ring of glass, either plain or streaked, and was -asserted to be produced by the united salivas of a cluster of serpents, -raised up in the air by their hissing; when, to be perfectly -efficacious, it was to be caught in a clean white cloth before it fell -to the ground, the person who received it instantly mounting a swift -horse, and riding away at full speed from the rage of the serpents, who -pursued him with like rapidity, until they arrived at a river. It has -been supposed that these charms were no other than rings of painted -glass; and, as it is allowed that the British had home manufactures of -glass, it seems that there were imitations of them sold at an equally -high price with the real amulet. Their genuineness was to be tried by -their setting them in gold, and observing if they swam against the -stream when cast into the water; they were, in fact, beads of glass, and -the notion of their rare virtues exactly accords with the African -exposition in the present day of the Aggry beads. Sir Richard Colt Hoare -found one of the Druidic beads in a barrow in Wiltshire, in material -resembling little figures found with the mummies in Egypt, and to be -seen in the British Museum. "This curious bead," says Sir Richard Hoare, -"has two circular lines, of opaque sky-blue and white, and seems to -represent a serpent entwined round a centre, which is perforated. This -was certainly one of the Glain Neidyr of the Britons; derived from -_Glain_, which is pure and holy, and _Neidyr_, a snake."[5] - -The accounts we have of the Druidical orations and discourses afford -some notion of their admitted eloquence, which was of a lofty, -impassioned, and mysterious character. Their counsel was equally -solicited and regarded; and those orators who succeeded the Druids in -the Western Islands seem to have possessed no less power, since, if one -of them asked anything even of the greatest inhabitant, as his dress, -horse, or arms, it was immediately given up to him--sometimes from -respect, and sometimes from fear of being satirized, which was -considered a great dishonour. The British chieftains, also, appear to -have been gifted with considerable oratorical powers when they addressed -their soldiers before a battle; as Tacitus translates the British names -of such by "incentives to war." - -The Druids were the only physicians and surgeons to the Britons; in -which professions they blended some knowledge of natural medicines, with -the general superstitions by which they were characterised. The practice -of the healing art has ever commanded the esteem of the rudest nations; -hence it was the obvious policy of the priests or Druids to study the -properties of plants. Their famous Mistletoe, or _All-heal_, we have -seen, was a cure in many diseases, an antidote to poisons, and a sure -remedy against infection. We have in the present day a popular remedy -for cuts and other wounds, sold under the name of _Heal-all_. Another -plant, called Samulus, or Marsh-wort, which grew chiefly in damp places, -was believed to be of excellent effect in preserving the health of swine -or oxen, when it had been bruised and put into their water-troughs. But -it was required to be gathered fasting and with the left hand, without -looking back when it was being plucked. A kind of hedge hyssop, called -_Selago_, was esteemed to be a general charm and preservative from -sudden accidents and misfortunes; and it was to be gathered with nearly -the same ceremony as the mistletoe. To these may be added Vervain, the -herb _Britannica_, which was either the great Water-dock, or -scurvy-grass; besides several other plants, the virtues of which, -however, were greatly augmented by the rites in plucking them; -superstitions not entirely out of use, while the old herbals were -regarded as books of medicine. We gather from Pliny's _Natural History_ -some hints on the preparation of these materials, showing that sometimes -the juices were extracted by bruising and steeping them in cold water, -and sometimes by boiling them; that they were occasionally infused in a -liquor which he calls wine; that they were administered in fumigations; -and that the dried leaves, stalks, and roots of plants, were also used -to impart a virtue to various liquids. The almost solitary shop of the -herbalist in our great market in Covent Garden, will thus carry the -mind's eye back through many centuries. - -It appears that the Druids prepared ointments and salves from -vegetables. Of their surgery nothing is certainly known, though much has -been conjectured of their acquaintance with anatomy, from the barbarity -of their human sacrifices; but it is probable that their practice -extended only to the plainer branches of the art, as healing of wounds, -setting of fractured bones, reducing dislocations, &c.; all which were -perhaps conducted with great rudeness, though with considerable -ceremony. It has been asserted that one of the Druid doctors, called -Hierophilus, read lectures on the bodies of upwards of 700 living men, -to display the wonders and secrets of the human fabric. - -The Greek letters were used by the Druids for keeping the public or -private records, the only matters which they reduced to writing. The -Druid schools and seminaries were held in the caves such as we have -already described, or in the recesses of the sacred groves and forests -of Britain. The most eminent academy is said to have been in the Isle of -Anglesey, near the residence of the Arch-Druid; and there are still two -spots there called "the Place of Studies," and "the Astronomer's -Circle." The British youth, separated from their parents, were under -Druidical instruction until they were fourteen, and no one was capable -of a public employment who had not been educated by a Druid. The Roman -invasion, however, greatly improved the Druidical plan of instruction; -since Julius Agricola was careful that the sons of the principal Britons -should be taught the liberal sciences. His endeavours were considerably -assisted by the expulsion of the Druids, which took place about this -period; and also by the ability of the British youth, whom he declared -to excel the Roman. The ranks of the priests were recruited from the -noblest families of the early Britons: their education, which often -extended over a period of twenty years, comprehended the whole sciences -of the age; and beside their sacred calling, they were invested with -power to decide civil disputes. Their dwellings and temples were -situated in the thickest oak groves, which were sacred to the Supreme -Deity. - -No sculptured stones or storied bricks have ever been found of this -period; nothing but weapons of stone, of bronze, and lastly, of iron, -remain to attest the slow progress of a rude people towards a higher -stage of civilization, in the arts relating to the chase and to war. As -the Gauls used to ornament their shields and helmets with brass images -of animals and horns, it is not improbable that some rude endeavour -decorated the armour of the Britons. Whatever their skill might be, it -was, doubtless, greatly improved by the Romans, since their bas-reliefs -and effigies have been found in different parts of the kingdom; and as -early as A.D. 61, not twenty years after the invasion of Claudius Cæsar, -a statue of Liberty was erected at Camulodunum, or Colchester. - -The early custom of painting the body has been incidentally mentioned. -The Southern Britons stained their bodies with woad, deep blue, or a -general tint; the Northern Britons added something of design by tracing -upon their limbs figures of herbs, flowers, and trees, and all kinds of -animals. It is doubtful whether in these arts they were improved by the -Romans; since the delineation of deities, which Gildas mentions, on the -walls of the British houses, are said by him only to resemble demons. - -Although Cæsar describes the natives of Britain as a hardy race of -shepherds, whose simple wants were provided for in their own country, -even then the commerce of Britain was of considerable importance; since -the tin of Cornwall, and the hides of the vast flocks of cattle, had -already induced the merchants of Phoenicia to visit and settle on our -southern shores. They are believed to have supplied the Eastern world -with Cornish tin, of such important use in the manufacture of bronze -tools, weapons, and helmets of antiquity.[6] - -The principal and most ancient exports from Britain were, besides its -famous tin, lead and copper; but lime and chalk, salt, corn, cattle, -skins, earthenware, horses, staves, and native dogs, which appear -always to have been held in great estimation, were also carried thence. -The largest and finest pearls, too, are said to have been found on the -British coasts; and the wicker baskets of Britain are celebrated by -Martial and Juvenal as luxuries in Rome. And from Rome, the Britons -received ivory, bridles, gold chains, amber cups, and drinking glasses. - -There are few remains of the ornaments in use amongst the Britons at a -very early period: there are many relics, however, of that just -preceding the Roman Conquest. We find torques or chains for the neck and -wrists coarsely manufactured, like curb-chains. Beads were also in use. -Many of the most ancient ornaments were cruciform. With the Roman -Conquest came in the Roman ornamentation. This does not seem to have -been modified by its introduction into Britain. The Romans imported Rome -bodily into Britain, as was their custom in all the conquered countries, -and the Britons were too uncivilized to make improvements on what was -presented to them. For this reason it is that there is the greatest -difficulty to distinguish between pure Roman and Anglo-Roman ornaments. - -That the Britons both understood and practised the art of working in -metals, is ascertained from the relics of their weapons, as axes, spear -and arrow heads, swords, &c. which are yet extant; and it is supposed -that tin was the first ore which they discovered and refined. Lead they -found in great abundance, very near the surface. The British iron was of -uncommon occurrence, and was much prized, since it was used in personal -ornaments, and was even formed into rings and tallies for money. This -then precious metal has contributed more than any other to the greatness -of England in those mighty works of our own times, her railways and vast -ships of passage and war. - -All the Britons, except the Druids, were trained early to war. Their -most ancient weapons were bows, reed-arrows with flint or bone heads, -quivers of basket-work, oaken spears; and flint battle-axes, which are -now considered to have been called _celts_, though there is no connexion -between this word and the name of the nation, Celtæ. The British forces -included infantry, cavalry, and such as fought from war-chariots. The -southern foot soldiers wore a coarse woollen tunic, and over it a cloak -reaching below the middle, the legs and thighs being covered with close -garments. They had brass helmets, breastplates full of hooks, and long -swords suspended from an iron or brazen girdle. They also carried large -darts, with iron shafts eighteen inches long; and shields of wicker or -wood. The inland foot soldiers were more lightly armed, with spears and -small shields, and dressed in skins of oxen. The Caledonians and other -northerns usually fought naked, with only a light target; their weapons -pointless swords and short spears. The British cavalry were mounted upon -small but strong horses, without saddles, and their arms were mostly the -same as those of the infantry. The soldiers of the war-chariots were -mostly the chiefs of the nation, and the flower of the British youth. -Their chariots were of wicker, upon wooden wheels, with hooks and scythe -blades of bronze attached to the axles, with which the charioteer mowed -down the enemy. Other chariots contained several persons, who darted -lances; both machines broke the hostile ranks, and threw an army into -confusion. Their number must have been very great; since Cassibellaunus, -after he had disbanded his army, had still 4,000 remaining. - -Primitive British vessels have occasionally been found embedded in -morasses. In 1866, there was discovered at Warningcamp, about a mile -from South Stoke, in Sussex, a canoe, in widening a ditch, or sewer, -which empties itself into the river Arun: although now narrow, it -appears to have been, until recently, of much greater extent, and at one -time must have formed an important estuary of the river, for in the soil -are now seen several thousands of shells of fresh-water fish. About four -feet beneath the surface the end of the canoe was found. It proved to be -13-1/2 feet long, and consisted of the hollowed trunk of an oak tree; -but bears evidence of design, for having insertions cut on the edge, in -which it is evident three seats had been secured for the boatmen. It is -perhaps not so interesting as the canoe discovered at Stoke about twenty -years ago, and now in the British Museum, because it is not so perfect. -Still, it would appear of the greatest antiquity, from its extremely -rude form. The canoe is the general vessel of New Zealand, the present -state and people of which country are thought to exhibit more nearly -than any other land the condition of Britain when the Romans entered it -nearly eighteen centuries since. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[4] It must have been a proud day for John Aubrey, the Wiltshire -antiquary, when he attended Charles II. and the Duke of York on their -visit to Abury, which the King was told at a meeting of the Royal -Society, in 1663 (soon after its formation), as much excelled Stonehenge -as a cathedral does a parish church. In leaving Abury, the King "cast -his eie on Silbury Hill, about a mile off," and with the Duke of York, -Dr. Charlton, and Aubrey, he walked up to the top of it. Dr. Stukeley, -in his account of Abury, published in 1743, probably refers to another -royal visit, when he notes: "Some old people remember Charles II., the -Duke of York, and the Duke of Monmouth, _riding_ up Silbury Hill." - -[5] See Apsley Pellatt's _Curiosities of Glass-Making_, 1849. - -[6] This is a much contested question among ethnologists and other -authors. Mr. Craufurd and Sir George Cornewall Lewis totally disbelieve -in the voyage of the Phoenicians to the Scilly Islands, through which -they are imagined to have supplied the Eastern world with Cornish tin; -since they are not likely to have performed the requisite voyage from -the entrance of the Mediterranean, 1,000 miles in a straight line over a -stormy sea; but Sir Charles Lyell considers it would have been much -safer for the Phoenicians to come round by sea than trust their cargoes -through Gaul, then not sufficiently safe to be a highway for trade. Nor -is there any tin in the Scilly Islands; but Sir Henry James shows that -the Cassiterides, where the tin was obtained, is St. Michael's Mount. -Sir Henry has recently found in the bed of the harbour of Falmouth an -ancient wrecked ingot of tin, of precisely that shape and weight which -would adapt it as half-cargo for a horse, balanced by a similar ingot on -the other side. The metal was thus conveyed along our southern coast to -a favourable place for embarkation, whence the cargoes crossed the -Channel and were taken overland through Gaul to the Mediterranean. The -ingot discovered at Falmouth resembled in form an _astragalus_ or -knuckle-bone, the shape being convenient for slinging over the back of a -horse; and it is important to notice that Diodorus Siculus uses the term -_astragali_ in describing the shape of the tin-blocks brought from the -island of Ictis, which there could be no doubt was the same as St. -Michael's Mount. The ingot weighs 120 pounds, and the form of the -under-surface is such as to adapt it for resting on the bottom of a -boat. Sir Henry believes, with Sir Charles Lyell, that in more ancient -times, previous to the Roman occupation of Gaul, tin was conveyed to the -Mediterranean round the coasts of Gaul and Lusitania; but more recently, -as Diodorus Siculus states, it was carried by land after crossing the -narrow part of the Channel. The miners of the present day sometimes find -bronze weapons in old tin-works. It is not necessary to assume that -these were imported, as there is plenty of copper in Cornwall. It is -believed they were manufactured there, and that a vast proportion of the -bronze weapons of antiquity were actually made in Cornwall and exported. - - - - -THE ROMANS IN ENGLAND. - - "The Romans in England they once did sway." - - OLD SONG. - - -Archæological information obtained of late years shows that at the time -of the Roman invasion, there was a larger amount of civilization in -Ancient Britain than had been generally supposed: that in addition to -the knowledge of the old inhabitants in agriculture, in the training and -rearing of horses, cows, and other domestic animals, they were able to -work in mines, had skill in the construction of war-chariots and other -carriages, and in the manufacture of metals; and there is evidence that -British manufactures and materials were exported to certain parts of the -Continent, probably in British vessels. The ancient coinage of this -period is also well worthy of attention. - -In connexion with the Ancient British period, it would seem that -probably 2,000 years before the Roman times there had been in Great -Britain a certain degree of civilization, which from various causes -declined in extent. If Stonehenge may be considered as of the same -antiquity as similar remains in various parts of the East--which are -reckoned by good authorities to be 4,000 years old--we had in this -country a degree of civilization which was contemporary with the -prosperous period of the Egyptian empire; and, in times more immediately -preceding the Roman occupation, we know that Britain was the grand -source of Druidical illumination (whatever relation that may have had to -a true civilization) to the whole of Continental Europe. - -That the Ancient Britons, even after they were conquered by the Romans, -had still a strength considered dangerous, is shown by the fact that -upwards of forty barbarian legions which had followed the Roman -standards were settled chiefly upon the northern and eastern coasts; and -it is shown that a force of about 19,200 Roman foot and 1,700 horse was -required to secure peace, and the carrying out of certain laws in the -island. - -The encampments, Roman and British, are thus described. In the Roman -camp, the plan is invariably the same--a rectangular area, surrounded by -a ditch, the earth thrown inwards, forming a high mound, defended on the -top with wooden palisades, but of these all vestiges have disappeared: -in the middle of each side the entrance, from which a way led to the -opposite gate; and at or near the outer action of the two ways, was the -Prætorium, the remains of which may frequently be traced. These camps -are not usually found on very high hills. The Britons, on the other -hand, always occupied the highest ground, frequently an isolated hill, -which they surrounded with deep trenches and a series of low terraces -scooped out of the side of the hill, rising one above another, not in an -unbroken line, but forming, in some places, a network of flat forms, -commanding every approach to the entrances, with advantageous positions -for the sling, in the use of which the Britons peculiarly excelled. -Every inequality of the ground was taken advantage of: the entrances -sometimes opened into one of the trenches, through which the approach to -the interior leads, so as to expose an enemy to an overwhelming storm of -darts and stones from the heights above. - -Our early historians mention four great roads by which South Britain was -traversed, and these usually have been considered as the work of its -conquerors; but recent researches have led to the conclusion that the -Romans only kept in repair, and perhaps improved, the roads which they -found in use on their settlement in the island. Along the course of the -great roads, or in their immediate vicinity, are found the principal -cities, which, in pursuance of their usual policy, the Romans either -founded or re-edified; and to which, according to the privilege -bestowed, the various names were given of colonies, municipalities, -stipendiary, and Latian cities. Many other Roman roads exist. - -"The old British roads, or trackways, were not paved or gravelled, but -had a basis of turf, and wound along the tops or sides of the chains of -hills which lay in their way. Surrey furnishes a remarkable example of -such an appropriation of one of its chalk ridges; and it may be inferred -that the agger called the Hog's Back presented to the earliest -inhabitants of Britain a natural causeway of solid chalk, covered with a -soft verdant turf, peculiarly suited to the traffic of the British -chariots, and connecting the western Belgæ with the Cantii, and -affording through them an access towards the continent at all seasons of -the year. These advantageous peculiarities, no doubt, rendered it the -grand strategic route by which an invading army would have penetrated to -the westward; and Vespasian may be supposed, with great reason, to have -marched along it."[7] - - -To return to the Roman Roads. Although inferior to the Britons of the -nineteenth century in the art of spending money, if judged by the -present state of science, the Roman road-makers could not be despicable -engineers: their levels were chosen on different principles, but their -lines of roads passed through the same counties, and generally in the -same direction as our railways. A diagram in the _Quarterly Review_, -exhibiting a general view of the direction of the principal Roman roads -in England, shows that, on comparing one or two of our principal lines, -we shall find, that the Great Western supplies the place, with a little -deviation near Reading, of the Roman _iter_ from London to Bath and -Bristol; the Liverpool and Manchester, and on to Leeds and York, -replaces the northern Watling-street; the Great Eastern follows a Roman -way, and so of the rest.[8] - -Professor Phillips has thus strikingly illustrated this comparison to be -made in the North of England. "As now two railways, so a little earlier -two mail-roads, and far earlier two British tracks, conducted the -traveller from South Britain through the sterner country of the North. -This is the inevitable result of the great anticlinal ridge of -stratified rocks--our Pennine Alps--thrown up from Derbyshire to the -Scottish Border. This is the 'heaven water' boundary of the river -drainages: on the west of it ran the line of road northward from -Mancunium; on the east of it the line from Eburacum; the former nearly -in the course of the North-eastern, the latter not lately deviating from -the North-eastern rail. Along these routes Agricola divided his troops: -these were the routes followed alike by the Pict and Scot, Plantagenet -and Tudor, Cavalier and Roundhead. Wade lay on the east of these -mountains, while the Stuart overran their western slopes: and Rupert -swept up the western tract to surprise the besiegers of York."[9] On the -whole it appears that the lines of the earlier British roads were -indicated by the great features of nature; and that, for the most part, -the Roman ways followed and straightened the old tracks. - -"It is equally remarkable and significant that the Roman municipia and -coloniæ became the centres of Saxon and Anglican strength; and if in -this day of the steam-engine their relative importance is less -conspicuous, it is still a matter of English history. From the top of -the Brigantian mountain we may reanimate the busy world which has long -passed away from life: the jealous boundaries of propriety disappear; -the chimneys vanish; the thundering hammer is silent. From the midst of -boundless forests of oak and pine, rise many peaks or bare summits of -heaths crowned with monumental stones or burial mounds. The rivers -gliding through the deepest shade, bear at intervals the light wicker -boat, still frequent in Dyfed, loaded with fish, or game, or fruit. On -dry banks above are the conical huts of the rude hunters, and near them -the not narrower houses of the dead,--perhaps not far off the cave of -the wolf. Lower down the dale, the richest of pastures is covered with -the fairest of cattle and the most active of horses. Still lower, the -storehouse of the tribe, the water station to which large canoes, -hollowed from the mighty oaks of Hatfield Chase, have brought from the -Humber the highly-prized beads and amulets, perhaps the precious bronze -which is to replace the arrow, spear, and axe of stone. - -"Both north and south of the Humber very different scenes appear on the -high and open Wold: within the memory of man, many parts of these wild -regions were untouched by plough, traversed by bustard, and covered with -innumerable flocks. The more we reflect on the remains which crowd this -region--the numerous tracks, the countless tumuli, the frequent -dykes--the clearer grows the resemblance between the Yorkshire Wolds -and the Downs of Wilts and Dorset. On opening the tumuli we discover -similar ornaments, and from whatever cause, consanguinity of race, or -analogy of employments and way of life, the earliest people must be -allowed to have been very much the same along the dry chalk hills from -the vicinity of Bridlington to the country of Dorchester. This is the -region of the tumuli: on its surface are not unfrequent foundations of -the British huts." - -The main population did not reside on these hills, since they are for -miles naturally dry. But, from below their edge rise innumerable bright -streams, by which, "no doubt, were the settled habitations, the Cyttian -of the early Britons, followed by the Saxon _tun_ and the Danish _by_; -on the hills above were long boundary fences, and within these the raths -and tumuli, the monumental stones and idols. In situations where nature -gave peculiar advantages, one of the grand manufactures of the tribes -was established. The fabrication of pottery, from the Kimmeridge clay -about Malton, was undoubtedly very extensive in British days, and -characteristic both as to substance and fashion; that of bricks and -tiles at York was equally considerable in Roman days, and it is curious -to walk now into the large brick-yards and potteries which are -successfully conducted at these same places, on the very sites which -furnished the funeral urn, and the perforated tube which distributed air -from the hypocaust." - -We may acquire some idea of Roman road-making from the following -details:--"From the wall of Antoninus to Rome, and from thence to -Jerusalem, that is, from the north-west to the south-east point of the -empire, was measured a distance of 3,740 English miles; of this -distance 85 miles only were sea-passages, the rest was the _road of -polished silex_. Posts were established along these lines of high road, -so that 100 miles a day might be with ease accomplished. A fact related -by Pliny affords an example of the quickest travelling in a carriage in -ancient times. Tiberius Nero, with three carriages, accomplished a -journey of 200 miles in twenty-four hours, when he went to see his -brother Drusus, who was sick in Germany." (_Burgess._) - -The towns, and forts, and roads are, however, very far from being the -only traces of Roman occupation that remain in our country. Camps, -occupying well-chosen positions, occur in numbers, which testify the -difficulty with which the subjugation of the island was accomplished; -while the remains of stately buildings, with ornamented baths, mosaic -pavements, fresco paintings and statuary, and articles of personal -ornament, which are discovered almost every time that the earth is -uncovered to any considerable depth, prove the eventual wide diffusion -of the elegant and luxurious mode of life which it was the aim of the -conquerors to introduce. Roman glass and pottery, in great variety, and -frequently of the most elegant shape, abound; but the most valuable are -the sepulchral urns, which betoken the neighbourhood of towns, of which -perhaps no other traces now remain. - -At Aldborough, in Yorkshire (the Roman Isurium), and in some of the -small towns on the line of Hadrian's wall, in Northumberland, masses of -the small houses have been uncovered, and their appearance leads us to -believe that the houses of a Roman town in Britain were grouped thickly -together; that they were mostly separated by narrow alleys, and that -there were in general few streets of any magnitude; most ancient towns, -even in the present day, abound with alleys. - -It is maintained by some antiquaries that London is almost of Roman -origin. In the "Conquest of Britain," by Claudius, A.D. 44, "the first -care of the Romans was, to make good military communication across the -north of Essex, and the tenure of London was then a matter of minor -importance. It is remarkable that, though the bridge over the Thames is -mentioned, there is no allusion to a city. It is not improbable that the -Romans, perceiving the advantage of the position at the head of the -estuary and at the mouth of a large river, and having the power (after -the occupation of both banks of the Thames) of giving it better military -protection than the native tribes, continually in conflict, could ever -give it, promoted the commercial growth of the city by all means in -their power. Thus it would seem that London, almost from its origin, is -a Roman city." - -In the revolt of the Britons, A.D. 61, Londinium (London), already, -according to Tacitus, "famed for the vast conflux of traders, and her -abundant commerce and plenty," was destroyed by the Britons. - -London has hitherto yielded up many traces of the manners and -indications of our Roman ancestors, but few of our earliest antiquities. -Our Roman London has been buried beneath the foundations of the modern -city, or rather beneath the ruins of a city several times destroyed, and -as often rebuilt. It is only at rare intervals that excavators strike -down upon the venerable remains of the earliest occupation; and huge -masses of genuine Roman fortifications have been seen in our day, but by -few persons in comparison with the busy multitudes which daily throng -our streets. - -When the Roman legions were finally withdrawn, Britain possessed more -than fifty walled towns, united by roads with stations upon them; there -were also numerous military walled stations. These towns and stations -possessed public buildings, baths, and temples, and edifices of -considerable grandeur and architectural importance, and their public -places were often embellished with statues: one bronze equestrian -statue, at least, decorated Lincoln; a bronze statue stood in a temple -at Bath; one of the temples at Colchester bore an inscription in large -letters of bronze; and Verulam possessed a theatre for dramatic -representations, capable of holding some 2,000 or 3,000 spectators. -Verulam now presents nothing to the eye but some fields, a church, and a -dwelling-house, surrounded by walls overgrown with trees. Colchester, -Lincoln, and Bath exhibit few indications of their Roman times; but -Chester is richer in these characteristics. The spacious villas which -once spread over Roman Britain, are now known to us as from time to time -their splendid pavements are laid open under corn-fields and meadows. In -a nook of the busy Strand is a Roman bath, of accredited antiquity, its -bricks and stucco corresponding with those in the City wall: this bath -can be traced to have belonged to the villa of a Leicestershire family, -which stood upon this spot,--the north bank of the Thames. - -In the year 1864, there was discovered on the site of the portico of the -East India-house, in Leadenhall-street, the remains of a Roman room, _in -situ_ 19 ft. 6 in. below the present surface of the street, and 6 ft. -below the lowest foundations of the India-house. The room was about 16 -ft. square; the walls built of Roman bricks and rubble; the floor paved -with good red tesseræ, but without any ornamental pattern; the walls -plastered and coloured in fresco of an agreeable tint, and decorated -with red lines and bands. This was a small room, attached to the -_atrium_ of a large house, of which near the same spot a large and -highly ornamented pavement was found in 1804; the central portion of -this pavement is now preserved in the Indian Museum at Whitehall. This -was the most magnificent Roman tesselated pavement yet found in London. -It lay at only 9-1/2 ft. below the street, and appeared to have been the -floor of a room 20 ft. square. In the centre was a Bacchus upon a tiger, -encircled with three borders (inflections of serpents, cornucopiæ, and -squares diagonally concave), and drinking-cups and plants at the angles. -Surrounding the whole was a square border of a bandeau of oak, and -lozenge figures, and true lovers' knots, and a 5 ft. outer margin of -plain red tiles. - -Mr. Roach Smith has shown, in his admirable _Illustrations of Roman -London_ (the originals now in the British Museum), that the area and -dimensions of the Roman city may be mapped out from the masses of -masonry forming portions of its boundaries, many of which have come to -light in the progress of recent City improvements. The course of the -Roman Wall is ascertainable from the position of the gates (taken down -in 1760-62), from authenticated discoveries and from remains yet extant. -Recent excavations have also proved that within the area thus inclosed, -most of the streets of the present day run upon the remains of Roman -houses; and it is confidently believed that the Romans had here a bridge -across the Thames, probably a wooden roadway upon stone piers, like -those of Hadrian at Newcastle, and of Trajan across the Danube. It seems -to be ascertained that there was a suburb also on the southern side of -the Thames (Southwark), not inclosed in walls; and that the houses -constructed upon this swampy spot were built upon wooden piles, of which -some remains are still in existence. - -The Roman inscriptions and sculptures which have been discovered in -London are very numerous. Sir Christopher Wren brought to light a -monument to a soldier of the Second Legion, now among the Arundelian -Marbles at Oxford. At Ludgate, behind the London Coffee-house, a -monumental inscription, a female head in stone (life-size), and the -trunk and thighs of a statue of Hercules, were dug up in 1806. In 1842 -was found at Battle Bridge a Roman inscription, attesting the great -battle between the Britons under Boadicea and the Romans under Suetonius -Paulinus, to have been fought on this spot. Stamped tiles have been -found in various parts of the city. A group of the _Deæ Matres_ was -discovered in excavating a sewer in Hart-street, Crutched-friars, at a -considerable depth, amongst the ruins of Roman buildings, and is now in -the Guildhall Library. A fine sarcophagus was dug up in Haydon-square, -Tower Hill; a statue of a youth in Bevis Marks; and an altar, apparently -to Diana, was found under Goldsmiths' Hall. Fragments of wall-paintings -have been carried away by cart-loads. Bronzes of a very high class of -art have been found: a head of Hadrian, of superior workmanship, has -been dredged up from the bed of the Thames; a colossal bronze head found -in Thames-street; an exquisite bronze Apollo, in the Thames, in 1837; a -Mercury, worthy to be its companion; the Priest of Cybele; and the -Jupiter of the same date, are most important figures, and the first two -worthy of any metropolis in any age. A bronze figure of Atys was also -found at Barnes among gravel taken from the spot where the preceding -bronzes were discovered. A bronze figure of an archer, also a beautiful -work of art, was discovered in Queen-street, in 1842. An extraordinary -bronze forceps, adorned with representations of the chief deities of -Olympus, was also found in the Thames, whence again, in 1825, came the -small silver Harpocrates, now in the British Museum. - -Nowhere has the pottery of antiquity been so abundantly discovered as at -London. Roman kilns were brought to light in digging the foundations of -St. Paul's, in 1677; specimens of the Castor pottery have been found -here; Samian ware is abundant, as have been potters' stamps which -present 300 varieties, fragments of clay statuettes, terra-cotta lamps, -tiles, and glass; and among the Roman glass discovered in London are -several fragments of a flat and semi-transparent kind, which have every -appearance of having been used as window-glass. And still more curious -it is to find that specimens of a glass manufacture termed -pillar-moulding, and for which Mr. James Green took out a patent, have -also turned up among the _débris_ of the Roman city. Mr. Green's patent -had been worked for some years under the full belief that it was a -modern invention, until Mr. Apsley Pellatt recognised in the fragments -evidence of the antiquity of the supposed discovery.[10] Among the -personal ornaments and implements of the toilet are the gold armillæ dug -up in Cheapside in 1837; the tweezers, nail-cleaners, mirrors, and -strigils of the city dames of Londinium; the worn-out sandals thrown -upon the dust-heaps; the sporls, spindles, fishhooks, bucket-handles, -bells, balances, cocks, millstones, mortars, and other utensils which -show the resources of an opulent city in the enjoyment of ancient -luxury, and of the choicest appliances of ancient civilization. Of -Roman coins found in London, in the bed of the Thames, Mr. Roach Smith -enumerates 2,000; from gravel dredged from the Thames, 600 were picked -out; a hoard of denarii of the Higher Empire was found in the city; and -vast quantities were found in removing the piers of old London Bridge. -In excavating for the foundations of the new Royal Exchange, in 1841, -was discovered a gravel pit, supposed by Mr. Tite, the architect, to -have been dug during the earliest Roman occupation of London; and then -to have been a pond, gradually filled with rubbish. In it were found -Roman work, stuccoed and painted; fragments of elegant Samian ware; an -amphora, and terra-cotta lamps, seventeen feet below the surface; also -pine-wood table-books and metal styles, sandals and soldiers' shoes, a -Roman strigil, coins of Vespasian, Domitian, &c.; and almost the very -footmarks of the Roman soldier. - -More recently, the investigation of the ruins of the Roman city of -Uriconium, at Wroxeter, near Shrewsbury, has presented us with a scene -for our special wonder. The earliest antiquarian report of this -interesting spot will be found in the _Philosophical Transactions_ for -the year 1701, where Lyster has described a Roman sudatory, or -hypocaustum, discovered in Wroxeter in that year. It is strange that so -important a locality should have remained unexplored during a century -and a half of archæological research. The present is the first instance -in which there has been in this country the chance of penetrating into a -city of more than fourteen centuries ago, on so large a scale, and with -such extensive remains of its former condition; where the visitor may -walk over the floors which had been trodden last, before they were thus -uncovered, by the Roman inhabitants of this island. - -Giants are frequently associated with ruins and ancient relics in the -legends of Shropshire.[11] In the history of the Fitzwarines we are -given to understand that the ruined Roman city of Uriconium, which we -are now exploring at Wroxeter, had been taken possession of by the -giants. The city is mentioned by the geographer Ptolemy to have been -standing here as early as the beginning of the second century, when it -was called Viroconium, a name which appears to have been changed in the -later Romano-British period to Uriconium. The line of the ancient -town-wall forms an irregular oval more than three miles in -circumference, on the Watling-street road, which occupies the line of -one of the principal streets of the old city. The only portion of the -buildings above ground is upwards of twenty feet high, seventy-two feet -long, and three feet thick, and is a solid mass presenting those -unmistakeable characteristics of Roman work--the long string courses of -large flat red bricks. This "Old Wall" stands nearly in the centre of -the ancient city, which occupied the highest ground within the walls--a -commanding position, with the bold isolated form of the Wrekin in the -rear, and in front a panorama of mountains formed by the Wenlock and -Stretton Hills, Caer Caradoc, the Longwynd, the Breidden, and the still -more distant mountains of Wales. With the exception of this wall, all -the remains of the Roman city had long been buried beneath the soil, -when, in February 1859, the excavation of the remains was commenced by -public subscription. In one of the plundering invasions by the Picts and -Scots, Uriconium is thought to have perished, towards the middle of the -fifth century, by fire, and such of the inhabitants as were not -massacred were dragged away into captivity. Thus the town was left an -extensive mass of blackened walls; and such was the condition in which -the ruined Roman towns remained during several centuries. The ruins -would in time be overgrown with plants and trees, and would become the -haunt of wild beasts, which were then abundant. Thus Uriconium stood -ruined and deserted from the middle of the fifth century to the middle -of the twelfth; the level of the ground was raised by decaying floors -and roofs, and vegetation; for at this time England was covered with the -_débris_ of Roman ruined towns and villages standing above ground. Such -ruins were frequently pillaged for building materials; and Uriconium was -probably one of the great quarries from which the builders of Haughmond -Abbey, and other monastic houses in this part of the country, were -supplied. - -The ruins were explored for treasure, and the damaged state of the -floors of the Roman houses is attributed to this cause. In the -excavations at Wroxeter, we see the floor sometimes perfect, and -sometimes broken up; the walls of the remaining houses, to the height of -two or three feet, as they were left by the mediæval builders, when they -carried away the upper part of the walls for materials; the original -level of the Roman town on which its inhabitants trod, strewed with -roof-tiles and slates and other material which had fallen in during the -conflagration under which the town sank; and the upper part of the soil -mixed up with fragments of plaster and cement, bricks and mortar, which -had been scattered about when the walls were broken up. - -In the early excavations at Uriconium, the bottom of the Old Wall was -found at fourteen feet deep; it must have been a public building; -portions of the capitals, bases, and shafts of columns were found -scattered about, and among other objects were a fragment of strong iron -chain, the head of an axe, and pavements of fine mosaic; the building is -concluded to have formed the corner of two principal streets of the -Roman city. A hypocaust, of great size, was found, with a quantity of -unburnt coal; and from the end wall of this hypocaust we learn the -interesting fact, that the Roman houses were plastered and painted -externally as well as internally; the exterior wall was painted red, -with stripes of yellow. A sort of dust-bin was found filled with coins, -hair-pins, fibulæ, broken pottery and glass, bones of birds and animals -which had been eaten. In another hypocaust were the remains of three -persons who had crept in there for concealment; near one lay a little -heap of Roman coins, 132 in number, and a decomposed box or coffer. -This, Mr. Wright believes, "is the first instance which has occurred in -this country, in which we have had the opportunity of ascertaining what -particular coins, as being then in daily circulation, an inhabitant of a -Roman town in Britain, at the moment of the Roman dominion, carried -about with him. The majority of these coins point to the very latest -period previous to the establishment of the Anglo-Saxons as the date at -which Uriconium must have been destroyed." - -Three fine wide streets, paved with small round stones in the roadway, -have been found in Uriconium. The Roman houses in Britain had no upper -stories, and all the rooms were on the ground-floor; no traces of a -staircase have ever been found; the roofing in Uriconium was slates or -flags, fixed with an iron nail to the wooden framework; they lapped over -each other, in lozenges or diamonds; some of the walls were tesselated -in ornamental patterns; few doorways were discovered; window-glass was -found one-eighth of an inch thick, though until recently it was thought -that the Romans, especially in this distant province, did not use -window-glass. The rooms were sometimes heated by hot air circulated in -the walls, from hypocausts, and flue-tiles with holes in the sides for -the escape of the air; though the hot air merely under the floor was -more used, the ashes, wood and coal, and the soot of the fires were -found in the hypocausts at Uriconium just as they were left when the -city was overthrown and ruined by the barbarians. A large hypocaust is -described with 120 columns of bricks, and is thought to have belonged to -the public baths. A wide space is pointed out as the forum of Uriconium, -and the basilica here holds exactly the same place as at Pompeii. - -We have thus glanced at the houses of Uriconium; we now turn to their -domestic articles. First is the pottery, of which the most striking is -the ware of the colour of bright red sealing-wax, commonly known as -Samian ware; several of the pieces found at Wroxeter have been mended, -chiefly by metal rivets. There were also found specimens of the Upchurch -ware, of simple ornamentation; and of the pottery from Castor, -ornamented with hunting-scenes laid on a white substance after the -pottery had been baked: the colour of both wares is blue, or -slate-colour. Two classes of Roman pottery, both evidently made in -Shropshire, were also found: the first, a white ware, consisted of -elegantly formed jugs, mortaria or vessels for rubbing or pounding -objects in cookery; and bowls painted red and yellow. The other -Romano-Salopian pottery is a red ware, and included bowls pierced all -over with small holes so as to have served for colanders. Fragments of -glass vessels were found, with a ladle, several knives, a stone -knife-handle, and several whetstones. Hair-pins of bone, bronze, and -wood were found, with bronze fibulæ, buttons, finger-rings, bracelets, -combs, bone needles, and bronze tweezers for eradicating superfluous -hairs. The most curious of the miscellaneous objects is a medicine-stamp -for salves or washes for the eyes, inscribed with, probably, the name of -a physician resident in Uriconium. The stones with Roman inscriptions, -chiefly sepulchral, are numerous. The church, a Norman edifice, at -Wroxeter contains amongst other architectural and sepulchral fragments -two capitals, richly ornamented, of the late period of Roman -architecture which became the model of the mediæval Byzantine and -Romanesque; also, a Roman _miliarium_, or mile-stone. The general result -of these discoveries, is that they show the manner in which this country -was inhabited and governed during nearly four centuries; we also learn, -from the condition of the ruins of Uriconium, and especially from the -remains of human beings which are found scattered over its long-deserted -floors, the sad fate under which it finally sank into ruins; and thus we -are made vividly acquainted with the character and events of a period of -history which has hitherto been but dimly seen through vague -tradition.[12] - -Many of our Roman cities have become entirely wasted and desolate. -Silchester is one of these, where corn-fields and pasture cover the spot -once adorned with public and private buildings, all of which are now -totally destroyed. Like the busy crowds who inhabited them, the -edifices have sunk beneath the fresh and silent greensward: but the -flinty wall which surrounded the city is yet firm, and the direction of -the streets may be discerned by the difference of tint in the herbage; -and the ploughshare turns up the medals of the Cæsars, so long dead and -forgotten, who were once masters of the world.[13] - -Silchester, thirty-eight acres in extent, is now being excavated, at the -cost of the Duke of Wellington. Unlike other Roman sites, Silchester has -never been built upon by Britons or Saxons; many beautiful mosaics have -been found here, as well as more than 1,000 coins; and in July, 1866, a -portion of a wall, hitherto undetected, was brought to light; and here -have been found shells of the white snail, which was most extensively -imported as food for the Roman soldiers. - -We now approach the close of the Roman Era, when, in the words of the -_Saxon Chronicle_, A.D. 418, the conquerors "collected all the treasures -that were in Britain, and some they hid in the earth, so that no one has -since been able to find them; and some they carried with them into -Gaul." With this passage the authentic history of Britain ceases for a -period of nearly sixty years. The Roman power being finally withdrawn, a -state of society prevailed in the island, much the same as had existed -at the coming of Cæsar. The British cities formed themselves into a -varying number of independent states, usually at war among themselves, -but occasionally united by some common danger into a confederacy under -an elective chieftain. Such was Vortigern, who bears the reproach of -calling in the aid of the Saxons against both his foreign and domestic -foes. Recent researches have rendered it probable that the well-known -names of Hengist and Horsa, ascribed to their leaders, are not proper -names, but rather titles of honour, signifying war-horse and mare, -bestowed on many daring leaders of bands. Meanwhile, the mighty empire -of Rome, of which Britain had so long formed a part, was falling into -utter ruin. The Britons made several applications to the Romans for aid: -one, couched in the most abject terms, is known in history as "The -Groans of the Britons;" but the succour they received had no permanent -effect on the contest. - -In a retrospect of the Roman Era, the conquest of Cæsar is commonly -referred to as the starting point in our social progress; and it has -been thus felicitously illustrated by a leading writer of our -time:--"If," he says, "we compare the present situation of the people of -England with that of their predecessors at the time of Cæsar's invasion; -if we contrast the warm and dry cottage of the present labourer, its -chimney and glass windows (luxuries not enjoyed by Cæsar himself), the -linen and woollen clothing of himself and his family, the steel and -glass and earthenware with which his table is furnished, the Asiatic and -American ingredients of his food, and, above all, his safety from -personal injury, and his calm security that to-morrow will bring with it -the comforts that have been enjoyed to-day; if we contrast all these -sources of enjoyment with the dark and smoky burrows of the Brigantes or -the Cantii, their clothing of skins, the food confined to milk and -flesh, and their constant exposure to famine and to violence, we shall -be inclined to think those who are lowest in modern society richer than -the chiefs of their rude predecessors. And if we consider that the same -space of ground which afforded an uncertain subsistence to a hundred, or -probably fewer, savages, now supports with ease more than a thousand -labourers, and, perhaps, a hundred individuals beside, each consuming -more commodities than the labour of a whole tribe of ancient Britons -could have produced or purchased, we may at first be led to doubt -whether our ancestors enjoyed the same natural advantages as ourselves; -whether their sun was as warm, their soil as fertile, or their bodies as -strong, as our own. - -"But let us substitute distance of space for distance of time; and, -instead of comparing situations of the same country at different -periods, compare different countries at the same period, and we shall -find a still more striking discrepancy. The inhabitant of South America -enjoys a soil and a climate, not superior merely to our own, but -combining all the advantages of every climate and soil possessed by the -remainder of the world. His valleys have all the exuberance of the -tropics, and his mountain-plains unite the temperature of Europe to a -fertility of which Europe offers no example. Nature collects for him, -within the space of a morning's walk, the fruits and vegetables which -she has elsewhere separated by thousands of miles. She has given him -inexhaustible forests, has covered his plains with wild cattle and -horses, filled his mountains with mineral treasures, and intersected all -the eastern face of his country with rivers, to which our Rhine and -Danube are merely brooks. But the possessor of these riches is poor and -miserable. With all the materials of clothing offered to him almost -spontaneously, he is ill-clad; with the most productive of soils, he is -ill-fed; though we are told that the labour of a week will there -procure subsistence for a year, famines are of frequent occurrence; the -hut of the Indian, and the residence of the landed proprietor, are alike -destitute of furniture and convenience; and South America, helpless and -indigent with all her natural advantages, seems to rely for support and -improvement on a very small portion of the surplus wealth of -England."[14] - -At length, the connexion between Britain and Rome was entirely severed. -The Saxons joined the Picts and the Scots in their great invasion, and -continuing their predatory warfare reduced the country to the greatest -misery. Any degree of union amongst the Britons might have enabled them -to repel their enemies; the walls of the principal cities, fortified by -the Romans, were yet strong and firm. The tactics of the legions were -not forgotten. Bright armour was piled in the storehouses, and the -serried line of spears might have been presented to the half-naked Scots -and Picts, who could never have prevailed against their opponents. But -the Britons had no inclination to use the sword, except against each -other. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[7] _Observations._ By Henry Long, Esq. - -[8] The Rev. R. Burgess, B.D. - -[9] _On some of the Relations of Archæology to Physical Geography in the -North of England._ 1853. - -[10] See _Curiosities of Glass-making_. - -[11] It may, however, be new to some of our readers to be informed that -Owen Glendower's Oak, whence that Welsh chieftain is said to have -witnessed the discomfiture of his English allies at the Battle of -Shrewsbury in 1403, still stands at Shelton, in a garden on the right of -the road from Shrewsbury to Oswestry, where the Welsh army lay. - -[12] See the _Guide to the Ruins of Uriconium_ (Third Edition, 1860), by -Thomas Wright, Esq. M. A., F.S.A., the accomplished archæologist, who, -by his unwearied exertions, has so efficiently contributed to the -exploration of these remains. - -[13] Palgrave's _Hist. of England_, Anglo-Saxon Period. 1834. - -[14] Senior's _Lectures on Political Economy_. - - - - -DOMESTIC LIFE OF THE SAXONS. - - -The infant state of our Saxon ancestors when the Romans first observed -them, exhibited nothing from which human sagacity could have predicted -greatness. A territory on the neck of the Cimbric Chersonesus, and three -small islands, contained those whose descendants occupy the circle of -Westphalia, the Electorate of Saxony, the British Islands, the United -States of North America, and the British Colonies in the two Indies. -Such is the course of Providence, that empires, the most extended and -the most formidable, are found to vanish as the morning mist; while -tribes, scarcely visible, or contemptuously overlooked, like the springs -of a mighty river, often glide on gradually to greatness and veneration. - -Our inquiry, however, must be confined to the arts of these people. -Concerning their architecture, it is supposed that the most ancient -buildings were of wood; since the Saxon verb _Getymbrian_, to build, -signifies literally to make of timber. The early English churches were -built of logs of wood; and the erection of buildings of reeds and trunks -of trees seems to have existed in some parts of England to a late -period; since, in 940, Hoel Dha, King of North Wales, erected his White -House, where his famous laws were made, of twisted branches, with the -bark stripped and left white, whence it derived its name. Even in the -days of Henry I. also, Pembroke Castle was built of twigs and turf. -Bricks were made in England by the Saxons; but they were thin, and were -called wall-tiles. It has been supposed that the Saxons and Normans -adopted the masonry which the Romans introduced into England, altering -it as architecture improved. The principal peculiarities of the Saxon -style are the want of uniformity in all its parts, massive columns, -semicircular arches, and diagonal mouldings. The first two are common to -the barbaric architecture of Europe; the round arches are believed to -have been taken from the Romans; and the zig-zag mouldings have been -thought to allude to the stringing of the teeth of fishes. According to -the best authorities, there are very few specimens of architecture now -in existence in this country which can properly be called Saxon,--that -is, of date anterior to the Conquest, and not of Roman origin; and these -few are of the rudest and most inferior description. Saxon, therefore, -as far as the architecture of this country is concerned, is an improper -term.[15] - -[Illustration: SAXON HOUSE.] - -The ordinary Saxon homes were of clay, held together by wooden frames; -bricks being uncommon, and only used as ornaments: the houses were -generally low and mean, or as we should call them, cottages. In a Saxon -house of larger proportions, the upper rooms only are lighted by -windows; there is no appearance of chimneys; the doorway is in one of -the gables, and reaches more than half-way to the top of the house; and -above it are some small square windows, which indicate an upper room or -rooms. On one side is a low shed, or wing, apparently constructed with -square stones, or large bricks, covered, like the house, with -semicircular tiles, probably shingles, such as we to this day see on -church-spires. - -From the Mead-hall and the other Saxon houses of the period, we also get -the type of the modern English mansion, with its _enceinte_ and its -lodge-gate, as distinguished from its hall-door. The early Saxon house -was the whole inclosure, at the gate of which beggars assembled, for -alms, and the porter received the alms of strangers. The whole mass -inclosed within this wall constituted the burgh, or tun; and the hall, -with its _duru_, or door, was the chief of its edifices. Around it were -grouped the sleeping-chambers, or _bowers_, as they were designated till -a late age, with the subordinate offices. Mr. Wright (in his able work -on the _Domestic Life of the Middle Ages_) draws many of his inferences -from the description of the Mead-hall, or _beer-hall_, of Hrothgar, and -adds that he believes Bulwer's description of the Saxonized Roman house -inhabited by Hilda, in _The Last of the Barons_, is substantially -correct. - -We learn from the romance of Beowulf, that "there was for the sons of -the Geats (Beowulf and his followers altogether), a bench cleared in the -beer-hall; there the bold spirit, free from quarrel, went to sit; the -thane observed his office, he that in his hand bare the twisted ale-cup; -he poured the bright sweet liquor; meanwhile the poet sang serene in -Heorot (the name of Hrothgar's palace); there was joy of heroes." -Although our conceptions of this scene are faint and vague, the -antiquary is enabled to represent certain items as "the twisted -ale-cup," a favourite fashion of our forefathers, many of whose -ale-cups, as discovered in their barrows or graves, are incapable of -standing upright, implying that their proprietors were thirsty souls. - -The lamps of the Romans were certainly used by the Saxons, and were -indispensable in the winter-time. Their beds were simply sacks filled -out of the chest with fresh straw, and laid on benches as they were -wanted; though the pictures indicate that there were some bedsteads of a -more elaborate construction, and that others were placed in recesses and -protected by curtains. These bed-rooms were public enough, for they were -sitting-rooms as well, and we find Dunstan walking to the king's bedside -"as he lay in his bed with the queen," and rating him as freely as if he -had audience by appointment. The Saxon ladies were very opt to scourge -their domestic servants for very slight offences, and the punishment of -servile and other transgressors was in other respects barbarous. They -were given much to bathing in the baths which the Romans had left them, -and it may be that this resource had some influence in determining the -national bias towards personal cleanliness, which is such a -distinguishing characteristic of the English among northern nations. We -may add that the Saxon knew how to build a gallows, how to bait a bear, -drive a chariot, fly a hawk, cultivate roses and lilies, and that he -certainly knew the use of an umbrella. - -A convivial custom which originated in this rude age is too interesting -to be omitted here. It is said by some writers that Vortigern married -Rowena, the daughter of Hengist. She was very beautiful; and when -introduced by her father at the royal banquet of the British king, she -advanced gracefully and modestly towards him, bearing in her hand a -golden goblet filled with wine. Young people, even of the highest rank, -were accustomed to wait upon their elders, and those unto whom they -wished to show respect; therefore, the appearance of Rowena as the -cup-bearer of the feast was neither unbecoming nor unseemly. And when -the lady came near unto Vortigern, she said in her own Saxon -language--"_Wæs heal plaford Conung_;" which means, "Health to my Lord -the King." Vortigern did not understand the salutation of Rowena, but -the words were explained to him by an interpreter. "_Drinc heal_," "Drink -thou health," was the accustomed answer, and the memory of the event was -preserved in merry old England by the _wassail cup_--a vessel full of -spiced wine or good ale, which was handed round from guest to guest, at -the banquet and the festival. Well, therefore, might Rowena be -recollected on high tides and holidays for the introduction of this -concomitant of good cheer. - -This story has, however, a pendant. At our great city feasts, to this -day--especially at the Mansion House of the Lord Mayor--the Wassail or -Loving Cup is passed round the table immediately after dinner, the Lord -Mayor having drunk to his visitors a hearty welcome. The more formal -practice is for the person who pledges with the loving cup to stand up -and bow to his neighbour, who, also standing, removes the cover of the -cup with his right hand, and holds it while the other drinks; a custom -said to have originated in the precaution to keep the right, or dagger -hand employed, that the person who drinks may be assured of no -treachery, like that practised by Elfrida on the unsuspecting King -Edward the Martyr at Corfe Castle, who was slain while drinking: this -was why the cup possessed a cover. - -The usages of domestic life, especially at dinner, are copiously -illustrated in ancient manuscript illuminations. Mr. Wright quotes the -_Boke of Kervyng_, which enjoins the carver to handle the meats with his -thumb and two fingers only,--for the Middle Ages, with all their -artistic ingenuity, had not attained to the invention of a fork. In none -of the pictures have the guests any plates; they seem to have eaten with -their hands and thrown the refuse on the table. We know also that they -often threw the fragments on the floor, where they were eaten up by cats -and dogs, which were admitted into the hall without restriction.[16] In -the _Boke of Curtesye_ it is blamed as a mark of bad breeding to play -with the cats and dogs while seated at table. The drinking vessels of -this period display fine workmanship and ingenious devices. The -Anglo-Saxons were unquestionably huge drinkers, and ornamented their -drinking vessels with all the skill in working the precious metals for -which they were so famous. But the primitive drinking-cup was the simple -horn of the bullock, which was retained as an appendage of the -Anglo-Saxon dinner-table until after the Conquest. There were also other -drinking vessels, suggested by that ornamentation with which the -Anglo-Saxon artificers had enriched the simple cup of the Danes. Peg -Tankards are of the Saxon period: one is to be seen in the Ashmolean -Museum; but a finer specimen, of undoubted Anglo-Saxon work, formerly -belonging to the Abbey of Glastonbury, is now in the possession of Lord -Arundel, of Wardour: it holds two quarts, and formerly had eight pegs -inside, dividing the liquor into half-pints. On the lid is carved the -crucifixion, with the Virgin and John, one on each side; and round the -cup are carved the twelve apostles. - -Drinking-horns are represented on the Bayeux tapestry, and in the -magnificent collection of antiquities in the British Museum there is a -capacious specimen of one formed of the small tusk of an elephant, -carved with rude figures of that animal, unicorns, lions, and -crocodiles. It is mounted with silver; a small tube, ending in a silver -cup, issues from the jaws of a pike, whose head and shoulders inclose -the mouth of the vessel, on which the following legend is engraved:-- - - Drink you this and think no scorne - All though the cup be much like horn. - -The horn was not long before it had rivals: the commonest of these was -the Mazer-bowl, a utensil which, with its cover on, resembled two -saucers placed together rim to rim, with a topknot on the upper one. It -was usually made of maple wood, from which it is supposed to have -derived its name--_maeser_ being Dutch for maple. Of this shape was the -early and famous wassail-bowl. When these bowls, which in process of -time were made of costlier materials than maple, were large, they were -lifted to the mouth with both hands; when small, in the palm of one -hand. Our ancestors were much attached to their mazers, and incurred -considerable expense in embellishing them, in embossing legends -admonitory of peace and good fellowship on the metal rim or on the -cover, or in engraving on the bottom a cross or the image of a saint. -Spenser, in _The Shepherds Calendar_, thus describes a vessel of this -kind:-- - - "A mazer ywrought of the maple warre, - Wherein is enchased many a fayre sight - Of bears and tygers, that maken fiers warre; - And over them spred a goodly wilde vine, - Entrailed with a wanton yvy twine. - - "Tell me, such a cup hast thou ever seene? - Well moughte it beseeme any harvest queene." - -The Mazer continued in use to the seventeenth century, when it was still -a favourite with the humbler classes. But on the tables of the rich it -gave place to new vessels. There was the Hanap, a cup raised on a stem, -with or without a cover. Besides the Hanap, a sort of mug or cup, called -the Godet, had also come into vogue; then there were the Juste, used in -monasteries to measure a prescribed allowance of wine; the Barrel, the -Tankard, the "standing-nut," or mounted shell of the cocoa-nut; and the -Grype, or Griffin's Egg, probably the egg of the ostrich. These vessels, -except of course the nut and the egg, were ordinarily of silver, and -sometimes of ivory, but rarely of gold; and still more rarely of glass, -which did not obtain for drinking cups until the close of the fifteenth -century. They were for the most part embossed or enamelled with the -armorial bearings of their owners, parcel-gilt--_i.e._ where part of the -work is gilt and part left plain; set with jewels and elaborately -designed with dances of men and women, with dogs, hearts, roses, and -trefoils. - -One of the most esteemed Saxon trades was the smith, including workers -in gold, silver, iron, and copper. The English were very expert in these -arts; and in the laws of Wales the smith ranked next to the chaplain in -the Prince's court. The Saxons produced some very highly-finished -specimens of jewellery, goldsmith's work, and even of enamelling. A very -beautiful specimen of gold enamelled work is preserved in the Ashmolean -collection at Oxford: it is commonly known as _Alfred's Jewel_, as it -bears his name, and was found in 1693, in the immediate neighbourhood of -his retreat. It is filagree work, inclosing a piece of rock crystal, -under which appears a figure in enamel, which has not been -satisfactorily explained. The ground is of a rich blue, the face and -arms of the figure white, the dress principally green, the lower portion -partly of a reddish-brown. The inscription is "Aelfred mee heht -gevrean," (Alfred ordered me to be made,) thus affording the most -authentic testimony of its origin. Curious reliquaries, finely carved -and set with precious stones, were, for excellence, called "the English -work" throughout Europe. The representations of the crowns of the Saxon -kings, commencing with Offa, present us with specimens of the -ornamentation of the period. The ring was also a most important -ornament. It was used not only for display, but also as a charm, or -protection against natural or supernatural evil. The gems with which the -ring was set, were believed to possess, severally, special qualities, -and symbolical meanings. The sapphire indicated purity--the diamond, -faith--the ruby, zeal--the amethyst was good against drunkenness--the -sapphire was a protection against witchcraft, and the toad-stone against -sickness. The accredited properties of decade rings, pontifical rings, -alchemy rings, posie rings, and gimel rings are illustrated in various -anecdotes and legends. In the medal-room of the British Museum is a gold -ring, bearing the name of Ethelwulf, upon blue and black enamel: it was -found in a cart-rut, at Laverstock in Hampshire; its weight is 11 dwts. -14 grains. - -The crosiers of the bishops of this period were curious specimens of -metal-work and gem ornamentation; as were also the shrines of the -saints. In 1840 a hoard of about 7,000 coins (beside many silver -ornaments) was discovered at Coverdale, near Preston, in Lancashire; -they are considered by the best numismatists indisputably to belong to -the chief of the Danish invaders in the ninth century, and their -immediate successors. In the sepulchre of Thyra, ancestress of Canute, -in Jutland, have been found the figure of a bird formed of thin plates -of gold, as well as a silver cup plated with gold, both being remarkable -examples of the state of the decorative arts in the tenth century. - -The art of glass-making was introduced to the Saxons in the seventh -century, and ordinary window-glass was first used for building purposes -at the great monasteries at Monkwearmouth, on the river Wear, and at -Jarrow-on-the-Tyne; although we have already seen that window-glass was -used in the Roman city of Uriconium. The Venerable Bede, in the seventh -century, relates that his contemporary, the Abbot Benedict, sent for -artists beyond seas to glaze the Monastery of Wearmouth; and such was -the change made in their churches by the use of glass, instead of other -and more obscure substances for windows, that the unlettered people -avowed a belief, which was handed down as a tradition for many -generations, "that it was never dark in old Jarrow Church." By a -singular coincidence, the first manufactory of window or crown glass in -Great Britain was established at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, within a few miles -of these monastic establishments. In the year 1616 Admiral Sir Robert -Maunsell erected glassworks at the Ouseburn, Newcastle, which were -carried on without interruption till nearly the middle of the present -century, when they were closed. - -The art of making woollen cloth, which was known to the Britons, was, by -this time, brought to perfection in England, especially in the south. -This seat of manufacture must have been handy to the fuller's-earth pits -of Nutfield, where fuller's-earth has been for centuries dug:--"While -Bradford was still the little local centre of a wild hill tract in -pastoral Yorkshire, the 'grey cloths of Kent' kept many a loom at work -in the homesteads of Tenterden, and Biddenden, and Cranbrook, and all -the other little mediæval towns that dot the Weald with their carved -barge-boards and richly-moulded beams." (_Saturday Review_, No. 182.) -The distaff and the spindle, which appear to have been anciently the -type, and symbol, and the insignia of the softer sex in nearly every -age and country, were in the Saxon times still more conspicuous as the -distinguishing badge of the female sex. Among our Saxon ancestors the -"spear-half" and the "spindle-half" expressed the male and female line; -and the spear and the spindle are to this day found in their graves. - -The Saxons had the arts of dyeing of purple and various colours; and the -Saxon ladies were eminent for their embroidery. There are descriptions -extant of a robe of purple embroidered with large peacocks in black -circles; and a golden veil worked with the siege of Troy, the latter a -king's bequest to Croyland Abbey, where it was to be hung up on his -birthday. The standards were also beautifully worked: the Danish -standard, called the Raefen, was woven in one night by the three sisters -of Ubbo, the Danish leader. The standard of Harold, the last Saxon -sovereign of England, was the figure of a warrior richly embroidered -with precious stones. In the Anglo-Saxon, and even in late periods, men -worked at embroidery, especially in abbeys. At this time the dressing of -hides and working in leather was practised to a great extent by the -shoewright; and the wood-workman, answering to our modern carpenter, was -also in general estimation. Sandals were worn by the early Saxons: there -exists a print of one, made of leather, partly gilt, and variously -coloured, and for the left foot of the wearer; so that "rights and -lefts" are only a very old fashion revived. - -The art of smelting iron was known in England during the Roman -occupation; and in many ancient beds of cinders, the refuse of -iron-works, Roman coins have been found. Cæsar describes iron as being -so rare in Britain, that pieces of it were employed as a medium of -exchange; but a century later it had become common, since in Strabo's -time it was an article of exportation. There is reason to believe that -the Romans worked iron ore in the hills of South Wales, as they -undoubtedly did in Dean Forest, where ancient heaps of slag have -occasionally been struck upon. Remains of ancient iron furnaces have -also been found in Lancashire, Staffordshire, and Yorkshire.[17] - -The working in steel was also practised in Britain before the Norman -Conquest; and we are told that not only was the army of Harold well -supplied with weapons and defensive armour of steel, but that every -officer of rank maintained a smith, who constantly attended his master -to the wars, and took charge of his arms and armour, and had to keep -them in proper repair. - -The inventions attributed to Alfred must be noticed. It will be -remembered how he measured time by graduated wax-tapers--the consumption -of an inch denoting twenty minutes; but the wind rushing through -windows, doors, and crevices of the royal palace, or the tent-coverings, -sometimes wasted them, and disordered Alfred's calculations. He then -inclosed his tapers in lanterns of horn and wood; but their invention -has been attributed to an earlier period, from some Latin verses -attributed to Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmesbury, in the seventh century. "Let -not," say they, "the glass lantern be despised, or that made of a horn, -hide, or thin skin, although a brass lamp may excel it." This passage -has, however, sometimes been referred to the twelfth century. - -Travelling, in the Saxon times, was very different from what it is in -the present day: coaches were not invented, and the only vehicles which -went upon wheels were carts and wagons, and these were very heavy and -clumsy. Horseback was the only conveyance, so that the sick and infirm -could hardly ever leave their houses. In those times there were very few -roads upon which one could travel with safety. The Romans left excellent -roads, which, however, were neglected, and they fell into decay. Marshes -were perilous to cross: a bridge might be broken down, and when you -tried to ford the stream, your horse might get out of his depth, and -then he and his rider might be drowned. Sometimes the traveller had to -pass through a dark forest, abounding with bears and wolves; and, at the -end of his day's journey, instead of putting up at a comfortable inn, he -was often compelled to stretch his cloak on the dark earth, in some -wretched hut. And what was worst, the kings and princes were almost -always at war with each other, and a stranger was constantly liable to -be plundered and seized, or put to death by the contending parties.