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diff --git a/40459-8.txt b/40459-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 513f53c..0000000 --- a/40459-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25638 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Animal Intelligence, by George J. Romanes - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Animal Intelligence - The International Scientific Series, Vol. XLIV. - -Author: George J. Romanes - -Release Date: August 9, 2012 [EBook #40459] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE *** - - - - -Produced by Emmy, Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - - -THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES. - -VOLUME XLIV. - - -I HAVE recently learnt from the publishers of the 'International -Scientific Series' that they have made arrangements with Sir John -Lubbock to bring out in the same series a work of his on Ants and Bees. -Necessarily, therefore, the material to be dealt with in his work will -to a large extent overlap that which is presented by my chapters on the -same insects; but after consulting with the publishers, and also with -Sir John Lubbock, it has seemed to me undesirable to omit these chapters -on account of the circumstances here stated. For, on the one hand, the -facts will not lose their value from being twice told; and on the other, -it is desirable that the present member of the Series should form in -itself, so far as its Author can make it, a complete _résumé_ of all the -more important facts of _Animal Intelligence_. - - - - -THE - -INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES. - -EACH BOOK COMPLETE IN ONE VOLUME, 12MO, AND BOUND IN CLOTH. - - - I. FORMS OF WATER: a Familiar Exposition of the Origin - and Phenomena of Glaciers. By J. TYNDALL, LL. D., F. - R. S. With 25 Illustrations. $1.50. - - II. PHYSICS AND POLITICS; Or, Thoughts on the - Application of the Principles of "Natural Selection" - and "Inheritance" to Political Society. By WALTER - BAGEHOT. $1.50. - - III. FOODS. By EDWARD SMITH, M.D., LL.B., F. R. S. - With numerous Illustrations. $1.75. - - IV. MIND AND BODY: The Theories of their Relation. By - ALEXANDER BAIN, LL. D. With Four Illustrations. $1.50. - - V. THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY. By HERBERT SPENCER. $1.50. - - VI. THE NEW CHEMISTRY. By Professor J. P. COOKE, of - Harvard University. With 31 Illustrations. $2.00. - - VII. ON THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. By BALFOUR - STEWART, M. A., LL. D., F. R. S. With 14 - Illustrations. $1.50. - - VIII. ANIMAL LOCOMOTION; or, Walking, Swimming, and - Flying. By J. B. PETTIGREW, M. D., F. R. S., etc. With - 130 Illustrations. $1.75. - - IX. RESPONSIBILITY IN MENTAL DISEASE. By HENRY - MAUDSLEY, M. D. $1.50. - - X. THE SCIENCE OF LAW. By Professor SHELDON AMOS. - $1.75. - - XI. ANIMAL MECHANISM: A Treatise on Terrestrial and - Aërial Locomotion. By Professor E. J. MAREY. With 117 - Illustrations. $1.75. - - XII. THE HISTORY OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN RELIGION AND - SCIENCE. By J. W. DRAPER, M. D., LL. D. $1.75. - - XIII. THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT AND DARWINISM. By - Professor OSCAR SCHMIDT (Strasburg University). With - 26 Illustrations. $1.50. - - XIV. THE CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF LIGHT AND PHOTOGRAPHY. 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ANIMAL LIFE AS AFFECTED BY THE NATURAL CONDITIONS - OF EXISTENCE. By KARL SEMPER. With Two Maps and 106 - Woodcuts. $2.00. - - XXXI. SIGHT: An Exposition of the Principles of - Monocular and Binocular Vision. By JOSEPH LE CONTE, - LL. D. With 132 Illustrations. $1.50. - - XXXII. GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLES AND NERVES. By - Professor J. ROSENTHAL. With 75 Illustrations. $1.50. - - XXXIII. ILLUSIONS: A Psychological Study. By JAMES - SULLY. $1.50. - - XXXIV. THE SUN. By C. A. YOUNG, Professor of Astronomy - in the College of New Jersey. With numerous - Illustrations. $2.00. - - XXXV. VOLCANOES: What they Are and what they Teach. By - JOHN W. JUDD, F. R. S., Professor of Geology in the - Royal School of Mines. With 96 Illustrations. $2.00. - - XXXVI. SUICIDE: An Essay in Comparative Moral - Statistics. By HENRY MORSELLI, M. D., Professor of - Psychological Medicine, Royal University, Turin. - $1.75. - - XXXVII. THE FORMATION OF VEGETABLE MOULD, THROUGH THE - ACTION OF WORMS. With Observations on their Habits. By - CHARLES DARWIN, LL. D., F. R. S., author of "On the - Origin of Species," etc., etc. With Illustrations. - $1.50. - - XXXVIII. THE CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF MODERN PHYSICS. - By J. B. STALLO. $1.75. - - XXXIX. THE BRAIN AND ITS FUNCTIONS. By J. LUYS. $1.50. - - XL. MYTH AND SCIENCE. An Essay. By TITO VIGNOLI. - $1.50. - - XLI. DISEASES OF MEMORY: An Essay in the Positive - Psychology. By TH. RIBOT, author of "Heredity." From - the French, by WILLIAM HUNTINGTON SMITH. $1.50. - - XLII. ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. A Record of Observations - on the Habits of the Social Hymenoptera. By Sir JOHN - LUBBOCK, Bart., F. R. S., D. C. L., LL. D., etc. - $2.00. - - XLIII. SCIENCE OF POLITICS. By SHELDON AMOS, author of - "Science of Law." $1.75. - - XLIV. ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE. By GEORGE J. ROMANES. - $1.75. - - XLV. MAN BEFORE METALS. By N. JOLY, Correspondent of - the Institute. With 148 Illustrations. $1.75. - - XLVI. THE ORGANS OF SPEECH AND THEIR APPLICATION IN - THE FORMATION OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. By GEORG HERMANN - VON MEYER, Professor in Ordinary of Anatomy at the - University of Zürich. With 47 Woodcuts. $1.75. - - New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street. - - - - - -THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES. - - - - -ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE. - - -BY - - GEORGE J. ROMANES, M. A., LL. D., F. R. S., - ZOOLOGICAL SECRETARY OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY. - - NEW YORK: - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, - 1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET. - 1884. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -WHEN I first began to collect materials for this work it was my -intention to divide the book into two parts. Of these I intended the -first to be concerned only with the facts of animal intelligence, while -the second was to have treated of these facts in their relation to the -theory of Descent. Finding, however, as I proceeded, that the material -was too considerable in amount to admit of being comprised within the -limits of a single volume, I have made arrangements with the publishers -of the 'International Scientific Series' to bring out the second -division of the work as a separate treatise, under the title 'Mental -Evolution.' This treatise I hope to get ready for press within a year or -two. - -My object in the work as a whole is twofold. First, I have thought it -desirable that there should be something resembling a text-book of the -facts of Comparative Psychology, to which men of science, and also -metaphysicians, may turn whenever they may have occasion to acquaint -themselves with the particular level of intelligence to which this or -that species of animal attains. Hitherto the endeavour of assigning -these levels has been almost exclusively in the hands of popular -writers; and as these have, for the most part, merely strung together, -with discrimination more or less inadequate, innumerable anecdotes of -the display of animal intelligence, their books are valueless as works -of reference. So much, indeed, is this the case, that Comparative -Psychology has been virtually excluded from the hierarchy of the -sciences. If we except the methodical researches of a few distinguished -naturalists, it would appear that the phenomena of mind in animals, -having constituted so much and so long the theme of unscientific -authors, are now considered well-nigh unworthy of serious treatment by -scientific methods. But it is surely needless to point out that the -phenomena which constitute the subject-matter of Comparative Psychology, -even if we regard them merely as facts in Nature, have at least as great -a claim to accurate classification as those phenomena of structure which -constitute the subject-matter of Comparative Anatomy. Leaving aside, -therefore, the reflection that within the last twenty years the facts of -animal intelligence have suddenly acquired a new and profound -importance, from the proved probability of their genetic continuity with -those of human intelligence, it would remain true that their systematic -arrangement is a worthy object of scientific endeavour. This, then, has -been my first object, which, otherwise stated, amounts merely to passing -the animal kingdom in review in order to give a trustworthy account of -the grade of psychological development which is presented by each group. -Such is the scope of the present treatise. - -My second, and much more important object, is that of considering the -facts of animal intelligence in their relation to the theory of Descent. -With the exception of Mr. Darwin's admirable chapters on the mental -powers and moral sense, and Mr. Spencer's great work on the Principles -of Psychology, there has hitherto been no earnest attempt at tracing the -principles which have been probably concerned in the genesis of Mind. -Yet there is not a doubt that, for the present generation at all -events, no subject of scientific inquiry can present a higher degree of -interest; and therefore it is mainly with the view of furthering this -inquiry that I have undertaken this work. It will thus be apparent that -the present volume, while complete in itself as a statement of the facts -of Comparative Psychology, has for its more ultimate purpose the laying -of a firm foundation for my future treatise on Mental Evolution. But -although, from what I have just said, it will be apparent that the -present treatise is preliminary to a more important one, I desire to -emphasise this statement, lest the critics, in being now presented only -with a groundwork on which the picture is eventually to be painted, -should deem that the art displayed is of somewhat too commonplace a -kind. If the present work is read without reference to its ultimate -object of supplying facts for the subsequent deduction of principles, it -may well seem but a small improvement upon the works of the -anecdote-mongers. But if it is remembered that my object in these pages -is the mapping out of animal psychology for the purposes of a subsequent -synthesis, I may fairly claim to receive credit for a sound scientific -intention, even where the only methods at my disposal may incidentally -seem to minister to a mere love of anecdote. - -It remains to add a few words on the principles which I have laid down -for my own guidance in the selection and arrangement of facts. -Considering it desirable to cast as wide a net as possible, I have -fished the seas of popular literature as well as the rivers of -scientific writing. The endless multitude of alleged facts which I have -thus been obliged to read, I have found, as may well be imagined, -excessively tedious; and as they are for the most part recorded by -wholly unknown observers, the labour of reading them would have been -useless without some trustworthy principles of selection. The first and -most obvious principle that occurred to me was to regard only those -facts which stood upon the authority of observers well known as -competent; but I soon found that this principle constituted much too -close a mesh. Where one of my objects was to determine the upper limit -of intelligence reached by this and that class, order, or species of -animals, I usually found that the most remarkable instances of the -display of intelligence were recorded by persons bearing names more or -less unknown to fame. This, of course, is what we might antecedently -expect, as it is obvious that the chances must always be greatly against -the more intelligent individuals among animals happening to fall under -the observation of the more intelligent individuals among men. Therefore -I soon found that I had to choose between neglecting all the more -important part of the evidence--and consequently in most cases feeling -sure that I had fixed the upper limit of intelligence too low--or -supplementing the principle of looking to authority alone with some -other principles of selection, which, while embracing the enormous class -of alleged facts recorded by unknown observers, might be felt to meet -the requirements of a reasonably critical method. I therefore adopted -the following principles as a filter to this class of facts. First, -never to accept an alleged fact without the authority of some name. -Second, in the case of the name being unknown, and the alleged fact of -sufficient importance to be entertained, carefully to consider whether, -from all the circumstances of the case as recorded, there was any -considerable opportunity for mal-observation; this principle generally -demanded that the alleged fact, or action on the part of the animal, -should be of a particularly marked and unmistakable kind, looking to the -end which the action is said to have accomplished. Third, to tabulate -all important observations recorded by unknown observers, with the view -of ascertaining whether they have ever been corroborated by similar or -analogous observations made by other and independent observers. This -principle I have found to be of great use in guiding my selection of -instances, for where statements of fact which present nothing -intrinsically improbable are found to be unconsciously confirmed by -different observers, they have as good a right to be deemed trustworthy -as statements which stand on the single authority of a known observer, -and I have found the former to be at least as abundant as the latter. -Moreover, by getting into the habit of always seeking for corroborative -cases, I have frequently been able to substantiate the assertions of -known observers by those of other observers as well or better known. - -So much, then, for the principles by which I have been guided in the -selection of facts. As to the arrangement of the facts, I have taken the -animal kingdom in ascending order, and endeavoured to give as full a -sketch as the selected evidence at my disposal permitted of the -psychology which is distinctive of each class, or order, and, in some -cases, family, genus, or even species. The reason of my entering into -greater detail with some natural groups than with others scarcely -requires explanation. For it is almost needless to say that if the -animal kingdom were classified with reference to Psychology instead of -with reference to Anatomy, we should have a very different kind of -zoological tree from that which is now given in our diagrams. There is, -indeed, a general and, philosophically considered, most important -parallelism running through the whole animal kingdom between structural -affinity and mental development; but this parallelism is exceedingly -rough, and to be traced only in broad outlines, so that although it is -convenient for the purpose of definite arrangement to take the animal -kingdom in the order presented by zoological classification, it would be -absurd to restrict an inquiry into Animal Psychology by any -considerations of the apparently disproportionate length and minute -subdivision with which it is necessary to treat some of the groups. -Anatomically, an ant or a bee does not require more consideration than a -beetle or a fly; but psychologically there is need for as great a -difference of treatment as there is in the not very dissimilar case of a -monkey and a man. - -Throughout the work my aim has been to arrive at definite principles -rather than to chronicle mere incidents--an aim which will become more -apparent when the work as a whole shall have been completed. Therefore -it is that in the present volume I have endeavoured, as far as the -nature and circumstances of the inquiry would permit, to suppress -anecdote. Nevertheless, although I have nowhere introduced anecdotes for -their own sake, I have found it unavoidable not to devote much the -largest part of the present essay to their narration. Hence, with the -double purpose of limiting the introduction of anecdotes as much as -possible, and of not repeating more than I could help anecdotes already -published, I have in all cases, where I could do so without detriment to -my main object, given the preference to facts which have been -communicated to me by friends and correspondents. And here I may fitly -take the opportunity of expressing my thanks and obligations to the -latter, who in astonishing numbers have poured in their communications -during several years from all quarters of the globe. I make this -statement because I desire to explain to all my correspondents who may -read this book, that I am not the less sensible of their kindness -because its bounty has rendered it impossible for me to send -acknowledgments in individual cases. However, I should like to add in -this connection that it does not follow, because I have only quoted a -small percentage of the letters which I have received, that all of the -remainder have been useless. On the contrary, many of these have served -to convey information and suggestions which, even if not reserved for -express quotation in my forthcoming work, have been of use in guiding my -judgment on particular points. Therefore I hope that the publication of -these remarks may serve to swell the stream of communications into a yet -larger flow.[1] - -In all cases where I have occasion to quote statements of fact, which in -the present treatise are necessarily numerous, I have made a point of -trying to quote _verbatim_. Only where I have found that the account -given by an author or a correspondent might profitably admit of a -considerable degree of condensation have I presented it in my own words. - -And here I have to express my very special obligations to Mr. Darwin, -who not only assisted me in the most generous manner with his immense -stores of information, as well as with his valuable judgment on sundry -points of difficulty, but has also been kind enough to place at my -disposal all the notes and clippings on animal intelligence which he has -been collecting for the last forty years, together with the original MS. -of his wonderful chapter on 'Instinct.' This chapter, on being re-cast -for the 'Origin of Species,' underwent so merciless an amount of -compression that the original draft constitutes a rich store of hitherto -unpublished material. In my second work I shall have occasion to draw -upon this store more largely than in the present one, and it is needless -to add that in all cases where I do draw upon it I shall be careful to -state the source to which I am indebted. - -[The above was written when I sent this work to the publishers several -months ago, and I have thought it best to leave the concluding paragraph -as it originally stood. But in making this explanation, I cannot allude -to the calamity which has since occurred without paying my tribute, not -alone to the memory of the greatest genius of our age, but still more, -and much more, to the memory of a friend so inexpressibly noble, kind, -and generous, that even my immense admiration of the naturalist was -surpassed by my loving veneration for the man.] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Letters may be addressed to me directly at 18 Cornwall Terrace, -Regent's Park, London, N W. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - INTRODUCTION 1 - - CHAPTER I. - APPLICATION OF THE FOREGOING PRINCIPLES TO THE LOWEST ANIMALS 18 - - CHAPTER II. - MOLLUSCA 25 - - CHAPTER III. - ANTS 31 - - CHAPTER IV. - BEES AND WASPS 143 - - CHAPTER V. - TERMITES 198 - - CHAPTER VI. - SPIDERS AND SCORPIONS 204 - - CHAPTER VII. - REMAINING ARTICULATA 226 - - CHAPTER VIII. - FISH 241 - - CHAPTER IX. - BATRACHIANS AND REPTILES 254 - - CHAPTER X. - BIRDS 266 - - CHAPTER XI. - MAMMALS 326 - - CHAPTER XII. - RODENTS 353 - - CHAPTER XIII. - ELEPHANT 386 - - CHAPTER XIV. - THE CAT 411 - - CHAPTER XV. - FOXES, WOLVES, JACKALS, &C. 426 - - CHAPTER XVI. - THE DOG 437 - - CHAPTER XVII. - MONKEYS, APES, AND BABOONS 471 - - INDEX 499 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -BEFORE we begin to consider the phenomena of mind throughout the animal -kingdom it is desirable that we should understand, as far as possible, -what it is that we exactly mean by mind. Now, by mind we may mean two -very different things, according as we contemplate it in our own -individual selves, or in other organisms. For if we contemplate our own -mind, we have an immediate cognizance of a certain flow of thoughts or -feelings, which are the most ultimate things, and indeed the only -things, of which we are cognisant. But if we contemplate mind in other -persons or organisms, we have no such immediate cognizance of thoughts -or feelings. In such cases we can only _infer_ the existence and the -nature of thoughts and feelings from the activities of the organisms -which appear to exhibit them. Thus it is that we may have a subjective -analysis of mind and an objective analysis of mind--the difference -between the two consisting in this, that in our subjective analysis we -are restricted to the limits of a single isolated mind which we call our -own, and within the territory of which we have immediate cognizance of -all the processes that are going on, or at any rate of all the processes -that fall within the scope of our introspection. But in our objective -analysis of other or foreign minds we have no such immediate cognizance; -all our knowledge of their operations is derived, as it were, through -the medium of ambassadors--these ambassadors being the activities of the -organism. Hence it is evident that in our study of animal intelligence -we are wholly restricted to the objective method. Starting from what I -know subjectively of the operations of my own individual mind, and the -activities which in my own organism they prompt, I proceed by analogy to -infer from the observable activities of other organisms what are the -mental operations that underlie them. - -Now, in this mode of procedure what is the kind of activities which may -be regarded as indicative of mind? I certainly do not so regard the -flowing of a river or the blowing of the wind. Why? First, because the -objects are too remote in kind from my own organism to admit of my -drawing any reasonable analogy between them and it; and, secondly, -because the activities which they present are of invariably the same -kind under the same circumstances; they afford no evidence of feeling or -purpose. In other words, two conditions require to be satisfied before -we even begin to imagine that observable activities are indicative of -mind: first, the activities must be displayed by a living organism; and -secondly, they must be of a kind to suggest the presence of two elements -which we recognise as the distinctive characteristics of mind as -such--consciousness and choice. - -So far, then, the case seems simple enough. Wherever we see a living -organism apparently exerting intentional choice, we might infer that it -is conscious choice, and therefore that the organism has a mind. But -further reflection shows us that this is just what we cannot do; for -although it is true that there is no mind without the power of conscious -choice, it is not true that all apparent choice is due to mind. In our -own organisms, for instance, we find a great many adaptive movements -performed without choice or even consciousness coming into play at -all--such, for instance, as in the beating of our hearts. And not only -so, but physiological experiments and pathological lesions prove that in -our own and in other organisms the mechanism of the nervous system is -sufficient, without the intervention of consciousness, to produce -muscular movements of a highly co-ordinate and apparently intentional -character. Thus, for instance, if a man has his back broken in such a -way as to sever the nervous connection between his brain and lower -extremities, on pinching or tickling his feet they are drawn suddenly -away from the irritation, although the man is quite unconscious of the -adaptive movement of his muscles; the lower nerve-centres of the spinal -cord are competent to bring about this movement of adaptive response -without requiring to be directed by the brain. This non-mental operation -of the lower nerve-centres in the production of apparently intentional -movements is called Reflex Action, and the cases of its occurrence, even -within the limits of our own organism, are literally numberless. -Therefore, in view of such non-mental nervous adjustment, leading to -movements which are only in appearance intentional, it clearly becomes a -matter of great difficulty to say in the case of the lower animals -whether any action which appears to indicate intelligent choice is not -really action of the reflex kind. - -On this whole subject of mind-like and yet not truly mental action I -shall have much to say in my subsequent treatise, where I shall be -concerned among other things with tracing the probable genesis of mind -from non-mental antecedents. But here it is sufficient merely to make -this general statement of the fact, that even within the experience -supplied by our own organisms adaptive movements of a highly complex and -therefore apparently purposive character may be performed without any -real purpose, or even consciousness of their performance. It thus -becomes evident that before we can predicate the bare existence of mind -in the lower animals, we need some yet more definite criterion of mind -than that which is supplied by the adaptive actions of a living -organism, howsoever apparently intentional such actions may be. Such a -criterion I have now to lay down, and I think it is one that is as -practically adequate as it is theoretically legitimate. - -Objectively considered, the only distinction between adaptive movements -due to reflex action and adaptive movements due to mental perception, -consists in the former depending on inherited mechanisms within the -nervous system being so constructed as to effect _particular_ adaptive -movements in response to _particular_ stimulations, while the latter -are independent of any such inherited adjustment of special mechanisms -to the exigencies of special circumstances. Reflex actions under the -influence of their appropriate stimuli may be compared to the actions of -a machine under the manipulations of an operator; when certain springs -of action are touched by certain stimuli, the whole machine is thrown -into appropriate movement; there is no room for choice, there is no room -for uncertainty; but as surely as any of these inherited mechanisms are -affected by the stimulus with reference to which it has been constructed -to act, so surely will it act in precisely the same way as it always has -acted. But the case with conscious mental adjustment is quite different. -For, without at present going into the question concerning the relation -of body and mind, or waiting to ask whether cases of mental adjustment -are not really quite as _mechanical_ in the sense of being the necessary -result or correlative of a chain of physical sequences due to a physical -stimulation, it is enough to point to the variable and incalculable -character of mental adjustments as distinguished from the constant and -foreseeable character of reflex adjustments. All, in fact, that in an -objective sense we can mean by a mental adjustment is an adjustment of a -kind that has not been definitely fixed by heredity as the only -adjustment possible in the given circumstances of stimulation. For were -there no alternative of adjustment, the case, in an animal at least, -would be indistinguishable from one of reflex action. - -It is, then, adaptive action by a living organism in cases where the -inherited machinery of the nervous system does not furnish data for our -prevision of what the adaptive action must necessarily be--it is only -here that we recognise the objective evidence of mind. The criterion of -mind, therefore, which I propose, and to which I shall adhere throughout -the present volume, is as follows:--Does the organism learn to make new -adjustments, or to modify old ones, in accordance with the results of -its own individual experience? If it does so, the fact cannot be due -merely to reflex action in the sense above described, for it is -impossible that heredity can have provided in advance for innovations -upon, or alterations of, its machinery during the lifetime of a -particular individual. - -In