[18] - -Stirrups and spurs were known to the Saxons; the Britons had bridles -ornamented with ivory: a bit, presumed to have belonged to a British -chief in the Roman service, is a jointed snaffle. The side-pieces, or -branches, of curb bits, are of equal antiquity. The Saxons had very -superb bridles, ornamented with plates of tin and pewter; and those for -women's horses were lily-white. We have seen a bridle of Norman -manufacture, said to have been on the horse which William Rufus rode -when killed in the New Forest: it has blinkers, is very broad; and -cloth, cut by a mould into rich patterns, is glued upon the leather. We -read of Athelstan receiving valuable presents of running horses, with -their saddles and bridles studded with gold; one of our earliest -illustrations of horse-racing. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[15] Hoskins; _Encylopædia Britannica_, 7th edit. - -[16] Just as Charles, Duke of Norfolk, in our day, was accustomed to -feed his favourite dogs, by cutting pieces from joints on the -dinner-table, and throwing them to the dogs on the polished floor of -Arundel Castle. - -[17] The chief iron-works of Sussex were in the Wealden strata, whence -the iron ore was extracted from the argillaceous beds, and was smelted -with charcoal made from the abundance of wood. At Buxted, near -Lindfield, iron ordnance were made three centuries since by Ralph Hogge, -assisted by Peter Bawde, a Frenchman, and his covenanted servant, John -Johnson; and the memory of whose works, of which two specimens are still -existing in the Tower of London, is preserved in - -"Master Hogfe, and his man John, They did cast the first can-non." - -(_W. D. Cooper, F.S.A., Archæologia_, vol. xxxvii. p. 483.) - -Up to 1720, Sussex was the principal seat of the iron manufacture in -England: the last furnace, at Ashburnham, was blown out in 1827. Kent -was alike noted for its iron; and the last great work of its furnaces -was the noble balustrades and gates which surround St. Paul's Cathedral, -London: they were cast at Gloucester Furnace, Lamberhurst, and cost -upwards of £11,202. "In the middle ages, and down even to a late date, -while Dudley and Wolverhampton were obscure names, the forges of Kent -and Sussex were all a-glow with smelting and hammering the iron which -the soil still yields, although it is not worth the while of any one to -work it. The discovery of the coalfields of Wales and Staffordshire gave -the Kent and Sussex furnaces their deathblow, leaving the country dotted -with forge and furnace farms, and deep holes, now filled with tangled -underwood, from which the ore was brought." (_Saturday Review_, No. -182.) Kent and Sussex have no coal, and the iron manufacture left these -counties when smelting with coal or coke began to supersede smelting -with charcoal. Iron was also worked in Surrey. John Evelyn, in a letter -to John Aubrey, dated February 8, 1675, states, that on the stream which -winds through the valley of Wotton "were set up the first brass mills, -for casting, hammering into plates, and cutting and drawing into wire, -that were in England; also a fulling mill, and a mill for hammering -iron, all of which are now demolished." The last of these mills gave its -name to a small street or hamlet in the parish of Abinger, which to this -day is called _the Hammer_.--_Curiosities of Science._ Second Series. - -[18] In some parts of England, the _badness of the roads_ continued to -our day, when mud and clay were almost as great hindrances as in the -Saxon times. Kent and Sussex were specially ill-favoured in this -respect. Defoe, after travelling through all the counties, tells us that -the road from Tunbridge was "the deepest and dirtiest" in all that part -of England; and hereabouts it was, not far from Lewes, that he describes -a sight which he had never seen in any other part of England, "that -going to church at a country village, he saw an ancient lady, and a lady -of very good quality, drawn to church in her coach with six oxen; nor -was it either frolic or humour, but mere necessity." In 1708, Prince -George of Denmark journeyed from Godalming, through the Sussex mud to -Petworth, to meet Charles VI. of Spain: it cost six hours to conquer the -last nine miles of the way. At a later date, Horace Walpole calls Sussex -"a fruitful country, but very dirty for travellers, so that it may be -better measured by days' journeys than by miles; whence it was, that in -a late order for regulating the wages of coachmen at such a price a -day's journey from London, Sussex alone was excepted, as wherein shorter -way or better pay was allowed." Yet, in this county, stage-coach -travelling attained higher perfection than in the majority of the -counties of England. "In these days of railroads, express trains, -excursion trains, mail trains, parliamentary trains, and special trains, -there is no great difficulty in making a tour in Sussex, without any -very great outlay of expense or time."--_Quarterly Review._ - - - - -MEALS--BRITISH, ANGLO-ROMAN, AND SAXON. - - -The Britons, we learn, made their table on the ground, on which they -spread the skins of wolves and dogs. The guests sat round, the food was -placed before them, and each took his part. They were waited upon by the -youth of both sexes. They who had not skins were contented with a little -hay, which was laid under them; they ate very little bread, but much -meat, boiled, or broiled upon coals, or roasted upon spits, before fires -kindled as gipsies do in these days. The best living appears to have -been in South Britain, where venison, oxen, sheep, and goats were eaten; -and ale or mead was the common drink. The whole family attended upon the -visitors, and the master and mistress went round, and did not eat -anything till their guests had finished their meal. - -The Romans made little use of cattle as food; and the fattening of -cattle for this specific purpose was unknown to them. Neither can we -find evidence that beef and mutton were eaten by the Roman people -generally. Pliny mentions the use of beef, roasted, or in the shape of -broth, as a medicine, but not as food. Plautus speaks of beef and mutton -as sold in the markets; but, amidst the immense variety of fish, flesh, -and fowl, we hear little of the above meats in the Roman larder. Fish -and game, poultry, venison, and pork, are often mentioned as elements of -a luxurious banquet; but undoubtedly the common food of all classes was -vegetable, flavoured with lard or bacon. Among the Romans the hare was -held in great estimation. Alexander Severus had a hare daily served at -his table; yet Cæsar says that in his time the Britons did not eat the -flesh of hare. - -"The Romans, after their colonization of Britain, must have enjoyed its -great supplies of fish; with them its fine oysters were celebrities. -They were fattened in pits and ponds by the Romans, who obtained the -finest oysters from Ruterpiæ, now Sandwich, in Kent. The Roman epicures -iced their oysters before eating them; the ladies used the calcined -shell as a cosmetic and depilatory. Apicius is said to have supplied -Trajan with fresh oysters at all seasons of the year. The Romans, -according to Pliny, made _Ostrearii_, or loaves of bread baked with -oysters. There is one secret we may well desire to learn from the -Romans; namely, the manner of preserving oysters alive in any journey, -however long or distant. The possession of this secret is the more -extraordinary, as it is well known that a shower of rain will kill -oysters subjected to its influence, or the smallest grain of quick-lime -destroy their vitality."[19] Pliny records that one gentleman, Asinius -Celer, gave 8,000 nummi (between 64_l_. and 65_l_. sterling) for one -mullet, such as may now be bought in good seasons in London for -sixpence! How the Anglo-Roman epicure must have enjoyed the mullet from -our western coast! The lamprey was also with the Romans a pet fish: it -is now rare. The celebrated Roman garum must here have been made in -perfection. A Roman supper is thus described by the officer of the -household of Theodosius:--"For the first course there were -sea-hedgehogs, raw oysters, and asparagus; for the second, a fat fowl, -with another plate of oysters and shell-fish; several species of dates, -fig-peckers, roebuck, and wild boar, fowls encrusted with paste, and the -purple shell-fish, then esteemed so great a delicacy. The third course -was composed of a wild-boar's head, of ducks, of a _compôte_ of -river-birds, of leverets, roast-fowls, Ancona-cakes, called _panes -picandi_," which must have somewhat resembled Yorkshire pudding. The old -Romans had their fancy bread as well as the moderns, as loaves baked -with oysters, cakes like our rolls, and others. A sort, of nearly the -same quality as our middle sort of wheaten bread, was sold, according to -the calculation of antiquaries, at 3_s_. 2_d_. the peck-loaf, present -money. - -Before the arrival of the Romans, _mead_, that is, honey diluted with -water, and fermented, was probably the only strong liquor known to the -Britons; and it continued to be their favourite drink long after they -had become acquainted with other liquors. Its manufacture was an -important art; for the mead-maker was the eleventh person in dignity in -the courts of the ancient princes of Wales, and took precedence of the -physician. - -Of Saxon living we have many details. The Saxons were noted for their -hospitality. On the arrival of a stranger he was welcomed, and water was -brought him to wash his hands; his feet were also washed in warm water. -A curious law was enforced at this period respecting _host and guest_; -if any one entertained a guest in his house three days, and the guest -committed any crime during that period, his host was either to bring him -to justice, or answer for it himself; and by another law, a guest, after -two nights' residence, was considered one of the family, and his -entertainer was to be responsible for all his actions. - -The meal now assumed more regularity; the parties sat at large square -tables, on long benches, according to rank; and by a subsequent law of -Canute, a person sitting out of his proper place, was to be pelted from -it with bones, at the discretion of the company, without the privilege -of taking offence! The mistress of the house sat at the head of the -table, upon a raised platform, beneath a canopy, and helped the -provisions to the guests; whence came the modern title of _lady_, being -softened from the Saxon _lief-dien_, or the server of bread. The tables -were covered with fine cloths, some very costly; a cup of horn, silver, -silver-gilt, or gold, was presented to each person; other vessels were -of wood, inlaid with gold; dishes, bowls, and basins were of silver, -gold, and brass, engraven; the benches and seats were carved and covered -with embroidery; and some of the tables were of silver. All tables were -square at this period; they were displaced by the old oaken table, of -long boards upon tressels. - -The food of the period consisted of meat and vegetables, and the tables -were plentifully but plainly supplied. There were oxen, sheep, fowls, -deer, goats, and hares, but hogs yielded a principal part of the -provision. On this account, swine were allowed by charter to run and -feed in the royal forests. All sorts of fish now taken, were eaten at -the above time; herrings were preferred. The porpoise, now no longer -eaten, was then preferred. Bread was made of barley; wheaten bread was a -delicacy. Baking was understood, as well as cookery; and if a person ate -anything half-dressed, ignorantly, he was to fast three days; and four, -if he knew it. Roasted meat was a luxury; but boiling was general, and -broiling and stewing were in use. Honey was used in most of the meals of -this period, on which account, added to that of sugar not being brought -to England until the fifteenth century, the wild honey found in the -English woods became an article of importance in the forest charter. -Fruit, beans, and herbs were commonly eaten; the only vegetable was -kale-wort; peppered broths and soups, and a kind of _bouilli_, were -esteemed; buttermilk or whey was used in the monasteries; and salt was -employed in great quantities, both for preserving and seasoning all -sorts of provisions. - -In representations of Anglo-Saxon feasts, the men and women are seated -apart at table; a person is cutting a piece of meat off the spit into a -plate, held underneath by a servant; and cakes of bread, with oblong, -square, and round dishes are on the table. Festivals were given to -people on religious accounts; they kept it up the whole day on state -occasions, and the feast was accompanied with music. The company sat on -forms, the chief visitors seated in the middle, and the next in rank on -the right and left. A dish on the table was set apart for alms for the -poor; and when our Anglo-Saxon kings dined, the poor sat in the streets, -expecting the broken victuals. At private parties, two persons eating -out of the same dish was a peculiar mark of friendship. Forks were not -invented, and our ancestors made use of their fingers; but, for the sake -of cleanliness, each person was provided with a small silver ewer -containing water, and two flowered napkins, of the finest linen. The -dessert consisted of grapes, figs, nuts, apples, pears, and almonds. - -In early baking the use of ovens was unknown; and when the _lady_ had -kneaded the dough, it was toasted either upon a warm hearth, or -bake-stone, as it was called, when later it was made of some metal. In -Wales, bread is, or was, lately baked upon an iron plate, called a -griddle. The earliest bakers were probably the monks, since bakehouses -were commonly appended to monasteries; and the host, or consecrated -bread, was baked by the monks with great ceremony. In a charge to the -clergy, date 994, we find:--"And we charge you that the oblation (_i.e._ -the bread in the Eucharist), which ye offer to God in that holy mystery, -be either baked by yourselves, or your servants in your presence." -Bakehouses were also appended to the churches; for, on taking down some -part of the church at Crickhowell, county Brecon, a small room with an -oven in it was discovered, which had long been shut up. Although the -monks were early bakers, they do not appear to have fared much more -sumptuously than the people on bread; for the Anglo-Saxon monks of the -Abbey of St. Edmund, in the eighth century, ate barley bread, because -the income of the establishment would not admit of the feeding twice or -thrice a day on wheaten bread. - -Elecampane, now known as the sweetmeat of childhood, was esteemed for -ages in the domestic herbal. The leaves are aromatic and bitter, but the -root is much more so. The former were used by the Romans as pot-herbs; -and appear to have been held in no mean repute in after times, from the -monkish line,--"_Elena campana reddit præcordia sana._" When preserved, -it is still eaten as a cordial by Eastern nations; and the root is used -in England to flavour the small sugar-cakes, which bear its name. It is -tonic and stimulant. - -Of the manufacture of Ale and Beer we have a record of the fifth -century, directing it to be made without hops, instead of which various -bitters were used. Ale is next mentioned in the laws of Ina, King of -Wessex, who ascended, the throne about the year 680. It was the -favourite drink of the Saxons and Danes; and so attentive were the -Saxons to its quality, that in their time it was a custom in the city of -Chester to place any person who brewed bad ale in a ducking-chair, to be -plunged into a pool of muddy water, or be fined 4_s_. In the Saxon -Dialogues, in the Cotton Library, a boy, in answer to the question, what -he drank, replies, "Ale, if I have it; or water, if I have it not." He -adds, that wine is the drink of the elders and the wise. Ale was sold -to the people at this time, in houses of entertainment; but a priest was -forbidden by law to eat or drink at places where ale was sold. About the -middle of the eleventh century, ale was one of the articles of a royal -banquet provided for Edward the Confessor. At this time the best ale -could be bought for 8_d_. the gallon. This was spiced, and double the -price of common ale, and mead was double the price of spiced ale. One of -the vessels out of which ale was drunk was the Saxon _nap_, now the -_neap_, or _nip_, out of which we drink Burton ale. The Saxons had also -cups of wood, ornamented with gold, besides the peg tankards introduced -by King Edgar, to check excessive drinking. In Northamptonshire--a -famous ale county--a small public-house is to this day called an -_ale-hus_, the original Saxon _hus_ being retained.[20] - -As the monasteries were in ancient times reputed for ale, which the -monks brewed for themselves with such remarkable care, so colleges, -which rose upon the Dissolution, became famous for ale, and their -celebrity continues to this day. Warton, poet-laureate in 1748, has left -a panegyric on Oxford ale (which he dearly loved), and thus -apostrophises:-- - - "Balm of my cares, sweet solace of my toils, - Hail, juice benignant! - - "My sober evening let the tankard bless, - With toast embrown'd, and fragrant nutmeg fraught. - What though me sore ills - Oppress, dire want of chill-dispelling coals - Or cheerful candle, save the make-weight's gleam - Haply remaining, heart-rejoicing ale - Cheers the sad scene, and every want supplies. - - "Be mine each morn, with eager appetite - And hunger undissembled, to repair - To friendly buttery; there on smoking crust - And foaming ale to banquet unrestrain'd, - Material breakfast. Thus, in ancient days - Our ancestors, robust with liberal cups - Usher'd the morn, unlike the squeamish sons - Of modern times; nor ever had the might - Of Britons brave decay'd, had thus they fed, - With British ale improving British worth." - -They who recollect the ale of Magdalen and Queen's will acknowledge that -Oxford well maintains its character for our national drink. - -The brewers were formerly women, and those who sold the ale were -_ale-wives_, one of whom, "Eleanor Rumming, the famous ale-wife of -England," is commemorated by another poet-laureate, Skelton. Of her -ale-house, at Leatherhead, there are some remains, and she lives in the -rude woodcut portrait (1571), with this inscription:-- - - "When Skelton wore the laurel crown, - My ale put all the ale-wives down." - -The introduction of foreign wines by the Normans did not altogether -supersede the wines of our own country. The vine had been cultivated -here long before. Vines are mentioned in the laws of Alfred, and Edgar -makes a gift of a vineyard, with the vine-dressers. In a Saxon Calendar, -preserved in the British Museum, there is a series of rude drawings -representing the different operations of the rural economy of the year; -that prefixed to February showing husbandmen pruning what are supposed -to be vines. At the time of the Norman Conquest, new plantations appear -to have been made in the village of Westminster; at Chenetone, in -Middlesex; at Ware, in Hertfordshire, and other places. Of ancient -wine-cellars we find some curious particulars, and drinking-glasses have -been found in Roman-British barrows. - -The Danes, in their visits to this country, added much to the gross -hospitalities, against the consequences of which Saxon laws were -enacted. They were accustomed to sing and play on the harp in turn; and -to be entertained by the gleemen, ale-poets, dancers, harpers, jugglers, -and tumblers, who frequented the earliest taverns, called guest-houses, -ale-shops, wine-houses, &c. And it may be regarded as indicative of the -reckless manners of the times, that the last of the Danish kings of -England died suddenly at a marriage-feast; his death being imputed by -some to poison, but, with more likelihood of truth, to his being then -intoxicated. - -We have now reached the period at which the Danes arrived in this -country; but they so neglected the arts essential to life as to have -little claim upon our respect. Their neglect of husbandry was great. The -other arts were abandoned to the women, who spun wool for their -clothing. Rude carving with the knife seems to have been the principal -and natural talent of the Danes. Their houses were mostly erected near a -spring, a wood, or an open field, at a distance from any others. The -best of their dwellings were only thick, heavy pillars, united by -boards, and covered with turf; though there sometimes existed a pride in -having them of great extent, and with lofty towers. - -In a late volume of the _Gentleman's Magazine_, we find this interesting -page of research upon the names of provisions, which throw some light -upon the mode of living among the higher and lower classes of our -population. "Bread, with the common productions of the garden, such as -pease, beans, eggs, and some other articles which might be produced in -the cottage-garden or yard, retain their Saxon names, and evidently -formed the chief nourishment of the Saxon portion of the population. Of -meat, though the word is Saxon, they ate probably little; for it is one -of the most curious circumstances connected with the English language, -that while the living animals are called by Anglo-Saxon names, as oxen, -calves, sheep, pigs, deer, the flesh of those animals when prepared for -the table is called by names which are all Anglo-Norman--beef, veal, -mutton, pork, venison. The butcher who killed them is himself known by -an Anglo Norman name. Even fowls when killed receive the Norman name of -poultry. This can only be explained by the circumstance that the Saxon -population in general was only acquainted with the living animals, while -their flesh was carried off to the castle and table of the Norman -possessors of the land, who gave it names taken from their own language. -Fresh meat, salted, was hoarded up in immense quantities in the Norman -castles, and was distributed lavishly to the household and idle -followers of the feudal possessors. Almost the only meat obtained by the -peasantry, unless, if we believe old popular songs, by stealth, was -_bacon_, and that also is still called by an Anglo-Norman name." - -FOOTNOTES: - -[19] _Host and Guest._ By A. V. Kirwan. 1864. - -[20] Miss Baker's _Northamptonshire Glossary_. - - - - -II. Castle Life. - -ENGLISH CASTLE-BUILDING. - - -The history of building of Castles in England and Wales may be divided -into periods of transition, changing with the exigencies and -requirements of the age, and its character of civilization. - -The Castles of England consist of those erected by the Romans; of -British and Saxon castles erected previous to, and Norman castles -erected after, the Norman Conquest; also of the more modern stone and -brick castles, erected from about the reign of Edward I. to the time of -Henry VII. - -The Roman castles in this country are numerous, and some of them still -in very perfect condition, such as Burgh Castle and Richborough. More -popularly known is Pevensey, once a maritime town of considerable -importance, the site of which is now fixed with all but certainty, as -that of the strong old city, Anderida, though this distinction has been -claimed by no less than seven Sussex towns. Abundance of Roman bricks -have been found here, affording strong presumption of there having been -originally a Roman fortress on the spot. But the celebrity of Pevensey -(for, though reduced to a village, it has an undying name in our -history) rests upon its having been the place of debarkation of William, -Duke of Normandy, on his successful invasion of this land in 1066. It -was, therefore, the first scene of the Norman Conquest, the most -momentous event in English history, perhaps the most momentous in the -Middle Ages. Here William landed from a fleet of 900 ships, with 60,000 -men, including cavalry; and having refreshed his troops, and hastily -erected a fortress, he marched forward to Hastings, and thence to Battle -(then called Epitou), where, on the 14th of October, he obtained a -decisive victory over King Harold. Southey, upon the conjoint -authorities of Turner, Palgrave, and Thierry, gives such a version of -the Normans landing at Pevensey, as to decide its having been a Roman -station. "They landed," he says, "without opposition, on the 28th of -September, between Pevensey and Hastings, at a place called Bulverhithe. -William occupied the _Roman castle_ at Pevensey; erected three wooden -forts, the materials of which he had brought ready with him for -construction; threw up works to protect part of his fleet, and burnt, it -is said, the rest, or otherwise rendered them unserviceable."[21] - -Upon his accession, the Conqueror gave the town and castle to his -half-brother, Robert, Earl of Mortagne in Normandy, whose descendant, -William, was deprived of all his possessions, and banished the realm, by -Henry I. for rebellion. That monarch granted them to Gilbert de Aquila, -in allusion to whose name this district was afterwards styled the Honour -of the Eagle. - -The outer work of the castle contains many Roman bricks and much -herring-bone work. The outer walls, the most ancient part of the -fortification, inclose seven acres, and are from twenty to twenty-five -feet high. The moat on the south side is still wide and deep; on the -other side it has been filled up. The entrance is on the west or land -side, between two round towers, over a drawbrige. Within the walls is -another and much more modern fortification, approaching a pentagonal -form, with nearly five circular towers, moated on the north and west. It -is entered from the outer court by a drawbridge on the west side between -two towers. The principal barbican, or watch tower, is not at the -entrance, but towards the north-east corner. The walls are nine feet -thick, and the towers were two or three stories in height. The castle -was of great strength: it withstood the attacks of William Rufus's army -for six days, protecting Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, who ultimately yielded -only for want of provisions; and it afterwards successfully resisted the -siege of King Stephen, who personally superintended the attack, but met -with so gallant an opposition from Gilbert, Earl of Clare, that he was -obliged to withdraw his force, leaving only a small body to blockade it -by sea and land. It once more resisted hostile attacks, when it was -fruitlessly assailed in 1265, by Simon de Montfort, son of the renowned -Earl of Leicester. Again, when Sir John Pelham was in Yorkshire, in -1339, assisting Henry, Duke of Lancaster, to gain the crown, the castle, -left under the command of Lady Jane Pelham, was attacked by large bodies -of the yeomen of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, who favoured the deposed King -Richard, but was bravely and successfully defended by Lady Jane Pelham. - -Pevensey castle remained as a fortress till the reign of Elizabeth: two -ancient culverins, one of which bears her initials, are yet preserved; -after which its history is not traced till the Parliamentary survey of -1675, when the fortress was in ruins, and the ground within the walls -was cultivated as a garden. The demesne and castle are now held by the -Cavendish family, under a lease from the Duchy of Lancaster, which was -originally granted to the Pelhams by Henry IV., son of the famous John -of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, to whom the Honour of the Eagle had been -given, on his surrender of the great earldom of Richmond. - -It is remarkable that no mention is made of Pevensey Castle in the Saxon -times; but if not erected by the Romans, it was certainly built from -the remains of an older fortress. The Saxons most probably adapted the -Roman inclosures to their modes of defence; and it appears that they -often raised a mound on one side of the walls, on which they erected a -keep or citadel. - -We are indebted to the Saxons but for few social improvements; since, in -the words of the Wiltshire antiquary, John Aubrey, "They were so far -from having arts, that they could not even build with stone. The church -at Glaston (bury) was thatched. They lived skittishly in their houses, -they ate a great deal of beef and mutton, and drank good ale in a brown -mazzard, and their very kings were but a sort of farmers. The Normans -then came, and taught them civility and building." - -In various parts of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, there are -numerous encampments or castles, mostly occupying the summits of hills, -which have been ascribed to the aboriginal inhabitants. Amongst the most -remarkable are the Hereford Beacon, on the Malvern hills, in -Worcestershire; the Caer-Caradock, near Church Stretton, in Shropshire; -Moel Arthur, in Flintshire; Chun Castle, in Cornwall; and the -magnificent hill-fort, Maiden Castle, or the Castle of the great Hill, -within three miles of Dorchester. - -Maiden Castle had four gateways of stone; in excavations have been found -round stones, probably sling stones, and pottery, denoting its original -occupation by Britons; how the fortress was supplied with water has not -been traced. This famous earthwork is considered of a period anterior to -that of the Britons and Romans: the extent of the work is one mile, and -the ramparts are, in some places, sixty feet high. Another famous -earthwork in Dorset is Poundbury, a Roman encampment, though it has -been set down as Danish, and an Anglo-Saxon camp of council.[22] - -Before we leave the Roman period, we may remark that the manufacture of -bricks and tiles must then have been known in England, because it was -practised in such perfection by our conquerors during their occupation, -as is evident in the numerous remains of their buildings.[23] It has, -however, been asserted that up to the reign of Elizabeth, the houses of -the gentry throughout England were built entirely of timber; whereas, of -the mansions of earlier date than that reign, which remain entire or in -part to this day, three-fourths, at least, are built of stone or brick. -The latter material is stated by Bagford and others to have been first -introduced in the reign of Henry VII. Yet, Endure Palace, in -Oxfordshire, erected by William De la Pole, and Hurstmonceux Castle, in -Sussex, both of which are of brick, are attributed to the reign of Henry -VI. Oxburgh Hall, in Norfolk, was erected in the reign of Edward IV. -Leland mentions the walls of Hungerford, as early as the reign of -Richard II., being of that material; and Stow records Ralph Stratford, -Bishop of London, inclosing the burial-ground of Charter-house, for -those that died of the plague in 1348, with a wall of brick. That -roofing-tiles were in use before the time of Richard I. is proved by the -order made in the first years of that reign, Henry Fitzalwayne being -Mayor of London, that the houses of that city should be covered with -"brent tyle," instead of "strawe," or reeds. The ancient name for bricks -appears to have been wall-tiles, to distinguish them from floor-tiles, -used for paving. - -William the Conqueror lost no time in erecting strong castles in all the -principal towns in the kingdom, as at Lincoln, Norwich, Rochester, &c. -for the double purpose of strengthening the towns, and keeping the -citizens in awe. The Conqueror's followers, among whom he parcelled out -the lands of the English, imitated their master's example by building -castles on their estates; and so rapidly did they increase, that in the -reign of Stephen, or within a century after the arrival of the -Conqueror, there are said to have been 1115 castles completed in England -alone. - -One of the earliest was Conisborough Castle, built by William, the first -Earl of Warren, about six miles west of Doncaster: the remains, as far -as can be traced, extend about 700 feet in circumference; but the chief -object is a noble round tower, strengthened by six massive square -buttresses, running from the base to the summit. The extreme thickness -of the walls is 15 feet; of each buttress 23 feet; and the entrance is -24 feet from the ground, up a flight of steps. In the centre of the -first floor is a round hole, which is the only entrance to a lower -apartment, or dungeon. This Castle is chosen by Sir Walter Scott for one -of the principal scenes of his romance of _Ivanhoe_. - -Many of the castles of this age were of great size. Instead of a single -tower, they consisted of several towers, both round and square, united -by walls, inclosing a space called a courtyard, the entrance to which -was generally between two strong towers. The whole building was -surrounded by a moat or ditch, across which a drawbridge led to the -massive doors, which were covered with plates of iron, and in front of -them, an iron portcullis--like a harrow, such as we see in the arms of -the city of Westminster--was let down the rough, deep grooves in the -stonework; whilst overhead projected a parapet, resting on corbels, with -openings through which melted lead or hot water could be poured, or -stones thrown on the heads of the assailants, who should attempt an -entrance by forcing, or, as was the usual mode of attack, by setting -fire to the door.[24] The gateways of Caerlaverock, Conway, Carisbrooke, -and Caernarvon castles, present good specimens of this kind; as do the -Middle Tower, and the Bloody Tower, in the Tower of London: the latter -has the most perfect portcullis in the kingdom. - -A principal tower or keep rose prominently above the rest, and generally -from an artificial mount. It contained the well of water, without which -the garrison, when besieged, could not hold out in this their last place -of refuge. The keep also had its subterranean prison, and several -stories of apartments communicating by a staircase, either in the walls, -or built outside the tower. - -As the railway traveller journeys along the South Eastern line, he will -see close to the Tunbridge station, the towered entrance-gate of the -castle built by Richard de Tonbridge, a follower of the Conqueror. The -whole building was moated, and the exterior walls inclosed an area of -about six acres. There remain only two massive towers flanking an arched -gateway, with walls of great thickness, and having no other openings -than long narrow slits, called _oilets_, through which, when besieged, -archers shot their arrows. In front of this entrance was formerly a -drawbridge, thrown across the moat, which, when raised, formed a strong -door, closing up the archway. This opening was again guarded by two -portcullises and two thick doors. The towers appear to have been divided -into four stories, or floors, the lower being dungeons or prisons, and -the upper formed into a large and noble hall, extending the whole width -and depth of the two towers. It was lighted by two large windows towards -the inner court. The towers are supposed, from their style, to have been -built in the reign of King John, or Henry III. The windows were not -glazed, but had iron bars; the floor and ceiling were of immense -thickness, the latter three feet. Branching from this tower-entrance, -are certain walls to the right and left; the first extending up the side -of a lofty hill, whereon was the keep-tower, or chief residence of the -baron: to this, it is presumed, he retreated when other parts of his -castle had been taken by an enemy. - -The following account of the siege of Bedford Castle by Henry III., -given in Camden's _Britannia_, is interesting, as containing a summary -of the principal portions of the building, and the several stages of the -attack:--"The castle was taken by four assaults: in the first was taken -the barbican; in the second, the outer bail (ballium); at the third -attack, the wall by the old tower was thrown down by the miners, where, -with great danger, they possessed themselves of the inner bail through a -chink; at the fourth assault, the miners set fire to the tower, so that -the smoke burst out, and the tower itself was cloven to that degree, as -to show visibly some broad chinks; whereupon the enemy surrendered." - -The most perfect of our northern castles now existing, is Raby, the -stately seat of the Duke of Cleveland, the history of which is traced -through eight centuries and a half. Raby, pointing by its name to a -Danish origin, is first mentioned in connexion with King Canute, who, -after making his celebrated pilgrimage over Garmondsway Moor to the -shrine of St. Cuthbert, there offered it, with other possessions, to the -saint. Bishop Flambard wrested the rich gift from the monastics, but -restored it again on his death-bed. It continued in the peaceful -possession of the monks till 1131. In that year they granted it, for an -annual rent of £4, to Dolphin, son of Ughtred, of the blood-royal of -Northumberland. Whoever the original founder might have been, Dolphin's -descendant, Robert filius Maldred, was Lord of Raby when, early in the -thirteenth century, he married Isabel Neville, by the death of her -brother the last of that line. From their son Geoffrey, who assumed his -mother's surname, the history of the Nevilles may be said to date. To -his descendant, John Lord Neville, they owed Raby. Some portion of the -older fabric is thoroughly incorporated with the new, so as to present -the work and ideas of one period, and a perfect example of a -fourteenth-century castle, without any appearance of earlier work or -later alteration whatever. Its apparent weakness of site has been -pointed out; but though not set on a hill, it had the defence of water, -which was drawn off centuries since. But the real defences of Raby lay -beyond the mere circuit of its own walls and waters. They are to be -found in the warrior spirits of its lords and in the border castles of -Roxburgh, Wark, Norham, Berwick, and Bamburgh, which they commanded -continuously as warders and governors from the days of Robert Neville, -in the thirteenth century, to the time of Queen Elizabeth. Apart from -the question of the site, the stately castle itself is of great -strength, and skilfully disposed. - -Passing through a fine gate-tower, the bailey (immediately within the -outer ward) is entered. The castle itself consists of a quadrangular -mass of great dignity and splendour, with an open court in the centre. -One side of the court, or the quadrangle, is occupied by two halls, one -above the other, of such stupendous proportions that carriages are -admitted to drive across the quadrangle _into_ the lower hall. The sides -of the quadrangle have the kitchen and offices springing from one end of -the hall, and the principal chambers of the castle from the other, -according to the usual distribution of the age. - -Although a view of most of those fortresses which are destined chiefly -for the purposes of war or defence, suggests to the imagination -dungeons, chains, and a painful assemblage of horrors, yet some of these -castles were often the scenes of magnificence and hospitality, - - "Where the songs of knights and barons bold - In weeds of peace high triumph hold;" - -or where, in the days of chivalry, the wandering knight or distressed -princess found honourable reception; the holy palmer repose for his -wearied limbs; and the poor and helpless their daily bread. - -Leland considered Raby as "the largest castle of logginges in all the -north country." At different periods alterations have been made, -according to the more modern ideas of comfort and convenience, without -materially affecting its external form, so that it recalls to the mind -the romantic days of chivalry. The embattled wall with which it is -surrounded, occupies about two acres of ground. At irregular distances -are two towers, named from their founders, the Clifford Tower and the -Bulmer Tower. The halls are large and grand. In the upper, or Baron's -hall, ninety feet in length, and thirty-four in breadth, the baronial -feasts were held; and here, - - "Seven hundred knights, retainers all - Of Neville, at their master's call, - Together sat in Raby's Hall." - -When the British Archæological Association visited Raby in the autumn of -1865, the Duke of Cleveland, as the President of the Association, -entertained some 200 guests at a sumptuous dinner, in which venison, -venison pasties, and grouse were paramount. The kitchen is on a scale to -correspond with the enormous festivals of the seven hundred knights: it -is a square of thirty feet, having three chimneys, one for the grate, a -second for stoves, and the third (now stopped up) for the great -cauldron. The roof is arched, and has a small cupola in the centre; it -has likewise five windows, from each of which steps descend, but only in -one instance to the floor; and a gallery runs round the whole interior -of the building. The ancient oven is said to have allowed a tall person -to stand upright in it, its diameter being fifteen feet; according to -Pennant, it was one time converted into a wine-cellar, "the arches being -divided into ten parts, each holding a hogshead of wine in bottles." -"The park and pleasure grounds belonging to this magnificent castle are -upon the same extensive scale, with woods that sweep over hill and sink -into valley, and command a constant change of beautiful prospects."[25] - -Durham Castle is another noble pile of the north. The outer gateway is a -Norman arch; traces of Norman work are seen in the courtyard; and we -then reach the hall, which, as left by Bishop Hatfield, was at least a -third longer than it is at present. It owes it curtailment to Bishop Fox -(1494-1502), who erected a kitchen and other offices at the lower end. -This kitchen remains in its original form, with wide-yawning fireplaces -still applied to their original purpose; and the buttery hatches in old -black oak have the motto of "_Est Deo gracio_," in black-letter, carved -upon them. A tapestried gallery, with an elaborate Norman doorway, leads -to Bishop Tunstall's chapel; and in another apartment, now the -senate-room of the University of Durham, is some curious tapestry of the -history of Moses. The keep, now refaced and restored, was rebuilt by -Bishop Hatfield. The castle is commonly said to be no older than William -the Conqueror; but a fortress must have existed from a much earlier -period, and the mound is artificial. The Norman chapel of the castle, -its most ancient portion, is usually assigned to King William I., though -of the time of Rufus. The pavement of herring-bone is, no doubt, coeval. -The whole of Durham Castle is now in excellent preservation, and the -union of the past with the present is well maintained; for the old keep, -which commands beautiful views of the Wear and the outlying country, is -parcelled out into rooms, which are occupied by the students of the -University. The great hall of the castle is hung with old paintings, -chiefly the portraits of bishops and ecclesiastics connected with the -see. At the lower end of the apartment, about half way between the roof -and the ground, are two niches, at opposite sides, built for the -minstrels of the period, and from which they regaled the guests. - -The legendary histories of our castles would take us too far afield for -our limits. Sometimes, in these legends, the very names of the Teutonic -mythic personages are preserved. Thus, a legend in Berkshire has -retained the name of the Northern and Teutonic smith-hero, Weland, the -representative of the classical Vulcan. The name of Weland's father, -Wade, is preserved in the legend of Mulgrave Castle, in Yorkshire, which -is pretended to have been built by a giant of that name. A Roman road, -which passes by it, is called Wade's Causeway; and a large tumulus, or -cairn of stones, in the vicinity is popularly called Wade's Grave. -According to the legend, while the giant Wade was building his castle, -he and his wife lived upon the milk of an enormous cow, which she was -obliged to leave at pasture on the distant moors. Wade made the causeway -for her convenience, and she assisted him in building the castle by -bringing him quantities of large stones in her apron. One day, as she -was carrying a bundle of stones, her apron-string broke, and they all -fell to the ground, a great heap of about twenty cart-loads,--and there -they still remain as a memorial of her industry. Another castle in -Yorkshire, occupying an early site, was said, according to a legend -related by Leland in the sixteenth century, to have been built by a -giant named Ettin. This is a mere corruption of the name of the -_eotenas_, or giants of Teutonic mythology. - -One of our most celebrated castles of defence is Corfe Castle, in -Dorset, a remarkable specimen of mediæval military architecture. The -earliest notice of this fortress is in an Anglo-Saxon charter of the -year 948. In 981 Corfe was the scene of the murder of King Edward the -Martyr. After the death of his father, Edgar, Elfrida, his widow, headed -a faction in opposition to the accession of Edward, and continued her -intrigues until her unscrupulous ambition at last led her to the -perpetration of a deed which has covered her name with infamy. This was -the murder of her step-son by a hired assassin, as he stopped one day -while hunting, at her residence, Corfe Castle; he was stabbed in the -back, as he sat on his horse at the gate of the castle, drinking a cup -of mead. The 18th of March, 978, is the date assigned to the murder of -King Edward, who was only in his seventeenth year when he was thus cut -off. He is retained in the calendar of the Anglican Church as a saint -and martyr. The castle, which was the strongest fortress in the kingdom, -formed an irregular triangle, the apex of which was connected by a -narrow isthmus with the high ground, on which the town of Corfe stands. -The isthmus had been cut through, and the ditch thus formed was spanned -by a stately bridge of arches leading to the principal entrance of the -fortress. Only the south side and parts of the east and west sides of -the keep are standing, and large masses of prostrate walls lie in -confusion around. The keep is Norman, believed to have been built by the -Conqueror. King John kept his treasure and regalia here, and used the -castle as a state prison. Twenty-four nobles concerned in the -insurrection by his nephew, Arthur, Duke of Brittany, were, save two, it -was said, there starved to death. King John caused Prince Arthur to be -murdered, and sent his sister, the beautiful Princess Eleanor, prisoner -to Corfe, where she remained several years. - -Edward II., when he fell into the hands of his enemies, was, for a time, -imprisoned here. In 1635, the castle and manor came into the possession -of Sir John Bankes, Lord Chief Justice of England, and ancestor of the -present owner. In the great Civil War, Corfe Castle was strongly -defended for the king, by Lady Bankes, wife of the Lord Chief Justice, -with the assistance of her friends and retainers, and of a governor sent -from the king's army. The castle was one of the last places in England -that held out for Charles I. In the year 1645, it was captured by the -Parliamentary forces through treachery, and reduced to the shapeless but -picturesque fragments that now remain. Lady Bankes's heroic defence is -narrated in the _Story of Corfe Castle_, a volume of stirring interest; -and the event is a favourite subject with our historical painters. The -ruins of Corfe are extensive, and from their very high situation, form a -very striking object. "The vast fragments of the King's Tower," says -Hutchins, "the Round Tower, leaning, as if nearly to fall, the broken -walls, and vast pieces of them tumbled into the vale below, form such a -scene of havoc and desolation, as strikes every spectator with sorrow -and concern. The abundance of stone in the neighbourhood, the excellence -of the cement, harder to be broken than the stones themselves, have -preserved these prodigious ruins from being embezzled and lessened." - -In the age of Edward III. the castles differed from those of previous -periods. The confined plan of the close fortress expanded into a mixture -of the castle and the mansion; comprising spacious and magnificent -apartments, the hall, the banqueting-room, the chapel, with galleries of -communication, and sleeping chambers. The keep was entirely detached, -and independent of these buildings. Such was the royal palace of -Windsor, erected by Edward III.; and such were the splendid baronial -castles of Warwick, Ludlow, Stafford, Harewood, Alnwick, Kenilworth, -Raglan, and many others. The last-mentioned is one of the most perfect -examples we are acquainted with, of the union of vast strength and -security, with convenient accommodation and ornamental splendour. The -keep is a perfect fortress in itself, and encircled by a range of minor -towers and moat. Its masonry is unrivalled.[26] - -Of one of these spacious castles we give a descriptive outline, chiefly -from the paper read by Mr. J. H. Parker, on the visit of the -Archæological Institute to Windsor, in July 1866. Amongst the royal and -palatial edifices of Europe, that of Windsor holds a very high rank, and -is, in a manner, to England what Versailles is to France and the -Escurial to Spain; and while it is infinitely superior to both in point -of situation, it far exceeds them, and indeed every other pile or -building of its class, in antiquity. From having been the residence of -so many of our kings, its history is, to a certain extent, identified -with that of the kingdom itself from the time of the Conquest. The -castle stands on an outlying promontory of chalk, commanding the winding -shores of that part of the Thames, with a rich valley, which seems to -have pointed it out as a natural position for a fortress in primitive -times, when the natives wished to protect their country from invasion. -The wide and deep entrenchments, and the high artificial mounds, -indicate an early date. There are also roads at the bottom of the -fosses, with a wide bank between them, on which several keeps were -erected, first of wood and afterwards of stone. A subterranean passage -leading from the bottom of the outer foss, at a depth of thirty feet, to -the bottom of the inner foss, at a depth of fifteen feet (the present -pantries), cut in a very rude manner through the solid chalk, has a -vault of the time of Henry II. carried on chalk walls, built over a -small part of it as far as the Norman buildings extended only: the -doorways are of the same period, one of which is quite perfect, and -opens into the inner foss. If Windsor Castle had been built in the fifth -century by King Arthur, as was believed by Edward III. and the -chronicler Froissart, the roads would have been on the level. They are -more likely of the time of Caractacus or Julius Cæsar. Edward the -Confessor is believed to have resided chiefly at Old Windsor, where some -of the ancient earthworks certainly belong to a period before the Norman -Conquest. William himself is said to have built a castle at Windsor, -but there is no evidence of it. The Domesday Survey rather proves that -there was one previously existing, which had been inhabited by Earl -Harold in the time of the Confessor. Henry I. is said by Stow, writing -in the fifteenth century, to have built New Windsor chiefly of wood; -some of the fragments of stone carving found in the castle may be of his -time. - -Stephen built nothing here, but Windsor is mentioned in the treaty of -Wallingford as a fortress of importance. The name "Norman Tower," as -given to one part of the pile, is erroneous, as the Norman keep is -nothing more than earthworks surmounted by a wooden structure. The -earliest date which can be assigned to any stone masonry which has been -discovered at Windsor is the reign of Henry II. In the time of Henry II. -the first mention of the castle is made in the Pipe Rolls. The outer -wall of the south front of the upper ward remains, with the lower part -of the king's gate, its hinges, and portcullis groove; the upper part -was destroyed, and the whole concealed in other buildings by Wyatville, -in the restoration works under George IV. In the reigns of Richard I. -and John only necessary repairs were made. - -With Henry III. the history of the existing castle may be said to begin. -The whole of the lower ward was then first built of stone, and many -portions of the existing walls are found to be of that period. The -Clewer Tower--now known as the Curfew Tower--remains almost unaltered, -and exhibits in good condition a prison of the above period. - -The King's Hall is now the Chapter library, but the chambers of the King -and Queen have been destroyed. Plans and drawings of them have been -preserved; and the measurements agree with the orders of the kings, as -recorded in the public rolls. - -Of the primitive chapel the north wall is still preserved; the galilee -being now the east end (behind the altar) of St. George's Chapel. The -doorways of the galilee are one of Henry III., the other of Edward III.; -the west end of the chapel has been rebuilt several times. The arcade in -the cloisters was protected by a wooden roof only. This chapel was -completed by Edward III. and made into a lady-chapel, when the great St. -George's Chapel was built. It was partly rebuilt by Henry VII. for the -tomb of Lady Margaret, his mother, and afterwards was proposed for that -of Henry VIII. It was much altered by James II. and partly restored by -George IV. At the present time it is being made the object of devoted -care, under the direction of Mr. Gilbert Scott. The roof has been -vaulted in stone, the pattern of that of Henry VII. is being inlaid with -mosaic work, and the windows filled with stained glass; and the edifice -is to be a sepulchral chapel over the Royal vaults, in memory of the -late Prince Consort. Mural paintings of kings' heads have been found of -the date of Henry III. and Edward III., and are preserved in the -cloister and galilee. - -During the reign of Edward I. the accounts show that the great works -begun by Henry III. were carried on and completed; but no new works -appear to have been undertaken. In the reign of Edward II. there were -considerable sums expended on repairs of the walls, towers, and bridges, -chiefly for timber and carpenters' work. - -The reign of Edward III. is one of the most important in respect to the -history of Windsor, a large part of the existing castle having been -built at that period, and its survey has been lately brought to light. -Another equally important document is the builder's account for the -Round Tower, which was entirely built from the ground in the eighteenth -year of this reign, and still remains, though much altered in -appearance, from the additional story superposed by Mr. Wyatville, under -George IV. - -This building is sometimes called the Round Tower, and sometimes the -Round Table; and, from other peculiarities in the same accounts, it is -evident that the tower was built to hold the table. The galleries on -which this round table was placed are still remaining, and the general -disposition of the apartment where the knights dined on St. George's day -is well seen from the summit of the Round Tower. The tables of those -days were seldom more than a few planks in width, and the guests sat -round on one side, the other being open for the service of the -attendants. The centre of this great round table, then, was designed for -the latter purpose, and was open to the air, a passage communicating on -a level from this central space to the kitchen on the top of the middle -gate, which has thus acquired the title of the "Kitchen Tower." The -tower and table were erected in ten months, the greatest haste being -made in order that the new order of knights might dine here on St. -George's day following. - -Edward III. did not build a chapel at Windsor, but only completed the -one which had been begun by Henry III.; adding to it or rebuilding a -cloister, a vestry, and other adjuncts. - -After the thirteenth year, when William of Wykeham was appointed clerk -of the works, with a salary of one shilling a day, an entirely new -hall, with a new suite of apartments and offices, was built in the upper -bailey, where the royal apartments now are; and the fine series of -vaults under these apartments, forming ceilings to the servants' hall -and other rooms and offices, still remain in perfect preservation, as -built by Wykeham, who remained in this appointment only six years. The -summary of his accounts during that time shows an expenditure of -5,658_l_.--equivalent to 120,000_l_. (?) of our money. - -From this period, comparatively little was done for a century, when -Edward IV. began to re-erect St. George's Chapel, nearly as we now see -it; thereby adding, if not immediately to the castle itself, to the -buildings within its precincts, one of extraordinary beauty and -interest, as being in some respects the very finest specimen of the -Perpendicular style and of ecclesiastical architecture in the kingdom. -What adds, in some degree, to the interest of this edifice is, that the -architects' names are preserved to us, it being known to be the work, -first of Richard Beauchamp, Bishop of Salisbury; and, after his death, -in 1481, it was completed by Sir Reginald Bray, who was also architect -of Henry VII.'s Chapel. This sovereign intended to erect a mausoleum for -himself at Windsor, and had begun to do so on the site of the original -chapel built by Henry III.; but he abandoned the idea in favour of that -at Westminster. Henry VII., however, added to the castle that building -which is still called after him, and which is situated at the western -extremity of the north side of the great quadrangle. Fortunately, this -has been preserved, owing, perhaps, partly to its situation; for, -although a mere "bit," it is a singularly fine one, and a noble specimen -of palatial architecture, in that particular style.[27] - -The small tower at the south-west angle of the Royal apartments near the -library, now called erroneously King John's Tower, is an octagonal -building, and the two chambers in it have very good vaults, with the -ribs meeting in a central boss, which is in both cases carved into the -form of a rose. This enables this rose-tower and the rose-vaults to be -identified in a very remarkable manner. The tower was very richly -painted, and the quantity of paint and other materials charged on the -roll misled the late Mr. Hudson Turner, who had only seen a portion of -these accounts, and made him think they belonged to the great Round -Tower, and that it was painted on the outside. The dates do not agree -with this, and there is no evidence of external painting. - -The works which had been carried on during a great part of the long -reign of Edward III. were not completed at the time of his death, and -were continued under Richard II.; but with the exception of necessary -repairs, the accounts for this reign relate chiefly to the offices and -dependencies of the cattle, especially the mews for the falcons, which -was evidently a large and important establishment not within the walls. - -Geoffrey Chaucer, "the father of English poetry," was appointed, in the -fourteenth year of this reign, clerk of the works, but very little was -done in his time. The old chapter house, the remains of Henry the VII.'s -palace, and the Clewer Tower and prison, are objects of much interest. A -flight of about twenty steps leads down into the dungeons, which had -been constructed by Henry III. for the confinement of State prisoners: -it is a large and finely-arched vault, surrounded by seven small cells, -each dismally lighted through a loop-hole in the thick wall. - -The reign of Elizabeth forms almost an epoch in the architectural -history of the castle, because, though she did not do much to it in the -way of building, except annexing the portion erected by Henry VII., that -which is distinguished by the name of Queen Elizabeth's Gallery, she -first caused the terraces to be formed, thereby adding to the royal -abode of Windsor, these truly regal characteristics. Under the Stuarts -nothing material was done until the Restoration, when the castle began -to be modernised, but in insipid taste. The principal addition made by -Charles II. was the Star Building (containing the State Apartments shown -to the public). The rooms were spacious and lofty, with large arched -windows, commanding enchanting prospects; their only embellishment was -derived from the sprawling pencil of Verrio. The first two Georges did -nothing for Windsor; George III. on the contrary, much, especially in -restoring the interior of St. George's Chapel. In 1796, James Wyatt -Gothicised the Star Building, and other portions. Meanwhile, the east -and south sides, the portions actually inhabited, were so inconvenient -that it was found indispensable, in 1778-82, to erect a separate -building for the actual occupation of the royal family: this was the -Queen's Lodge, a large, plain house on the south side of the castle, -near the site of the present stables. About 1823, George IV., with a -grant of 300,000_l_. from Parliament, began his grand improvements, with -Jeffry Wyatt for his architect; commencing with George the Fourth's -Gateway, the entrance into the quadrangle on the south side, in a direct -line with the Long Walk. We shall not attempt to detail the -improvements: among the most effective is the fine architectural vista -quite through from the north terrace by George the Fourth's Gateway; -the addition of the Waterloo Gallery, lighted from above, and brought -into a group with the Throne-room and the Ball-room. St. George's Hall -has been greatly improved, and at its western end has been constructed -the Chapel. By renovation and remodelling the exterior, greater height -has been given to most of the buildings; some of the towers have been -carried up higher, and others added: amongst these last are the -Lancaster and York, flanking George IV.'s Gateway; and the Brunswick -Tower at the north-east angle. But the most striking improvement of the -kind was that of carrying up the Round Tower thirty feet higher, -exclusive of the Watch Tower on its summit, which makes the height in -that part twenty-five feet more; thus rendering the castle much more -conspicuous than formerly as a distant object. - -The architect's work has been much animadverted on: the details and -strange intermixture of the earliest and latest styles of Gothic are -very objectionable; and, as to general effect, Canon Bowles objected -that the renovated pile looked as if it had been washed with soap and -water! Nevertheless, it is a stately pile; the venerable Canon, just -named, says of it: "Windsor Castle loses a great deal of its -architectural impression (if I may use that word) by the smooth neatness -with which its old towers are now chiselled and mortared. It looks as if -it was washed every morning with soap and water, instead of exhibiting -here and there a straggling flower, or creeping weather-stains. I -believe this circumstance strikes every beholder; but, most imposing -indeed is its distant view, when the broad banner floats or sleeps in -the sunshine, amidst the intense blue of the summer skies; and its -picturesque and ancient architectural vastness harmonizes with the -decaying and gnarled oaks, coeval with so many departed monarchs. The -stately, long-extended avenue, and the wild sweep of devious forests, -connected with the eventful circumstances of English history, and past -regal grandeur, bring back the memories of Edwards and Henries, or the -gallant and accomplished Surrey." In 1825, Canon Bowles, who had been -chaplain to the Prince Regent, and writes himself down as not a -Laureate, but "a poet of loyal, old Church of England feelings," sung as -follows:-- - - "Not that thy name, illustrious dome, recalls - The pomp of chivalry in banner'd halls, - The blaze of beauty, and the gorgeous sights - Of heralds, trophies, steeds, and crested knights; - Not that young Surrey here beguiled the hour, - With eyes upturn'd unto the maiden's tower.[28] - Oh! not for these, and pageants pass'd away, - I gaze upon your antique towers, and pray-- - But that my SOVEREIGN here, from crowds withdrawn, - May meet calm peace upon the twilight lawn; - That here, among these grey, primeval trees, - He may inhale health's animating breeze; - And when from this proud terrace he surveys - Slow Thames revolving his majestic maze, - (Now lost on the horizon's verge, now seen - Winding through lawns, and woods, and pastures green,) - May he reflect upon the waves that roll, - Bearing a nation's wealth from pole to pole, - And feel (ambition's proudest boast above) - A KING'S BEST GLORY IS HIS COUNTRY'S LOVE!" - -"The range of cresting towers has a double interest, whilst we think of -gorgeous dames and barons bold, of Lely and Vandyke's beauties; and gay, -and gallant, accomplished cavaliers like Surrey. And who ever sat in the -stalls of St. George's Chapel, without feeling the impression, on -looking at the illustrious names, that here the royal and ennobled -knights, through so many generations, sat each installed, whilst arms, -and crests, and banners glittered over the same seat?"[29] - -The interior of Windsor Castle, half a century since, mostly presented -the decorative taste of the time of Charles the Second. To the seventeen -State Apartments the public were admitted, until they were wearied with -the mythological ceilings of Thornhill, Rigaud, and Matthew Wyatt; and -the crowning genius of Verrio, in St. George's Hall. Throughout the -apartments was placed the royal collection of pictures, then including -the cartoons of Raphael; and the seven pictures of the glories of Edward -III. painted by West for George III., remarkable for their historical -accuracy, attributable to the friendly aid of Sir Isaac Heard, Garter -King-at-arms, who was constantly at the elbow of the artist. And -foremost among the decorative furniture were the State Bed of Queen -Anne, silver chandeliers and glass-frames, and a "massive silver table -from Hanover." Most of Gibbons's fine carvings appear to have been -removed to Hampton Court. The Keep, or Round Tower, was the residence of -the Constable or Governor of the castle, which he defended against all -enemies, and he had the charge of all prisoners brought thither: the -last was Major Belleisle, who lived in tapestried chambers, and beguiled -his captivity with the loves of Hero and Leander and Cupid and Psyche. -In the guard-chamber was a small magazine of arms. At the top of the -stairs, within the wall, was planted a large piece of cannon, levelled, -through an aperture, at the lower gate; there were also seventeen pieces -of cannon mounted at the embrasures round the curtain of the towers, -which was then the only battery in the castle, though formerly the whole -place was strongly fortified with cannon on each of the several towers, -besides those on the two platforms in the Lower Ward. - -The remodelling of the private apartments of the castle has been -effected with due regard to convenience and splendour. Among the more -pleasurable memorials of royal visits, are the fittings of the -apartments refurnished for the Emperor and Empress of the French, in -which satin hangings, bordered with long-stitch needlework, in the -natural colours of the flowers portrayed, are much admired, as are also -the Brussels lace and white silk toilet-table, &c. There are in the -state-rooms some fine Gobelin tapestries, inlaid cabinets, superb -clocks, and a malachite vase and doors. In the plate room, among other -superb works, is a tall vase of oxydized silver, produced for the Prince -Consort, a short time previous to his death, at the cost of 1,000_l_.; -besides rock crystal cups and beakers, the gold mounts studded with -jewels, and the cups engraved and ornamented with flowers in silver -filigree. Two of the most splendid receptions at the castle in the -present reign, were the fêtes at the christening of the Prince of Wales -in 1842, and the visits of Louis Philippe and some of his family in -1844: upon the latter occasion, the castle, seen from a distance, in the -shades of an autumnal evening, with lights gleaming from nearly every -window of the long-extended and stately pile, had a most enchanting -effect. - -Next to Windsor, deserves to be ranked Warwick Castle, in -picturesqueness of site rivalling the royal palace; it is one of the -finest specimens in the kingdom of the ancient residences of our feudal -nobles. Not only for its architecture, but for its scenic accessories, -and the sylvan character of the surrounding grounds, Warwick Castle is -of almost matchless beauty. Of its archæology, on reference to the Pipe -Rolls, we find it first mentioned in the 19th of Henry II., when it was -furnished and garrisoned, at an expense of 10_l_. (equal to 200_l_. -now), on behalf of the king against his son, and so it remained in the -hands of Henry II. for three years. In the 20th and 21st of Henry II. -are records of outlay for the soldiers, and in the latter year 50_l_. -was spent in repairs. In the 7th year of King John, the castle, then -belonging to the Crown (not the present castle, but a castle on the same -site), was defended for 253 days; and in the days of Henry III. the -walls were completely thrown down and destroyed. In the 9th of Edward -II. (1315) it was returned, on an inquisition, as worth nothing except -for the herbage in the courts and ditches, valued at 6_s_. 8_d_. a year. -In the reign of Edward III. (1357) a new building was commenced by -Thomas Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, and finished about 1380. Guy's Tower -was built in 1394. The next period in the architectural history of the -castle is two or three hundred years later. The castle was then used as -a gaol. The next work was the erection of the entrance-hall. Mr. Salvia, -the architect, has been called in by the Earl of Warwick, and has made -habitable a portion of the castle which before had been unused. The -extreme beauty of the two towers is considered as unequalled in the -world. - -In the valuable collection of pictures in Warwick Castle are a curious -portrait of Queen Elizabeth, painted very early in her reign; portrait -of Sir Philip Sydney, the intimate friend of Fulke Greville; Charles I. -on horseback, probably a copy made by Vandyke from that at Blenheim; -and the colossal picture of Charles I. copied from the original in the -Vandyke Room at Windsor, a duplicate of which is to be seen at Hampton -Court. At Warwick, too, is Holbein's portrait of Henry VIII. noted for -the exquisite finish of its details. The collection of ancient and -modern armour is very valuable. The great hall of the castle, in its -appearance and furniture, retains much of its ancient character. -Externally, the form of the building has sustained little alteration; -its site is a solid rock, in which the cellars are excavated. Cæsar's -Tower is the most ancient; Guy's Tower, of Decorated English character, -is la fine preservation. In one of the greenhouses is the celebrated -ancient marble vase brought to England by the Earl of Warwick, to whom -it had been given by Sir William Hamilton; it is known as the _Warwick -Vase_, and has been copied in various materials. - -As you look from the castle windows upon the soft-flowing Avon, with its -gentle ripple in your ears, the effect is fascinating, and you are -almost carried back to the age of fays and fairies. Henry V. visited -Guy's Cliff; and Shakspeare is supposed to have made it a favourite -retirement. - -Warwick has its apocryphal antiquities, more especially Guy's -curiosities. The story of this famous fellow is said to have been taken -from the exploits of Earl Leofric, husband of Lady Godiva; though the -legendary Guy is derived by some from a French romance of the twelfth or -thirteenth century. Guy, or a prototype, was reputed to be a living -personage, and his sword and coat of mail formed the subject of a -bequest in 1369. In the reign of Henry VIII. a pension was granted for -the preservation of Guy's porridge-pot; but the conflict with the dun -cow is not mentioned until in a seventeenth century play, though Dr. -Caius, about 1552, saw a bone of a bonassus (cow) at Warwick Castle kept -with the arms of Guy. In 1636 the rib of the dun cow was exhibited at -Warwick. Guy's armour is a medley: a bassinet of Edward III.; -breast-plate, fifteenth and seventeenth century; sword, Henry VIII.; -staff, an ancient tilting-lance, very curious; the horse-armour, and -"Fair Phillis' slippers" (strap-irons), are fifteenth century. In -conclusion, "the renowned Guy" is considered to be a myth. - -The first historical Earl of Warwick was so created by the Conqueror. -The history of the castle has some strange episodes. In 1468, Edward IV. -marching towards Warwick, was met by an embassy from the Earl of Warwick -to treat for peace; which the king, too credulously listening to, rested -in his camp at Wolvey; but the Earl surprised him by night in his bed, -and took him prisoner to his castle at Warwick. In the Civil War, 1642, -Warwick Castle, garrisoned for the Parliament, was besieged; and, after -the battle of Edge Hill, when Charles left Birmingham, the inhabitants -seized the carriages containing the loyal plato, and conveyed them to -Warwick Castle. Then Warwick and Kenilworth were in deadly hate: in 1230 -(47th Hen. III.), Maudit, Earl of Warwick, and his Countess, were -surprised in Warwick Castle, by a party of rebels from Kenilworth -Castle, when the walls were thrown down lest the royalists should use -them again; and the Earl and Countess were carried prisoners to -Kenilworth Castle. - -Kenilworth, five miles from Warwick and Coventry, respectively, had a -castle which was demolished in the war of Edmund Ironside and Canute the -Dane, early in the eleventh century. In the reign of Henry I. the manor -was bestowed by the king on Geoffrey de Clinton, who built a strong -castle, and founded a monastery. The castle keep is attributed to the -reign of King John; the outer wall to the time of Henry III. The castle -was one of the strongholds of Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, in -his insurrection against Henry III. and afforded shelter to his son, and -others of his adherents, after the fatal battle of Evesham, in 1265; -next year, however, it capitulated, after a gallant defence. A -tournament of 100 knights was held here in 1278, the Earl of March -principal challenger of the tilt-yard: of the ladies, who were -splendidly attired, it is recorded, that they wore "silken mantles." The -east range of buildings is referred to the middle of the reign of Edward -II. who was confined in the castle, shortly before his murder in -Berkeley Castle, in 1327. In the following reign, John of Gaunt became -owner of the castle, which he much augmented by new and magnificent -buildings. Henry IV. son of John of Gaunt, united the castle, which he -inherited, to the domains of the Crown, of which it formed a part until -the time of Elizabeth, who granted it to Robert Dudley, Earl of -Leicester, who erected "Leicester's Buildings." The magnificent -entertainments given here by Leicester to Elizabeth are minutely -described by Laneham, an attendant on the court, in a tract, entitled -_The Princely Pleasures of Kenilworth_. On her way thither, the Queen -was entertained by Leicester under a splendid tent at Long Itchington. -Kenilworth has been made familiar to the general reader by Sir Walter -Scott's picturesque romance, which has sent thousands to pic-nic among -the castle ruins: it was dismantled after the Civil War of Charles I. - -Kenilworth ruins remind one of a _puzzle_, a few of the pieces of which -have been lost, but are so few as to be readily supplied. The ruins are -principally Late Perpendicular, but there are some Norman portions. -Cæar's Tower, of which three sides remain, has walls sixteen feet thick. -John of Gaunt's large and massive additions are in decay; and the -Leicester Buildings, though comparatively modern, present, from the -friable nature of the stone, an appearance of great antiquity: they -contain the remains of the noble banqueting-hall. The gate-house, also -Leicester's, is better preserved, and has in our time been occupied as a -farm-house. The ruins are, in many parts, mantled with ivy, which adds -to their picturesqueness; and being on an elevated, rocky site, they -command extensive views of the country round: - - "Grey memory of centuries past, - Proud Kenilworth! How dear - The charm that mellowing time hath cast - Over thy portals drear. - Thy battlements are crumbling now, - And ivy decks thy faded brow. - - "Green grows the moss, where banners told - Ambitions Leicester's hour of pride; - Years their all-changing course have roll'd-- - All tenantless the chambers wide. - Bank weeds upon the portals grow; - Noble and knight, where are ye now?" - -Traditional tales of the festive joys of Kenilworth linger on the spot; -and among other things, it is told that the great clock was stopped -during Elizabeth's stay at the castle, as if Time had stood still, -waiting on the Queen, and seeing her subjects enjoying themselves! - -Arundel Castle, the last baronial home we have to describe, is a seat of -great historic interest, derived from the long list of warriors and -statesmen, whose names are identified with the place; and whose deeds, -during the lapse of eight centuries, have shed lustre on our national -history: - - "Since William rose, and Harold fell, - There have been Counts of Arundel; - And earls old Arundel shall have - While rivers flow and forests wave." - -The castle stands on the river Arun in Sussex, at a short distance from -the sea, which is once supposed to have washed the castle-walls, as -anchors and other implements have been found near it. The castle is -mentioned as early as the time of King Alfred, who bequeathed it to his -nephew Adhelm. After the Norman Conquest, it was given by William to his -kinsman, Roger de Montgomeri, created Earl of Arundel and Shrewsbury. -Robert, one of the successors of this Earl, supported Robert, Duke of -Normandy, the eldest son of William I. against Henry, the youngest son -of the Conqueror. Afterwards the castle passed into the family of -Albini; and at last, by the marriage of that race with Thomas, Duke of -Norfolk (in the reign of Elizabeth), into the family of the Howards. It -gives to its possessor (now the Duke of Norfolk) the title of Earl of -Arundel, and is an instance of a peerage attached to the tenure of a -house, which is now an anomaly. In 11th Henry VI. it was decided that -the tenure of the castle of Arundel alone, without any creation, patent, -or investiture, constituted its possessor Earl of Arundel. Sir Bernard -Burke, however, considers this fact to admit of doubt. (See _Visitation -of Seats and Arms_, vol. i. p. 89.) For a place of defence, the castle -must have been well calculated, standing, as it does, at the extreme -point of an eminence which terminates one of the high and narrow ridges -of the South Downs; and in the two immense fosses which still remain, we -have evident tokens of the ancient mode of fortification. The entrance -gateway, anciently defended by a drawbridge and a portcullis, was built -by Richard Fitzalan, in the reign of Edward I. This, with some of the -walls and the keep, is all that remains of the ancient castle. - -The keep is a circular stone tower, sixty-eight feet in diameter, and -the most perfect in England. In the middle of it is a dungeon, a vault -about ten feet high, accessible by a flight of steps, and thought to -have served as a storehouse for the garrison. The keep has long been -tenanted by some owls of large size and beautiful plumage, sent over -from America as a present to the then Duke of Norfolk. The barbican was -named Bevis's Tower from this legendary story. A giant named Bevis -officiated here as warder, in payment for which the Earl of Arundel -built this tower for his reception, allowing him two hogsheads of beer -every week, a whole ox, and a proportionate quantity of bread and -mustard. So huge was the giant, that he could, without inconvenience, -wade the channel of the sea to the Isle of Wight, and frequently did so -for his amusement. So, great as that wonder may be, a greater marvel is, -how he ever got into his tower, which, upon ordinary calculations, must -have been totally inadequate to contain him. - -Among the Norman remains is an extensive vault, now used as a cellar, -about fifteen feet in height. That it was anciently used as a dungeon is -undoubted; and in it were confined not only military captives, but every -civil delinquent within the privileges of the honour. This was a -considerable source of profit to the Earls, and was, therefore, -sturdily maintained by them as a vested right. The ancient hall, with -its appendant buildings, was in the style of the reign of Edward III. -The north-east wing was last erected. Such was the building as it stood -at the commencement of the seventeenth century, inclosing five acres and -a half, and resembling in ground-plan Windsor Castle. - -[Illustration: ARUNDEL CASTLE--THE GREAT QUADRANGLE.] - -Arundel Castle was almost battered to pieces in the Civil War: the hall -and other living apartments were rendered untenantable, and the place -was abandoned by its noble owner, till about the year 1720, from which -period until 1801 only partial restorations were carried out. Then was -built the magnificent library for 10,000 volumes, in imitation of the -aisle of a Gothic cathedral; with ornamentation from Gloucester -Cathedral, and St. George's, Windsor: the ceiling, columns, &c. are of -mahogany. In 1806 was begun the Barons' Hall: the roof is of Spanish -chestnut, designed from Westminster, Eltham, and Crosby Halls; and it -has a large stained end window, of King John signing Magna Charta,[30] -and thirteen windows painted with baronial and family portraits; and in -the drawing-room is a stained glass window, by Eginton, representing the -Duke and Duchess of Norfolk as King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba at a -banquet! The renovation of the castle cost Charles Howard, the eleventh -Duke of Norfolk, the large sum of 600,000_l_. Upon the completion of the -work in June, 1815, he gave a magnificent fête, which accelerated his -death in December following. The appointments of the castle are very -superb. The Duke of Norfolk received here, in 1846, a state visit from -Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. - -The park is extensive and finely wooded, and has much picturesque -scenery. Vineyards formerly abounded in this country; so that, in 1763, -there were sixty pipes of excellent wine resembling Burgundy, in the -cellar of the castle, the produce of one vineyard attached to it. The -river Arun, on which the town of Arundel stands, is famous for the grey -mullets which, in summer, come up here in large shoals, in quest of a -particular weed, the feeding on which renders them a great delicacy. - -Among the events in the castle history was the reception of the Empress -Maud, in 1139, at Arundel Castle, by Adeliza, a relict of Henry I. King -Stephen, apprised of her movements, appeared suddenly before the castle, -with a well-appointed army. The Queen Dowager sent him this spirited -message:--"She had received the Empress as her friend, not as his enemy; -she had no intention of interfering in their quarrels," and therefore -begged the King to allow her royal guest to quit Arundel, and try her -fortune in some other part of England. "But," added she, "if you are -determined to besiege her here, I will endure the last extremity of war -rather than give her up, or suffer the laws of hospitality to be -violated." The Queen's request was granted, and the Empress retired to -Bristol. - -To conclude. No place in England deserves more notice than the Castle of -Arundel--a grand pile of buildings, modern for the most part, and not -capable of supporting criticism; but the ivy-grown keep, at least as old -as the days of Henry I., may challenge comparison with any of the same -date in this country. The castle has not withstood sieges as others -have; it is but too well known for its surrender to Sir William Waller, -who took from it seventeen colours of foot, two of horse, and a thousand -prisoners. Nor is it associated with any decisive battles or events; but -no residence presents us with such a picture of feudal times; no other -baronial home has sent forth thirteen dukes and thirty-five earls. What -house has been so connected with our political and religious annals as -that of Howard? The premiers in the roll-call of our nobility, have been -also among the most persecuted and ill-fated. Not to dwell on the -high-spirited Isabelle, Countess Dowager of Arundel, and widow of Hugh, -last Earl of the Albini family, who upbraided Henry III. to his face -with "vexing the church, oppressing the barons, and denying all his -true-born subjects their rights;" or Richard, Earl of Arundel, who was -executed for conspiring to seize Richard II.--we must think with -indignation of the sufferings inflicted by Elizabeth on Philip, Earl of -Arundel, son of "the great" Duke of Norfolk, beheaded by Elizabeth in -1572 for his dealings with Mary, Queen of Scots. In the biography of -Earl Philip, which, with that of Ann Dacres, his wife, was well edited -by the late lamented Duke, we find that he was caressed by Elizabeth in -early life, and steeped in the pleasures and vices of her court by her -encouragement, to the neglect of his constant wife, whose virtues, as -soon as they reclaimed him to his duty to her, rendered him hated and -suspected by the Queen, so that she made him the subject of vindictive -and incessant persecution, till death released him at the age of -thirty-eight. To another Howard, Thomas, son of Earl Philip, the country -is indebted for those treasures of the East, the Arundel Marbles; -though Lord Clarendon describes him somewhat ill-naturedly, denying him -all claims to learning, and even gravity of character. - -The sight of the embattled towers of Arundel conjures up before us many -historic personages, whom in fancy we can see emerging from their -venerable gateways, in all the pride of youth and ancestry, whose -mouldered ashes now repose under those grey walls. And there too now -lies, alas! added to the number, the late kind-hearted and amiable Duke, -snatched away, like so many of his forefathers, in the very prime of -manhood.[31] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[21] Southey's _Naval History of England_, vol. i. p. 121. - -[22] From Poundbury may be seen Woolverton House, formerly the seat of -the Trenchard family, and in it the fortunes of the House of Russell, -humanly speaking, began to rise in the ascendant. When the Archduke of -Spain was obliged to land at Weymouth, he was brought to the Sheriff of -Dorset, and lived at Woolverton House. The Sheriff, not being able to -speak in any language but "Dorset," found it difficult to converse with -the Archduke, and bethought him of a young kinsman, named Russell, who -had been a factor in Spain, and sent for him. The young man made himself -so agreeable to the Archduke that he brought him to London, where the -King took a fancy to him, and in time he became Duke of Bedford, and was -the founder of the House of Russell. - -[23] The Roman bricks in the remains of a villa found at Stonesfield, -near Woodstock, were fresh and sound. - -[24] The uses of these openings are, however, much controverted by -antiquarian writers:--"With regard to the holes made in the archways of -the gates as found both at Windsor and the Tower of London, the most -probable theory of their use is that they were formed, not as is -generally supposed, for the purpose of throwing down burning sand and -other corroding substances on the assailants of the castle, but to pour -down water on any fires which the enemy might make with faggots or other -materials before the gate and portcullis."--_J. H. Parker_, F.S.A. - -[25] _A Visitation of Seats and Arms._ By John Bernard Burke, Esq. Vol. -i. p. 64. - -[26] _Quarterly Review._ - -[27] Charles Knight; _Penny Cyclopædia, sub_ Windsor Castle. - -[28] Surrey's _Poems_. - -[29] _History of Bremhill._ - -[30] This window is by Buckler, after a design of Lonsdale; in it are -portraits of Charles, Duke of Norfolk, as Baron Fitz-Walter; Captain -Morris, as Master of the Knights Templar; Henry Howard, jun. as the -Baron's Page; and H. C. Combe, Esq. as Lord Mayor of London. - -[31] _Quarterly Review_, July, 1862. The twelfth Duke died in 1842, the -thirteenth in 1856, and the fourteenth in 1860. The present Duke, the -fifteenth, succeeded at the age of thirteen. - - - - -III. Household Antiquities. - -THE OLD ENGLISH HOUSE. - - -Hitherto we have but glanced at the earlier periods of what may be termed -Domestic Life in England. We have attempted to trace our British -ancestors in their "woods and caves, and painted skins;" in their rude -state, before the Roman colonization; in their advancement under that -enlightened sway; and their decadence after their conquerors had left -them. To these periods have succeeded the ages of Castle-building, when -edifices were built for purposes of defence. In lawless times, might -lorded it over right, and stronger places of abode than we regard a -_house_ were necessary for the security and protection of the -inhabitants. Throughout these periods we have few evidences, from their -dwellings, of how the _people_ lived: from the earth caverns of the -Early Britons to the Roman civilization is a dreary picture of rude -accommodation; and though the excavation of ancient sites, and the -operation of the plough, may bring to light many a splendid pavement and -appliances, which denote luxurious life,--these are the remains of the -embellished villas of the wealthy Roman, and not of the abodes of the -conquered Briton. The Saxons lived so meanly, that it were vain to -expect to find many traces of their dwellings; and of the Danes there -are still fewer remains. With these exceptions we have, before the -Conquest, no actually existing witnesses. - -With the Norman period our series of evidences begins. For some time -after the Conquest, strictly domestic remains are very scanty. The great -men lived in castles, which are, indeed, domestic so far as men lived in -them, but whose architecture is too much affected by military -considerations to be called strictly domestic architecture, which is the -building of _houses_, whose defence is either not thought of or is -something quite secondary. It is clear that houses of this sort, of such -pretensions as to possess any architectural character, or to be -preserved down to our time, could not well exist, in the open country at -least, till the land had become comparatively settled and civilized. -Hence, our list of Norman houses in England is very scanty, and they are -chiefly formed in walled towers, like Lincoln and Bury St. Edmund's. -[The erection of Lincoln Castle by order of William the Conqueror, in -1086, is said to have caused the demolition of 240 houses. Perhaps the -only perfect and untouched Norman example is the small unroofed house at -Christ Church, in Hampshire. The church is Norman, and the tower is -supposed to be of Roman origin.] - -Several of the fragments elsewhere have very fine Norman detail; but for -Norman architecture exhibiting anything like the real grandeur of the -style, we must look to the castles and monasteries. In the thirteenth -century our examples are still but few and small, though much more -numerous than before. After the age of Edward III. the castle became -more like a mansion, as we have seen in the castles of Windsor, Warwick, -and Kenilworth. - -As the character of the times became more peaceful, and law succeeded to -the reign of the strong hand, a still further change took place in the -construction of these dwellings, and they partook but slightly of the -castellated character. Beauty and ornament were consulted by the -builders instead of strength; and the convenient accommodation of the -in-dwellers, in lieu of the means of disposing of a crowded garrison, -and its necessary provision in time of siege. They usually retained the -moat and battlemented gateway, and one or two strong turrets, to build -which a royal licence was necessary. Thus, the idea of the English -manor-house seems to have disengaged itself from that of the castle, and -we begin to have a noble series of strictly domestic buildings, defence -being quite secondary, and in no way obtruded. They were generally -quadrangular in plan, the larger class inclosing two open courts, of -which one contained the stables, offices, and lodgings of the household; -the second, the principal or statechambers, with the hall and chapel. -The windows were large and lofty, reaching almost to the ground, and -several of them opening to the gardens on the outside of the building, -though these were inclosed by high battlemented walls and a moat. It -should, however, be remarked, that the mansion, except in edifices of -considerable extent and consequence, seldom contained more than one -court. - -The hall, in most cases, retained its original design. It was -distinguished by its superior elevation, its turreted towers (or -lantern), its windows, and projecting bay. The principal doorway entered -upon a vestibule or lobby, extending across the edifice, with a door of -inferior dimensions at the opposite extremity, having, on one side, the -lower wall of the hall, in which were doors leading to the buttery and -kitchener's department; and on the other, the screen, or lofty partition -of wood, designed to conceal those doors from the view of persons in the -hall. In the Companies' Halls of the City of London, a moveable screen -is generally used for this purpose. - -The screen was often panelled with wood from top to bottom, and divided -into compartments, which were enriched with shields and carved work, -having usually two or three arched doorways opening on the lobby. In -many instances, the minstrels' gallery was placed above this -compartment. - -Among the richest specimens extant of the embattled mansions are -Wingfield Manor-house, in Derbyshire; Cowdray, in Sussex;[32] Kelmingham -Hall, in Suffolk; Penshurst, in Kent; Deene Park, in Northamptonshire; -and Thornbury Castle, in Gloucestershire. This period of the transition -from the castle to the mansion is considered the best style of English -architecture. - -Wingfield, near the centre of Derbyshire, was built by Ralph, Lord -Cromwell, who, in the time of Henry VI. was Treasurer of England, in -allusion to which he had bags or purses of stones carved over the -gateway of Wingfield, as well as on the manor-house of Coly Weston, in -Northamptonshire, augmented by this Lord Cromwell. Wingfield Manor-house -originally consisted of two square courts--one containing the principal -apartments, and the other the offices. It had a noble hall lighted by a -beautiful octagon window, and a range of Gothic windows, north and -south. The principal entrance is by an embattled gate-house, through a -pointed arch, beside the end of the great state apartment lighted by a -large and rich pointed window. Here the Earl of Shrewsbury held in his -custody Mary Queen of Scots, in a convenient suite of apartments, which -communicated with the great tower, whence the ill-starred captive could -see her friends with whom she held a secret correspondence. An attempt -was made by Leonard Dacre to rescue Mary, after which Elizabeth, -becoming suspicious of the Earl of Shrewsbury, directed the Lady -Huntingdon to take care of the Queen of Scots in Shrewsbury's house; and -had her suite reduced to thirty persons. Her captivity at Wingfield is -stated to have extended to nine years, which, however, is questionable. - -Thornbury Castle is picturesquely placed twenty-four miles south-west of -Gloucester, on the banks of a rivulet two miles westward of "the -glittering, red, and rapid Severn, embedded in its emerald vale, and -shining up in splendid contrast to the shady hills of the Dean Forest." -Thornbury was begun by Edward Stafford, Duke of Buckingham; its -completion was prevented by his execution, in the year 1522. It is a -castellated group, with battlemented towers and turrets, and enriched -chimney-shafts, clothed with luxuriant ivy; its bay-windows are very -fine. Buckingham fell one of the earliest victims to the cruel tyranny -of our eighth Henry. The line of his pedigree is marked in blood. His -father was beheaded by Richard III.; his grandfather was killed at the -battle of St. Albans; his great grandfather at the battle of -Northampton; and the father of this latter at the battle of Shrewsbury. -More than a century had elapsed since any chief of this great family had -fallen by a natural death. Edward was doomed to no nobler fate than his -forefathers. Knivett, a discarded officer of Buckingham's household, -furnished information to Wolsey, which led to the apprehension of his -late master: it was stated that he had consulted a monk about future -events; that he had declared all the acts of Henry VII. to be wrongfully -done; that he had told Knivett, that if he had been sent to the Tower, -when he was in danger of being committed, he would have played the part -which his father had intended to perform at Salisbury--where, if he -could have obtained an audience, he would have stabbed Richard III. with -a knife; and that he had told Lord Abergavenny, if the king had died, he -would have the rule of the land. Yet, all this was but the testimony of -a spy. Buckingham confessed the real amount of his absurd inquiries from -the friar. He was tried in the court of the Lord High Steward, by a jury -of one duke, one marquess, seven earls, and twelve barons, who convicted -him. The Duke of Norfolk shed tears on pronouncing sentence. The -prisoner said: "May the eternal God forgive you my death, as I do." The -only favour which he could obtain was, that the ignominious part of a -traitor's death should be remitted. He was accordingly beheaded on the -17th of May, 1521; whilst the surrounding people vented their -indignation against Wolsey by loud cries of "The butcher's son!" The -half-built and decaying Thornbury has prompted this saddening history of -its founder and his ill-fated family. - -Longleat, in Wiltshire, the seat of the Marquis of Bath, and built in -the reign of Edward VI., is, for its date, esteemed the most regular -building in the kingdom. Upon its site was originally a priory, which -came into the possession of the Thynne family, in the reign of Henry -VIII. The present mansion was commenced by the first proprietor of that -family, and completed for his successors by an Italian architect: it -consists of three stories, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, adorned with -rich pilasters, handsome balustrades, and statues; and from the roof -rise several cupolas. The apartments are large and sumptuous; and the -great hall is two stories in height. The gardens were originally -embellished with fountains, cascades, and statues, and laid out in -formal parterres; but the whole has been newly remodelled. The entire -domain is fifteen miles in circuit; and in magnitude, grandeur, and -variety of decoration, Longleat has always been the pride of this part -of the country. Its collection of pictures includes many portraits of -eminent persons in the reign of Queen Elizabeth and her successors. - -In the time of Elizabeth and James I. were erected many mansions upon -splendid and extensive scales. John Thorpe built five palaces for -Elizabeth's ministers: for Lord Burghley, Theobalds and Burghley; -Wimbledon, for Sir Robert Cecil; Hollenby and Kirby, for Lord Chancellor -Hatton; and Buckhurst for the Earl of Dorset. Thorpe also built for Sir -Walter Cope, Holland House, Kensington, about 1606, which received its -name from Henry Rich, Earl of Holland, by whom the mansion was greatly -altered. Its plan is that of half the letter H, of deep red brick, with -pilasters and their entablature; the window dressings, and coping, of -stone. Few of the apartments retain their original character; some of -the interior is supposed to be by Inigo Jones. The gilt room is by -Cleyn, an artist largely employed by James I. and Charles I.; the -figures over the fireplace are worthy of Parmegiano, and here is a very -fine collection of modern busts. - -Burghley, Northamptonshire, has the rare fortune of remaining to this -time the seat of the descendants of the great Lord Burghley, for whom -the mansion was built; the present noble owner being the Marquis of -Exeter: in approaching it from Stamford, its singular chimneys, the -variety of its turrets, towers, and cupolas, and the steeple of its -chapel rising from its centre, give it the appearance more of a small -city than a single building. - -Hatfield, in Hertfordshire, which has been a palace, episcopal, royal, -and noble, for upwards of seven centuries, was mostly built by Thorpe, -in 1611. The old palace was of the twelfth century: here is the chamber -in which the Princess Elizabeth was kept for some time a state prisoner; -and in the present mansion, Charles I. was confined. In plan, Hatfield -is in the form of half the letter H: each front differs from the other, -but in unity of design the Tudor period is remarkably prevalent, and it -is believed that no house in the kingdom erected at so early a date, -remains so entire as this. - -A stately mansion of this period was erected at Campden, in -Gloucestershire, at an expense of 29,000_l_.; it occupied eight acres, -was of splendid architecture, and had a large dome rising from the roof, -which was illuminated nightly for the guidance of travellers. Campden -was burnt during the Civil War. - -Haddon Hall, near Bakewell, in Derbyshire, erected at various periods, -affords excellent examples of the several styles of domestic -architecture, from the early pointed, to the Tudor and Elizabethan. It -was originally a barton, or farm, given by William the Conqueror to his -natural son, William Peverell. The mansion is preserved intact: the -tapestry and paneling remain; the carved wainscoting and ornamented -ceiling of the long gallery are of the time of Elizabeth; the -banqueting-hall is equally perfect; the chapel is a good specimen of the -early Pointed Gothic. Haddon is one of the curiosities of the Peak -country. Many years since Mr. Reinagle painted a picture of this famous -old place, which evoked the following poetical tribute to its -truthfulness:-- - - "Gre weeds o'ertop thy ruin'd wall, - Grey, venerable Haddon Hall; - The swallow twitters through thee: - Who would have thought, when, in their pride, - Thy battlements the storm defied, - That Time should thus subdue thee? - - "While with a famed and far renown - England's third Edward wore the crown, - Up sprang'st thou in thy glory; - And surely thine (if thou couldst tell, - Like the old Delphian Oracle) - Would be a wondrous story. - - "How many a Vernon thou hast seen, - Kings of the Peak thy walls within; - How many a maiden tender; - How many a warrior stem and steel'd, - In burganet, and lance, and shield, - Array'd with martial splendour. - - "Then, as the soft autumnal breeze - Just curl'd the lake, just stirr'd the trees, - In the blue cloudless weather, - How many a gallant hunting train, - With hawk in hood, and horse in rein, - Forsook thy courts together! - - "The grandeur of the olden time - Mounted thy towers with pride sublime, - Enlivening all who near'd them; - From Hippocras and Sherris sack - Palmer or pilgrim turn'd not back - Before thy cellars cheer'd them. - - "Since thine unbroken early day, - How many a race hath pass'd away, - In charnel vault to moulder-- - Yet Nature round thee breathes an air - Serenely bright, and softly fair, - To charm the awed beholder. - - "The past is but a gorgeous dream, - And Time glides by us like a stream, - While musing on thy story; - And sorrow prompts a deep alas! - That, like a pageant thus, should pass - To wreck all human glory." - -It is now time to speak more in detail of the main apartment--the chief -feature of an ancient residence of every class--the Great Hall, which -often gave its name to the whole house. A very able writer has thus -lucidly yet briefly told its history:--"In the early houses, the hall is -almost the whole house; there is nothing besides, except the requisite -offices and a room or two for the lord and the lady. The mass of the -household slept how they might in the hall. Gradually, as civilization -increased, the accommodation in a house became greater, and the relative -importance--sometimes the positive size--of the Hall gradually -diminishes. The family gradually deserted it, and the modern luxury of -the dining-room was introduced. The _with_drawing-room, that into which -they withdrew from the hall, had already appeared. At last, in the -sixteenth century, the Hall, though still a grand feature, became, as -now, a mere entrance, often with rooms over it." - -Sometimes, the Great Hall was raised upon an undercroft of stone -vaulting, as we see in the Guildhall, the undercroft of which is the -finest specimen of its class in the metropolis. Gerard's Hall, in -Basing-lane, built by John Gisors, pepperer, Mayor of London in 1245, -and is described by Stow as "a great house of old time, builded upon -arched vaults, and with arched gates of stone, brought from Cane, in -Normandy." - -Aubrey, writing in the seventeenth century, thus describes, in his -quaint way, the characteristics of the old manorial or hall houses of -the times of the Plantagenets and Tudors: "The architecture of an old -English gentleman's house (especially in Wiltshire and thereabouts) was -a high strong wall, a gate-house, a Great Hall, and parlours, and within -the little green court, where you come in, stood on one side the -_barne_. _They then thought not the noise of the threshold ill -musique._" - -To come to details. The Great Hall corresponded to the refectory of the -abbey. The principal entrance to the main building, from the front or -outer court, opened into a _thorough lobby_, having on one side several -doors or arches, leading to the buttery,[33] kitchen, and domestic -offices; on the other side, the Hall, parted off by a screen, generally -of wood, elaborately carved, and enriched with shields and a variety of -ornaments, and pierced with several arches, having folding-doors. Above -the screen, and over the lobby, was the minstrels' gallery; on its front -were usually hung armour, antlers, and similar memorials of the family -exploits. - -The Hall itself was a large and lofty room, in the shape of a -parallelogram; the roof, the timbers of which were framed with pendants, -generally richly carved and emblazoned with arms, formed one of the most -striking features. "The top beam of the Hall," in allusion to the -position of his coat-of-arms, was a symbolical manner of drinking the -health of the master of the house. At the upper end of the apartment, -furthest from the entrance, the floor was usually raised a step, and -this part was styled the _daïs_, or high place. On one side of the daïs -was a deep embayed window, reaching nearly down to the floor; the other -windows ranged along one or both sides of the Hall, at some height above -the ground, so as to leave room for wainscoting, or arras, below them. -We see this arrangement to great advantage in the Great Hall at Hampton -Court Palace, where the wall beneath the windows is hung with Flemish -tapestry, in eight compartments, the arabesque borders of which are very -beautiful; the subject is the History of Abraham. The tapestry at the -entrance of the Hall is of much earlier date, being in the school of -Albert Durer: the subject, Justice and Mercy pleading before Kings or -Judges. The withdrawing-room is also hung with tapestry, the subjects -mostly mythological; and the oriel-window is filled with armorial -stained glass. - -The Hall windows generally were enriched with stained glass, -representing the armorial bearings of the family, their connexions, and -royal patrons; and between the windows were hung full-length portraits -of the same persons. The windows were not, however, permanently glazed -till the fifteenth century. Before that, it was the custom for the -glazed casements to be carried about from manor to manor along with the -other furniture; every man of rank, whether civil or ecclesiastical, was -in the habit of travelling with all his retinue, from one estate to -another, so as to consume the produce of each estate upon the spot. It -is this custom, or rather necessity, which explains the multitude of -manorial houses possessed by every mediæval magnate, and the constant -migrations from one to the other. Royal writs and documents are -frequently dated from the most insignificant places where the court, on -its progress from one royal manor to another, might happen to be -staying.[34] - -To return to the Hall. The Royal arms usually occupied a conspicuous -station at either end of the room. The head-table was laid for the lord -and principal guests on the raised place, parallel with the upper end -wall; and other tables were ranged along the sides for inferior visitors -and retainers. Tables, thus placed, were said to stand _banquet-wise_. -In the centre of the Hall was the rere-dosse, or fire-iron, against -which fagots were piled, and burnt upon the stone floor, the smoke -passing through an aperture in the roof immediately overhead, which was -generally formed into an elevated lantern, a conspicuous ornament to the -exterior of the building. In later times, a wide-arched fireplace was -formed in the wall on one side of the room. - -The Halls, in fact, of our colleges, at either University, and the Inns -of Court, still remain as in Aubrey's time, accurate examples of the -ancient and baronial and conventual Halls: preserving not merely their -original form and appearance, but the identical arrangement and service -of the table. Even the central fire has been, in some instances, kept -up, being of charcoal, burnt in a large braziere, in lieu of the -rere-dosse. The open fire was so kept up, at Westminster School, so late -as 1850. The Halls of the temple, Gray's Inn, and Staple Inn, have their -lanterns; and even the Hall of Barnard's Inn, the oldest and the -smallest, has its lantern; the newly built Hall of Lincoln's Inn has a -very ornamental one; and the new roof of the Guildhall is to have a -lantern with a lofty spire. The lantern of Westminster Hall is large and -picturesque; it is modern, of cast-iron, but is an exact copy of the -original one, erected near the end of the fourteenth century. As the -existing lanterns are no longer required for the egress of smoke, they -are glazed. - -In other respects, probably, little, if anything, has been altered since -the Tudor era; and he who is anxious to know the mode in which our -ancestors dined in the reigns of the Henrys and Edwards, may be -gratified by attending that meal in the Great Halls of Christchurch or -Trinity, and tasking his imagination to convert the principal and -fellows at the upper table, into the stately baron, his family, and -guests; and the gowned commoners at the side-tables, into the liveried -retainers. The service of the kitchen, buttery, and cellar is conducted, -at the present day, precisely according to the ancient custom.[35] - -Gradually, the solar or private sitting-room of the matron or mistress -of the house increased in importance. Its most usual position was at one -end of the Hall, on an upper level, raised above an apartment which was -used as a cellar or a store-room. - -The Hall is, of course, the part of a house or castle where the art of -architecture proper has the best opportunity of displaying itself. So, -in a monastery, the refectory comes next in grandeur to the church and -chapter-house. Indeed, some of the early Halls were built not unlike -churches, with two rows of pillars. In a wooden construction this is not -uncommon both in halls and barns; but the examples we mean have two -regular aisles with stone pillars and arches. Such was the original -Westminster Hall, till Richard II. threw it into one body under the -present magnificent single roof. The finest existing example is perhaps -that superb one at Oakham Castle, of the best architecture of the end of -the twelfth century. In the next century we have the Hall of the Royal -Palace at Winchester used like that at Oakham, for an assize-court. Of -single-bodied halls of the fourteenth century, nothing can surpass those -of Caerphilly Castle in Glamorganshire, and Mayfield Palace in Sussex. -Mayfield has, and Caerphilly seems to have been designed to have, a very -effective arrangement of stone arches thrown across at intervals to -support the roof, and to produce something of the effect of actual -vaulting. The same is the case at Conway. Most of these examples are -ruined.[36] Mayfield has lately been restored. - -The gallery was brought into use with the Elizabethan style of -architecture, and became a prominent feature among the apartments of -houses in that style. The gallery at Hatfield, with a magnificently -gilded ceiling--a blaze of gold--is a fine specimen: it was regilt just -previous to the visit of Queen Victoria to Hatfield in 1846: a state -ball was given in this gallery, and we remember to have been told the -day after the Royal visit, that during the dance there fell from Her -Majesty's hand a rose, which was immediately taken up by a gentleman of -the company; on bended knee he presented it to the Queen, who most -graciously returned the flower, which, we doubt not, is preserved. - -The extensive passages in some ancient houses have, no doubt, been -originally similar to the open galleries round our old inns, of which we -have examples, year by year, diminishing in number. These passages were -ultimately inclosed for comfort and convenience. The staircases, in -ancient times, were usually cylindrical, and were carried up in a -separate turret: it was not until the age of Elizabeth that the massive -staircase, with its broad hand-rails, balustrades, and enriched -ornaments, was introduced into the mansion; that of a later period is -familiarly known as a "Queen Anne staircase." - -The royal parlour of Eltham is a perfect specimen of the -banqueting-hall, and was the frequent residence of our kings before -Henry VIII.; and here they held their great Christmas feasts. Two -thousand guests in 1483 were entertained here at Christmas, by Edward -IV., the royal builder of the Hall. His badges--the falcon, the -fetterlock, and rose-en-soleil--are sculptured over the chief entrance; -and Edward is represented by Skelton as saying: - - "I made Nottingham a palace royal, - Windsor, Eltham, and many mo'." - -Princesses have been cradled here, Parliaments have met in the Great -Hall, and kings and queens have betaken themselves here to meditate upon -the waning earthly greatness. The gloomy Henry VII. at intervals retired -to Eltham; Queen Mary or Queen Elizabeth would spend a few days in the -almost forsaken palace; and James I. had been known to pass a morning -here. - -Eltham is now a regal ruin. "The fair pleasaunce, the echoing courts, -the king's lodging, presence and guard chamber, and the rooms in which -the royal attendants lodged, have all disappeared. The gateway and high -walls of ruddy brick only remain to mark the site of the tilt-yard. The -moat is half dry, and the sluggish stream is still spanned by the bridge -of four arches, which is contemporaneous with the Hall; but 'the gateway -and the fair front towards the moat,' built by Henry VII., have been -replaced by two modern houses; and another, with three barge-board -gables, and corbelled attics, to the east end of the Hall, retains the -designation of the Buttery. There is a view of the Hall by Buck, dated -1735, which represents a great portion of the palace, with its quaint -water-towers and moated walls still standing; but, although Parliament -in 1827 spent £700 upon the repairs, the state of the Hall is sad enough -now: full of litter of every sort, its windows unglazed or bricked up; -with damp fastenings in the naked walls, and rough rafters stretching -across from side to side, and reaching above the corbels. It is now -used as a barn. It was at once an audience-chamber and refectory, 100 -feet in length, 55 in height, and 36 feet broad. But the windows now -admit broad streams of cheerful sunshine, which light up the thick -trails of ivy that flow over the empty panes; its deep bay-window, now -stripped of glazing, but enriched with groining and tracery which -flanked the daïs, betoken the progress which elegance and security had -made at the period of their erection: the lofty walls continue to -support a high pitched roof of oak, in tolerable preservation, with -hammer-beams, carved pendants, and braces supported on corbels of hewn -stone; and although the royal table, the hearth, and louvre have -disappeared, there are still remains of the minstrels' gallery, and the -doors in the oak screen below it, which lead to the capacious kitchen, -the butteries, and cellars, to tell each their several tale of former -state."[37] - -Hitherto, we have mostly spoken of palaces and mansions. It is, however, -very difficult to discover any fragments of houses inhabited by the -gentry, before the reign, at soonest, of Edward III., or even to trace -them by engravings in the older topographical works; not only from the -dilapidations of time, but because very few considerable mansions had -been erected by that class. It is an error to suppose that the English -gentry were lodged in stately, or even in well-sized houses. They -usually consisted of an entrance-passage, running through the house, -with a hall on one side, a parlour beyond, and one or two chambers -above; and on the opposite side, a kitchen, pantry, and other offices. -Such was the ordinary manor-house of the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries. "In the remains of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, -Somersetshire is especially rich. Almost every village has a house, a -parsonage, or some building or other of this class, to say nothing of -extensive monastic remains, as at Glastonbury, Woodspring, Muchelney, -and Old Cleve. Among the Somersetshire houses, the original portions of -Clevedon Court may claim the first place. Then comes a long list, of -which, perhaps, the manor-house and 'fish-house' of Meare, near -Glastonbury, are the most curious and beautiful."[38] - -Larger houses were erected by men of great estates during the reigns of -Henry VI. and Edward IV.; but very few can be traced higher; and Mr. -Hallam, in his _History of the Middle Ages_, conceives it to be -difficult to name a house in England, still inhabited by a gentleman, -and not of the castle description, the principal apartments of which are -older than the reign of Henry VII. There may be a few solitary specimens -of earlier date. The Rev. Mr. Lysons says:--"The most remarkable -fragment of early building which I have anywhere found mentioned, is at -a house in Berkshire, called Appleton, where there is a sort of -prodigy--an entrance-passage with circular arches in the Saxon (? -Norman) style, which must, probably, be as old as the reign of Henry II. -No other private house in England, as I conceive, can boast of such a -monument of antiquity." - -Wood and stone were the earliest materials used in house-building; but -as great part of England affords no stone fit for building, her -oak-forests were thinned, and less durable dwellings were erected with -inferior timber. Stone houses are, however, mentioned as belonging to -the citizens of London, even in the latter half of the twelfth century. -Flints bound together with strong cement were employed in building -manor-houses. Hewn stone was employed for castles, and the larger -mansions: much stone was, in early times, brought from Normandy. -Chestnut was much employed. Evelyn, in his _Sylva_, states that "The -chestnut is, next the oak, one of the most sought after by the carpenter -and joiner. It hath formerly built a good part of our ancient houses in -the City of London, as does yet appear. I had once a very large barn -near the City, framed entirely of this timber; and certainly the trees -grew not far off, probably in some woods near the town; for in that -description of London, written by Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry -II. he speaks of a very noble and large forest which grew on the boreal -[north] part of it."[39] - -Ducarel, in his _Anglo-Norman Antiquities_, says: "Rudhall, near Ross, -in Herefordshire, is built with chestnut, which probably grew on the -estate, although no tree of the kind is now to be found growing wild in -that part of the country. The old houses in the city of Gloucester are -constructed of chestnut, derived assuredly from the chestnut-trees in -the forest of Dean. In some of the oldest houses of Faversham much -genuine chestnut as well as oak is employed. In the nunnery of -Davington, near Faversham (now entire), the timber consists of oak, -intermingled with chestnut." - -In the fourteenth century, ornamental carpentry had reached a high -degree of excellence. There are many examples of ancient timber houses -yet remaining in this country: they have massive beams and timbers, and -are generally of unnecessary strength. The intermixture of wood, brick, -and stone, or wood and plaster, in the exterior of houses, was, for a -considerable period, the common style of building in the fifteenth and -sixteenth centuries. Weatherboard--that is, planks overlapping each -other--was formerly much used for house-fronts, and possessed great -durability. Overhanging roofs, walls of plaster with lofty gables, -bay-windows, and porches of timber, with each story projecting beyond -the other, are so many characteristics of a mixed style, when the rude -dangers of the timber houses became progressively intermingled with the -massive architecture of a subsequent period; and the external use of -timber in the walls continued to prevail for a very long time. -Beaconsfield Rectory, of the sixteenth century, has the basement story -completely built of glazed bricks in chequered patterns; the -superincumbent story has elevated roofs and gables, and is constructed -with massive timbers placed near together, and plastered between. The -staircase, which is semi-cylindrical and composed of timber, is added to -the north side of the house. The entire structure forms three sides of a -quadrangle, with a lofty wall and entrance on the fourth; its interior -is rude and massive. - -In an account of a topographical excursion in 1634, the hall of -Kenilworth is described with a roof "all of Irish wood, neatly and -handsomely framed;" in it are five chimneys, "answerable to so great a -room:" then we read of the Guard, Presence, and Privy chambers, fretted -above richly with coats of arms, and all adorned with fair and rich -chimney-pieces of alabaster, black marble, and joiners' work in -curiously carved wood; all the fair and rich rooms and lodgings in the -spacious tower not long since built, and repaired at great cost by -Leicester. "The priuate, plaine, retiring-chamber wherein or renowned -Queene of euer famous memory, alwayes made choice to repose her Selfe. -Also the famous, strong old tower, called Julius Cæsar's, on top whereof -was view'd the pleasant, large Poole continually sporting and playing on -the Castle: the Parke, and the fforest contiguous thereto." Kenilworth -has been already described at pp. 101-103. - -Many a middle-aged reader can recollect the disappearance of rows of -gabled houses, with timber and plaster fronts, from the metropolis: -great part of the High-street of Southwark, built in this manner, was -taken down between 1810 and 1831; at the latter period, some houses with -ornamental plaster fronts disappeared. In Chancery-lane, a very old -thoroughfare, several houses of this class have been taken down within -memory; and many an old house-front, with ornamental carving, is missed -from the Strand; a few linger in Holywell-street and Wych-street. And, -in 1865, was taken down one side of Great Winchester-street, stated to -be one of the oldest specimens of domestic architecture remaining in the -metropolis. The casement hung on hinges was the earliest form of window, -properly so called. Sash-windows were not introduced till the early part -of the reign of Charles I., and were not general till the latter part of -the time of Queen Anne. - -In the construction of farm-houses and cottages there have been, -probably, fewer changes than in large mansions. Cottages in England seem -to have generally consisted of a single room, without division of -stories. The Spaniards who came to England in Queen Mary's time, -wondered when they saw the large diet used by the inmates of the most -homely-looking cottages. "The English, they said, make their houses of -sticks and dirt, but they fare as well as the king; whereby it appeareth -(says Harrison), that they like better of our goode fare in such coarse -cabins, than of their own thin diet in their princelike habitations and -palaces." - -In various counties we can scarcely fail to be struck with the -difference in the forms of the cottages, as in the height of the -building, the pitch of the roof, as well as the materials. Only let the -traveller on the Brighton railway look out after he has passed Redhill, -and he may see evidence of the truth of the above remark. Cobbett has -left us this charming picture of the Sussex cottages in one of his -_Rural Rides_:-- - - "I never had," he writes, "that I recollect, a more pleasant - journey, or ride, than this into Sussex. The weather was pleasant, - the elder-trees in full bloom, and they make a fine show; the - woods just in their greatest beauty; the grass-fields generally - uncut; and the little gardens of the labourers full of flowers; - the roses and honeysuckles perfuming the air at every cottage - door. Throughout all England, these cottages and gardens are the - most interesting objects that the country presents, and they are - particularly so in Kent and Sussex. This part of these counties - has the great blessing of numerous woods; these furnish fuel, - nice, sweet fuel, for the heating of ovens and all other purposes: - they afford materials for the making of pretty pigsties, hurdles, - and dead fences, of various sorts; they afford materials for - making little cow-sheds; for the sticking of peas and beans in the - gardens; and for giving to everything a neat and substantial - appearance. These gardens, and the look of the cottages, the - little flower-gardens, which you everywhere see, and the beautiful - hedges of thorn and of privet,--these are the objects to delight - the eyes, to gladden the heart, and to fill it with gratitude to - God, and love for the people; and as far as my observation has - gone, they are objects to be seen in no other country in the - world. Those who see nothing but the nasty, slovenly places in - which labourers live round London, know nothing of England. The - fruit-trees are all kept in the nicest order; every bit of paling - or wall is made use of, for the training of some sort or other. At - Lamberhurst, which is one of the most beautiful villages that ever - man set his eyes on, I saw what I never saw before, namely, _a - gooseberry-tree trained against a house_. The house was one of - those ancient buildings, consisting of a frame of oak-wood, the - interval filled up with brick, plastered over. The tree had been - planted at the foot of one of the perpendicular pieces of wood; - from the stem which mounted up this piece of wood were taken side - limbs, to run along the horizontal pieces. There were two windows, - round the frame of each of which the limbs had been trained. The - height of the highest shoot was about ten feet from the ground, - and the horizontal shoots from each side were from eight to ten - feet in length. The tree had been judiciously pruned, and all the - limbs were full of very large gooseberries, considering the age of - the fruit. This is only one instance out of thousands that I saw - of extraordinary pains taken with the gardens." - -Those who love the picturesque will excuse our halting to sketch an -episode from the history of the royal forest of Ashdown, in Sussex, once -possessed by John of Gaunt, and hence called "Lancaster great Park." -Upon the borders of the forest lies the manor of Brambertie of Domesday, -and Brambletye of Horace Smith; the home of the Comptons, and in the -tale of fiction, as in fact, dismantled by Parliament troopers, and -within two centuries a ruin. Richard Lewknor is the first person -described as of Brambletye. He most probably built in one of the forest -glens the moated mansion known as "Old Brambletye House," which, with -its gables and clustered chimneys, and its moat and drawbridge, long -remained an interesting specimen of the fortified manor-house of the -reign of Henry VII. We remember the old place, some sixty years since, -but it has long been taken down. Towards the middle of the seventeenth -century, Brambletye came into the possession of the Comptons, an ancient -Roman Catholic family; and here Sir Henry Compton built himself, from -an Italian design, another Brambletye House, of the white stone of the -country. Over the principal entrance to the mansion were sculptured the -coat-armour of Compton, with the arms of Spencer, in a shield, on the -dexter side: and on the upper story was cut in stone, C. H. M. 1631. -This fixes the period when the house was built; and when Sir Henry -Compton, who had before inhabited the old moated house in the -neighbourhood, abandoned it to take up his residence in this once -elegant and substantial baronial mansion. - -From the court-rolls of the manor, it does not appear who succeeded the -Comptons in the property; but Sir James Rickards, in his patent of -baronetcy, 1683-4, is described as of Brambletye House. The story goes, -that "a proprietor of the mansion being suspected of treasonable -purposes, officers of justice were dispatched to search the premises, -when a considerable quantity of arms and military stores was discovered -and removed; he was out hunting at the time, but receiving intimation of -the circumstance, deemed it most prudent to abscond." The historical -version is, that in the Civil War, Sir John Compton, a true Royalist, -took an active part against the Parliament armies: although never -capable of any regular defence, yet Brambletye, being partially -fortified, refused the summons of the Parliamentary Colonel Okey, by -whom it was invested and speedily taken. The mansion was subsequently -deserted. From a sketch taken in 1780, the principal front was nearly -entire: it consisted of three square towers, the entrance doorway being -in the central tower; the two wings had handsome bay-windows; the three -towers were surmounted with cupolas and weather-vanes; but one had half -its cupola shattered away, and was internally blackened, as if with -gunpowder. In front of the house were an inclosed courtyard and two -entrance-gates, one flanked by two massive, square towers, with cupolas. -Horace Smith having named his romance _Brambletye House_, the opening -scenes being laid there, has sent hundreds of tourists to pic-nic among -the ruins; but the spoilers were constantly at work. Some fifteen years -ago, "all that remained of Brambletye House was one of the towers -clothed with stately ivy, and little more than one story of each of the -other towers; the intervening portions, with their bay-windows, had -disappeared. Nature had, however, lent a helping hand: by the shrubby -trees and the ivy, the ruins had gained that picturesqueness which so -often lends a graceful charm to scenes of decaying art."[40] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[32] In the noble park of Cowdray, the home of the Montagues, Queen -Elizabeth, in 1591, killed three or four deer with her cross-bow, while -on a visit to Lord Montague. Three deaths in one family by drowning, and -the almost total destruction of a fine mansion by fire, within the -memory of living man, are enough to make one tread the beautiful grounds -of Cowdray with feelings of awe, and to invest it with a superstitious -melancholy. Three hundred years ago, however, there was no more festive -house in England, when "three oxen and 120 geese" figured in its bill of -fare for breakfast. The then proprietor was a strict disciplinarian, and -the "Orders and Rules of Sir Anthony Browne" curiously illustrate the -domestic economy of a great man's family in the sixteenth century, -especially as regards its important departments of the "ewerye" and the -"buttyre," and those pet officers, "my server" and "my -carver."--_Quarterly Review_, 1861. - -[33] "The cat's behind the _buttery_-shelf."--_Old Ditty._ - -[34] _Saturday Review_, 1861. - -[35] There is an oft-quoted passage in the Aubrey MSS. which may be -appositely represented here as a life-like picture of the economy of the -Hall: "The lords of manouers did eate in their great gothicque halls, at -the high tables or oreile, the folk at the side-tables. The meat was -served up by watchwords. Jacks are but an invention of the other days; -the poor boys did turn the spitts, and licked the dripping-pan, and grew -to be huge lusty knaves. The body of the servants were in the Great -Hall, as now in the guard-chamber, privy-chamber, &c. The hearth was -commonly in the midst, as at colleges, whence the saying, 'round about -our coal-fire.' Here, in the Halls were the mummings, cob-loaf stealing, -and great number of old Christmas playes performed. In great houses were -lords of misrule during the twelve dayes after Christmas. The halls of -justices were dreadful to behold. The screens were garnished with -corslets and helmets gaping with open mouth, with coates of mail, -lances, pikes, halberts, brown-bills, battle-axes, bucklers, and the -modern callivers, petronells, and (in King Charles's time) muskets and -pistolls." - -[36] _Saturday Review_, 1859. - -[37] Abridged from a paper in _Once a Week_, 1860. - -[38] _Saturday Review_, 1859. - -[39] In times anterior to this date, the greater part of the City was -built of wood. The houses being roofed with straw, reeds, &c. frequent -fires took place, owing to this mode of building: thus, in the first -year of the reign of Stephen, a conflagration spread from London Bridge -to the church of St. Clement Danes, in the Strand. Thenceforth, the -houses were built of stone, covered and protected by thick tiles against -the fury of fire, whenever it arose. The change from wood to stone dates -from this period. - -[40] _Something for Everybody, and a Garland for the Year._ By the -Author of the present volume. Pp. 170-176, Second Edition. - - - - -THE ENGLISHMAN'S FIRESIDE. - - -Healthful Warmth and Ventilation are to this day problems to be worked -out; and few practical subjects have so extensively enlisted ingenious -minds in their service. Yet, much remains to be done. - -Dr. Arnott, the worthy successor of Count Rumford[41] in _heat -philosophy_, when seeking to shame us out of using ill-contrived -fireplaces and scientific bunglings, tells us that the savages of North -America place fire in the middle of the floor of their huts, and sit -around in the smoke, for which there is escape only in the one opening -in the hut, which serves as chimney, window, and door. Some of the -peasantry in remote parts of Ireland and Scotland still place their -fires in the middle of their floors, and, for the escape of the smoke, -leave only a small opening in the roof, often not directly over the -fire. In Italy and Spain, almost the only fires seen in sitting-rooms -are large dishes of live charcoal, or braziers, placed in the middle, -with the inmates sitting around, and having to breathe the noxious -carbonic-acid gas which ascends from the fire, and mixes with the air in -the room; there being no chimney, the ventilation of the room is -imperfectly accomplished by the windows and doors. The difference -between the burned air from a charcoal fire, and smoke from a fire of -coal or wood, is that in the latter there are added to the chief -ingredient, carbonic acid, which is little perceived, others which -disagreeably affect the eyes and nose, and so force attention. - -With these facts before us, it is not difficult to imagine how our -ancestors tolerated the nuisance of wood smoke filling their rooms till -it found its way through the roof lantern, as was generally the case -until the general introduction of chimneys late in the reign of -Elizabeth. It should, however, be mentioned that the temperature of -their apartments was kept considerably below that of our sitting-rooms -in the present day. Before the fourteenth century, except for culinary -and smithery purposes, robust Englishmen appear to have cared little -about heating their dwellings, and to have dispensed with it altogether -during the warmer months of the year. Even so late as the reign of Henry -VIII. it seems that no fire was allowed in the University of Oxford: -after supping at eight o'clock, the students went to their books till -nine in winter, and then took a run for half an hour to warm themselves -previously to going to bed. Therefore, all ideas of the firesides of our -forefathers should be confined to four centuries. - -The usage of making the fire in the middle of the hall, a lover of olden -architecture says, "was not without its advantages: not only was a -greater amount of heat obtained, but the warmth became more generally -diffused, which, when we consider the size of the hall, was a matter of -some importance. The huge logs were piled upon the andirons or thrown -upon the hearth, and the use of wood and charcoal had few of those -inconveniences which would have resulted from coal;" an opinion -strangely at variance with that of the heat philosopher already quoted. - -We are now approaching the age of Chimneys. A practical writer has thus -pictured the domestic contrivance, _ad interim_: "The hearth recess was -generally wide, high, deep, and had a large flue. The hearth, usually -raised a few inches above the floor, had sometimes a halpas or daïs made -before it, as in the King's and Queen's chambers in the Tower. Before -the hearth recess, or on the halpas, when there was one, a piece of -green cloth or tapestry was spread, as a substitute for the rushes that -covered the lower part of the floor. On this were placed a very -high-backed chair or two, and foot-stools, that sometimes had cushions; -and above all high-backed forms, and screens, both most admirable -inventions for neutralizing draughts of cold air in these dank and -chilling apartments. Andirons, fire-forks, fire-pans, and tongs were the -implements to supply and arrange the fuel. Hearth recesses with flues -were common in the principal chambers and houses of persons of -condition; and were superseding what Aubrey calls flues, like loover -holes, in the habitations of all classes. The adage that 'one good fire -heats the whole house,' was found true only in the humbler dwellings; -for in palace and mansion, though great fires blazed in the -presence-chamber, or hall, or parlour, the domestics were literally -famishing with cold. This discomfort did not, however, proceed from -selfish or stingy housekeeping, but rather from an affectation of -hardihood, particularly among the lower classes, when effeminacy was -reckoned a reproach. Besides, few could know what comfort really was; -but those who did, valued it highly. Sanders relates that Henry VIII. -gave the revenues of a convent, which he had confiscated, to a person -who placed a chair for him commodiously before the fire and out of all -draughts." - -On the introduction of chimneys, in the year 1200, only one chimney was -allowed in a manor-house, and one in the great hall of a castle or -lord's house: other houses had only the rere-dosse, a sort of raised -hearth, where the inmates cooked their food. Harrison, in a passage -prefixed to _Holinshed's Chronicle_, writes in the reign of Elizabeth: -"There are old men dwelling in the village where I remayne, who have -noted three things to be marvellously altered in England, within their -sound remembrance. One is the multitude of chimneys lately erected; -whereas, in their younger days, there was not about two or three, if so -many, in most uplandish towns of the realm (the religious houses and -manor places of the lords always excepted, and peradventure some great -personage's); but each made his fire against a reré-dosse in the hall, -where he dined and dressed his meat." - -Numerous instances, however, remain of fireplaces and chimneys of the -fourteenth century, even in the hall, though they were more usual in the -smaller apartments. In the hall at Meare, in Somersetshire, the -fireplace had a hood of stone, perfect, finely corbelled out; and by the -side of the fireplace is a bracket for a light, ornamented with foliage. - -It is curious to find chimneys constructed of so combustible a material -as wood. In the _Liber Albus_ of the City of London, 1419, it is ordered -by Wardmote "that no chimney be henceforth made, except of stone, tiles, -or plaster, and _not of timber_, under pain of being pulled down." - -In the metropolis, we possess a hall of the fifteenth century, which has -a fireplace, the existence of which, in a hall of this age, is singular, -if not unique. In the north wall of the celebrated hall of Crosby Place, -Bishopsgate Street, is a fireplace with a low pointed arch. The builder -must have possessed a more refined taste than his contemporaries, and -feeling the inconvenience attending a fire of the old description (in -the middle of the hall) adopted the plan of confining it to the recessed -fireplace and the chimney.[42] Here we may mention the "smoke-loft," -which seems to mean the wide space in the old-fashioned chimney. - -It is curious to find that a tax was once paid upon a fire in England. -Such was "the smoke farthings" levied by the clergy upon every person -who kept a fire. The "hearth money" was a similar tax, but was paid to -the king: it was first levied in 1653, and its last collection was in -1690. - -In the Tapestry room of St. James's Palace is a stone Tudor arched -fireplace, sculptured with H. A. (Henry and Anne), united by a true -lover's knot, surmounted by the regal crown and the lily of France, the -portcullis of Westminster, and the rose of Lancaster. - -By a record of 1511, it appears that the hall-fire was discontinued on -Easter Day, then called God's Sunday. In the _Festival_, published in -the above year, we read: "This day is called, in many places, _Goddes -Sundaye_: ye know well that it is the maner at this daye to do the fire -out of the hall, and the black wynter brondes, and all thynges that is -foule with fume and smoke, shall be done awaye, and where the fyre was -shall be gayly arayed with fayre floures, and strewed with grene rysshes -all aboute." The andirons being cleared away, the space whereon the fire -was made, on the hearth, was strewed with green rushes; whence the -custom, in our time, of decorating, in the country, stove-grates with -evergreens, and flowers, and paper ornaments, when they are not used for -fires. Rushes were, at this time, much in use. At Canterbury, one of the -oldest cities in England, at the end of Mercery-lane, is pointed out the -site of the ancient _rush-market_, in which stood a great cross, painted -and gilt. We still employ rushes made into matting, for the floors of -churches. - -Coal is first mentioned in 1245; but the smoke was supposed to corrupt -the air so much, that Edward I. forbade the use of that kind of fuel by -proclamation; and among the records in the Tower, Mr. Astle found a -document, importing that in the time of Edward I. a man had been tried, -convicted, and executed, for the crime of burning sea-coal in London. - -Coal first came into general use in the north of England.[43] Wood -billets, however, long remained the principal fuel of the south; and the -contrivance for burning such fuel with economy was the first deviation -in metal from the rude simplicity of the rere-dosse towards the close -fire-grate. This consisted of useful iron trestles, called hand-irons, -or andirons, formerly common in England, and yet occasionally to be met -with in old mansions and farm-houses, under the appellation of _dogs_. -Originally, these articles were not only found in the houses of persons -of good condition, but in the bedchamber of the king himself. Strutt, -writing in 1775, says: "These awnd-irons are used at this day, and are -called cob-irons: they stand on the hearth, where they burn wood, to lay -it upon; their fronts are usually carved, with a round knob at the top; -some of them are kept polished and bright; anciently many of them were -embellished with a variety of ornaments." In another place, giving an -inventory of the bedchamber of Henry VIII. in the palace of Hampton -Court, including awnd-irons, with fire-fork, tongs, and fire-pan, Strutt -adds, "of the awnd-irons, or as they are called by the moderns, -cob-irons, myself have seen a pair which in former times belonged to -some noble family. They were of copper, highly gilt, with beautiful -flowers, enamelled with various colours disposed with great art and -elegance." At Hever Castle in Kent,--the family seat of the Boleyns, as -well as the property of Anne of Cleves, and which Henry VIII. with -matchless cupidity claimed in right of a wife from whom, previously to -her being beheaded, he had been divorced,--is a pair of elegant -andirons, bearing the royal initials H. A. and surmounted with a royal -crown. And, in an inventory of Henry's furniture in the Tower of London, -we find mentioned "two round pairs of irons, upon which to make fire in, -and for conveying fire from one apartment to another." - -Shakspeare thus minutely describes a pair of andirons belonging to a -lady's chamber:-- - - "Two winking Cupids - Of silver, each on one foot standing, - Depending on their brands nicely."--_Cymbeline._ - -A middle sort of irons, called creepers, was smaller, and usually placed -within the dogs, to keep the ends of the wood and brands from the -hearth, that the fire might burn more freely. A pair of these irons is -thus described in one of the early volumes of the _Gentleman's -Magazine_: "There being in a large house a variety of rooms of various -sizes, the sizes and forms of the andirons may reasonably have been -supposed to have been various too. In the kitchen, where large fires are -made, and large pieces of wood are laid on, the andirons, in -consequence, are proportionately large and strong, and usually plain, or -with very little ornament. In the great hall, where the tenants and -neighbours made entertainment, and at Christmas cheerfully regaled with -good plum-porridge, mince-pies, and stout October, the andirons were -commonly larger and stronger, able to sustain the weight of the roaring -Christmas fire; but these were more ornamented, and, like knights with -their esquires, attended by a pair of younger brothers far superior to, -and therefore, not to be degraded by, the humble style of creepers; -indeed, they were often seen to carry their heads at least half as high -as their proud elders. A pair of such I have in my hall: they are of -cast-iron, at least two and a half feet high, with round faces, and much -ornamented at the bottom." - -At Cotehole House, in Cornwall, may be seen a pair of richly ornamented -brass dogs, upwards of four feet high; and a few years since we remember -to have seen, in Windsor Castle, a pair of andirons faced with richly -wrought silver. Yet these articles are eclipsed by some costly items in -a list of wedding presents in the reign of James I. wherein is described -"an invention," namely, "fire-shovel, tongs, and irons, creepers, and -all furniture of a chimney, of silver, and a cradle of silver to burn -sea-coal." This expensiveness of material, in all probability, was not -matched by the manufacture, a disproportion which reminds us of the -_silver furniture_ in some districts of South America, where the earth -yields tons of that metal. Thus the proprietor of a productive silver -mine in Peru is known to have ejected from his house all articles of -glass or crockery ware, and replaced them by others made of silver. -Here, likewise, might be seen pier-tables, picture-frames, mirrors, pots -and pans, and even a watering-trough for mules--all of solid silver! - -To return to the invention of grates. As the consumption of coal -increased, the transition from andirons to fire-grates composed of -connected bars, was obvious and easy. The andirons formed the -end-standards, which supported the grate itself, a sort of raised -cradle. Besides these supports, the back-plate, cast from a model of -carved-work (often with the arms of the family), was added; and -generally under the lowest bar was a filigree ornament of bright metal, -which, under the designation of a fret, still retains its place in -modern stoves. Movable fireplaces of the above description may be met -with about two hundred years old; for at this period, as the quotation -of the time of James I. proves, implements for the fireplace were in -use. A magnificent fireplace of the above description has been -manufactured for St. George's Hall, in Windsor Castle, so as to -harmonize with the architectural character of that noble apartment. - -Convenience soon suggested the fixing of fireplaces, which led to their -being made with side-piers, or hobs, so as to fill the whole space -within the chimney-jambs; till the snug cosy chimney-corner is only to -be met with in farm-houses, where _dogs_ are used to this day. - -It would be tedious to follow the improvements in fireplaces from the -first introduction of stoves, about the year 1780, to the present time: -from straight unornamental bars and sides, to elegant curves, pedestal -hobs, and fronts embellished with designs of great classic beauty. -Indeed, in no branch of manufacture are the advantages of our enlarged -acquaintance with the fine arts more evident than in the taste of -ornaments displayed in the stove-grates of the present day. The tasteful -display at the Great Exhibition of 1851 will doubtless be remembered by -the reader. "Grates," says the Supplementary Report of the Juries on -Design, "rank among the principal works in hardware to which ornamental -design is applied, at least on the English side; and there by far the -best specimens, both as to design and workmanship, are to be found: this -was to be expected from the general necessity for warmth in our cold and -variable climate; an Englishman's love for his fireside having passed -into a proverb." - -By fire-irons are understood a shovel, a poker, and pair of tongs. These -implements were not all found on the ancient hearth; nor were they -necessary when wood alone was burnt. In the time of Henry VIII. the only -accompaniment of the andirons was the fire-fork with two prongs, a -specimen of which is preserved in Windsor Castle; still, in the -apartments for the upper classes, the irons for trimming the fire were -more complete. The use of coal and of close fireplaces led to the -adoption of the poker; and about the same period were introduced -fenders, the first of which were bent pieces of sheet-iron placed before -the fire, to prevent the brands or cinders from rolling off the -hearth-stone upon the wooden floors; but fenders have been improved with -stoves, till the display of our fireplace is the chief ornamental -feature of our rooms. - -With these changes, however, the chimney-corner has disappeared, and is -but remembered in poetry, or the pages of romance. - -A great deal has been written of late years in disparagement of the open -coal fire and the chimney, in comparison with the stove and flue; but -Professor Faraday has shown the chimney to possess very important -functions in sanitary economy. Thus, a parlour fire will consume in -twelve hours forty pounds of coal, the combustion rendering 42,000 -gallons of air unfit to support life. Not only is that large amount of -deleterious product carried away, and rendered innoxious by the chimney, -but five times that quantity of air is also carried up by the draught, -and ventilation is thus effectually maintained. - -Since the ascent of smoke up a chimney depends on the comparative -lightness of the column of air within to that of an equal column -without, the longer the chimney the stronger will be the draught, if the -fire be sufficiently great to heat the air; but if the chimney be so -long that the air is cooled as it approaches the top, the draught is -diminished. - -It must not be supposed that the modes we have described were the only -means of heating houses with which our ancestors were familiar. The -Romans in England evidently employed flue-tiles for the artificial -heating of houses or baths. In 1849, a course of flue-tiles was found -upon a farm near Reigate, in Surrey; they were shown to have been taken -from some Roman site in the neighbourhood, and had been used on the farm -to form a drain; the apertures for heated air being covered by pieces of -Roman wall-tile, or stone, to prevent the soil falling into the flues. -One of these flue-tiles is ornamented with patterns, not scored, but -impressed by the repetition of stamps, to produce an elaborate design. -Several varieties of flue-tiles have been found: one from a Roman bath -in Thames Street; and a remarkable double flue-tile, found in the City -of London, and preserved in Mr. Roach Smith's collection in the British -Museum. These tiles were arranged one upon the other, and carried up the -inner sides of the walls of the rooms, to which artificial heat was to -be given from the hypocaust, or subterranean stove, by which means it -was easy to regulate the temperature. Pliny describes a bedchamber in -his villa warmed by the hypocaust and the tiles, with narrow openings. -Sometimes the floor and sides were entirely coated with these tiles. - -The Curfew, or _Couvre-feu_, should be mentioned as an appurtenance to -the fireplaces in the Anglo-Norman times. The _couvre-feu_ formerly in -the collection of the Rev. Mr. Gostling, and so often engraved, passed -into the possession of Horace Walpole, and was sold at Strawberry Hill, -in 1842, to Mr. William Knight. It is of copper, riveted together, and -in general form resembles the "Dutch-oven" of the present day. In the -same lot was a warming-pan of the time of Charles II. In February 1842, -Mr. Syer Cuming purchased of a curiosity-dealer in Chancery-lane a -_couvre-feu_ closely resembling Mr. Gostling's; and Mr. Cuming -considers both specimens to be of the same age--of the close of the -fifteenth or early part of the sixteenth century; whereas Mr. Gostling's -specimen was stated to be of the Norman period. A third example of the -_couvre-feu_ exists in the Canterbury Museum; and early in 1866, a -_couvre-feu_--reputed date, 1068--was sold by Messrs. Foster, in Pall -Mall. - -The _Couvre-feu_ is stated to have been used for extinguishing a fire, -by raking the wood and embers to the back of the hearth, and then -placing the open part of the _couvre-feu_ close against the back of the -chimney. The notion that all fires should be covered up at a certain -hour, was a badge of servitude imposed by William the Conqueror, is a -popular error; since there is evidence of the same custom prevailing in -France, Spain, Italy, Scotland, and many other countries of Europe, at -this period: it was intended as a precaution against fires, which were -very frequent and destructive, when so many houses were built of wood. -Besides, the curfew was used in England in the time of Alfred, who -ordained that all the inhabitants of Oxford should, at the ringing of -the curfew-bell at Carfax, cover up their fires and go to bed. It is, -therefore, concluded that the Conqueror revived or continued the custom -which he had previously established in Normandy: in fact, it was, in -both countries, a beneficial law of police.