my next work I shall have occasion to consider this criterion of mind -more carefully, and then it will be shown that as here stated the -criterion is not rigidly exclusive, either, on the one hand, of a -possibly mental element in apparently non-mental adjustments, or, -conversely, of a possibly non-mental element in apparently mental -adjustments. But, nevertheless, the criterion is the best that is -available, and, as it will be found sufficient for all the purposes of -the present work, its more minute analysis had better be deferred till I -shall have to treat of the probable evolution of mind from non-mental -antecedents. I may, however, here explain that in my use of this -criterion I shall always regard it as fixing only the upper limit of -non-mental action; I shall never regard it as fixing the lower limit of -mental action. For it is clear that long before mind has advanced -sufficiently far in the scale of development to become amenable to the -test in question, it has probably begun to dawn as nascent subjectivity. -In other words, because a lowly organised animal does _not_ learn by its -own individual experience, we may not therefore conclude that in -performing its natural or ancestral adaptations to appropriate stimuli -consciousness, or the mind-element, is wholly absent; we can only say -that this element, if present, reveals no evidence of the fact. But, on -the other hand, if a lowly organised animal _does_ learn by its own -individual experience, we are in possession of the best available -evidence of conscious memory leading to intentional adaptation. -Therefore our criterion applies to the upper limit of non-mental action, -not to the lower limit of mental. - -Of course to the sceptic this criterion may appear unsatisfactory, since -it depends, not on direct knowledge, but on inference. Here, however, it -seems enough to point out, as already observed, that it is the best -criterion available; and further, that scepticism of this kind is -logically bound to deny evidence of mind, not only in the case of the -lower animals, but also in that of the higher, and even in that of men -other than the sceptic himself. For all objections which could apply to -the use of this criterion of mind in the animal kingdom would apply with -equal force to the evidence of any mind other than that of the -individual objector. This is obvious, because, as I have already -observed, the only evidence we can have of objective mind is that which -is furnished by objective activities; and as the subjective mind can -never become assimilated with the objective so as to learn by direct -feeling the mental processes which there accompany the objective -activities, it is clearly impossible to satisfy any one who may choose -to doubt the validity of inference, that in any case other than his own -mental processes ever do accompany objective activities. Thus it is that -philosophy can supply no demonstrative refutation of idealism, even of -the most extravagant form. Common sense, however, universally feels that -analogy is here a safer guide to truth than the sceptical demand for -impossible evidence; so that if the objective existence of other -organisms and their activities is granted--without which postulate -comparative psychology, like all the other sciences, would be an -unsubstantial dream--common sense will always and without question -conclude that the activities of organisms other than our own, when -analogous to those activities of our own which we know to be accompanied -by certain mental states, are in them accompanied by analogous mental -states. - -The theory of animal automatism, therefore, which is usually attributed -to Descartes (although it is not quite clear how far this great -philosopher really entertained the theory), can never be accepted by -common sense; and even as a philosophical speculation it will be seen, -from what has just been said, that by no feat of logic is it possible to -make the theory apply to animals to the exclusion of man. The expression -of fear or affection by a dog involves quite as distinctive and complex -a series of neuro-muscular actions as does the expression of similar -emotions by a human being; and therefore, if the evidence of -corresponding mental states is held to be inadequate in the one case, it -must in consistency be held similarly inadequate in the other. And -likewise, of course, with all other exhibitions of mental life. - -It is quite true, however, that since the days of Descartes--or rather, -we might say, since the days of Joule--the question of animal automatism -has assumed a new or more defined aspect, seeing that it now runs -straight into the most profound and insoluble problem that has ever been -presented to human thought--viz. the relation of body to mind in view of -the doctrine of the conservation of energy. I shall subsequently have -occasion to consider this problem with the close attention that it -demands; but in the present volume, which has to deal only with the -phenomena of mind as such, I expressly pass the problem aside as one -reserved for separate treatment. Here I desire only to make it plain -that the mind of animals must be placed in the same category, with -reference to this problem, as the mind of man; and that we cannot -without gross inconsistency ignore or question the evidence of mind in -the former, while we accept precisely the same kind of evidence as -sufficient proof of mind in the latter. - -And this proof, as I have endeavoured to show, is in all cases and in -its last analysis the fact of a living organism showing itself able to -learn by its own individual experience. Wherever we find an animal able -to do this, we have the same right to predicate mind as existing in such -an animal that we have to predicate it as existing in any human being -other than ourselves. For instance, a dog has always been accustomed to -eat a piece of meat when his organism requires nourishment, and when his -olfactory nerves respond to the particular stimulus occasioned by the -proximity of the food. So far, it may be said, there is no evidence of -mind; the whole series of events comprised in the stimulations and -muscular movements may be due to reflex action alone. But now suppose -that by a number of lessons the dog has been taught not to eat the meat -when he is hungry until he receives a certain verbal signal: then we -have exactly the same kind of evidence that the dog's actions are -prompted by mind as we have that the actions of a man are so -prompted.[2] Now we find that the lower down we go in the animal -kingdom, the more we observe reflex action, or non-mental adjustment, to -predominate over volitional action, or mental adjustment. That is to -say, the lower down we go in the animal kingdom, the less capacity do we -find for changing adjustive movements in correspondence with changed -conditions; it becomes more and more hopeless to _teach_ animals--that -is, to establish associations of ideas; and the reason of this, of -course, is that ideas or mental units become fewer and less definite the -lower we descend through the structure of mind. - - * * * * * - -It is not my object in the present work to enter upon any analysis of -the operations of mind, as this will require to be done as fully as -possible in my next work. Nevertheless, a few words must here be said -with regard to the main divisions of mental operation, in order to -define closely the meanings which I shall attach to certain terms -relating to these divisions, and the use of which I cannot avoid. - -The terms sensation, perception, emotion, and volition need not here be -considered. I shall use them in their ordinary psychological -significations; and although I shall subsequently have to analyse each -of the organic or mental states which they respectively denote, there -will be no occasion in the present volume to enter upon this subject. I -may, however, point out one general consideration to which I shall -throughout adhere. Taking it for granted that the external indications -of mental processes which we observe in animals are trustworthy, so that -we are justified in inferring particular mental states from particular -bodily actions, it follows that in consistency we must everywhere apply -the same criteria. - -For instance, if we find a dog or a monkey exhibiting marked expressions -of affection, sympathy, jealousy, rage, &c., few persons are sceptical -enough to doubt that the complete analogy which these expressions afford -with those which are manifested by man, sufficiently prove the -existence of mental states analogous to those in man of which these -expressions are the outward and visible signs. But when we find an ant -or a bee apparently exhibiting by its actions these same emotions, few -persons are sufficiently non-sceptical not to doubt whether the outward -and visible signs are here trustworthy as evidence of analogous or -corresponding inward and mental states. The whole organisation of such a -creature is so different from that of a man that it becomes questionable -how far analogy drawn from the activities of the insect is a safe guide -to the inferring of mental states--particularly in view of the fact that -in many respects, such as in the great preponderance of 'instinct' over -'reason,' the psychology of an insect is demonstrably a widely different -thing from that of a man. Now it is, of course, perfectly true that the -less the resemblance the less is the value of any analogy built upon the -resemblance, and therefore that the inference of an ant or a bee feeling -sympathy or rage is not so valid as is the similar inference in the case -of a dog or a monkey. Still it _is_ an inference, and, so far as it -goes, a valid one--being, in fact, the only inference available. That is -to say, if we observe an ant or a bee apparently exhibiting sympathy or -rage, we must either conclude that some psychological state resembling -that of sympathy or rage is present, or else refuse to think about the -subject at all; from the observable facts there is no other inference -open. Therefore, having full regard to the progressive weakening of the -analogy from human to brute psychology as we recede through the animal -kingdom downwards from man, still, as it is the only analogy available, -I shall follow it throughout the animal series. - -It may not, however, be superfluous to point out that if we have full -regard to this progressive weakening of the analogy, we must feel less -and less certain of the real similarity of the mental states compared; -so that when we get down as low as the insects, I think the most we can -confidently assert is that the known facts of human psychology furnish -the best available pattern of the probable facts of insect psychology. -Just as the theologians tell us--and logically enough--that if there is -a Divine Mind, the best, and indeed only, conception we can form of it -is that which is formed on the analogy, however imperfect, supplied by -the human mind; so with 'inverted anthropomorphism' we must apply a -similar consideration with a similar conclusion to the animal mind. The -mental states of an insect may be widely different from those of a man, -and yet most probably the nearest conception that we can form of their -true nature is that which we form by assimilating them to the pattern of -the only mental states with which we are actually acquainted. And this -consideration, it is needless to point out, has a special validity to -the evolutionist, inasmuch as upon his theory there must be a -psychological, no less than a physiological, continuity extending -throughout the length and breadth of the animal kingdom. - - * * * * * - -In these preliminary remarks only one other point requires brief -consideration, and this has reference to the distinction between what in -popular phraseology is called 'Instinct' and 'Reason.' I shall not here -enter upon any elaborate analysis of a distinction which is undoubtedly -valid, but shall confine my remarks to explaining the sense in which I -shall everywhere use these terms. - -Few words in our language have been subject to a greater variety of -meanings than the word instinct. In popular phraseology, descended from -the Middle Ages, all the mental faculties of the animal are termed -instinctive, in contradistinction to those of man, which are termed -rational. But unless we commit ourselves to an obvious reasoning in a -circle, we must avoid assuming that all actions of animals are -instinctive, and then arguing that because they are instinctive, -therefore they differ from the rational actions of man. The question -really lies in what is here assumed, and we can only answer it by -examining in what essential respect instinct differs from reason. - -Again, Addison says:-- - - I look upon instinct as upon the principle of - gravitation in bodies, which is not to be explained by - any known qualities inherent in the bodies themselves, - nor from any laws of mechanism, but as an immediate - impression from the first Mover, and the Divine energy - acting in the creatures. - -This mode of 'looking upon instinct' is merely to exclude the subject -from the sphere of inquiry, and so to abstain from any attempt at -definition. - -Innumerable other opinions might be quoted from well-known writers, -'looking upon instinct' in widely different ways; but as this is not an -historical work, I shall pass on at once to the manner in which science -looks upon it, or, at least, the manner in which it will always be -looked upon throughout the present work. - -Without concerning ourselves with the origin of instincts, and so -without reference to the theory of evolution, we have to consider the -most conspicuous and distinctive features of instinct as it now exists. -The most important point to observe in the first instance is that -instinct involves _mental_ operations; for this is the only point that -serves to distinguish instinctive action from reflex. Reflex action, as -already explained, is non-mental neuro-muscular adaptation to -appropriate stimuli; but instinctive action is this and something more; -there is in it the element of mind. Such, at least, is instinctive -action in the sense that I shall always allude to it. I am, of course, -aware that the limitation which I thus impose is one which is ignored, -or not recognised, by many writers even among psychologists; but I am -persuaded that if we are to have any approach to definiteness in the -terms which we employ--not to say of clearness in our ideas concerning -the things of which we speak--it is most desirable to restrict the word -instinct to mental as distinguished from non-mental activity. No doubt -it is often difficult, or even impossible, to decide whether or not a -given action implies the presence of the mind-element--_i.e._, conscious -as distinguished from unconscious adaptation; but this is altogether a -separate matter, and has nothing to do with the question of defining -instinct in a manner which shall be formally exclusive, on the one hand -of reflex action, and on the other of reason. As Virchow truly observes, -'it is difficult or impossible to draw the line between instinctive and -reflex action;' but at least the difficulty may be narrowed down to -deciding in particular cases whether or not an action falls into this or -that category of definition; there is no reason why the difficulty -should arise on account of any ambiguity of the definitions themselves. -Therefore I endeavour to draw as sharply as possible the line which _in -theory_ should be taken to separate instinctive from reflex action; and -this line, as I have already said, is constituted by the boundary of -non-mental or unconscious adjustment, with adjustment in which there is -concerned consciousness or mind. - -Having thus, I hope, made it clear that the difficulty of drawing a -distinction between reflex and instinctive actions as a class is one -thing, and that the difficulty of assigning particular actions to one or -the other of our categories is another thing, we may next perceive that -the former difficulty is obviated by the distinction which I have -imposed, and that the latter only arises from the fact that on the -objective side there is no distinction imposable. The former difficulty -is obviated by the distinction which I have drawn, simply because the -distinction is itself a definite one. In particular cases of adjustive -action we may not always be able to affirm whether consciousness of -their performance is present or absent; but, as I have already said, -this does not affect the validity of our definition; all we can say of -such cases is that if the performance in question is attended with -consciousness it is instinctive, and if not it is reflex. - -And the difficulty of assigning particular actions to one or other of -these two categories arises, as I have said, merely because on the -objective side, or the side of the nervous system, there is no -distinction to be drawn. Whether or not a neural process is accompanied -by a mental process, it is in itself the same. The advent and -development of consciousness, although progressively converting reflex -action into instinctive, and instinctive into rational, does this -exclusively in the sphere of subjectivity; the nervous processes engaged -are throughout the same in kind, and differ only in the relative degrees -of their complexity. Therefore, as the dawn of consciousness or the rise -of the mind-element is gradual and undefined, both in the animal kingdom -and in the growing child, it is but necessary that in the early morning, -as it were, of consciousness any distinction between the mental and the -non-mental should be obscure, and generally impossible to determine. -Thus, for instance, a child at birth does not close its eyes upon the -near approach of a threatening body, and it only learns to do so by -degrees as the result of experience; at first, therefore, the action of -closing the eyelids in order to protect the eyes may be said to be -instinctive, in that it involves the mind-element:[3] yet it afterwards -becomes a reflex which asserts itself even in opposition to the will. -And, conversely, sucking in a new-born child, or a child _in utero_, is, -in accordance with my definition, a reflex action; yet in later life, -when consciousness becomes more developed and the child _seeks_ the -breast, sucking may properly be called an instinctive action. Therefore -it is that, as in the ascending scale of objective complexity the -mind-element arises and advances gradually, many particular cases which -occupy the undefined boundary between reflex action and instinct cannot -be assigned with confidence either to the one region or to the other. - -We see then the point, and the only point, wherein instinct can be -consistently separated from reflex action; viz., in presenting a mental -constituent. Next we must consider wherein instinct may be separated -from reason. And for this purpose we may best begin by considering what -we mean by reason. - -The term 'reason' is used in significations almost as various as those -which are applied to 'instinct.' Sometimes it stands for all the -distinctively human faculties taken collectively, and in antithesis to -the mental faculties of the brute; while at other times it is taken to -mean the distinctively human faculties of intellect. - -Dr. Johnson defines it as 'the power by which man deduces one -proposition from another, and proceeds from premises to consequences.' -This definition presupposes language, and therefore ignores all cases of -inference not thrown into the formal shape of predication. Yet even in -man the majority of inferences drawn by the mind never emerge as -articulate propositions; so that although, as we shall have occasion -fully to observe in my subsequent work, there is much profound -philosophy in identifying reason with speech as they were identified in -the term Logos, yet for purposes of careful definition so to identify -intellect with language is clearly a mistake. - -More correctly, the word reason is used to signify the power of -perceiving analogies or ratios, and is in this sense equivalent to the -term 'ratiocination,' or the faculty of deducing inferences from a -perceived equivalency of relations. Such is the only use of the word -that is strictly legitimate, and it is thus that I shall use it -throughout the present treatise. This faculty, however, of balancing -relations, drawing inferences, and so of forecasting probabilities, -admits of numberless degrees; and as in the designation of its lower -manifestations it sounds somewhat unusual to employ the word reason, I -shall in these cases frequently substitute the word intelligence. Where -we find, for instance, that an oyster profits by individual experience, -or is able to perceive new relations and suitably to act upon the result -of its perceptions, I think it sounds less unusual to speak of the -oyster as displaying intelligence than as displaying reason. On this -account I shall use the former term to signify the lower degrees of the -ratiocinative faculty; and thus in my usage it will be opposed to such -terms as instinct, reflex action, &c., in the same manner as the term -reason is so opposed. This is a point which, for the sake of clearness, -I desire the reader to retain in his memory. I shall always speak of -intelligence and intellect in antithesis to instinct, emotion, and the -rest, as implying mental faculties the same in kind as those which in -ourselves we call rational. - -Now it is notorious that no distinct line can be drawn between instinct -and reason. Whether we look to the growing child or to the ascending -scale of animal life, we find that instinct shades into reason by -imperceptible degrees, or, as Pope expresses it, that these principles -are 'for ever separate, yet for ever near.' Nor is this other than the -principles of evolution would lead us to expect, as I shall afterwards -have abundant occasion to show. Here, however, we are only concerned -with drawing what distinction we can between instinct and reason as -these faculties are actually presented to our observation. And this in a -general way it is not difficult to do. - -We have seen that instinct involves 'mental operations,' and that by -this feature it is distinguished from reflex action; we have now to -consider the features by which it is distinguished from reason. These -are accurately, though not completely, conveyed by Sir Benjamin Brodie, -who defines instinct as 'a principle by which animals are induced, -independently of experience and reasoning, to the performances of -certain voluntary acts, which are necessary to their preservation as -individuals, or to the continuance of the species, or in some other way -convenient to them.'[4] This definition, as I have said, is accurate as -far as it goes, but it does not state with sufficient generality and -terseness that all instinctive action is adaptive; nor does it clearly -bring out the distinction between instinct and reason which is thus well -conveyed by the definition of Hartmann, who says in his 'Philosophy of -the Unconscious,' that 'instinct is action taken in pursuance of an end, -but without conscious perception of what the end is.' This definition, -however, is likewise defective in that it omits another of the important -differentiæ of instinct--namely, the uniformity of instinctive action as -performed by different individuals of the same species. Including this -feature, therefore, we may more accurately and completely define -instinct as mental action (whether in animals or human beings), -directed towards the accomplishing of adaptive movement, antecedent to -individual experience, without necessary knowledge of the relation -between the means employed and the ends attained, but similarly -performed under the same appropriate circumstances by all the -individuals of the same species. Now in every one of these respects, -with the exception of containing a mental constituent and in being -concerned in adaptive action, instinct differs from reason. For reason, -besides involving a mental constituent, and besides being concerned in -adaptive action, is always subsequent to individual experience, never -acts but upon a definite and often laboriously acquired knowledge of the -relation between means and ends, and is very far from being always -similarly performed under the same appropriate circumstances by all the -individuals of the same species. - -Thus the distinction between instinct and reason is both more definite -and more manifold than is that between instinct and reflex action. -Nevertheless, in particular cases there is as much difficulty in -classifying certain actions as instinctive or rational, as there is in -cases where the question lies between instinct and reflex action. And -the explanation of this is, as already observed, that instinct passes -into reason by imperceptible degrees; so that actions in the main -instinctive are very commonly tempered with what Pierre Huber calls 'a -little dose of judgment or reason,' and _vice versâ_. But here, again, -the difficulty which attaches to the classification of particular -actions has no reference to the validity of the distinctions between the -two classes of actions; these are definite and precise, whatever -difficulty there may be in applying them to particular cases. - -Another point of difference between instinct and reason may be noticed -which, although not of invariable, is of very general applicability. It -will have been observed, from what has already been said, that the -essential respect in which instinct differs from reason consists in the -amount of conscious deliberation which the two processes respectively -involve. Instinctive actions are actions which, owing to their frequent -repetition, become so habitual in the course of generations that all -the individuals of the same species automatically perform the same -actions under the stimulus supplied by the same appropriate -circumstances. Rational actions, on the other hand, are actions which -are required to meet circumstances of comparatively rare occurrence in -the life-history of the species, and which therefore can only be -performed by an intentional effort of adaptation. Consequently there -arises the subordinate distinction to which I allude, viz., that -instinctive actions are only performed under particular circumstances -which have been frequently experienced during the life-history of the -species; whereas rational actions are performed under varied -circumstances, and serve to meet novel exigencies which may never before -have occurred even in the life-history of the individual. - -Thus, then, upon the whole, we may lay down our several definitions in -their most complete form. - -Reflex action is non-mental neuro-muscular adjustment, due to the -inherited mechanism of the nervous system, which is formed to respond to -particular and often recurring stimuli, by giving rise to particular -movements of an adaptive though not of an intentional kind. - -Instinct is reflex action into which there is imported the element of -consciousness. The term is therefore a generic one, comprising all those -faculties of mind which are concerned in conscious and adaptive action, -antecedent to individual experience, without necessary knowledge of the -relation between means employed and ends attained, but similarly -performed under similar and frequently recurring circumstances by all -the individuals of the same species. - -Reason or intelligence is the faculty which is concerned in the -intentional adaptation of means to ends. It therefore implies the -conscious knowledge of the relation between means employed and ends -attained, and may be exercised in adaptation to circumstances novel -alike to the experience of the individual and to that of the species. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[2] Of course it may be said that we have no evidence of _prompting_ in -either case; but this is the side issue which concerns the general -relation of body and mind, and has nothing to do with the guarantee of -inferring the presence of mind in particular cases. - -[3] _I.e._, ancestral as well as individual. If the race had not always -had occasion to close the eyelids to protect the eyes, it is certain -that the young child would not so quickly learn to do so in virtue of -its own individual experience alone; and as the action cannot be -attributed to any process of conscious inference, it is not rational; -but we have seen that it is not originally reflex; therefore it is -instinctive. - -[4] _Psychological Researches_, p. 187. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -APPLICATION OF THE FOREGOING PRINCIPLES TO THE LOWEST ANIMALS. - - -_Protozoa._ - -NO one can have watched the movements of certain Infusoria without -feeling it difficult to believe that these little animals are not -actuated by some amount of intelligence. Even if the manner in which -they avoid collisions be attributed entirely to repulsions set up in the -currents which by their movements they create, any such mechanical -explanation certainly cannot apply to the small creatures seeking one -another for the purposes of prey, reproduction, or, as it sometimes -seems, of mere sport. There is a common and well-known rotifer whose -body is of a cup shape, provided with a very active tail, which is armed -at its extremity with strong forceps. I have seen a small specimen of -this rotifer seize a much larger one with its forceps, and attach itself -by this means to the side of the cup. The large rotifer at once became -very active, and swinging about with its burden until it came to a piece -of weed, it took firm hold of the weed with its own forceps, and began -the most extraordinary series of movements, which were obviously -directed towards ridding itself of the encumbrance. It dashed from side -to side in all directions with a vigour and suddenness which were highly -astonishing, so that it seemed as if the animalcule would either break -its forceps or wrench its tail from its body. No movements could -possibly be better suited to jerk off the offending object, for the -energy with which the jerks were given, now in one direction and now in -another, were, as I have said, most surprising. But not less surprising -was the tenacity with which the smaller rotifer retained its hold; for -although one might think that it was being almost jerked to pieces, -after each bout of jerking it was seen to be still attached. This trial -of strength, which must have involved an immense expenditure of energy -in proportion to the size of the animals, lasted for several minutes, -till eventually the small rotifer was thrown violently away. It then -returned to the conflict, but did not succeed a second time in -establishing its hold. The entire scene was as like intelligent action -on the part of both animals as could well be imagined, so that if we -were to depend upon appearances alone, this one observation would be -sufficient to induce me to attribute conscious determination to these -microscopical organisms. - -But, without denying that conscious determination may here be present, -or involving ourselves in the impossible task of proving such a -negative, we may properly affirm that until an animalcule shows itself -to be teachable by individual experience, we have no sufficient evidence -derived or derivable from any number of such apparently intelligent -movements, that conscious determination is present. Therefore, I need -not wait to quote the observations of the sundry microscopists who -detail facts more or less similar to the above, with expressions of -their belief that microscopical organisms display a certain degree of -instinct or intelligence as distinguished from mechanical, or wholly -non-mental adjustment. But there are some observations relating to the -lowest of all animals, and made by a competent person, which are so -remarkable that I shall have to quote them in full. These observations -are recorded by Mr. H. J. Carter, F.R.S., in the 'Annals of Natural -History,' and in his opinion prove that the beginnings of instinct are -to be found so low down in the scale as the Rhizopoda. He says:--'Even -_Athealium_ will confine itself to the water of the watch-glass in which -it may be placed when away from sawdust and chips of wood among which it -has been living; but if the watch-glass be placed upon the sawdust, it -will very soon make its way over the side of the watch-glass and get to -it.' - -This is certainly a remarkable observation: for it seems to show that -the rhizopod distinguishes the presence of the sawdust outside the -watch-glass, and crawls over the brim of the latter in order to get into -more congenial quarters, while it is contented with the water in the -watch-glass so long as there is no sawdust outside. But to proceed: - - On one occasion, while investigating the nature of - some large, transparent, spore-like elliptical cells - (fungal?) whose protoplasm was rotating, while it was - at the same time charged with triangular grains of - starch, I observed some actinophorous rhizopods - creeping about them, which had similarly shaped grains - of starch in their interior; and having determined the - nature of these grains in both by the addition of - iodine, I cleansed the glasses, and placed under the - microscope a new portion of the sediment from the - basin containing these cells and actinophryans for - further examination, when I observed one of the - spore-like cells had become ruptured, and that a - portion of its protoplasm, charged with the triangular - starch-grains, was slightly protruding through the - crevice. It then struck me that the actinophryans had - obtained their starch-grains from this source; and - while looking at the ruptured cell, an _actinophrys_ - made its appearance, and creeping round the cell, at - last arrived at the crevice, from which it extricated - one of the grains of starch mentioned, and then crept - off to a good distance. Presently, however, it - returned to the same cell; and although there were now - no more starch-grains protruding, the _actinophrys_ - managed again to extract one from the interior through - the crevice. All this was repeated several times, - showing that the _actinophrys_ instinctively knew that - those were nutritious grains, that they were contained - in this cell, and that, although each time after - incepting a grain it went away to some distance, it - knew how to find its way back to the cell again which - furnished this nutriment. - - On another occasion I saw an _actinophrys_ station - itself close to a ripe spore-cell of _pythium_, which - was situated upon a filament of _Spirogyra crassa_; - and as the young ciliated monadic germs issued forth, - one after another, from the dehiscent spore-cell, the - _actinophrys_ remained by it and caught every one of - them, even to the last, when it retired to another - part of the field, as if instinctively conscious that - there was nothing more to be got at the old place. - - But by far the greatest feat of this kind that ever - presented itself to me was the catching of a young - _acineta_ by an old sluggish _amoeba_, as the - former left its parent; and this took place as - follows:-- - - In the evening of the 2nd of June, 1858, in Bombay, - while looking through a microscope at some _Euglenæ_, - &c., which had been placed aside for examination in a - watch-glass, my eye fell upon a stalked and triangular - _acineta_ (_A. mystacina_?), around which an - _amoeba_ was creeping and lingering, as they do when - they are in quest of food. But knowing the antipathy - that the _amoeba_, like almost every other - infusorian, has to the tentacles of the _acineta_, I - concluded that the _amoeba_ was not encouraging an - appetite for its whiskered companion, when I was - surprised to find that it crept up the stem of the - _acineta_, and wound itself round its body. This mark - of affection, too much like that frequently evinced at - the other end of the scale, even where there is a mind - for its control, did not long remain without - interpretation. There was a young _acineta_, tender, - and without poisonous tentacles (for they are not - developed at birth), just ready to make its exit from - the parent, an exit which takes place so quickly, and - is followed by such rapid bounding movements of the - non-ciliated _acineta_, that who would venture to say, - _à priori_, that a dull, heavy, sluggish _amoeba_ - could catch such an agile little thing? But the - _amoeba_ are as unerring and unrelaxing in their - grasp as they are unrelenting in their cruel - inceptions of the living and the dead, when they serve - them for nutrition; and thus the _amoeba_, placing - itself round the ovarian aperture of the _acineta_, - received the young one, nurse-like, in its fatal lap, - incepted it, descended from the parent, and crept off. - Being unable to conceive at the time that this was - such an act of atrocity on the part of the _amoeba_ - as the sequel disclosed, and thinking that the young - _acineta_ might yet escape, or pass into some other - form in the body of its host, I watched the _amoeba_ - for some time afterwards, until the tale ended by the - young _acineta_ becoming divided into two parts, and - thus in their respective digestive spaces ultimately - becoming broken down and digested.[5] - -With regard to these remarkable observations it can only, I think, be -said that although certainly very suggestive of something more than -mechanical response to stimulation, they are not sufficiently so to -justify us in ascribing to these lowest members of the zoological scale -any rudiment of truly mental action. The subject, however, is here full -of difficulty, and not the least so on account of the _amoeba_ not -only having no nervous system, but no observable organs of any kind; so -that, although we may suppose that the adaptive movements described by -Mr. Carter were non-mental, it still remains wonderful that these -movements should be exhibited by such apparently unorganised creatures, -seeing that as to the remoteness of the end attained, no less than the -complex refinement of the stimulus to which their adaptive response was -due, the movements in question rival the most elaborate of non-mental -adjustments elsewhere performed by the most highly organised of nervous -systems. - - -_Coelenterata._ - -Dr. Eimer attributes 'voluntary action' to the Medusæ, and indeed draws -a sharp distinction between what he considers their 'involuntary' and -'voluntary' movements. In this distinction, however, I do not at all -concur; for although I am well acquainted with the difference between -the active and slow rhythm upon which the distinction is founded, I see -no evidence whatever for supposing that the difference involves any -psychological element. The active swimming is produced by stimulation, -and is no doubt calculated to lead to the escape of the organism; but -this fact certainly does not carry us beyond the ordinary possibilities -of reflex action. And even when, as in some species is constantly the -case, bouts of active swimming appear to arise spontaneously or without -observable stimulation, the fact is to be attributed to a liberation of -overplus ganglionic energy, or to some unobservable stimulation; it does -not justify the supposition of any psychical element being concerned.[6] - -M'Crady gives an interesting account of a medusa which carries its larvæ -on the inner sides of its bell-shaped body. The manubrium, or mobile -digestive cavity of the animal, depends, as in the other Medusæ, from -the summit of the concave surface of the bell, like a clapper or tongue. -Now M'Crady observed this depending organ to be moved first to one side -and then to the other side of the bell, in order to give suck to the -larvæ on the sides of the bell--the larvæ dipping their long noses into -the nutrient fluids which that organ of the parent's body contained. I -cite this case, because if it occurred in one of the higher animals it -would probably be called a case of instinct; but as it occurs in so low -an animal as a jelly-fish, it is unreasonable to suppose that -intelligence can ever have played any part in originating the action. -Therefore we may set it down as the uncompounded result of natural -selection. - -Some species of medusæ--notably _Sarsia_--seek the light, crowding into -the path of a beam, and following it actively if moved. They derive -advantage from so doing, because certain small crustacea on which they -feed likewise crowd into the light. The seeking of light by these medusæ -is therefore doubtless of the nature of a reflex action which has been -developed by natural selection in order to bring the animals into -contact with their prey. Paul Bert has found that _Daphnia pulex_ seeks -the light (especially the yellow ray), and Engelmann has observed the -same fact with regard to certain protoplasmic organisms. But in none of -these or other such cases is there any evidence of a psychical element -being concerned in the process. - - -_Echinodermata._ - -Some of the natural movements of these animals, as also some of their -movements under stimulation, are very suggestive of purpose; but I have -satisfied myself that there is no adequate evidence of the animals being -able to profit by individual experience, and therefore, in accordance -with our canon, that there is no adequate evidence of their exhibiting -truly mental phenomena. On the other hand, the study of reflex action in -these organisms is full of interest--so much so that in my next work I -shall take them as typical organisms in this connection.[7] - - -_Annelida._ - -Mr. Darwin has now in the press a highly interesting work on the habits -of earth-worms. It appears from his observations that the manner in -which these animals draw down leaves, &c., into their burrows is -strongly indicative of instinctive action, if not of intelligent -purpose--seeing that they always lay hold of the part of the leaf (even -though an exotic one) by the traction of which the leaf will offer least -resistance to being drawn down. But as this work will so shortly be -published, I shall not forestall any of the facts which it has to state, -nor should I yet like to venture an opinion as to how far these facts, -when considered altogether, would justify any inference to a truly -mental element as existing in these animals. - -Of the land leeches in Ceylon, Sir E. Tennent gives an account which -likewise seems to bespeak intelligence as occurring in annelids. He -says:-- - - In moving, the land leeches have the power of planting - one extremity on the earth and raising the other - perpendicularly to watch for their victim. Such is - their vigilance and instinct, that on the approach of - a passer-by to a spot which they infest, they may be - seen amongst the grass and fallen leaves on the edge - of a native path, poised erect, and preparing for - their attack on man and horse. On descrying their prey - they advance rapidly by semicircular strides, fixing - one end firmly and arching the other forwards, till by - successive advances they can lay hold of the - traveller's foot, when they disengage themselves from - the ground and ascend his dress in search of an - aperture to enter. In these encounters the individuals - in the rear of a party of travellers in the jungle - invariably fare worst, as the leeches, once warned of - their approach, congregate with singular celerity.[8] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[5] H. J. Carter, F.R.S., _Annals of Natural History_, 3rd Series, 1863, -pp. 45-6. - -[6] For an account of the natural movements of the Medusæ and the -effects of stimulation upon them, see Croonian Lecture in _Phil. Trans._ -1875, and also _Phil. Trans._ 1877 and 1879. - -[7] See Croonian Lecture, 1881, in forthcoming issue of _Phil. Trans._ - -[8] _Natural History of Ceylon_, p. 481. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -MOLLUSCA. - - -I SHALL treat of the Mollusca before the Articulata, because as a group -their intelligence is not so high. Indeed, it is not to be expected that -the class of animals wherein the 'vegetative' functions of nutrition and -reproduction predominate so largely over the animal functions of -sensation, locomotion, &c., should present any considerable degree of -intelligence. Nevertheless, in the only division of the group which has -sense organs and powers of locomotion highly developed--viz., the -Cephalopoda--we meet with large cephalic ganglia, and, it would appear, -with no small development of intelligence. Taking, however, the -sub-kingdom in ascending order, I shall first present all the -trustworthy evidence that I have been able to collect, pointing to the -highest level of intelligence that is attained by the lower members. - -The following is quoted from Mr. Darwin's MS.:-- - - Even the headless oyster seems to profit from - experience, for Dicquemase ('Journal de Physique,' - vol. xxviii. p. 244) asserts that oysters taken from a - depth never uncovered by the sea, open their shells, - lose the water within, and perish; but oysters taken - from the same place and depth, if kept in reservoirs, - where they are occasionally left uncovered for a short - time, and are otherwise incommoded, learn to keep - their shells shut, and then live for a much longer - time when taken out of the water.[9] - -Some evidence of intelligence seems to be displayed by the razor-fish. -For the animals dislike salt, so that when this is sprinkled above their -burrows in the sand, they come to the surface and quit their -habitations. But if the animal is once seized when it comes to the -surface and afterwards allowed to retire into its burrow, no amount of -salt will force it again to come to the surface.[10] - -With regard to snails, L. Agassiz writes: 'Quiconque a eu l'occasion -d'observer les amours des limaçons, ne saurait mettre en doute la -séduction déployée dans les mouvements et les allures qui préparent et -accomplissent le double embrassement de ces hermaphrodites.'[11] - -Again, Mr. Darwin's MS. quotes from Mr. W. White[12] a curious exhibition -of intelligence in a snail, which does not seem to have admitted of -mal-observation. This gentleman 'fixed a land-shell mouth uppermost in a -chink of rock; in a short time the snail protruded itself to its utmost -length, and, attaching its foot vertically above, tried to pull the -shell out in a straight line. Not succeeding, it rested for a few -minutes and then stretched out its body on the right side and pulled its -utmost, but failed. Resting again, it protruded its foot on the left -side, pulled with its full force, and freed the shell. This exertion of -force in three directions, which seems so geometrically suitable, must -have been intentional.' - -If it is objected that snail shells must frequently be liable to be -impeded by obstacles, and therefore that this display of manoeuvring -on the part of their occupants is to be regarded as a reflex, I may -remark that here again we have one of those incessantly recurring cases -where it is difficult to draw the line between intelligence and -non-intelligence. For, granting that the action is to a certain extent -mechanical, we must still recognise that the animal while executing it -must have remembered each of the two directions in which it had pulled -ineffectually before it began to pull in the third direction; and it is -improbable that snail shells are so frequently caught in positions from -which a pull in only one direction will release them, that natural -selection would have developed a special instinct to try pulling -successively in three directions at right angles to one another. - -The only other instance that I have met with of the apparent display of -intelligence in snails is the remarkable one which Mr. Darwin gives in -his 'Descent of Man,' on the authority of Mr. Lonsdale. Although the -interpretation which is assigned to the fact seems to me to go beyond -anything that we should have reason to expect of snail intelligence, I -cannot ignore a fact which stands upon the observation of so good an -authority, and shall therefore quote it in Mr. Darwin's words:-- - - These animals appear also susceptible of some degree - of permanent attachment: an accurate observer, Mr. - Lonsdale, informs me that he placed a pair of - land-snails (_Helix pomatia_), one of which was - weakly, into a small and ill-provided garden. After a - short time the strong and healthy individual - disappeared, and was traced by its track of slime over - a wall into an adjoining well-stocked garden. Mr. - Lonsdale concluded that it had deserted its sickly - mate; but after an absence of twenty-four hours it - returned, and apparently communicated the result of - its successful exploration, for both then started - along the same track, and disappeared over the - wall.[13] - -In this case the fact must be accepted, seeing that it stands on the -authority of an accurate observer, and is of so definite a kind as not -to admit of mistake. Consequently we are shut up to the alternative of -supposing the return of the healthy snail to its mate a mere accident, -and their both going over the wall into the well-stocked garden another -mere accident, or acquiescing in the interpretation which Mr. Darwin -assigns. Now, if we look closely into the matter, the chances against -the double accident in question are certainly so considerable as to -render the former supposition almost impossible. On the other hand, -there is evidence to prove, as I shall immediately show, that a not -distantly allied animal is unquestionably able to remember a particular -locality as its home, and habitually to return to this locality after -feeding. Therefore, in view of this analogous and corroborative case, -the improbability of the snail remembering for twenty-four hours the -position of its mate is very much reduced; while the subsequent -communication, if it took place, would only require to have been of the -nature of 'follow me,' which, as we shall repeatedly find, is a degree -of communicative ability which many invertebrated animals possess. -Therefore, in view of these considerations, I incline to Mr. Darwin's -opinion that the facts can only be explained by supposing them due to -intelligence on the part of the snails. Thus considered, these facts are -no doubt very remarkable; for they would appear to indicate not merely -accurate memory of direction and locality for twenty-four hours, but -also no small degree of something akin to 'permanent attachment,' and -sympathetic desire that another should share in the good things which -one has found.[14] - -The case to which I have just alluded as proving beyond all doubt that -some Gasteropoda are able to retain a very precise and accurate memory -of locality, is that of the common limpet. - -Mr. J. Clarke Hawkshaw publishes in the Journal of the Linnæan Society -the following account of the habits in question:-- - - The holes in the chalk in which the limpets are often - to be found are, I believe, excavated in a great - measure by rasping from the lingual teeth, though I - doubt whether the object is to form a cavity to - shelter in, though the cavities, when formed, may be - of use for that purpose. It must be of the greatest - importance to a limpet that, in order that it may - insure a firm adherence to the rock, its shell should - fit the rock accurately; when the shell does fit the - rock accurately, a small amount of muscular - contraction of the animal would cause the shell to - adhere so firmly to a smooth surface as to be - practically immoveable without fracture. As the shells - cannot be adapted daily to different forms of surface, - the limpets generally return to the same place of - attachment. I am sure this is the case with many; for - I found shells perfectly adjusted to the uneven - surfaces of flints, the growth of the shells being in - some parts distorted and indented to suit - inequalities in the surface of the flints. . . . - - - I noticed signs that limpets prefer a hard, smooth - surface to a pit in the chalk. On one surface of a - large block, over all sides of which limpets were - regularly and plentifully distributed, there were two - flat fragments of a fossil shell about 3 inches by 4 - inches, each embedded in the chalk. The chalk all - round these fragments was free from limpets; but on - the smooth surface of the pieces of shell they were - packed as closely as they could be. I noticed another - case, which almost amounts, to my mind, to a proof - that they prefer a smooth surface to a hole. A limpet - had formed a clearing on one of the sea-weed-covered - blocks before referred to. In the midst of this - clearing was a pedestal of flint rather more than one - inch in diameter, standing up above the surface of the - chalk; it projected so much that a tap from my hammer - broke it off. On the top of the smooth fractured - surface of this flint the occupant of the clearing had - taken up its abode. The shell was closely adapted to - the uneven surface, which it would only fit in one - position. The cleared surface was in a hollow with - several small natural cavities, where the limpet could - have found a pit ready made to shelter in; yet it - preferred, after each excursion, to climb up to the - top of the flint, the most exposed point in all its - domain.[15] - -It appears certain from these observations, which to some extent were -anticipated by those of Mr. F. C. Lukis,[16] that limpets, after every -browsing excursion, return to one particular spot or home; and the -precise memory of direction and locality implied by this fact seems to -justify us in regarding these actions of the animal as of a nature -unquestionably intelligent. - -Coming now to the cephalopoda, there is no doubt that if a larger sphere -of opportunity permitted, adequate observation of these animals would -prove them to be much the most intelligent members of the sub-kingdom. -Unfortunately, however, this sphere of opportunity has hitherto been -very limited. The following meagre account is all that I have been able -to gather concerning the psychology of these interesting animals. - -According to Schneider,[17] the Cephalopoda show unmistakable evidence -of consciousness and intelligence. This observer had an opportunity of -watching them for a long time in the zoological station at Naples; and -he says that they appeared to recognise their keeper after they had for -some time received their food from him. Hollmann narrates that an -octopus, which had had a struggle with a lobster, followed the latter -into an adjacent tank, to which it had been removed for safety, and -there destroyed it. In order to do this the octopus had to climb up a -vertical partition above the surface of the water and descend the other -side.[18] According to Schneider, the Cephalopoda have an abstract idea -of water, seeking to return to it when removed, even though they do not -see it. But this probably arises from the sense of discomfort due to -exposure of their skin to the air; and if we can call it an 'idea,' it -is doubtless shared by all other aquatic Mollusca when exposed to air. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[9] This fact is also stated by Bingley, _Animal Biography_, vol. iii. -p. 454, and is now turned to practical account in the so-called -'Oyster-schools' of France. The distance from the coast to Paris being -too great for the newly dredged oysters to travel without opening their -shells, they are first taught in the schools to bear a longer and longer -exposure to the air without gaping, and when their education in this -respect is completed they are sent on their journey to the metropolis, -where they arrive with closed shells, and in a healthy condition. - -[10] Bingley, _loc. cit._, vol. iii. p. 449. - -[11] _De l'Espèce et de la Classe_, &c., 1869, p. 106. - -[12] _A Londoner's Walk to Edinburgh_, p. 155 (1856). - -[13] _Descent of Man_, pp. 262-3. - -[14] The facts, however, in order to sustain such conclusions, of course -require corroboration, and it is therefore to be regretted that Mr. -Lonsdale did not experimentally repeat the conditions. - -[15] _Journal Linn. Soc._ vol. xiv. p. 406 _et seq._ - -[16] _Mag. Nat. Hist._ 1831, vol. iv. p. 346. - -[17] _Thieresche Wille_, § 78. - -[18] _Leben der Cephalopoden_, s. 21. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -ANTS. - - -WITHIN the last ten or twelve years our information on the habits and -intelligence of these insects has been so considerably extended, that in -here rendering a condensed epitome of our knowledge in this most -interesting branch of comparative psychology, it will be found that the -chapter is constituted principally of a statement of observations and -experiments which have been conducted during the short period named. The -observers to whom we are mainly indebted for this large increase of our -knowledge are Messrs. Bates, Belt, Müller, Moggridge, Lincecum, MacCook, -and Sir John Lubbock. From the fact that these naturalists conducted -their observations in different parts of the world and on widely -different species of ants, it is not surprising that their results -should present many points of difference; for this only shows, as we -might have expected, that different species of ants differ considerably -in habits and intelligence. Therefore, in now drawing all these numerous -observations to a focus, I shall endeavour to show clearly their points -of difference as well as their points of agreement; and in order that -the facts to be considered may be arranged in some kind of order, I -shall deal with them under the following heads:--Powers of special -sense; Sense of direction; Powers of memory; Emotions; Powers of -communication; Habits general in sundry species; Habits peculiar to -certain species; General intelligence of various species. - - -_Powers of Special Sense._ - -Taking first the sense of sight, Sir John Lubbock made a number of -experiments on the influence of light coloured by passing through -various tints of stained glass, with the following results. The ants -which he observed greatly dislike the presence of light within their -nests, hurrying about in search of the darkest corners when light is -admitted. The experiments showed that the dislike is much greater in the -case of some colours than in that of others. Thus under a slip of red -glass there were congregated on one occasion 890 ants, under green 544, -under yellow 495, and under violet only 5. To our eyes the violet is as -opaque as the red, more so than the green, and much more so than the -yellow. Yet, as the numbers show, the ants had scarcely any tendency to -congregate under it: there were nearly as many under the same area of -the uncovered portion of the nest as under that shaded by the violet -glass. It is curious that the coloured glasses appear to act on the ants -in a graduated series, which corresponds with the order of their -influence on a photographic plate. Experiments were therefore made to -test whether it might not be the actinic rays that were so particularly -distasteful to the ants; but with negative results. Placing violet glass -above red produces the same effect as red glass alone. Obviously, -therefore, the ants avoid the violet glass because they dislike the rays -which it transmits, and do not prefer the other colours because they -like the rays which they transmit. Sodium, barium, strontium, and -lithium flames were also tried, but not with so much effect as the -coloured glass. - -It has just been observed that the relative dislike which Sir John -Lubbock's ants showed to lights of different colours seems to be -determined by the position of the colour in the spectrum--there being a -regular gradation of intolerance shown from the red to the violet end. -As these ants dislike light, the question suggests itself that the -reason of their graduated intolerance to light of different colours may -be due to their eyes not being so much affected by the rays of low as by -those of high refrangibility. In this connection it would be interesting -to ascertain whether ants of the genus _Atta_ show a similarly graduated -intolerance to the light in different parts of the spectrum; for both -Moggridge and MacCook record of this genus that it not only does not -shun the light, but seeks it--coming to the glass sides of their -artificial nests to enjoy the light of a lamp. Possibly, therefore, the -scale of preference to lights of different colours would be found in -this genus to be the reverse of that which Sir John Lubbock has found in -the case of the British species. - -As regards hearing, Sir John Lubbock found that sounds of various kinds -do not produce any effect upon the insects. Tuning-forks and violin -notes, shouting, whistling, &c., were all equally inefficient in -producing the slightest influence upon the animals; and experiments with -sensitive flames, microphone, telephone, &c., failed to yield any -evidence of ants emitting sounds inaudible to human ears. - -Lastly, as regards the sense of smell, Sir John Lubbock found that on -bringing a camel's-hair brush steeped in various strong scents near -where ants were passing, "some went on without taking any notice, but -others stopped, and evidently perceiving the smell, turned back. Soon, -however, they returned, and passed the scented pencil. After doing this -two or three times, they generally took no further notice of the scent. -This experiment left no doubt on my mind." In other cases the ants were -observed to wave about and throw back their antennæ when the scented -pencil was brought near. - -That ants track one another by scent was long ago mentioned by Huber, -and also that they depend on this sense for their power of finding -supplies which have been previously found by other ants. Huber proved -their power of tracking a path previously pursued by their friends, by -drawing his finger across the trail, so obliterating the scent at that -point, and observing that when the ants arrived at that point they -became confused and ran about in various directions till they again came -upon the trail on the other side of the interrupted space, when they -proceeded on their way as before. The more numerous and systematic -experiments of Sir John Lubbock have fully corroborated Huber's -observations, so far as these points are concerned. Thus, to give only -one or two of these experiments; in the accompanying woodcut (Fig. 1) A -is the nest, B a board, _n_ _f_ _g_ slips of paper, _h_ and _m_ similar -slides of glass, on one of which, _h_, there was placed pupæ, while the -other, _m_, was left empty. Sir John Lubbock watched two particular -(marked) ants proceeding from A to _h_ and back again, carrying the pupæ -on _h_ to the nest A. Whenever an ant came out of A upon B he transposed -the slips _f_ and _g_. Therefore at the angle below _n_ there was a -choice presented to the ant of taking the unscented pathway leading to -the full glass _h_, or the scented pathway leading to the empty glass -_m_. The two marked ants, knowing their way, always took the right turn -at the angle; but the stranger ants, being guided only by scent, for the -most part took the wrong turn at the angle, so going to the empty glass -_m_. For out of 150 stranger ants only 21 went to _h_, while the -remaining 129 went to _m_. Still the fact that all the stranger ants did -not follow the erroneous scent-trail to _m_, may be taken to indicate -that they are also assisted in finding treasure by the sense of sight, -though in a lesser degree. Therefore Sir John Lubbock concludes that in -finding treasure 'they are guided in some cases by sight, while in -others they track one another by scent.' - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.] - -As further evidence showing how much more ants depend upon scent than -upon sight in finding their way, the following experiment may be quoted. -In the accompanying woodcut (Fig. 2) the line marked 1, 2, 3 represents -the edge of a paper bridge leading to the nest; A the top of a pencil -which is standing perpendicularly upon a board, represented by the -general black surface; B the top of the same pencil when moved a -distance of a few inches from its first position A. On the top of this -pencil were placed some pupæ. Sir John Lubbock, after contriving this -arrangement, marked an ant and put it upon the pupæ on the top of the -pencil. After she had made two journeys carrying pupæ from the pencil to -the nest (the tracks she pursued being represented by the two thick -white lines), while she was in the nest he moved the pencil to its -position at B. The thin white line represents the course then pursued -by the ant in its endeavours to find the pencil, which was shifted only -a few inches from A to B. That is, 'the ants on their journey to the -shifted object travelled very often backwards and forwards and round the -spot where the coveted object first stood. Then they would retrace their -steps towards the nest, wander hither and thither from side to side -between the nest and the point A, and only after very repeated efforts -around the original site of the larvæ reach, as it were, accidentally -the object desired at B.' Therefore the ants were clearly not guided by -the _sight_ of the pencil. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.] - -The same thing is well shown by another form of experiment. 'Some food -was placed at the point _a_ (Figs. 3 and 4) on a board measuring 20 -inches by 12 inches, and so arranged that the ants in going straight -from it to the nest would reach the board at the point _b_, and after -passing under the paper tunnel _c_, would proceed between five pairs of -wooden bricks, each 3 inches in length and 1-3/4 inches in height. When -they got to know their way they went quite straight along the line _d e_ -to _a_. The board was then twisted as shown in Fig. 4. 'The bricks and -tunnel being arranged exactly in the same direction as before, but the -board having been moved, the line _d e_ was now outside them. The -change, however, did not at all discompose the ants; but instead of -going, as before, through the tunnel and between the rows of bricks to -_a_, they walked exactly along the old path to _e_.' Keeping the board -steady, but moving the brick pathway to the left-hand corner of the -board where the food was next placed (Fig. 5), had the effect of making -the ant first go to the old position of the food at _a_, whence it -veered to a new position, which we may call _x_. The bricks and food -were then moved towards the right-hand corner of the board--_i.e._ over -a distance of 8 inches (Fig. 6). The ant now first went to _a_, then to -_x_, and not finding the food at either place, set to work to look for -it at random, and was only successful after twenty-five minutes' -wandering. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.] - -And, as evidence how much more dependence they place upon scent in -finding their way than upon any other of their faculties, it is -desirable to quote yet one further experiment, which is of great -interest as showing that when their sense of smell is made to contradict -their sense of direction, they follow the former, notwithstanding, as we -shall presently see, the wonderful accuracy of the information which is -supplied to them by the latter. 'If, when _F. niger_ were carrying off -larvæ placed in a cup on a piece of board, I turned the board round so -that the side which had been turned towards the nest was away from it, -and _vice versâ_, the ants always returned over the same track on the -board, and, in consequence, directly away from home. If I moved my board -to the other side of my artificial nest, the result was the same. -Evidently they followed the road, not the direction.' - -There can be little doubt that ants have a sense of taste, as they are -so well able to distinguish sugary substances; and it is unquestionable -that in their antennæ they possess highly elaborated organs of touch. - - -_Sense of Direction._ - -As evidence of the accuracy and importance of the sense of direction in -the Hymenoptera, we must here adduce Sir John Lubbock's highly -interesting experiments on ants--leaving his experiments in this -connection on bees and wasps to be considered in the next chapter. He -first accustomed some ants (_Lasius niger_) to go to and fro to food -over a wooden bridge. When they had got quite accustomed to the way, he -watched when an ant was upon a bridge which could be rotated, and while -she was passing along it, he turned it round, so that end _b_ was at -_c_, and _c_ at _b_. 'In most cases the ant immediately turned round -also; but even if she went on to _b_ or _c_, as the case might be, as -soon as she came to the end of the bridge she turned round.' Next, -between the nest and the food he placed a hat-box twelve inches in -diameter and seven inches high, cutting two small holes, so that the -ants in passing from the nest to the food had to pass in at one hole and -out at the other. The box was fixed upon a central pivot, so as to admit -of being rotated easily without much friction or disturbance. When the -ants had well learnt their way, the box was turned half round as soon as -an ant had entered it, 'but in every case the ant turned too, thus -retaining her direction.' Lastly, Sir John took a disk of white paper, -which he placed in the stead of the hat-box between the nest and the -food. When an ant was on the disk making towards the food, he gently -drew the disk to the other side of the food, so that the ant was -conveyed by the moving surface in the same direction as that in which -she was going, but _beyond_ the point to which she intended to go. Under -these circumstances 'the ant did not turn round, but went on' to the -further edge of the disk, when she seemed 'a good deal surprised at -finding where she was.' - -These experiments seem to show that the mysterious 'sense of direction,' -and consequent faculty of 'homing,' are in ants, at all events, due to a -process of registering, and, where desirable, immediately counteracting -any change of direction, even when such change is gently made by a -wholly closed chamber in which the animal is moving, and not by any -muscular movements of the animal itself. And the fact that drawing the -moving surface along in the same direction of advance as that which the -insect is pursuing does not affect the movements of the latter, seems -conclusively to show that the power of registration has reference only -to _lateral_ movements of the travelling surface; it has no reference to -variations in the _velocity_ of advance along the line in which the -animal is progressing.[19] - - -_Powers of Memory._ - -Little need here be said to prove that ants display some powers of -memory; for many of the observations and experiments already detailed -constitute a sufficient demonstration of the statement that they do. -Thus, for instance, the general fact that whenever an ant finds her way -to a store of food or larvæ, she will return to it again and again in a -more or less direct line from her nest, constitutes ample proof that the -ant remembers the way to the store. It is of considerable interest, -however, to note that the nature of this insect-memory appears to be, as -far as it goes, precisely identical with that of memory in general. -Thus, a new fact becomes _impressed_ upon their memory by _repetition_, -and the impression is liable to become effaced by lapse of time. More -evidence on both these features of insect-memory will be adduced when we -come to treat of the intelligence of bees; but meanwhile it is enough to -refer to the fact that in his experiments on ants, Sir John Lubbock -found it necessary to _teach_ the insects by a repetition of several -lessons their way to treasure, if that way was long or unusual. - -With regard to the _duration_ of memory, it does not appear that any -experiments have been made; but the following observation by Mr. Belt on -this point in the case of the leaf-cutting ant may here be stated. In -June 1859 he found his garden invaded by these ants, and following up -their paths he found their nest about a hundred yards distant. He -poured down their burrows a pint of common brown carbolic acid, mixed -with four buckets of water. The marauding parties were at once drawn off -from the garden to meet the danger at home, and the whole formicarium -was disorganised, the ants running up and down again in the utmost -perplexity. Next day he found them busily employed bringing up the -ant-food from the old burrows, and carrying it to newly formed ones a -few yards distant. These, however, turned out to be only intended as -temporary repositories; for in a few days both the old and the new -burrows were entirely deserted, so that he supposed all the ants to have -died. Subsequently, however, he found that they had migrated to a new -site, about two hundred yards from the old one, and there established -themselves in a new nest. Twelve months later the ants again invaded his -garden, and again he treated them to a strong dose of carbolic acid. The -ants, as on the previous occasion, were at once withdrawn from the -garden, and two days afterwards he found 'all the survivors at work on -one track that led directly to the old nest of the year before, where -they were busily employed in making fresh excavations. Many were -bringing along pieces of ant-food' from the nest most recently deluged -with carbolic acid to that which had been similarly deluged a year -before, and from which all the carbolic acid had long ago disappeared. -'Others carried the undeveloped white pupæ and larvæ. It was a wholesale -and entire migration;' and the next day the nest down which he had last -poured the carbolic acid was entirely deserted. Mr. Belt adds: 'I -afterwards found that when much disturbed, and many of the ants -destroyed, the survivors migrate to a new locality. I do not doubt that -some of the leading minds in this formicarium recollected the nest of -the year before, and directed the migration to it.' - -Now, I do not insist that the facts necessarily point to this -conclusion; for it may have been that the leaders of the migration -simply stumbled upon the old and vacant nest by accident, and finding it -already prepared as a nest, forthwith proceeded to transfer the food and -pupæ to it. Still, as the two nests were separated from one another by -so considerable a distance, this hypothesis does not seem probable, and -the only other one open to us is that the ants remembered the site of -their former home for a period of twelve months. And this conclusion is -rendered less improbable from a statement of Karl Vogt in his -'Thierstaaten,' to the effect that for several successive years ants -from a certain nest used to go through certain inhabited streets to a -chemist's shop 600 mètres distant, in order to obtain access to a vessel -filled with syrup. As it cannot be supposed that this vessel was found -in successive working seasons by as many successive accidents, it can -only be concluded that the ants remembered the syrup store from season -to season. - -I shall now pass on to consider a class of highly remarkable facts, -perhaps the most remarkable of the many remarkable facts connected with -ant psychology. - -It has been known since the observations of Huber that all the ants of -the same nest or community recognise one another as friends, while an -ant introduced from another nest, even though it be an ant of the same -species, is known at once to be a foreigner, and is usually maltreated -or put to death. Huber found that when he removed an ant from a nest and -kept it away from its companions for a period of four months it was -still recognised as a friend, and caressed by its previous -fellow-citizens after the manner in which ants show friendship, viz., by -stroking antennæ. Sir John Lubbock, after repeating and fully confirming -these observations, extended them as follows. He first tried keeping the -separated ant away from the nest for a still longer period than four -months, and found that even after a separation of more than a year the -animal was recognised as before. He repeated this experiment a number of -times, and always with the same invariable difference between the -reception accorded to a foreigner and a native--no matter, apparently, -how long the native had been absent. - -Considering the enormous number of ants that go to make a nest, it seems -astonishing enough that they should be all personally known to one -another, and still more astonishing that they should be able to -recognise members of their community after so prolonged an absence. -Thinking that the facts could only be explained, either by all the ants -in the same nest having a peculiar smell, or by all the members of the -same community having a particular pass-word or gesture-sign, Sir John -Lubbock, with the view of testing this theory, separated some ants from -a nest while still in the condition of pupæ, and, when they emerged from -that state as perfect insects, transferred them back to the nest from -which they had been taken as pupæ. Of course in this case the ants in -the nest could never have _seen_ those which had been removed, for a -larval ant is as unlike the mature insect as a grub is unlike a beetle; -neither can it be supposed that a larva, hatched out away from the nest, -should retain, when a perfect insect, any smell belonging to its parent -nest--more especially as it had been hatched out by ants in another -nest;[20] nor, lastly, is it reasonable to imagine that the animal, while -still a larval grub, can have been taught any gesture-signal used as a -pass-word by the matured animals. Yet, although all these possible -hypotheses seem to be thus fully excluded by the conditions of the -experiment, the result showed unequivocally that the ants recognised -their transformed larvæ as native-born members of their community. - -Lastly, Sir John Lubbock tried the experiment of going still further -back in the life-history of the ants before separating them from the -nest. For in September he divided a nest into two halves, each having a -queen. At this season there were neither larvæ nor eggs. The following -April both the queens began to lay eggs, and in August--_i.e._ nearly a -year after the original partitioning of the nest--he took some of the -ants newly hatched from the pupæ in one division, and placed them in the -other division, and _vice versâ_. In all cases these ants were received -by the members of the other half of the divided nest as friends, -although if a stranger were introduced into either half it was -invariably killed. Yet the ants which were thus so certainly recognised -by their kindred ants as friends had never, even in the state of an egg, -been present in that division of the nest before. On this highly -remarkable fact Sir John Lubbock says:-- - - These observations seem to me conclusive as far as - they go, and they are very surprising. In my - experiments of last year, though the results were - similar, still the ants experimented with had been - brought up in the nest, and were only removed after - they had become pupæ. It might therefore be argued - that the ants, having nursed them as larvæ, recognised - them when they came to maturity; and though this would - certainly be in the highest degree improbable, it - could not be said to be impossible. In the present - case, however, the old ants had absolutely never seen - the young ones until the moment when, some days after - arriving at maturity, they were introduced into the - nest; and yet in all ten cases they were undoubtedly - recognised as belonging to the community. - - It seems to me, therefore, to be established by these - experiments that the recognition of ants is not - personal and individual; that their harmony is not due - to the fact that each ant is individually acquainted - with every other member of the community. - - At the same time, the fact that they recognise their - friends even when intoxicated, and that they know the - young born in their own nest even when they have been - brought out of the chrysalis by strangers, seems to - indicate that the recognition is not effected by means - of any sign or pass-word. - -We must, therefore, conclude with reference to this subject that the -mode whereby recognition is undoubtedly effected is as yet wholly -unintelligible; and I have introduced these facts under the heading of -memory only because this heading is not more inappropriate than any -other that could be devised for their reception. - -It ought here to be added also that the power of thus recognising -members of their community is not confined by the limits of -blood-relationship, for in an experiment made by Forel it was shown that -Amazon ants recognised their own slaves almost instantaneously after an -absence of four months. - -Under this heading I may also adduce the evidence as to enormous masses, -or, as we might say, a whole nation of ants recognising each other as -belonging to the same nationality. New nests often spring up as -offshoots from the older ones, and thus a nation of towns gradually -spreads to an immense circumference around the original centre. Forel -describes a colony of _F. exsecta_ which comprised more than two hundred -nests, and covered a space of nearly two hundred square mètres. 'All the -members of such a colony, even those from the furthermost nest, -recognise each other and admit no stranger.' - -Similarly, MacCook describes an 'ant town' in the Alleghany Mountains of -North America ('Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc.,' Nov. 1877) which was -inhabited by _F. exsectoïdes_. It consists of 1,600 to 1,700 nests, -which rise in cones to a height of from two to five feet. The ground -below is riddled in every direction with subterranean passages of -communication. The inhabitants are all on the most friendly terms, so -that if any one nest is injured it is repaired by their united forces. - -It remains to be added in connection with this subject that the -recognition is not automatically invariable, but when 'ants are removed -from a nest in the pupa state, tended by strangers, and then restored, -some at least of their relatives are certainly puzzled, and in many -cases doubt their claims to consanguinity. I say some, because while -strangers under the circumstances would have been immediately attacked, -these ants were in every case amicably received by the majority of the -colony, and it was sometimes several hours before they came across one -who did not recognise them.' - -It may also be added that _Lasius flavus_ behaves towards strangers -quite differently and much more hospitably than is the case with _L. -niger_. The stranger shows no alarm, but, on the contrary, will -voluntarily enter the strange nest, and she is there received with -kindness; although from the attention she excites, and the numerous -communications which take place between her and her new friends, Sir -John was 'satisfied that they knew she was not one of themselves. . . . -Very different is the behaviour of _L. niger_ under similar -circumstances. I tried the same experiment with them. There was no -communications with the antennæ, there was no cleaning, but every ant -which the stranger approached flew at her like a little tigress. I tried -this experiment four times; each stranger was killed and borne off to -the nest.' - - -_Emotions._ - -The pugnacity, valour, and rapacity of ants are too well and generally -known to require the narration of special instances of their display. -With regard to the tenderer emotions, however, there is a difference of -opinion among observers. Before the researches of Sir John Lubbock it -was the prevalent view that these insects display marked signs of -affection towards one another, both by caressing movements of their -antennæ, and by showing solicitude for friends in distress. Sir John, -however, has found that the species of ants on which he has experimented -are apparently deficient both in feelings of affection and of -sympathy--or, at least, that such feelings are in these species much -less strongly developed than the sterner passions. - -He tried burying some specimens of _Lasius niger_ beneath an ant-road; -but none of the ants traversing the road made any attempt to release -their imprisoned companions. He tried the same experiment with the same -result on various other species. Even when the friends in difficulty are -actually in sight, it by no means follows that their companions will -assist them. Of this, he says, he could give almost any number of -instances. Thus, when ants are entangled in honey, their companions -devote themselves to the honey, and entirely neglect their friends in -distress; and when partly drowned, their friends take no notice. When -chloroformed or intoxicated their own companions either do not heed -them, or else 'seem somewhat puzzled at finding their intoxicated -fellow-creatures in such a condition, take them up, and carry them about -for a time in a somewhat aimless manner.' Further experiments, however, -on a larger scale, went to show that chloroformed ants were treated as -dead, _i.e._ removed to the edge of the parade-board and dropped over -into the surrounding moat of water; while intoxicated ants were -generally carried into the nest, if they were ants belonging to that -community; if not, they were thrown overboard. This care shown towards -intoxicated friends appears to indicate a dim sense of sympathy towards -afflicted individuals; but that this emotion or instinct does not in the -case of these species extend to healthy individuals in distress seems to -be proved, not only by the experiments of burying already described, but -also by the following:-- - - On Sept. 2, therefore, I put two ants from one of my - nests of _F. fusca_ into a bottle, the end of which - was tied up with muslin as described, and laid it down - close to the nest. In a second bottle I put two ants - from another nest of the same species. The ants which - were at liberty took no notice of the bottle - containing their imprisoned friends. The strangers in - the other bottle, on the contrary, excited them - considerably. The whole day one, two, or more ants - stood sentry, as it were, over the bottle. In the - evening no less than twelve were collected round it, a - larger number than usually came out of the nest at any - one time. The whole of the next two days, in the same - way, there were more or less ants round the bottle - containing the strangers; while, as far as we could - see, no notice whatever was taken of the friends. On - the 9th the ants had eaten through the muslin, and - effected an entrance. We did not chance to be on the - spot at the moment; but as I found two ants lying - dead, one in the bottle and one just outside, I think - there can be no doubt that the strangers were put to - death. The friends throughout were quite neglected. - - Sept. 21.--I then repeated the experiment, putting - three ants from another nest in a bottle as before. - The same scene was repeated. The friends were - neglected. On the other hand, some of the ants were - always watching over the bottle containing the - strangers, and biting at the muslin which protected - them. The next morning at 6 A.M. I found five ants - thus occupied. One had caught hold of the leg of one - of the strangers, which had unwarily been allowed to - protrude through the meshes of the muslin. They worked - and watched, though not, as far as I could see, with - any system, till 7.30 in the evening, when they - effected an entrance, and immediately attacked the - strangers. - - Sept. 24.--I repeated the same experiment with the - same nest. Again the ants came and sat over the bottle - containing the strangers, while no notice was taken of - the friends. - - The next morning again, when I got up, I found five - ants round the bottle containing the strangers, none - near the friends. As in the former case, one of the - ants had seized a stranger by the leg, and was trying - to drag her through the muslin. All day the ants - clustered round the bottle, and bit perseveringly, - though not systematically, at the muslin. The same - thing happened all the following day. - - On repeating these experiments with another species - (viz., _Formica rufescens_) the ants took no notice of - either bottle, and showed no sign either of affection - or hatred. One is almost tempted to surmise that the - spirit of these ants is broken by slavery [_i.e._ by - the habit of keeping slaves]. But the experiments on - _F. fusca_ seem to show that in these curious insects - hatred is a stronger passion than affection. - -We must not, however, too readily assent to this general conclusion, -that ants as a whole are deficient in the tenderer emotions; for -although the case is doubtless so with the species which Sir John -examined, it appears to be certainly otherwise with other species, as we -shall presently see. But first it may be well to point out that even the -hard-hearted species with which Sir John had to do seem not altogether -devoid of sympathy with sick or mutilated friends, although they appear -to be so towards healthy friends in distress. Thus the care shown to -intoxicated friends seems to indicate, if not, as already observed, a -dim sense of sympathy, at least an instinct to preserve the life of an -ailing citizen for the future benefit of the community. Sir John also -quotes some observations of Latreille showing that ants display sympathy -with mutilated companions; and, lastly, mentions an instance which he -has himself observed of the same thing. A specimen of _F. fusca_ -congenitally destitute of antennæ was attacked and injured by an ant of -another species. When separated by Sir John, another ant of her own -species came by. 'She examined the poor sufferer carefully, then picked -her up tenderly, and carried her away into the nest. It would have been -difficult for any one who witnessed this scene to have denied to this -ant the possession of humane feelings.' Moggridge is also of opinion -that the habit of throwing sick and apparently dead ants into the -water, is 'in part to be rid of them, and partly, perhaps, with a view -to effecting a possible cure; for I have seen one ant carry another down -the twig which formed their path to the surface of the water, and, after -dipping it in for a minute, carry it laboriously up again, and lay it in -the sun to dry and recover.' - -But that some species of ants display marked signs of what we may call -sympathy even towards healthy companions in distress, is proved by the -following observation of Mr. Belt. He writes:[21]-- - - One day, watching a small column of these ants (_i.e._ - _Eciton humata_), I placed a little stone on one of - them to secure it. The next that approached, as soon - as it discovered its situation, ran backwards in an - agitated manner, and soon communicated the - intelligence to the others. They rushed to the rescue; - some bit at the stone and tried to move it, others - seized the prisoner by the legs and tugged with such - force that I thought the legs would be pulled off, but - they persevered until they got the captive free. I - next covered one up with a piece of clay, leaving only - the ends of its antennæ projecting. It was soon - discovered by its fellows, which set to work - immediately, and by biting off pieces of the clay soon - liberated it. Another time I found a very few of them - passing along at intervals. I confined one of these - under a piece of clay at a little distance from the - line, with his head projecting. Several ants passed - it, but at last one discovered it and tried to pull it - out, but could not. It immediately set off at a great - rate, and I thought it had deserted its comrade, but - it had only gone for assistance, for in a short time - about a dozen ants came hurrying up, evidently fully - informed of the circumstances of the case, for they - made directly for their imprisoned comrade and soon - set him free. I do not see how this action could be - instinctive. It was sympathetic help, such as man only - among the higher mammalia shows. The excitement and - ardour with which they carried on their unflagging - exertions for the rescue of their comrade could not - have been greater if they had been human beings. - -This observation seems unequivocal as proving fellow-feeling and -sympathy, so far as we can trace any analogy between the emotions of the -higher animals and those of insects. That insects with such highly -organised social habits, and depending so greatly on the principles of -co-operation, should manifest emotions or instincts of an incipiently -altruistic character, is no more than we should antecedently expect on -the general principle of survival of the fittest. Our only surprise -should be that these emotions, or instincts, should appear to be so -feebly developed in some species of ants, and, as we shall subsequently -see, also of bees. But it may be worth while in this connection to point -out that the valuable observation of Mr. Belt above quoted refers to the -species of ant which, as we shall subsequently find, presents the most -highly organised instincts of co-operation that are to be met with among -ants, and therefore the greatest dependence of the welfare of the -individual on that of the community. And the same remark is applicable -to our native species, _F. sanguinea_, which the Rev. W. W. F. White has -repeatedly seen rescuing buried companions very much in the manner -described by Mr. Belt; and he does not appear to be acquainted with Mr. -Belt's observations. He figures one case in which he saw three ants -co-operating to dig out a buried comrade.[22] - - -_Powers of Communication._ - -Huber, Kirby and Spence, Dugardin, Burmeister, Franklin, and other -observers have all expressed themselves as more or less strongly of the -opinion that members of the same community of ants, and other social -Hymenoptera, are able to communicate information to one another by some -system of language or signs. The facts, however, on which their opinion -rests have not been stated with that degree of caution and detail which -the acceptance of the conclusion requires. Thus, Kirby and Spence give -only one instance of supposed communication between ants,[23] and even -this one is inconclusive, as the facts described admit of being -explained by supposing that the ants simply tracked one another by -scent; while Huber merely deals in general statements as to 'contact of -antennæ,' without narrating any particulars of his observations. -Therefore, until within the last few years there was really no -sufficient evidence to sustain the general opinion that ants are able to -communicate with one another; but the observations which I shall now -detail must be regarded as fully substantiating that general opinion by -facts as abundant and conclusive as the most critical among us can -desire. I shall first narrate in his own words the more important of Sir -John Lubbock's experiments in this connection:-- - - I took three tapes, each about 2 feet 6 inches long, - and arranged them parallel to one another and about 6 - inches apart. An end of each I attached to one of the - nests (_F. niger_), and at the other end I placed a - glass. In the glass at the end of one tape I placed a - considerable number (300 to 600) of larvæ. In the - second I put two or three larvæ only, in the third - none at all. The object of the last was to see whether - many ants would come to the glasses under such - circumstances by mere accident, and I may at once say - that scarcely any did so. I then took two ants, and - placed one of them to the glass with many larvæ, the - other to that with two or three. Each of them took a - larva and carried it to the nest, returning for - another, and so on. After each journey I put another - larva in the glass with only two or three larvæ, to - replace that which had been removed. Now, if several - ants came under the above circumstances as a mere - matter of accident, or accompanying one another by - chance, or if they simply saw the larvæ which were - being brought, and consequently concluded that they - might themselves find a larva in the same place, then - the numbers going to the two glasses ought to be - approximately equal. In each case the number of - journeys made by the ants would be nearly the same; - consequently, if it was a matter of scent, the two - glasses would be in the same position. It would be - impossible for an ant, seeing another in the act of - bringing a larva, to judge for itself whether there - were few or many left behind. On the other hand, if - the strangers were brought, then it would be curious - to see whether more were brought to the glass with - many larvæ than to that which only contained two or - three. I should also mention that every stranger was - imprisoned until the end of the experiment. - -The results of these experiments were that during 47-1/2 hours the ants -which had access to a glass containing numerous larvæ brought 257 -friends to their assistance; while during an interval 5-1/2 hours longer -those which visited the glass with only two or three larvæ brought only -82 friends; and, as already mentioned, no single ant came to the glass -which contained no larvæ. Now, as all the glasses were exposed to -similar conditions, and as the roads to the first two must, in the first -instance at all events, have been equally scented by the passage of ants -over them, these results look very conclusive as proving some power of -definite communication, not only that larvæ are to be found, but even -where the largest store is to be met with. - -To this interesting account Sir John Lubbock adds,-- - - One case of apparent communication struck me very - much. I had had an ant (_F. niger_) under observation - one day, during which she was occupied in carrying off - larvæ to her nest. At night I imprisoned her in a - small bottle; in the morning I let her out at 6.15, - when she immediately resumed her occupation. Having to - go to London, I imprisoned her again at 9 o'clock. - When I returned at 4.40 I put her again to the larvæ. - She examined them carefully, and went home without - taking one. At this time no other ants were out of the - nest. In less than a minute she came out again with - eight friends, and the little heap made straight for - the heap of larvæ. When they had gone two-thirds of - the way I again imprisoned the marked ant; the others - hesitated a few minutes, and then with curious - quickness returned home. At 5.15 I put her again to - the larvæ. She again went home _without a larva_, but - after only a few seconds' stay in the nest, came out - with no less than thirteen friends. They all went - towards the larvæ, but when they had got about - two-thirds of the way, although the marked ant had on - the previous day passed over the ground about 150 - times, and though she had just gone straight from the - larvæ to the nest, she seemed to have forgotten her - way, and considered; and after she had wandered about - for half an hour, I put her to the larvæ. Now, in this - case, the twenty-one ants must have been brought out - by my marked one, for they came exactly with her, and - there were no other ants out. Moreover, it would seem - that they must have been told, because (which is very - curious in itself) she did not in either case bring a - larva, and consequently it cannot have been the mere - sight of a larva which had induced them to follow her. - -Further experiments proved, as we might have expected, that although an -ant is able to communicate to her friends in the nest that she has found -treasure somewhere outside, she is not able to describe to them its -precise locality. Thus, having exposed larvæ and placed an ant upon them -as before, Sir John watched every time she came out of the nest with -friends to assist her, but instead of allowing her to pilot the way, he -took her up and carried her to the larvæ, allowing her to return with a -larva upon her own feet. Under these circumstances the friends, although -evidently coming out with the intention of finding some treasure, were -never able to find it; but wandered about in various directions for a -while, and then returned to the nest. Thus, during two hours she brought -out in her successive journeys altogether no less than 120 ants, of -which number only 5 in their unguided wanderings happened to find the -sought-for treasure. This result seems to prove, as we might have -expected, that the communication is of the nature of some sign amounting -to no more than a 'follow me.' Other experiments confirmed this result, -and also brought out the fact that 'some species act much more in -association than others--_Formica fusca_, for instance, much less than -_Lasius niger_.' Thus Sir John Lubbock placed some honey before a marked -specimen of the former species; but although she visited and revisited -the honey during an entire day, she brought out no friends to share it; -and although in her journeys to and from the nest she happened to pass -and repass many other individuals, they took no notice of each other. - -The obvious objection to these experiments, that an ant observing a -friend bringing home food or a pupa might infer, without being told, -that by accompanying the friend on the return journey she 'might -participate in the good things,' has been partly met by the fact already -stated, viz., that there is so very marked a difference in the result -if, on experimenting on two ants, one had access to a large treasure and -the other only to a small one. But to put this matter beyond question, -Sir John Lubbock tried the experiment of pinning down a dead fly, so -that the ant which found it was unable, with all her tugging, to move it -towards the nest. At length she went back to the nest for assistance, -and returned accompanied by seven friends. So great was her excitement, -however, that she outran these friends, 'who seemed to have come out -reluctantly, as if they had been asleep, and were only half awake;' and -they failed to find the fly, slowly meandering about for twenty minutes. -After again tugging for a time at the fly, the first ant returned a -second time to the nest for assistance, and in less than a minute came -out with eight friends. They were even less energetic than the first -party, and having lost sight of their guide in the same manner as -happened before, they all returned to the nest. Meanwhile several of the -first party, which had all the while been meandering about, found the -fly, and proceeded to dismember it, carrying the trophy to the nest, and -calling out more friends in the ordinary way. This experiment was -repeated several times and on different species, always with the same -result. Now, as Sir John remarks, 'the two cases (_i.e._ those in which -the ant brought out friends to her assistance even when she had no booty -to show) surely indicate a distinct power of communication. . . . It is -impossible to doubt that the friends were brought out by the first ant; -and as she returned empty-handed to the nest, the others cannot have -been induced to follow her by merely observing her proceedings. I -conclude, therefore, that they possess the power of requesting their -friends to come and help them.' - -In order to ascertain whether the signs which communicating ants make to -one another are made by means of sound, Sir John Lubbock placed near a -nest of _Lasius flavus_ six small upright pillars of wood about 1-1/2 -inch high, and on one of these he put a drop of honey. 'I then put three -ants to the honey, and when each had sufficiently fed, I imprisoned her, -and put another; thus always keeping three ants at the honey, but not -allowing them to go home. If, then, they could summon their friends by -sound, there ought soon to be many ants at the honey.' The result -showed that the ants were not able thus to call to one another from a -distance. - -As additional proof of the general fact that at all events some ants -have the power of communicating information to one another, it will be -enough here to quote an exceedingly interesting observation of the -distinguished geologist Hague. The quotations are taken from his letters -written to Mr. Darwin, and published in _Nature_:[24]-- - - On the mantelshelf of our sitting-room my wife has the - habit of keeping fresh flowers. A vase stands at each - end, and near the middle a small tumbler, usually - filled with violets. Some time ago I noticed a pile of - very small red ants on the wall above the left-hand - vase, passing upward and downward between the - mantelshelf and a small hole near the ceiling, at a - point where a picture nail had been driven. The ants, - when first observed, were not very numerous, but - gradually increased in number, until on some days the - little creatures formed an almost unbroken procession, - issuing from the hole at the nail, descending the - wall, climbing the vase directly below the nail, - satisfying their desire for water or perfume, and then - returning. The other vase and tumbler were not visited - at that time. - - As I was just then recovering from a long illness it - happened that I was confined to the house, and spent - my days in the room where the operations of these - insects attracted my attention. Their presence caused - me some annoyance, but I knew of no effective means of - getting rid of them. For several days in succession I - frequently brushed the ants in great numbers from the - wall down to the floor; but as they were not killed - the result was that they soon formed a colony in the - wall at the base of the mantel, ascending thence to - the shelf, so that before long the vase was attacked - from above and below. - - One day I observed a number of ants, perhaps thirty or - forty, on the shelf at the foot of the vase. Thinking - to kill them, I struck them lightly with the end of my - finger, killing some and disabling the rest. The - effect of this was immediate and unexpected. As soon - as those ants which were approaching arrived near to - where their fellows lay dead and suffering, they - turned and fled with all possible haste. In half an - hour the wall above the mantelshelf was cleared of - ants. - - During the space of an hour or two the colony from - below continued to ascend until reaching the lower - bevelled edge of the shelf, at which point the more - timid individuals, although unable to see the vase, - somehow became aware of trouble, and turned about - without further investigation, while the more daring - advanced hesitatingly just to the upper edge of the - shelf, when, extending their antennæ and stretching - their necks, they seemed to peep cautiously over the - edge until beholding their suffering companions, when - they too turned and followed the others, expressing by - their behaviour great excitement and terror. An hour - or two later, the path or trail leading from the lower - colony to the vase was almost entirely free from ants. - - I killed one or two ants on their path, striking them - with my finger, but leaving no visible trace. The - effect of this was that as soon as an ant ascending - towards the shelf reached the spot where one had been - killed, it gave signs immediately of great - disturbance, and returned directly at the highest - possible speed. - - A curious and invariable feature of their behaviour - was that when such an ant, returning in fright, met - another approaching, the two would always communicate, - but each would pursue its own way, the second ant - continuing its journey to the spot where the first had - turned about, and then following that example. - - For some days after this there were no ants visible on - the wall, either above or below the shelf. - - Then a few ants from the lower colony began to - reappear, but instead of visiting the vase which had - been the scene of the disaster, they avoided it - altogether, and following the lower front edge of the - shelf to the tumbler standing near the middle, made - their attack upon that. I repeated the same experiment - here with precisely the same result. Killing or - maiming a few of the ants and leaving their bodies - about the base of the tumbler, the others on - approaching, and even before arriving at the upper - surface of the shelf where their mutilated companions - were visible, gave signs of intense emotion, some - running away immediately, and others advancing to - where they could survey the field and then hastening - away precipitately. - - Occasionally an ant would advance towards the tumbler - until it found itself among the dead and dying; then - it seemed to lose all self-possession, running hither - and thither, making wide circuits about the scene of - the trouble, stopping at times and elevating the - antennæ with a movement suggestive of wringing them in - despair, and finally taking flight. After this another - interval of several days passed, during which no ants - appeared. Now, three months later, the lower colony - has been entirely abandoned. Occasionally, however, - especially when fresh and fragrant violets have been - placed on the shelf, a few 'prospectors' descend from - the upper nail-hole, rarely, almost never, approaching - the vase from which they were first driven away, but - seeking to satisfy their desire at the tumbler. To - turn back these stragglers and keep them out of sight - for a number of days, sometimes for a fortnight, it is - sufficient to kill one or two ants on the trail which - they follow descending the wall. This I have recently - done as high up as I can reach, three or four feet - above the mantel. The moment this spot is reached, an - ant turns abruptly and makes for home, and in a little - while there is not an ant visible on the wall. - -In a subsequent volume of 'Nature' (viii. p. 244), Mr. Darwin publishes -another letter which he received from Mr. Hague upon the same subject. -It seems that Mr. Moggridge suggested to Mr. Darwin that, as he and -others had observed ants to be repelled by the mere scent of a finger -drawn across their path, the observation of Mr. Hague might really -resolve itself into a dislike on the part of the ants to cross a line -over which a finger had been drawn, and have nothing to do with -intelligent terror inspired by the sight of their slaughtered -companions. The following is Mr. Hague's reply to Mr. Darwin's request -for further experiments to test this point:-- - - Acting on Mr. M----'s suggestion, I first tried making - simple finger-marks on their path (the mantel is of - marble), and found just the results which he describes - in his note as observed by himself at Mentone, that - is, no marked symptoms of fear, but a dislike to the - spot, and an effort to avoid it by going around it, or - by turning back and only crossing it again after an - interval of time. I then killed several ants on the - path, using a smooth stone or piece of ivory, instead - of my finger, to crush them. In this case the ants - approaching all turned back as before, and with much - greater exhibition of fear than when the simple - finger-mark was made. This I did repeatedly. The final - result was the same as obtained last winter. They - persisted in coming for a week or two, during which I - continued to kill them, and then they disappeared, and - we have seen none since. It would appear from this - that while the taint of the hand is sufficient to turn - them back, the killing of their fellows with a stone - or other material produces the effect described in my - first note. This was made clear to me at that time, - from the behaviour of the ants the first day I killed - any, for on that occasion some of them approaching the - vase from below, on reaching the upper edge of the - mantel, peeped over, and drew back on seeing what had - happened about the vase, then turned away a little, - and after a moment tried again at another and another - point along the edge, with the same result in the end. - Moreover, those that found themselves among the dead - and dying went from one writhing ant to another in - great haste and excitement, exhibiting the signs of - fright which I described. - - I hardly hope that any will return again, but if they - do, and give me an opportunity, I shall endeavour to - act further on Mr. M----'s suggestion. - -With this quotation I shall conclude the present division of the -chapter; for, looking to all the other observations previously -mentioned, there can be no question concerning the general fact that -ants have the power of communicating with one another. And under -subsequent headings abundant additional evidence on this point will be -found implicated with the other facts detailed. - - -_Habits General in Sundry Species._ - -_Swarming._--The precise facts with regard to the swarming of ants are -not yet certainly established. As regards some of the facts, however, -there is no doubt. The winged males and females first quit the nest in -enormous numbers, and choose some fine afternoon in July or August for -their wedding flight. The entrances to the nest are widened by the -workers and increased in number, and there is a great commotion on the -surface of the nest. The swarm takes place as a thick cloud of all the -male and female insects, rising together to a considerable height. The -flight continues for several hours, usually circling round some tree or -tower, and it is during the flight that fertilisation is effected. After -it is effected, the swarm returns to the ground, when the males perish, -either from falling a prey, in their shelterless condition, to birds or -spiders, or, on account of not being able to feed themselves, from -starvation. 'The workers, or neuter ants, of their own colony have lost -all interest in them from the moment of their return, and trouble -themselves no more about them, for they well know that the males have -now fulfilled their vocation.' The great majority of the fertilised -females share the same fate as the males. But a small proportion find -concealment in holes, which they either dig for themselves, or happen to -find ready made, and there found a new colony. The first thing they do -is to pull off their now useless wings, by scratching and twisting them, -one after the other, with the clawed ends of their feet. They then lay -their eggs, and become the queens of new colonies. - -Forel says that no fertilised female ever returns to her original home; -but that the workers keep back a certain number of females which are -fertilised before the swarming takes place; in this case the workers -pull off the wings of the fertilised females. The majority of observers, -however, maintain that some of the females composing the swarm return to -their native home to become mothers where they had been children. -Probably both statements are correct. A writer in the 'Groniger -Deekblad' for June 16, 1877, observes that, looking to the injurious -effects of in-breeding, the facts as related by Forel are less probable -than those related by other observers, and that, if they actually occur, -the females fertilised before flight are probably kept by the ants as a -sort of 'reserve corps to which the workers resort only in case of need, -and if they fail to secure any returning queens.' - -_Nursing._--The eggs will not develop into larvæ unless nursed. The -nursing is effected by licking the surface of the eggs, which under the -influence of this process increase in size, or grow. In about a -fortnight, during which time the workers carry the eggs from higher to -lower levels of the nest, and _vice versâ_, according to the -circumstances of heat, moisture, &c., the larvæ are hatched out, and -require no less careful nursing than the eggs. The workers feed them by -placing mouths together and regurgitating food stored up in the crop or -proventriculus into the intestinal tract of the young. The latter show -their hunger by 'stretching out their little brown heads.' Great care -is also taken by the workers in cleaning the larvæ, as well as in -carrying them up and down the chambers of the nest for warmth or -shelter. - -When fully grown the larvæ spin cocoons, and are then pupæ, or the -'ants' eggs' of bird-fanciers. These require no food, but still need -incessant attention with reference to warmth, moisture, and cleanliness. -When the time arrives for their emergence as perfect insects, the -workers assist them to get out of their larval cases by biting through -the walls of the latter. It is noticeable that in doing this the workers -do not keep to any exact time, but free them sometimes earlier and -sometimes later, in accordance with their rate of development. 'The -little animal when freed from its chrysalis is still covered with a thin -skin, like a little shirt, which has to be pulled off. When we see how -neatly and gently this is done, and how the young creature is then -washed, brushed, and fed, we are involuntarily reminded of the nursing -of human babies. The empty cases, or cocoons, are carried outside the -nest, and may be seen heaped together there for a long time. Some -species carry them far away from the nest, or turn them into building -materials for the dwelling.'[25] - -_Education._--The young ant does not appear to come into the world with -a full instinctive knowledge of all its duties as a member of a social -community. It is led about the nest, and 'trained to a knowledge of -domestic duties, especially in the case of the larvæ.' Later on the -young ants are taught to distinguish between friends and foes. When an -ants' nest is attacked by foreign ants, the young ones never join in the -fight, but confine themselves to removing the pupæ; and that the -knowledge of hereditary enemies is not wholly instinctive in ants is -proved by the following experiment, which we owe to Forel. He put young -ants belonging to three different species into a glass case with pupæ of -six other species--all the species being naturally hostile to one -another. The young ants did not quarrel, but worked together to tend the -pupæ. When the latter hatched out, an artificial colony was formed of a -number of naturally hostile species all living together after the manner -of the 'happy families' of the showmen. - -_Habit of keeping Aphides._--It is well known that various species of -ants keep aphides, as men keep milch cows, to supply a nutritious -secretion. Huber first observed this fact, and noticed that the ants -collected the eggs of the aphides and treated them exactly as they -treated their own, guarding and tending them with the utmost care. When -these eggs hatch out the aphides are usually kept and fed by the ants, -to whom they yield a sweet honey-like fluid, which they eject from the -abdomen upon being stroked on this region by the antennæ of the ants. -Mr. Darwin, who has watched the latter process, observes with regard to -it,-- - - I removed all the ants from a group of about a dozen - aphides on a dock plant, and prevented their - attendance during several hours. After this interval, - I felt sure that the aphides would want to excrete. I - watched them for some time through a lens, but not one - excreted; I then tickled them with a hair in the same - manner, as well as I could, as the ants do with their - antennæ; but not one excreted. Afterwards I allowed an - ant to visit them, and it immediately seemed, by its - eager way of running about, to be well aware what a - rich flock it had discovered; it then began to play - with its antennæ on the abdomen, first of one aphis - and then of another; and each, as soon as it felt the - antennæ, immediately lifted up its abdomen and - excreted a limpid drop of sweet juice, which was - eagerly devoured by the ant. Even quite young aphides - behaved in this manner, showing that the action was - instinctive, and not the result of experience. - -The facts also show that the yielding of the secretion to the ants is, -as it were, a voluntary act on the part of the aphides, or, perhaps more -correctly, that the instinct to yield it has been developed in such a -relation to the requirements of the ants, that the peculiar stimulation -supplied by the antennæ of the latter is necessary to start the act of -secretion; for in the absence of this particular stimulation the aphides -will never excrete until compelled to do so by the superabundance of the -accumulating secretion. The question, therefore, directly arises how, on -evolutionary principles, such a class of facts is to be met; for it is -certainly difficult to understand the manner in which this instinct, so -beneficial to the ants, can have arisen in the aphides, to which it does -not appear, at first sight, to offer any advantages. Mr. Darwin meets -the difficulty thus: 'Although there is no evidence that any animal -performs an action for the exclusive good of another species, yet each -tries to take advantage of the instincts of others;' and 'as the -secretion is extremely viscid, it is no doubt a convenience to the -aphides to have it removed; therefore probably they do not excrete -solely for the good of the ants.'[26] - -Some ants which keep aphides build covered ways, or tunnels, to the -trees or shrubs where the aphides live. Forel saw a tunnel of this kind -which was taken up a wall and down again on the other side, in order to -secure a safe covered way from the nest to the aphides. Occasionally -such covered ways, or tubes, are continued so as to enclose the stems of -the plants on which the aphides live. The latter are thus imprisoned by -the walls of the tube, which, however, expand where they take on this -additional function of stabling the aphides, so that these insects are -really confined in tolerably large chambers. The doors of these chambers -are too small to allow the aphides to escape, while large enough for the -ants to pass in and out. Forel saw such a prison or stable shaped like a -cocoon, and about a centimètre long, which was hanging on the branch of -a tree, and contained aphides carefully tended by the ants. Huber -records similar observations. - -Sir John Lubbock has made an interesting addition to our knowledge -respecting this habit as practised by a certain species of ant (_Lasius -flavus_), which departs in a very remarkable manner from the habit as -practised by other species. He says: 'The ants took the greatest care of -these eggs, carrying them off to the lower chambers with the utmost -haste when the nest was disturbed.' But the most interesting of Sir John -Lubbock's observations in this connection is new, and reveals an -astonishing amount of method shown by the ants in farming their -aphides. He says:-- - - When my eggs hatched I naturally thought that the - aphides belonged to one of the species usually found - on the roots of plants in the nests of _Lasius - flavus_. To my surprise, however, the young creatures - made the best of their way out of the nest, and, - indeed, were sometimes brought out by the ants - themselves. In vain I tried them with roots of grass, - &c.; they wandered uneasily about, and eventually - died. Moreover, they did not in any way resemble the - subterranean species. In 1878 I again attempted to - rear these young aphides; but though I hatched a great - many eggs, I did not succeed. This year, however, I - have been more fortunate. The eggs commenced to hatch - the first week in March. Near one of my nests of - _Lasius flavus_, in which I had placed some of the - eggs in question, was a glass containing living - specimens of several species of plants commonly found - on or around ants' nests. To this some of the young - aphides were brought by the ants. Shortly afterwards I - observed on a plant of daisy, in the axils of the - leaves, some small aphides, very much resembling those - from my nest, though we had not actually traced them - continuously. They seemed thriving, and remained - stationary on the daisy. Moreover, whether they had - sprung from the black eggs or not, the ants evidently - valued them, for they built up a wall of earth round - and over them. So things remained throughout the - summer, but on October 9 I found that the aphides had - laid some eggs exactly resembling those found in the - ants' nests; and on examining daisy plants from - outside, I found on many of them similar aphides, and - more or less of the same eggs. - - I confess these observations surprised me very much. - The statements of Huber have not, indeed, attracted so - much notice as many of the other interesting facts - which he has recorded, because if aphides are kept by - ants in their nests, it seems only natural that their - eggs should also occur. The above case, however, is - much more remarkable. Here are aphides, not living in - the ants' nests, but outside, on the leaf-stalks of - plants. The eggs are laid early in October on the - food-plant of the insect. They are of no direct use to - the ants, yet they are not left where they are laid, - where they would be exposed to the severity of the - weather and to innumerable dangers, but brought into - their nests by the ants, and tended by them with the - utmost care through the long winter months until the - following March, when the young ones are brought out - and again placed on the young shoots of the daisy. - This seems to me a most remarkable case of prudence. - Our ants may not perhaps lay up food for the winter, - but they do more, for they keep during six months the - eggs which will enable them to procure food during the - following summer. - -The following, which is taken from Büchner's 'Geistesleben der Thiere' -is perhaps a still more striking performance of the same kind as that -which Sir John Lubbock observed:-- - - The author is debtor to Herr Nottebohm, Inspector of - Buildings at Karlsruhe, who related the following on - May 24, 1876, under the title, 'Ants as Founders of - Aphides' Colonies:'--'Of two equally strong young - weeping ashes, which I planted in my garden at - Kattowitz, in Upper Silesia, one succeeded well, and - in about five or six years showed full foliage, while - the other regularly every year was covered, when it - began to bud, with millions of aphides, which - destroyed the young leaves and sprouts, and thus - completely delayed the development of the tree. As I - perceived that the only reason for this was the action - of the aphides, I determined to destroy them utterly. - So in the March of the following year I took the - trouble to clean and wash every bough, sprig, and bud - before the bursting of the latter, with the greatest - care, by means of a syringe. The result was that the - tree developed perfectly healthy and vigorous leaves - and young shoots, and remained quite free from the - aphides until the end of May or the beginning of June. - My joy was of short duration. One fine sunny morning I - saw a surprising number of ants running quickly up and - down the trunk of the tree; this aroused my attention, - and led me to look more closely. To my great - astonishment I then saw that many troops of ants were - busied in carrying single aphides up the stem to the - top, and that in this way many of the lower leaves had - been planted with colonies of aphides. After some - weeks the evil was as great as ever. The tree stood - alone on the grass plot, and offered the only - situation for an aphides' colony for the countless - ants there present. I had destroyed this colony; but - the ants replanted it by bringing new colonists from - distant branches, and setting them on the young - leaves.[27] - -Again-- - - MacCook noticed, of the mound-making ants, that of - the workers returning to the nest from the tree on - which the milking was going on, a far smaller number - had distended abdomens than among those descending the - tree itself. A closer investigation showed that at the - roots of the trees, at the outlets of the subterranean - galleries, a number of ants were assembled, which were - fed by the returning ants after the fashion already - described in feeding the larvæ, and which were - distinguished by the observer as 'pensioners.' MacCook - often observed the same fact later, among, with - others, the already described Pennsylvanian wood-ant. - Distinguished individuals in the body-guard of the - queen were fed in like fashion. MacCook is inclined to - think that the reason of this proceeding is to be - found in the 'division of labour' so general in the - ant republic, and that the members of the community - which are employed in building and working within the - nest, leave to the others the care of providing food - for themselves as well as for the younger and helpless - members; they thus have a claim to receive from time - to time a reciprocal toll of gratitude, and take it, - as is shown very clearly, in a way demanded by the - welfare of the community.[28] - -Aphides are not the only insects which ants employ as cows, several -other insects which yield sweet secretions being similarly utilised in -various parts of the world. Thus, gall insects and cocci are kept in -just the same way as aphides; but MacCook observed that where aphides -and cocci are kept by the same ants, they are kept in separate chambers, -or stalls. The same observer saw caterpillars of the genus _Lycoena_ -kept by ants for the sake of a sweet secretion which they supply. - -_Habit of making Slaves._--This habit, or instinct, obtains among at -least three species of ant, viz., _Formica rufescens_, _F. sanguinea_, -and _strongylognathus_. It was originally observed by P. Huber in the -first-named species. Here the species enslaved is _F. fusca_, which is -appropriately coloured black. The slave-making ants attack a nest of _F. -fusca_ in a body; there is a great fight with much slaughter, and, if -victorious, the slave-makers carry off the pupæ of the vanquished nest -in order to hatch them out as slaves. Mr. Darwin gives an account of a -battle which he himself observed.[29] - -When the pupæ hatch out in the nest of their captors, the young slaves -begin their life of work, and seem to regard their master's home as -their own; for they never attempt to escape, and they fight no less -keenly than their masters in defence of the nest. _F. sanguinea_ content -themselves with fewer slaves than do _F. rufescens_; and the work that -devolves upon the slaves differs according to the species which has -enslaved them. In the nests of _F. sanguinea_ the comparatively few -captives are kept as household slaves; they never either enter or leave -the nest, and so are never seen unless the nest is opened. They are then -very conspicuous from the contrast which their black colour and small -size present to the red colour and much larger size of _F. rufescens_. -As the slaves are by this species kept strictly indoors, all the outdoor -work of foraging, slave-capturing, &c., is performed by the masters; and -when for any reason a nest has to migrate, the masters carry their -slaves in their jaws. _F. rufescens_, on the other hand, assigns a much -larger share of labour to the slaves, which, as we have already seen, -are present in much larger numbers to take it. In this species the males -and fertile females do no work of any kind; and the workers, or sterile -females, though most energetic in capturing slaves, do no other kind of -work. Therefore the whole community is absolutely dependent upon its -slaves. The masters are not able to make their own nests or to feed -their own larvæ. When they migrate, it is the slaves that determine the -migration, and, reversing the order of things that obtains in _F. -sanguinea_, carry their masters in their jaws. Huber shut up thirty -masters without a slave and with abundance of their favourite food, and -also with their own larvæ and pupæ as a stimulus to work; but they could -not feed even themselves, and many died of hunger. He then introduced a -single slave, and she at once set to work, fed the surviving masters, -attended to the larvæ, and made some cells. - -In order to confirm this observation, Lespès placed a piece of sugar -near a nest of slave-makers. It was soon found by one of the slaves, -which gorged itself and returned to the nest. Other slaves then came out -and did likewise. Then some of the masters came out, and, by pulling -the legs of the feeding slaves, reminded them that they were neglecting -their duty. The slaves then immediately began to serve their masters -with the sugar. Forel also has confirmed all these observations of -Huber. Indeed, in the case of _F. rufescens_, the structure of the -animal is such as to render self-feeding physically impossible. Its long -and narrow jaws, adapted to pierce the head of an enemy, do not admit of -being used for feeding, unless liquid food is poured into them by the -mouth of a slave. This fact shows of how ancient an origin the instinct -of slave-making must be; it has altered in an important manner a -structure which could not have been so altered prior to the -establishment of the instinct in question. - -Mr. Darwin thus sums up the differences in the offices of the slaves in -the nests of _F. sanguinea_ and _F. rufescens_ respectively:-- - - The latter does not build its own nest, does not - determine its own migrations, does not collect food - for itself or for its fellows, and cannot even feed - itself; it is absolutely dependent on its numerous - slaves. _Formica sanguinea_, on the other hand, - possesses much fewer slaves, and in the early part of - the summer extremely few; the masters determine when - and where a new nest shall be formed, and when they - migrate, the masters carry the slaves. Both in - Switzerland and England the slaves seem to have the - exclusive care of the larvæ, and the masters alone go - on slave-making expeditions. In Switzerland the slaves - and masters work together, making and bringing - materials for the nest; both, but chiefly the slaves, - tend and milk, as it may be called, their aphides; and - thus both collect food for the community. In England - the masters alone usually leave the nest to collect - building materials and food for themselves, their - slaves and larvæ. So that the masters in this country - receive much less service from their slaves than they - do in Switzerland. - -Mr. Darwin further observes that 'this difference in the usual habits of -the masters and slaves in the two countries probably depends merely on -the slaves being captured in greater numbers in Switzerland than in -England;' and records that he has observed in a community of the English -species having an unusually large stock of slaves that 'a few slaves -mingled with their masters leaving the nest, and marched along the same -road to a tall Scotch fir tree, twenty-five yards distant, which they -ascended together, probably in search of aphides or cocci.' And, -according to Huber, the principal office of the slaves in Switzerland is -to search for aphides. - -Mr. Darwin also made the following observation:--'Desiring to ascertain -whether _F. sanguinea_ could distinguish the pupæ of _F. fusca_, which -they habitually make into slaves, and which are an unwarlike species, -from _F. flava_, which they rarely capture, and never without a severe -fight,' he found 'it was evident that they did at once distinguish -them;' for while 'they eagerly and instantly seized the pupæ of _F. -fusca_, they were much terrified when they came across the pupæ, or even -the earth from the nest, of _F. flava_, and quickly ran away; but in -about a quarter of an hour, shortly after the little yellow ants had -crawled away (from their nest having been disturbed by Mr. Darwin), they -took heart and carried off the pupæ.' - -Concerning the origin of this remarkable instinct, Mr. Darwin writes:-- - - As ants which are not slave-makers will, as I have - seen, carry off pupæ of other species if scattered - near their nests, it is possible that such pupæ - originally stored as food might become developed, and - the foreign ants thus unintentionally reared would - then follow their proper instincts, and do what work - they could. If their presence proved useful to the - species which had seized them--if it were more - advantageous to the species to capture workers than to - procreate them--the habit of collecting pupæ, - originally for food, might by natural selection be - strengthened and rendered permanent for the very - different purpose of raising slaves. When the instinct - was once acquired, if carried out to a much less - extent even than in our British _F. sanguinea_, which, - as we have seen, is less aided by its slaves than the - same species in Switzerland, natural selection might - increase and modify the instinct, always supposing - such modification to be of use to the species, until - an ant was found as abjectly dependent on its slave as - is the _Formica rufescens_. - -Ants do not appear to be the only animals of which ants make slaves; for -there seems to be at least one case in which these wonderful insects -enslave insects of another species, which therefore may be said to stand -to the ants in the relation of beasts of burden. The case to which I -allude is one that is recorded in Perty's 'Intellectual Life of Animals' -(2nd ed. p. 329), and is as follows:-- - - According to Audubon certain leaf-bugs are used as - slaves by the ants in the Brazilian forests. When - these ants want to bring home the leaves which they - have bitten off the trees, they do it by means of a - column of these bugs, which go in pairs, kept in order - on either side by accompanying ants. They compel - stragglers to re-enter the ranks, and laggards to keep - up by biting them. After the work is done the bugs are - shut up within the colony and scantily fed. - -_Wars._--On the wars of ants a great deal might be said, as the facts of -interest in this connection are very numerous; but for the sake of -brevity I shall confine myself to giving only a somewhat meagre account. - -One great cause of war is the plundering of ants' nests by the -slave-making species. Observers all agree that this plundering is -effected by a united march of the whole army composing a nest of the -slave-making species, directed against some particular nest of the -species which they enslave. According to Lespès and Forel, single scouts -or small companies are first sent out from the nest to explore in -various directions for a suitable nest to attack. These scouts -afterwards serve as guides to the marauding excursion. Forel saw several -of these scouts of the species _F. rufescens_ or Amazon carefully -inspecting a nest of _F. fusca_ which they had found, investigating -especially the entrances. These are purposely made difficult to find by -their architects, and it not unfrequently happens that after all -precautions and inspections on the part of the invaders, an expedition -fails on account of not finding the city gates. - -When the scouts have been successful in discovering a suitable nest to -plunder, and have completed their strategical investigations of the -locality to their satisfaction, they return straight to their own nest -or fortress. Forel has then seen them walking about on the surface of -their nest for a long time, as if in consultation, or making up their -minds. Then some of them entered the nest, soon after which hosts of -warriors streamed out of the entrances, and ran about tapping each other -with their heads and antennæ. They then formed into column and set out -to pillage the nest of the slave ants. The following is the account -which Lespès gives of such expeditions:-- - - They only take place towards the end of the summer and - in autumn. At this time the winged members of the - slave species (_F. fusca_ and _F. cunicularia_) have - left the nest, and the Amazons will not take the - trouble to bring back useless consumers. When the sky - is clear our robbers leave their town in the afternoon - at about three or four o'clock. At first no order is - perceptible in their movements, but when they are all - gathered together they form a regular column, which - then moves forward quickly, and each day in a - different direction. They march closely pressed - together, and the foremost always appear to be seeking - for something on the ground. They are each moment - overtaken by others, so that the head of the column is - continually growing. They are in fact seeking the - traces of the ants which they propose to plunder, and - it is scent that guides them. They snuff over the - ground like hounds following the track of a wild - animal, and when they have found it they plunge - headlong forward, and the whole column rushes on - behind. The smallest armies I saw consisted of several - hundred individuals, but I have also seen some four - times as large. They then form columns which may be - five mètres long, and as much as fifty centimètres - wide. After a march, which often lasts a full hour, - the column arrives at the nest of the slave species. - The _F. cuniculariæ_, which are the strongest, offer - keen opposition, but without much result. The Amazons - soon penetrate within the nest, to come out again a - moment later, while the assailed ants at the same time - rush out in masses. During the whole time attention is - directed solely to the larvæ and pupæ, which the - Amazons steal while the others try to save as many as - possible. They know very well that the Amazons cannot - climb, so they fly with their precious burdens to the - surrounding bushes or plants, whereto their enemies - cannot follow them. They then pursue the retreating - robbers and try to take away from them as much of - their booty as possible. But the latter do not trouble - themselves much about them, and hasten on home. On - their return they do not follow the shortest road, but - exactly the one by which they came, finding their way - back by smell. Arrived at their nest, they - immediately hand over their booty to the slaves, and - trouble themselves no more about it. A few days - afterwards the stolen pupæ or nymphæ emerge, without - memory of their childhood, and immediately and without - compulsion take part in all tasks. - -According to Büchner's account,[30]-- - - From time to time the army makes a short halt, partly - to let the rearguard close up, partly because - different opinions arise as to the direction of the - host, or because the place at which they are is - unknown to them. Forel several times saw the army - completely lose its way--an incident only once - observed by Huber. Forel puts the number of warriors - in such an army at from one hundred to more than two - thousand. Its speed is on an average a mètre per - minute, but varies much according to circumstances, - and is naturally least when returning laden with - booty. If the distance be very great, such bodily - fatigue may at last be felt that the whole attack on - the hostile nest is given up, and a retreat is begun; - Forel once saw this happen after they had passed over - a distance of two hundred and forty yards. Sometimes - it seems as though, on coming within sight of the - hostile nest, a kind of discouragement took possession - of them, and prevented their making the attack. If the - nest cannot at once be found, the whole army halts, - and some divisions are sent forward to search for it, - and these are gradually seen returning towards the - centre. Forel also saw such an army only searching the - first day, advancing zigzag, and with frequent halts, - whereas on the following day it went forward to its - aim swiftly and without delay, having found out the - road. It seems that a single ant, even if it knows the - way and the place, is not able alone to lead a large - army, but that a considerable number must be employed - in this duty. Mistakes as to the road occur with - special ease during the return journey, because the - several ants are laden with booty and cannot readily - understand each other. Individual ants are then seen - to wander about in every direction often for a long - time, until they at last reach a spot known to them, - and then advance swiftly to their goal. Many never - come back at all. These mistakes easily occur when the - robbers which have passed into a hostile nest do not - come out again at the same holes whereby they entered, - but by others at some distance--for instance, by a - subterranean canal. Coming out thus in a strange - neighbourhood, they do not know which way to take, and - only some chance to find the right road during their - aimless wanderings about, and recognise and follow it - by smell. On the other hand, such mistakes scarcely - ever happen to individuals in an unladen train, kept - in good array. Other species of ants (_F. fusca_, - _rufa_, _sanguinea_) know better how to manage under - such circumstances than do the Amazons. The laden ones - lay down their loads, first find where they are, and - only take them up again after they have found their - way. If the booty seized in the nest first attacked is - too large to be all taken at once, the robbers return - once, or oftener, so as to complete their work. . . . - The ants, as already said, have no regular leaders nor - chiefs, yet it is certain that in each expedition, - alteration of road, or other change, the decision - during that event comes from a small knot of - individuals, which have previously come to an - understanding, and carry the rest and the undecided - along with them. These do not always follow - immediately, but only after they have received several - taps on the head from the members of the 'ring.' The - procession does not advance until the leaders have - convinced themselves by their own eyesight that the - main part of the army is following. - - One day Forel saw some Amazons on the surface of a - nest of the _F. fusca_ seeking and sounding in all - directions, without being able to find the entrance. - At last one of them found a very little hole, hardly - as large as a pin's head, through which the robbers - penetrated. But since, owing to the smallness of the - hole, the invasion went on slowly, the search was - continued, and an entrance was found further off, - through which the Amazon army gradually disappeared. - All was quiet. About five minutes later Forel saw a - booty-laden column emerge from each hole. Not a single - ant was without a load. The two columns united outside - and retreated together. - - A marauding excursion of the Amazons against the _F. - rufibarbis_, a sub-species of the _F. fusca_, or small - black ants, took place as follows:--The vanguard of - the robber army found that it had reached the - neighbourhood of the hostile nest more quickly than it - had expected; for it halted suddenly and decidedly, - and sent a number of messengers which brought up the - main body and the rearguard with incredible speed. In - less than thirty seconds the whole army had closed up, - and hurled itself in a mass on the dome of the hostile - nest. This was the more necessary as the _rufibarbes_ - during the short halt had discovered the approach of - the enemy, and had utilised the time to cover the dome - with defenders. An indescribable struggle followed, - but the superior numbers of the Amazons overcame, and - they penetrated into the nest, while the defenders - poured by thousands out of the same holes, with their - larvæ and pupæ in their jaws, and escaped to the - nearest plants and bushes, running over the heaps of - their assailants. These looked on the matter as - hopeless, and began to retreat. But the _rufibarbes_, - furious at their proceedings, pursued them, and - endeavoured to get away from them the few pupæ they - had obtained, by trying to seize the Amazons' legs and - to snatch away the pupæ. The Amazon lets its jaws slip - slowly along the captive pupa, as far as the head of - its opponent, and pierces it, if it does not, as - generally happens, draw back. But it often manages to - seize the pupa at the instant at which the Amazon lets - it go and flies with it. This is managed yet more - easily when a comrade holds the robber by the legs, - and compels it to loose its prey in order to guard - itself against its assailant. Sometimes the robbers - seize empty cocoons and carry them away, but they - leave them on the road when they have discovered their - mistake. In the above case the strength of the - _rufibarbes_ proved at last so great that the - rearguard of the retreating army was seriously - pressed, and was obliged to give up its booty. A - number of the Amazons also were overpowered and - killed, but not without the _rufibarbes_ also losing - many people. None the less did some individuals, as - though desperate, rush into the thickest hosts of the - enemy, penetrated again into the nest, and carried off - several pupæ by sheer audacity and skill. Most of them - left their prey to go to the help of their comrades - when assailed by the _rufibarbes_. Ten minutes after - the commencement of the retreat all the Amazons had - left the nest, and, being swifter than their - opponents, they were only pursued for about halfway - back. Their attack had failed on account of a short - delay! - - On another occasion observed by Forel, in which - several fertile Amazons also took part and killed many - enemies, the nest was thoroughly ravished, but the - retreat was also in this case very much disturbed and - harassed by the superior numbers of the enemy. There - were many slain on both sides. That in spite of the - above-mentioned unanimity different opinions among the - members of an expedition sometimes hinder its conduct, - the following observation seems to show:--An advancing - column divided after it had gone about ten yards from - the nest. Half turned back, while the other half went - on, but after some time hesitated and also turned - back. Arrived at home, it found those which had - formerly turned back putting themselves in motion in a - new direction. The newly returned followed them, and - the reunited army, after various wheelings, halts, - &c., at last turned home again by a long way round. - The whole business looked like a promenade. But - apparently different parties had different nests in - view, while others were entirely against the - expedition. Yet perhaps it was only a march for - exercise. - - Outer obstacles do not, as a rule, hinder the Amazons - when they are once on the march. Forel saw them wade - through some shallow water, although many were drowned - in it, and then march over a dusty high road, although - the wind blew half of them away. As they returned, - booty-laden, neither wind, nor dust, nor water could - make them lay down their prey. They only got back with - great trouble, and turned back again to bring fresh - booty, although many lost their lives. - -The following is also quoted from Büchner's excellent epitome of Forel's -observations in this connection:-- - - The most terrible enemy of the Amazons is the sanguine - ant (_F. sanguinea_), which also keeps slaves, and - thereby often comes into collision with the Amazons on - their marauding excursions. It is not equal to it in - bodily strength or fighting capacity, but surpasses it - in intelligence; according to Forel it is the most - intelligent of all the species of ants. If Forel, for - instance, poured out the contents of a sack filled - with a nest of the slave species near an Amazon nest, - the Amazons apparently generally regarded the tumbled - together heap of ants, larvæ, pupæ, earth, building - materials, &c., as the dome of a hostile nest, and - took all imaginable but useless pains to find out the - entrances thereinto, leaving on one side for this - investigation their only object, the carrying off the - pupæ; but the sanguine ants under similar - circumstances did not allow themselves to be deceived, - but at once ransacked the whole heap. - -On another occasion, while a procession of Amazon ants was on its way to -plunder a nest of _F. fusca_, before it arrived Forel poured out a -sack-full of sanguine ants, and made a break in the nest:-- - - The sanguine ants pressed in, while the _fusca_ came - out to defend themselves. At this moment the first - Amazons arrived. When they saw the sanguine ants they - drew back and awaited the main army, which appeared - much disturbed at the news. But once united, the bold - robbers rushed at their foes. The latter gathered - together and beat back the first attack, but the - Amazons closed up their ranks and made a second - assault, which carried them on to the dome and into - the midst of the enemy. These were overthrown, as well - as a number of _F. pratensis_, which Forel at this - moment poured out on the nest. The conquerors delayed - for a moment on the dome after their victory, and then - entered the nest to bring out a little of the valuable - booty. A few Amazons which were mad with anger did not - return with the main army, but went on slaughtering - blindly among the conquered and the fugitives of the - three species, _fusca_, _pratensis_, and _sanguinea_. - - The ravished _rufibarbes_ once became so desperate at - their overthrow that they followed the robbers to - their own nest, and the latter had some trouble in - defending it. The _rufibarbes_ let themselves be - killed in hundreds, and really seemed as though they - courted death. A small number of the Amazons also sank - under the bites of their enemies. The nest contained - slaves of the _rufibarbis_ species, which on this - emergency fought actively against their own race. - There were also slaves of the species _fusca_, so that - the nest included three different species of ants. - - The same nest is often revisited many times on the - same day or at different periods, until either there - is no more to steal, or the plundered folk have hit - upon better mode of defence. A column which was in the - act of going back to such a plundered nest turned when - halfway there, and halted, apparently on no other - ground than because it had met the rearguard of the - army, and had learned that the nest was exhausted, and - that there was nothing more to be had there. The - robbers then went off to a _rufibarbis_ nest which was - in the neighbourhood, and killed half the inhabitants - while plundering the nest. The surviving _rufibarbes_ - returned after the robbery and brought up new progeny; - but thirteen days later the Amazons again reaped a - rich harvest from the same nest. The Amazon army often - severs itself into two separate divisions when there - is not enough for both to do at the same spot. - Sometimes one division finds something and the other - nothing, and they then reunite. If any obstacle be - placed in their way they try to overcome it, in doing - which some leave the main army, lose themselves, and - only find their way home again with difficulty. Forel - has tried to establish the normal frequency of - expeditions, and found that a colony watched by - himself for a space of thirty days sent out no less - than forty-four marauding excursions. Of these about - eight-and-twenty were completely, nine partially, and - the remainder not at all successful. He four times saw - the army divide into two. Half the expeditions were - levelled against the _rufibarbes_, half against the - _fuscæ_. On an average a successful expedition would - bring back to the colony a thousand pupæ or larvæ. On - the whole, the number of future slaves stolen by a - strong colony during a favourable summer may be - reckoned at forty thousand! - - The internecine battles which occasionally break out - among the Amazons themselves are naturally the most - cruel. They tear each other to pieces with incredible - fury, and knots of five or six individuals which have - pierced each other may be seen rolling over each other - on the ground, it being impossible to distinguish - between friend and foe. Civil wars among men are also - known to be the most embittered and the most bloody. - -The mode of attack practised by the other best known species of -slave-making ant, _sanguinea_, is somewhat different:-- - - They march in small troops which, in case of need, - summon reinforcements, and therefore as a rule only - reach their goal slowly. Between the individual troops - messengers or scouts run continually backwards and - forwards. The first troop which arrives at the hostile - nest does not rush at it, as do the Amazons, but - contents itself with making provisional - reconnaissances, wherein some of the assailants are - generally made prisoners by the enemy, which have time - to bethink and to collect themselves. Reinforcements - are now brought up, and a regular siege of the nest - begins. A sudden invasion, like that of the Amazons, - is never seen. The besieging army forms a complete - ring round the hostile nest, and the besiegers hold - this with mandibles open and antennæ drawn back, - without going nearer. In this position they beat off - all assaults of the besieged, until they feel - themselves strong enough to advance to the attack. - This attack scarcely ever fails, and has for its chief - object the mastering of the entrances and outlets of - the nest. A special troop guards each opening, and - only allows such of the besieged to pass out as carry - no pupæ. This manoeuvre gives rise to a number of - comical and characteristic scenes. By this means the - sanguine ants in a few minutes manage to have all the - defenders out of the nests and the pupæ left behind. - This is the case at least with the _rufibarbes_, while - the rather less timid _fuscæ_ try, even at the last - moment when it is useless, to stop up or barricade the - entrances. The sanguine ants do not indeed possess the - terrible weapons and the warlike impetuosity of the - Amazons, but they are stronger and larger. If a - _fusca_ or a _rufibarbis_ fights with a sanguine ant - for the possession of a pupa, it is generally very - soon overcome. While the main part of the army is - penetrating into the nest to steal the pupæ, some - divisions pursue the fugitives, to take away from them - the few pupæ which may chance to have been saved. They - drive them even out of the cricket-holes in which they - have meanwhile taken refuge. In short, it is a - _razzia_, or sweeping burglary, as complete as can be - imagined. In the retreat the robbers in no wise hurry - themselves, for they know that they are threatened by - no danger and no loss, and the complete emptying of a - large and distant nest often takes several days in - accomplishing. The ants which have been so thoroughly - robbed scarcely ever return to their former abode. - - It must be admitted that a human army, robbing a - foreign town or fortress, could not behave better or - more prudently. - -Huber gives the following account of a battle waged by sanguine ants:-- - - At ten, in a July morning, he noticed a small band of - them emerge from their nest, and march rapidly towards - a nest of negroes, around which it dispersed. A number - of the blacks rushed out, gave battle, and succeeded - in defeating their invaders, and in making several of - them prisoners. Upon this, the remainder of the - attacking force waited for a reinforcement. When this - came up, they still declined further proceedings, and - sent more aides-de-camp to their own nest. The result - of these messages was a much larger reinforcement; but - even yet the pirates appeared to shun the combat. At - last, the negroes marched out from their nest in a - phalanx of about two feet square, and a number of - skirmishes began, which soon ended in a general - _mêlée_. Long before the event seemed certain, the - negroes carried off their pupæ to the most distant - part of the nest; and when, after a longer encounter, - they appeared to think further resistance vain, they - retreated, attempting to take with them their young. - In this, however, they were prevented, and the - invaders obtained possession of their nest and the - booty. When they had done this, they put in a - garrison, and occupied the night and the succeeding - day in carrying off their spoil. - -Büchner says-- - - Battles between ants of the same species often end - with a lasting alliance, especially when the number of - the workers on both sides is comparatively small. The - wise little animals under such circumstances discover, - much more quickly and better than men, that they can - only destroy each other by fighting, while union would - benefit both parties. Sometimes they drive each other - out of their nests in a quite friendly way. Forel laid - on a table a piece of bark with a nest of the gentle - _Leptothorax acervorum_, and then put on it the - contents of another nest of the same species. The last - comers were by far the more numerous, and soon - possessed themselves of the nest, driving out the - inmates. But the latter did not know whither to go, - and turned back again. They were then seized by their - opponents one after the other, carried away as far as - possible from the nest, and there put down. The - oftener they came back the further were they carried - away. One of the carriers arrived in this fashion at - the edge of the table, and after it had by means of - its feelers convinced itself that it had reached the - end of the world, mercilessly let its burden drop into - the fathomless abyss. It waited a moment to see if it - had attained its object, and then turned back to the - nest. Forel picked up the ant which had fallen on the - floor, and put it down right in front of the returning - ant. The latter repeated the same manoeuvre as at - first, only stretching its neck further over the edge - of the table. He several times reiterated his - experiment, and always with the same result. Later the - two colonies were shut up together in a glass case, - and gradually learned to agree. - -At other times, however, warlike ants show great and needless cruelty to -one another:-- - - They slowly pull from their victim, that is rendered - defenceless by wounds, exhaustion, or terror, first - one feeler and then the other, then the legs one after - another, until they at last kill it, or pull it in a - completely mutilated and helpless condition to some - out-of-the-way spot where it perishes miserably. Yet - some compassionate hearts are to be found among the - victors, which only pull the conquered to a distant - place in order to get rid of them, and there let them - go without injuring them. - -The following account is also taken from Büchner's 'Mind in Animals,' p. -87:-- - - The doors are often guarded by special sentries, which - fulfil their important duty in various ways. Forel saw - a nest of the _Colobopsis truncata_, the two or three - very small round openings of which were watched by - soldiers, arranged so that their thick cylindrical - heads stopped them up, just as a cork stops up the - mouth of a bottle. The same observer saw the - _Myrmecina Latreillei_ defend themselves against the - invasions of the slave-making _Strongylognathus_, by - placing a worker at each of the little openings of the - nest, which quite stops up the opening either with - its head or abdomen. The _Camponotus_ species also - defend their nests by stretching their heads in front - of the openings, drawing back the antennæ. Each - approaching enemy thus receives a sharp blow or bite - delivered with the whole weight of the body. MacCook - noticed in the nests of the soon to be described - Pennsylvanian mound-building ants, the employment of - special sentries, which lay watching within the nest - entrances, and sprang out at the first sight of danger - to attack the enemy; and it was wonderful to see with - what swiftness the news of such an alarm spread - through the nest, and how the inhabitants came out _en - masse_ to meet the enemy. The _Lasius_ species defend - their large, strong, and very extensive nests against - hostile attack or sieges with equal courage and skill, - while other timid species seek to fly as speedily as - possible with their larvæ, pupæ, and fruitful queens. - There is, as Forel tells us, a regular barricade - fight. Passage after passage is stopped and defended - to the uttermost, so that the assailants can only - advance step and step. Unless the latter are in an - enormous majority, the struggle may last a very long - time with these tactics. During this time, other - workers are busy preparing subterranean passages - backwards for eventual flight. Generally such passages - are already made, and during a fight a new dome of the - _Lasius_ may be seen rising at a distance, it not - being difficult for them to make this with the help of - their extended subterranean passages and - communications. - - The _F. exsecta_ or _pressilabris_ fights in a - peculiar way, which is due to care of their small and - very tender bodies. It avoids all single combats, and - always fights in closed ranks. Only when it thinks - victory secure does it spring on its enemy's back. But - its chief strength lies in the fact that many together - always attack a foe. They nail down their opponent by - seizing its legs and holding them firmly to the - ground, while a comrade springs on the back of the - defenceless creature and tries to bite through its - neck. But if threatened the holders sometimes take - flight, and so it happens that in battles between the - _exsectæ_ and the much stronger _pratenses_ not a few - of the latter are seen running about with a small - enemy clutching their shoulders, and making violent - efforts to tear the neck of its foe. If the bearer is - then seized with cramp, the nervous cord has been - injured. On the other hand, if an _exsecta_ is seized - by the back by a _pratensis_ it is at once lost. - - The tactics of the turf ants resemble those of the - _exsectæ_, three or four of them seizing an opponent - and pulling off his legs. In similar fashion the - attack of the _Lasius_ species is chiefly directed - against the legs of its enemies, three, four, or five - uniting in the effort. They understand barricade - fighting particularly well in their large well-built - dwellings, and if it comes to the worst fly by - subterranean passages. They are feared by most ants on - account of their numerical superiority. Forel one day - poured the contents of ten nests of _pratenses_ in - front of a tree trunk inhabited by _Lasius - fuliginosus_ (jet ant). The siege at once began; but - the jet ants called in help from the nests connected - with their colony, and thick black columns were at - once seen coming out from the surrounding trees. The - _pratenses_ were obliged to fly, and left behind them - a mass of dead as well as their pupæ, which last were - carried off by the victors to their nests to be eaten. - -Battles, however, are not confined to species of ants having warlike and -slave-making habits. The agricultural ants likewise at times wage fierce -wars with one another. The importance of seeds to these ants, and the -consequent value which they set upon them, induce the animals, when -supplies are scarce, to plunder each other's nests. Thus Moggridge -says,-- - - By far the most savage and prolonged contests which I - have witnessed were those in which the combatants - belong to two different colonies of the same - species. . . . The most singular contests are those - which are waged for seeds by _A. barbara_, when one - colony plunders the stores of an adjacent nest - belonging to the same species, the weaker nest making - prolonged though, for the most part, inefficient - attempts to recover their property. - - In the case of the other species of ant which I have - watched fighting, the strife would last but a short - time--a few hours or a day--but _A. barbara_ will - carry on the battle day after day and week after week. - I was able to devote a good deal of time to watching - the progress of a predatory war of this kind, waged by - one nest of _barbara_ against another, and which - lasted for forty-six days, from January 18 to March 4! - - I cannot of course declare positively that no - cessation of hostilities may have taken place during - the time, but I can affirm that whenever I visited the - spot--and I did so on twelve days, or as nearly as - possible twice a week--the scene was one of war and - spoliation such as that which I shall now describe. - - An active train of ants, nearly resembling an ordinary - harvesting train, led from the entrance of one nest to - that of another lower down the slope, and fifteen feet - distant; but on closer examination it appeared that - though the great mass of seed-bearers were travelling - towards the upper nest, some few were going in the - opposite direction and making for the lower. Besides - this, at intervals, combats might be seen taking - place, one ant seizing the free end of a seed carried - by another, and endeavouring to wrench it away, and - then frequently, as neither would let go, the stronger - ant would drag seed and opponent towards its nest. At - times other ants would interfere and seize one of the - combatants and endeavour to drag it away, this often - resulting in terrible mutilations, and especially in - the loss of the abdomen, which would be torn off while - the jaws of the victim retained their indomitable - bull-dog grip upon the seed. Then the victor might be - seen dragging away his prize, while its adversary, - though now little more than a head and legs, offered a - vigorous though of course ineffectual resistance. I - frequently observed that the ants during these - conflicts would endeavour to seize one another's - antennæ, and that if this were effected, the ant thus - assaulted would instantly release his hold, whether of - seed or adversary, and appear utterly discomfited. No - doubt the antennæ are their most sensitive parts, and - injuries inflicted on these organs cause the greatest - pain. - - It was not until I had watched this scene for some - days that I apprehended its true meaning, and - discovered that the ants of the upper nest were - robbing the granaries of the lower, while the latter - tried to recover the stolen seeds both by fighting for - them and by stealing seeds in their turn from the nest - of their oppressors. The thieves, however, were - evidently the stronger, and streams of ants laden with - seeds arrived safely at the upper nest, while close - observation showed that very few seeds were - successfully carried on the reverse journey into the - lower and plundered nest. - - Thus when I fixed my attention on one of these robbed - ants surreptitiously making its exit with the seed - from the thieves' nest, and having overcome the - opposition and dangers met with on its way, reaching, - after a journey which took six minutes to accomplish, - the entrance to its own home, I saw that it was - violently deprived of its burden by a guard of ants - stationed there apparently for the purpose, one of - whom instantly started off and carried the seed all - the way back again to the upper nest. - - This I saw repeated several times. - - After March 4 I never saw any acts of hostility - between these nests, though the robbed nest was not - abandoned. In another case of the same kind, however, - where the struggle lasted thirty-one days, the robbed - nest was at length completely abandoned, and on - opening it I found all the granaries empty with one - single exception, and this one was pierced by the - matted roots of grasses and other plants, and must - therefore have been long neglected by the ants. - Strangely enough, not one of the seeds in this - deserted granary showed traces of germination. - - No doubt some very pressing need is the cause of these - systematic raids in search of accumulations of seeds, - and there can be little doubt that the requirements of - distinct colonies of ants of the same species are - often different even at the same season and date. Thus - these warring colonies of ants were active on many - days when the majority of the nests were completely - closed; and I have even seen these robbers staggering - along, enfeebled by the cold, and in wind and rain, - when all other ants were safe below ground. - -The agricultural ants of Texas do not appear to be less pugnacious than -their European congeners. Thus MacCook says:-- - - A young community has sometimes to struggle into - permanent prosperity through many perils. The - following example is found in the unpublished Lincecum - manuscripts. One day a new ant-city was observed to be - located within ten or twelve yards of a - long-established nest, a distance that the doctor - thought would prove too near for peaceable - possession--for the agriculturals seem to pre-empt a - certain range of territory around their formicary as - their own, within which no intrusion is allowed. He - therefore concluded to keep these nests under close - observation, and visited them frequently. Only a day - or two had elapsed before he found that the - inhabitants of the old city had made war upon the new. - They had surrounded it in great numbers, and were - entering, dragging out and killing the citizens. The - young colonists, who seemed to be of less size than - their adversaries, fought bravely, and, - notwithstanding they were overwhelmed by superior - numbers, killed and maimed many of their assailants. - The parties were scattered in struggling pairs over a - space ten or fifteen feet around the city gate, and - the ground was strewed with many dead bodies. The new - colonists aimed altogether at cutting off the legs of - their larger foes, which they accomplished with much - success. The old-city warriors, on the contrary, - gnawed and clipped off the heads and abdomens of their - enemies. Two days afterward the battlefield was - revisited, and many ants were found lying dead tightly - locked together by legs and mandibles, while hundreds - of decapitated bodies and severed heads were strewed - over the ground. - - Another example, which is given in the published - paper, is quite similar, and had like result. In - forty-eight hours the old settlers had exterminated - the new. The distance between the nests was about 20 - feet. While the young colonists remained in - concealment they were not disturbed, but as soon as - they began to clear away their open disk war was - declared. - -MacCook, however, says that 'these ants are not always so jealous of -territorial encroachment, or at least must have different standards of -rights.' For he observed many cases of nests situated within twenty, and -even ten feet of one another, without a battle ever occurring between -members of the two communities. Therefore, without questioning the -accuracy of Lincecum's observations--which, indeed, present no scope for -inaccuracy--he adds, 'That neighbouring ants, like neighbouring nations -of civilised men, will fall out and wage war Lincecum's examples show. -Perhaps we should be quite as unsuccessful in case of these ants as of -our human congeners, should we seek a sufficient reason for these wars, -or satisfactory cause for these differences in dealing with neighbours -which appear from the comparison of Lincecum's observations with mine.' - -In connection with the wars of these ants, the following quotations may -also be made from the same author:-- - - The erratic ants do not appear to be held as common - enemies by the agriculturals, and they are even - permitted to establish their formicaries within the - limits of the open disk. Sometimes, however, the - diminutive hillocks which mark the entrance to an - erratic ant-nest multiply beyond the limit of the - agriculturals' forbearance. But they do not declare - war, nor resort to any personal violence. - Nevertheless, they get rid of them, oddly enough, by a - regular system of vexatious obstructions. They - suddenly conclude that there is urgent demand for - improving their public domain. Forthwith they sally - forth in large numbers, fall eagerly to work gathering - the little black balls which are thrown up by the - earth-worms in great quantities everywhere in the - prairie soil, which they bring and heap upon the paved - disk until all the erratic ant-nests are covered! The - entire pavement is thus raised an inch or so, and - pains are taken to deposit more balls upon and around - the domiciles of their tiny neighbours than elsewhere. - The erratics struggle vigorously against this Pompeian - treatment; they bore through the avalanche of balls, - only to find barriers laid in their way. The - obstructions at length become so serious that it is - impossible to keep the galleries open. The dwarfs - cease to contend against destiny, and, gathering - together their household stores, quietly evacuate the - premises of the inhospitable giants. It is the triumph - of the policy of obstruction, a bloodless but - effectual opposition. - -Lastly, MacCook records the history of an interesting engagement which -he witnessed between two nests of _Tetramorium cæspitum_. It took place -between Broad Street and Penn Square in Philadelphia, and lasted for -nearly three weeks. Although all the combatants belonged to the same -species, however great the confusion of the fight, friends were always -distinguished from foes--apparently by contact of antennæ. - -_Habit of keeping Domestic Pets._--Many species of ants display the -curious habit of keeping in their nests sundry kinds of other insects, -which, so far as observation extends, are of no benefit to the ants, and -which therefore have been regarded by observers as mere domestic pets. -These 'pets' are for the most part species which occur nowhere else -except in ants' nests, and each species of 'pet' is peculiar to certain -species of ants. Thus Moggridge found 'a large number of a minute -shining brown beetle moving about among the seeds' in the nests of the -harvesting ant of the south of Europe, 'belonging to the scarce and very -restricted genus _Colnocera_, called by Kraatz _C. attæ_, on account of -its inhabiting the nests of ants belonging to the genus _Atta_.' He also -observed inhabiting the same nests a minute cricket 'scarcely larger -than a grain of wheat' (_Gryllus myrmecophilus_), which had been -previously observed by Paolo Savi in the nests of several species of -ants in Tuscany, where it lived on the best terms with its hosts, -playing round the nests in warm weather, and retiring into them in -stormy weather, while allowing the ants to carry it from place to place -during migrations. Again, Mr. Bates observes that 'some of the most -anomalous forms of coleopterous insects are those which live solely in -the nests of ants.' Sir John Lubbock also, and other observers whom we -need not wait to cite, mention similar facts. The Rev. Mr. White says -that altogether 40 distinct species of Coleoptera, most of which he has -in his own collection, are known to inhabit the nests of various species -of ants, and to occur nowhere else. - -As in all these cases the ants live on amicable terms with their guests, -and in some cases even bestow labour upon them (as in carrying them from -one nest to another during migration), it is evident that these insects -are not only tolerated, but fostered by the ants. Moreover, as it seems -absurd to credit ants with any mere fancy or caprice such as that of -keeping pets, we can only conclude that these insects, like the aphides, -are of some use to their hosts, although we are not yet in a position to -surmise what this use can be. - -_Habits of Sleep and Cleanliness._--It is probable that all species of -ants enjoy periods of true sleep alternating with those of activity; but -actual observations on this subject have only been made on two or three -species. The following is MacCook's account of these habits in the -harvesting ant of Texas:-- - - The observation upon the ants now before me began at 8 - o'clock; at 11 P.M. the cluster had nearly dissolved, - only a few being asleep. To illustrate the soundness - of this sleep I take the quill pen with which I write, - and apply the feather end of it to an ant who is - sleeping upon the soil. She has chosen a little oval - depression in the surface, and lies with abdomen upon - the raised edge, and face toward the lamp. Her legs - are drawn up close to the body. She is perfectly - still. I gently draw the feather tip along the body, - stroking 'with the fur,' if I may so say. There is no - motion. Again and again this action is repeated, the - stroke gradually being made heavier, although always - quite gentle. Still there is no change. The strokes - are now directed upon the head, with the same result. - Now the tip is applied to the neck, the point at which - the head is united to the pro-thorax, with a waving - motion intended to produce a sensation of tickling. - The ant remains motionless. After continuing these - experiments for several minutes, I arouse the sleeper - by a sharp touch of the quill. She stretches out her - head, then her legs, which she also shakes, steps - nearer to the light, and begins to cleanse herself in - the manner already described. This act invariably - follows the waking of ants from sleep. The above - description applies to the general habit of somnolence - as observed upon the two named species of harvesting - ants for nearly four months. I have often applied the - quill, and even the point of a lead pencil, to the - sleeping Floridians without breaking their slumber. - There are some other details which have not appeared - in the behaviour of the individual just put under - observation. - - Thus, I have several times seen the ants (_Crudelis_) - _yawning_ after awaking. I use this word for lack of - one which more accurately expresses the behaviour. The - action is very like that of the human animal; the - mandibles are thrown open with the peculiar muscular - strain which is familiar to all readers; the tongue - also is sometimes thrust out, and the limbs stretched - with the appearance, at least, of that tension which - accompanies the yawn in the genus _homo_. During sleep - the antennæ have a gentle, quivering, apparently - involuntary motion, which seemed to me, at times, to - have the regularity of breathing. I also often noted - an occasional regular lifting up and setting down of - the fore-feet, one leg after another, with almost a - rhythmic motion. - - The length of time during which sleep is prolonged - appears to vary according to circumstances and, - perhaps, organism. The large head-soldiers of the - Floridian harvesters appear to have a more sluggish - nature than the smaller workers. Their sleep is longer - and heavier. The former fact the watch readily - determined. The latter appeared from the greater - stolidity of the creatures under disturbance. While - the ants of one group are taking sleep others may be - busy at work, and these stalk among and over the - sleepers, jostling them quite vigorously at times. - Again, new members occasionally join the group, and, - in their desire to get close up to the heat and light, - crowd their drowsy comrades aside. I have seen ants - who had been at work in the galleries drop their - pellets, push thus into the cluster, and presently be - apparently sound asleep. This rough treatment is - invariably received with perfect good humour, as are - like jostlings when the ants are awake. I have never - seen the slightest display of anger or attempt to - resent disturbance even under these circumstances, so - peculiarly calculated to excite the utmost irritation - in men. But of course some of the sleepers are - aroused. They change position a little, or give - themselves a brief combing, and then resume their nap, - unless, indeed, they are satisfied. In watching these - movements it was quite evident that the Florida - soldiers were far less easily disturbed than their - smaller fellows. They slept on stolidly while all the - others were in agitation around them. Moreover, their - very appearance, particularly when awaking out of - sleep, indicated the greater sluggishness of their - temperament in this respect. - -The ordinary duration of sleep MacCook takes to be about three hours. - -Ants, like many other insects, are in the habit of cleaning themselves, -being, like them, provided by nature with combs and brushes, &c., for -the purpose. But, unlike other insects, several species of ants are also -in the habit of assisting each other in the performance of their toilet. -The author last quoted gives the following account of this process in -the genus _Atta_:-- - - We take a couple; the cleanser has begun at the face, - which is licked thoroughly, even the mandibles being - cared for, they being held apart for convenient - manipulation. From the face the cleanser passes to the - thorax, thence to the haunch, and so along the first - leg, along the second and third in the same manner, - around to the abdomen, and thence up the other side of - the ant to the head. A third ant approaches and joins - in the friendly task, but soon abandons the field to - the original cleanser. The attitude of the cleansed - all this while is one of intense satisfaction, quite - resembling that of a family dog when one is scratching - the back of his neck. The insect stretches out her - limbs, and, as her friend takes them successively into - hand, yields them limp and supple to her manipulation; - she rolls gently over upon her side, even quite over - upon her back, and with all her limbs relaxed presents - a perfect picture of muscular surrender and ease. The - pleasure which the creatures take in being thus - 'combed' and 'sponged' is really enjoyable to the - observer. I have seen an ant kneel down before another - and thrust forward the head, drooping, quite under the - face, and lie there motionless, thus expressing, as - plainly as sign-language could, her desire to be - cleansed. I at once understood the gesture, and so did - the supplicated ant, for she at once went to work. If - analogies in nature-studies were not so apt to be - misleading, one might venture to suggest that our - insect friends are thus in possession of a modified - sort of Emmetonian Turkish bath. - - The acrobatic skill of these ants, which has often - furnished me amusement, and which I shall yet further - illustrate, was fully shown one morning in these - offices of ablution. The formicary was taken from the - study, where the air had become chilled, and placed in - an adjoining chamber upon the hearth, before an - open-grate fire. The genial warmth was soon diffused - throughout the nest, and aroused its occupants to - unusual activity. A tuft of grass in the centre of the - box was presently covered with them. They climbed to - the very top of the spires, turned round and round, - hanging by their paws, not unlike gymnasts performing - upon a turning-bar. They hung or clung in various - positions, grasping the grass blade with the third and - fourth pairs of legs, which were spread out at length, - cleansing their heads with the fore-legs or bending - underneath to comb and lick the abdomen. Among these - ants were several pairs, in one case a triplet, - engaged in the cleansing operation just described. The - cleanser clung to the grass, having a fore-leg on one - side and a hind leg on the other side of the stem, - stretched out at full length, while the cleansed hung - in a like position below, and reached over and up, - submitting herself to the pleasant process. As the - progress of the act required a change of posture on - the part of both insects, it was made with the utmost - agility. - -Similarly, Bates thus describes the cleansing process in another genus -of ants (_Ecitons_):-- - - Here and there an ant was seen stretching forth first - one leg and then another, to be brushed and washed by - one or more of its comrades, who performed the task by - passing the limb between the jaws and tongue, - finishing by giving the antennæ a friendly wipe. - -_Habits of Play and Leisure._--The life of ants is not all work, or, at -least, is not so in all species; for in some species, at any rate, -periods of recreation are habitually indulged in. - -Büchner('Geistesleben der Thiere,' p. 163) gives the following abstract -of Huber's celebrated observations in this connection:-- - - It was of the _pratensis_ that Huber wrote the - observations touching its gymnastic sports which - became so famous. He saw these ants on a fine day - assembled on the surface of their nest, and behaving - in a way that he could only explain as simulating - festival sports or other games. They raised themselves - on their hind legs, embraced each other with their - fore-legs, seized each other by the antennæ, feet, or - mandibles, and wrestled--but all in friendliest - fashion. They then let go, ran after each other, and - played hide-and-seek. When one was victorious, it - seized all the others in the ring, and tumbled them - over like ninepins. - - This account of Huber's found its way into many - popular books, but in spite of its clearness won - little credence from the reading public. 'I found it - hard to believe Huber's observation,' writes Forel, - 'in spite of its exactness, until I myself had seen - the same.' A colony of the _pratensis_ several times - gave him the opportunity when he approached it - carefully. The players caught each other by the feet - or jaws, rolled over each other on the ground like - boys playing, pulled each other inside the entrances - of their nest, only to come out again, and so on. All - this was done without bad temper, or any spurting of - poison, and it was clear that all the rivalry was - friendly. The least breath from the side of the - observer was enough to put an end to the games. 'I - understand,' continues Forel, 'that the affair must - seem marvellous to those who have not seen it, - especially when we remember that sexual attraction can - here play no part.' - -MacCook also gives an account of habits of play as indulged in among -ants of the other Hemisphere:-- - - At one formicary half a dozen or more young queens - were out at the same time. They would climb up a large - pebble near the gate, face the wind, and assume a - rampant posture. Several having ascended the stone at - one time, there ensued a little playful - passage-at-arms as to position. They nipped each other - gently with the mandibles, and chased one another from - favourite spots. They, however, never nipped the - workers. These latter evidently kept a watch upon the - sportive princesses, occasionally saluted them with - their antennæ in the usual way, or touched them at the - abdomen, but apparently allowed them full liberty of - action. - -As to leisure, Bates writes:-- - - The life of these Ecitons is not all work, for I - frequently saw them very leisurely employed in a way - that looked like recreation. When this happened the - place was always a sunny nook in the forest. The main - column of the army and the branch columns, at these - times, were in their ordinary relative positions; but - instead of pressing forward eagerly and plundering - right and left, they seemed to have been all smitten - with a sudden fit of laziness. Some were walking - sternly about, others were brushing their antennæ with - their fore-feet; but the drollest sight was their - cleaning each other. [Here follows the above-quoted - passage.] The actions of these ants looked like simple - indulgence in idle amusement. . . . It is probable - that these hours of relaxation and cleaning may be - indispensable to the effective performance of their - harder burdens; but whilst looking at them, the - conclusion that the ants were engaged merely in play - was irresistible.[31] - -_Funereal Habits._--In another connection it has already been stated -that Sir John Lubbock found his ants to be very careful in disposing of -the dead bodies of their comrades. This habit seems to be pretty general -among many species of ants, and is no doubt due to sanitary -requirements, thus becoming developed as a beneficial instinct by -natural selection. The funereal habits of the agricultural ant are thus -related by MacCook:[32]-- - - There is nothing which is apt to awaken deeper - interest in the life-history of ants than what may - properly be called their funereal habits. All species - whose manners I have closely observed are quite alike - in their mode of caring for their own dead, and for - the dry carcasses of aliens. The former they appear to - treat with some degree of reverence, at least to the - extent of giving them a sort of sepulture without - feeding upon them. The latter, after having exhausted - the juices of the body, they usually deposit together - in some spot removed from the nest. I did not see any - of the 'cemeteries' of the agricultural ant upon the - field, nor, indeed, observe any of their behaviour - towards the dead, but my artificial nests gave me some - insight of this. In the first colony had been placed - eight agriculturals of another nest, which were - literally cut to pieces. Very soon after the ants were - comfortably established in their new home, a number of - them laid hold upon these _disjecta membra_, and began - carrying them back and forth around the formicarium. - The next day this continued, and several of their own - number who had died were being treated in like - manner. Back and forth, up and down, into every corner - of the box the bearers wandered, the very embodiment - of restlessness. For four days this conduct continued - without any intermission. No sooner would a body or - fragment thereof be dropped by one bearer than another - would take it up and begin the restless circuit. The - difficulty, I easily understood, was that there was no - point to be found far enough removed from the - living-rooms of the insects in which to inter these - dead. Their desire to have their dead buried out of - their sight was strong enough to keep them on this - ceaseless round, apparently under the continuous - influence of the hope that something might turn up to - give them a more satisfactory burial-ground. It does - not appear greatly to the credit of their wisdom that - they were so long discovering that they were limited - to a space beyond their power to enlarge. When, - however, this fact was finally recognised they gave - their habit its utmost bent, and began to deposit the - carcasses in the extreme corner of the flat, as - distant as possible from the galleries on the terrace - above. Here a little hollow was made in the earth, - quite up against the glass, wherein a number of bodies - were laid. Portions of bodies were thrust into the - chinks formed in the dry sod. This flat became the - permanent charnel-house of the colony, and here, in - corners, crevices, and holes, for the most part out of - sight, but not always so, the dead were deposited. But - the living never seemed quite reconciled to their - presence. Occasionally, restless resurrectionists - would disentomb the dead, shift them to another spot, - or start them once more upon their unquiet wanderings. - Even after the establishment of this cemetery, the - creatures did not seem able to lay away their newly - deceased comrades--for there were occasional deaths in - the formicary--without first indulging in this - funereal promenade. - - In the formicaries established in glass jars, both of - _barbatus_ and _crudelis_, the same behaviour - appeared. So great was the desire to get the dead - outside the nest, that the bearers would climb up the - smooth surface of the glass to the very top of the - jar, laboriously carrying with them a dead ant. This - was severe work, which was rarely undertaken except - under the influence of this funereal enthusiasm. The - jar was very smooth and quite high. Falls were - frequent, but patiently the little 'undertaker' would - follow the impulse of her instinct, and try and try - again. Finally, as in the large box, the fact of a - necessity seemed to dawn upon the ants, and a portion - of the surface opposite from the entrance to the - galleries, and close up against the glass, was used - as burial-ground and sort of kitchen-midden, where all - the refuse of the nest was deposited. Mrs. Treat has - informed me that her artificial nests of _crudelis_ - behaved in precisely the same way. - - An interesting fact in the funereal habits of _Formica - sanguinea_ was related to me by this lady. A visit was - paid to a large colony of these slave-makers, which is - established on the grounds adjoining her residence at - Vineland, New Jersey. I noticed that a number of - carcasses of one of the slave species, _Formica - fusca_, were deposited together quite near the gates - of the nest. These were probably chiefly the dry - bodies of ants brought in from recent raids. It was - noticed that the dead ants were all of one species, - and thereupon Mrs. Treat informed me that the red - slave-makers never deposited their dead with those of - their black servitors, but always laid them by - themselves, not in groups, but separately, and were - careful to take them a considerable distance from the - nest. One can hardly resist pointing here another - likeness between the customs of these social - hymenopters and those of human beings, certain of whom - carry their distinctions of race, condition, or - religious caste, even to the gates of the cemetery in - which the poor body moulders into its mother dust! - -It will be observed that none of these accounts furnish evidence of ants -burying their dead, as Pliny asserts to have been the case with ants in -the south of Europe. In the Proceedings of the Linnæan Society, however -(1861), there is a very definite account of such a practice as obtaining -among the ants of Sydney; and although it is from the pen of an observer -not well known, the observation seems to have been one about which there -could scarcely have been a mistake. The observer was Mrs. Hutton, and -this is her account. Having killed a number of 'soldier ants,' and -returning half an hour afterwards to the place where the dead bodies -were lying, she says: - - I saw a large number of ants surrounding the dead - ones. I determined to watch their proceedings closely. - I followed four or five that started off from the rest - towards a hillock a short distance off, in which was - an ants' nest. This they entered, and in about five - minutes they reappeared, followed by others. All fell - into rank, walking regularly and slowly two by two, - until they arrived at the spot where lay the dead - bodies of the soldier ante. In a few minutes two of - the ants advanced and took up the dead body of one of - their comrades; then two others, and so on, until all - were ready to march. First walked two ants bearing a - body, then two without a burden; then two others with - another dead ant, and so on, until the line was - extended to about forty pairs, and the procession now - moved slowly onwards, followed by an irregular body of - about two hundred ants. Occasionally the two laden - ants stopped, and laying down the dead ant, it was - taken up by the two walking unburdened behind them, - and thus, by occasionally relieving each other, they - arrived at a sandy spot near the sea. The body of ants - now commenced digging with their jaws a number of - holes in the ground, into each of which a dead ant was - laid, where they now laboured on until they had filled - up the ants' graves. This did not quite finish the - remarkable circumstances attending this funeral of the - ants. Some six or seven of the ants had attempted to - run off without performing their share of the task of - digging; these were caught and brought back, when they - were at once attacked by the body of ants and killed - upon the spot. A single grave was quickly dug, and - they were all dropped into it. - -The Rev. W. Farren White also, in his papers on ants published in the -'Leisure Hour' (1880), after alluding to the above case, corroborates it -by some interesting observations of his own. He says:-- - - Several of the little sextons I observed with dead in - their mandibles, and one in the act of burying a - corpse. . . . I should mention that the dead are not - interred without considerable difficulty, in - consequence of the sides of the trays being almost - perpendicular. The work of the sextons continued until - no dead bodies remained upon the surface of the nest, - but all were interred in the extramural cemeteries. - Afterwards I removed the trays, and turned the - contents of the formicarium upside down, and then I - placed six trays on the surface of the earth, two of - which I filled with sugar for food. All six were used - freely as cemeteries, being crowded with the corpses - of the little people and their young, the larvæ which - had perished in the disruption of their home. - - I have noticed in one of my formicaria a subterranean - cemetery, where I have seen some ants burying their - dead by placing earth above them. One ant was - evidently much affected, and tried to exhume the - bodies, but the united exertions of the yellow sextons - were more than sufficient to neutralise the effort of - the disconsolate mourner. The cemetery was now - converted into a large vault, the chamber where the - dead were placed, together with the passage which led - to it, being completely covered in. - - -_Habits Peculiar to Certain Species._ - -_Leaf-cutting Ants of the Amazon_ ([OE]codoma cephalotes).--The mode of -working practised by these ants is thus described by Mr. Bates:-- - - They mount a tree in multitudes. . . . Each one places - itself on the surface of a leaf, and cuts with its - sharp scissor-like jaws a nearly semicircular incision - on the upper side; it then takes the edge between its - jaws, and by a sharp jerk detaches the piece. - Sometimes they let the leaf drop to the ground, where - a little heap accumulates, until carried off by - another relay of workers; but generally each marches - off with the