[44] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[41] Count Rumford was one of the founders of the Royal Institution, the -workshop of the Royal Society. In the basement of the house of the -Institution in Albemarle Street, was fitted up an experimental kitchen, -with "Rumford stoves," roasters, and boilers. One of his earliest stoves -is in the Museum of the Royal Society, at Burlington House. Count -Rumford lived some time at 45, Brompton Row, where the double windows in -the house-front long denoted the scientific aims of the ingenious -tenant. - -[42] See Hall-fires, described at p. 122. - -[43] It was not till the reign of William III. that coal became our -staple fuel. - -[44] See _Popular Errors Explained_. New edit. p. 42. 1858. The old -custom of ringing the curfew-bell is retained in several villages and -towns. (See Mr. Syer Cuming's paper in the _Journal of the British -Archæological Association_, vol. iv. p. 153. Also, _Notes and Queries_, -vols. ii. iii. iv. vi. vii. viii.) In proof that the custom cannot -justly be considered an evidence of an unworthy state of subjection, is -the fact that the obligation to extinguish fires and lights at a certain -hour was imposed upon his subjects by David I. King of Scotland, in his -_Leges Burgarum_; and in this case no one ever imagined that it conveyed -any sign of infamy or servitude. Curfew-ringing is common in the south -of Scotland, at Kelso, and other towns in Roxburghshire, which appears -to prove that it cannot have originated with the Norman Conqueror. - - - - -PRIVATE LIFE OF A QUEEN OF ENGLAND. - - -One of the most interesting records of the domestic life of our ancestors -that we remember to have read, is a series of "Notices of the Last Days -of Isabella, Queen of Edward II. drawn from an Account of the Expenses -of her Household," and communicated to the Society of Antiquaries, by -Mr. E. A. Bond, of the British Museum. Nothing can exceed the minuteness -of this memorial of the domestic manners of the middle of the fourteenth -century--_the private life of five hundred years since_. No court -circular ever chronicled the movements of royalty more circumstantially -than does this household account; nor can any roll among our records -detail more closely the personal expenses of the sovereign than do the -notices before us. - -It will be recollected by the attentive reader of our history, that, -after the deposition and murder of King Edward II., we hear little of -the history of the chief mover of these fearful events.[45] The -ambitious Mortimer expiates his crimes on the scaffold. Isabella, the -instigator of sedition against her king, the betrayer of her husband, -survives her accomplice; but, from the moment that her career of guilt -is arrested, she is no more spoken of. Having mentioned the execution of -Mortimer, Froissart tells us that the King soon after, by the advice of -his council, ordered his mother to be confined in a goodly castle, and -gave her plenty of ladies to wait and attend on her, as well as knights -and esquires of honour. He made her a handsome allowance to keep and -maintain the state she had been used to; but forbade that she should -ever go out, or drive herself abroad, except at certain times, when any -shows were exhibited in the court of the castle. The Queen thus passed -her time there meekly, and the King, her son, visited her twice or -thrice a year. Castle Rising was the place of her confinement. This -castle, which in part gives name to the town, is believed to have been -originally built by Alfred the Great: at any rate, William de Albini, to -whose ancestors the Conqueror gave several lordships in the county, -built a castle here before 1176; and this edifice appears to inclose a -fragment of a more ancient building. There are, to this day, -considerable remains: the keep is still standing, though much -dilapidated; the walls are three yards thick; and the division and -arrangement of the apartments are very obvious. It stands in a ballium -or court, surrounded by a moat and an embankment. The general style of -the building is Norman, and bears a resemblance to that of Norwich -Castle. Here the Queen took up her abode in 1330; after the first two -years the strictness of her seclusion was relaxed. She died at Hertford, -August 22, 1358, and was buried in the church of the Grey Friars, within -Newgate, now the site of Christ's Hospital. - -The Account of the Queen's Expenses is one of the Cottonian MSS. in the -British Museum, and embraces, in distinct divisions, the Queen's general -daily expenses; sums given in alms; miscellaneous necessary expenses; -disbursements for dress; purchases of plate and jewellery; gifts; -payments to messengers; and imprests for various services. In the margin -of the general daily expenses are entered the names of the visitors -during the day, together with the movements of the household from place -to place. From these notices, in addition to the light they throw upon -the domestic life of the period, we gain some insight into the degree of -personal freedom enjoyed by the Queen and her connexions; the -consideration she obtained at the Court of the great King Edward III. -her son; and even into her personal disposition and occupations. These -particulars relate to her last days. - -It appears that at the beginning of October 1357, the Queen was residing -at her castle of Hertford, having not very long before been at Rising. -The first visitor mentioned, and who sups with her, was Joan, her niece, -who visited the Queen constantly, and nursed her in her last illness. -Hertford Castle was built by Edward the Elder, about 905 or 909. In the -civil war of the reign of John, this fortress was taken, after a brave -defence, by the Dauphin Louis, and the revolted barons: it subsequently -came to the crown, and was granted in succession to John of Gaunt, and -to the Queens of Henry IV., Henry V., and Henry VI. Jean II. King of -France, and David, King of Scotland, spent part of their captivity here -during the reign of Edward III. Queen Elizabeth occasionally resided and -held her court in the castle. - -About the middle of October, Queen Isabella set out from Hertford on a -pilgrimage to Canterbury. She rested at Tottenham, London, Eltham, -Dartford, and Rochester; in going or returning visited Leeds Castle, and -was again at Hertford in the beginning of November. She gave alms to the -nuns--Minoresses without Aldgate; to the rector of St. Edmund's in -London, in whose parish her hostel was situated--it was in Lombard -Street; and to the prisoners in Newgate. On the 26th of October, she -entertained the King and Prince of Wales, in her own house in Lombard -Street; and we have recorded a gift of thirteen shillings and fourpence -to four minstrels who played in their presence. - -On the 16th of November, after her return to Hertford Castle, she was -visited by the renowned Gascon warrior, the Captal de Buche, cousin of -the Comte de Foix. He had recently come over to England with the Prince -of Wales, having taken part, on the English side, in the great battle of -Poitiers: and subsequent entries record the visits of several noble -captives taken in that battle. - -On the following day is recorded a visit, at dinner, of the "Comes de la -March," considered to be Roger Mortimer, Earl of March, the grandson of -her favourite. He was high in Edward the Third's confidence, and appears -to have been in England at the present time: under the head of -donations is notice of a sum paid to four minstrels of the Earl of -March. His visit was, as we find, subsequently twice repeated, and then -in company with the King (by whom, as Froissart tells us, "he was much -loved") and the Prince of Wales. "And thus," says Mr. Bond, "we have an -indication that time has scarcely weakened Isabella's fidelity to a -criminal attachment; and that, although the actual object of it had been -torn from her, she still cherished his memory, and sought her friends -among those most nearly allied to him." - -On the 28th of November, and two following days, the Queen entertained -the Earl of Tancarville, one of the captives at Poitiers; and with him -the Earl of Salisbury, who was connected with the Mortimers, being -brother-in-law to the existing Earl of March, although his father had -personally acted a principal part in arresting Isabella's paramour in -Nottingham Castle. On the 15th of December, the Queen was visited by the -Countess of Pembroke, one of Isabella's closest friends. And, again, -what can we infer but a clinging on her part to the memory of Mortimer, -when we find that this lady was his daughter? and thus visits were -received by Isabella from a daughter, the grandson, and grandson's -brother-in-law, of her favourite, within the space of one month. - -On the 10th of February, messengers arrive from the King of Navarre, to -announce, as it appears elsewhere, his escape from captivity; an -indication that Isabella was still busy in the stirring events in her -native country. On the 20th of March, the King comes to supper. On each -day of the first half of the month of May, during the Queen's stay in -London, the entries show her guests at dinner, and her visitors after -dinner and at supper, as formally as a court circular of our own time. - -Of the several entries we can only select a few of the more interesting. -Here we may remark that on three occasions in March, the guests came to -_supper_ with the Queen: these are Lionel, Earl of Ulster; the King; and -the Earl of Richmond. The supper of that period was given, probably, at -five o'clock, three hours earlier than the royal dinner of our time.[46] - -In April, we find reference to the Queen's journey to Windsor; upon -which Mr. Bond remarks: "There is no room for doubt, therefore (though -the chroniclers make no mention of the circumstance), that the object of -Isabella's journey was to be present at the festivities held at Windsor -by Edward III. in celebration of St. George's Day, the 23d of -April--festivities set forth with unwonted magnificence, in honour of -the many crowned heads and noble foreigners then in England, and to -which strangers from all countries were offered safe letters of -conduct." From an entry in May, we find a donation of the considerable -sum of six pounds thirteen shillings (equal in value to about ninety -pounds of the present currency) to a messenger from Windsor, certifying -her of the conclusion of terms of a peace between Edward III. and his -captive, John of France; and the same sum is given by Isabella, the same -day, to a courier bearing a letter from Queen Philippa, conveying the -same intelligence. - -On May 14, Isabella left London, and rested at Tottenham, on her way to -Hertford; and a payment is recorded of a gift of six shillings and -eightpence to the nuns of Cheshunt, who met the Queen at the cross in -the high road, in front of their house. - -On the 4th of June, Isabella set out on a pilgrimage to Canterbury, and -a visit to Leeds Castle. At Canterbury, on the 10th and 11th, she -entertained the Abbot of St. Augustine's; and under Alms are recorded -the Queen's oblations at the tomb of St. Thomas: the crown of his head -(the part having the tonsure, cut off by his assassins), and point of -the sword (with which he had been slain); and her payment to minstrels -playing "in volta;" as also her oblations in the church of St. -Augustine, and her donations to various hospitals and religious houses -in Canterbury. - -Respecting Isabella's death, she is stated by chroniclers to have sunk, -in the course of a single day, under the effect of a too powerful -medicine, administered at her own desire. From several entries, however, -in this account, she appears to have been in a state requiring medical -treatment for some time previous to her decease. She expired on August -22; but as early as February 15, a payment had been made to a messenger -going on three several occasions to London for divers medicines for the -Queen, and for the hire of a horse for Master Lawrence, the physician; -and again, for another journey by night to London. On the same day a -second payment was made to the same messenger for two other journeys by -night to London, and two to St. Albans, to procure medicines for the -Queen. On the 1st of August, payment was made to Nicholas Thomasyer, -apothecary, of London, for divers spices and ointment supplied for the -Queen's use. Among the other entries is a payment to Master Lawrence of -forty shillings, for attendance on the Queen and the Queen of Scotland, -at Hertford, for an entire month. - -It is evident that the body of the Queen remained in the chapel of the -castle until November 23, as a payment is made to fourteen poor persons -for watching the Queen's corpse there, day and night, from Saturday, the -25th of August, to the above date, each of them receiving twopence -daily, besides his food. While the body lay at Hertford, a solemn mass -was performed in the chapel, when the daily expenditure rose from the -average of six pounds to fifteen and twenty-five pounds. The Queen's -funeral took place on the 27th: she was interred in the choir of the -church of the Grey Friars, the Archbishop of Canterbury officiating, and -the King himself being present at the ceremony. Just twenty-eight years -before, on nearly the same day, the body of her paramour Mortimer was -consigned to its grave in the same building. - -We now reach the Alms, which amount to the considerable sum of 298_l_., -equivalent to about 3,000_l_. of present money. They consist of chapel -offerings; donations to religious houses; to clergymen preaching in the -Queen's presence; to special applicants for charity; and to paupers. The -most interesting entry, perhaps, is that of a donation of forty -shillings to the abbess and minoresses without Aldgate, in London, to -purchase for themselves two pittances on the anniversaries of Edward, -late King of England, and Sir John, of Eltham (the Queen's son), given -on the 20th of November. And this is the sole instance of any mention in -the Account of the unhappy Edward II. - -Among these items is a payment to the nuns of Cheshunt for meeting the -Queen in the high road in front of their house: and this is repeated on -every occasion of the Queen's passing the priory in going to or from -Hertford. There is more than one entry of alms given to poor scholars of -Oxford, who had come to ask it of the Queen. A distribution is made -amongst a hundred or fifty poor persons on the principal festivals of -the year, amongst which that of Queen Katharine is included. Doles also -are made among paupers daily and weekly throughout the year, amounting -in one year and a month to 102_l_. On the 12th of September, after the -Queen's death, a payment of twenty shillings is made to William Ladde, -of Shene (Richmond), on account of the burning of his house by an -accident, while the Queen was staying at Shene. - -Under the head of "Necessaries," we find a payment of fifty shillings to -carpenters, plasterers, and tilers, for works in the Queen's chamber, -for making a staircase from the chamber to the chapel, &c. Afterwards we -find half-yearly payments of twenty-five shillings and twopence to the -Prioress of St. Helen's, in London, as rent for the Queen's house in -Lombard Street; a purchase of two small "catastæ," or cages, for birds, -in the Queen's chamber; and of hemp-seed for the same birds. From an -entry under Gifts, it appears that two small birds were given to -Isabella by the King, on the 26th of November. Next are payments for -binding the black carpet in the Queen's chamber; for repairs of the -castle; lining the Queen's chariot with coloured cloth; repairs of the -Queen's bath, and gathering of herbs for it. Also, payments to William -Taterford, for six skins of vellum, for writing the Queen's books, and -for writing a book of divers matters for the Queen, fourteen shillings, -including cost of parchment; to Richard Painter, for azure for -illuminating the Queen's books; the repayment of sum of 200_l_. borrowed -of Richard Earl of Arundel; the purchase of an embroidered saddle, with -gold fittings, and a black palfrey, given to the Queen of Scotland; a -payment to Louis de Posan, merchant, of the Society of Mallebaill, in -London, for two mules bought by him at Avignon for the Queen, 28_l_. -13_s_.: the mules arrived after the Queen's death, and they were given -over to the King. - -The division of the account relating to her jewels is chiefly -interesting as affording an insight into the personal character of -Isabella, and showing that the serious events of her life and her -increasing years had not overcome her natural passion for personal -display. The total amount expended on jewels was no less than 1,399_l_., -equivalent to about 16,000_l_. of our present currency; and, says Mr. -Bond, "after ample allowance for the acknowledged general habit of -indulgence in personal ornaments belonging to the period, we cannot but -consider Isabella's outlay on her trinkets as exorbitant, and as -betraying a more than common weakness for those vain luxuries." The more -costly of them were purchased of Italian merchants. Her principal -English jewellers appear to have been John de Louthe and William de -Berking, goldsmiths, of London. In a general entry of 421_l_. paid for -divers articles of jewellery to Pardo Pardi, and Bernardo Donati, -Italian merchants, are items of a chaplet of gold, set with "bulays" -(rubies), sapphires, emeralds, diamonds, and pearls, price 105_l_.; -divers pearls, 87_l_.; a crown of gold, set with sapphires, rubies of -Alexandria, and pearls, price 80_l_. The payment was not made till the -8th of August; but there can be little doubt that these royal ornaments -were ordered for the occasion of Isabella's visit to Windsor, at the -celebration of St. George's Day. Among other entries, is a payment of -32_l_. for several articles: namely, for a girdle of silk, studded with -silver, 20_s_.; three hundred doublets (rubies), at twentypence the -hundred; 1,800 pearls, at twopence each; and a circlet of gold, of the -price of 16_l_. bought for the marriage of Katharine Brouart; and -another of a pair of tablets of gold, enamelled with divers histories, -of the price of 9_l_. - -The division of Dona, besides entries of simple presents and gratuities, -contains notes of gifts to messengers, from acquaintances; and others, -giving us further insight into the connexions maintained by the Queen. -Notices of messengers bringing letters from the Countesses of Warren and -Pembroke, are very frequent. Under the head of Prestita, moreover, is an -entry of a sum of 230_l_. given to Sir Thomas de la March, in money, -paid to him by the hands of Henry Pikard, citizen of London (doubtless -the magnificent Lord Mayor of that name, who so royally entertained King -John of France, the King of Cyprus, and the Prince of Wales, at this -period), as a loan from Queen Isabella, on the obligatory letter of the -same Sir Thomas: he is known as the victor in a duel, fought at Windsor, -in presence of Edward III., with Sir John Viscomte, in 1350. To the -origin of Isabella's interest in him we find no clue. Several payments -to couriers refer to the liberation of Charles, King of Navarre, and are -important, as proving that the Queen was not indifferent to the events -passing in her native country, but that she was connected with one who -was playing a conspicuous part in its internal history--Charles of -Navarre, perhaps the most unprincipled sovereign of his age, and known -in his country's annals under the designation of "the Wicked." - -Among the remaining notices of messengers and letters, we have mention -of the King's butler coming to the Queen at Hertford, with letters of -the King, and a present of three pipes of wine; a messenger from the -King, with three casks of Gascon wine; another messenger from the King, -with a present of small birds; John of Paris, coming from the King of -France to the Queen at Hertford, and returning with two volumes of -Lancelot and the Sang Réal, sent to the same King by Isabella; a -messenger bringing a boar's head and breast from the Duke of Lancaster, -Henry Plantagenet; William Orloger, Monk of St. Albans, bringing to the -Queen several quadrants of copper; a messenger bringing a present of a -falcon from the King; a present of a wild boar from the King, and of a -cask of Gascon wine; a messenger, bringing a present of twenty-four -bream from the Countess of Clare; and payments to messengers bringing -new year's gifts from the King, Queen Philippa, the Countess of -Pembroke, and Lady Wake. - -Frequent payments to minstrels playing in the Queen's presence occur, -sufficient to show that Isabella greatly delighted in this -entertainment; and these are generally minstrels of the King, the -Prince, or of noblemen, such as the Earl of March, the Earl of -Salisbury, and others. And we find a curious entry of a payment of -thirteen shillings and fourpence to Walter Hert, one of the Queen's -"vigiles" (viol-players), going to London, and staying there, in order -to learn minstrelsy at Lent time; and again, of a further sum to the -same on his return from London, "de scola menstralcie." - -Of special presents by the Queen, we have mention of new year's gifts to -the ladies of her chamber, eight in number, of one hundred shillings to -each, and twenty shillings each to thirty-three clerks and squires; a -girdle to Edward de Ketilbergh, the Queen's ward; a donation of forty -shillings to Master Lawrence, the surgeon, for attendance on the Queen; -a present of fur to the Countess of Warren; a small gift to Isabella -Spicer, her god-daughter; and a present of sixty-six pounds to Isabella -de St. Pol, lady of the Queen's bedchamber, on occasion of her marriage -with Edward Brouart. Large rewards, amounting together to 540_l_. were -given after Isabella's death, by the King's order, to her several -servants, for their good service to the Queen in her lifetime. - -The division of Messengers contains payments for the carriage of letters -to the Queen's officers and acquaintances. Among them we find mention of -a letter to the Prior of Westminster, "for a certain falcon of the Count -of Tancarville lost, and found by the said Prior." - -We have only to add that the period of the account is from the 1st of -October to the 5th of December in the following year, the same being -continued beyond the date of the Queen's death. The totals of the -several divisions of the account are:-- - - £ _s_. _d_. - The Household Expenses amount to 4,014 2 11-1/2 - Alms 298 18 7-1/2 - Necessaries 1,395 6 11 - Great wardrobe 542 10 4-1/2 - Jewels 1,399 0 4 - Gifts 1,248 5 2-1/2 - Messengers 14 12 10 - Imprests 313 4 3-1/2 - -Making a general total of more than 9,000_l_. - - NOTE.--_Murder of Edward II._--In 1837, the Rev. Joseph Hunter - communicated to the Society of Antiquaries some new circumstances - connected with the apprehension and death of Sir Thomas de - Gournay, charged as one of the murderers of King Edward II. Before - the measures taken for Gournay's apprehension, he had escaped to - the Continent, where, it was alleged, by one old chronicler, that - he was taken at Marseilles; by another, at Burgos, in Spain; that - his journey to England, in custody, was commenced, and that, by - the orders of some influential persons in England, he was beheaded - on board ship, on the voyage, lest he might implicate others, if - brought to trial in England. Mr. Hunter has, however, found in - Rymer's _Foedera_, minute record that Gournay was taken at - Burgos, and that Edward III. dispatched a commissioner to demand - him from the Spanish authorities, who, for several months, put off - giving up the prisoner; and when the order for his delivery was - obtained, Gournay had found means to escape from Burgos. The - commissioner endeavoured to discover the fugitive's retreat, but - after an absence of more than twelve months, he returned to - England without success. Subsequently, Gournay was made prisoner - at Naples, on some local charge; on hearing which Edward III. - dispatched another messenger, with a letter to the King of Sicily, - demanding the custody of the prisoner for trial in England. This - demand was complied with; and Gournay set off, in custody, on his - journey hither. He is then traced to several places on the route, - until his arrival at Bayonne, where he fell ill, died, and was - buried. Notwithstanding the long existence of the _Foedera_, - this historical blunder of his having been beheaded was not - rectified until the above date by Mr. Hunter. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[45] See Note at p. 160. - -[46] In the Office of the Board of Green Cloth, at St. James's Palace, -are preserved the following _Rules of the House_ of the Duchess of York -the mother of Richard the Third:-- - -"Upon eating dayes. At dinner by eleven of the clocke. - -"Upon fasting dayes. At dinner by twelve of the clocke. - -"At supper upon eating dayes; for the officers at four of the clocke. - -"My lady and the household at five of the clocke at supper. - -"Livery of fires and candles, from the feast of All-Hallows, unto Good -Friday--then expireth the time of fire and candle." - - - - -THE ENGLISH HOUSEWIFE. - - -Nearly two centuries and a half ago, Gervase Markham wrote a very useful -and entertaining tract, entitled "The English Housewife, containing the -inward and outward virtues which ought to be in a compleate woman. As -her skill in physick, surgery, cookery, extraction of oyles, banquetting -stuffe, ordering of great feasts, preserving of all sorts of wines, -conceited secrets, distillations, perfumes, ordering of wooll, hempe, -flax, making cloth, and dyeing; the knowledge of dayries, office of -malting of oates, their excellent uses in a family, of brewing, baking, -and all other things belonging to a household." - -By aid of a contemporary[47] we are enabled to present a curious -portrait of the Housewife from this authentic source. It should first be -mentioned that the profusion of provisions in the banquets of the time -bordered upon the barbarous magnificence, compared to the elegant modes -of preparing dishes in the present day, and called for dining-halls and -kitchens of sufficient dimensions to avoid the terrible confusion that -must otherwise have occurred. Hence, the superintendence of the -household was a labour of great extent and responsibility. It was held -that a woman had no right to enter the state of matrimony unless -possessed of a good knowledge of Cookery: otherwise she could perform -but half her vow: she might love and obey, but she could not cherish. To -be perfect in this art she must know in which quarter of the moon to -plant and gather all kinds of salads and herbs throughout the year; she -must also be cleanly, have "a quick eye, a curious nose, a perfect -taste, and a ready eare;" and be neither butter-fingered, sweet-toothed, -nor faint-hearted: for if she were the first of these, she would let -everything fall; if the second, she would consume that which she should -increase; and if the third, she would lose time with too much niceness. -For an ordinary feast with which any good man might entertain his -friends, about sixteen dishes were considered a suitable supply for the -first course. This included such substantial articles as a shield of -brawn with mustard, a boiled capon, a piece of boiled beef, a chine of -beef roasted, a neat's tongue roasted, a pig roasted, baked _chewets_ -(minced chickens made into balls), a roasted goose, a roasted swan, a -turkey, a haunch of venison, a venison pasty, a kid with a pudding in -it, an olive-pie, a couple of capons, and custards. Besides these -principal dishes, the housewife added as many salads, fricassees, -_quelquechoses_, and _devised pastes_ as made thirty-two dishes, which -were considered as many as it was polite to put upon the table for the -first course. Then followed second and third courses, in which many of -the dishes were for show only, but were so tastefully made as to -contribute much to the beauty of the feast. - -The banquets given by princes or nobles were much more important -affairs. They were served in this manner:--First the grand sallet was to -be marshalled in by gentlemen and yeomen-waiters, then green sallets, -boiled sallets, and compound sallets; these were followed by all the -fricassees, such as collops, rashers, &c.; then by boiled meats and -fowls; then by the roasted beef, mutton, goose, swans, veal, pig, and -capon; next were ushered in the hot baked meats, such as fallow-deer in -pasty, chicken or calves'-foot pie, and dowset; then the cold baked -pheasants, partridges, turkey, goose, and woodcocks; lastly, carbonadoes -both simple and compound. These were all arranged upon the table in such -a manner that before each trencher stood a salad, a fricassee, a boiled -meat, a roasted meat, a baked meat, and a carbonado,--a profusion that -must have been almost overwhelming. The second course comprised the -lesser wild and land fowl, which were again followed up with the larger -kinds, as herons, shovellers, cranes, bustards, peacocks, &c.; and these -by cold baked red-deer, hare-pie, gammon of bacon pie, wild boar, -roe-pie; and scattered among these were the "conceited secrets" in the -way of confectionery and sweet pastry, which were the pride of the good -housewife's heart; besides whatever fish was available, which was to be -distributed according to the manner in which it was dressed, with the -respective courses, the fried with the fricassees, the broiled with the -carbonadoes, the dry with the roast meats, and those stewed in broths -with the boiled meats. The carbonadoes consisted of any meat scotched -on both sides and sprinkled with seasonings in various combinations, and -then either broiled over the fire or before it. Roasted geese were -stuffed with gooseberries--hence the term; and, if we were to enter into -the given details of the various modes of dressing these numerous -dishes, we could mention many as long disused. Some of the terms -employed are as startling to modern ears as the ingredients: to take one -instance, pie-dishes were called coffins. - -We are not to conclude that the above profusion was an every-day fact. -There are hints here and there that this was by no means the case. -Oatmeal is called the crown of the housewife's garland, as being the -largest item of consumption in the household; and whigge (whey) is -praised as an excellent cool drink, and as wholesome as any other with -which to slake a labouring man's thirst the whole summer long. On the -other hand, we know this whigge was looked upon in a somewhat similarly -scornful light as that in which we regard small beer, because it was -adopted to distinguish the political body opposed to the Tories. And the -constant supervision of the mistress of the house over every undertaking -would also be a surety against the practice of extravagance. Although -there were good men-maltsters in the land, there was no beer to compare -with that made by the mistress and her maids. These made both beer and -ale; cider from apples; perry from pears; mead and metheglin from honey -and herbs. The wines, too, were in her care. It is curious to note the -kind of care they experienced at her hands. Every _fatt_ (vat) of -foreign wine was dosed with several gallons of milk and eggs beaten up, -and each was flavoured with some gallons of another, in a mode that must -have much bewildered the palates of King Charles's lieges. If claret -lost its colour, she stewed some damsons or black bullaces, and poured -their syrup into the hogshead, when all came right again. If sack ran -muddy, she took some rice, flour, and camphor, and popped that mixture -into the butt; if any wine became hard, she knew how to make it mellow -with honey and eggs: the same with muskadine and malmsey. - -The indefatigable mistress of the house was as omnipresent in the -bakehouse as elsewhere, and saw to the making up the various kinds of -bread, both for the family and the hinds or servants. There were several -kinds in use; wheat bread, rye bread, rye and wheat mixed, and barley -and wheat mixed: into the servants' barley-bread she adroitly mixed two -pecks of peas and a peck of malt. She also looked in at the dairy, saw -that it was kept as clean as a prince's chamber, and gave an eye to the -profits. She could send several cheeses to table,--new milk cheese, -nettle-cheese, floaten milk cheese and eddish or after-math cheese. - -By way of relaxation to these serious duties, which, with the necessary -supervision of the dressing and spinning of wool, hemp, and flax, must -have kept the good dame pretty fully employed, she prescribed for any of -her household that were indisposed, compounded her own remedies, and -made stores of scented bags to lay among her hoarded-up linen, scented -waters for different ornamental purposes, perfumes to burn, -washing-balls, perfumed gloves, rosemary-water to preserve the -complexion (called the bath of life), violet-water, herb-water for weak -eyes, and other distillations. Plasters, ointments, lotions of all -kinds, were among her cunning secrets. These occupations serve to show -why the offices were so spacious and my lady's closet so small. -Markharn gives scores of quaint recipes no housewife could ignore who -was at all sensitive as to her reputation for skill. In these we are -reminded of the absence of really scientific knowledge in the peculiar -value set upon valueless distinctions. The milk of a red cow, for -instance, was deemed more efficacious than that of any other colour for -medicinal purposes; butter made in May without any salt in it was -esteemed a sovereign cure for wounds, strains, or aches, although that -made in any other month possessed no such virtue; and again, it was of -no use to apply certain remedies unless the moon was on the wane. This -portion of the volume is dedicated to the Right Honourable and most -Excellent Lady, Frances, Countess Dowager of Exeter. - -Before we leave this Dinner-table of other days, we should add to the -Housewife's duties the Art of Carving, which, until our time, was -performed by the mistress of the house. We gather from Lord -Wharncliffe's edition of the _Correspondence of Lady Mary Worthy -Montague_, that, in the last century, this task must have required no -small share of bodily strength, "for the lady was not only to -invite--that is, urge and tease--her company to eat more than human -throats could conveniently swallow, but to carve every dish, when -chosen, with her own hands. The greater the lady, the more indispensable -the duty,--each joint was carried up in its turn, to be operated upon by -her, and her alone; since the peers and knights on either hand were so -far from being bound to offer their assistance, that the very master of -the house, posted opposite to her, might not act as her croupier; his -department was to push the bottle after dinner. As for the crowd of -guests, the most inconsiderable among them--the curate, or subaltern, -or squire's younger brother--if suffered through her neglect to help -himself to a slice of the mutton placed before him, would have chewed it -in bitterness, and gone home an affronted man, half inclined to give a -wrong vote at the next election. There were then professed carving -masters, who taught young ladies the art scientifically; from one of -whom Lady Mary Wortley Montague said she took lessons three times a -week, that she might be perfect on her father's days; when, in order to -perform her functions without interruption, she was forced to eat her -own dinner alone an hour or two beforehand." - -FOOTNOTES: - -[47] From the _Builder_, 1864, with additions. - - - - -A HEREFORDSHIRE LADY IN THE TIME OF THE CIVIL WAR. - - -About two centuries ago, there lived in the good old city of Hereford, -one Mrs. Joyce Jefferies, of whose singular establishment, during nine -years, a minute record has been preserved. In a cathedral town, olden -features of English life may be traced more considerably than in other -towns of less antiquity and extent. Hereford is thought to be derived -from the British Hêre-fford, signifying the "old road." It has its -Mayor's Court, view of Frankpledge, and court of Pie Pondre; though it -has lost its monastic edifices; and, two centuries ago, its castle, -built by Harold, was in ruins, which, as materials, were worth no more -than 85_l_. One of the gateways of the town walls has been fitted up as -a prison. There are several hospitals or alms-houses. Its Saxon -cathedral occupies the site of a former church of wood; it is dedicated -to St. Ethelbert, whose name was given to its nine days' fair; two of -its fairs are "for diversions." In short, amidst broad streets, and red -brick houses, and other modern aspects, are many interesting traces of -old times and habits, furnished with its two crosses and a stone pulpit. -Its river, the Wye, teems with salmon[48] and grayling; the whole county -appears like one orchard; cider and perry are made everywhere; and there -is a good deposit of tobacco pipe clay. In one of its towns, on Shrove -Tuesday, a bell rings at noon as a signal for the people to begin frying -their pancakes; and among its festal records is that of a Morrice dance, -performed by ten persons--a "nest of Nestors"--whose united ages -recorded one thousand years. - -In this old city, then, lived Mrs. Jefferies, upon an income averaging -500_l_. a year, in a house in Widemarch Street--the street in which -Garrick, the actor, was born--which she built at a cost of 800_l_. but -which was ordered to be pulled down in the time of the Rebellion, under -Charles I., and the materials sold for 50_l_. This was a calamitous -loss. Besides, the old lady lived beyond her means, not by -self-indulgence in costly luxuries, but in indiscriminate gifts; and -three-fourths of the entries in her accounts consist of sums bestowed in -presents, of loans never repaid, or laid out in articles to give away. -She continued in the city till the year 1642, when, driven by stress of -war, she abandoned it, and sought refuge in the dwellings of others. -Ultimately, in 1644, she gave up housekeeping to the day of her death. - -The household establishment of Mrs. Jefferies is by no means, for a -single person, on a contracted scale. Many female servants are -mentioned; two having wages from 3_l_. to 3_l_. _4_s. per annum, with -gowns of dark stuff at Midsummer. Her coachman, receiving 40_s_. per -annum, had at Whitsuntide, 1639, a new cloth suit and cloak; and, when -he was dressed in his best, exhibited fine blue silk ribbon at the knees -of his hose. The liveries of this and another man-servant were, in 1641, -of fine Spanish cloth, made up in her own house, and cost upwards of -nine pounds. Her man of business, or steward, had a salary of 5_l_. -16_s_. A horse was kept for him, and he rode about to collect her rents -and dues, and to see to her agricultural concerns. She appeared abroad -in a coach drawn by two mares; a nag or two were in her stable; one that -a widow lady in Hereford purchased of her, she particularly designated -as "a rare ambler." - -Mrs. Jefferies had a host of country cousins; for, in those days, family -connexions were formed in more contracted circles than at present, and -the younger people intermarried nearer home; and she was evidently an -object of great interest and competition among such as sought for -sponsors to their children. She seems to have delighted in the office of -gossip, or _God-sib_, that is, _sib_, as related, by means of religion. -The number of her god-children became a serious tax upon her purse. A -considerable list of her christening gifts includes, in 1638, a silver -tankard to give her god-daughter, little Joyce Walsh, 5_l_. 5_s_. 6_d_.; -"at Heriford faier, for blue silk ribbon and taffetary lace for skarfs," -for a god-son and god-daughter, 8_s_.; and 1642, "paid Mr. Side, -gouldsmith in Heriford, for a silver bowle to give Mrs. Lawrence -daughter, which I found, too, called Joyse Lawrence, at 5_s_. 8_d_. an -oz., 48_s_. 10_d_." But to Miss Eliza Acton she was more than maternally -generous and was continually giving proofs of her fondness in all sorts -of indulgence, supplying her lavishly with costly clothes and sums of -money--money for gloves, for fairings, for cards against Christmas, and -money repeatedly to put in her purse. - -We have mentioned Mrs. Jefferies' loans. She had various sums placed out -at interest, on bond and mortgage, varying from three hundred pounds and -upwards, and one of eight hundred pounds. The securities were frequently -shifting; and the number of persons who paid to her irregularly enough, -in this way, in two years, was little short of one hundred. The -borrowers of these moneys were knights, yeomen, gentry, farmers, and -tradesmen; burgesses, and aldermen, and Mayors of Hereford, with many -others. The collection of interest upon principal so detached and widely -dispersed, must have been attended with difficulty. The principal itself -must have incurred risk of diminution; but the convenience of the Three -per Cents. was then unknown, and eight per cent. was the interest upon -these loans. This practice of lending money in small sums must formerly -have been more general than at the present day: there were then few -modes of employing money so as to realize fair interest; it was often -hoarded by "making a stocking," and various modes of concealment. - -Some of Mrs. Jefferies's entries respecting those who do not repay loans -are curious. Thus, M. Garnons, an occasional suitor for relief, she -styles "an unthrifty gentleman;" amuses herself in setting down a small -bad debt; and, after recording the name of the borrower, and the -trifling sum lent, adds, in a note by way of anticipation, "which he -will never pay." In another case, that of a legal transaction, in which -a person had agreed to surrender certain premises to her use, and she -had herself paid for drawing the instrument upon which he was to have -acted, she observes, "but he never did, and I lost my money." In all -matters she exhibits a gentle and generous mind. It was natural enough -that she should describe the Parliamentary folks who pulled down her -house as "fearful soldiers." - -Here is a slight sketch of the personal appearance of Mrs. Jefferies in -a specimen or two of her dress, among many that occur in her book of -accounts. Her style of dress was such as became a gentlewoman of her -condition. In 1638, in her palmy days, she wore a tawny camlet coat and -kirtle, which, with all the requisite appendages, trimmings, and making, -scrupulously set down, cost 10_l_. 17_s_. 5_d_. She had, at the same -time, a black silk calimanco loose gown, petticoat, and bodice, and -these, with the making, came to 18_l_. 1_s_. 8_d_. Next month, a Polonia -coat and kirtle cost in all 5_l_. 1_s_. 4_d_. Tailors were then the -dressmakers: she employed those in Hereford, Worcester, and London; and, -strange to say, sometimes the dresses were so badly made in London that -they had to be altered by a country tailor. She had, about the same -period, a head-dress of black tiffany, wore ruff-stocks, and a beaver -hat with a black silk band, and adopted worsted hose of different -colours--blue, and sometimes grass-green. Among the articles of her -toilet were false curls, and curling-irons; she had Cordovan (Spanish -leather) gloves, sweet gloves, and gold embroidered gloves. She wore -diamond and cornelian rings, used spectacles, and carried a whistle for -a little dog, suspended at her girdle by a yard of black loop lace. A -cipress (Cyprus?) cat, given to her by a Herefordshire friend, was, no -doubt, a favourite; and she kept a throstle in a twiggen cage. - -A young lady who resided with her was dressed at her expense in a manner -more suited to her earlier time of life: for instance, she had a green -silk gown, with a blue satin petticoat. At Easter, she went to a -christening arrayed in a double cobweb lawn, and had a muff. Next, she -was dressed in a woollen gown, "spun by the coock's wife, Whooper," -liver-coloured, and made up splendidly with a stomacher laced with -twisted silver cord. Another article of this young lady's wardrobe was a -gown of musk-coloured cloth; and when she rode out she was decked in a -scarlet safeguard coat and hood, laced with red, blue, and yellow lace; -but none of her dresses were made by female hands. - -Of the system of housekeeping we get a glimpse. In summer, she -frequently had her own sheep killed; and at autumn a fat heifer, and at -Christmas a beef or brawn were sometimes slaughtered, and chiefly spent -in her house. She is very observant of the festivals and ordinances of -the Church, while they continue unchanged; duly pays her tithes and -offerings, and, after the old seignorial and even princely custom, -contributes for her dependants as well as herself, in the offertory at -the communion at Easter; has her pew in the church of All Saints at -Hereford dressed, of course, with flowers at that season by the wife of -the clerk; gives to the poor-box at the minster, and occasionally sends -doles to the prisoners at Byster's Gate. Attached to ancient rules in -town and country, she patronizes the fiddlers at sheep-shearing, gives -to the wassail and the hinds at Twelfth Eve, when they light their -twelve fires, and make the fields resound with toasting their master's -health, as is done in many places to this day. Frequently in February, -she is careful to take pecuniary notice of the first of the other sex, -among those she knew, whom she met on Valentine's Day, and enters it -with all the grave simplicity imaginable: "Gave Tom Aston, for being my -valentine, 2_s_. Gave Mr. Dick Gravell, cam to be my valentine, 1_s_. I -gave Timothy Pickering of Clifton, that was my valentine at Horncastle, -4_d_." Sends Mr. Mayor a present of 10_s_. on his "law day;" and on a -certain occasion dines with him, when the waits, to whom she gives -money, are in attendance at the feast; she contributes to these at New -Year and Christmas tide, and to other musical performers at -entertainments or fairs; seems fond of music, and strange sights, and -"rarer monsters." "Gave to Sir John Giles, the fiddler, and to 2 others -on 12th day;" "to a boy that did sing like a blackbird." She was liberal -to Cherilickcome "and his Jack-an-apes," some vagrant that gained his -living by exhibiting a monkey; and at Hereford Midsummer Fair, in 1640, -"to a man that had the dawncing horse." To every one who gratified her -by a visit, or brought her a present, she was liberal; as well as to her -own servants and attendants at friends' houses. She provided medicine -and advice for those who were sick and could not afford to call in -medical aid; and she took compassion on those who were in the chamber of -death and house of mourning, as may be seen in this entry: "1648, Oct. -29. For a pound of shugger to send Mrs. Eaton when her son Fitz Wm. lay -on his death-bed, 20_d_." - -Our Herefordshire Lady's Diary takes us through nine years of the time -of the dispute between Charles I. and the Parliament: it, accordingly, -possesses much historic interest. In 1638, she paid the unpopular impost -of Ship-money, unsuccessfully opposed by Hampden, as well as another -tax, called "the King's provision;" and she finds a soldier for her -farm, and for her property in Hereford, when the Trained Bands are -called out and exercised. Now, too, old ancestral armour, or Train-band -equipments, that hung rusting in manor-houses, were taken down and -repaired. And when Prynne, Burton, and Bastwick had been agitating, Laud -impeached and imprisoned, and Lord Strafford tried and beheaded, she -took a decided interest in passing events, and sent for some of the -pamphlets and newspapers that swarmed from the press. Thus, we find paid -for a book of Strafford's Trial, and his portrait, and Laud's, and some -other portraits, 4_s_. 1_d_. And when the Parliament soldiers discharged -their muskets, at or near her dwelling, we find this item: "Gave the -sowldiers that shott off at my window, 1_s_. and beer." Then we find -her, amidst great confusion, packing up her beds, furniture, and boxes, -and taking flight in her carriage: but she was mercilessly plundered of -"much goods, two bay coach mares, and some money, and much linen and -clothes." - -How her possessions were made away with at Hereford is a sad tale. Sir -Henry Slingsby, a noted Royalist officer, mentions the havoc in terms of -much regret. The orchards, gardens, trees, and houses were all -destroyed. Before her house was pulled down, she sent her steward to -save some part of the property, and make presents of the produce of her -gardens, "gardin salitts," &c. - -As years advance, symptoms of infirmity appear. The spectacles, and -favourite "guilt spoone," and diamond ring, are missing, and found and -brought by her attendants, who always have a reward. It has been related -of Prince Eugene of Savoy, that his servants took dexterous advantage of -his foible of immoderate anger, and threw themselves in the way of his -fits of passion, that they might get a sound beating from him, and its -never-failing accompaniment, a reward to make it up. Thus, probably, the -attendants of Mrs. Jefferies, though in a different method, might make -profit of her failing memory, by hiding and reproducing the above -valuables, in order to a remuneration. Then, a fair is held at -Worcester, and the maids from Horncastle of course attend it: our lady -gives each a shilling, when Barbara, the dairy-maid, pretends that she -had lost her shilling, and her mistress gave her another. But the maids -were always in favour, and not content with making them presents at -stated times, she invented vicarious means of slipping vails into their -hands. - -Age seems to have abated nothing of her generous feeling, or of the -ardour of her domestic affections. In all those events which usually -bring joy to families, and occasion entries in our parish registers, she -heartily sympathised. A marriage, even of a servant, was an occurrence -that always appeared highly to interest her. When Miss Acton was -married, she gave her a handsome portion, arranged the settlement, and -defrayed incidental expenses; and to the entries she adds, "God bless -them both." The clerks in the solicitors' offices are not forgotten; -and, "Paid the butcher for a fatt weather to present this bride wooman -at her wedding-day, 6_s_. 6_d_." The portion was made up in instalments, -and on the last payment, she notes: "So I praise God all the 800_l_. is -paid, and we are even." Then, what joy was there at a christening, when -"ould Mrs. Barckley and myself Joyse Jeffreys were Gossips. God bless -hitt: Amen." Also, "Gave the midwyfe, good wyfe Hewes, of Vpper Jedston, -the christening day, 10_s_.;" and, "Gave nurce Nott ye same day, -10_s_." - -Thus did she continue to go on, with blessings upon her lips and her -right hand full of gifts, without intermission, till the grave closed -over all that was mortal, and amiable, and singular in the character and -conduct of one whose parallel is not easy to be found. - -As respects herself, little did she think that, in compiling these -accounts, she was about to present, after a lapse of upwards of two -centuries, a more expressive memorial of her virtues than any that her -surviving relatives could have placed upon her tomb. - -"And so it has fallen out, that nothing appears to have been hitherto -done to mark the spot where she lies; neither has the exact period of -her decease been ascertained, though the codicil of her will carries her -forward to 1650, and it has been shown that she was buried in the -chancel of the parish church of Clifton-upon-Teme, on the borders of -Worcestershire. But her memory is still revered by those to whom her -existence and character are known: and a brass tablet has been placed -near the spot where she is believed to have been interred, with an -inscription transmitting the name and virtues of Mrs. Joyce Jefferies to -future times."[49] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[48] The quantity of salmon caught in the river Wye was formerly so -great that it is said to have been usual to insert a clause in the -indentures of the Hereford apprentices that they should not be compelled -to eat salmon more than twice a week. - -[49] The historical details have been, in the main, condensed from "Some -Passages in the Life and Character of a Lady resident in Herefordshire -and Worcestershire during the Civil War of the Seventeenth Century, -collected from her Account Book in the possession of Sir Thomas Edward -Winnington, Baronet, of Stamford Court, in the county of Worcester, with -Historical Observations and Notes by John Webb, M.A., F.S.A. -_Archæologia_, vol. xxxvii. pp. 189-223. 1857." - - - - -HOUSE-FURNISHING IN THE MIDDLE AGES. - - -An accomplished illustrator of our Domestic History in describing the -mode of furnishing houses in the Middle Ages, tells us that there were -tables of Cyprus and other rare woods, carved cabinets, desks, -chess-boards, and, above all, the Bed--the most important piece of -furniture in the house, and of which Ralph Lord Basset said, "Whoever -shall bear my surname and arms, according to my will, shall have my -great bed for life." There was the "standing bed," and the "truckle -bed;" on the former lay the lord, and on the latter his attendant. In -the daytime the truckle bed, on castors, was rolled under the standing -bed. The posts, head-boards, and canopies or spervers of bedsteads were -sometimes carved, or painted in colours, but they are generally -represented covered by rich hangings. King Edward III. bequeathed to -his heir an entire bed marked with the arms of France and England, and -Richard, Earl of Arundel, to his wife Philippa, a blue bed, marked with -his arms, and the arms of his late wife; to his son Richard a standing -bed called clove, also a bed of silk embroidered with the arms of -Arundel and Warren; to his son Thomas, his blue bed of silk embroidered -with griffins, &c. - -The great chamber was often used as a sleeping-room by night and a -reception-room by day. Shaw, in his _Decorations of the Middle Ages_, -gives the interior of a chamber in which Isabella of Bavaria receives -from Christine of Pisa her volume of poems. The Queen is seated on a -couch covered with a stuff in red and gold, and there is a bed in the -room furnished with the same material, to which are attached three -shields of arms. The walls of the chamber were either hung with tapestry -or painted with historical subjects. Chaucer, in his Dream, fancies -himself in a chamber-- - - "Full well depainted, - And al the walles with colors fine - Were painted to the texte and glose, - And all the Romaunte of the Rose." - -The beds of the better classes were sumptuous and comfortable. -Mattresses were used, but sometimes, to receive the bed, loose straw was -spread on the sacking. The order for making the royal savage's own lair -says, "A yoman with a daggar is to searche the strawe of the kynges -bedde that there be none untreuth therein--the bedde of downe to be cast -upon that." The lower classes were contented with straw alone; but, as -appears from Holinshed's account, more from an ignorant contempt for a -pleasant bed, and a soft pillow, than from lack of means to obtain the -indulgence. The windows had curtains, and were glazed in the manner -described by Erasmus; but in inferior dwellings, such as those of -copyholders and the like, the light-holes were filled with linen, or -with a shutter. - -Early in the fourteenth century one Thomas Blaket, or Blanket, of -Bristol, introduced the woollen fabric which still goes by his name. The -word _worsted_ comes from the village so named, near Norwich, where that -kind of stuff began to be extensively manufactured for wall-hangings in -the fourteenth century. A still richer fabric similarly used, called -_baudekin_, a kind of brocade, is said to have derived its name from -Baldacus, in Babylon, whence, says Blount, it was originally brought. - -Few objects of antiquarian curiosity acquired more notoriety than a -bedstead or bed, of unusually large dimensions, preserved at Ware, -twenty miles from London, on the road to Cambridge. Shakspeare employs -it as an object of comparison in his play of _Twelfth Night_, bearing -date 1614, where Sir Toby Belch says: "As many lies as will lie in this -sheet of paper, though the sheet were big enough for the bed of Ware in -England." (Act iii. sc. 2.) Nares, in his _Glossary_, says: "This -curious piece of furniture is said to be still in being, and visible at -the Crown or at the Bull in Ware. It is reported to be twelve feet -square, and to be capable of holding twenty or twenty-four persons." And -he refers to Chauncey's _Hertfordshire_ for an account of the bed -receiving at once twelve men and their wives, who lay at the top and -bottom in this mode of arrangement,--first two men, then two women, and -so on alternately,--so that no man was near to any woman but his wife. -Clutterbuck, in his History, places the great bed at the Saracen's Head -Inn, where a large bedstead is preserved. It is twelve feet square, of -carved oak, and has the date 1463 painted on the back; but the style of -the carving is Elizabethan--a century later, at least. It was -_traditionally_ sold among other movables which belonged to Warwick, the -King-maker, at Ware Park, to suit which story the date is thought to -have been painted. Again, it is placed at three inns--the Crown, the -Bull, and Saracen's Head, at Ware, each of which may have had its "great -bed." - -Formerly, wealthy persons travelled with their bed in their carriage. -Mr. Beckford, of Fonthill, was, probably, the last person who so -travelled, in England, some forty years since, when the writer's -informant saw the unpacking of the bed, at the inn-door, at Salt Hill. - -The Warming-pan did not make its appearance till the Tudor times. In the -inventory of the goods of Sir William More, of Loseley, in Surrey, A.D. -1556, occurs "a warmynge," considered to be a warming-pan, and the -earliest recorded mention of that article. The old warming-pans were -often engraved with armorial bearings, mottoes, and inscriptions. In the -_Welsh Levite tossed in a Blanket_, 1691, we read: "Our garters, -bellows, and warming-pans wore godly mottoes, &c." We find a warming-pan -engraved with the arms of the Commonwealth, and the motto: "ENGLANDS . -STATS . ARMES." Another warming-pan has the royal arms, C. R. and "FEARE -GOD HONNOR YE KINGE. 1662." Some years ago, there was purchased at the -village of Whatcote, in Warwickshire, a warming-pan engraved with a -dragon, and the date 1601; probably brought from Compton Wyniatt, the -ancient seat of the Earl (now Marquis) of Northampton; the supporters of -the Compton family being dragons. - -The seats were mostly forms, but Chairs were sometimes used. A MS. of -the fourteenth century has this item:--"To put wainscote above the dais -in the king's hall, and to make a fine large and well sculptured chair." -The early chair was a single seat without arms. The fauldsteuel -(fauteuil in modern French) was originally a folding stool of the curule -form, but afterwards the form alone was preserved; examples remain from -the time of Dagobert up to a late period. Dagobert's seat is considered -by some to be of much greater antiquity than his time, and the back and -arms are certainly of a later period than the rest. The so-called -Glastonbury chair is much to be commended for simplicity of form, -perfect strength, and adaptation for comfort. - -In the earlier times, chairs and benches were not stuffed but had -cushions to sit upon and cloths spread over them: afterwards, as the -workmanship improved, they were stuffed and covered with tapestry, -leather, or velvet. The forms and workmanship of these seats were -generally very rude, but the stuffs that covered them were of great -richness and value, and tastefully trimmed with fringes and gimps, -fastened with large brass studs or nails. - -The description of the furniture in the great chamber at Hengrave, the -seat of Sir Robert Kytson, _temp._ Henry VII., enumerates very minutely -the various articles; among which are, the carpet, the tables, the -cupboards, the chairs, the stools, two great chairs, silk and velvet -coverings, curtains to the windows and doors, a great screen, the -fire-irons, branches for lights, &c. - -The floors, which at an early period were laid with rushes, were at a -later one covered with a carpet, called the bord carpet. Still, carpets -were used very early in the castles and mansions of the wealthy. The -manufacture of carpets is of great antiquity: we read of them in the -sacred writings, they were found in the ruins of Pompeii, they were -introduced from the East to Spain, from Spain they passed to France and -England, and when Eleanor of Castile arrived in London, in 1255, the -rooms of her abode were covered with carpets; they were used generally -in the palace in the reign of Edward III. Turkey carpets were first -advertised for sale in London in 1660. The manufacture of carpets was -introduced into France by the celebrated Colbert, in 1664. A manufactory -was opened in England during the reign of Henry VIII., but this branch -of industry was not permanently established until 1685, when the -revocation of the Edict of Nantes drove half a million of Protestants -from France, many of whom, settling in this country, established the -manufacture of carpets. Brussels carpets were introduced from Tournay -into Kidderminster, in 1745. - -We have already described the Hall. At the further end of this apartment -was generally placed a cupboard called the "Court cupboard," in which -the service of plate, such as salvers and gold drinking cups, were -arranged on shelves or stages, answering in some respects to our -sideboards of the present day. These cupboards, though originally of -rude construction, afterwards became elaborate and beautiful pieces of -furniture, richly carved in oak: they are often alluded to in old -documents. On grand occasions temporary stages, as cupboards, were also -erected. At the marriage of Prince Arthur, son of Henry VII., in the -hall was a triangular cupboard, five stages high, set with plate valued -at 1,200_l_. entirely ornamental; and in the "utter chamber," where the -princess dined, was another cupboard set with gold plate, garnished with -stones and pearls, valued at 20,000_l_. - -In the inventory of Skipton Castle, in Yorkshire, the furniture of the -great hall is thus given:--"Imprimis, 7 great pieces of hangings, with -the Earl's arms at large in every one of them, and powdered with the -several coates of the house. 3 long tables on standard frames, 6 long -forms, 1 short ditto, 1 Court cupboard, 1 fayre brass lantern, 1 iron -cradle with wheels for charcoal, 1 almes tubb, 20 long pikes." - -There is no mention of Mirrors, but they were used at this time, though -very small, and of metal polished. The coffre or chest which contained -the ladies' trousseaux, was subsequently much ornamented. The wardrobes, -so called, were generally small rooms fitted with cupboards called -armoiries. In 1253, "the sheriff of Southampton was ordered to make in -the king's upper wardrobe, in Winchester Castle, where the king's cloths -were deposited, two cupboards or armoiries, one on each side of the -fireplace, with arches and a certain partition of board across the same -wardrobe."[50] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[50] Loseley, the fine old domain of the Mores, mentioned in a preceding -page (180), lies between two and three miles south-west of Guildford. It -had, no doubt, from an early period, its manse, or capital -dwelling-house, fortified by a moat, according to the custom of the -feudal ages. This dwelling has long since been destroyed, and the -present mansion at Loseley is of the age of Elizabeth, and was built -between 1562 and 1568. The principal entrance opens into the Hall, but -was originally at the end of the passage between the screens which -divide the Hall from the Kitchen and Butteries. Latin inscriptions were -placed over the doors: that over the Kitchen door was "_Fami, non Gulæ_" -(To hunger, not to gluttony); over the Buttery door, "_Siti, non -Ebrietati_" (To thirst, not to drunkenness); and over the Parlour door, -"_Probis, non Pravis_" (To the virtuous, not the wicked). The finest -apartment is the Withdrawing-room, a splendid example of the decorative -style of the early part of Elizabeth's reign. It exhibits a rich -cornice, on which is the _rebus_ of the More family, a mulberry-tree. -The wainscoting is panelled, and the ceiling ornamented with pendent -drops and Gothic tracery. The chimney-piece is elaborately enriched: the -lower story is Corinthian; and the upper division, or mantel, has -grotesque caryatides, supporting a fascia and cornice. The intermediate -panelling is emblazoned with the arms of the Mores, which also enrich -the glazing of the mullioned windows. In the gallery of the mansion were -formerly two gilt chairs with cushions worked by Queen Elizabeth. Here, -in 1603, Sir George More entertained King James I. and his Queen. - - - - -DRESS.--PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. - - -From the old accounts of the Laundry we gather some idea of mediæval -clothing and personal cleanliness. Four shirts was a large allowance for -a nobleman in the fifteenth century; and youths of noble rank were sent -to college without a change of linen. It is upon record that Bishop -Swinfield, for himself and his whole household, in the thirteenth -century, only spent forty-three shillings and twopence for washing; and -the Duke of Northumberland's establishment, in the time of Henry VIII. -consisting of one hundred and seventy persons, only cost forty shillings -for the laundry expenses of a whole year. On the other hand, the -institution of "tubbing" was not unknown. Baths are frequently mentioned -in the romances, and are occasionally depicted in illuminations. They -were large tubs with a curtain over them, after the manner of a modern -French bed. - -With respect to what we now call "comfort," it is certain that all the -appliances of tapestried hangings were far inferior to the modern -devices of double walls, sashes, and French casements, &c. as means of -excluding draughts of air. But then the costume was suited to the -houses. The modern drawing-room life was scarcely possible in a mediæval -mansion. It was a necessity to dress more warmly; and, as may be seen in -very many mediæval illuminations, almost every one, of either sex, went -with covered heads. Just in the same way, in a modern farm-house or -cottage, it is common enough for hats and bonnets to be worn habitually -indoors. - -The flannel in general use, the wadded petticoats, and worsted stuffs -and brocaded silks (so thick as almost to stand alone) for gowns, were -much better calculated to resist cold and damp than the cobweb fabrics -worn by modern females; and the men's clothes were of a more substantial -texture, and made much fuller than the scanty modern corresponding -garments of thin superfine broadcloth. The thick woollen dresses of the -monks also were well contrived for preserving a comfortable portable -climate. No part but the face was exposed to the external air, and this -was protected by the cowl, so that they were always defended from -currents of cold air in the cloisters and vaulted aisles of the now -desolate monastic edifices. - -Woollen cloths were long the chief material of male and female attire. -When new the nap was generally very long; and after being worn for some -time it was customary to have it shorn; indeed, this process was -repeated as often as the stuff would bear it. Thus we find the Countess -of Leicester sending Hicque, the tailor, to London, to get her robes -reshorn. Among the materials for dress mentioned, are linen, sindon, -which has been variously interpreted to mean satin or very fine linen; -scarlet and rayed or striped cloths, of Flemish, French, or Italian -make; _pers_, or blue cloth, for the manufacture of which Provence was -famous; russet, say or serge, and blanchet or blanket, a name which, it -is believed, was given to flannel. The furs named are squirrel and -miniver. - -Among the minor objects of personal use which appear to have belonged to -Margaret de Bohun, in the fifteenth century, the "poume de ambre," or -scent-ball, in the composition of which ambergris formed a principal -ingredient, deserves notice; this being, perhaps, the earliest evidence -of its use. We here learn also that a nutmeg was occasionally used for -the like purpose; it was set with silver, decorated with stones and -pearls, and was evidently an object rare and highly prized. Amongst the -valuable effects of Henry V. according to an inventory dated A.D. 1423, -are enumerated a musk-ball of gold, weighing eleven pounds, and another -of silver-gilt. At a later period the Pomander was very commonly worn as -the pendant of a lady's girdle. The _peres de eagle_ were the stones -supposed to be found in the nest of the eagle, to which various -medicinal and talismanic properties were attributed. Nor are we -cognizant of an earlier mention of coral than that which occurs in this -inventory: namely, the paternoster of coral, with large gilded beads, -which belonged to Margaret de Bohun, and the three branches of coral -which Alianmore de Bohun possessed. Among her effects also is the wooden -table "painted for an altar;" it formed part of the movable chapel -furniture which persons of rank took with them on journeys, or used -when, through infirmity, the badness of roads, or some other cause, -valid in those days, they were prevented from attending public worship. -Licences to use such portable altars are of frequent occurrence on the -older episcopal registers. - -John Evelyn, regretting "the simple manners that prevailed in his -younger days, and which were now fast fading away," thus describes -old-fashioned country life about the middle of the seventeenth -century:-- - -"Men courted and chose their wives for their modesty, frugality, keeping -at home, good housewifery, and other economical virtues then in -reputation; and the young damsels were taught all these in the country -and in their parents' houses. They had cupboards of ancient, useful -plate, whole chests of damask for tables, and stores of fine Holland -sheets, white as the driven snow, and fragrant of rose and lavender for -the bed; and the sturdy oaken bedstead and furniture of the house lasted -one whole century; the shovel-board and other long tables, both in hall -and parlour, were as fixed as the freehold; nothing was movable save -joint-stools, the black jacks, silver tankards, and bowls.... The -virgins and young ladies of that golden age, _quæsiverunt lanam et -linum_, put their hands to the spindle, nor disdained they the needle; -were obsequious and helpful to their parents, instructed in the managery -of the family, and gave presages of making excellent wives. Their -retirements were devout and religious books, and their recreations in -the distillatory, the knowledge of plants and their virtues, for the -comfort of their poor neighbours and use of their family, which -wholesome, plain diet and kitchen physic preserved in perfect health." -As the quaint old ballad hath it-- - - "They wore shoes of a good broad heel, - And stockings of homely blue; - And they spun them upon their own wheel, - When this old hat was new." - - - - -PINS AND PIN-MONEY. - - -Metal pins are said to have been introduced into this country from France -in the fifteenth century: as an article of commerce they are not -mentioned in our statutes until the year 1483. Before this date, we are -told that ladies were accustomed to fasten their dresses by means of -skewers of boxwood, ivory, or bone; this statement has been doubted, but -we are assured that, to this day, the Welsh use as a pin the thorn from -the hedge. - -Stow assigns the first manufacture of metal pins in England to the year -1543; and they seem to have been then so badly made that in the -thirty-fourth year of King Henry VIII. (1542-3), Parliament enacted that -none should be sold unless they be "double-headed, and have the headdes -soudered faste to the shanke of the pynne." In short, the head of the -pin was to be well smoothed, the shank well shapen, and the point well -rounded, filed, canted, and sharpened. The Act of Parliament, however, -appears to have produced no good effect, for in the thirty-seventh year -of the same reign it was repealed. - -The manufacture of pins was introduced into several towns of Great -Britain by individuals who, in some cases, are called the inventors of -the article. The pin-makers of former days seem to have been a body -somewhat difficult to please, of whom Guillim, in his _Display of -Heraldry_, writes:--"The Society of Pinmen and Needlers, now ancient, or -whether incorporated, I find not, but only that, in the year 1597, they -petitioned the Lord Treasurer against the bringing in of foreign pins -and needles, which did much prejudice to the calling." The Pinners' -Company was incorporated by Charles I. in 1636; the Hall is on part of -the ancient Priory of the Augustine, or Austin Friars; it has been, -since the reign of Charles II., let as a Dissenting meeting-house: it is -in Pinners'-hall-court, Old Broad-street. - -The manufacture of pins formed early a lucrative branch of trade. Sixty -thousand pounds, annually, is said to have been paid for them to foreign -makers, in the early years of Queen Elizabeth; but, as we have seen, -long before the decease of that princess, they were manufactured in this -country in great quantities; and in the time of James I., the English -artisan is regarded to have "exceeded every foreign competitor in the -production of this diminutive, though useful article of dress." - -Pennant, in his description of old London Bridge, states that "most of -the houses were tenanted by pin or needle makers, and economical ladies -were wont to drive from the St. James's end of the town to make cheap -purchases." But Thomson, in his minute _Chronicles of London Bridge_, -does not mention pin-makers among the trades common on the bridge; -haberdashers, who came here _late_ from the Chepe, however, sold pins. - -Yet vast quantities of early pins have been recovered from the Thames -near the site of the old Bridge. In 1864, Mr. Burnell exhibited to the -British Archæological Association fifteen brass pins, varying in length -from one inch and three-eighths to five inches and a half, stated to -have been found on the paper on which they now are, in a cellar on the -northern bank of the Thames, in excavating for the foundations of the -South-Eastern Railway bridge. Most, if not all, of these pins have solid -globose heads. At the same meeting, Mr. Syer Cuming exhibited two brass -pins recovered from the mud of the Thames some years since. One is -little less than two inches and a half in length, the other full seven -inches and three-quarters long. The heads of both are formed with spiral -wire; the shortest being globose, the other somewhat flattened. Mr. -Cuming stated that quantities of such early pins as those then produced -have been found in and along the banks of the river, some of them -measuring upwards of a foot in length. These great pins may have been -employed in securing the wide-spreading head-dresses of the Middle Ages, -and fastening the ends of the pillow-case, a use not quite obsolete in -the time of Swift, who speaks of "corking pins," for this purpose, in -his _Directions to Servants_. - -For some time after their introduction pins must have been costly, for -we find that they were acceptable New Year's gifts to ladies, and that -presents of money were made for buying pins; whence money set apart for -the use of ladies received the name of _pin-money_. - -In France, three centuries ago, there was a tax for providing the queen -with pins; from whence the term of _pin-money_ has been, undoubtedly, -applied by us to that provision for married women, with which the -husband is not to interfere. In Bellon's _Voyages_, 1553, we -read:--"Quand nous donnons l'argent a quelque chambrière, nous _disons -pour ses épingles_." - -Pins must soon have been made and sold at a very cheap rate, to justify -the common remark, "Not worth a pin," and equivalent expressions in some -of our early writers, such as Tusser: - - "His fetch is to flatter, to get what he can; - His purpose once gotten, a _pin_ for thee than." - -Pins are of various sizes, from the blanket-pin, three inches in length, -to the smallest ribbon-pins, of which 300,000 only weigh one pound. -Insect-pins, used by entomologists, are of finer wire than ordinary -pins, and vary in length from three inches to a size smaller than -ribbon-pins. It has been calculated that ten tons of pins are made every -week in England alone, requiring from fourteen to fifteen tons of -brass-wire. - -"What becomes of all the pins?" a question every day asked, received an -answer, a few years since, upon the opening of an old sewer for repair, -in Rea-street, Birmingham. At the bottom of it was a deposit as hard as -the "slag" from a blast furnace, and in this deposit a vast number of -pins were embedded: a piece about the size of a man's fist bristled with -them, and this was but a specimen of a great mass of such matter. In -another way, too, the deposit was a curiosity; for, independently of the -pins, it inclosed a heterogeneous collection of old pocket-knives, -marbles, buttons, &c. - -Anciently, there were local springs, known as _Pin Wells_, in passing -which the country maids dropped into the water a crooked pin to -propitiate the fairy of the well. In some places, rich and poor believed -this superstition. - - - - -PROVISIONS: - -BREAD-MAKING, GROCERY, AND CONFECTIONERY. - - -Under the designation of _Panis_, Mr. Hudson Turner thinks that grain and -flour, as well as bread, were included. It would appear that bread of -different degrees of fineness was used. Thus, in the Household Expenses -of Eleanor, Countess of Leicester, third daughter of King John, and wife -of the celebrated Simon de Montfort, 1265, "the earliest known memorial -of the domestic expenditure of an English subject," we find that there -was "bread purchased for the Countess," and "bread for the kitchen." -Loaves or cakes were made of bolted flour, are twice mentioned, as well -as cakes, or wastells, perhaps biscuits; on one occasion half a quarter -of flour is set down for pastry. It is inferred that the bread generally -used in the family was made of a mixture of wheat and rye. As the dogs -were fed with corn, it may be concluded that the servants fared no -worse: at any rate there is no distinct notice of bread made of barley, -oats, or the more inferior grain which were commonly used in France and -other countries. - -It is not clear that their bread was leavened with yeast, as that -article occurs but once, and then in connexion with malt. The price of -the quarter of wheat or rye varied from 5_s_. to 5_s_. 8_d_.; of oats, -from 2_s_. to 2_s_. 4_d_.; twenty-five quarters, however, were bought at -Sandwich, at 1_s_. 10_d_. When grain was brought from the Countess' -manors, some of the prices were rather below the average. The bailiff of -Chalton was allowed 5_s_. the quarter for wheat, 4_s_. for barley, and -2_s_. 4_d_. for oats; the bailiff of Braborne had 4_s_. 4_d_. for wheat, -and 1_s_. 3_d_. for oats. - -The Manchet is a fine white roll, named, according to Skinner, from -_michette_, French; or from _main_, because small enough to be held in -the hand: - - "No manchet can so well the courtly palate please - As that made of the meal fetch'd from my fertil leaze." - - Drayton's _Polyolbion_. - -Here are two olden recipes for manchets: - -"_Lady of Arundel's Manchet._--Take a bushel of fine wheat-flour, twenty -eggs, three pound of fresh butter; then take as much salt and barm as to -the ordinary manchet; temper it together with new milk pretty hot, then -let it lie the space of half an hour to rise, so you may work it up into -bread, and bake it: let not your oven be too hot."--_True Gentlewoman's -Delight_, 1676. - -"Take a quart of cream, put thereto a pound of beef-suet minced small, -put it into cream, and season it with nutmeg, cinnamon, and rose-water; -put to it eight eggs and but four whites, and two grated manchets; -mingle them well together and put them in a buttered dish; bake it, and -being baked, scrape on sugar, and serve it."--_The Queene's Royal -Cookery_, 1713. - -Manchets are used in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge to this day. -The manchets and cheese, and fine ale, of Magdalen College are well -known. - -The Manciple, a purveyor of victuals, a clerk of the kitchen, or -caterer, still subsists in the universities, where the name is therefore -preserved; but Archdeacon Nares believed nowhere else. One of Chaucer's -pilgrims is a manciple of the Temple, of whom he gives a good character -for his skill in purveying. - -It is curious to find that one of the domestic arts which is somewhat -neglected in the households of the present generation, should, in the -last century, have been considered an accomplishment of such importance -as to be taught in schools: this was Pastry-making. There was then -resident in London one of the ancient family of the Kidders, of -Maresfield, in Sussex, and a descendant of Richard Kidder, Bishop of -Bath and Wells. This was Edward Kidder, a pastrycook, or, as he calls -himself, "pastry-master," who carried on his business in Queen Street, -Cheapside, and was induced to open two schools in the metropolis to -teach the art of making pastry, one at his own place of business, and -the other in Holborn. He also gave instructions to ladies at their -private houses. So popular did his system of teaching become, that he is -said to have instructed nearly 6,000 ladies in this art. He also -published a book of _Receipts of Pastry and Cookery_, for the use of his -scholars, printed entirely in copper-plate, with a portrait of himself, -in the full wig and costume of the day, as a frontispiece. He died in -1739, at the age of seventy-three. By will, he gave to his wife, Mary -Kidder, a gold watch, a diamond ring, and all the other rings and -trinkets used by her, and also all the furniture of the best room in -which she lay in the house in Queen Street; and to his daughters, -Elizabeth and Susan, he bequeathed all his money, bank-stock, plate, -jewellery, &c. Susan, among other bequests, gave to her cousin, George -Kidder, of Canterbury, pastrycook, 150_l_. and the copper-plates for the -receipt-book. - -Some dishes of the olden dinner-table are not very inviting. Our -ancestors had no objection to stale fish; and blubber, if they could get -it from a stray whale, or grampus or porpoise, was considered a -delicacy. Yet some of the old dishes have stood the test of ages, as we -see in the case of a Christmas Pie, the receipt to make which is -preserved in the books of the Salters' Company, in the City of London. - - "For to make a moost choyce Paaste of Gamys to be eten at ye Feste - of Chrystemasse" (17th Richard II. A.D. 1394). A pie so made by - the Company's cook in 1836 was found excellent. It consisted of a - pheasant, hare, and capon; two partridges, two pigeons, and two - rabbits; all boned and put into paste in the shape of a bird, with - the livers and hearts, two mutton kidneys, forced-meats, and - egg-balls, seasoning, spice, catsup, and pickled mushrooms, filled - up with gravy made from the various bones. - -We must, however, remember that Cookery flourished in the reign of -Richard II., who rebuilt Westminster Hall, and gave therein a -_house-warming_, at which old Stow says, "he feasted ten thousand -persons." Richard is also said to have kept 2,000 cooks, who left to the -world their famous cookery-book, the "Form of Cury, or, a Roll of -English Cookery," compiled about the year 1390, by the master-cooks of -the Royal Kitchen. - -Sugar was at first regarded as a spice, and was introduced as a -substitute for honey after the Crusades. It was sold by the pound in the -thirteenth century, and was procurable even in such remote towns as Ross -and Hereford. Before the discovery of America, however, Sugar was a -costly luxury, and only used on rare occasions. About 1459, Margaret -Barton, writing to her husband, who was a gentleman and landowner of -Norfolk, begs that he will vouchsafe "to buy her a pound of sugar." -Again: "I pray that ye will vouchsafe to send me another sugar-loaf, for -my old one is done." The art of refining sugar, and what is called -loaf-sugar, was discovered by a Venetian about the end of the fifteenth, -or the beginning of the sixteenth century. Sugar-candy is of much -earlier date; for in Marin's _Storia di Commercio de Veneziani_, there -is an account of a shipment made at Venice for England, in 1319, of -100,000 pounds of sugar, and 10,000 pounds of sugar-candy. Refined or -loaf-sugar is thus mentioned in a roll of provisions in the reign of -Henry VIII.: "two loaves of sugar, weighing sixteen pound two ounces, at ----- per pound." A letter from Sir Edward Wotton to Lord Cobham, dated -Calais, March 6, 1546, informs him that he had taken up for his lordship -twenty-five sugar-loaves, at six shillings a loaf, "which is eightepence -a pounde." Up to the close of the fifteenth century its price varied -from one-and-sixpence to three shillings a pound, "or, on an average, to -a sum equivalent to about thirty shillings at present." Sugar has become -to us almost a necessary of life. "We consume it in millions of tons; we -employ thousands of ships in transporting it. Millions of men spend -their lives in cultivating the plants from which it is extracted, and -the fiscal duties imposed upon it add largely to the revenue of nearly -every established government. It may be said, therefore, to exercise a -more direct and extended influence, not only over the social comfort, -but over the social condition, of mankind, than any other production of -the vegetable kingdom, with the exception, perhaps, of cotton -alone."--_J. F. W. Johnston, M.A._[51] - -Coffee is mentioned in Burton's _Anatomy of Melancholy_, date 1621, -several years before coffee-houses were introduced into England. The -first coffee-house was opened in 1650, at Oxford, by Jacobs, a Jew, "at -the Angel; and there it (coffee) was, by some who delighted in novelty, -drunk." About this time, Mr. Edwards, a Turkey merchant, brought from -Smyrna to London, one Pasqua Rosee, a Ragusan youth, who prepared this -drink for him every morning. But the novelty thereof, drawing too much -company to him, he allowed his said servant, with another of his -son-in-law, to sell coffee publicly, and they set up the first -coffee-house in London, in St. Michael's Alley, in Cornhill. The sign -was Pasqua Rosee's own head. - -Tea was first sold in London by Thomas Garway, in Change Alley, in 1651, -at from 16_s_. to 50_s_. per pound; it had been previously sold at from -six pounds to ten pounds per pound. Pepys, in his _Diary_, tells, Sept. -25, 1669, of his sending "for a cup of Tea, a China drink he had not -before tasted." Henry Bennet, Earl of Arlington, about 1666, had -introduced Tea at Court. And, in Sir Charles Sedley's _Mulberry Garden_, -we are told that "he who wished to be considered a man of fashion always -drank wine-and-water at dinner, and a dish of tea afterwards."[52] - -Spices and other condiments are mentioned in the Countess of Leicester's -accounts, viz., anise, cinnamon, ginger, pepper, cloves, cummin, dried -fennel, saffron, sugar, liquorice, mustard, verjuice, and vinegar, the -prices of which were very low. It must not be supposed, from the low -prices of some of these articles, that they were generally used in the -country; the arrival of a ship laden with spices was an event of such -importance, and perhaps rarity, that the King usually hastened to -satisfy his wants before the cargo was landed. Thus in the 10th of Henry -the Third, the bailiffs of Sandwich were commanded to detain, upon their -coming to port, two great ships laden with spices and precious -merchandises, which were expected from Bayonne; and not to allow -anything to be sold until the King had had his choice of their contents. - -Among the glories of olden confectionery was March-pane, a biscuit -composed of sugar and almonds, like those now called Macaroons. It is -also called _massepain_ in some old books. The word March-pane exists, -with little variation, in almost all the European languages; yet the -derivation of it is uncertain. In the Latin of the Middle Ages, -March-panes were called _Martii panes_, which gave occasion to Hermolaus -Barbaras to inquire into their origin, in a letter to Cardinal -Piccolomini, who had some sent to him as a present. Balthazar Bonifacius -says they were named from Marcus Apicius, the famous epicure. Minshew, -following Hermolaus, will have them originally sacred to Mars, and -stamped with a castle. - -Whatever was the origin of their name, the English receipt-books show -that they were composed of almonds and sugar, pounded and baked -together. Here is a receipt: - - "_To make a March-pane._--Take two pounds of almonds, being - blanched, and dryed in a sieve over the fire, beate them in a - stone mortar, and when they bee small, mixe them with two pounds - of sugar beeing finely beaten, adding two or three spoonefuls of - rose-water, and that will keep your almonds from oiling: when your - paste is beaten fine, drive it thin with a rowling pin, and so lay - it on a bottom of wafers; then raise up a little edge on the side, - and so bake it; then yce it with rose-water and sugar, then put it - into the oven againe, and when you see your yce is risen up and - drie, then take it out of the oven and garnish it with pretie - conceipts, as birdes and beasts being cast out of standing-moldes. - Sticke long comfits upright into it, cast bisket and carrowaies in - it, and so serve it: you may also print of this march-pane paste - in your moldes for banqueting dishes. And of this paste our comfit - makers at this day make their letters, knots, armes, escutcheons, - beasts, birds, and other fancies."--_Delightes for Ladies_ 1608. - -March-pane was a constant article in the desserts of our ancestors, and -appeared sometimes on more solemn occasions. When Elizabeth visited -Cambridge, the University presented their chancellor, Sir William Cecil, -with two pairs of gloves, a march-pane, and two sugar-loves. In the old -play of _Wits_ we find a reference to - - "----dull country madams that spend - Their time in studying recipes to make - March-pane and preserve plumbs." - -Castles and other figures were often made of march-pane for splendid -desserts, and were demolished by shooting or throwing sugar-plums at -them. - - _Almonds_ are an olden delicacy of our table, and have for ages - been very extensively used in a variety of preparations. - Almond-milk, composed of almonds ground and mixed with milk or - other liquid, was a favourite beverage, as was also almond-butter - and almond-custard. The antiquity of the practice of serving - almonds and raisins together at dessert seems to be shown from the - name Almonds-and-raisins being given as that of an old English - game in _Useful Transactions in Philosophy_, 1700. - - _Biscuits_ (originally Biskets) of various kinds were in use in - the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; among which that most in - repute was called Naples Biscuit, from the place where it was - first made: it occurs in the Carpenters' Company's books in 1644. - - _Orange-Flower Water_ has been a favourite perfume in England - since the reign of James I. It occurs in Copley's _Wits, Fits, and - Fancies_, 1614; and in the _Accomplished Female Instructor_, 1719, - is the following recipe:--Take two pounds of orange-flowers, as - fresh as you can get them, infuse them in two quarts of white - wine, and so distil them, and it will yield a curious perfuming - spirit.--_Orange Butter_ was made, according to the _Closet of - Rarities_, 1706, by beating up new cream, and then adding - orange-flower and red wine, to give it the colour and scent of an - orange.[53] - - -DESSERT FRUITS. - -The only kinds of fruits named in the Countess of Leicester's Expenses, -are apples and pears: three hundred of the latter were purchased at -Canterbury; probably from the gardens of the monks. It is believed, -however, that few other sorts were generally grown in England before the -latter end of the fifteenth century; although Matthew Paris, describing -the bad season of 1257, observes that "apples were scarce, and pears -scarcer, while quinces, vegetables, cherries, plums, and all -shell-fruits, were entirely destroyed." These shell-fruits were probably -the common hazel-nut, walnuts, and perhaps chestnuts: in 1256, the -Sheriffs of London were ordered to buy two thousand chestnuts for the -King's use. In the Wardrobe Book of the 14th of Edward the First, before -quoted, we find the bill of Nicholas, the royal fruiterer, in which the -only fruits mentioned are pears, apples, quinces, medlars, and nuts. The -supply of these, from Whitsuntide to November, cost 21_l_. 14_s_. -1-1/2_d_. This apparent scarcity of indigenous fruits naturally leads to -the inquiry, what foreign kinds besides those included in the term -spicery, such as almonds, dates, figs, and raisins, were imported into -England in this and the following century? In the time of John and of -Henry the Third, Rochelle was celebrated for its pears and conger eels: -the Sheriffs of London purchased a hundred of the former for Henry, in -1223. - -In the 18th of Edward the First, a large Spanish ship came to -Portsmouth; out of the cargo of which the Queen bought one frail of -Seville figs, one frail of raisins or grapes, one bale of dates, and two -hundred and thirty pomegranates, fifteen citrons, and seven ORANGES. The -last item is important, as Le Grand d'Aussy could not trace the orange -in France to an earlier date than 1333; here we find it known in England -in 1290; and it is probable that this was not its first appearance. The -marriage of Edward with Eleanor of Castile naturally led to a greater -intercourse with Spain, and, consequently, to the introduction of other -articles of Spanish produce than the leather of Cordova, olive-oil, and -rice, which had previously been the principal imports from that fertile -country, through the medium of the merchants of Bayonne and Bordeaux. It -is to be regretted that the series of Wardrobe Books is incomplete, as -much additional information on this point might have been derived from -them. At all events it appears certain that Europe is indebted to the -Arab conquerors of Spain for the introduction of the orange, and not to -the Portuguese, who are said to have brought it from China. An English -dessert in the thirteenth century must, it is clear, have been composed -chiefly of dried and preserved fruits--dates, figs, apples, pears, nuts, -and the still common dish of almonds and raisins. - -The garden of the Earl of Lincoln, now in the midst of one of the most -densely-peopled quarters of London, was highly kept long before the -Earl's mansion became an Inn of Court. His Lordship's bailiff's -accounts, in the reign of Edward I. (1295-6), show the garden to have -produced apples, pears, hedge nuts, and cherries, sufficient for the -Earl's table, and to yield by sale in one year, 135_l_., modern -currency. The vegetables grown were beans, onions, garlick, leeks; hemp -was grown; the cuttings of the vines were much prized; of pear-trees -there were several varieties: the only flowers named are roses. In the -previous reign (Henry III.) a considerable quantity was cultivated as -gardens within the walls of the metropolis; and we read, from time to -time, in the coroners' rolls, of mortal accidents which befel youths -attempting to steal apples in the orchards of Paternoster Row and Ivy -Lane, almost in the shadow of St. Paul's Cathedral. - - -ORNAMENTAL FRUIT TRENCHERS. - -The usages of social life amongst our ancestors present us with several -interesting instances of their ingenuity in keeping before them the rule -of life by monitory inscriptions, or texts, placed over doorways, upon -walls, and upon articles in daily domestic use, thus making it "plain -upon the tables, that he may run that readeth it." We find this good -advice upon the curiously-ornamented Fruit-trenchers in fashion during -the sixteenth century. The only set of tablets, or trenchers, of this -description, rectangular in form, hitherto noticed, are in the -possession of Mrs. Bird, of Upton-cum-Severn. They are twelve in number, -formed of thin leaves of light-coloured wood, possibly lime-tree, -measuring about 5-3/4 inches by 4-1/2 inches, and inclosed in a wooden -case, formed like a book, with clasps, the sides decorated like -bookbinding. - -On removing a sliding-piece, the upper tablets may be taken out. They -are curiously painted and gilt; every one presenting a different design, -and inscribed with verses from Holy Writ, conveying some moral -admonition. Each tablet relates to a distinct subject. These legends are -inclosed in compartments, surrounded by various kinds of foliage, and -the old-fashioned flowers of an English garden--the campion, -honeysuckle, and gillyflower--each tablet being ornamented with a -different flower. One trencher bears the oak-leaf and acorns, and the -texts inscribed upon it relate to the uncertainty of human life. Upon -the others are found admonitions against covetousness, hatred, malice, -gluttony, profane swearing, and evil speaking; with texts in which the -virtues of benevolence, patience, chastity, forgiveness of injuries, and -so forth, are inculcated. - -The following are the texts in the centre, relating to inebriety, the -spelling modernized:--"Woe be unto you that rise up early to give -yourselves to drunkenness, and all your minds go on drinking, that ye -sit swearing thereat until it be night. The harp, the lute, the tabour, -the thalme, and plenty of wine are at your feasts, but the Word of the -Lord do ye not behold, neither consider ye the work of His hands." In -the four compartments of the margin: "Take heed that your heart be not -overwhelmed with feasting and drunkenness." "Through gluttony many -perish." "Through feasting many have died, but he that eateth measurably -prolongeth life." "Be no wine-bibber." The sides thus ornamented, were -coated with a hard transparent varnish; the reverse, which probably was -the side upon which the fruit or comfits were laid, is smooth and clear, -without varnish or colour. These curious fruit-trenchers were found -amongst a variety of old articles at Elmley Castle, Worcestershire, -about forty years since. They were exhibited during the Meeting of the -Archæological Institute at Winchester, in 1845, and brought to light -other sets of fruit-trenchers. One of these, belonging to Jervoise -Clarke Jervoise, Esq., of Idsworth Park, Hants, consisted of ten -trenchers, in the form of roundels, ornamented like those just -described, and inclosed in a box, which bears upon its cover the royal -arms, France and England quarterly, surmounted by the Imperial crown. -The supporters are the lion and the dragon, indicating that these -roundels are of the time of Queen Elizabeth. On each are inscribed a -rhyming stanza and Scripture texts. Thus, under the symbol of a skull, -is (modernized)-- - - "Content thyself with thine estate, - And send no poor wight from thy gate; - For why this counsel I ye give, - To learn to die, and die to live." - -These roundels have been described as trenchers for cheese or -sweetmeats. Some antiquaries, however, consider them as intended to be -used in some social game, like modern conversation-cards: their proper -use appears to be sufficiently proved by the chapter on "Posies" in the -_Art of English Poesie_, published in 1589, which contains the -following:--"There be also another like epigrams that were sent usually -for New Yeare's gifts, or to be printed or put upon banketting dishes of -sugar-plate, or of March-paines, &c.; they were called Nenia or -Apophoreta, and never contained above one verse, or two at the most, but -the shorter the better. We call them poesies, and do paint them -now-a-days upon the back sides of our fruit-trenchers of wood, or use -them as devices in ringes and armes." - -It was customary in olden times to close the banquet with "confettes, -sugar-plate, fertes with other subtilties, with Ipocrass," served to the -guests as they stood at the board after grace was said. The period has -not been stated at which the fashion of desserts and long sittings after -the principal meal of the day became an established custom. It was, -doubtless, at the time when that repast, which, during the reign of -Queen Elizabeth, had been at eleven before noon, amongst the higher -classes in England, took the place of the supper, usually served at -five, or between five and six, at that period.[54] The prolonged -revelry, once known as the "reare supper," may have led to the custom of -following up the dinner with a sumptuous dessert. Be this as it may, -there can be little question that the concluding service of the social -meal--composed, as Harrison, who wrote about the year 1579, informs us, -of "fruit and conceits of all sorts,"--was dispensed upon the ornamental -trenchers above described. - -In the Doucean Museum, at Goodrich Court, there is a set of roundels, -similar to the above, which appear, by the badge of the rose and the -pomegranate conjoined, to be of the early part of the reign of Henry -VIII. Possibly, they may have been introduced with many foreign -"conceits" and luxuries from France and Germany, during that reign. In -the times of Elizabeth, mention first occurs of fruit dishes of any -ornamental ware, the service of the table having previously been -performed with dishes, platters, and saucers of pewter, and "treens," or -wooden trenchers; or, in more stately establishments, with silver plate. -Shakspeare makes mention of "china dishes;" but it is more probable that -they were of the ornamental ware fabricated in Italy, and properly -termed _Majolica_, than of Oriental porcelain. The first mention of -"porselyn" in England occurs in 1587-8, when its rarity was so great, -that a porringer and cup of that costly ware were selected as New Year's -gifts presented to the Queen by Burghley and Cecil. Shortly after, -mention is made by several writers of "earthen vessels painted; costly -fruit dishes of fine earth painted; fine dishes of earth painted; such -as are brought from Venice." - -Those elegant Italian wares, which in France appear to have superseded -the more homely appliances of the festive table, about the middle of the -sixteenth century, were doubtless adopted at the tables of the higher -classes in our own country, towards its close. - -The wooden fruit-trencher was not, however, wholly disused during the -seventeenth century; and amongst sets of roundels which may be assigned -to the reign of James I. or Charles I. may be mentioned a set exhibited -in the Museum formed during the meeting of the Archæological Institute -at York, in 1846. They were purchased at a broker's shop at Bradford, -Yorkshire: in dimensions they resemble the trenchers of the reign of -Elizabeth, already described; but their decoration is of a more ordinary -character. On each tablet is pasted a line engraving, of coarse -execution, and gaudily coloured, representing one of the Sibyls.[55] - -The common trencher which most of us have seen in use, was a wooden -platter employed instead of metal, china, or earthen plates. It was even -considered a stride of luxury when trenchers were often changed in one -meal. "And with an humble chaplain it was expressly stipulated," says -Bishop Hall, "that he never change his trencher twice." The term "a good -trencher-man" was then equivalent to a hearty feeder (Nares's -_Glossary_). Maple-wood, being soft and white, was formerly in great -request for trenchers. - -Fosbroke remembered when no other but wooden dishes of this kind were -used in farm-houses in Shropshire. The general form of the trencher was -round; yet the _trencher-cap_ of our Universities has a square top. - - -VEGETABLES. - -Very few esculent plants are mentioned in the Accounts of the Middle -Ages. Dried peas and beans, parsley, fennel, onions, green peas, and new -beans, are the only species named. Pot-herbs, of which the names are not -specified, but which served eleven days, cost 6_d_. There is much -uncertainty upon the subject of the cultivation of vegetables, in this -country, during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Cresses, -endive, lettuces, beets, parsnips, carrots, cabbages, leeks, radishes, -and cardoons, were grown in France during the reign of Charlemagne; but -it is doubtful whether many of these varieties had penetrated into -England at that early period. The most skilful horticulturists of the -Middle Ages were ecclesiastics, and it is possible that in the gardens -of monasteries many vegetables were reared which were not in common use -among the laity. Even in the fifteenth century, the general produce of -the English kitchen garden was contemptible when compared with that of -the Low Countries, France, and Italy. Gilbert Kymer can enumerate only, -besides a few wild and forgotten sorts, cabbage, lettuce, spinach, -beetroot, trefoil, bugloss, borage, celery, purslane, fennel, smallage, -thyme, hyssop, parsley, mint, a species of turnip, and small white -onions. According to him, all these plants were boiled with meat. He -observes also that some were eaten raw, in spring and summer, with -olive-oil and spices, but questions the propriety of the custom. This -is, perhaps, the earliest notice extant of the use of salads in England. - -The subject of the supplies of the table with food is a very large one; -and leaves us but space to remark that the condition of food, an -important point of its worth, must have suffered from the slow mode of -conveyance in former times. The advantages which we enjoy in this age of -rapid transit have been thus cleverly illustrated by a contemporary:--"A -little more than half a century ago it took about six weeks to drive the -herds of cattle from the north of Scotland to the metropolis: now they -can be whirled here in a few hours. Fish in great variety may be caught -in the morning on the coast of Berwick and Coquet, and be boiling in the -kitchens of Belgravia on the same evening for dinner. In exchange for -the sheep and beeves from the highlands and Cheviot, the choice fruits -and early vegetables of the south are rapidly passed. By means of -steamships and other quick sailing vessels, the oranges of Spain and -Portugal, the grapes of France and Italy, and the oxen, sheep, fruits, -&c. of other foreign parts are brought in fine condition; and delicacies -which were not easily obtained even by the rich are now common amongst -the multitude. But for this increased facility of conveyance how would -it be possible to feed the immense multitude of London, which, in half a -century of time, will in all probability number 5,000,000?" - - -ANTIQUITY OF CHEESE. - -Cheese and curdling of milk are mentioned in the Book of Job. David was -sent by his father, Jesse, to carry ten cheeses to the camp, and to see -how his brethren fared. "Cheese of kine" formed part of the supplies of -David's army at Mahanaim during the rebellion of Absalom. Homer makes -cheese form part of the ample stores found by Ulysses in the cave of the -Cyclop Polyphemus. Euripides, Theocritus, and other early poets, mention -cheese. Ludolphus says that excellent cheese and butter were made by the -ancient Ethiopians. Strabo states that some of the ancient Britons were -so ignorant that, though they had abundance of milk, they did not -understand the art of making cheese. There is no evidence that any of -these ancient nations had discovered the use of rennet in making cheese; -they appear to have merely allowed the milk to sour, and subsequently to -have formed the cheese from the caseous part of the milk, after -expelling the serum or whey. As David, when too young to carry arms, was -able to run to the camp with ten cheeses, ten loaves, and an ephah of -parched corn, the cheeses must have been very small. - -Thomas Coghan, in _The Haven of Health_, 1584, says: "What cheese is -well made or otherwise may partly be perceived by an old Latin verse -translated thus--'Cheese should be white as snowe is, nor ful of eyes as -Argos was, nor old as Mathusalem was, nor rough as Esau was, nor full of -spots as Lazarus.' Master Tusser, in his book of Husbandrie, addeth -'other properties also of cheese well made, which whoso listeth may -reade. Of this sort, for the most part, is that which is made about -Bamburie in Oxfordshire; for of all the cheese (in my judgment) it is -the best, though some prefer Cheshire cheese made about Nantwich, and -others also commend more the cheese of other countries; but Bamburie -cheese shall goe for my money, for therein (if it be of the best sort) -you shall neither tast the renet nor salt, which be two speciall -properties of good cheese. Now who is so desirous to eat cheese must -eate it after other meate, and in a little quantity. A pennyweight, -according to the old saying, is enough; for being thus used it bringeth -two commodities. First, It strengthened a weake stomache. Secondly, It -maketh other meates to descend into the chief place of digestion; that -is, the bosome of the stomache, which is approved in "Schola Salerni." -But old and hard cheese is altogether disallowed, and reckoned among -those ten manner of meates which ingender melancholy, and bee -unwholesome for sick folkes, as appeareth before in the chapter of -Beefe.'" - -The county of Chester was, ages since, famous for the excellence of its -cheese. It is stated that the Countess Constance of Chester (reign of -Henry II., 1100), though the wife of Hugh Lupus, the King's first -cousin, kept a herd of kine, _and made good cheese_, three of which she -presented to the Archbishop of Canterbury. Giraldus Cambrensis, in the -twelfth century, bears honourable testimony to the excellence of the -Cheshire cheese of his day. - -Cheshire retains its celebrity for cheese-making: the pride of its -people in the superiority of its cheese may be gathered from the -following provincial song, with the music, published in 1746, during the -Spanish war, in the reign of George II. - - "A Cheshire-man sailed into Spain, - To trade for merchandise: - When he arrivèd from the main - A Spaniard him espies. - - "Who said, 'You English rogue, look here-- - What fruits and spices fine - Our land produces twice a year! - Thou hast not such in thine.' - - "The Cheshire-man ran to his hold, - And fetched a Cheshire cheese, - And said, 'Look here, you dog! behold, - We have such fruits as these! - - "'Your fruits are ripe but twice a year, - As you yourself do say; - But such as I present you here, - Our land brings twice a day.' - - "The Spaniard in a passion flew, - And his rapier took in hand; - The Cheshire-man kicked up his heels, - Saying, 'Thou art at my command!' - - "So never let a Spaniard boast, - While Cheshire-men abound, - Lest they should teach him, to his cost, - To dance a Cheshire round!"[56] - -Next to Cheshire rank Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, and Somerset, for -their cheese. In the latter county they have the proverb: - - "If you wid have a good cheese, and hav'n old, - You must turn 'n seven times before he is old." - -To curdle the milk in cheese-making was formerly used the _Galium verum_ -of botanists, a wild flower with square stems, shining whorled leaves, -and loose panicles of small yellow flowers, popularly known as _Cheese -Rennet_. - -The practice of mixing sage and other herbs, and the flowers or seeds of -plants, with cheese, was common among the Romans; and this led to the -herbs, &c. being worked into heraldic devices in the Middle Ages. -Charlemagne once ate cheese mixed with parsley-seeds at a bishop's -palace, and liked it so much, that ever after he had two cases of such -cheese sent yearly to Aix-la-Chapelle. Our pastoral poet of the last -century has noted this device: - - "Marbled with sage, the hardened cheese she pressed."--GAY. - - -ALE AND BEER. - -The virtues of Saxon ale have already been commemorated, at pp. -66-68. We return to the subject, at a later period. - -"It may be remarked," says Mr. Hudson Turner, "that in the thirteenth -century the English had no certain principle as to the grain best suited -for brewing. A roll of household expenses of the Countess of Leicester -shows that Beer was made indiscriminately of barley, wheat, and oats, -and sometimes of a mixture of all. As the Hop was not used we may -conjecture that the produce of their brewing was rather insipid, and not -calculated for long keeping: it was drunk as soon as made. To remove the -mawkish flatness of such beer it was customary to flavour it with spices -and other strong ingredients: long pepper continued to be used for this -purpose some time after the introduction of hops. The period at which -the last-named plant became an ingredient of English beer is not -precisely known. It was cultivated from a very early date in Flanders -and Belgium, where it was both employed in brewing, and eaten in salads; -and from those countries it was imported into England while the produce -of our own hop-grounds was inconsiderable. It would appear, however, -that Hops were used in this country for brewing, in the beginning of the -fifteenth century, as Gilbert Kymer, in his _Dietary_, pronounces beer -brewed from barley, and well hopped, also of middling strength, thin and -clear, well fined, well boiled, and neither too new or too old, to be a -sound and wholesome beverage. It is pretty certain, nevertheless, that -in his time the hop was not _grown_ in England. In ancient days brewing -was almost solely managed by women, and till the close of the fifteenth -century the greater part of the beer-houses in London were kept by -females who brewed what they sold." - -Ale, the favourite drink of our Saxon forefathers, has been described as -a thick, sweet, _unhopped_ liquor, and as such distinguished from our -modern _hopped_ "beer." Gerard says: "The manifold virtues in hops do -manifestly argue the wholesomeness of _beer_ above _ale_;" and -conjectures that the origin of this distinction may be due to the use -of the word beer in the Low Countries, from which hops were introduced. -It would appear, however, that beer was known in this country, and -specified as such, before the use of hops; which were not imported till -1524, other bitters having supplied their place. - -There is an ancient rhyme which says,-- - - "Turkeys, Carps, _Hops_, Piccarel, and _Beer_, - Came into England all in one year." - -The year when all these good things are supposed to have been -introduced, was somewhere in the early part of the reign of King Henry -VIII. But it is evident that as early as 1440, when the _Parvulorum -Promptorium_ was compiled, the use of hops was not altogether unknown. -Mr. Albert Way supposes that at that time hopped beer was either -imported from abroad or brewed by foreigners. And this supposition is -certainly supported by the _Promptorium_. - -The great hop county of Kent produced better ale than any other; and the -large quantity of ale found in the cellars of the Kentish gentry, had -much to do with fomenting Jack Cade's rebellion, which arose in Kent. - -Unhopped ale, having no bitter principle, would easily run into acetous -fermentation. And this is the reason why, in old family receipt-books, -we find that our great-grandmothers were in the habit of using alegar -where, by the cooks of the present day, vinegar is employed. - -In modern usage the distinction between _Ale_ and _Beer_ is different in -various parts of the country. But originally, the distinction was very -clearly marked: _Ale_ being a liquor brewed from _malt_, to be drunk -fresh; _Beer_, a liquor brewed from _malt and hops_, intended to keep. - -The above distinction is clearly observed in Johnson's _Dictionary_, -where _ale_ is defined, "A liquor made by infusing _malt_ in hot water, -and then fermenting the liquor:" _Beer_, "Liquor made _from malt and -hops_;" "distinguished from ale either by being older or smaller." Ale -thus defined answers to the description given by Tacitus of the drink of -the ancient Germans. The ancient Spaniards had a somewhat similar drink, -called by them _Celia_. - -M. Alphonse Esquiros writes of our national drink thus amusingly:--"It -was the favourite fluid of the Anglo-Saxons and Danes, whom we have seen -descend in turn on Great Britain. Before their conversion to -Christianity, they believed that one of the chief felicities the heroes -admitted after death into Odin's paradise enjoyed, was to drink long -draughts of ale from tall cups. Archæologians have made learned and -laborious researches to recover the history of beer in Great Britain: it -will be sufficient for us to say, that in Wales, ale, even small, was -formerly regarded as a luxury, and was only seen on the tables of the -great. In England, about the middle of the sixteenth century, Harrison -assures us that, when tradesmen and artisans had the good fortune to -stumble on a haunch of venison and a glass of strong ale, they believed -themselves as magnificently treated as the lord mayor. At the present -day, what a change! Ale and porter flow into the pewter pots of the -humblest taverns; rich and poor--the poor more frequently than the -rich--refresh themselves with the national beverage, as the Israelites -in the Desert slaked their thirst at the water leaping from the rock, to -quote a minister of the English Church. This abundance compared with the -old penury, rejoices the social economist from a certain point of view, -for he sees in it the natural movement of science, trade and -agriculture, which in time places within reach of the most numerous -class articles which, at the outset, were regarded as luxuries. Not only -has beer become more available to the working classes, but the quality -has improved, and at the present day English beer knows no rival on the -Continent." - -The old compound of roasted apples, ale, and sugar, which our ancestors -knew as "Lamb's Wool," is thought to have derived its name as -follows:--The words La Mas Ubal are good Irish, signifying the Feast, or -day, of the Apple, and, pronounced _Lamasool_, soon passed into Lamb's -Wool. The mixture was drunk on the evening of the above day, which was -supposed to be presided over by the guardian angel of fruits and seeds. - -A less fanciful etymology points to the above drink being named from its -smoothness and softness, resembling the wool of lambs. Herrick sings: - - "Now crowne the bowle - With gentle lambs-wooll, - Add sugar, and nutmegs, and ginger;" - -and in an old play we read of this addition: "Lay a crab in the fire to -roast for lamb's-wool." - -FOOTNOTES: - -[51] In the Sandwich and many of the islands of the Pacific, every child -has a piece of sugar-cane in its hand; while in our own sugar colonies -the negro becomes fat in crop time on the abundant juice of the ripening -cane. This mode of using the cane is, no doubt, the most ancient of all, -and was well known to the Roman writers. Lucan (book iii. 237) speaks of -the eaters of the cane, as "those who drink sweet juice from the tender -reed." - -[52] It is remarkable, that the first house at which Coffee was first -sold in England, the Angel, Oxford, and the first house at which Tea was -sold in England, Garraway's, in Change Alley, London, were both taken -down in the same year--1866. - -[53] _Things not Generally Known._ Second Series. - -[54] Harrison's _Description of England_, c. vi.; Holinshed's _Chron._ -ii. 171. - -[55] Abridged from a paper by Mr. Albert Way, F.S.A.; _Archæological -Journal_, vol. ii. pp. 332-339. - -[56] Dogget, the actor, who bequeathed the Coat and Badge, to be rowed -for annually on the Thames, was noted for dancing the Cheshire Round, as -he is represented in his portrait. - - - - -IV. Peasant Life.[57] - - -Few inquiries of social interest better show the progress of the English -people than glances at their condition at various periods of their -history. Here we may trace the rise of the people from rude forms of -civilization, through its various grades, to the blessings of industry -and independence, which have so materially contributed to the character -of our National Life. Commencing with the substratum of these social -changes, we are reminded of the truth of Goldsmith's oft-quoted lines: - - "Princes and lords may flourish or may fade, - A breath can make them, as a breath has made; - But a bold peasantry, their country's pride, - When once destroy'd, can never be supplied." - -In early times freemen formed a mere section of the people, and the bulk -of the English population were in a servile condition. Some of the -bondmen were captives, or the children of captives; others had been -reduced to servitude by distress, by debts, or crimes; but they were not -all of them absolute slaves, for even amongst the convicts there were -some who were not slaves, but serfs. Now, in acquiring the use of land, -a slave made the first step towards freedom. In this manner a -_thrall-bred_ man became _boor-bred_, and although still a bondman--he -might hope, by good conduct or by the lord's bounty, to rise to the -higher condition of a geneatman, or free farmer, and even to become a -freeman, and a freeholder,--to become the absolute owner of his little -croft. - -In Anglo-Saxon times, the political station of a freeman was determined -by his _were_--it was his worth or value; and the _wergyld_ was the fine -paid in compensation of his life. The abolition or disuse of this fine -was an encouragement of liberty, since it removed the strongest mark of -distinction between freemen and non-freemen. - -The free or unfree condition of a man descended to his posterity. At the -close of the thirteenth century, many peasants in England were still -affected by the crimes or the misfortunes of their remote ancestors. By -that time there was an end of absolute slavery, and the bondsmen were -all serfs, or the children of serfs. - - -OPERATIVE TENANTS. - -Villenage and operative tenancy were almost extinct at the time of the -Reformation. The few villeins, or operative tenants, then remaining, -were in the occupation of small plots of land, or were, in fact, -agricultural labourers, working for wages, rather than tenants _paying -their rent in labour_. They were scarcely to be found except upon -Church-lands, or upon lands which had lately belonged to the Church. - -An operative tenant of five acres usually worked once a week for the -lord. We learn from Domesday that bordars were tenants of five acres, -and that the bordars under the Castle of Ewias worked once a week: the -Saxon cottar held at least five acres, and was accustomed to work for -the lord every Monday. This custom prevailed in later times. If a tenant -worked for the lord once a week, the working-day was commonly Monday. -The Monday-men at East Brent, in Somerset, had the following customs in -the year 1517:--Each of them, by ancient usage, should annually, in -forty days selected by the lord's steward, do forty works of summer and -winter husbandry, called Monday-works, working and labouring well each -day for six whole hours; each of them receiving, while at work, a -halfpenny, the sum of which is twenty pence per annum: and each of them -who should do eight autumnal works, working well six hours a day as -before said, should receive one penny a day. At the same time there were -Monday-men at Limpesham in the same county; and they are noticed in -earlier rentals at Castle Combe in Wiltshire, at Leighton in -Huntingdonshire, in East Kent, and at Bocking and Hadleigh in the -eastern counties. - -At Bury St. Edmund's anciently, there were humble servitors called -Lancetts, who were bound by their tenure to clean the chambers of the -monastery. A tenant of the abbey at Cokefield, whose tenure is not -called lancettage, was obliged to thatch, to wattle and daub, to do -carpenter's work, to collect compost, to clean houses, &c.--but was not -required to clean out the lord's _latrines_. - -Although villeins were said to hold their land at the will of the lord, -their position was not really precarious; they did not hold at the -lord's arbitrary will, but at the will of the lord subject to the -custom of the manor. While they paid their dues and performed their -services, the lord could not molest them; if the lord ejected a sick -villein, the villein was emancipated. For trivial offences the villein -was amerced, or was at the lord's mercy; that is, was obliged to pay a -fine assessed by a jury who were sworn to spare no one for love or fear, -and to punish no one too severely; for disobedience and disloyalty the -lord could set his villein in the stocks; if others then came and broke -the stocks to let the villein out, the lord could have an action of -trespass: the stocks were chiefly designed for vagrants and unruly -servants. - -At one time the ties which bound a peasant to his landlord were like -those which bound a soldier to his martial chief. Dependence on a lord -was thought no degradation, and the state of society made independence -impossible. The feudal system was exhausted as soon as the law became -strong enough to protect an independent man. - - -SERVICES OF TILLAGE. - -We now proceed to the several services. _Grass-erth_, or the service of -Tillage, was in return for the privilege of feeding cattle in the lord's -open pastures. The Saxon boor ploughed two acres, and might be allowed -to plough more if he required more pasture. - -At Sturminster Newton in Dorsetshire, certain tenants came upon the -lord's grass-land on the morrow of St. Martin's Day with as many teams -of oxen as they could bring, and they ploughed four acres of the land -with each team; they brought seed from the hall to sow the land, and -afterwards harrowed it. This service entitled them to feed their oxen -with the lord's oxen, from the time that the meadows were mown until the -cattle were housed. The lord might, in the meantime, raise no hedge, and -might make no several pasture in the fallow-field, to exclude the cattle -of the tenantry. - -The Saxon boor, in addition to grass-erth, ploughed three acres of -gafolyrthe: that is, ploughing alone in satisfaction of his gayfol, or -rent; as well as three acres of benyrthe, or optional tillage, done as a -_boon_ to the lord,--done out of grace and kindness, not in the way of -duty. - -A large part of the lord's arable land was entirely cultivated by the -tenantry. The customary tenants at Cokefield, near Bury, ploughed 200 -acres; or rather, they ploughed each acre more than once, and their -labour was equal to the single tillage of 200 acres. - -In large manors, it was the duty of the reeve to ascertain whether a -tenant intended to do the service, or chose rather to pay for a -substitute. The reeve had to deal with persons of both sexes, and of all -conditions. Some of the contributors of labour were knights, and -gentlemen, and ladies of quality; others were independent yeomen, surly -farmers, and poor widows. This arrangement was called an _arable -precation_. The _gathering of the ploughs_ must have been a remarkable -sight. Soon after dawn, on the appointed day the tenants met the lord's -officers in the field. Tenants who came without oxen, were employed in -delving and in making fences; tenants who came with single oxen or with -less than an entire team, were associated with others; and thus all the -oxen and cart-horses present were sorted in teams of about eight -animals. The teams were marshalled by a beadle, who carried his wand of -office, not quite a bare symbol of authority, for, we dare say, it was -used upon inert husbandmen as well as upon inert oxen. The reeve took -care that each team did its full work: that the ploughmen worked as well -for the lord as they would work for themselves; and that the teams were -not unyoked until the work had been fairly done. The day's work was -supposed to be completed at the ninth hour,--three in the afternoon, -according to our reckoning. This hour was called high noon, and the meal -then taken was called a noonshun or nuncheon. Some of the ploughmen had -a meal from the lord, but there was no regular feast; a tenant employed -in the lord's service was not usually entitled to a meal, unless the -service kept him occupied an entire day. A boon-harrowing, with horses, -succeeded; each horse that harrowed was allowed two or three handfuls of -oats. In due time there followed a bedweding, or weeding boon. - -There were small services, such as threshing, thatching, delving, -building, and enclosing. A tenant made two perches, or eleven yards, of -dyke. A tenant at Darent, near Rochester, in the thirteenth century, did -two perches of enclosure around the court, and seven perches of Racheie -around the lord's corn. Then there was the service of enclosing the -hall-garth or courtyard. The tenants are still obliged to keep up a -stone wall round the site of the manor-house at Brotherton, in Norfolk; -the mansion itself disappeared long ago. The fencing of a park was in -some places distributed among a number of townships, each undertaking to -maintain so many rods of paling; this was the custom at Pilton, in -Somerset, where there was a deer-park belonging to the Abbot of -Glastonbury. The churchyard at Bradley, in Staffordshire, is said to be -still enclosed by the parishioners associated in this manner,--that is, -each person is bound to finish a certain portion of paling. The tenants -also made or maintained the lord's sheepfold. Each hyde at Thorpe in -Essex had to make a certain number of rods for the fold out of the -lord's wood. - -At times, the tenants had to spread composts in the lord's field. They -also collected stubble out of the corn-fields, and reeds out of the -marsh; reeds and straw were strewn in apartments, and used for thatching -or fuel. In many places they were required to gather nuts in the woods -for the lord; the nuts were for making oil, and a quarter of nuts -answered to a gallon of oil. Nutting was rather a pastime, or holiday -task, than a service. The nutting expeditions at Wickham, in Essex, were -to be made on three feast days, which are not named, but Holyrood Day, -the 14th of September, may have been one of them: - - "This day, they say, is called Holy-Rood Day, - And all the youth are now a nutting gone." - - _Grim, the Collier of Croydon._ - -To make malt for the lord was usually the chief service of the poorer -tenants in the immediate neighbourhood of a monastery, as at Darent and -other places near Rochester, and at Battle; tenants at a distance, -instead of making malt, in some places paid a tax called _malt-silver_. -The cottagers carried their lord's malt to the flour mill to be crushed, -for they were not allowed to keep hand-mills or mortars, which might be -used in grinding corn. The malt might be dried at home, for kilns were -common in old houses; but in some manors the lord had a public kiln, -which the tenants were bound to make use of. - - -OLDEN HARVEST. - -A _bedrip_, _reaping boon_, or _autumnal precation_, was a more pompous -festival than an _arable precation_. In old times, as in our own, the -Harvest was made a season of merriment, if not of thanksgiving: - - "In tyme of harvest mery it is ynough; - The hayward bloweth mery his horn, - In eueryche felde ripe is corn." - - _Romance of King Alexander._ - -In the illustrations of an old Saxon Calendar, in the Cotton Library, -the hayward is shown standing on a hillock, cheering the reapers with -his horn. Slumbering reapers were roused by the sound of a horn in -Tusser's time; and the custom of blowing horns at harvest-time endured -until the end of the last century, for it is noticed by John Scott, of -Amwell. In the thirteenth century, when the rentals were mostly -compiled, the lord was aided in harvest, as in seed-time, by tenants of -all ranks. A superior tenant rarely sent more than two men to the -bedrip, or two men and an _overman_, that is a foreman. - -The kindly services rendered to the lord in seed-time and harvest were -otherwise called precations, gifel-works, and love-boons. The days on -which they were rendered used to be called boon-days, and occasionally -love-days: a love-day more commonly meant a law-day, a day set apart for -a leet or manorial court, a day of final concord and reconciliation; as -we read in the _Coventry Mysteries_: - - "Now is the love-day mad of us foure fynially - Now may we leve in pes as we were wonte." - -Love-boons are described by the Law authorities as "the voluntary labour -of the inhabitants of the neighbouring townships." - -The memorable truce between the Yorkists and Lancastrians, in 1458, was -called a love-day. - -A customary tenant, in some places, was bound to appear on the grandest -day with his whole family, except the housewife, who stayed at home and -spun; sometimes excepting the nurse as well the mistress. In the -neighbourhood of Oxford, in the year 1279, all the men who held -yard-lands, and all who held half-yard-lands, came to two autumnal -precations, each of them with one man; and to the third precation each -of them with his whole family, excepting his wife and shepherd, and was -regaled by the lord on this third day,--not on the two former days; and -all the customary tenants were obliged to ride beyond the lord's crops, -to see that they were reaped safe and well. They rode in saddles, with -bridles and spurs; if they failed in any part of this equipment, they -were fined. These mounted overseers were called reap-reeves. In the time -of Edward the Third, the tenant of an estate called Fawkner Field was -bound to ride among the reapers in the lord's demesnes, at Isleworth, on -the bederepe day, in autumn, with a sparrow-hawk upon his wrist. The -officers of the court were entitled to a share of the crop. In some -places, the sicklemen received a worksheaf each; each man was expected -to reap half an acre, called a deywine (day-win), or day's labour. In -the accounts of the tenures at Booking, in Essex, there is a curious -estimate of the cost of these autumnal precations. The expense of the -food provided for the reapers is weighed against the value of their -work, and the balance is found to be fivepence and three-farthings. - -A yard-lander at Chalgrave, in Oxfordshire, reaped at the two precations -in autumn with all his household but his wife and shepherd; if he -brought three labourers, he walked with his rod, or rode, in front of -the reapers; if he brought no labourers, he worked in person; for two -repasts, at nones, a wheaten loaf, pottage, meat, and salt; at supper, -bread and cheese and beer, and enough of it, with a candle while the -guests were inclined to sit. The last day was always the grand day, -when, at Piddington, the tenants and their wives came with napkins, -dishes, platters, cups, and other necessary things. - -In the reign of Henry III., the ploughmen and other officers, at East -Monkton, near Warminster and Shaftesbury, were allowed a ram for a feast -on the Eve of St. John the Baptist, when they used to _carry fire round -the lord's corn_. This form of the Beltane superstition was observed in -the north of England, and in Scotland, about fifty years ago. The -Beltane flourishes at the uttermost ends of Europe, in the Scilly -Islands, and in Russia; and even the main of Madagascar, who holds his -head to other stars, is accustomed to kindle bonfires on the day which -we have dedicated to St. John. We learn from the _Popular Antiquities_ -that in our time, in Gloucestershire and Herefordshire, on the eve of -Twelfth Day, fires used to be lit at the ends of the lands, in fields -just sown with wheat. - -Tenants in old times were required to cut and clear the lord's -hay-field. A tenant at Bradbury, for one day's mowing, received a meal -of bread and cheese twice in the course of the day; and for carrying the -same meadow, a bundle of hay, for his pains. The mowers also received -among them twelvepence or a sheep, which they were to choose out of the -lord's fold by sight, not by touch. In other places the mower was -allowed as much grass as he could raise up on his scythe, without -breaking its handle; and a haymaker received as much hay as he could -grasp with both arms. At Sturminster, a tenant, after mowing and -carrying, received a knitch of hay,--that is, as much hay as the hayward -could raise with one finger to the height of his knees. - -In the year 1308, it was the rule at Borley that the mowers and -haymakers should have two bushels of wheat for bread, a wether worth -eighteenpence, a gallon of butter, the second-best cheese out of the -lord's dairy, salt and oatmeal for their pottage, and the morning's milk -of all the cows; and a mower as much grass as he could lift upon the -point of his scythe. In 1222 they had in common a cheese and a good ram. -A sheep was commonly the reward of work in the hay-field. Old English -husbandmen were very fond of mutton, and the hay-harvest fell about St. -John's Day, when mutton was considered in season. - - -HOCK-DAY. - -The second Tuesday after Easter, was another very important day in -bygone times. At Chingford, the ward-staff was presented in court on -Hock-day. John Ross, of Warwick, records that, on the death of -Hardicanute, England was delivered from Danish servitude; and to -commemorate this deliverance, on the day commonly called Hock Tuesday, -the people of the villages are accustomed to pull in parties at each end -of a rope, and to indulge in other jokes. The Hock-tide sports were -kept up at Hexton, in Hertfordshire, in the time of Elizabeth, and are -described in Clutterbuck's Hertfordshire. Hock-day was usually set apart -for a love-day, law-day, or court-leet. This court could be held but -twice in the year, and was generally held at Hock-tide and Michaelmas, -or Martinmas, since a court on these days would not interfere much with -agricultural operations. Leets, like most other gatherings, ended with -good cheer. In the thirteenth century, when the officers of East Monkton -attended the Hundred courts at Deverell--which were held at Hock-tide -and Martinmas--they were allowed a loaf and a piece of meat each. A -feast following a court-leet or law-day, was called a leet-ale, or -scot-ale, as ale is said to mean no more than a feast. There were -leet-ales and scot-ales, church-ales, clerk-ales, bid-ales, and -bride-ales. Scot-ales were often abused, and made means of extortion. -The bishops, the judges, and all the king's men in vain tried to -suppress them. All persons present at a scot-ale paid _scot_,--that is, -a fine, or fee; the money raised nominally furnished a feast, but was -really for the benefit of the chief officer of the court--the portreeve, -head borough, or third borough. In some places, leet-ale was not -entirely supported by subscription. In Tollard, on the edge of Cranborne -Chase, the steward was allowed on the law-day to have a course at a deer -out of Tollard Park. At Bovey Tracy, the profits of the Portreeve's Park -defrayed the expenses of the annual revel. The Glastonbury Rental -describes the mode of keeping the scot-ales in Wiltshire, in the -thirteenth century. The customs are very like those of ancient Guilds. -By the rules of the Guild of the Holy Ghost at Abingdon, members who sat -down at dinner paid one rate, and members who stood for want of room -paid another. - - -SHEEP-SHEARING. - -This was another service imposed upon the tenantry. Though hard and -heavy work to wash and shear sheep, in the thirteenth century it was -done by women, who are called "shepsters" in the _Vision_ of Piers -Plowman. The sheep were washed in the mill-pond. Shearers were usually -entitled to the wambelocks, or loose locks of wool under the belly of -the sheep; or at Weston, in Oxfordshire, a penny instead of the locks. -The finest part of the fleece is the wool about the sheep's throat, -called in Scotland the haslock, or hawselocks: - - "A tartan plaid, spun of good hawslock woo', - Scarlet and green he sets, the borders blew." - - _The Gentle Shepherd._ - -Up in the North they call a sheep-shearing the clipping-time; and to -come in clipping-time is to come as opportunely as at sheep-shearing, -when there are always mirth and good cheer. In the middle of the -seventeenth century, clippers always expected a joint of roasted mutton. -In the _Winter's Tale_, the clown ponders: - - "Let me see, what am I to buy for our sheep-shearing feast? Three - pounds of sugar, five pounds of currants, rice--what will this - sister of mine do with rice? But my father hath made her mistress - of the feast, and she lays it on.... I must have saffron to colour - the warden pies; mace; dates, none! That's out of my note. - Nutmegs, seven; a race or two of ginger--but that I may beg; four - pounds of prunes, and as many of raisins o' the sun." - -The old customs of clipping-time were observed by Sir Moyle Finch, at -Walton, near Wetherby, in the time of Charles I., and are thus described -by Henry Best: - - "Hee hath usually fower severall keepinges shorne altogether in - the Hall-garth.... He hath had 49 clippers all at once, and their - wage is, to each man 12_d_. a day, and when they have done, beere - and bread and cheese; the traylers have 6_d_. a day. His tenants - the graingers are tyed to come themselves, and winde the well; - they have a fatte wether and a fatte lambe killed, and a dinner - provided for their paines; there will be usually three score or - fower score poore folkes gatheringe up the lockes; to oversee whom - standeth the steward and two or three of his friends or servants, - with each of them a rodde in his hande; there are two to carry - away the well, and weigh the roll so soone as it is wounde up, and - another that setteth it downe ever as it is weighed; there is - 6_d_. allowed to a piper for playing to the clippers all the day; - the shepheards have each of them his bell-weather's fleece,"--the - "bellys" allowed to the shepherd by the old Saxon laws. - -Sheep-shearing was thus celebrated in ancient times with feasting and -rustic pastimes; at present, excepting a supper at the conclusion of the -sheep-shearing, we have few remains of the older custom. Nevertheless, -it is interesting to revert to these pictures of pastoral life and -rusticity, more especially as we find them embellished by the charms of -poetry, and enlivened by a simplicity of manners which, to whatever -period it may belong, is always entertaining, if not productive of -better fruit. The season of the shearing is thus laid down by Dyer: - - "If verdant Elder spreads - Her silver flowers, if humble Daisies yield - To yellow rowfoot and luxuriant grass, - Gay Shearing Time approaches." - - -CONVEYANCE SERVICE. - -The most irksome tasks were the transport services, called in Scotland -the duties of _arriage_ and _carriage_. The load of a sumpter-horse was -usually eight bushels--the weight of a sack of wool, or a quarter of -corn. A wain-load was apparently nine seams. The goods carried were -chiefly provisions--grain, pulse, malt, honey, bacon, suet, salt, and -wood. A castle or monastery was _farmed_--that is, supplied with -food--by the nearest manors belonging to the lord. The farming was done -according to a regular cycle, each manor sending supplies in its turn -for so many days or weeks. We have a list of thirty-five villages which -took turns to farm Ely Minster--some for three or four days, some for a -week, some for a fortnight. - -Everything contributed in this manner did not travel in waggons, or -packs and panniers; oxen and swine were driven to the head of the barony -to be slaughtered, especially at Martinmas; if the drovers came from any -distance, they received drove-meat. Arriage and carriage were not very -burdensome when fulfilled by the removal of so much wool, or cheese, or -corn, or bacon, to a neighbouring town; but they became serious when a -tenant had to ride or drive from the heart of England to the coast and -home again. Some tenants were called _pouchers_, because they were -required to carry goods in a poke, pouch, or bag. In the Channel -Islands, on the first spring-tide after the 24th of June, the poor who -possess neither cart nor horse have the exclusive right to cut _vraic_ -(wrack, sea-weed), on consideration that it is conveyed on their backs -to the beach. Thus cut and conveyed it is called _vraic à la poche_, and -distinguished from _vraic à cheval_. - -When fish was wanted at Rochester, the tenants of the four hydes of -Hedenham and Cuddington, near Aylesbury, were called out; two of the -hydes brought the fish from Gloucester into Buckinghamshire, and the -other two hydes carried it on to Rochester: it is likely that they were -sent to fetch the dainty lamprey, still sought for at Gloucester. The -_langerodes_, or long journeys, were very troublesome to the tenants, -but could not be dispensed with while there were no regular mails, and -no public conveyances. A person undertaking a _langerode_ either -received some remuneration or worked out his rent by serving as a -carrier; in general he was not inclined to leave his home and farm, and -found it more convenient to pay the price of the service, which enabled -the lord to find another carrier. No services were more frequently -commuted than the duties of arriage and carriage, and a body of -professional carriers was gradually formed by the habit of constant -commutation. - - -WATCH AND WARD.--THE BEADLE. - -The wardmen of ancient times were a kind of rural police, whose duty of -ward-keeping was connected with their tenure. They were, probably, -maintained on the north side of London until the institution of a -general system of police in the time of Edward the First. By the statute -of Winton, it was ordered that a watch should be kept by six men at each -gate of a city, by twelve men in every borough, and by six men or four -men in each rural township, every night, from the Feast of the Ascension -of our Lord to the Feast of St. Nicholas. The watchmen could detain any -one unknown to them; any one who would not stand and declare himself, -was pursued with hue and cry--with horn and voice-- - - "Swarming at his back the country cried." - -We suppose that St. Nicholas became the patron of highwaymen, because -the watch was intermitted on the day dedicated to St. Nicholas. The -wardmen were occasionally noticed in the Domesday of St. Paul's. The -survey of 1279 states, that at Sutton, in Middlesex, each tenant who had -cattle on the lord's lands to the value of thirty pence, paid a penny at -Martinmas, called _ward-penny_; but this tax was not due from the -watchmen of the ward, who waited at night in the King's highway, and -received the ward-staff:-- - - "They wared and they waked, - And the Ward so kept, - That the king was harmless, - And the country scatheless." - -In Essex, the ward-keeper had a rope with a bell, or more than one bell, -attached to it: the rope may have been used to stop the way. The -ward-staff was a type of authority, cut and carried with peculiar -ceremony, and treated with great reverence. - -The duties of the beadle (Saxon, _bydel_ or _bædel_), in ancient times, -lay more on the farm than in the law-court, the state procession, or in -the parochial duties of punishing petty offenders, as in the present -day.[58] In many places, the bedelry and the haywardship were held -together by one person. The beadle was the verger of the manorial court; -he likewise overlooked the reapers and carried his rod into the -harvest-field. At Darent, near Rochester, the beadle held five acres as -beadle, shepherd, and hayward; he had eighteen sheep and two cows in the -lord's pasture; against Christmas he had a _crone_--an old sheep--a lamb -with a fleece, and some other allowances. At Ickham, in the same county, -the beadle's office was hereditary: the beadle had five acres with a -cottage for his service, and made all the citations of the court, and, -if he went on horseback into the Weald of Kent, he was allowed -provender for his horse; he had pasture for five hogs, five head of -cattle, and a horse; he attended in the fields to regulate the labours -of the harvest. And such had been the tenure of his father, grandfather, -and great-grandfather. - -Old English gentlemen were anciently very much afraid of theft and -peculation; they believed that "Treste lokes maketh trewe hewen,"--or, -to change their maxim into current English, they believed that "firm -locks made faithful servants." The barns were to be well closed after -August, and no servant was to open them until threshing-time, without -the special direction of the landlord or the steward. The strictest -accounts were kept. Every person, in any situation of the slightest -trust or responsibility, was required to render an account of every -penny and every article passing through his hands, to the receiver, or -bailiff, whose accounts were revised once a year by auditors, who went -round from manor to manor. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[57] The staple of this paper is selected and condensed from a series of -learned articles, entitled "The Rights, Disabilities, and Usages of the -Ancient English Peasantry;" in the _Law Magazine and Law Review_, -published by Messrs. Butterworth. Some of the ancient law terms have -been omitted, in order to better adapt this abstract for popular -reading. - -[58] In our day, the beadle is most familiar to us as an officer of the -church. Formerly, one of his duties was a strange one. We read of the -beadle, in a church, going round the edifice during service, carrying a -long staff, at one end of which was a fox's brush, and at the other a -knob: with the former, he gently tickled the faces of the female -sleepers, while on the heads of their male compeers he bestowed with the -knob a terrible rap. - -At Acton church, in Cheshire, some five and twenty years ago, one of the -churchwardens, or the apparitor, used to go round the church during -service, with a long wand in his hand; and if any of the congregation -were asleep, they were instantly awoke by a tap on the head. - -In the church at Dunchurch, a similar custom existed: a person, having a -stout wand, shaped like a hay-fork at the end, stept stealthily up and -down the naves and aisles, and whenever he saw an individual asleep, he -touched him so effectually, that the spell was broken; this being -sometimes done by fitting the fork to the nape of the neck. - - - - -OLDEN HOUSE-MARKS. - - -The means by which property has been identified, and denoted by some -distinctive mark, at various periods, present us with some curious -customs. - -In England, individual marks were in use from the fourteenth to the -middle of the seventeenth centuries, probably much earlier; and when a -yeoman affixed his mark to a deed, he drew a _signum_, well known to his -neighbours, by which his land, his cattle, and sheep, his agricultural -implements, and even his ducks, were identified. In the 25th year of -Queen Elizabeth, a jury at Seaford, in Sussex, convicted John Comber -"for markyng of three ducks of Edwd Warwickes and two ducks of Symon -Brighte with his own marke, and cutting owt theire markes." Cows and -oxen were marked on the near horn. When cattle in bodies of many -hundreds ranged over extensive commons, as was formerly the case, the -use of marks for identification was more indispensable than at present. -Our swans retain their marks to the present day. In Ditmarsh and Denmark -the owner's mark was cut in stone over the principal door of the house; -it designated not only his land and cattle, but his stall in the church, -and his grave when he was no more. At Witney, Oxon, a woolstapler's mark -may be seen so incised on a house, with the date 1564; and numerous -merchants' marks are at Norwich and Yarmouth. At Holstein, within the -memory of man, the beams of the cottages of the bond-servants were -incised with the marks of their masters. A pastor, writing from Angeln, -says, "The hides had their marks, which served instead of the names of -their owners." In the island of Föhr, a little to the north of Ditmarsh, -the mark, cut on a wooden ticket, is always sold with the house; and it -is cut in stone over the door; and the same custom is still in use in -Schleswig and Holstein. In the Tyrolese Alps, at the present day, the -cattle that are driven out to pasturage are marked on the horn with the -mark of their owner's land. Marks for cattle are also used in -Switzerland, in the Bavarian Alps, and in some parts of Austria. - -These house-marks are connected with merchants' and tradesmen's marks, -and also with stonemasons' marks, all of which formed a lower kind of -heraldry for those not entitled to the bearings of the noble; for, on -old houses at Erfurt, double shields, with the marks of the families of -husband and wife, are found. - -Many of the marks found on old pictures are true house-marks, and not -alphabetical monograms. A painting by Wouvermans or Lingelback, in the -writer's possession, bears the mark known as the crane's foot. Michelsen -considers armorial bearings to have been originally little more than -decorated marks, and to have been engrafted, as it were, upon the -system: indeed, he asserts that the arms of Pope Hadrian VI., a -Netherlander, were framed from house-marks. Some knightly families in -Schleswig still retain their house-marks on their coat-of-arms: for -instance, the Von Gogerns bear the kettle-hanger, or pot-hook; the Von -Sesserns, in 1548, bore the same, which occurred on their family tomb, -_anno_ 1309. The earliest marks were supposed to represent the most -indispensable agricultural implements, as a spade, a plough, a scythe, a -sickle, a dung-hook, the tyres of a barrow; also, anchors, stars, &c. -There was, also, often a supposed connexion between the figurative name -of a house and its owner's mark, which was a representation of the -object, more or less exact. Michelsen considers that the names and signs -of inns are but remnants of the once universal and necessary custom of -giving figurative names to houses, which the modern numbers have -superseded. - -Prof. Michelsen shows that the _cultellum_, which was given by the -Franks, Goths, and Germans, in the ninth and tenth centuries, on the -transfer of land, with the _signum_ cut on a piece of wood, was -originally intended for notching the mark on the wood, in the same -manner as the inkstand and pen were lifted up with the chart, as symbols -of a transfer of land. Among the archives of Nôtre Dame, at Paris, is -preserved a pointed pocket-knife of the eleventh century, on the ivory -handle of which is engraved the record of a gift of land; and at the -same place is preserved a piece of wood, of the ninth century, six -inches long and one inch square, attached to a diploma, as was then the -custom. A similar knife, with an ivory handle, is still preserved, -attached to a charter of Trinity College, Cambridge. - -The surrender of copyholds by the rod or glove, and occasionally by a -straw, or rush (whence the word "stipulation," from _stipula_, straw), -is well known in England; and in the manor of Paris Garden, Surrey, an -ebony rod is preserved with a silver head, on which are engraved the -royal arms, with E. R. and a crown, and an inscription purporting that -it is kept for the surrender of copyholds of the manor. The inscribed -sticks, mentioned in Ezekiel xxxv. 16, appear to relate to this ancient -mode of conveyancing. - - - - -V. Olden Customs and Ceremonies. - - - - -MAY-DAY CAROL ON MAGDALEN COLLEGE TOWER. - - -May customs are nothing more than a gratulation of the spring, to testify -universal joy at the revival of vegetation. Hence the universality of -the practice; and its festivities being inspired by the gay face of -Nature, they are as old as any we have on record. There is at Oxford a -May-day ceremony which has a special claim upon our respect and -veneration, for nearly four centuries. - -Upon the majestic Perpendicular tower of Magdalen College we have many -time and oft looked with reverential feeling: seen from every point, it -delights the eye with its stately form, fine proportions, and admirable -simplicity; and with its history is associated a May-day custom of -surpassing interest. For more than three centuries and a half the -choristers of the College have assembled upon the top of its tower on a -May-day morning, and there performed a most harmonious service, the -origin of which has been thus traced by the learned Dr. Rimbault. - -In the year 1501, the "most Christian" King Henry VII. gave to Magdalen -College the advowsons of the churches of Slymbridge, in Gloucestershire, -and Fyndon, in Sussex, together with one acre of land in each parish. In -gratitude for this benefaction, the College was accustomed, during the -lifetime of the royal benefactor, to celebrate a service in honour of -the Holy Trinity, with the collect still used on Trinity Sunday; and the -prayer, "Almighty and everlasting God, we are taught by Thy word that -the heart of kings," &c.; and, after the death of the King, to -commemorate him in the usual manner. - -The Commemoration Service ordered in the time of Queen Elizabeth, is -still performed on the 1st of May; when is sung on the College-tower a -Latin hymn, which has evidently reference to the original service. The -produce of the two acres before-mentioned used to be distributed on the -same day, between the President and Fellows: it has, however, for many -years been given up, to supply the choristers with a festal -entertainment in the College-hall. - -[Illustration: SINGING THE MAY-DAY CAROL ON MAGDALEN COLLEGE TOWER.] - -The arrangement of the ceremony is as follows. At about half-past four -o'clock in the morning, the singing boys and men, accompanied by members -of Magdalen and different colleges, ascend to the platform of the tower; -and the choristers, having put on their surplices, range themselves on -the slightly-gabled roof, standing with their faces towards the east. -Magdalen bell having tolled five, the choristers sing from their books -the Latin hymn, of which the following is a translation:-- - - "Father and God, we worship Thee, - And praise and bless on bended knee: - With food Thou'rt to our bodies kind, - With heavenly grace dost cheer the mind. - - "O, Jesus, only Son of God! - Thee we adore, and praise, and laud: - Thy love did not disdain the gloom - Of a pure Virgin's holy womb. - - "Nail'd to the cross, a victim made, - On Thee the wrath of God was laid: - Our only Saviour, now by Thee - Immortal life we hope to see. - - "To Thee, Eternal Spirit, rise - Unceasing praise, from earth and skies: - Thy breath awoke the heavenly Child, - And gave Him to His mother mild. - - "To Thee, the Triune God, be paid-- - To Thee, who our redemption made-- - All honour, thanks, and praise divine, - For this great mystery of Thine!" - -At the close of the hymn, all heads are covered, and the singers hasten -to the belfry, whence the bells ring out a joyful peal. The spectators -in the road beneath disperse, the boys blowing tin horns, according to -ancient custom, to welcome in sweet May; while others ramble into the -fields to gather cowslips and field flowers, which they bring into the -town. Occasionally the singing on the tower has been heard, with a -favourable wind, at two miles' distance. This being a "gaudy day" for -the choristers, they have a dinner of roast lamb and plum-pudding in the -College-hall at two o'clock. There is a good representation of the -ceremony on the tower, carefully engraved by Joseph Lionel Williams, in -the _Illustrated London News_, whence the accompanying representation -has been reduced. - -Dr. Rimbault, whilst making some researches in the library of -Christchurch, Oxford, discovered what appeared to him to be the first -draft of the above hymn. It has the following note:--"This hymn is sung -every day in Magdalen College Hall, Oxon, dinner and supper throughout -the year, for the after grace, by the chaplains, clerks, and choristers -there. Composed by Benjamin Rogers, Doctor of Musicke of the University -of Oxon, 1685." The author of the hymn is unknown. - -At Oxford, formerly, boys used to blow cows'-horns and hollow canes all -night, to welcome in May-day; and girls carried about garlands of -flowers, which afterwards they hung upon the churches. - -Before we leave the sacred ground whereon this holy May-day ceremony is, -year by year, performed, we present the reader with a very ably-drawn -picture of the locality itself, and its many attractions. - -"Probably," says a writer in the _Saturday Review_, "there is no city in -the United Kingdom, with the exception of the metropolis, which -possesses such a concentration of interest as Oxford. Its historical -associations are spread over a long succession of ages. Not to speak of -more apocryphal reminiscences, it was a favourite residence of one of -our monarchs, and the birthplace of another. It was the scene of -important transactions in the troubled reign of Stephen, and witnessed -an episode in the equally troubled reign of the third Henry. It beheld -the seeds of the Reformation sown by Wycliff, and saw the martyrdom of -Cranmer and his fellow-sufferers. It became a confessor for the Church -of England as against Puritanism under the second Stuart, and as against -Popery under the fourth. It has been, at least since the Reformation, a -sort of head-quarters of that Church; and has witnessed, in our own day, -the most remarkable theological convulsions which it has experienced -since the Reformation. Its outward appearance is in keeping with its -history. It bears traces of the architecture of eight centuries--from -the rude belfry-tower of St. Michael's, which has been assigned on good -authority to the age of the Confessor, to Mr. Scott's exquisite -imitation of the Sainte Chapelle, in its immediate neighbourhood. It is -true that it contains no building of the first rank; but it exhibits an -almost infinite variety, under the influence of accidental yet -harmonious grouping, which has a charm more akin to that of nature than -that of art. In its æsthetical as well as in its moral aspect, it -betrays a strong spirit of Conservatism, and, occasionally, one of -studied Revivalism. We see in Oxford the shadow of the Middle Ages -projected far into the region of modern life. A College is a strange -compound, half club, half convent, and its daily usages are curiously -intermingled with the past. For two centuries after the Reformation, -Protestant founders cast their institutions in the mould of Wykeham and -Waynflete: the scholastic system appears to have been a living thing at -the beginning of the last century, and its ghost still haunts the -academic shades. These facts have their parallel in the architecture of -Oxford. The revival of mediæval art, which we have ourselves witnessed, -had its precursors here in the early part of the seventeenth century. -Nowhere in England--we may almost say, nowhere in Europe--shall we find -such good and pure Gothic, built at a time when the style was defunct -elsewhere, as is presented by the Chapels of Wadham, Lincoln, and Jesus -Colleges, and in the staircase of Christchurch Hall; and as was to be -seen in the chapel of Exeter College, before its destruction. - -"With such attractions, added to that of personal interest, arising out -of the past or in direct connexion with the place, it is no wonder that -Oxford, at the most pleasant season of the year, draws to itself crowds -of visitors from all parts of the country. The only wonder is, that it -is not even more popular than it is, when we consider the throngs of -English men and women who are to be met with in the dingy and unsavoury -Colleges of continental cities from June till October." - -At Saffron Wolden, and in the village of Debden, an old May-day song is -still sung by the little girls, who go about in parties carrying -garlands from door to door. The first stanza is to be repeated after -each of the others by way of chorus:-- - - "I, I been a rambling all this night, - And some part of this day, - And, now returning back again, - I brought you a garland gay. - - "A garland gay I brought you here, - And at your door I stand; - 'Tis nothing but a sprout, but 'tis well budded out, - The works of our Lord's hand. - - "Why don't you do as I have done - The very first day of May? - And from my parents I have come, - And could no longer stay. - - "So dear, so dear as Christ loved us, - And for our sins was slain, - Christ bids us turn from wickedness, - And turn to the Lord again." - -The garlands which the girls carry are sometimes large and handsome, and -a doll is usually placed in the middle, dressed in white, according to -certain traditional regulations: this doll represents the Virgin Mary, -and is a relic of the ages of Romanism. - -The May-pole still lingers in the village of St. Briavel's, in the -picturesque forest of Dean. In the village of Burley in the New Forest, -a May-pole is erected, a fête given to the school children, and a -May-queen is chosen by lots; a floral crown surmounts the pole, and -garlands of flowers hang about the shaft. Among other late instances are -recorded a May-pole, eighty feet high, on the village-green of West -Dean, Wilts, in 1836; and in 1844, there was "dancing round the -May-pole" in St. James's district, Enfield. William Howitt describes -May-poles in the village of Lisby, near Newstead; and in Farnsfield, -near Southwell, Derbyshire, May-poles are to be seen. Dr. Parr was a -great patron of May-day festivities: opposite his parsonage-house at -Hatton, near Warwick, stood the parish May-pole, which was annually -dressed with garlands, and the doctor danced with his parishioners -around the shaft. He kept its large crown in a closet of his house, from -whence it was produced every May-day, and decorated with fresh flowers -and streamers, preparatory to its elevation to the top of the pole. - -On May-day and December 26th, is distributed the fund bequeathed in 1717 -and 1736, by Mr. Raine, a wealthy brewer at St. George's-in-the-East, -who founded schools and a hospital for girls, and added marriage -portions of 100_l_., to be drawn by lots: the winner is married to a -young man, of St. John's, Wapping, or St. Paul's, Shadwell; the couple -dine with their friends, and in the evening an ode is sung, and the -marriage portion of one hundred new sovereigns is presented to the -bride. - -Miss Baker, in her _Northamptonshire Glossary_, tells us that there are -very few villages in that county where the May-day Festival is not -noticed in some way or other. - - - - -BANBURY CAKES.--CONGLETON CAKES, ETC. - - -That the ancient town of Banbury, lying on the northern verge of the -county of Oxford, should have been famed, from time immemorial, for its -rich cakes, should not excite our special wonder, seeing that the -district has some of the richest pasture land in the kingdom; a single -cow being here known to produce 200 pounds of butter in a year! Butter, -we need scarcely add, is the prime ingredient of the Banbury cake, -giving it the richness and lightness of the finest puff-paste; and, to -the paper in which the cakes are wrapped, the appearance of their having -been packed up by bakers with well-buttered fingers. - -The cause of this cake-fame must, however, be sought in a higher walk of -history than in the annals of pastry-making. It appears that the Banbury -folks went on rejoicing in the fatness of their cakes until the reign of -Elizabeth; from which time to that of Charles II., the people of the -town were so noted for their peculiar religious fervour, as to draw upon -themselves most unsparingly the satire of contemporary playwrights, -wits, and humorists. By some unlucky turn of time, cakes, which were -much valued by the classical ancients, and were given away as presents, -in the Middle Ages, instead of bread, became looked upon as a -superstitious relic by the Puritans, who thereupon abolished the -practice. They formed so predominant a party at Banbury, in the reign of -Elizabeth, that they pulled down Banbury Cross, so celebrated in our -nursery rhymes. In the face of this historical fact, however, the -reputed "zeal" of the Banburians has been attributed to an accidental -circumstance, in modern phrase, "an error of the press." In Gough's -edition of Camden's _Britannia_, in the MS. supplement, is this note: -"Put out the word _zeale_ in Banbury, where some think it a disgrace, -when a _zeale_ with knowledge is the greater grace among good -Christians; for it was first foysted in by some compositor or press-man, -neither is it in my Latin copie, which I desire the reader to hold as -authentic." It was, indeed, printed, as a proverb, "Banbury zeal, -cheese, and cakes," instead of "Banbury veal, cheese, and cakes." -Gibson, in his edition of Camden, however, gives another version, -relating: "There is a credible story--that while Philemon Holland was -carrying on his English edition of the _Britannia_, Mr. Camden came -accidentally to the press, when this sheet was working off; and looking -on, he found, that to his own observation of Banbury being famous for -cheese, the translator had added cakes and ale. But Mr. Camden thinking -it too light an expression, changed the word _ale_ into _zeal_; and so -it passed, to the great indignation of the Puritans, who abounded in -this town." Barnaby Googe, in his _Strappado for the Divell_, refers to -Banbury as - - "Famous for twanging ale, zeal, cakes, and cheese." - -Better remembered are the lines in his _Journey through England_: - - "To Banbury came I, O profane one! - Where I saw a puritane one - Hanging of his cat on Monday - For killing of a mouse on Sunday." - -Early in the seventeenth century, the Puritans were very strong in -Banbury. In Ben Jonson's _Bartholomew Fair_, Zeal-of-the-Land Busy, the -Puritanical Rabbi, is called a _Banbury man_, and described as one who -was a baker--"but he does dream now, and sees visions; he has given over -his trade out of a scruple that he took, that it spiced conscience, -_those cakes he made_ were served to bridales, May-poles, morrises, and -such profane feasts and meetings:" in other words, he had been a baker, -but left off that trade to set up for a prophet; and one of the -characters in _Bartholomew Fair_ says: "I have known divers of these -Banburians when I was at Oxford." And Sir William D'Avenant, in his play -of _The Wits_, illustrates this Puritanical character, in - - "A weaver of Banbury, that hopes - To entice heaven by singing, to make him lord of twenty looms." - -Old Thomas Fuller personifies the zeal in the Rev. William Whately, who -was Vicar of Banbury in the reign of James I., and was called "The -Roaring Boy." Fuller adds: "Only let them (the Banbury folks) adde -knowledge to their zeal, and then the more zeal the better their -condition." The Vicar was a zealous and popular preacher, according to -his monument: - - "It's William Whately that here lies, - Who swam to's tomb in's people's eyes." - -In the _Tatler_, No. 220, in describing his "Ecclesiastical -Thermometer," to indicate the changes and revolutions in the Church, the -Essayist writes, "That facetious divine, Dr. Fuller, speaking of the -town of Banbury, near a hundred years ago, tells us, 'it was a place -famous for cakes and zeal,' which I find by my glass is true to this -day, as to the latter part of this description, though I must confess it -is not in the same reputation for cakes that it was in the time of that -learned author." - -The Banburians, however, maintained their character for zeal in a grand -demonstration made by them in favour of Dr. Sacheverell, whose trial had -just terminated in his acquittal; and in the same year, this High Church -champion made a triumphal passage through Banbury, on his journey to -take possession of the living of Salatin, in Shropshire, which was -ridiculed in a pamphlet, with a woodcut illustrative of the procession; -and there appeared another pamphlet on the same lively subject. - -Thus far the association of cakes with zeal in the case of Banbury. It -is worthy of remark that cakes had formerly not unfrequently a religious -significance, from their being more used at religious seasons than at -other times. The triangular cakes made at Congleton, in Cheshire, have a -raisin in each corner, thought to be emblematic of the Trinity; the -cakes at Shrewsbury may have had something to do with its old religious -shows. Coventry, on New Year's day, has its God-cakes. Then we have the -Twelfth-cake with its bean; the Good Friday bun with its cross; the -Pancake, with its shroving or confessing; and the Passover cake of the -Jews. The minced pie was treated by the Puritans as a superstitious -observance; and, after the Restoration, it almost served as a test for -religious opinions. According to the old rule, the case or crust of a -minced pie should be oblong, in imitation of the cradle or manger -wherein the Saviour was laid; the ingredients of the mince being said to -refer to the offerings of the Wise Men. - -Returning to the Banbury cake: in a _Treatise of Melancholy_, by T. -Bright, 1586, we find the following:--"Sodden wheat is a grosse and -melancholicke nourishment, and bread especially of the fine flour -unleavened. Of this sort are bag puddings made with flour; fritters, -pancakes, _such as we call Banberrie Cakes_; and those great ones -confected with butter, eggs, &c., used at weddings; and however it be -prepared, rye, and bread made thereof, carrieth with it plentie of -melancholie." - -At Banbury, the cakes are served to the authorities upon state -occasions. Thus, in the Corporation accounts of this town, we find a -charge of "Cakes for the Judges at the Oxford Assizes, 2_l_. 3_s_. -6_d_." The present form of the cake resembles that of the early bun -before it was made circular. The zeal has died away, but not so the -cakes; for in Beesley's _History of Banbury_, 1841, we find that Mr. -Samuel Beesley sold, in 1840, no fewer than 139,500 twopenny cakes; and -in 1841, the sale increased by at least a fourth. In August, 1841, 5,000 -cakes were sold weekly; large quantities being shipped to America, -India, and even Australia. - -The cakes are now more widely sold than formerly, when the roadside inns -were the chief depôts. We remember the old galleried Three Cranes inn at -Edgware, noted for its fresh supplies of Banbury cakes; as were also the -Green Man and Still, and other taverns of Oxford Road, now Oxford -Street. - -Banbury Cheese, which Shakspeare mentions, is no longer made, but it was -formerly so well known as to be referred to as a comparison. Bishop -Williams, in 1664, describes the clipped and pared lands and glebes of -the Church "as thin as Banbury cheese." Bardolf, in the _Merry Wives of -Windsor_, compares Slender to Banbury cheese, which seems to have been -remarkably thin, and all rind, as noticed by Heywood, in his Collection -of Epigrams:-- - - "I never saw Banbury cheese thick enough, - But I have often seen Essex cheese quick enough." - - -The same thought occurs in _Jack Drum's Entertainment_, 1601:-- - - "Put off your cloathes, and you are like a Banbury cheese--nothing - but paring." - -In the Birch and Sloane MSS., No. 1201, is a curious receipt for making -Banbury cheese, from a MS. cookery book of the sixteenth century. A rich -kind of cheese, about one inch in thickness, is still made in the -neighbourhood of Banbury. - -We have already traced the destruction of the Cross at Banbury to the -leaven of fanaticism. The nursery rhyme, - - "Ride a cock-horse - To Banbury-cross," - -is by some referred to this act; and to signify being over-proud and -imperious. Taylor, the Water-poet, has,-- - - "A knave that for his wealth doth worship get, - Is like the divell that's a-cock-horse set." - -The Banburians have rebuilt the Cross to commemorate the marriage of the -Princess Royal with the Crown Prince of Prussia. They also exhibit, -periodically, a pageant, in which a fine lady on a white horse, preceded -by Robin Hood and Little John, Friar Tuck, a company of archers, bands -of music, flags and banners, passes through the principal street to the -Cross, where the lady (Maid Marian) scatters Banbury cakes among the -people. How far this pageant may be associated with local tradition, -time and the curious have hitherto failed to explain.[59] - -Other towns, in addition to Banbury, have been celebrated for their -cakes, from remote times. The ancient borough of Congleton, upon the -Staffordshire border of Cheshire, have already been incidentally -mentioned. The streets have an air of antiquity, many of the houses -being constructed entirely of timber framework and plaster. The place -has long been famed for its silk-mills, and tagged leather laces, called -Congleton points. These, however, have been outlived by the sack and -cakes, which have, for ages, figured in the festivities of Congleton; -eclipsed for a while during the gloomy mayoralty of President Bradshaw, -but happily retained to our time. - -The Congleton cakes are of triangular form, with a raisin inserted at -each corner. These have been used at the Grammar School breaking-up for -three-quarters of a century. They have been the orthodox cakes at the -quarterly account meetings of the Corporation for more than a century, -and are hence called "count cakes." It is conjectured that the three -raisins represent the mayor and two justices, who were the governing -body under the charter of James I. The trio of raisins have also been -deemed symbolical of the Trinity. Be this as it may, Congleton has been -noted from time immemorial for these cakes, as well as for its -gingerbread; and in the Corporation records we find such convivial items -as the following:--"1618. Bestowed upon the Earl of Essex, being money -paid for figs and sugar, 1_l_." "1614. Bestowed upon Sir John Byron, one -gallon of sack and one gallon of claret, 5_s_. 8_d_." "1619. A banquet -bestowed upon Sir John Savage, being a gallon of sack and a sugar-loaf, -5_s_." "1627. Bestowed upon my Lord Brereton, in wine and beer, 5_s_." -"1633. Bestowed on the Earl of Bridgewater, in wine, sack, and sugar, -8_s_." "1632. Paid Randle Rode, of the Swan, for wine, cake, and beer, -for a banquet which was bestowed upon the Lord Chief Baron of the -Exchequer, 1_l_. 4_s_. 2_d_." "Paid Mr. Drakeford for a pottle of wine, -bestowed on Sir B. Wilbraham, 2_s_." "1662. Paid for _sweetmeats_ -bestowed upon Lord and Lady Brandon, 9_s_. 3_d_., because," as the book -says, "he was our great friend." This must have been in reference to the -influence exerted by that nobleman, in obtaining a re-grant of the -borough charter, which Charles II., on his accession, had thought fit to -call in, along with several others, that of London among the rest. - -Among the recent celebrations, was the hospitable reception given by the -Corporation of Congleton to the Lord Mayor of London, Sir Francis Graham -Moon, Bart., in the year 1855, when the entertainment well represented -the ancient festivity. On the chairman's table lay the gold and silver -maces of the borough, and capacious china Corporation bowls full of -sack, and flanked by large old two-handled silver flagons, by which the -sack was gradually drawn off, and circulated amongst the company. On -every plate was placed a _count cake_, and the centres of the tables -were covered with delicate cakes and confectionery, among which was -pre-eminent the famous Congleton gingerbread, and a profusion of choice -fruit. The brewage of the sack was entrusted to Joseph Speratti, who -boasts that he alone possesses the true receipt. - -The famous old city of Shrewsbury has also long been celebrated for its -brawn and cakes; the latter are made of much larger size than we are -accustomed to see them in the metropolis, and are packed in round boxes -made for the purpose. - -Around London some of the villages boast of this celebrity. Islington -was once as famous for its cheesecakes as Chelsea for its buns; and -among its other notabilities were custards and stewed "pruans:" old -Wither, in 1628, told us that Islington - - "For cakes and cream had then no small resort;" - -and to this day the place is noted for its cakes and confectionery. -Lower Holloway was once noted for its cheesecakes, which, almost within -memory, were regularly cried through the streets of London by a man on -horseback. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[59] From a paper by the author of the present volume, in _Once a Week_; -reprinted by permission of the proprietors. - - - - -HORSELYDOWN FAIR, IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. - - -Horselydown is situate near the bank of the river Thames, about half a -mile eastward of London Bridge. "It is difficult," says Mr. Corner, the -South wark antiquary, "to imagine that a neighbourhood now so crowded -with wharves and warehouses, granaries and factories, mills, breweries, -and places of business of all kinds, and where the busy hum of men at -work, like bees in a hive, is incessant, can have been, not many -centuries since, a region of pleasant fields and meadows, pastures for -sheep and cattle; with gardens, houses, shady lanes, clear streams with -stately swans, and cool walks by the river-side. Yet such was the case, -and the way from London Bridge to Horselydown was occupied by the -mansions of men of mark and consequence, dignitaries of the Church, men -of military renown, and wealthy citizens." - -Horselydown was part of the possessions of the Abbey of Bermondsey, and -was, probably, the common of the manor. After the surrender to Henry -VIII. it became the property of private individuals, and, in 1581, was -conveyed to the Governors of St. Olave's Grammar School, to whom it -still belongs; and it is one of the remarkable instances of the enormous -increase in the value of property in the metropolis, that this piece of -land, which was then let as pasturage for 6_l_. per annum, now produces -to the governors for the use of the school an annual income exceeding -3,000_l_. Hereon were erected the parish butts for the exercise of -archery, pursuant to the statute of 33 Henry VIII. - -The Marquis of Salisbury possesses, at Hatfield, a very remarkable -picture, which has been supposed to have been painted by the celebrated -Holbein, but is really the work of George Hofnagle, a Flemish artist in -Queen Elizabeth's time, as is shown by the costume of the figures: it -bears the date of 1590, whereas Holbein died in 1554. The picture -represents a Fair or Festival, which, from the position of the Tower of -London in the background, appears to have been held at Horselydown. In -the catalogue of the pictures at Hatfield, in the _Beauties of England -and Wales_, the painting is said to represent King Henry VIII. and his -Queen, Anne Boleyn, at a country wake or fair, at some place in Surrey, -within sight of the Tower of London; but several circumstances, in -addition to its situation with respect to the river Thames and the Tower -of London, concur to show that the locality is Horselydown, or, as it -was then called, Horseydown or Horsedown. This is proved by a curious -picture-map, dated 1544. Its centre shows a large open space, now -occupied by the diverging Queen Elizabeth Free School, and _Fair_ -Street. It is not known whether Southwark Fair was ever held on -Horselydown; but it is worthy of observation, that when the down came to -be built on, about the middle of the seventeenth century, the principal -street across it from east to west, and in the line of foreground -represented in the picture, was, and is to the present day, called -_Fair_ Street; and a street or lane of houses running from north to -south is called Three Oak Lane, traditionally from three oaks formerly -standing there. The tree-o'ershadowed hostelry, where the feast is being -prepared, may indicate the spot. In Evelyn's time, however (_Diary_, -13th Sept. 1666), the fair appears to have been held at St. Margaret's -Hill, in the Borough, for he calls it St. Margaret's Fair; and it -continued to be held between St. Margaret's Hill and St. George's -Church, until the fair was suppressed in 1762. - -The portly figure in the centre foreground, with a red beard and a -Spanish hat, must have occasioned the idea of its being a representation -of King Henry VIII.; but the general costume of the figure is later -than his reign, and the date on the picture shows the period of the -scene to have been towards the end of Queen Elizabeth's reign. - -The principal figures seem rather to represent some of the grave -burgesses and young gallants of Southwark, with their wives and -families, assembled on Horseydown on some festive occasion, on a bright -day in summer. The principal figure is evidently a man of worship, for -whom and his company a feast is preparing in the kitchen of the -hostelry; while the table is laid in the adjoining apartment, which is -decorated with boughs and gaily-coloured ribbons. The principal figure -may be one of the Flemish brewers, who settled in the parish in great -numbers; one of whom Vassal Webling, dwelt hard by Horseydown, having -become possessed of the house of Sir John Fastolfe, called Fastolfe -Place. Or, it may be Richard Hutton, armourer, and an alderman of -London, an inhabitant of St. Olave's. Whoever it is, he is accompanied -by a comely dame, probably his wife, and by two elderly women, and -followed by a boy and girl with a greyhound, a servant carrying an -infant, and a serving-man with sword and buckler. Near them is a yeoman -of her Majesty's guard, with the Queen's arms on his breast. The -citizen, in his long furred gown, accompanied by a smartly-dressed -female, crossing behind the principal party, is worthy of notice. The -gay trio behind them are also remarkable objects in the picture. - -The minister accompanying a lady, is probably Thomas Marten, M.A., -parson of the parish. The hawking party behind shows that the -neighbourhood of Southwark was at that period sufficiently open for the -enjoyment of the sport. The flag-staff, or May-pole, in the left -background, is also noticeable, as well as the unfinished vessel at the -river side, and the unfortunate transgressor in the stocks. - -Two young women and two serving-men are bearing large brass dishes for -the coming feast; while in the right foreground a party of five are -dancing to the minstrelsy of three musicians seated under a tree. A -party are approaching from the right, headed by another minister, who -may be the celebrated Robert Browne, a Puritan minister, and founder of -the sect of Brownists, who was schoolmaster of St. Olave's Grammar -School, from 1586 till 1591. He was connected by family ties with Lord -Burghley, which circumstance may account for this picture being -preserved at Hatfield, which was built by Robert Cecil, Earl of -Salisbury, second son of Lord Burghley. - -Behind the musicians are two figures which deserve some attention. It -has been suggested that the appearance of the foremost is much that of -the portraits of Shakspeare, and the head behind him is not unlike that -of Ben Jonson. Nor would there be any improbability in the idea of -Shakspeare and Jonson being present at such a fête, as Shakspeare lived -in St. Saviour's, and is very likely to have been invited to a festival -in the adjoining parish; but the date of the picture is somewhat too -early to be consistent with that notion. - -The church-like building with a tower, at the right of the picture, may -be "The Hermitage," marked on the plan: it was no uncommon thing for -hermitages to have chapels attached to them, as at Highgate, where the -hermit was authorized by a royal grant of Edward III. to take toll for -repairing the road. The hermitage at Highgate, which had a tower, -became a chapel for the devotions of the inhabitants. - -Hermitages were generally founded by an individual upon the ground of -some religious house, who, after the death of the first hermit, collated -a successor; and as those persons devoted themselves to some act of -charity, it does not appear so extraordinary that we find hermits living -upon bridges, and by the sides of roads, and being toll-gatherers, as -numerous records indubitably prove. (Tomlin's _Yseldon_.) - -The Hermit of Horselydown, or Dock-head, perhaps, received a toll for -keeping in repair the road across the Bermondsey Marshes from Southwark -towards Rotherhithe and Deptford.[60] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[60] See Mr. Corner's paper "On the History of Horselydown," 1855. - - - - -WAKE FESTIVALS IN THE BLACK COUNTRY. - - -Wakes were originally established to commemorate the erection of the -church in the parish where they were held. They were then celebrated on -the Sunday, and the parson did not deem it "unworthy his high vocation" -to enjoy a gambol on the village-green after the morning service. In the -larger towns, most of the churches had weekly fairs or markets attached -to them, these also being held on the Sabbath. As late as the -commencement of the fourteenth century, Wolverhampton had a market -every Sunday morning, the shingles being arranged round the old -Collegiate Church; and when the voice of worship ceased, the Babel of -the Fair began. During the fourteenth century, however, the custom of -holding Sunday markets was abolished, but the village Wake continued to -be celebrated on the sacred day, until the commencement of the present -century. The leading diversions of Wake-time in this district were, as -is pretty generally known, bull and badger baiting, cock-fighting, -pigeon-flying, boxing, running, and wrestling. There is, we think, a -very fair standard of comparison between past and present, presented to -us in the subject of Wake festivals; and for this reason we have thought -it worth while briefly to compare Wake-time in the Black Country half a -century ago with the corresponding season now. We think it will be -allowed that, after taking into consideration all educational and other -advantages, there has been a progress towards social and moral -excellence among our working men and women which is deserving of all -praise. - -The traditions of Bull-baiting, Cock-fighting, and other exhibitions of -brutality which characterised Wakes in this district forty or fifty -years ago, have in many cases been so distorted and magnified by -frequent repetition that they can no longer be accepted as truthful -pictures of the festivals which it was the humour of our ancestors to -establish and be pleased with. - -During the past half-century, there have been some brutal exhibitions of -this class. In the _Staffordshire Advertiser_, November 23, 1833, we -read of bulls being shockingly tortured in the neighbourhood of Dudley. -At Rowley Regis, a two-year-old bull was worried most brutally, his -horns being torn off, and his head and face mangled in the most -appalling manner. - -In the following year the _Wolverhampton Chronicle_ publishes this -intelligence:--"At Wilhenhall Wakes, two bulls were baited in the -streets of that town, and more than usual cruelty was displayed on the -occasion, as one of the bulls died on the night after being baited." At -Darlaston Wakes, about the same period, three bulls, three bears, and -two badgers underwent baiting simultaneously; to say nothing of dog and -cock fights. - -These instances might, of course, be multiplied by records of each town -in the district, but they will suffice to show the extent of the -barbarity which distinguished the Wakes of our forefathers. The -ludicrous was sometimes associated with the cruelties in these scenes. -At Tipton on one occasion, the bull broke loose, and, dashing madly -through the crowd, entered the open door of a house, at whose fire a -huge piece of Wake beef was roasting. From the force of habit, the bull -tossed the smoking joint to the ceiling, and disappeared, to the great -joy of the affrighted inmate. On another occasion, at Bloxwich, some wag -stole the bull at midnight, and when the excited crowd assembled on the -morrow, from all parts of the district, they were doomed to -disappointment. The circumstance gave rise to a local proverb still in -use. When great expectations are baffled, the circumstance is -instinctively likened to "the Bloxwich bull." The remembrance of this -barbarous pastime is perpetuated in the topographical nomenclature of -the district, where, following the example of Birmingham, almost every -town and village has its Bull King. - -The stronghold of Cock-fighting was at Wednesbury, where the "cookings" -were resorted to by persons from all parts of the kingdom. In a -_Directory of Walsall_, 1813, we read:--"The cockpit is situate on the -left-hand side of the entrance into Park Street, from Digbeth, at the -bottom of a yard belonging to Mr. Fox, known by the sign of the New Inn. -It is spacious and much frequented at the Wakes, at which period only it -is used." - -The minor sports and pastimes were the interludes between the tragedies, -and served to complete the day's programme of the Black Country -Wake-time. Forty years ago it was dangerous to pass through a town -during the Wakes. The inhabitants who took active part in these sports -were so infuriated with drink and excitement, and their feelings were so -hardened by scenes of torture, that they regarded neither the limb nor -life of any who happened to offend them. There was no amusement provided -either for young or old but the most vicious and degrading, and the -Wakes seldom passed by without some other blood than that of bulls being -spilt--the blood of comrades, and too frequently of wives and children, -who dared to remonstrate with a furious husband and father in his -orgies. - -Happily, modern Wakes have been divested of nearly all the -characteristics of the olden festivals. The only vestiges which -distinguish them are the booths, clowns, and drinking bouts; and these -amusements are only indulged in by children and the lowest class of the -population. Among the features recently introduced in connexion with -district Wakes may be enumerated out-door fêtes, flower-shows, bazaars, -and excursions. Temperance Societies and Working Men's Institutes select -Wake-time for their celebrations. Two of the most successful exhibitions -ever held in the district were inaugurated at the Wakes of Willenhall, -in 1857, and at those of Bilston a year or two later, both in connexion -with the progress of popular education. The Right Hon. C. P. Villiers, -M.P. who was present on both occasions, and who knew this district in -its dark days, took occasion to compare the former Wake times with the -present, as an evidence of the social advancement of the Black Country. -The cultivation of cottage window-flowers, now happily so general -throughout the same district, is another refining agency, which has -helped in no small degree to root out the love for grosser sports among -the people. But, perhaps, the most powerful agent in improving the -character of modern Wakes is the influence of popular excursions. The -district is fortunate in its situation in this respect. Within easy -distance are the lawns and flowers of Enville, Hagley, Shugborough, and -Teddesley, which it is the delight of their noble owners to place at the -service of our working men and women; and the more recent facilities for -locomotion have also placed the Malvern slopes and Southport sands -within their reach. Wake-times are therefore now become seasons of -excursions, when hard-working men quit the factory bench and the dark -mine, to delight and refine their inner manhood with views of Nature's -fairest works. This, we think, is one great step towards the development -of a love for art among the artisans of our utilitarian district; and -Wake-times so spent will assuredly exert an influence for good through -the remainder of the year.[61] - -Nevertheless, the Wakes are still disgraced by sad scenes of -intoxication and other excesses: the agencies of education and religion -are not working in vain in the district; let us hope that the progress, -though slow, may be sure. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[61] We quote the above from a contribution to the _Birmingham Daily -Post_. The details are of value, from their being furnished by an -eye-witness. - - - - -KEEPING BIRDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. - - -Alexander Neckam, from whose Treatise the following curious things are -derived, was a learned man of the twelfth century: his work, which is -written in Latin, has been translated by Mr. Thomas Wright, and -published under the direction of the Master of the Polls. Of Neckam's -birth we learn the date from a chronicle formerly existing among the -MSS. of the Earl of Arundel, which inform us that "in the month of -September, 1157, there was born to the King at Windsor a son named -Richard; and the same night was born Alexander Neckam at St. Alban's, -whose mother gave suck to Richard with her right breast, and to -Alexander with her left breast." Thus was Alexander the foster-brother -of the future Coeur de Lion, who was celebrated for his own love of -literature and learning; and the position which the circumstance here -related by the chronicler gave to Neckam in regard to such a Prince goes -far to explain the honourable position he gained in after-life. - -Neckam was born and passed his boyhood at St. Alban's: he received his -earlier education in the Abbey School there; and such a rapid advance -did he make in learning, that whilst still very young, the direction of -the school at Dunstable, a dependency of the Abbey of St. Alban's, was -entrusted to him. But he soon, of his own accord, sought a larger field -for his mental activities, and proceeded to the then celebrated -University of Paris, where he was a distinguished professor as early as -the year 1180, when he can have been no more than twenty-three years of -age. - -He did not long adhere to the scholastic learning of the University, but -in 1186 returned to England, and resumed his old post at Dunstable. He -subsequently became one of the Augustinian monks of Cirencester, and in -1213 was elected Abbot of Cirencester. He died at Kempsey, near -Worcester, in 1217, and was buried in Worcester Cathedral. - -Neckam, in these early times, displayed a taste for experimental -science. The Treatise from which we quote is a sort of manual of -natural science, as it was then taught; and it derives a still greater -value for us from the love of its author for illustrating his theme by -the introduction of contemporary anecdotes and stories relating to the -objects treated of; as well as the mention of popular facts and articles -of belief which had come under his observation or knowledge, many of -which offer singular illustrations of the condition and manners of the -age. - -From Neckam we learn how great was the love for animals in the Middle -Ages; how ready people, apparently of all classes, were to observe and -note the peculiarities of animated nature, and especially how fond they -were of tamed and domestic animals. We see that the mediæval castles and -great mansions were like so many menageries of rare beasts of all kinds. -It is in the stories told by Neckam, also, that we become more than ever -acquainted with the attachment of our mediæval forefathers to the chase, -and to all the animals connected with it. Beginning with the King of -Birds, the Eagle, however, he offers no new facts; though he makes it -the subject of numerous moralisings. With the lesser birds of prey he -becomes communicative of his anecdotes. He recounts how a Hawk one day, -by craft and accident and not by mere strength, killed an Eagle. "This -occurred in Great Britain, the King of which country, with his -courtiers, were witnesses of the occurrence. The courtiers applauded the -ferocity of the smaller and weaker bird, which, too, had only killed its -adversary in self-defence; but the King interfered, reproved his -followers for expressing sentiments which justified the employment of -force by vassals against their Sovereigns, and ordered the Hawk to be -hanged immediately as guilty of treason." - -Another anecdote places the reputation of the Hawk in a less obnoxious -light. It was one of the characteristics of that bird, as Neckam tells -us, in the cold of winter, to seize in its claws a Partridge, wild -Chick, or some other bird, and hold it under its belly all night, in -order to profit by its warmth; and when the warmth of day returned, the -Hawk, however hungry it might be, spared the bird, in consideration of -the service thus derived from it, and displayed the noble nature of the -bird of prey, the fit representative of the Feudal Baron, by setting it -at liberty. Neckam tells another story of a Falcon which revenged itself -on an Eagle; and another of a Weasel which caught a Sparrowhawk and -dragged it under the water. We may pass over his account of the -Phoenix, which is taken from the ancients; but that which he tells us -of the Parrot shows how great a favourite it was as a cage-bird even in -our islands during the Middle Ages. He speaks especially of its -mischievous cunning and of its skill in imitating the human voice, -adding that, for exciting people's mirth, it was preferable even to the -jongleurs. It must, however, be acknowledged that Neckam's wonderful -anecdotes become at times rather legendary. - -Passing by the Peacock, the Vulture, the Pheasant, and Partridge, the -often-described Barnacle, supposed to be generated from the gluey -substances produced on fir-timber when immersed in the waves of the sea, -finds its place here. The qualities of the Swan, which celebrated its -own death in sweet song; the Ostrich, said to be devoid of affection for -its own offspring; the Nightingale, which was so capricious in its -choice of habitation that Neckam tells us there was a well-known river -in Wales on one side of which the song of this nightingale was often -heard, but nobody ever heard it on the other; the Swallow, singular for -the form of its nest and for the locality which it selected for building -it; the Nuthatch; the Ibis of Egypt; the Dove; and several birds less -known, as described by Neckam, are chiefly worthy of notice on account -of the singular moralisings and symbolical interpretations which are -given to them. The Sparrow, according to Neckam (long anticipating -Sterne), is a libidinous bird, light, restless, "injurious to the fruits -of man's labour," too 'cute for the birdcatcher, and subject to -epilepsy. The Raven is, by its colour and by its habits, emblematical of -the clergy; it is easily domesticated. A Crow foretells rain by its -clamorousness. - -Neckam has also something to say about the Lark and the Magpie, and -something more about the Parrot, "the jongleur of the birds;" but he -says of the Cuckoo that it does nothing but repeat the words "_affer, -affer_," _i.e._ "give, give,"--and on that account it was the type of -avarice, and "sang the old song of those who have not yet divested -themselves of the old man." Surely, however, Neckam's ear was at fault -in this description, or the Cuckoos of Cirencester sang a very different -song, with a different moral too, from the cuckoos on the banks of Avon -in the dayspring of Shakspeare. But it is a novel fact to learn that the -saliva of the Cuckoo produced Grasshoppers; yet this was, no doubt, a -popular explanation of the well-known cuckoo-spit of our fields. The -Pelican of those days killed her own young, after which, in -self-remorse, she tore her own body to shed her blood upon them, by -means of which they revived. The Cock was symbolical of the Christian -preacher or doctor of the Church; and Neckam gives a rather curious -physical explanation of the question why it announces the hour of the -day by its crowing, and why it has a comb. The Wren was remarkable for -its fertility, and for another rather singular quality. When killed and -put on the spit before the fire to roast, it wanted no turning, but -turned itself with the utmost regularity. Though the smallest of birds, -it claimed to be their king, and hence the Latin name of _Regulus_. Did -it not, when the birds assembled to choose a king, conceal itself -beneath the Eagle's wing, when it was agreed that the throne should be -given to the bird which mounted highest towards heaven; and when the -Eagle, having soared the highest, made its claim to the prize, did it -not start from its hiding-place, jump on the Eagle's back, and claim to -be highest of all, and therefore the winner?[62] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[62] Selected and abridged from review of Neckam's Work, in _The Times_ -journal. - - - - -VI. Historic Sketches. - - - - -THE STORY OF FAIR ROSAMUND. - -In the noble Park of Blenheim they show you two sycamore-trees on the -spot where the ancient Palace of Woodstock was built; and near the -Bridge is a spring called Rosamund's Well. Hard by was the celebrated -Bower, erected by Henry II., and the scene of Addison's poetical opera -of _Rosamund_, in excellent verse, which, wedded to the music of Dr. -Arne, proved very successful. Several passages long retained their -popularity, and were daily sung, during the latter part of George the -Second's reign, at all the harpsichords in England. - -Drayton, in the reign of Elizabeth, described "Rosamund's Labyrinth, -whose ruins, together with her _Well_, being paved with square stones in -the bottom, and also her Tower, from which the Labyrinth did run, are -yet remaining, being vaults arched and walled with stone and brick, -almost inextricably wound within one another, by which, if at any time -her lodging were laid about by the Queen, she might easily avoid peril -imminent, and, if need be, by secret issues, take the air abroad, many -furlongs about Woodstock, in Oxfordshire." - -Nor are these the only memorials of the frail Rosamund, whose history is -one of the most interesting in our stock of legendary lore. About two -miles north of Oxford, near the river Isis, there are some remains of -the famous Nunnery of Godstow, from which, we are told, "there is a -subterranean passage to Woodstock." It was about the end of the reign of -Henry I., that this Nunnery was founded, at the instigation of Editha, a -pious lady of Winchester. Assisted by benefactions, Editha finished a -convent for Benedictine Nuns, in 1138; and King Stephen and his Queen -were present at the consecration. Editha was Abbess here; and the lands -given were confirmed by grants of Stephen and Richard I. When Prince -Henry arrived in England, in 1149, to dispute his title to the crown -with Stephen, he happened to visit the Nunnery of Godstow, where he saw -Rosamund, the daughter of Lord Clifford; she was not a nun, but boarded -in the convent. - -Fair Rosamund--_Rosa Mundi_, the Rose of the World--was the second -daughter of Walter de Clifford, the son of Richard and grandson of Ponz. -Richard is mentioned in the Domesday Survey as holding lands in the -counties of Oxford, Gloucester, Wilts, Worcester, and Hereford. Walter -de Clifford, by his wife Margaret, had four children:--Lucy, first -married to Hugh de Say, and subsequently to Bartholomew de Mortimer; -Rosamund, Walter, and Richard. Of Rosamund's early life we have no -particulars. Local tradition affirms that Canyngton, about three miles -from Bridgewater, was the place of her birth, and that within the walls -of its priory she received such education as the age afforded. That, as -the daughter of a powerful lord, she was entrusted to the care of some -religious sisterhood for nurture, both of mind and body, we have no -doubt, though the old chroniclers are silent on the subject. The art of -embroidery would appear to have been one of her accomplishments, for the -venerable Abbey of Buildwas long possessed among its treasures a -magnificent cope, which bore witness to the taste and skill of its fair -embellisher. Of her first acquaintance with Henry II., and the mode and -place of her introduction to him, no details have been preserved. -Probably she was known to him from her earliest years. Nor have we any -reason to suppose that, according to some modern versions of the sad -story, a broken vow added its shadow to a life whose record is -sufficiently gloomy without this additional darkening of woe. Not a hint -of her having been a nun do the chroniclers give us; and, had such been -the fact, full use would have been made of such an aggravation of her -offence. Her royal lover was one of the most unscrupulous of mankind, -and for his many enormities he was notorious. His affection for -Rosamund, however, such as it was, was constant. In order to protect her -from the vengeance of the Queen, he removed her successively to various -places of greater or less security. But the most famous of all, and with -which her name is more than with all others associated, was her retreat -at Woodstock. It was here that Henry built a chamber, which Brompton -describes as of wondrous architecture--resembling the work of Dædalus; -in other words, a labyrinth or maze. A manuscript of Robert of -Gloucester, in the Heralds' Office, says that-- - - "Att Wodestoke for hure he made a toure, - That is called Rosemounde's boure," - -the special intent of which was to conceal her from her royal rival. The -internal decorations of this abode were as much attended to as its means -of escaping external notice. The Abbot of Jorevall describes a cabinet -of marvellous workmanship, which was one of its ornaments. It was nearly -two feet in length, and on it the assault of champions, the action of -cattle, the flight of birds, and the leaping of fishes were so naturally -represented, that the figures appeared to move. - -Rosamund did not long occupy the retreat that royal though guilty love -had created for her. She died in 1177, while yet without a rival in the -King's affections, and, as it would appear, of some natural disease. In -after times the injured Queen Eleanor had the credit of discovering her -place of concealment, by means of a clue of silk which the King had -incautiously left behind him; and which enabled her to thread the -intricacies of the path, and of gratifying her revenge by obliging her -rival to drink from her hand a cup of poison. That the Queen discovered -the abode of Rosamund is possible; and it may have been that the shock -of the meeting, and the unmeasured language which her Majesty is said to -have employed, were too much for the poor victim of her womanly and -natural displeasure. It is only fair, however, to say that the Queen's -part in the entire transaction is not alluded to in the older writers, -and is probably the fiction of more modern times. - -Rosamund was buried in the first instance before the high altar in the -Church of Godstow Nunnery, which was probably selected from its -neighbourhood to Woodstock, and which henceforward enjoyed a goodly -number of benefactions in memory of her and for the health of her soul. -The body was wrapped in leather, and then placed in a coffin of lead. -Over the whole Henry built a magnificent tomb, which was covered with a -pall of silk, and surrounded by tapers constantly burning. This occurred -in the lifetime of her father, for he gave to the nuns of Godstow, in -pure and perpetual alms, for the health of the souls of Margaret his -wife and of Rosamund his daughter, his mill at Franton, with all -appurtenances, a meadow adjacent to the same called Lechtun, and a -saltpit in Wiche. Walter, his son, confirmed the gift. Osbert Fitzhugh -added to this the grant of a saltpit in Wiche, called the Cow, -pertaining to his manor of Wichebalt. - -Indeed, Walsingham goes so far as to say, though incorrectly, that the -Nunnery of Godstow was actually founded by King John for the soul of -Rosamund. It is not unlikely that a chantry was founded by that king for -the object stated, but the foundation of the house was beyond question -the work of a much earlier period. - -Rosamund's remains, however, were not allowed to occupy their sepulchre -in peace. Fourteen years after their solemn commission to this sacred -place of interment, Hugh, Bishop of Lincoln, in a visitation of his -diocese, came to Godstow. After he had entered the church, and performed -his devotions, he observed the tomb occupying its conspicuous position -before the high altar, adorned as already described, and forthwith asked -whose it was. On being informed that it was the grave of Rosamund, whom -Henry, the late king, had so dearly loved, and for whose sake he had -greatly enriched this hitherto small and indigent house, and had given -lands for the sustentation of the tomb and the maintenance of the -lights, he imperatively commanded the nuns to take her out of the -church, and to bury her with other common people, as the connexion -between her and the King had been base; and to the end that the -Christian religion might not be vilified, but that other women might -thus be deterred from similar evil ways. - -In obedience to the bishop's mandate the tomb was removed from the -church, and erected in the chapter-house. It bore the following epitaph, -containing the obvious play upon the lady's name, and declaratory of the -unhappy contrast which death had effected:-- - - "Hic jacet in tumba Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda; - Non redolet, sed olet, quæ redolere solet." - -This tomb remained, an object of interest and respect, until the -dissolution of the house. It was then destroyed, and a stone was -discovered within it, bearing the simple inscription, "TUMBA ROSAMUNDÆ." -The bones were found undecayed, and on the opening of the leaden coffin -which contained them, "there was a very swete smell came out of it." -Another eye-witness described it as having "enterchangeable weavings -drawn out and decked with roses red and green, and the picture of the -cup out of which she drank the poyson given her by the Queen, carved in -stone." A stone coffin, said to be that of Rosamund, was still to be -seen at Godstow when Hearne wrote his "Account of some Antiquities in -and about Oxford," but this was regarded by him as a "fiction of the -vulgar."[63] - -In the "French Chronicle of London," 1259-1343, one of our earliest -records compiled in illustration of the History of the City of London, -under 1262, we read another version of this legend: "In this year the -Queen was shamefully hooted and reviled at London Bridge, as she was -desiring to go from the Tower to Westminster; and this, because she had -caused a gentle damsel to be put to death, the most beauteous that was -known, and imputed to her that she was the King's concubine. For which -reason the Queen had her stripped, and caused a bath to be prepared, and -then made the beauteous damsel enter therein; and made a wicked old hag -beat her upon both arms, with a staff; and when the blood gushed forth, -there came another execrable sorceress, who applied two 'frightful -toads' to her breasts, which they sucked until all the blood that was in -her body had run out, two other old hags holding her arms stretched out. -The Queen, laughing the while, mocked her, and had great joy in her -heart, in being thus revenged upon Rosamonde. And when she was dead, the -Queen had the body taken and buried in a filthy ditch, and with the -body the toads. - -"But when the King had heard the news, how the Queen had acted towards -the most beauteous damsel whom he so greatly loved, and whom he held so -dear in his heart, he felt great sorrow, and made great lamentation -thereat:--'Alas! for my grief; what shall I do for the most beauteous -Rosamonde? For never was her peer found for beauty, disposition, and -courtliness.' He then desired to know what became of her body. He caused -one of the wicked sorceresses to be seized, and had her put into great -streights, that she might tell all the truth as to what they had done -with the gentle damsel. - -"Then the old hag related to the King how the Queen had wrought upon the -most beauteous body of the gentle damsel, and where they would find it. -In the meantime, the Queen had the body taken up, and carried to a house -of religion which had 'Godstowe' for name, near Oxenforde; and had the -body of Rosamond there buried, to colour her evil deeds And then King -Henry began to ride towards Wodestoke, where Rosamond, whom he loved so -much at heart, was so treacherously murdered by the Queen. And as the -King was riding towards Wodestoke, he met the body of Rosamond, strongly -enclosed within a chest, that was well and stoutly bound with iron. And -the King forthwith demanded whose corpse it was, and what was the name -of the person whose dead body they bore. They made answer to him, that -it was the corpse of the most beauteous Rosamond. And when King Henry -heard this, he instantly ordered them to open the chest, that he might -behold the body that had been so vilely martyred. Immediately thereon, -they did the King's command, and showed him the corpse of Rosamond, who -was so hideously put to death. And when King Henry saw the whole truth -thereof, through great grief, he fell fainting to the ground, and lay -there in a swoon for a long time before any one could have converse with -him. - -"And when the King awoke from his swoon he spoke, and swore a great -oath, that he would take full vengeance for the most horrid felony -which, for great spite, had upon the gentle damsel been committed. Then -began the King to lament and to give way to great sorrow for the most -beauteous Rosamond, whom he loved so much at heart. 'Alas! for my -grief,' said he, 'sweet Rosamonde, never was thy peer, never so sweet -nor beauteous a creature to be found: may then the sweet God who abides -in Trinity, on the soul of sweet Rosamond have mercy, and may He pardon -her all her misdeeds: very God Almighty, Thou who art the end and the -beginning, suffer not now that this soul shall in horrible torment come -to perish, and grant unto her true remission for all her sins, for Thy -great mercy's sake.' - -"And when he had thus prayed he commanded them forthwith to ride -straight to Godstowe with the body of the lady, and there had her burial -celebrated in that religious house of nuns, and there did he appoint -thirteen chaplains to sing for the soul of the said Rosamond, so long as -the world shall last. In this religious house of Godstowe," says the -Chronicler, "I tell you for truth, lieth fair Rosamond buried. May very -God Almighty of her soul have mercy. Amen."[64] - -The history of this unhappy lady, of whom the reader now possesses all -that can be gathered from olden sources, and more, perhaps, than can be -accepted as true, was a favourite subject of Mediæval romance; and all -kinds of embellishments were imported into the story in order to impress -a salutary caution against any imitation of the heroine. The story of -her being poisoned by Queen Eleanor is of comparatively modern -invention. A long ballad of forty-eight verses has been founded upon -this piece of strange history. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[63] From a paper, by the Rev. Thomas Hugo, read to the Somerset -Archæological Society. - -[64] Translated from the Anglo-Norman, by H. T. Riley, M.A. 1863. - - - - -CARDINAL WOLSEY AT ESHER PLACE. - - -In one of the loveliest and most picturesque vales of the county of -Surrey, there exists, to this day, a fragment of Esher, or, as it is -termed in old records, Asher Place, the last place of retreat where -Wolsey fell,-- - - "Like a bright exhalation in the evening." - -Here,-- - - "In the lovely vale - Of Esher, where the Mole glides lingering; loth - To leave such scenes of sweet simplicity,"-- - -was anciently a palace of the prelates of Winchester, built by William -Wayneflete, who held the see from 1447 to 1486. It was a stately brick -mansion, on the bank of the Mole, within the park of Esher. - -The Bishops of Winchester occasionally resided at this palace. Cardinal -Wolsey, who was appointed to the see on the death of Bishop Fox, in -1528, gave directions for the repair and partial rebuilding of this -house at Esher, purposing to have made it one of his usual residences, -after he had bereft himself of the palace which he had erected at -Hampton Court, and which he had found it prudent to surrender to his -jealous master. Many interesting circumstances relating to this last -retirement of Wolsey to Esher, on the decline of his favour with the -King, are related by his biographers. - -On the 18th of October, 1529, when the Cardinal was at York House, -Westminster (where now stands Whitehall), King Henry sent to him the -Dukes of Suffolk and Norfolk, to demand the Great Seal, Wolsey being -lord chancellor; and he was ordered, at the same time, to retire to -Esher. The order being unaccompanied by any voucher of authority, the -chancellor refused to obey it; but the King's messenger returning with -his written commands on the following day, the devoted minister -submitted. He then went to Putney by water, and having landed, rode to -Esher. - -Wolsey now took up his residence at Esher, where he continued, with a -numerous family of servants and retainers, "the space of three or four -weeks, without either beds, sheets, table-cloths, dishes to eat their -meat in, or wherewithal to buy any: howbeit, there was good provision of -all kind of victual, and of beer and wine, whereof there was sufficient -and plenty enough: but my lord was compelled of necessity to borrow of -Martin Arundell and the Bishop of Carlisle, plate and dishes, both to -drink in, and eat his meat in. Thus, my lord, with his family, continued -in this strange estate until after Hallownetide."--(_Stow._) He then -dismissed a considerable part of his attendants; and Thomas Cromwell, -afterwards Earl of Essex, who was in his service, went to London, -professedly to take care of his interest at court; and having obtained a -seat in the House of Commons, where a bill, of articles of impeachment -against the Cardinal for treason, was brought forward, "Master Cromwell -inveighed against it so discreetly, with such witty persuasions and deep -reasons, that the same could take no effect." - -Although the charge of treason was for the present abandoned, Wolsey was -indicted for a _præmunire_, the result of which was, to place him at the -King's mercy as to all his goods and possessions. Whilst his enemies -were thus steadily pursuing their schemes for his destruction, the King -betrayed occasional symptoms of returning favour, sending him gracious -messages, first by Sir John Russell, and then by the Duke of Norfolk; -but it may be questionable whether these demonstrations were not merely -meant to cajole him; for, during the time that he was entertaining the -Duke, Sir John Shelly, one of the judges, arrived at Esher, for the -express purpose of obtaining from Wolsey a formal cession of York House, -the town mansion of the Archbishops. The cardinal hesitated at making -such an assignment of the property of his see, but at length yielded, -yet not without a spirited remonstrance against the conduct of his -despoilers. The acts of insult and oppression to which he was subjected, -at length brought on severe illness, and he was confined to his bed. Dr. -Butts, the court physician, having visited him, informed the King that -his life was in danger; and Henry, as if in a moment of conscientious -regret, sent him "a comfortable message," with a valuable ring, as a -token of regard. Cavendish, in his _Life of Wolsey_, has thus related -the circumstances under which the Royal message was delivered:-- - - "At Christmas, he [Wolsey] fell sore sick, that he was likely to - die, whereof the King being advertised, was very sorry therefore, - and sent Doctor Buttes, his grace's physician, unto him, to see in - what state he was. Dr. Buttes came unto him, and finding him very - sick lying in his bed, and perceiving the danger he was in, - repaired again unto the King. Of whom the King demanded, saying, - 'How doth yonder man; have you seen him?' 'Yea, sir,' quoth he, - 'if you will have him dead, I warrant your Grace, he will be dead - within these four days, if he receive no comfort from you shortly - and Mistress Anne.' 'Marry,' quoth the King, 'God forbid that he - should die. I pray you, good Master Buttes, go again unto him, and - do your cure upon him, for I would not lose him for twenty - thousand pounds.' 'Then must your Grace,' quoth Master Buttes, - 'send him first some comfortable message as shortly as possible.' - 'Even so will I,' quoth the King, 'by you. And therefore make - speed to him again, and ye shall deliver him from me this ring for - a token of our good-will and favour towards him; (on which ring - was engraved the King's image within a ruby, as lively counterfeit - as was possible to be devised.) This ring he knoweth very well; - for he gave me the same; and tell him that I am not offended with - him in my heart nothing at all, and that shall he perceive, and - God send him life, very shortly. Therefore, bid him be of good - cheer, and pluck up his heart, and take no despair. And I charge - you come not from him until ye have brought him out of all danger - of death.' And then spake he to Mistress Anne, saying, 'Good - sweetheart, I pray you at this my instance, to send the Cardinal a - token with comfortable words; and in so doing it shall do us a - loving pleasure.' She being not minded to disobey the King's - earnest request, _whatever she intended in her heart towards the - Cardinal_, took incontinent her tablet of gold hanging at her - girdle, and delivered it to Master Buttes, with very gentle and - comfortable words and commendations to the Cardinal." - -The invalid _was_ comforted by the seeming kindness of his tyrannical -master, and recovered. In his last letter from Esher, which was -addressed to Stephen Gardiner, one of his secretaries, he prays him to -help him and relieve him in his miserable condition, and remove him from -this moist and corrupt air: dropsy had overtaken him, with loss of -appetite, and sleep; "wherfor," says the letter, "of necessyte I must be -removyd to some other dryer ayer and place, where I may have comodyte of -physcyans," &c. Wolsey subsequently obtained permission to remove from -Esher to Richmond, where he remained until his journey into Yorkshire, a -few months previous to his death, which took place at Leicester Abbey, -on the 29th of November, 1530. - -When Henry VIII. had resolved to constitute Hampton Court an honour, and -make a chace around it, he purchased several neighbouring estates, and, -among them, Esher. A survey of the manor, early in the reign of Edward -VI., shows there to have been here a mansion-house, sumptuously built, -with divers offices, and an orchard and garden; and also a park -adjoining, three miles in circuit, stocked with deer. - -We shall not trace the future possessors of Esher Place. The -natural undulations of the ground would seem to have required but -little improvement from the conceptions of Art. Yet Kent, the -landscape-gardener, "the inventor of an art that realizes painting," was -employed by the Right Hon. Henry Pelham, a leading statesman in the -reign of George II., possessor of the estate; and the artist and patron -have thus been inseparably connected with - - "Esher's peaceful grove, - Where Kent and Nature vie for Pelham's love." - -Noble fir and beech plantations cover the swelling heights of Esher; and -there are fine oaks and elms, together with a remarkable holly-tree, the -girth of which is between eight and nine feet. There are also several -small ornamental buildings in the park; but the principal one in -picturesqueness and historic interest, is the old brick tower, which -formed part of "Asher Palace," when this estate belonged to the see of -Winchester. It also constituted the central division of the mansion of -the Pelhams, but was judiciously left standing, when the modern -additions, by Kent, were pulled down by Mr. Spicer, who purchased the -estate in 1805, and erected a new mansion upon a more elevated site. In -Mr. Pelham's time, the mansion consisted of little more than the Tower, -or Gate-house, to that in which Wolsey had resided, and to which Kent's -additions were much inferior, proving, as Walpole remarks, "how little -Kent conceived either the principles or graces of Gothic architecture." - -The erection of this Tower has been attributed to Wolsey, whose name is -associated with several architectural works; but there is inferential -evidence to show that he did not erect the Tower at Esher. Although -nominated to the bishopric of Winchester in the autumn of 1528, he was -not installed until April in the following year (and that by proxy), at -which season he was too deeply engaged in the affair of the King's -divorce, to have time for extensive building. The only _distinct_ notice -which has appeared to connect Wolsey's name with any architectural works -at Asher Palace, is where Cavendish speaks of the removal to Westminster -(Whitehall), of "the new gallery which my lord had late before his fall -newly set up at Asher;" and "the taking away thereof," he continues, -"was to him corrosive--the which discouraged him very sore to stay there -any longer,--for he was weary of that house at Asher, for with continual -use it waxed unsavoury." - -In the form and character of the Tower itself are also indications of an -earlier period than that of Wolsey; and this well-built structure may be -assigned to the days of Bishop Wayneflete, who preceded the Cardinal in -his possession of the see by about eighty years, and is known to have -erected "a stately brick mansion" and "gate-house" in Esher Park. The -Tower is luxuriantly mantled with ivy, which was planted by a son of Mr. -Spicer, whilst yet a boy. The interior comprises three storeys; but the -apartments are small and much dilapidated. There is, however, within one -of the octagonal turrets, a very skilfully-wrought _newel_, or -geometrical staircase, of brick, in excellent preservation; and in the -roofing of which the principles of the construction of the oblique arch, -(a supposed invention of modern times) are practically exhibited.[65] - -There is, on the Esher estate, another structure, which is popularly -associated with Wolsey's name. This is a small building, of flints and -rude stones, with a central recess and stone seat; and at the foot a -refreshing spring, called _Wolsey's Well_. It is most probable that this -little edifice was raised by Mr. Pelham, as the _buckle_, a part of his -family arms, is sculptured upon a stone over the middle arch, and also -the initials, H. P. The seat is more properly named "the Travellers' -Rest." Wolsey spent some weeks at Esher, a prey to his fears and -mortified ambition. As might be expected, the world, that had paid him -such abject court in his prosperity, deserted him in this fatal reverse -of his fortunes. Wolsey was not himself prepared for what he conceived -to be base ingratitude: it surprised and deceived him; and the same -pride, unsupported by true dignity of character, which made him be -vainly elated with his recent grandeur, made him now doubly sensitive to -the humiliations of adversity. Under any circumstances he would be unfit -for solitude: the glory and the gaze of the multitude being the breath -of his nostrils, the calm contentment of private life was to him a sound -of no meaning. What, then, must have been his feelings in this first -hour of his misery? Baffled in all the schemes of his ambition, -disgraced before his rivals, abandoned by the world, and forsaken by his -royal master, his heart was not yet sufficiently chastened by affliction -to seek for consolation in its only true source--religion; but still -clung, with the despair of a lover, to the hope of the royal mercy. His -letters to Gardiner, whom he had the merit of bringing forward from -obscurity, and who, excepting his other secretary, Cromwell, of all his -followers, alone retained grateful respect for their benefactor in his -fallen fortunes, bespeak the agony of his feelings. They are severally -subscribed, "With a rude hand, and sorrowful heart, T. Cardlis Ebor. -_miserrimus_," and are scarcely legible, from the excitement under which -they seem to have been written. - -In chastening verse has our great moralist thus portrayed the proud -Churchman:-- - - "In full-blown dignity see Wolsey stand, - Law in his voice, and fortune in his hand: - To him the Church, the realm, their pow'rs consign; - Through him, the rays of regal bounty shine: - Turn'd by his nod, the stream of honour flows; - His smile at once security bestows. - Still to new heights his restless wishes soar; - Claim leads to claim, and pow'r advances pow'r; - Till conquest unresisted ceased to please; - And rights submitted, left him none to seize! - At length, his Sov'reign frowns--the train of state - Mark the keen glance, and watch the sign to hate; - Where'er he turns, he meets a stranger's eye; - His suppliants scorn him, and his followers fly. - Now drops at once the pride of awful state, - The golden canopy, the glittering plate, - The regal palace, the luxurious board, - The liveried servants, and the menial lord! - With age, with cares, with maladies oppress'd, - He seeks the refuge of monastic rest. - Grief aids disease, remember'd folly stings, - And his last sighs reproach the faith of Kings."--JOHNSON. - -Whatever appertains to the record of his appalling fall is treasurable -as an addition to the narrative in our popular histories. A few points -of novelty and interest as regards Wolsey have been derived from a State -manuscript of the reign of Henry VIII., now in the possession of Sir -Walter C. Trevelyan, Bart. F.S.A. a junior member of whose family was -one of the chaplains to Henry VIII.; and through him it may have found -its way to the venerable seat of Nettlecombe, in the county of Somerset, -where this MS. relating to domestic expenses and payments has for some -centuries been deposited. - -In this manuscript Wolsey is spoken of by his double title of Cardinal -of York and Bishop of Winchester, in connexion with a payment to him of -one thousand marks, out of the revenues of Winchester. By the above -entry, confirmed by a subsequent passage in Cavendish, it is clear that -this was a pension of 1,000 marks; and that in consideration of the -necessities of the Cardinal, it was to be allowed him beforehand. After -all his pomp and prosperity, after all his vast accumulation of wealth, -after all his piles of plate and heaps of cloth-of-gold, and costly -apparel, Wolsey, in March 1530 (judging only from this entry), was -reduced to the necessity of obtaining a loan of a thousand marks. This, -too, to carry him to his exile at York, whither his enemies had by this -date induced the fickle, selfish, and luxurious King to banish his great -favourite. - -Of Wolsey's subsequent residence at Cawood, we find in this MS. an item -to David Vincent, of the considerable sum of 35_l_. 6_s_. 8_d_. (more -than 200_l_.), whence we may infer this messenger to have made some stay -there, watching the progress of Wolsey's illness, and sending -intelligence to the King, who was more anxious for the death than for -the life of his victim, in order that he might seize upon the remainder -of his moveables. It is quite evident that the Cardinal was not at this -period so destitute as many have supposed, and that he had carried with -him a very large quantity of plate, of which the King possessed himself -the moment the breath was out of the body of its owner. Among the -payments for January, 22 Henry VIII., we read in the Trevelyan MS. that -two persons were employed for three entire days in London "weighing the -plate that came from Cawood, late the Cardinalles." Such are the -unceremonious terms used in the original memorandum, communicating a -striking fact, of which we now hear for the first time. - -It is a curious and novel circumstance which the Trevelyan manuscript -has brought to light, that exactly three months before the death of -Wolsey, the Dean and Canons of Cardinal's (now Christchurch) College, -Oxford, had so completely separated themselves from Wolsey, and from all -interest he had taken in their establishment, that, instead of rewriting -to him for the comparatively small sum of 184_l_. for the purpose of -carrying on their works, they applied to the King for the loan of the -money; the entry of which loan is made in this State manuscript, "upon -an obligation to be repaid agayne," "on this side of Cristinmas next -cumming;" so that even this trifling advance could not be made out of -the royal purse, filled to repletion by the sacrifice of Wolsey, without -an express stipulation that the money was to be returned before -Christmas. - -To the credit of Wolsey it must be told, that in the midst of his -troubles his anxiety for his new college was unabated, and it is upon -record, that, among his last petitions to the King, was an urgent -request that "His Majesty would suffer his college at Oxford to go -on."[66] - -Everything in Wolsey--his vices and his virtues--was great. He seemed -incapable of mediocrity in anything: voluptuous and profuse, rapacious -and of insatiable ambition, too magnanimous to be either cruel or -revengeful, he was an excellent master and patron, and a fair and open -enemy. If we despise the abjectness which he exhibited in his first -fall, let it be remembered from and to what he fell, from a degree of -wealth and grandeur which no subject on earth now enjoys, to -instantaneous and utter destitution. He wanted at Esher the comfort -which even a prison would have afforded, the very bed on which he slept -having been taken from him. We are also to take into account the abject -submission which he had long been taught to exercise towards the tyrant, - - "Whose smile was transport, and whose frown was fate." - -There are certain circumstances connected with Wolsey's death and -interment which are noteworthy. "He foretold to Cavendish that at eight -o'clock he would lose his master.... Towards the conclusion, his accents -began to falter; at the end his eyes became motionless, and his sight -failed. The abbot was summoned to administer the extreme unction, and -the yeomen of the guard were called in to see him die. As the clock -struck eight he expired." - -Cavendish and the bystanders thought Wolsey must have had a revelation -of the time of his death; and from the way in which the fact had taken -possession of his mind, it is supposed that he relied on astrological -prediction. - -Mr. Payne Collier observes:[67] "It is unnecessary, as well as -uncharitable, to suppose what there is no proof of--that Wolsey died of -poison, either administered by himself or others. The obvious and -proximate cause of his death was affliction. A great heart, oppressed -with indignities and beset with dangers, at length gave way, and Wolsey -received the two last charities of a death-bed and a grave, with many -circumstances affectingly told by Cavendish, in the Abbey of Leicester." - -Wolsey's remains were privately interred in one of the chapels of the -Abbey at Leicester, which has long been reduced to a mass of shapeless -ruins. The Cardinal had, however, designed a sumptuous receptacle for -his remains. Adjoining the east end of St. George's Chapel at Windsor is -a stone edifice, built by King Henry VII., as a burial-place for himself -and his successors; but this Prince afterwards altering his purpose, -began the more noble structure at Westminster, and the Windsor fabric -remained neglected until Wolsey obtained a grant of it from Henry VIII. -The Cardinal, with a profusion of expense unknown to former ages, -designed and began here a most sumptuous monument for himself, from -whence this building obtained the name of _Wolsey's Tomb-house_. This -monument was magnificently built; and at the time of the Cardinal's -disgrace 4,250 ducats had been paid to a statuary of Florence for the -work already done; and 380_l_. 18_s_. sterling had been paid for gilding -only the half of this costly monument. It thus remained unfinished; in -1646 it was plundered by the rebels of its statues and figures of -gilt-copper. The Tomb-house is now in process of decoration as a -memorial to the late Prince Consort. - -Wolsey had also executed for him at Rome a beautiful marble sarcophagus, -but which did not arrive in time for the burial of the Cardinal: it lay -neglected for two centuries and three-quarters, when it was removed to -the crypt of St. Paul's Cathedral, and in it were placed Nelson's -remains. - -[Illustration: WAYNFLETE'S TOWER, ESHER PLACE.] - -It is scarcely possible to leave the Tower at Esher without saddening -thoughts that "lie too deep for tears." Here, amidst "the sweetest -solitude" of wood and grove, stands the memorial of the ambitious -minister, the powerful favourite, the selfish ecclesiastic, and the -victim to tyranny,--yet a tyranny that he had himself assisted both to -form and exercise. How troubled were the times which the sight of this -structure recals! How painful is the contrast with the scene of peaceful -nature around it!--with the refreshing quiet of the wood and glade, and -the repose of the water, whereon the nothingness of human glory may be -shown in one simple but sublime lesson--the circle that expands into -nought. How painful, we repeat, is the contemplation of such contrasts; -yet, how fraught with lessons for our happiness! We weep over the fallen -fortunes of men, and their abuse of the means entrusted to them for the -welfare of their fellow-men; yet what a rebuke do we receive in the -reflection that Nature surrounds us with the means of endless -enjoyments, while Art, by its subtlety, perverts and corrupts, thus -weaning the affections from the beautiful and the pure. - -Yet, if "Asher Place" had its vicissitudes in past ages, so too has -Claremont--a portion of the same manor--in our own times. Here, in the -mansion built for the great Lord Clive, Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Cobourg, -half a century since, brought his bride, the fair-haired daughter of -England, and lived for a short and blissful period, in all the happiness -of conjugal and domestic union, when premature death struck down the -Princess and her infant offspring. Here Louis Philippe and his Queen -found an asylum, in the year of Revolutions, 1848; and have since gone -to their earthly home a few miles distant. Leopold, too, has descended -to the tomb, full of years and kingly honours, having received in -marriage, in succession, a daughter of the King of England, and a -daughter of the King of France. - - [_The Life of Wolsey_, by Cavendish, (quoted in the preceding - pages,) is one of the most interesting and valuable specimens of - biography in the English language. Its first merit is originality - in the strictest sense of the word. The writer, one of Wolsey's - gentlemen, and much in his confidence, was not merely a spectator, - but an agent, and in some degree, a sufferer in the scenes which - he describes. In the next place, though he writes from the heart, - there is an air of impartiality in some parts of the work, which - gives them the clear stamp of veracity. Of the hauteur and - insolence of the Cardinal during his elevation, he sometimes - allows himself to speak with asperity. The tender compassion which - rendered him the faithful companion of his fallen fortunes, gives - an amiable and pleasing colour to the latter part of his - narrative. Besides, the cumbrous magnificence of the reign of - Henry VIII., under the great change of manners which two centuries - and a half have produced, is become in its representation to us, - extremely picturesque; and for this part of his undertaking - Cavendish was eminently qualified. He was not one of those - unobserving men, who seem never to apprehend that what is familiar - to themselves will become curious to posterity. He saw with an - exact and discriminating eye, and what he beheld he was able to - describe. In no other work, perhaps, is to be found so minute and - faithful a detail of what the palaces of kings and prelates, and - the houses of the great nobility then were; their loads of plate, - their hangings of arras, the ponderous plenty of their tables, and - the useless accumulation, as we should conceive, of cloth, linen, - &c., which were sometimes exhibited in their great galleries as in - so many warehouses. Add to this, the innumerable links then - subsisting in the great chain of dependence, the haughty distance - of the superior to his immediate inferior, the obsequiousness of - the immediate inferior in return; the young nobility serving in - the houses of the greater prelates like menial servants, and these - prelates themselves as often, perhaps, on the knee to their king - as to their God. All these particulars, acquired from the life by - the writer before us, form so many vivid pictures presented to - the mind's eye, so that ideas become images, and we seem to - behold what we only read of.--See Dr. Wordsworth's _Ecclesiastical - Biography_.] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[65] That the oblique or skew arch is an old invention is attested by -the following passage in the _Handbook of Spain_, by Mr. Ford, who -resided in that country several years: "Now visit the Alcazar -(Cathedral, Seville); but first observe a singular Moorish skew arch, in -a narrow street leading (from the cathedral) to the Puerta de Xerez: it -proves that the Moors practised this now assumed modern invention, at -least, eight centuries ago." - -[66] The kitchen was the first building erected by Wolsey in his new -College, and has undergone no material alteration either in shape, size, -or arrangement. It is a good specimen of an ancient English kitchen. - -[67] In a paper read to the Society of Antiquaries, describing the -Trevelyan MS. - - - - -TRADITIONS OF BATTLE-FIELDS. - - -It has been frequently remarked that the general decay of local -traditions, or the difficulty of obtaining particulars of events, or the -sites of the most remembered passages of history, is, year by year, -becoming more evident. It might be expected that in the vicinity of -great transactions, among a rude and ignorant peasantry, we should find -more frequent vestiges of the one memorable action which made their -locality famous; yet, it is astonishing to find how often these are -completely obliterated. - -Much of this falling-off in tradition may be referred to the more rigid -test to which it is subjected by means of the printing-press; as well as -to the new class of materials for history. For a century or so, the -habit had prevailed of receiving implicitly the traditions and records -of past times, assuming them to have been substantiated at the date of -their publication. This mode of constructing history consisted merely of -breaking up and re-arranging the old materials, which have been compared -to stereotype blocks. The worthlessness of this mode of proceeding has -become apparent; and now the opposite error has come strongly into -vogue--that of going back to neglected documents of the same date as the -transaction, and, on their evidence, revoking the settled deliberate -verdict of past centuries. The vast accession of materials of this kind -obtained of late years, is truly surprising. There is likewise another -means of verifying the dates, places, and names, of great events: we -mean in the visits of archæologists to the sites, and the comparison of -the actual localities with recorded details; proceedings of the most -pleasurable and intellectual kind. - -Nevertheless, the old traditional stock is not yet entirely exhausted. -There are no families in the British Islands more ancient than many of -those which are yet to be found among our yeomanry and peasantry. Every -now and then some proof comes to light of an antiquity of tenure on the -part of such families, far exceeding that of the Stanleys or Howards. -The Duke of York, for example, ejected from a farm at Chertsey a certain -Mr. Wapshott, who claimed lineal and accredited descent from Reginald -Wapshott, the armour-bearer of Alfred, who is said to have established -Reginald in this very farm. This personage was an example of the -tenacity with which tradition might be thus preserved, for his family -version of their origin derived them from Wapshott, the warrener, and -not the armour-bearer of Alfred.[68] - -Again, we have recovered of late a series of instances, which show how -few individuals not uncommonly intervene between ourselves and the -eye-witnesses of remarkable men or actions. King William IV. had spoken -to a butcher at Windsor, who had conversed with Charles II. What is -still more remarkable, a person living in 1847, aged then about -sixty-one, was frequently assured by his father that, in 1786, he -repeatedly saw one Peter Garden, who died in that year at the age of 127 -years; and who, when a boy, heard Henry Jenkins give evidence in a court -of justice at York, to the effect that, when a boy, he was employed in -carrying arrows up the hill before the battle of Flodden Field. - - This battle was fought in 1513 - - Henry Jenkins died in 1670, at the age of 169 - - Deduct for his age at the time of the - battle of Flodden Field 12 - --- 157 - Peter Garden, the man who heard Jenkins - give his evidence, died at 127 - - Deduct for his age when he saw Jenkins 11 - --- 116 - The person whose father knew Peter - Garden was born shortly before 1786, - or 70 years since 70 - ---- - A.D. 1856 - -In this year, 1856, Mr. Sidney Gibson, F.S.A. showed, as above, that a -person living in 1786, conversed with a man that fought at Flodden -Field. - -We now proceed to narrate a few instances in which the details of early -battles have been most successfully investigated and identified. - -There is not much myth about the BATTLE OF HASTINGS. On that undulating -upland, and in that steep morass, raged on Saturday, October 14th, A.D. -1060, from nine till three, when its tide first turned, as fierce a -battle, as real a stand-up fight between the army of England and the -great Norman host, as any which has ever decided the destinies of -countries. There is no important battle, the details of which have been -so carefully handed down to us. How the Conqueror's left foot slipped on -landing--the ill omen--and how his right foot "stacked in the sand"--the -good omen of "seisin;"--how the ships were pierced, so that his host -might fight its way to glory without retreat; and how he merrily -extracted an omen for good even while putting on his hauberk the wrong -side foremost; how brother Gurth with the tender conscience counselled -brother Harold with the seared conscience to stay away from the fray, -lest his broken oath to William should overtake him; and how, as they -reconnoitred the vast Norman host, the elder brother's heart had failed -him, had not the younger one called him scoundrel for his meditated -flight; the prayerful eve in the one camp and the carousing eve in the -other, "with wassails and drinkhails;" the exploits of valiant knight -Taillifer between the lines; how the Normans shot high in air to blind -the enemy; and the dreadful _mêlée_ in the "blind ditch Malfosse -shadowed with reed and sedge;" and the Conqueror's hearty after-battle -meal, when he was chaired among the dying and the dead; and that -exquisitely pathetic touch of story which tells how Edith, the -swan-necked,--for the love she bore to Harold,--when all others failed -to recognise him, was brought to discover his mutilated corse among the -slain; and the Conqueror's vow, so literally redeemed, to fix the high -altar of the "Abbey of the Battaile" where the Saxon _gonfanon_ -fell--all these, and a thousand other minute circumstances of the -memorable day, stand out in as clear relief at this distance of time as -the last charge of Waterloo, or the closing scene at Trafalgar. - -Sussex has little occasion to feel humbled by having been the scene of -this well-contested field. Whatever the inhabitants of the British isles -have since been able to effect for their own greatness and for the -happiness of the human race, is attributable in no small degree to the -issue of that fight. Thenceforth the Saxon was guided and elevated by -the high spirit and far-reaching enterprise of the Norman, and the -elements of the national character were complete.[69] - -Among the memorials of the conquered must not be forgotten the roll of -the companions of the Conqueror, which was installed with great -festivity in August, 1862, at Dives, a small town on the seacoast, in -the department of Calvados, in Normandy. It was near this town, at the -mouth of the Dives, that William and his companions in arms met previous -to their embarkation for the subjugation of England. The very spot was -already marked by a column erected in 1861, by M. de Caumont, the -eminent Norman savant and archæologist; and the fête in August, 1862, -was held under the auspices of the same learned gentleman. The -commemoration was intended to be international, and a public invitation -was given to the English residents in the locality; but, from some -unexplained cause or other, no English person attended. Sir Bernard -Burke attributes this absence to the announcement being imperfectly -made; "for what," he asks, "could more come home to the better and more -educated classes of English people than the inauguration of a roll which -contains the greatest names amongst us; a roll to which the proudest -feel prouder still to belong, and which may be said to form the very -household words of our glory--the roll, in fact, of what has since been -the best and bravest aristocracy in the universe?" - -The fête commenced by a meeting in the Market-hall of Dives, which was -characteristically decorated; one of the objects being a large picture -of the construction and embarkation of William's fleet, painted from the -Bayeux Tapestry. The Dives Roll is deposited within the church, over the -principal entrance. It differs from the Battle Abbey Roll in this -respect, that the latter is the roll of those who actually fought at -Hastings, and the former is the roll of those who assembled for the -expedition, and were otherwise engaged in furthering the conquest of -England. The roll is printed in the _Bulletin de la Societé des -Antiquaires de Normandie_, and in the _Vicissitudes of Families_, third -series. - -Next are three battles of the fifteenth century: Towton, Tewkesbury, and -Bosworth. TOWTON FIELD, supposed to be the most fierce and bloody battle -that ever happened in any domestic war, was fought between the Houses of -York and Lancaster in 1461. On the 29th of March, the armies met at -Towton: the Lancastrians were totally routed, and Edward left -unquestionably king. The carnage of this terrible field is appalling. -Proclamations forbidding quarter were issued before the engagement. Like -Leipsic, it reached over the night; but, unlike Leipsic, even the hours -of darkness brought no rest. They fought from four o'clock in the -afternoon, throughout the whole night, on to noon the next day. Like -Waterloo, it was fought on a Sunday. And the accounts of contemporary -writers state, in words very like the letters from Mont St. Jean, that, -for weeks afterwards the blood stood in puddles, and stagnated in -gutters, and that the water of the wells was red. No inaccuracy is more -frequent in ancient authors than that of numbers, and generally on the -side of exaggeration. But on this occasion we can form a more correct -estimate of the carnage by the concurrence of unusually reputable -testimonies; and, perhaps, in these times it will give the best idea of -it, to say that the number of Englishmen slain exceeded the _sum_ of -those who fell at Vimiera, Talavera, Albuera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and -Waterloo.[70] - -TEWKESBURY FIELD has been minutely explored. Mr. Richard Brooke, F.S.A., -after narrating, from Holinshed, the circumstances which preceded this -memorable battle--from the arrival of Queen Margaret at Weymouth, to the -termination of the conflict, and the murder of Prince Edward--points out -the field of battle as close to the first mile-stone on the high road -leading from Tewkesbury through Tredington to Cheltenham and Gloucester. -On the western side of the town of Tewkesbury is the Home-ground, or -Home-hill, where once a castle stood; a part of this elevated ground is -a field, called "the Gastons," which extends to the first mile-stone, -just opposite which, on the eastern side of the road, is a field which -has been immemorially called "Margaret's Camp." The battle was, -according to tradition, fought on that place, and in the adjacent fields -on the southward, as also in those a little eastward of it. In -"Margaret's Camp," in the centre is a small circular inclosure, -surrounded by a ditch, without hedge or bank, but having some large elm -trees growing round its inner edge. This is too insignificant to have -been a military entrenchment; but it may have been the place of -interment of some of the slain; or is thought to have been formed in -comparatively modern times to commemorate the spot where the -Lancastrian army was posted. In the field, called "Gup's Hill," Mr. -Brooke was told by elderly persons, bones had formerly been discovered. - -The old annalists and chroniclers, Mr. Brooke says, have left us much in -the dark as to the exact spot near the camp of the Lancastrians where -Edward's forces passed the night prior to the battle; but on the morning -of the battle, and immediately before it commenced, his army, according -both to tradition and probability, took up a position upon some elevated -ground adjoining the turnpike-road, and to the southward of and opposite -the Lancastrian army. From that position a tract of ground (now fields -and closes) slopes downwards, so as to form a depression between it and -the spot occupied by the Lancastrians. This tract of ground was formerly -called the "Red Piece," and it is now intersected by the turnpike-road, -and forms two fields, one on each side of the road, one of which is -called the Near Red Close, and the other the Further Red Close. This -tract of ground extends to the field called "Margaret's Camp," and it -appears almost certain that it was on the southward side of the latter -that Edward's forces made their attack. - -A meadow in the rear of the Lancastrian position, and lying on the -westward side of the turnpike-road, half a mile from Tewkesbury, and -within a few hundred yards of the Tewkesbury Union Workhouse, is called -the "Bloody Meadow:" an idea is generally entertained that it derives -its name from the slaughter of many of the fugitives, who fled from the -battle towards the meadow, in hope of getting over the Severn, as there -is a ferry not far from it. Fourteen or fifteen years ago, was found in -the Bloody Meadow a long piece of iron, which appeared to have been -part of a sword-blade. - -BOSWORTH FIELD is a still more memorable site. On August 22, 1485, was -fought the famous battle of Bosworth, the precise spot being pointed out -by the following passage contained in a proclamation sent by Henry VII., -almost immediately after his victory, to the municipality of York: -"Moreover, the King ascertaineth you that Richard, Duke of Gloucester, -lately called King Richard, was slain at a place called Sandeford, in -the county of Leicester, and brought dead off the field," &c. - -The field of battle lies about three miles south of Market Bosworth; and -it is clear from direct historical testimony, which is in this instance -fully corroborated by local traditions, that the principal encounter -between the forces of Richard and Richmond took place on "Ambien Hill," -on the southern slope of which rises the spring, "Richard's Well," from -which the King is traditionally reported to have drank during the -engagement. The plain of Redmoor was also partly comprehended in the -movements of the two armies, and across which there cannot be a doubt -the flight of the vanquished royalists was afterwards directed towards -Dadlington, Stoke Golding, and Crown Hill, besides the strong position -of Ambien Hill, on the south and west. It is, therefore, evident that -the place where the King fell must be looked for in the immediate -vicinity of these two well-ascertained sites of conflict. Now -_Sandeford_, or _Sandford_, named in the proclamation of Henry VII., is -not known to have existed as a hamlet or village in the county of -Leicester, from the date of Domesday-book; hence Sandford is taken to -imply an ancient road or passage over some fordable stream or -water-course. It has been found that the old road from Leicester to -Atherstone, through the villages of Peckleton and Kirkby Mallory, and -along which road Richard advanced, when on his march from Leicester upon -Sunday, August 21, to meet his antagonist, used formerly, after skirting -and partially traversing the field of battle, to cross a _ford_, -remembered by the present generation, and situated at but a short -distance from the south-western slope of Ambien Hill. And part of the -comparatively modern highway which now passes over the site of the same -ford, is called the _Sandroad_ at the present time. The stream which -once flooded the highway, is now carried through a vaulted tunnel -beneath it. The ford has consequently disappeared; but any visitor to -Bosworth Field, who inquires for the _Water Gate_, may yet stand on the -ground pointed out as the scene of the death of Richard III. by the -words of his rival Henry VII. It should be added that Mr. J. F. -Hollings, of Leicester, who has communicated the above details to _Notes -and Queries_, 2nd S., No. 150, has shown also that the Ordnance Map is -not altogether to be relied upon as a guide to the various localities -connected with the battle of Bosworth. - -Mr. Syer Cuming, F.S.A., in a paper read to the British Archæological -Association, in 1862, has grouped these interesting Memorials of Richard -III. On this occasion, the archæologists proceeded from Leicester to the -battle-field; and a considerable accession to the number being received -at Bosworth, the procession extended upwards of half-a-mile in length. -On arriving at the field, large numbers of people had preceded the -procession and congregated round the platform, and altogether there -could not have been fewer than a thousand persons present. The platform -was decorated with banners. A facsimile of the crown of Richard III. -was shown on a cushion in front of Major Wollaston, who presided on the -occasion. A flag marked the place where King Richard died, near a small -pond, and a white flag pointed out the position of Richmond's army. - -Richard Plantagenet was born about the year 1450, of Lady Cecilia, wife -of Richard, Duke of York, in the ancient castle of Fotheringhay, -Northamptonshire; but his natal abode was swept away by order of our -first James, and we have perhaps no earlier relic of the Prince than his -official seal as Admiral of England the date of which is fixed by Mr. -Pettigrew between the years 1471 and 1475. It bears on it a large -vessel, the mainsail blazoned with the arms of France and England, -crossed by a label of three points; similar charges appearing on a flag -held by a greyhound at the aft-castle. The verge represents a collar of -roses, and within it is a legend setting forth that it is the seal of -Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Admiral of England, for the counties of -Dorset and Somerset--_S' Rici: Dvc' Glovc': Admiralli: Angl: I: Com: -Dors' et Soms_. - -[When Dr. Dibdin was on his "Northern Tour," published in 1838, at -Whiburn, in the neighbourhood of Tynemouth, he had the good fortune to -be introduced to Sir Hedworth Williamson's old trunk of family seals, in -red and white wax, among which he found a warrant of Richard III., then -Duke of Gloucester, dated 20th of February, in the thirteenth year of -Edward IV., with the Autograph of the Duke, and part of the Seal -appended; both of which are of most rare occurrence.] - -If tradition is to be believed, King John and Queen Elizabeth must have -had as many palaces as there are counties in England; and though the -name of Richard III. is less frequently connected with old mansions, -there are still plenty of antiquated houses which are said to have been -his abiding-places for more or less lengthy periods. Among others may be -mentioned the Black Boy Inn, Chelmsford, where were formerly to be seen -two carved bosses on the ceiling of its great room: one being painted -with a blue boar on a deep red field, surrounded by a collar of seven -stars or mullets; the other, with a full-blown rose, once entirely -white, but subsequently white and red, indicative of the union of the -Houses of York and Lancaster. Both these bosses were communicated to the -_Gentleman's Magazine_ (May, 1840), by John Adey Repton; but the editor -of that serial contended that the boar is the insignia of Vere, Earl of -Oxford, and that the tradition regarding Richard must therefore be -rejected, forgetful of the fact that after the attainder of the Earl for -high treason, his vast possessions in Essex and other counties were -given to the Duke of Gloucester, so that the Black Boy Inn may, after -all, have served as a hunting-lodge of the Plantagenet. Of Richard's two -London residences one has altogether vanished, and the other has lost -much of its antique aspect, but Shakspeare has given a world-wide and -lasting fame to both. Baynard's Castle stood on the northern bank of the -Thames, and was destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666. It was in the court -of this fortress that Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, offered the crown to -the Duke of Gloucester, and where the dramatist makes the latter say:-- - - "Since you will buckle fortune on my back, - To bear her burden, whe'r I will or no, - I must have patience to endure the load." - - _Richard III._ ii. 7. - -The other dwelling alluded to is Crosby Place, Bishopsgate, built by Sir -John Crosby about the year 1467; and, in spite of alterations and -renovations, this is still one of the finest examples of Early Domestic -architecture in England. Hither Shakspeare makes Gloucester invite the -Lady Anne; and bid the murderers repair after the assassination of -Clarence and the young princes in the Tower. - -The old building in Leicester, which was properly called "King Richard's -House," was known to be part of the Old Blue Boar: at the commencement -of the last century, it was used as an inn, and known by that sign, -though originally it bore the name of the "White Boar," the cognizance -of King Richard III.; but, after his defeat, this sign was torn down by -the infuriated populace, and the owner or landlord compelled to change -the title. Popular tradition has always identified the building with the -ill-fated monarch, and the inquiries of our local antiquaries confirm -the tradition. It was taken down in the month of March, 1836; but, -fortunately, before its destruction, a drawing was made of the front; -and that has been frequently engraved. In this house Richard took up his -quarters, and slept on a bedstead, the remains of which are believed to -be in existence. It had a false bottom, in which a large sum of money -could be concealed, and did duty as a military chest. Engravings of the -house and bedstead are given in Hutton's _Battle of Bosworth Field_, 2d -edition, by J. Nichols, F.S.A. - -Richard is reported to have been peculiarly subject to the influence of -omens. "During his abode at Exeter," says Holinshed, "he went about the -citie, and viewed the seat of the same, and at length he came to the -castle; and when he understood that it was called Rugemont, suddenlie he -fell into a dumpe, and (as one astonied) said, 'Well, I see my dayes be -not long.' He spake this of a prophecy told him, that when he once came -to Richmond, he should not long live after." He had more rational cause -for alarm when Jockey of Norfolk produced the doggrel warning found in -his tent, for it clearly indicated the desertion and treachery that were -about to prove fatal to him. - -On the night before the battle, going the rounds, Richard found a -sentinel asleep, and stabbed him, with the remark, "I found him asleep, -and have left him as I found him." - -The vanguard of Richard's army was commanded by the Duke of Norfolk; the -centre and main body by the King himself, who rode at their head, -mounted on his celebrated milk-white steed, White Surrey, and arrayed in -the splendid suit of armour which he had worn at Tewkesbury. Like Henry -V. at Agincourt, Richard wore a golden crown, not as a man would wear a -hat or cap, but by way of crest over his helmet. Richmond, too, bore -himself gallantly, and rode through the ranks, marshalling and -encouraging his men, arrayed in complete armour, but unhelmeted. His -vanguard, commanded by the Earl of Oxford, began the battle by crossing -the low ground towards the elevated position where Richard prudently -waited the attack. "The trumpets blew, and the soldiers shouted, and the -King's archers courageously let fly their arrows. The Earl's bowmen -stood not still, but paid them home again; and the terrible shot once -passed, the armies joined, and came to hand-strokes."[71] - -The leaders of those days deemed it a point of honour to fight hand to -hand, if possible, and Oxford and Norfolk managed to engage in a -personal encounter. After shivering their spears on each other's shields -or breastplates, they fell to with their swords. Oxford, wounded in the -arm by a blow which glanced from his crest, returned it by one which -hewed off the vizor of Norfolk's helmet, leaving the face bare; and -then, disdaining to follow up the advantage, drew back, when an arrow -from an unknown hand pierced the Duke's brain. Surrey, hurrying up to -assist or avenge his father, was surrounded and overpowered by Sir -Gilbert Talbot and Sir John Savage, who commanded on the right and left -for Richmond:-- - - "Young Howard single with an army fights; - When, moved with pity, two renownèd knights, - Strong Clarendon and valiant Conyers, try - To rescue him, in which attempt they die. - Now Surrey, fainting, scarce his sword can hold, - Which made a common soldier grow so bold, - To lay rude hands upon that noble flower, - Which he disdaining--anger gives him power,-- - Erects his weapon with a nimble round, - And sends the peasant's arm to kiss the ground."-- - - _Bosworth Field_, by Sir John Beaumont, Bart. - - -If we may credit tradition or the chroniclers, all this was literally -true. When completely exhausted, Surrey presented the hilt of his sword -to Talbot, whom he requested to take his life, and save him from dying -by an ignoble hand. He lived to be the Surrey of Flodden Field, and the -worthy transmitter of "all the blood of all the Howards." - -When Richard was about to make that renowned charge, which historians -describe as the last effort of despair, he was bringing up his main -body, and intelligence reached him that Richmond was posted behind the -hill with a slender attendance. His plan was formed on the instant; nor, -although fiery courage or burning hate might have suggested it, was it -ill-judged or reckless. Three-fourths of the combatants, if we include -the Stanleys, were ready to side with the strongest. Richmond's army, -without Richmond, was a rope of sand. His fall would be the signal for a -general scattering, or a feigned renewal of hollow allegiance to the -conqueror. Neither did the execution of the proposed _coup de main_ -betoken a sudden impulse inconsiderately acted upon. Richard rode out at -the right flank of his army, and ascended a rising ground to get a view -of his enemy, with whose person he was not acquainted. He summoned to -his side a chosen body of knights, all of whom, with the exception of -Lord Lovell, perished with him; and he paused to drink at a spring, -which still goes by his name. That Richard's horse was slain is very -doubtful; and, for aught we _know_, it was White Surrey that bore him, -like a thunderbolt, against the bosom of his foe; and it was spear in -rest that he dashed against Richmond's surprised and fluttered -bodyguard. - -The personal prowess of the pair who were contending for a kingdom, is -thus estimated by Hutton: "Richard was better versed in arms, Henry was -better served. Richard was brave, Henry was a coward. Richard was about -five feet four, rather runted, but only made crooked by his enemies; -and wanted six weeks of thirty-three. Henry was twenty-seven, slender, -and near five feet nine, with a saturnine countenance, yellow hair, and -grey eyes." According to Grafton, Richard, so soon as he descried -Richmond, "put spurs to his horse, and, like a hungry lion, ran with -spear in rest towards him." He unhorsed Sir John Cheney, a strong and -brave knight,[72] and rushing on Sir William Brandon, Henry's -standard-bearer, cleft his skull, tore the standard from his grasp, and -flung it on the ground. "He was now," says Hume, "within reach of -Richmond himself, who declined not the combat." Others say that Richmond -drew back, as a braver man might have done in his place-- - - "No craven he, and yet he shuns the blow, - So much confusion magnifies the foe." - -Fortunately for him, Sir William Stanley came up at the very nick of -time, "with three thousand tall men," and overpowered Richard, who died, -fighting furiously, and murmuring with his last breath, _Treason! -Treason! Treason!_ So nicely timed was Stanley's aid, that Henry -afterwards justified the ungrateful return he made for it, by saying: -"He came time enough to save my life, but he stayed long enough to -endanger it." Richard received wounds enough to let out a hundred -lives; his crown had been struck off at the beginning of the onset; and -his armour was so broken, and his features were so defaced, that he was -hardly to be recognised when dragged from beneath a heap of slain. - -And can that stripped and mutilated corpse be the crowned monarch who at -morning's rise led a gallant army to an assured victory, who had -recently been described by Philip de Commines as holding the proudest -position held by any King of England for a hundred years? Nothing places -in a stronger light the depth of moral degradation and insensibility, -fast verging towards barbarism, to which men's minds had been sunk by -the multiplied butcheries of these terrible conflicts, than the -indignities heaped upon the dead King, with the sanction, if not by the -express orders, of his successor. The body, perfectly naked, with a rope -round the neck, was flung across a horse, like the carcase of a calf, -behind a pursuivant-at-arms, and was thus carried in triumph to -Leicester. It was exposed two days in the Town-hall, and then buried -without ceremony in the Gray Friars' Church. At the destruction of the -religious houses, the remains were thrown out, and the coffin, which was -of stone, was converted into a watering-trough at the White Horse Inn. -The best intelligence that Mr. Hutton, who made a journey on purpose in -1758, could collect concerning it, was that it was broken up about the -latter end of the reign of George I., and that some of the pieces had -been placed as steps in the cellar of the inn. "To what base uses may we -return!" The sign of the White Boar at Leicester, at which Richard -slept, was forthwith converted into the Blue Boar; and the name of the -street called after it has been corrupted into Blubber-lane. - -Leicester and Richard III. are associated in traditional history, which -the Corporation have handed down, with a newly-built bridge, in two -inscriptions:--1. "This bridge was erected by the Corporation of -Leicester, in the mayoralty of S. Viccars, Esq., A.D. 1862, on the site -of the ancient Bow Bridge, over which King Richard III. passed, at the -head of his army, to the battle of Bosworth Field, August, 1485. Joseph -Whetstone, Chairman of Highway Committee; S. Stone, Town Clerk; E. S. -Stephens, Borough Surveyor." The plate on the opposite side bears the -legend in verse, according to Speed's _History of Great Britain_:-- - - "Upon this bridge [as tradition hath - Delivered] stood a stone of some height, - Against which King Richard, as he passed - Towards Bosworth, by chance struck his spur, - And against the same stone, as he was brought - Back, hanging by the horse's side, his head - Was dashed and broken, as a wise woman - [Forsooth] had _foretold_, who, before Richard's - Going to battle, being asked as to his success, - Said that where his spur struck, his head - Should be broken." - -This is legendary evidence of Richard's belief in omens, in addition to -that recorded at page 305. - -Richard had a habit of gnawing his under lip, and a trick of playing -with his dagger, which, although misconstrued into signs of an evil -disposition, were, probably, mere outward manifestations of -restlessness. Polydore Virgil speaks of his "horrible vigilance and -celerity." It was the old story of the sword wearing out the scabbard; -and the chances are, that he would not long have survived Bosworth Field -had he come off unscathed and the conqueror. - -"In the dreadful wars of York and Lancaster," writes Mr. Brooke,[73] "it -is said that more than 10,000 Englishmen lost their lives; but that is -merely the number believed to have been slain in battle; and, however -repulsive it may be to our feelings, it must be admitted that it cannot -include the numbers who must have perished during that disastrous -period, in unimportant skirmishes, in marauding parties, in private -warfare, by assassination, by the axe or by the halter, in pursuance of -or under the colour of judicial sentences, or by open and undisguised -murder. Besides this horrible sacrifice of human life, during this -distracted period it is shocking to think what sufferings unprotected -and helpless persons must have been exposed to, from the lawless -partisans of the rival parties, when they passed through or were located -near any district, which they chose to consider as favouring their -antagonists. Pillage, cruelty, violence to women, incendiarism, and -contempt of the laws and of religion, were the natural attendants upon a -civil war, carried on with feelings of bitter hatred by each party; and -it is certain that the examples of cruelty and wickedness which were -openly set by the nobles and leaders of both factions would readily be -copied by their followers. One of our ancient historical writers -correctly states, that 'this conflict was in maner unnaturall, for in it -the sonne fought against the father, the brother against the brother, -the nephew against the uncle, the tenant against his lord.'" - -It is well known that the Wars of the Roses had weakened to the last -degree the great nobles--destroying many of the houses, and -impoverishing all to such an extent that when Henry assumed the Crown he -found himself in possession of nearly absolute power. Under his -Plantagenet predecessors the great nobles had so much authority that at -times they could defy the Crown, and an influential earl might be -regarded as almost the rival of the Sovereign. The English barons were -now reduced to comparative insignificance, and the descendants of men -who in the bygone time might have aspired to the throne, and actually -ruled as independent princes in their ample domains, were content to -appear at Court and to swell the train of their Sovereign liege. The -Wars of the Roses had in reality precipitated in England a change which -was gradually approaching--the destruction of the feudal, and the rise -of the municipal system. But the decay of the feudal system and the rise -of the municipal produced consequences which are very important for -their social and political bearings.[74] - -Sad are the memories of these devastating wars, which are intertwined -with many a legendary tale and fitful romance. Not the least curious of -these records is the story that in a beautiful district of England, -whilst the wars raged, there was discovered in the garden of Longleat -Priory, in Wiltshire, a French rose-tree, covered on one side with -_white_ roses, and on the opposite with _red_; which, being known, -attracted crowds of persons, who believed it to portend the speedy -return of peace to their country, by the union of the rival powers. -According to the same tradition, a short time afterwards, the tree bore -roses of mixed petals, and there immediately followed the marriage of -Henry VII. and Elizabeth, thus fulfilling the floral prediction by the -friendship and union of the contending parties. The rose is thought to -have been an early specimen of our "York and Lancaster;" a -red-white--the colours of the two houses--hence its name; and although -the account is probably but a fable, it has, like many others, found its -way into history. - -The tendency to embalm falsehoods is a part of the question of the worth -of traditions, which is really worthy of a philosophical inquiry. The -rib of the Dun cow and Guy's porridge-pot are still shown at Warwick -Castle, though the one is the bone of a fossil elephant, and the other a -military cooking vessel of the time of Charles I. Sir Samuel Meyrick -scientifically classified and arranged the collection of armour in the -Tower, but the Beefeaters stick to the old stories still. Richard the -Third's bed in the neighbourhood of Bosworth, turns out to be -Elizabethan;[75] Queen Mary's, at Holyrood, to be of the last century. -Only the other day they sold off at Berkeley the bed of the murdered -Edward as an undoubted anachronism and admitted imposture. Old chairs -are as little to be trusted. Some persons have even doubted the famous -Glastonbury specimen, but these are unduly cautious and sceptical. St. -Crispin's chair in Linlithgow Cathedral is of excellent mahogany,--a -wood which he could only have obtained by miracle previous to the -discovery of America. Princes of Wales are not more fortunate in their -traditions than the Popes themselves, for the Tower of Carnarvon, in -which it is said that the first of them was born, was almost certainly -built after he came into existence. The printing press will dispose of -these false traditions in time, as it has already extinguished so many -others, whether false or true.[76] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[68] See Murray's _Handbook to Hampshire, Surrey, and the Isle of -Wight_. - -[69] _Quarterly Review_, No. 223. - -[70] _English Review_, No. 2. - -[71] Grafton, vol. ii. p. 154. Balls of about a pound and a half weight -have been dug up on the field, but none of the chroniclers speak of -artillery as used by either side. - -[72] "Sir John Cheney, of Sherland, personally encountering King -Richard, was felled to the ground by the monarch, had his crest struck -off, and his head laid bare: for some time, it is said, he remained -stunned; but recovering after awhile, he cut the skull and horns off the -hide of an ox which chanced to be near, and fixed them upon his head, to -supply the top of the upper part of his helmet: he then returned to the -field of battle, and did such signal service that Henry, on being -proclaimed King, assigned Cheney for crest the bull's scalp, which his -descendants still bear."--Sir Bernard Burke's _Vicissitudes of -Families_, p. 350. - -[73] In his very interesting _Visits to the Fields of Battle, in -England, of the Fifteenth Century_. - -[74] _Times_ journal. - -[75] See page 305, _ante_. - -[76] _Times_ journal. - - - - -CURIOSITIES OF HATFIELD. - - -This noble seat has been incidentally noticed in the preceding pages.[77] -Although the Princess Elizabeth was kept a prisoner at Hatfield, she -occasionally went to London to pay her court to Queen Mary; and in 1556 -she was invited to court, and proceeded thither with great parade. -Elizabeth, however, preferred the quiet and pleasant scenery of -Hatfield. The hall of the old palace now accommodates about thirty -horses. The combination of old trees, the rich-coloured brickwork, and -the curiously-wrought ironwork of the flower-garden gate, independent of -its historical associations, forms a pleasing scene. - -The noble park is eleven miles in circuit: here the new house, finished, -in 1611, by Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, comes boldly to view. The river -Lea passes through the park. Nor far from the house are a racket-court -and riding-school, both large buildings: near here is an ancient oak of -extraordinary size, called the "Lion oak," a venerable tree, which, -although deprived of many branches, is still crowned by large masses of -green foliage and numerous acorns, is upwards of thirty feet in -circumference, and reputed a thousand years old. - -A long and noble avenue of trees, with sunlight glistening on the grey -mossy trunks and boughs, leads to the kitchen-garden. Here is an old -oak, now much stunted, under which the Princess Elizabeth was sitting -when the messengers brought to her the news of Queen Mary's death, and -saluted her as Queen. With pomp, and amid great rejoicing, Queen -Elizabeth progressed to London--a journey accomplished with much greater -trouble three hundred years since than at present. Decayed parts of this -historical oak, the "Lion oak," and some others, have been, from time to -time, covered with _cement_; and this has not only had the effect of -stopping the progress of destruction, but also been the means of -producing both new wood and vegetation. - -At the further end of the avenue just mentioned is a building of two or -three centuries old, but which has been much disguised by alterations: -it is now used as the gardener's lodge. Through this we reach the -vineyard,--a curious example of the trim gardening of former days. From -a terrace a bank descends by a deep gradient to the river Lea. On the -upper portion of the terrace are yew-trees planted at intervals, and -dressed into singular shapes; in other parts the yew-trees are so cut, -that up to a considerable height they seem as straight and solid as a -wall: openings are left here and there which lead to dark avenues, -cunningly formed by the arching of the branches. From the centre a broad -flight of steps, covered with turf, leads to the Lea. On the opposite -side of the river, an opening has been made in the trees, which shows a -picture that stretches away in long perspective. Descending the steps, -and looking upward, the view is very striking, and we perceive that the -design is intended to imitate a fortress, with its towers of defence, -loopholes, and battlements,--in fact, vegetation is made to assume an -architectural form, which has an extraordinary effect. The vineyard is -admirably kept.[78] - -Of the many fine ancestral mansions in England, Hatfield, the seat of -the Marquis of Salisbury, is, perhaps, the most interesting for its -historical documents, and other illustrations of English history. Here -are preserved the forty-two articles of Edward VI., with the -superscription of that pious Monarch; the first Council Book of Queen -Mary; Cardinal Wolsey's Instructions to the Ambassador sent to the Pope -by Henry VIII., with that eminent churchman's autograph; the original -draft of the Proclamation Secretary Cecil used at the Accession of James -I.; and a very amusing Pedigree of Queen Elizabeth, emblazoned (dated -1559), by which the ancestry of that Sovereign is exhibited as traced to -Adam. Here also are several manuscript letters of Elizabeth, and the -celebrated Cecil Papers; the cradle of Elizabeth, of oak, ornamented -with carving, decidedly Elizabethan; also James I.'s purse, and the -first pair of silk stockings introduced into England, worn by Queen -Elizabeth. - -[Illustration: "QUEEN ELIZABETH'S OAK," IN HATFIELD PARK.] - -In the long gallery of the mansion is a state chair, said to have been -used by Queen Elizabeth; and in a black cabinet is preserved a hat with -a broad circular brim, which, we are told, was worn by the Princess -Elizabeth, when seated under the oak in the park just mentioned. This -historical tree is inclosed by a dwarf fence. When Queen Victoria and -Prince Albert visited Hatfield, in 1846, Her Majesty was much interested -with this memorial oak; and, as a memento of her visit, had a small -branch lopped from the tree. - -In each bedchamber of the mansion are wardrobes and closets carved in -the style of the reign of James I.; the carved mantelpieces are very -large; some supported by massive pillars entwined with flowers, others -supported by caryatides and figures. The bedsteads and much of the -furniture are of the same date as the other fittings. King James's -bed-room has the fittings, it is said, exactly as when the king last -used them: the hangings, of deep crimson, are profusely ornamented with -tassel-work and fringe; the quilted coverlid has wrought flowers in the -centre, and at the top of the bed are a royal crown, and other -ornaments. It should be mentioned that many of the rooms throughout -Hatfield House are fitted with woods of different kinds, and are named, -in consequence, "the Oak-room," "the Rose-room," "the Walnut-room," "the -Elm-room," &c. The chapel and a suite of ten rooms completed by the -present Marquis of Salisbury in the old baronial style, have panelling -of various woods, some being of oak, walnut, ash, sycamore, &c. - -Among the historical pictures at Hatfield is Zucchero's famous portrait -of Queen Elizabeth:--She wears a robe embroidered with eyes and ears, a -favourite device of hers to express her ubiquitous and sleepless -intelligence; and not satisfied with the symbolic eyes and ears, she -grasps a rainbow, with the motto, "_Non sine sole Iris_." - - In the recent exhibition of National Portraits at South Kensington - were nineteen portraits of Queen Elizabeth, wonderful examples of - her fantastic and execrable taste. "It was a bad time for the arts - of portraiture. The costume, in which the Queen led the taste of - both sexes, and was a keen critic of it after her fashion, was - over-laden, stiff, and unbecoming. The monstrous ruffs, - high-shouldered leg-of-mutton sleeves, long-pointed stomachers, - and broad-hipped Spanish fardingales of the women are not redeemed - from deformity by all their wealth of lace, embroidery, pearls, - and jewels; while the round hats of the men--their long-waisted - doublets, their hose, wide-swelling at the thigh, and tight to the - knee, would defy even a Titian to make them picturesque, in spite - of silk and satin and velvet, lace and slashes, ropes of pearl, - rich pendants, jewelled belts, and hatbands of goldsmiths' work. - There never was a time when foppery ran so rampant, and the Queen - was the worst of all in the bad taste and extravagance of her - attire. Melville, the Scottish Ambassador, tells us how she had - weeds of all countries, and would appear in a different one at - every audience--how she talked to him of millinery and - dress-making, hair and head tires, and seemed more anxious for his - opinion on such matters than on affairs of State. We have her - wardrobe books when she was 68, and find among her stores of - finery, exclusive of 99 State dresses, Coronation, mourning, - Parliament, and Garter robes, French gowns 102, round ditto 67, - loose ditto 100, kirtles 126, foreparts 136, petticoats 125, - cloaks 96, safeguards 13, jupes 43, doublets 85, lap mantles 18, - fans 27, pantofles 9. And we may see among her 19 pictures here - wonderful examples of her fantastic and execrable taste. The - Hatfield Zucchero looks true, but, after all, it is to the Hampton - Court picture of her at 16 that we turn with pleasure when she was - still King Edward's 'sweet sister Temperance,' and the docile - pupil of Roger Ascham in the pleasant shades of Ashridge, or - Hatfield, and not that withered, gray old woman, her mind heavy - with black and bloody memories, who sat on the cushions for ten - days and nights, and for the last 24 hours silent, staring on the - ground, with set tearless eyes, and her finger in her - mouth."--_Times_ journal. - -In the collection at South Kensington, too, was the portrait of the man -who brought the news of Mary's death to Elizabeth at Hatfield, one of -her commanders in Scotland in 1547, and one of the many who supped once -too often with my Lord of Leicester, and died in 1570, after eating figs -at that table, where the wariest guests were careful only to taste the -same dishes as my lord ate of. - -Among the pictures, which are hung through the house, are the portraits -of the great Lord Burghley, and his two sons; various portraits of Queen -Elizabeth and Queen Mary of England; and Queen Mary of Scotland, at the -age of sixteen. Here are the Earl of Leicester of Elizabeth's reign; -James I. and Charles I.; Philip of Spain: Van Tromp; the famous Charles -of Sweden, and Peter the Great of Russia; various members of the -Salisbury family; and the curious picture of Horselydown Fair, described -at pp. 254-258. In the Great Hall, which has a minstrels' gallery, -ornamented with carvings of figures and animals, heraldry, &c. are a -picture, life-size, of the white horse on which Queen Elizabeth rode at -Tilbury Fort: and ten large paintings of Adam and Eve. - -The Lady Elizabeth kept her state at Hatfield with no small cost and -splendour. At a subsequent period, after her imprisonment at Woodstock, -her Highness obtained permission to reside once more at Hatfield, under -the guardianship of Sir Thomas Pope, who not only extended to her the -kindest care and most respectful attention, but devised, at his own -cost, sports and pastimes for her amusement. "The fetters in which he -held her," says Agnes Strickland, "were more like flowery wreaths flung -lightly around her, to attract her to a bower of royal pleasaunce, than -aught which might remind her of the stern restraint by which she was -surrounded during her incarceration in the Tower, and subsequent -sojourn at Woodstock." Thus, we read of maskings in the Great Hall at -Hatfield, banquets, and "the play of Holophernes," which Queen Mary -misliked. - -When Queen Mary visited her sister at Hatfield, Elizabeth adorned her -great state chamber for Her Majesty's reception, with a sumptuous suite -of tapestry, representing the Siege of Antioch, and had a play performed -after supper, by the choir-boys of St. Paul's; at the conclusion of -which one of the children sang, and was accompanied on the virginals by -the Princess herself. - -Hatfield, during Elizabeth's reign, remained vested in the crown. At her -decease, however, her successor, King James, exchanged it with Sir -Robert Cecil for the palace of Theobalds, and thenceforward Hatfield has -continued uninterruptedly in the possession of the noble family of -Salisbury. Sir Robert Cecil was styled by his royal mistress, Elizabeth, -"the staff of her declining age," and was so highly esteemed by King -James, that his Majesty created him successively Baron Cecil, Viscount -Cranbourne, and Earl of Salisbury; conferred on him the blue riband of -the Garter, and finally appointed him Lord High Treasurer of England. -About this period, his lordship laid the foundations of the present -mansion of Hatfield, which he finished in 1611, in a style of equal -splendour with that of Burghley, which his father had erected in the -preceding reign. The year after the completion of Hatfield, worn out by -the cares of state the Earl of Salisbury died at Marlborough, in -Wiltshire, on his way to London: he was interred in Hatfield Church, -under a stately monument. How striking an example does the closing year -of his life present! In his last illness, he was heard to say to Sir -William Cope: "Ease and pleasure quake to hear of death; but my life, -full of care and miseries, desireth to be dissolved." - -He had some years previously (1603) addressed a letter to Sir James -Harrington, the poet, in nearly the same querulous tone: "Good Knight," -saith the minister, "rest content, and give heed to one that hath -sorrowed in the bright lustre of a court, and gone heavily on even the -best seeming fair ground. 'Tis a great task to prove one's honesty, and -yet not mar one's fortune: you have tasted a little thereof in our -blessed Queen's time, who was more than a woman, and, in truth, -sometimes less than a woman. I wish I waited now in your -presence-chamber, with ease at my food, and rest in my bed. I am pushed -from the share of comfort, and know not where the winds and waves of a -court will bear me. I know it bringeth little comfort on earth; and he -is, I reckon, no wise man that looketh this way to heaven." - -Hatfield is a very interesting seat, not only for its association with -the past, but for its presenting, at this moment, a picture of the -baronial life of two centuries and a half since. The Hall of the ancient -Palace remains; the historic Oak is preserved; the vineyard was in -existence when Charles I. was conveyed here a prisoner to the army, and -its famous yew walk is left; and the deer are still numerous. The -mansion has been restored to its pristine magnificence; the landscape -gardening is fine. The noble owner of Hatfield has devoted a portion of -his domains to the pastimes of the people; and on every occasion, -whether it be the reception of royalty, or the entertainment of the -toilers of the country, it is carried out in the generous spirit of -olden English hospitality. And this princely place lies within a score -of miles of the metropolis and its three million of people, who are -brought almost to the park gates within an hour's railway journey. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[77] See _ante_, pp. 116, 124. - -[78] "Hatfield House and its Contents," _Builder_, 1859. - - - - -THE GRAND REMONSTRANCE. - - -The most memorable sitting in Parliament, in the fourth year of King -Charles the First, was that of the House of Commons, on March 2d, 1629, -which was pronounced by Sir Simonds D'Ewes as "_the most gloomy, sad, -and dismal day for England that had happened for five hundred years_." - -The incidents of this day will be recollected by every one. Sir John -Eliot is said, according to all accounts, to have made an indignant -attack upon Lord Weston, the new Treasurer, and to have concluded by -moving the adoption of a Remonstrance. The Speaker, Sir John Finch, -declined to put the Remonstrance to the vote, and announced that he had -received the King's command to adjourn the House until the 10th of -March. The House paid little attention to the royal message, contending, -first, that it was not the office of the Speaker to deliver any such -command; and, secondly, that the power of adjournment belonged to the -House, and not to the Crown. Regardless of these arguments, the Speaker -prepared to obey the royal mandate. He rose and quitted the chair, when -two members, Denzil Holles, son of the Earl of Clare, on the one side, -and Benjamin Valentine, on the other side, stepped forward, and forced -him back into his official seat. He appealed to the House with abundance -of tears. Selden argued and remonstrated with him. Sir Peter Hayman -disavowed him, we are told, "as a kinsman," and denounced him as a -disgrace to a noble family. Again he endeavoured to quit the chair. Sir -Thomas Edmondes, who was old enough to have been ambassador from Queen -Elizabeth to Henry IV. of France--a man of small stature, but of great -courage--with other privy councillors, pressed forward to the Speaker's -help; but Holles violently held him in his chair, and swore, by what is -termed Queen Elizabeth's oath, "God's wounds!" that he should sit still -until it should please the House to rise. - -In the midst of this uproar, Coriton and Winterton, two of the members, -are said to have fallen to blows, numbers of the more timid fled out of -the House, and the King, hearing of the tumult, sent to Edward -Grimstone, the Serjeant-at-Arms, who was then within the House in -attendance upon the Speaker, to bring away the mace, without which it -was supposed that no legal meeting could be held. To defeat this object, -the key of the door was taken from the Serjeant-at-Arms, and delivered -to Sir Miles Hobart. Sir Miles stopped the egress of the -Serjeant-at-Arms, and having taken from him the mace, quietly put him -out of the House and locked the door. The mace was then replaced upon -the table, and Holles, standing by the side of the Speaker, put to the -House three resolutions, which were deemed to be voted by acclamation. -The King is said to have sent, in the meantime, Mr. Maxwell, the Usher -of the Black Rod, to summon the House to attend in the House of Lords, -but Maxwell could gain neither hearing nor admission. Grown now, as is -stated in Lord Verulam's manuscript, "into much rage and passion," the -King sent for "the Captain of the Pensioners and Guard to force the -door." Ere this officer could muster his stately band, the House had -done its work. The resolutions had been passed, the Speaker had been -released from the strong grasp of Denzil Holles, Sir Miles Hobart had -unlocked the door, the excited members had been set free; and, _for a -period of eleven years, parliamentary discussion in England had come to -an end_. - -Such is the narrative which was read by Mr. Bruce to the Society of -Antiquaries, in 1859, upon his reading also a "True Relation" of the -scene, in the handwriting of Lord Verulam, now in the manuscript -collection at Gorhambury. Other MSS. of the proceedings of this Session -are not uncommon, and many variations occur. Mr. Bruce has, in his -paper, printed that portion of Lord Verulam's MS. which relates to the -sitting of the 2d of March. Mr. Bruce, who has narrated the leading -points according to Lord Verulam's MS., instead of Hayman's word, -"kinsman," gives these words: "he was sorry he was a Kentish man, and -that he was a disgrace to his country, and a blot to a noble family." -Lord Verulam, too, gives Mr. Stroud's speech, not in other MSS.: he -"tould the Speaker that he was the instrument to cutt off the libertie -of the subject by the roote, and that if he would not be perswaded to -put the same to question, they must all retorne as scattered sheepe, and -a scorne put upon them as it was last session." This is important, since -it explains more precisely than had hitherto been known, why he (Stroud) -was prosecuted for his share in that day's transactions. On the other -hand, Lord Verulam's MS. does not mention the Resolutions that were put -to the House by Holles standing by the Speaker's chair. The concurrent -testimony of a variety of authorities, however, forbids us to doubt that -those Resolutions were really passed in the way described, and that in -this respect Lord Verulam's MS. is defective. - - - - -CAVALIERS AND ROUNDHEADS. - - -The word _Cavalier_ was not at first necessarily a term of reproach. -Shakspeare does not so employ it when he speaks of the gay and gallant -English eager for French invasion-- - - "For who is he ... that will not follow - These cull'd and choice-drawn Cavaliers to France?" - -But it was most unquestionably used in a reproachful sense on the -occasion of the tumult in the reign of Charles I., probably to connect -its French origin with the un-English character of the defenders of the -Queen and her French papist adherents, to whom it was chiefly applied; -it was likewise bandied about in declarations alternately issued -on the eve of the war by the Parliament and the King, the latter -speaking of it more than once as a word much in disfavour. Charles, -when the battle of Edgehill had been fought, elaborately accuses his -antagonists--"pretenders to peace and charity"--of a hateful attempt "to -render all persons of honour, courage, and reputation, odious to the -common people under the style of _Cavaliers_, insomuch as the highways -and villages have not been safe for gentlemen to pass through without -violence or affront." Even in the very earliest popular songs on the -King's side, the word has not the place it afterwards assumed, and one -meets with Royalist poets of a comparatively sober vein,-- - - "Who neither love for fashion nor for fear, - As far from Roundhead as from Cavalier." - -D'Ewes's earliest uses of the word, in his MS. journal, occur under 10th -January, and March 4th, 1641-2, and 3d June, 1642. In the first he is -speaking of parties who had been suspiciously entering the Tower; in the -second, of the Cavaliers at Whitehall who wounded the citizens; and in -the last of the King's party in Yorkshire. - -Of the word _Roundhead_, on the other hand, and the mixed fear and -hatred it represented and provoked, decidedly the most characteristic -example is furnished by the ever quaint and entertaining Bishop Hacket, -who tells a story of a certain worthy and honest Vicar of Hampshire who -always (in such a manner as to evade the notice of one section of his -hearers while he secretly pleased the other) changed one verse in the -last verse of the Te Deum--"O Lord, in thee have I trusted, _let me -never be a Roundhead_!" William Lilly, however (_Monarchy or no Monarchy -in England_, edit. 1651), referring to tumults of which he was an -eye-witness, describes Puritans to have received the nickname as -follows: "In the general, they were very honest men and well-meaning: -some particular fools, or others, perhaps, now and then got in amongst -them, greatly to the disadvantage of the more sober. They were modest in -their apparel, but not in their language; they had the hair of their -heads very few of them longer than their ears; whereupon, it came to -pass that those who usually with their cries attended at Westminster -(Whitehall), were by a nickname called _Roundheads_. The Courtiers -again, having long hair and locks, and always swordes, at last were -called by these men _Cavaliers_: and so, so few of the vulgar knowing -the sense of the word Cavalier."--Notes to Forster's _Arrest of the Five -Members_. - -Swift, regarding Cavalier in the reproachful sense, says: "Each party -grows proud of that appellation which their adversaries at first -intended as a reproach: of this sort were the Guelfs, and Ghibelines, -Huguenots, and Cavaliers." - -Nevertheless, Cavalier was formerly an ordinary English term for a -horse-soldier. Kersey gives it as "a Sword-gentleman, a brave Warrior." - -Nares gives it: "Cavalero, or Cavalier. Literally a Knight; but, as the -persons of chief fashion and gaiety were knights, any gallant was so -distinguished. Hence it became a term for the officers of the Court -party, in Charles I.'s wars, the gaiety of whose appearance was -strikingly opposed to the austerity and sourness of the opposite order." -_Glossary_, New Edit. 1859. - -In the Roundhead accounts of the period are details of the contests and -assaults that were continually made between the years 1648 and 1658 upon -the Roundheads _abroad_, for _at home_ the Cavaliers were too weak to -indulge frequently in such manifestations of party feelings. - - - - -THE EVELYNS AT WOTTON. - - -It has been well observed of the Evelyn family, that "rarely do we read -of people who so admirably combined a love of rural life with -literature." Studious retirement, not isolation, was what John Evelyn -sought; and nowhere did he so delightfully enjoy his tastes as at Wotton -House or Place in Surrey. This "great Virtuoso," as Aubrey called him, -has left us the following account of his family, and of their first -settlement at Wotton:--"We have not been at Wotton (purchased of one -Owen, a great rich man) above 160 years. My great grandfather came from -Long Ditton (the seat now of Sir Edward Eveylin), where we had been long -before; and to Long Ditton from Harrow-on-the-Hill; and many years -before that, from Evelyn, near Tower Castle, Shropshire. There are of -our name in France and Italy, written _Ivelyn_, _Avelin_: and in old -deeds I find _Avelyn_, alias _Evelyn_. One of our name was taken -prisoner at the battle of Agincourt. When the Duchess of Orleans came to -Dover to see the King [Charles II.], one of our name (whose family -derives itself from Lusignan, king of Cyprus) claimed relation to us. We -have in our family a tradition of a great sum of money, that had been -given for the ransom of a French lord, with which a great estate was -purchased; but these things are all mystical." - -Wotton House, placed in a valley south-west of Dorking, though really -upon a part of Leith Hill, was first erected in the reign of Queen -Elizabeth. Here, on October 31, 1620, was born John Evelyn, "_Sylva_ -Evelyn," as he was called from the title of his valuable work on -Forest-trees. When four years old, he was taught at the porch of Wotton -Church. He then learnt Latin in a school at Lewes; whence his father -proposed to send him to Eton, but he was terrified at the reported -severity of the discipline there, and he was again sent to Lewes, which -he "afterwards a thousand times deplored." In 1636 he was admitted to -the Middle Temple; whence he removed to Balliol College, Oxford. He -returned to London in 1640; but on the death of his father he -relinquished all thoughts of legal practice. - -Mr. Evelyn, thus become his own master, purposed a life of studious -seclusion, and actually commenced making a kind of hermitage at Wotton, -at that period the seat of his eldest brother. The park is watered by a -winding stream, and is backed by a magnificent range of beech-woods: the -goodly oaks were cut down by John Evelyn's grandfather, and birch has -taken the place of beech in many cases; but we trace to this day -Evelyn's hollies, "a _viretum_ all the year round;" and the noble -planting of the author of _Sylva_, who describes the house as "large and -ancient, suitable to those hospitable times, and so sweetly environed -with delicious streams and venerable woods. It has rising grounds, -meadows, woods, and water in abundance.... I should speak much of the -gardens, fountains, and groves that adorne it, were they not generally -known to be amongst the most natural (until this later and universal -luxury of the whole nation, since abounding in such expenses), the most -magnificent that England afforded, and which, indeed, gave one of the -first examples of that elegancy since so much in vogue, and followed in -the managing of their waters, and other ornaments of that nature." - -Evelyn, by whom, in his brother's lifetime, the chief improvements in -these grounds were directed, thus speaks of their origin in his _Diary_, -under the date 1643, after the disastrous contest had commenced between -the King and the Parliament:--"Resolving to possess myself in some -quiet, if it might be, in a time of so great jealousy, I built, by my -brother's permission, a _study_, made a _fish-pond_, and an _island_, -and some other solitudes and retirements at Wotton; which gave the first -occasion to those water-works and gardens which afterwards succeeded -them." - -Further alterations were made in 1652, and are thus described:--"I went -with my brother Evelyn to Wotton to give him what directions I was able -about his garden, which he was now desirous to put into some forme; but -for which he was to remove a mountaine overgrowne with huge trees and -thicket, with a moate within ten yards of the house. This my brother -immediately attempted, and that without greate coste; for more than a -hundred yards south, by digging down the mountaine, and flinging it into -a rapid streame, it not only carried away the sand, &c., but filled up -the moate, and levelled that noble area, where now the garden and -fountaine is." - -In 1641, Evelyn, tired of this seclusion, made a tour in France and the -Netherlands, in which he appears to have gathered from observation such -knowledge of Gardening as led him into its systematic study. He -describes the Tuileries as rarely contrived for privacy, shade, or -company; and he specially describes a labyrinth of cypress, with an -artificial echo, "redoubling the words distinctly, and never without -some fair nymph singing to it." "Standing at one of the focuses, which -is under a tree, or little cabinet of hedges, the voice seems to descend -from the clouds; at another, as if it was underground." He tells us, -too, of the curious garden of the Archbishop of Paris, at St. Cloud, -with a Mount Parnassus, and a grotto, or "shell-house," on the top of -the hill, the walls painted with the Muses, many statues placed about -it, and within, "divers water-works, and contrivances to wet the -spectators," reminding one of the famous copper-tube willow-tree at -Chatsworth. Evelyn speaks of the Luxembourg Gardens as a paradise, where -the Duke of Orleans kept tortoises in great numbers. The young traveller -was charmed with the gardens of Italy; and at Padua he bought, for -winter provision, three thousand weight of grapes, and pressed his own -wine, which proved excellent. - -Faithful to the Crown, Mr. Evelyn (who had become a volunteer in an -English regiment serving in Flanders) joined the King's army at -Brentford; but that he had not the temperament of a hero we may judge -from the fact that, on the day before the battle of Edgehill was fought, -after seeing Portsmouth delivered up to Sir William Waller, "he was able -to make a careful archæological survey of the city of Winchester, calmly -noting its castle, church, school, and King Arthur's Round Table." -Knowing this characteristic trait, we are not surprised that he left his -distracted country for the pleasures of foreign travel. On returning -from Italy he visited Paris, and at the English Embassy met his future -wife, the daughter of the Ambassador, Sir Richard Browne. He married -her when she was little more than fourteen, and some months afterwards -left her, as he admits, "still very young," under the appropriate care -of her mother, whilst he transacted business in England. The Prince de -Condé besieged Paris, and a year and a half elapsed before Evelyn -rejoined his wife. - -Upon their return to England, they took up their abode at Sayes Court, -the property of Sir Richard Browne, whose estate had been considerably -curtailed during the Commonwealth. It was wholly unadorned. Here, from a -field of one hundred acres in pasture, Evelyn formed a garden, which was -an exemplar of his _Sylva_, with a hedge of holly, 400 feet long, 9 feet -high, and 5 feet thick. He began immediately to set out an oval garden, -which was "the beginning of all the succeeding gardens, walks, groves, -enclosures, and plantations there;" and he planted an orchard, "new -moon, wind west." Evelyn next planned a royal garden to comprehend -"knots, trayle-work, parterres, compartments, borders, banks, and -embossments, labyrinths, dedals, cabinets, cradles, close-walks, -galleries, pavilions, porticoes, lanterns, and other relievos of topiary -and hortular architecture; fountains, cascades, piscines, rocks, grotts, -cryptæ, mounts, precipices, and ventiducts; gazon-theatres, artificial -echoes, automate and hydraulic music." - -When Evelyn left Sayes to pass the remainder of his days at Wotton, he -let the former estate, first to Admiral Benbow, and next to the Czar -Peter, to be near the King's dockyard, (through the wall of which a -doorway was broken), that he might learn shipbuilding, but the Czar and -his retinue damaged the house and gardens to the extent of 150_l_. in -three weeks. A portion of the Victualling-yard now occupies the place of -Evelyn's shady walks and trim hedges; on the site of the manor-house -stands the parish workhouse of Dieptford and Stroud; and an adjoining -thoroughfare is named Evelyn-street. - -Evelyn may have been misled in ornamental gardening by the taste of his -age, but there was nothing to mislead him in that useful branch of the -art which supplies the table with its luxuries, and which in his time -received considerable improvement. Here we may mention that in 1664 -Evelyn published the first Gardeners' Almanack, containing directions -for the employment of each month. This was dedicated to Cowley, and drew -from him, in acknowledgment, one of his best pieces, entitled _The -Garden_; in the prefix to which he says:--"I never had any other desire -so strong, and so like to covetousness, as that one which I have had -always, that I might be master at last of a small house and large -garden, with very moderate conveniences joined to them, and there -dedicate the remainder of my life only to the culture of them, and the -study of nature." - -In 1694, Mr. Evelyn went to Wotton, with his brother George. In 1696-7, -he says:--"I am planting an evergreen grove here to an old house ready -to drop." In the great storm of 1703, above 2,000 goodly oaks were blown -down. The woods of Wotton have since suffered greatly from high winds, -particularly in November 1837, when many hundred trees were laid low -during a violent storm. - -In his _Sylva_, Evelyn thus deplores the former devastation: "Methinks -that I still hear, sure I am that I feel, the _dismal groans_ of our -forests, when that late dreadful Hurricane, happening on the 26th of -November, 1703, subverted as many thousands of goodly Oaks, prostrating -the trees, laying them in ghastly postures, like whole regiments fallen -in battle by the sword of the conqueror, and crushing all that grew -beneath them. Myself had 2,000 blown down; several of which, torn up by -their fall, raised mounds of earth, near 20 feet high, with great stones -intangled among the roots and rubbish, and this almost within sight of -my dwelling;--now no more Wotton [Wood-town], stripped and naked, and -almost ashamed to own its name." - -In the _Diary_, the same calamity is thus noticed: "The effects of the -Hurricane and tempest of wind, rain, and lightning thro' all the nation, -especially London, were very dismal. Many houses demolished, and people -killed. As to my own losses, the submersion of woods and timber, both -ornamental and valuable, through my whole estate, and about my house, -the woods crowning the garden mount, and growing along the Park meadow, -the damage to my own dwelling, farms, and outhouses, is almost tragical, -not to be parallel'd with anything happening in our age. I am not able -to describe it, but submit to the pleasure of Almighty God." - -Notwithstanding these losses, Evelyn's brother would not depart from the -oeconomy and hospitality of the old house, but, "_more veterum_, kept -a Christmas in which they had not fewer than 300 bumpkins every -holiday." - -We find recorded among the Curiosities of the place, an oaken plank "of -prodigious amplitude," cut out of a tree which grew on this estate, and -was felled by Evelyn's grandfather's orders. Its dimensions, when "made -a pastry-board" at Wotton, were more than five feet in breadth, nine -feet and a half in length, and six inches in thickness; and it had been -"abated by one foot," to suit it to the size of the room wherein it was -placed. - -Upon the death of his brother, in 1699, without any surviving male -issue, John Evelyn became possessor of the paternal estates. Wotton -House, built of fine red brick, has been enlarged by various members of -the Evelyn family. Hence the absence of uniformity in the plan of the -house, and within our recollection it has parted with many of its olden -features. The apartments are, however, convenient, and realize the -comforts of an English gentleman's proper house and home. An etching by -John Evelyn shows the mansion in 1653. - -Through the valley at Wotton winds a rivulet which was formerly of much -importance. Evelyn, in a letter to Aubrey, dated 8th of February, 1675, -says that "on the stream near his house formerly stood many -powder-mills, erected by his ancestors, who were the very first that -brought that invention into England; before which we had all our powder -from Flanders." He gives an account of one of these mills blowing up, -which broke a beam, fifteen inches in diameter, at Wotton Place; and -states that one standing lower down towards Sheire, on blowing up, "shot -a piece of timber through a cottage, which took off a poor woman's head, -as she was spinning." Besides these mills, were brass, fulling, and -hammering mills. - -The Evelyns possess much land in the adjoining parish of Abinger; and -the seat of the Scarletts, Abinger Hall, gave the title to Lord Chief -Baron Scarlett. Originally, it was a small dwelling at the foot of the -Downs, belonging to the Dibble family, of whom it was purchased in the -reign of George II. by Catherine Forbes, Countess of Donegal, who was -the daughter of Arthur, Earl of Granard, and had the honour of being -complimented by Dean Swift, in the following lines:-- - - "Unerring Heaven, with bounteous hand, - Has form'd a Model for your Land, - Whom Love bestow'd, with every grace, - The glory of the Granard race; - Now destined by the powers Divine - The blessing of another Line. - Then, would you paint a matchless Dame, - Whom you'd consign to endless fame, - Invoke not Cytherea's aid, - Nor borrow from the Blue-eyed Maid, - Nor need you on the Graces call; - Take qualities from DONEGAL." - -Abinger Church is of considerable antiquity, and has a higher site than -any other church in the county: indeed, Aubrey conjectures the parish to -be named from _Abin_, an eminence, or rising ground. The church was -carefully restored in 1857. The west end is of the Norman period; the -nave Early English; the altar has sedilia, and formerly had a piscina; -and on the north side is a chancel belonging to the Wotton estate, and -restored at the expense of Mr. Evelyn: here is a small organ. The -altar-window of three lights has been filled with painted glass by -O'Connor, a very meritorious work. In the churchyard in a vault are -interred Lord Chief Baron Abinger, and his first wife: to the latter -there is a marble monument on the inner wall of the chancel. His -Lordship married secondly the widow of the Rev. Henry John Ridley, a -descendant of Bishop Ridley, the Protestant martyr; and among the -relics of that devout churchman which descended to Lady Abinger, was the -chair in which the Bishop used to study. - -On the east side of the churchyard is a small green, on which are stocks -and a whipping-post; but these, to the honour of the parish, are -believed never to have been used. - -There was a Mill at Abinger at the time of the Domesday Survey; and it -is not improbable that the present corn and flour mill, at a short -distance from the road, may occupy the same site. To return to Wotton -House. - -The interior of the old place, with its oddly-planned rooms, its quaint -carvings, its pictures, more especially the portraits of the Evelyn -family, is a most enjoyable nook. The author of _Sylva_, by Kneller, -will be recognised as the original of the engraved frontispiece to -Evelyn's _Diary_, by economy of printing now become a household book. -Among the Wotton relics, of special historic interest, are the -Prayer-book used by Charles I. on the scaffold; a pinch of the powder -laid by Guido Fawkes and his fellow-conspirators to blow up the -Parliament; a curious account, in John Evelyn's hand, of the mode in -which the Chancellor Clarendon transacted business with his royal -master; several letters of John Evelyn, and his account (recently found) -of the expense of his building Milton House, which occupied four years: -the house remains to this day. The library of printed books and -pamphlets is curious and extensive. Evelyn was a most laborious -annotator, never employing an amanuensis: among his MSS. is a Bible in -three volumes, the margins filled with closely-written notes. - -John Evelyn died at his house (called _the Head_) in Dover-street, -Piccadilly, Feb. 27, 1705-6. His remains were interred in Wotton Church: -his lady surviving him until 1708-9; when, dying, in her seventy-fourth -year, she was buried near him in the chancel. It was Evelyn's wish to -have been interred in the Laurel Grove, planted by him at Wotton: this -wish was expressed in his Will: "otherwise," he says, "let my grave be -in the Corner of the Dormitory of my Ancestors." This was done; and in -digging the new Vault was found "an entire skeleton, of gigantick -stature." - -In all the characters of child, wife, mother, and mistress, Mrs. Evelyn, -quiet and unassuming as she was, shone forth pre-eminently. Her trials -were many and heavy; her heart was torn with the death of child after -child, some in infancy, some in ripe age when they had grown to be the -pride and stay of their parents. All died, one by one, out of that -numerous progeny, till only a daughter, Mrs. Draper, was left, and the -bereaved pair were alone in their old age in the wide old mansion at -Wotton. Nothing can exceed the touching pathos of those few words in -Mrs. Evelyn's will, where, after desiring that her coffin might be -placed near to that of her dear husband, whose death preceded hers by -three years, she adds:--"Whose love and friendship I was happy in, -fifty-eight years nine months; but by God's providence left a desolate -widow, the 27th day of February, 1705, in the seventy-first year of my -age." - -Mrs. Evelyn had acquired the more polished manners of French society -without losing her naturally simple tastes. That she cannot have formed -a favourable opinion of English refinement we know from the contrast -which her husband draws between the two countries in his _Characters of -England_, written when they returned from the Continent. - -Mrs. Evelyn was an experienced housewife, and had a special eye "to the -care of cakes, stilling, and sweetmeats, and such useful things." "The -hospitality of Sayes Court, which was accepted by royalty and extended -to _savans_, divines, and men of letters, was not withheld from the -country neighbours at Deptford." Certainly, her own words depict her -practice, for she considered "the care of children's education, -observing a husband's commands, assisting the sick, relieving the poor, -and being serviceable to her friends, of sufficient weight to employ the -most improved capacities." That Mrs. Evelyn had close insight into -character and great nicety of judgment, we learn from her -contemporaries, as also that her "great discernment and wit" were never -abused. Ever sedate and kindly, she bore a succession of family -bereavements with Christian resignation. - -At Wotton, many curious memorials remain. Adjacent to the house are the -conservatory, flower-garden, the former stored with curious exotic and -native plants and flowers, and the latter embellished with a fountain, a -temple, or colonnade, and an elevated turfed mount, cut into terraces; -and here, enclosed within a brick wall, is all that remains of Evelyn's -flower-garden, which was to have formed one of the principal objects in -his "Elysium Britannicum." His _Diary_ is well known; and his _Sylva_ is -a beautiful and enduring memorial of his amusements, his occupations, -and his studies, his private happiness and his public virtues. Many -millions of timber-trees have been propagated and planted at the -instigation and by the sole direction of that book--one of the few books -in the world which completely effected what it was designed to do. While -Britain [says D'Israeli the elder] retains her awful situation among the -nations of Europe, the _Sylva_ of Evelyn will endure with her triumphant -oaks. It was an author in his studious retreat, who, casting a prophetic -eye on the age we live in, secured the late victories of our naval -sovereignty. Inquire at the Admiralty how the fleets of Nelson have been -constructed, and they can tell you that it was with the oaks which the -genius of Evelyn planted. - -Persons who are familiar with the picturesque environs of Dorking will -remember Milton House, which was built at Evelyn's expense. It is now -called Milton Court, and is about a mile west of the town. It is of red -brick, and has a grand staircase with massive supports and balusters, a -great hall, and many noble rooms. The house was let some years since in -tenements to poor families. It has since been restored and furnished in -the style of the period. Its history has a literary interest. For nearly -a quarter of a century it was the abode of Jeremiah Markland, a model -critic "for modesty, candour, literary honesty, and courteousness to -other scholars." He will be remembered as one of the eminent Grecians of -Christ's Hospital. He lived in bachelorship at Milton Court, among his -books; or, as his pupil, Strode, tells us, "In 1752, being grown old, -and having, moreover, long and painful fits of the gout, he was glad to -find, what his inclination and infirmities, which made him unfit for the -world and company, had for a long time led him to--a very private place -of retirement, near Dorking, in Surrey." In this sequestered spot -Markland saw little company: his walks were almost confined to the -garden at the back of the house; and he described himself, in 1755, to -be "as much out of the way of hearing as of getting." We have more than -once enjoyed the elysium of the old scholar's garden. But troubles came -to disturb his peace. Markland had not the rambling old house to -himself. His landlady, the widow Rose, got into a lawsuit with her son, -when Jeremiah distressed himself to aid the widow in the suit, which she -lost; and after that Markland spent his whole fortune in relieving the -distresses of the Rose family. This led him to accept an annuity from -his former pupil, Strode. Markland died at Milton Court in 1776, in his -eighty-third year; and Strode placed a brass plate in the chancel of -Dorking Church in memory of the learning and virtue of Markland. He left -his books and papers to Dr. Heberden. The story of old Jeremiah's -charity is very naïve:--"Poor as I am," said he, "I would rather have -pawned the coat on my back than have left the afflicted good woman and -her children to starve,"--an episode of charity and friendship which has -its sweet uses. - -There are two ancient objects at Milton. The water-mill, adjoining the -green, is believed to be that mentioned in the survey of the manor, in -Domesday book; and on Milton-heath, upon an elevated spot, is a -_Tumulus_, now distinguished by a clump of firs; and near it is -_War_-field. The name of the adjoining estate, Bury Hill, makes us, as -Miss Hawkins observes, "seek, in our walks, the very footmarks of the -Roman soldier." - - - - -LORD BOLINGBROKE AT BATTERSEA. - - -This parish and manor, three miles south-west of London, on the Surrey -bank of the Thames, appertained, from a very early period, to the Abbey -of St. Peter at Westminster; and is conjectured, by Lysons, to have -been therefrom named, in the Conqueror's Survey, Patricsey, which, in -the Saxon, is Peter's water, or river; since written Battrichsey, -Battersey, and Battersea. It passed to the Crown, at the dissolution of -religious houses: in 1627 it was granted to the St. John family, in -whose possession the property remained till 1763. - -Here, in a spacious mansion, eastward of the church, was born, October -1, 1678, Henry St. John, Viscount Bolingbroke, one of the brilliant -lights of the Augustan age of literature in England. Here Pope spent -most of his time with Bolingbroke, after the return of the latter from -his seven years' exile;[79] and his house became also the resort of -Swift, Arbuthnot, Thomson, Mallet, and other leading contemporary men of -genius. Lord Marchmont was living with Lord Bolingbroke, at Battersea, -when he discovered that Mr. Allen, of Bath, had printed 500 copies of -the _Essay on a Patriot King_ from the copy which Bolingbroke had -presented to Pope--six copies only were printed. Thereupon, Lord -Marchmont sent Mr. Gravenkop for the whole cargo, who carried them out -in a waggon, and the books were burnt on the lawn in the presence of -Lord Bolingbroke. Thenceforth he mostly resided at Battersea from 1742 -until his death in 1751. He sunk under the dreadful malady beneath which -he had long lingered--a cancer in the face--which he bore with exemplary -fortitude; "a fortitude," says Lord Brougham, "drawn from the natural -resources of his mind, and, unhappily, not aided by the consolation of -any religion; for having early cast off the belief in revelation, he had -substituted in its stead a dark and gloomy naturalism, which even -rejected those glimmerings of hope as to futurity not untasted by the -wiser of the heathens." - -Bolingbroke, with his second wife, niece of Madame de Maintenon, lie in -the family vault in St. Mary's Church, where there is an elegant -monument by Roubiliac, with busts of the great lord and his lady; the -epitaphs on both were written by Lord Bolingbroke: that upon himself is -still extant, in his own handwriting, in the British Museum: "Here lies -Henry St. John, in the reign of Queen Anne Secretary of State, and -Viscount Bolingbroke; in the days of King George I. and King George II., -something more and better." - -The greater part of Bolingbroke House was taken down in 1778. In the -wing of the mansion, left standing, a parlour of round form, and lined -with cedar, was long pointed out as the apartment in which Pope composed -his _Essay on Man_; it is said to have been called "Pope's Parlour." The -walls may still be seen, but they support a new roof, and can only be -distinguished from the rest of the building by their circular form. The -mansion was very extensive--forty rooms on a floor. - -Upon part of the site was erected a _horizontal mill_, by Captain -Hooper, who also built a similar one at Margate. It consisted of a -circular wheel, with large boards or vanes fixed parallel to its axis, -and arranged at equal distances from each other. Upon these vanes the -wind could act, so as to blow the wheel round. But if it were to act -upon the vanes at both sides of the wheel at once, it could not, of -course, turn it round; hence one side of the wheel must be sheltered, -while the other was submitted to the full action of the wind. For this -purpose it was enclosed in a large cylindrical framework, with doors or -shutters on all sides, to open and admit the wind, or to shut and stop -it. If all the shutters on one side were open, whilst all those on the -opposite side were closed, the wind acting with undiminished force on -the vanes at one side, whilst the opposite vanes are under shelter, -turned the mill round; but whenever the wind changed, the disposition of -the blinds must be altered, to admit the wind to strike upon the vanes -of the wheel in the direction of a tangent to the circle in which they -moved.--(Dr. Paris's _Philosophy in Sport_.) This mill resembled a -gigantic packing-case, which gave rise to an odd story, that when the -Emperor of Russia was in England, in 1814, he took a fancy to Battersea -Church, and determined to carry it off to Russia, and had this large -packing-case made for it; but as the inhabitants refused to let the -church be carried away, the case remained on the spot where it was -deposited. - -This horizontal air-mill served as a landmark for many miles round: the -proprietor was Mr. Hodgson, a maltster and distiller. It was visited by -Sir Richard Phillips in his _Morning's Walk from London to Kew_, in -1813, who says: "The mill, its elevated shaft, its vanes, and weather or -wind-boards, curious as they would have been on any other site, lost -their interest on premises once the residence of the illustrious -Bolingbroke, and the resort of the philosophers of his day. In ascending -the winding flights of its tottering galleries, I could not help -wondering at the caprice of events which had converted the dwelling of -Bolingbroke into a malting-house and a mill. This house, once sacred to -philosophy and poetry, long sanctified by the residence of the noblest -genius of his age, honoured by the frequent visits of Pope, and the -birthplace of the immortal _Essay on Man_, is now appropriated to the -lowest uses. The house of Bolingbroke become a windmill! The spot on -which the _Essay on Man_ was concocted and produced, converted into a -distillery of pernicious spirits! Such are the lessons of time! Such are -the means by which an eternal agency sets at nought the ephemeral -importance of man! But yesterday, this spot was the resort, the hope, -and the seat of enjoyment of Bolingbroke, Pope, Swift, Arbuthnot, -Monson, Mallet, and all the contemporary genius of England--yet a few -whirls of the earth round the sun, the change of a figure in the date of -the year, and the group have vanished; while I behold hogs and horses, -malt-bags and barrels, stills and machinery! - -"'Alas!' said I to the occupier, 'and have these things become the -representatives of more human genius than England may ever witness on -one spot again--have you thus satirised the transitory state of -humanity--do you thus become a party with the bigoted enemies of that -philosophy which was personified in a Bolingbroke or a Pope?' 'No,' he -rejoined, 'I love the name and character of Bolingbroke, and I preserve -the house as well as I can with religious veneration: I often smoke my -pipe in Mr. Pope's parlour, and think of him with due respect as I walk -the part of the terrace opposite his room.' He then conducted me to this -interesting parlour, which is of brown polished oak,[80] with a grate -and ornaments of the age of George the First; and before its window -stood the portion of the terrace upon which the malt-house had not -encroached, with the Thames moving majestically under its walls. - -"'In this room,' I exclaimed, 'the _Essay on Man_ was probably planned, -discussed, and written!' Mr. Hodgson assured me this had always been -called 'Pope's Room,' and he had no doubt it was the apartment usually -occupied by that great poet, in his visits to his friend Bolingbroke. -Other parts of the original house remain, and are occupied and kept in -good order. He told me, however, that this was but a wing of the -mansion, which extended, in Lord Bolingbroke's time, to the churchyard, -and is now appropriated to the malting-house and its warehouses." - -Sir Richard met with an ancient inhabitant of Battersea, a Mrs. -Gilliard, a pleasant and intelligent woman, who well remembered Lord -Bolingbroke; that he used to ride out every day in his chariot, and had -a black patch on his cheek, with a large wart over his eyebrow. She was -then but a girl, but she was taught to look upon him with veneration as -a great man. As, however, he spent little in the place, and gave little -away, he was not much regarded by the people of Battersea. Sir Richard -mentioned to her the names of several of Lord Bolingbroke's -contemporaries, but she recollected none, except that of Mallet, whom -she said she had often seen walking about in the village while he was -visiting at Bolingbroke House.[81] - -In the first volume of the _Diaries and Correspondence of the Right Hon. -George Rose_, we find the following entry respecting the treachery of -Mallet:--"It appears by a letter of Lord Bolingbroke's, dated in 1740, -from Angeville, that he had actually written some Essays dedicated to -the Earl of Marchmont, of a very different tendency from his former -works. These Essays, on his death, fell into the hands of Mr. Mallet, -his executor, who had, at the latter end of his life, acquired a decided -influence over him, and they did not appear among his lordship's works -published by Mallet;[82] nor have they been seen or heard of since. From -whence it must be naturally conjectured, that they were destroyed by the -latter, from what reason cannot now be known; possibly, to conceal from -the world the change, such as it was, in his lordship's sentiments in -the latter end of his life, to avoid the discredit to his former works. -In which respect he might have been influenced either by a regard for -the noble Viscount's consistency, or by a desire not to impair the -pecuniary advantage he expected from the publication of his lordship's -works." - -Upon this, the Editor of the _Diaries_, the Rev. Leveson Vernon -Harcourt, notes: "The letter to Lord Marchmont here referred to, has a -note appended to it by Sir George Rose, the editor of the _Marchmont -Papers_, who takes a very different view of its contents from his -father. He gravely remarks, that as the posthumous disclosure of Lord -Bolingbroke's inveterate hostility to Christianity lays open to the view -the bitterness as the extent of it, so the manner of that disclosure -precludes any doubt of the earnestness of his desire to give the utmost -efficiency and publicity to that hostility, as soon as it could safely -be done; that is, as soon as death could shield him against -responsibility to man. Sir George saw plainly enough that when he -promised in those Essays to vindicate religion against divinity and God -against man, he was retracting all that he had occasionally said in -favour of Christianity; he was upholding the religion of Theism against -the doctrines of the Bible, and the God of nature against the revelation -of God to man." - -It is painful to reflect upon this prostration of a splendid intellect; -and we are but slightly relieved by Lord Chesterfield's statement, in -one of his Letters, published by Lord Mahon, in his edition of -Chesterfield's _Works_ (ii. 450), that "Bolingbroke only doubted, and by -no means rejected, a future state." We know that Bolingbroke denied to -Pope his disbelief of the moral attributes of God, of which Pope told -his friends with great joy. How ungrateful a return for this "excessive -friendliness" was the indignation which Bolingbroke expressed at the -priest having attended Pope in his last moments![83] - -It is now, we believe, admitted on all hands that Christianity has not -found a very formidable opponent in Bolingbroke, and that his -objections, for the most part, only betray his own half-learning. Lord -Brougham, whose touching remark we have already quoted, concludes his -sketch of Lord Bolingbroke with this eloquent summing up: "Such was -Bolingbroke, and as such he must be regarded by impartial posterity, -after the violence of party has long subsided, and the view is no more -intercepted either by the rancour of political enmity, or by the -partiality of adherents, or by the fondness of friendship. Such, too, is -Bolingbroke when the gloss of trivial accomplishments is worn off by -time, and the lustre of genius itself has faded beside the simple, -translucent light of virtue. The contemplation is not without its uses. -The glare of talents and success is apt to obscure defects, which are -incomparably more mischievous than any intellectual powers can be -either useful or admirable. Nor can a lasting renown--a renown that -alone deserves to be courted of a rational being--ever be built upon any -foundations save those which are laid in an honest heart and a firm -purpose, both conspiring to work out the good of mankind. That renown -will be as imperishable as it is pure."[84] - -Among the memorials of the Bolingbrokes, in Battersea Church, is the -altar-window, filled with old stained glass, preserved from the former -church, and executed at the expense of the St. Johns. It includes -portraits of Henry VII., his grandmother, the Lady Margaret Beauchamp, -and Queen Elizabeth; together with numerous shields of arms, showing the -alliances of the family. - -York House, at Battersea, the mansion of Booth, Archbishop of York, who -died in 1480, and bequeathed it to his successors in the See, was mostly -taken down some sixty years ago. Archbishop Holgate was one of the few -prelates who resided here; he was imprisoned and deprived by Queen Mary -for being a married man, and lost much property by illegal seizure. In -Strype's _Life of Cranmer_, p. 308, it is stated that the officers who -were employed to apprehend the Archbishop rifled his house at Battersea, -and took away from thence 300_l_. of gold coin; 1600 ounces of plate; a -mitre of fine gold, set with very fine diamonds, sapphires, and balists, -other good stones and pearls; some very valuable rings; and the -Archbishop's seal and signet. - -There was long a tradition at Battersea that some ancient walls -remaining there were a portion of the residence of the father of Queen -Anne Boleyn. It appears from the monument to Queen Elizabeth, in -Battersea Church, that the Boleyns were related to the St. Johns. Upon -this Sir Richard Phillips contends that at York House, above named, -resided Wolsey, as Archbishop of York. "Here Henry VIII. first saw Anne -Boleyn; and here that scene took place which Shakspeare records in his -play of Henry VIII.; and which he described truly, because he wrote it -for Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, within fifty years of the -event, and must himself have known living witnesses of its verity. Hence -it becomes more than probable, that Sir Thomas Boleyn actually resided -in the vicinity, and that his daughter was accidentally among the guests -at that princely entertainment. I know it is contended that this -interview took place at York House, Whitehall; but Shakspeare makes the -King come by water; and York House, Battersea, was, beyond all doubt, a -residence of Wolsey, and is provided with a creek from the Thames, for -the evident purpose of facilitating in the course by water. Besides, the -owner informed me, that a few years since he had pulled down a superb -room, called 'the ball-room,' the panels of which were curiously -painted, and the divisions silvered. He also stated that the room had a -dome and a richly-ornamented ceiling, and that he once saw an ancient -print, representing the first interview of Henry VIII. with Anne Boleyn, -in which the room was portrayed exactly like the one that, in -modernizing his house, he had found it necessary to destroy." - -FOOTNOTES: - -[79] Horace Walpole tells us that Sir Robert Walpole, against the -earnest representations of his family and most intimate friends, had -consented to the recall of Bolingbroke ("that intriguing Proteus") from -banishment, excepting only his re-admission to the House of Lords. -"Bolingbroke, at his return [1723], could not avoid waiting on Sir -Robert to thank him, and was invited to dine with him at Chelsea; but -whether tortured at witnessing Walpole's serene frankness and felicity, -or suffocated with indignation and confusion at being forced to be -obliged to one whom he hated and envied, the first morsel he put into -his mouth was near choking him, and he was reduced to rise from table -and leave the room for some minutes. I never heard of their meeting -more."--Walpole's _Reminiscences_. - -[80] It is also said to have been lined with cedar.--See _ante_, p. 345. - -[81] The upper part of the mill was taken down; the lower part is still -used for grinding corn. The situation of the old mansion is indicated by -the names of Bolingbroke-gardens and Bolingbroke-terrace. - -[82] Mallet did not fail to publish, after Bolingbroke's death, his -writings disclosing his opposition to revealed religion, which drew from -Johnson the severe remark, that Bolingbroke, "having loaded a -blunderbuss, and pointed it against Christianity, had not the courage to -discharge it himself, but left half-a-crown to a hungry Scotchman to -pull the trigger after his death." - -[83] Communication to _Notes and Queries_, Second Series, No. 212, by -the Author of the present volume. - -[84] _Historical Sketches of Statesmen._ Third Series, vol. ii. -corrected Edition. - - - - -THE LAST OF EPPING FOREST. - - -In the twelfth edition of _The Ambulator_, edited nearly half a century -ago by that trustworthy topographer, Mr. E. W. Brayley, under "Epping -Forest," we read "a plan for the inclosure of the Forest has been -recently projected." And this plan has been slowly but surely put into -execution; the inclosures having been so numerous that little remains of -this charming forest district, with its verdant glades, secluded dells, -thickets, majestic oaks, and sinking vistas of enchanting wilderness and -cheerful landscape, to gladden the hearts of the toilers in the vast -metropolis. - -The Forest remains where it was. Brayley describes it as a royal chase, -extending from Epping almost to London, anciently a very extensive -district; and, under the name of the Forest of Essex, including a great -part of the county. It had afterwards the name of Waltham Forest, which -it long since yielded to its present appellation. To this Forest, that -of Hainault, which lies to the south-east, was once, it is supposed, an -appendage: it was formerly styled "the Queen's Forest," and it possesses -more beautiful scenery than, perhaps, any other forest in England. The -Crown possesses the whole of the rights over Hainault, and the -encroachments are not nearly so numerous here as in Epping Forest, where -the Crown has only certain rights--the right of vert and venison. The -loss of the picturesque features of wild expanse of woodlands, heath, -and mosses; of vast masses of umbrageous tree-tops, and little patches -of cultivation--here and there a little town, sending up its fleecy -smoke amidst the forest boughs--must excite concern amongst all who take -interest in the amusements of the people. How truthfully has the -isolated picture of forest life been sung: - - "From age to age no tumult did arouse - The peaceful dwellers; there they lived and died, - Passing a dreamy life, diversified - By nought of novelty, save now and then - A horn, resounding through the forest glen, - Woke them as from a trance, and led them out - To catch a brief glimpse of the hunt's wild rout-- - The music of the hounds; the tramp and rush - Of steeds and men;--and then a sudden hush - Left round the eager listeners; the deep mood - Of awful, dead, and twilight solitude, - Fallen again upon that forest vast." - -The Forest remains where and as it was, save that invasions on the -waste, and encroachments, have from time to time greatly restricted its -extent; not so the city, for that has advanced, and meets the old -liberty at half-way. Now the metropolis reaches to Bow, or nearly to -Stratford, where the Forest commences; and there the road divides, one -branch leading northward to Chigwell, the other eastward to Romford. In -extent it reaches five miles from Ilford on the south, nearly to Abridge -on the north, by four miles from Woodford-bridge on the west, to -Havering-at-Bower on the east. Were the whole area of this scope one -continuous chase, there would be some 12,000 acres; but from the -numberless excisions from, and appropriations of the liberty, the -contents of the whole do not at present amount to 4,000 acres. - -It appears that an Act of Parliament was passed (the 14th and 15th -Vict.) for the disafforesting and inclosure of Hainault Forest; that on -the 24th August, 1851, a commission was formed for the purpose: and -summary execution was done upon 14,000 oak-trees, which had stood -unmolested for centuries. This was preliminary to the utter clearance, -parcelling out, and selling off of the whole domain.[85] - -The signal advantage of Epping Forest over all other open spaces is that -in it alone thousands can at the same time enjoy the country in its -natural aspect in that privacy without which the country, as such, is no -enjoyment at all. That the inhabitants of London highly appreciate this -advantage is shown by the fact that thousands every fine day in the year -pass by the Parks that are provided for them near their own doors, and -travel weary miles to reach the fragment of the Forest that is left to -them. - -The case of Epping Forest is matter of dispute. There is an opinion -entertained by persons whose opinions command respect that the lords of -the several manors included within the precincts of Epping Forest are -entitled to call for an inclosure of the portions of the Forest in which -they are respectively interested, whenever they please; and that the -Crown is not justified, on the ground of public advantage, in setting -up its rights as an impediment to such inclosure. - -The case as between the lords of the manor, the Crown, and the public -appears to be this:--The Forest comprises the wastes of certain manors, -over which, from time immemorial, the lords of these manors had the -accustomed rights of pasturage; the Crown had the forestal right of -keeping deer in them, and for that purpose of keeping them uninclosed: -and the general public had the common right of going upon them as -uninclosed land. The lords of the manor are in the actual enjoyment of -all the rights of property they ever had in the Forest, but they desire -to acquire a species of property in it which has never hitherto belonged -to them, and which is inconsistent with other existing rights. The right -of the public to go upon the Forest land while it is in its present open -condition has become one of transcendent importance; and the real -question presented to the Crown is whether it shall cede its rights for -the benefit of half-a-dozen persons who desire to acquire a valuable -property to which they have no present title, or maintain them for the -benefit of the large proportion of the British people who live in London -and its vicinity. In short, it appears that the rights of the Crown and -the public have not been maintained in Epping Forest, because the -Government would not incur the expense of litigation. - -To show how persons sometimes defeat the cause which they advocate, it -may be mentioned that at a meeting held at the Bald-faced Stag, -Buckhurst-hill, upon this Forest question, several speakers expatiated -at great length on the injustice of excluding the working classes of the -east end of London from the rural enjoyments of the Forest, owing to the -inclosures made by the lords of the manor and other parties. It was, -however, shown at the meeting that two gentlemen of the Committee had -inclosed a very large portion of the Forest, parts that are the most -picturesque and that were most resorted to by the London holiday folks; -but, alas! no more Forest remains in the once sylvan neighbourhood of -Buckhurst-hill. - -The reduction of Epping Forest began in the reign of King John, and was -confirmed by Edward IV., when all that part of the Forest which lay to -the north of the highway from Stortford to Colchester (very distant from -the present boundaries) was disafforested. The Forest was further -reduced; but the metes and bounds of it were finally determined in 1640. -The office of Chief Forester for Essex was deemed highly honorary, and -was generally bestowed on some illustrious person. The stewardship was -also usually enjoyed by one of the nobility. It continued in the De -Veres, Earls of Oxford, for many generations; but was taken from them by -Edward IV., for their adherence to the Lancastrian party. On the -accession of Henry VII., it was restored by grant to John, Earl of -Oxford. The steward had the power to substitute a lieutenant, one -riding-forester, and three yeoman-foresters, in the three bailiwicks of -the Forest. He also had many lucrative privileges, and was Keeper of -Havering-at-Bower, and of the house and park trees. - -We remember, many years since, to have visited the Forest for the sake -of inspecting the house known as _Queen Elizabeth's Hunting Lodge_, -which stands about a mile west of the main road to Epping; and the most -direct road to which, in the heart of the Forest, we found to be from -about midway between the Bald-faced Stag Inn and the village of -Loughton. The view from this point is of surpassing beauty and extent; -whilst it is no wide stretch of conjecture to set down the ancient -forest as nearly covering the entire county. The towns, villages, and -seats which now stud the district, and the roads which intersect the -woody waste, may have been the work of a few centuries; inns and lodges -would be among the earliest buildings for retainers, whose business it -was to defend and preserve this royal chase, for the privilege of -hunting here was confined to the Sovereign and his favourites. Again, -those who flocked thither, with such privilege, would well repay the -hospitalities of an inn, and "hosteller," even were we to leave out of -the reckoning the boon companionship of foresters, and the debauched -habits of marauders, who fattened by the infringement of the royal -privilege, in wholesale deer-stealing for the London markets. We were -told that in Epping churchyard is the tombstone of a follower, whose -business it was to convey venison to the metropolis, but who, in one of -his midnight returns, was shot by an unknown hand; the almost headless -body being found on the road next morning. - -The Lodge stands in the parish of Chingford,[86] about one mile from the -village, and thus served the purpose of a manor-house, the courts being -held here. Chingford Hall, the actual manor-house, is situated a short -distance hence; but Mr. Lysons thinks it probable that the site of the -ancient manor-house was that of the present Lodge. The manor was -purchased in or about 1666, by Thomas Boothby, Esq., from whose family -it descended by marriage to the Heathcotes. The Lodge consists of the -main building, a basement, and two floors,--and a building abutting upon -it, chiefly occupied by the spacious staircase. The exterior has little -of the air of antiquity comparatively with the interior. The basement is -principally the kitchen, where the large projecting chimney, the olden -fire-dogs, and cheerful wood fire, reminded us of "the rural life," if -they carried us not back to - - "Great Eliza's golden time." - -The staircase is of surprising solidity: its width is about six feet; it -is divided by six landings, with four stairs between each, and each -stair or step consists of a solid oak sill. The first floor contains two -chambers, one hung with tapestry in fine preservation, and the chimney -opening has a flattened arch. The height of the first floor and basement -has been sacrificed to the story above, which entirely consists of a -large room, or hall, entered from the staircase by a low, wide doorway. -The dimensions of the hall we take to be twenty-four feet wide, and -forty-two feet high; its height reaches to the open roof, the tiles of -which are merely hidden by rough plaster; and the sides of the room -consist of massive timbers, filled in with plaster, and originally lit -with four windows. The roof-tree, we should add, is supported by timbers -which spring into two pointed arches, and render it probable that the -original roof was of a different form as well as material from the -present one. In this apartment were held the manorial courts; and on the -plain plaster walls hung three large-sized whole length portraits of one -of the Boothbys (lords of the manor), in infancy, accompanied by his -brother, in boyhood, and in manhood. The timbers of the staircase sides -and roof are massive, and spring into arched frames; and all the -doorways in the building have flattened arches. - -Tradition reports the Lodge to have been a favourite hunting-seat of -Queen Elizabeth. It was occupied, at the time of our visit, by the -bailiff of the manor, who had lived there twenty years, and his father -occupied the Lodge half a century before him. To the tradition was -added, that Elizabeth was accustomed to ride upstairs on horseback, and -alight at the door of the large room, upon a raised place, which is to -this day called _the horse-block_. We confess the story savours of the -marvellous; but the width and solidity, and many landings of the -staircase, are in its favour; and, not many years previously, a wager of -ten pounds was won by a sporting gentleman riding an untrained pony up -the assigned route of the chivalrous Queen. - -There are circumstances related which render it more than probable that -the Lodge was fitted up for the reception of Elizabeth. That the Queen -was extremely fond of the chase, and hunted at an advanced age, is a -well-established fact. That she hunted in Epping Forest is nearly -ascertained; for the Earl of Leicester once owned Nakedhall Hawke, or -old Wansted House, in the neighbourhood: it is mentioned in a document -of Richard II., and seems to have been the manorial residence. Here, in -May 1578, Leicester entertained Queen Elizabeth four or five days, and -one of the rooms in the mansion was called _the Queen's_. Again, in this -mansion was solemnized Leicester's marriage with the Countess of Essex, -Sept. 20, 1578, the Queen being then on a visit to Mr. Stonard, at -Loughton, in the Forest; and old Wansted House is introduced in the -background of a picture of Queen Elizabeth, in the collection at -Welbeck. - -Of the Queen's _hunting the hart_ in Enfield Chase we have this -circumstantial record. Twelve ladies in white satin attended her on -their ambling palfreys, and twenty yeomen clad in green. At the entrance -to the forest she was met by fifty archers in scarlet boots and yellow -caps, armed with gilded bows; one of whom presented to her a -silver-headed arrow winged with peacock's feathers. The splendid show -concluded, according to the established laws of the chase, by the -offering of the knife to the Princess, as first lady on the field; and -her _taking say_ of the buck with her own fair and royal hand. - -In addition to the Hunting Lodge, we found other memorials of the age of -Elizabeth in the neighbourhood. Thus, the hill, or point, when we left -the main road to cross the Forest to the Lodge, is to this day -remembered as Buckhurst-hill, as may be reasonably supposed, from -Sackville, Lord Buckhurst, the accomplished poet, and favoured flower of -Elizabeth's court. - -In conclusion, the Londoners have lost the Epping Hunt, and the "Common -Hunt" no longer goes out; and the old Pumpmaker's Fair, which originated -in a wayzgoose of beans and bacon, is no longer held around the oak of -Fairlop; but let us not lose the Forest itself; else, of what service is -our railway gain? - -FOOTNOTES: - -[85] The _Builder_. - -[86] Brindswood, an estate in this parish, was formerly held under the -following curious tenure:--"Upon every alienation, the owner of the -estate, with his wife, man, and maid-servant, each single, on a horse, -comes to the parsonage, where he does his homage, and pays his relief in -the following manner:--He blows three blasts with his horn, and carries -a hawk upon his fist; his servant has a greyhound in a slip, both for -the use of the Rector that day; he receives a chicken for his hawk, a -peck of oats for his horse, and a loaf of bread for his greyhound; they -all dine, after which the master blows three blasts with his horn, and -they all depart." - - - - -APPENDIX. - - -ANCIENT BRITISH DWELLINGS. -(_Pages_ 1-7.) - -We have, says Sir Richard Colt Hoare, in his _Ancient Wiltshire_, -"undoubted proof from history, and from existing remains, that the -earliest habitations were pits, or slight excavations in the ground, -covered and protected from the inclemency of the weather by boughs of -trees or sods of turf." These dwellings usually formed villages, -conveniently situated near streams or rivers, the habitations of the -lords of the soil before the Roman occupation. Amongst the moorlands and -wilds of Yorkshire, in spots where the spade and plough have not been in -operation, upwards of forty British villages were described and -inspected by Dr. Young, of Whitby. Many early dwellings are likewise to -be met with in other parts of England; some sunk in the chalk, where -cultivation has not entirely obliterated them, which is the case in the -eastern counties. The large tumuli and barrows which remain, pertain to -a much later era of our history; generally to the Roman and Saxon -periods, when the use of bronze and iron became known.[87] - -At a recent meeting of the Norwich Archæological Society, the members -made an excursion to Brandon and neighbourhood, and at Grime's Graves -Mr. Manning read a paper on the Graves, in which he maintained that this -irregularly-shaped cluster of holes are ancient British dwellings, -forming the remains of an ancient town. Each hole was lined with a layer -of stones, and, when inhabited, roofed over with boughs or grass. The -term "graves" means pits or holes, and the name "Grime's" was probably -derived from "Græme," the Saxon for witch, or rather for anything -supernatural. Thus the term "Grime's Graves" meant "Witches' Work." -After leaving Grime's Graves, the party examined the Devil's Dyke, a -long and extensive fosse and bank, supposed to have been made by the -Ancient Britons for military purposes. - - * * * * * - -THE SAXON HALL. -(_Page_ 48.) - -The Saxon Hall for feeding retainers was mostly built of wood and -thatched with reeds, or roofed with wooden shingles. The fire was -kindled in the centre, and the lord and "hearth-men" sat by while the -meal was cooked. - - * * * * * - -ABURY AND STONEHENGE. -(_Page_ 112.) - -The late Mr. Rickman, the antiquary, was of opinion that Abury and -Stonehenge cannot reasonably be carried back to a period antecedent to -the Christian era. In an Essay communicated by him to the Society of -Antiquaries in 1839, after tracing the Roman road from Dover and -Canterbury, through Noviomagus and London, to the West of England, Mr. -Rickman notices that Silbury is situated immediately upon that road; and -that the avenues of Abury extend up to it, whilst their course is -referable to the radius of a Roman mile. From these and other -circumstances, he argues that Abury and Silbury are not anterior to the -road, nor can we well conceive how such gigantic works could be -accomplished until Roman civilization had furnished such a system of -providing and storing food as could supply a vast multitude of people. -Mr. Rickman further remarks, that the temple of Abury is completely in -the form of a Roman amphitheatre, which would accommodate about 48,000 -Roman spectators, or half the number contained in the Colosseum at Rome. -Again, the stones of Stonehenge have exhibited, when their tenons and -mortices have been first exposed, the working of a well-directed steel -point, beyond the workmanship of barbarous nations. Stonehenge is not -mentioned by Cæsar or Ptolemy, and its historical records commence in -the fifth century. On the whole, Mr. Rickman is induced to conclude that -the era of Abury is the third century, and that of Stonehenge the -fourth, or before the departure of the Romans from Britain; and that -both are examples of the general practice of the Roman conquerors to -tolerate the worship of their subjugated provinces, at the same time -associating them with their own superstitions and favourite public -games. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[87] Mr. Whincopp; _Journal of the British Archæological Association_, -1866. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Abinger Church described, 337. - Abury and Stonehenge, 14. - Ale, Panegyric on, 68. - Ale, Saxon, 67. - Ale and Beer in the 5th Century, 66. - Ale-wife, The, 68. - Alfred's Jewel, at Oxford, 53. - All-heal and Mistletoe of the Druids, 17. - Almonds, early use of, 199. - Almsgiving and Doles of Queen Isabella, 155. - Architecture, Saxon and Norman, 46, 47. - Arnott, Dr., on House-heating, 135. - Arriage and Carriage Services, 230. - Arthur, King, and the Round Table, 90. - Arundel Castle described, 103. - Arundel Castle, history of, 106-108. - Aubrey's description of the Great Hall, 123. - Autograph of Richard, Duke of Gloucester, 303. - Awnd-irons, or Fire-dogs, 141. - - Ballad on Cheshire Cheese, 211. - Banbury Cakes, history of, 245. - Banbury Cakes for the Judges, 249. - Banbury Cheese, 210, 249. - Banbury Cross, 250. - Banbury _Zeal_ and _Veal_, 246. - Bankes, Lady, her Defence of Corfe Castle, 86. - Banquets of Princes and Nobles, 162. - Battle of Bosworth Field, 300. - Battle of Hastings described, 295. - Battle of Hastings, Memorial of, in Normandy, 297. - Battle of Tewkesbury described, 299. - Battle of Towton described, 298. - Baynard's Castle and Richard III., 304. - Beadle, duties of the, 233. - Bedford Castle, Siege of, 79. - Bed, Standing and Truckle, 177. - Beds, olden varieties of, 177, 178. - Beer and Ale, distinction of, 213. - Beer, the national English Drink, 215. - Beltane superstition, 226. - Birds, Keeping, in the Middle Ages, 264. - Biscuits, olden, 200. - Black Boy Inn, Chelmsford, at Plantagenet lodge, 304. - Blankets, origin of, 178. - Boleyn, Anne, at Battersea, 351. - Bolingbroke House taken down, 345. - Bolingbroke, Lord, at Battersea, 343. - Bolingbroke, Lord, death of, 344. - Boon-days, Love-days, and Law-days, 224. - Bordars and Cottars, 219. - Bosphrennis Bee-hive Huts, 4. - Bosworth Field described, 300. - Bowles, Canon, and Windsor Castle, 94, 95. - Brambletye House, account of, 132. - Bread, early varieties of, 192. - Bread, Saxon, 65. - Brewing in Monasteries and Colleges, 67. - Brigantes, Houses of, 5. - Brindswood, curious Tenure, 358. - Britain before the Roman Colonization, 8. - Britain, early Exports of, 21. - British Caves in Cornwall, 213. - British Ships, early, 23. - British War-chiefs, 22. - Britons, early, Dwelling-places of, 1. - Brooke, Mr., his _Visits to Battle-fields_, 299, 311. - Brougham, Lord, on Lord Bolingbroke, 344, 350. - Buckhurst Hill, 361. - - Cæsar, his Account of the Britons, 43. - Campden, Gloucestershire, built, 116. - Carpentry, Ornamental, 129. - Carpets and Rushes, 181. - Carving by Ladies, 166. - Castle, Conisborough, 76. - Castle Rising, Queen Isabella at, 149. - Castles, Anglo-Norman, 76. - Castles, Roman, 71. - Castles, _temp._ Edward III., 86. - Cavaliers and Roundheads, distinction of, 326. - Cavendish's _Life of Wolsey_, 280, 288, 291. - Caves, British, in Cornwall, 2. - Celts, the, in Britain, 8. - Celts' Hatchets, 11. - Chairs, ancient, 180. - Chamber Furniture, _temp._ Henry VII., 181. - Chamber of a Queen, 178. - Charles II. visits Stonehenge, 14. - Chaucer, Clerk of the Works at Windsor Castle, 93. - Cheese, Antiquity of, 209. - Cheesecakes, Islington and Holloway, 253. - Cheney, Sir John, at the battle of Bosworth, 308. - Cheshire Cheese, famous, 210. - Chimney, Ventilation by, 145. - Chimneys, Introduction of, 136, 138. - Chimneys made of Wood, 138. - Chingford Hall, 358. - Christmas Game Pie, Salters' Company, 195. - Civilization, Early British, 24. - Clipping, or Sheep-shearing, 229. - Coal-fires, open, 145. - Coal first burnt, 140. - Cobbett on Sussex Cottages, 131. - Coffee introduced, 197. - Coins, Roman, found at London, 36. - College University Halls, 122. - Confettes and Ipocrass, 205. - Congleton Cakes and Gingerbread, 251. - Conveyance Service, 230. - Conveying Land, Ancient, 237. - Cookery, olden English, 161. - Cookery, Saxon, 64. - Cooks, _temp._ Richard II., 195. - Coral, Paternoster of, 186. - Corfe Castle described, 84. - Corfe Castle, Siege of, 85. - Cornwall, its early Trade, 20. - Cottages, early English, 131. - Cottages, Sussex, 131. - Country Life, 17th century, 186. - Court Cupboard, the, 182. - Coventry God-cakes, 248. - Cowdray, in Sussex, 112. - Creeper-irons, 141, 142. - Crosby Hall fireplace, 139. - Crosby Place and Richard III., 304. - Cuming, Mr., his _Memorials of Richard III._, 302. - Curfew, or _Couvre-feu_, History of, 146. - Curfew-ringing, 147. - Curiosities of Hatfield, 315. - Curiosities of Wotton Place, 335, 340. - Czar Peter at Sayes Court, 333. - - Danes, great Drinkers, 69. - Danish Houses, 69. - Deer-stealing in Epping Forest, 358. - Dessert Fruits introduced, 200. - Dinner in the Middle Ages, 50. - Disputed Forest rights, 355. - Distaff and Spindle, Saxon, 56. - Domestic Life of the Saxons, 46. - Dona, or Gifts of Queen Isabella, 158. - Donegal, Countess, Lines on, by Swift, 337. - Dress and Personal Ornaments, Olden, 184. - Drinking-Horns, Ancient, 51. - Druid Doctors, 18. - Druid Schools, 19. - Druidism, account of, 10, 11. - Druids, eloquence of the, 16. - Durham Castle described, 82. - Dwelling-places of Early Britons, 1. - - Edward II., Murder of, 160, _note_. - Edward III. and Windsor Castle, 90. - Eleanor, Queen, and Fair Rosamund, 272. - Elecampane, Uses of, 66. - Elizabeth's Oak at Hatfield, 315, 316. - Elizabeth, Princess, at Hatfield, 320. - Elizabeth, Queen, her Hunting Lodge, 357. - Elizabeth, Queen, at Kenilworth, 102. - Elizabeth, Queen, Portraits of, 318, 319. - Elizabeth, Queen, and Windsor Castle, 93. - Eltham Palace Hall, 125. - Encampments, Roman and British, 25, 30. - English Castle-building, 71. - _English Housewife, The_, by Gervase Markham, 161. - English Manor-house, the, 111. - Englishman's Fireside, the, 135. - Epping forest, the last of, 353. - Esher Place, Vicissitudes of, 291. - _Essay on Man_, by Pope, where written, 346. - Ethelwulf, his Ring, 54. - Evelyn, John, plants Wotton woods, 331. - Evelyn, John, at Paris and Padua, 332. - Evelyn, John, at Sayes Court, 333. - Evelyn, John, his _Sylva_ and Planting, 334. - Evelyn, the pious Mrs., 339. - Evelyns, the, at Wotton, 329. - - Fair Rosamund, Story of, 269. - Fall of Wolsey, 284. - Feasts, Anglo-Saxon, 65. - Fire-places, various, 137, 138. - "Firm locks make faithful servants," 234. - Flodden Field, Tradition, 295. - Flue-tiles for heating Houses and Baths, 145. - Forest Officers, 357. - Forest Scenery, Picturesque, 354. - Fruit Trenchers, Ornamental, 202. - - Gardening, Evelyn on, 334. - George IV. restores Windsor Castle, 94. - Giants, Shropshire, Legends of, 37. - Glass-making, Saxon, 55. - God's Sunday, 139. - Godstow Nunnery, 270. - Grand Remonstrance, the, 323. - Grates, invention of, 143, 144. - Griffin's Egg-cup, the, 53. - Guy, Earl of Warwick, 100. - - Haddon Hall described, 117. - Hainault Forest, 353, 355. - Hall Fire, the, 136, 137. - Hall, the Great, described, 118. - Hall at Hatfield House, 320. - Hall at Hampton Court, 120. - Hall of the Manor-house, 111. - Halls of the City Companies, 112. - Hart, Hunting the, in Enfield Chase, 360. - Harvest, ancient, 224. - Hastings, Battle of, described, 295. - Hatfield, Curiosities of, 315. - Hatfield House built, 116. - Hatfield House, curious _Fair_ Picture at, 225. - Hatfield House and Park described, 315. - Hatfield House, Pictures at, 319. - Hawk and Eagle, strange incident, 266. - Hayfield, Service of Tenants, 227. - Hayward, Services of the, 224. - Henry II. and Fair Rosamund, 271. - Henry III. and Windsor Castle, 89. - Henry VII. and Windsor Castle, 92. - Herefordshire Lady in the time of the Civil War, 167. - Hermitages, Services of, 258. - Hever Castle, Five Days at, 141. - Hock-day Customs, 227, 228. - Holland House, Kensington, built, 115. - Hops introduced, 213, 214. - Horselydown Fair, _temp._ Queen Elizabeth, 254. - House-furnishing in the Middle Ages, 177. - Household Antiquities, 109. - Housekeeping, 17th century, 172. - Housemarks, olden, 235. - Housewife, the English, 161. - Hunting, Queen Elizabeth's fondness for, 360. - Hypocausts at Uriconium, 39. - - Inns of Court Halls, 122. - Iron-smelting, Roman, in Britain, 57. - Isabella, Queen of Edward II., Private Life of, 148. - Isabella, Queen, Death and Funeral of, 154. - Isabella, Queen, Pilgrimages of, 150, 153. - - Jewels, Queen Isabella's love of, 156, 157. - - Kenilworth Castle, Remains of, 101, 130. - Kenilworth Ruins, Picturesqueness of, 102. - Kent, Woollen Cloths of, 56. - Kidder, the "Pastry-master," 194. - Kitchen at Hampton Court Palace, 288. - Kitchen of Raby Castle, 82. - - Lady's Dress in the 17th Century, 171. - Lambs'-wool, how made, 216. - Lappenberg's Picture of Early Britain, 8, 9. - Laundry in olden times, 184. - Legend of Richard III., from Speed, 310. - Legend of Stonehenge, 13. - Legends of English Castles, 83. - Lending Money in old times, 169. - Lincoln's Inn Fruit and Vegetable Garden, 202. - Lodge, Hunting, in Epping Forest, 357. - Lombard Street, Queen Isabella resides in, 150. - London, ancient, site of, 2. - London mostly built of Wood, 128. - London, Old Houses in, 130. - London of Roman origin, 31. - London, Roman Remains in, 34. - Longleat, Wilts, described, 115. - Loseley, in Surrey, described, 183. - Loving Cup, Origin of, 50. - - Mallet at Bolingbroke House, 348. - Malting and Nutting, 223. - Manchets, recipes for, 193. - Manciple, duties of the, 194. - Manor-house, Old English, 127. - March-pane and Macaroons, 198, 199. - Marking Ducks, Swans, Oxen, &c., 235. - Markland, Jeremiah, at Milton Court, 341. - Mary, Queen, at Hatfield, 320. - May-day Carol, on Magdalen College Tower, 238. - May-day and Raine's Charity, 242. - May-day in Northamptonshire, 243. - May-day Song at Saffron Walden, 241. - May-poles in the present-day, 242. - Mazer-bowls, 52. - Mead, origin of, 63. - Mead-hall, or Beer-hall, Saxon, 48. - Meal-hours, _temp._ Richard III., 152. - Meals, British, Anglo-Roman, and Saxon, 61. - Messengers' and Minstrels' Expenses, 158, 159. - Metal-working, early British, 22. - Middle Age Life at Oxford, 243. - Mill, Horizontal, at Battersea, 345. - Milton Court, Jeremiah Markland at, 341. - Minced pie superstition, 248. - Mistletoe and the Druids, 11. - Montague, Lady M. W., on Carving, 166. - Mortimers, The, and Queen Isabella, 151. - Mulgrave Castle, Legend of, 84. - - Neckam, Alexander, curious Treatise by, 264. - Norman Houses, 110, 128. - - Oak, Owen Glendower's, 37. - Oak, Queen Elizabeth's at Hatfield, 317. - Orange-flower Water and Orange Butter, 200. - Oranges introduced, 201. - Oxford Ale, 68. - Oxford, May-day at, 239, 240. - Oxford, Picture of, 243. - Oysters, British, famous, 62. - - Pastry-making taught in Schools, 194. - Pavements, Roman, in London, 32. - Peasant Life, English, 217. - Peg Tankards, origin of, 51. - Pevensey Castle, Remains of, 72, 73. - Pevensey and the Norman Conquest, 72. - Phillips, Professor, on British and Roman Roads, 27. - Phoenicians, Trade of, 20. - Picts and Scots, the, 45. - Picts' Houses in the Orkneys, 5. - Pilgrimage of Queen Isabella, 150, 153. - Pin and Needle-makers, London, 189. - Pins and Pin Money, 188. - Pins, first made in England, 188. - Pins, olden, 189, 190. - Pins, what becomes of them? 191. - Plate-room at Windsor Castle, 97. - Ploughing for the Lord, 221. - Pomanders, or Scent-balls, 185. - Pope, Alexander, at Battersea, 343. - "Pope's Parlour," Bolingbroke House, 345. - Porcelain and China, early, 206. - Pottery found at Uriconium, 40, 41. - Precations, autumnal, 225. - Provisions, ancient Names of, 70. - Provisions, early, 192. - Provisions, rapid conveyance of, 208. - Puritans and Banbury Cakes, 245. - - Queen Isabella, Private Life of, 148. - - Raby Castle described, 79. - Raglan Castle, 86. - Richard III., Burial-place of, 310. - Richard III., Inn at Leicester, 305. - Richard's Strategy at Bosworth, 307. - Richard's Well, Bosworth, 301. - Rimbault, Dr., on the Oxford May Carol, 240. - Roads, bad, in Kent and Sussex, 59. - Roads, early British, 26. - Roman arts in Britain, 21. - Roman Bricks and Tiles, 75. - Roman Houses in Britain, 40. - Roman Pottery and Glass, 35. - Roman Road-making, 51. - Roman Roads in Britain, 26, 27. - Roman Roads and British Railways, 27. - Roman Supper, 62. - Roman Towns in Britain, 32. - Roman Wall, London, 33. - Romans in England, the, 24. - Rosamund, Fair, Story of, 269. - Rosamund, Fair, new Legend of, 275. - Rosamund's Bower and Well, 269. - Rosamund's Tomb, 275. - Rose-tree Tradition, 313. - Round Table and Round Tower, Windsor Castle, 90. - Royal Chase from Epping to London, 353. - Rumford, Count, on House-heating, 135. - Rushes used in Rooms, 140. - - Sacheverel's Passage through Banbury, 248. - Sack Brewage at Congleton, 252. - Sage and other herb Cheese, 212. - St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, 89, 91. - Salads first in England, 208. - Salisbury, the Earl of, builds Hatfield, 321. - Salmon and the Herefordshire apprentices, 167. - Sarcophagus for Wolsey's Remains, 290. - Saxon Beds, 49. - Saxon Dinner, 64. - Saxon Embroidery, 56. - Saxon Halls, 363. - Saxon Hospitalities, 63. - Saxon Houses in Britain, 47, 48. - Saxon Ladies, 49. - Saxon Provisions, 64. - Saxons arrive in Britain, 43. - Scripture Texts on Fruit Trenchers, 203. - Serpents' Eggs of the Druids, 15. - Sheep-shearing customs, 229, 230. - Silchester, exploration of, 42. - Silver Fire Implements, 142. - Sleeping in Church, 233. - Smith, Mr. Roach, on Roman London, 33. - Spices, early Use of, 198. - Spinning, Olden, 165. - Stirrups, Spurs, and Bridles, ancient, 60. - Stonehenge, account of, 12. - Storm, Great, of 1703, 334. - Sugar-candy and loaf-sugar, 196. - Sugar-cane in the Sandwich Islands, 196. - Sugar first introduced, 195. - Sussex Iron Manufacture, 57. - - Tea introduced, 197. - Tenants, Operative, 218. - Tenants' Small Services, 222. - Tewkesbury Field described, 299. - Thornbury Castle, history of, 113. - Thorpe, John, the Architect, 115. - Tillage of Land Services, 220. - Tin-trade, ancient, of Cornwall, 20. - Towton Field described, 298. - Traditions of Battle-fields, 293. - Traditions, real worth of, 313. - Travelling in Saxon Times, 59. - Trenchers and Trenchermen, 207. - Trenchers for Dessert Fruit, 203. - Tunbridge Castle described, 78. - - Uriconium, Destruction of, 38. - Uriconium, Roman City of, 36. - - Vegetables used in the Middle Ages, 207. - Victoria, Queen, at Hatfield, 124. - Villeins, how they held Land, 219. - Vineyard at Arundel Castle, 106. - Vineyards, British, 69. - Vortigern and Rowena, 49. - Vraic, in the Channel Islands, 231. - - Wake Festivals in the Black Country, 259. - Walpole, Sir R., and Lord Bolingbroke, 343. - Waltham Forest, 353. - Ward-penny, the, 232. - Wardrobes, early, 183. - Ware, Great Bed of, 179. - Warming-pan, antiquity of, 180. - Wars of the Roses, 312. - Warton's Sonnet on Stonehenge, 15. - Warwick Castle described, 98. - Warwick Castle, Pictures at, 99. - Wassail-cup, origin of the, 50. - Watch and Ward customs, 232. - Wayneflete's Tower at Esher Place, 290. - Wednesbury Cock-fighting, 261. - Whigge, or Whey, olden, 164. - William the Conqueror, Remains of, 72. - William of Wykeham and Windsor Castle, 91. - Window-glass at Uriconium, 55. - Windsor Castle described, 86. - Windsor Castle, interior of, 96, 97. - Windsor Castle, Pictures at, 96. - Windsor Castle, St. George's Day at, 153. - Wines introduced by the Normans, 69. - Wingfield Manor-house described, 112. - Wolsey and Christchurch, 287. - Wolsey at Cawood, 286. - Wolsey at Esher Place, 278. - Wolsey, Dr. Johnson's Lines on, 285. - Wolsey's Tomb-house at Windsor, 289, 290. - Wood used in House-building, 128. - Woollen Cloth known to the Britons, 55. - Woollen Clothing, olden, 185. - Woolverton House and the Russell Family, 75. - Worsted, origin of, 178. - Wotton Place and House described, 331. - Wotton, olden Mills at, 336. - Wren, odd Notion about, 269. - Wright, Mr. T., his _Guide to Uriconium_, 41. - Wroxeter, Uriconium at, 36. - Wyatville and Windsor Castle, 94. - - York and Lancaster Wars, 371. - York House, Battersea, Wolsey at, 351. - Yorkshire, ancient Houses in, 5-7. - Yorkshire, ancient and modern Roads in, 27. - - - - -Uniform with the present Work, and by the same Author. - -STRANGE STORIES -OF THE -ANIMAL WORLD. - -A BOOK OF CURIOUS CONTRIBUTIONS TO NATURAL HISTORY. - -BY JOHN TIMBS. - -With Illustrations by ZWECKER. Post 8vo. 6s. cloth. - - - "Amongst all the books of the season that will be studied with - pleasure as well as profit, by girls as well as boys, there is not - one more meritorious in aim, or more successful in execution, than - _Strange Stories of the Animal World_. In his Preface to this - useful compilation, the author of _Things not generally Known_ - says that he has endeavoured 'to present wonders free from that - love of exaggeration which besets narratives of Natural - History.'"--_Athenæum._ - - "An excellent selection of bird and beast tales, taken by that - clever and judicious book-maker, excellent Mr. John - Timbs."--_Saturday Review._ - - "Mr. Timbs has never, perhaps, compounded a more attractive - book."--_Examiner._ - - "This volume on the Animal World, by Mr. Timbs--the most - industrious and interesting of compilers--will delight those model - children who like only what is 'quite true,' and may also - contribute to awaken in all children that great good taste, a love - for Natural History."--_Notes and Queries._ - - "An admirable collection of anecdotes: the matter is very - carefully compiled and very well digested. Great praise is due to - the author for his careful research."--_London Review._ - - "The care and research which are evident in this volume of Mr. - Timbs's are very creditable to him; and they have enabled him to - present us with a book which will be a favourite one with young - and old."--_Churchman._ - - "The work, which we cordially recommend, is very nicely - illustrated."--_Illustrated Times._ - - "This book will furnish instructive amusement for the long winter - evenings to all lovers of Nature's wonders."--_Morning Post._ - - -GRIFFITH AND FARRAN, ST. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nooks and Corners of English Life, -Past and Present, by John Timbs - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NOOKS AND CORNERS OF ENGLISH *** - -***** This file should be named 40031-8.txt or 40031-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/0/3/40031/ - -Produced by Annie R. McGuire. This book was produced from -scanned images of public domain material from the Internet -Archive. - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at -http://gutenberg.org/license). - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at -http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at -809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email -business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact -information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official -page at http://pglaf.org - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit http://pglaf.org - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |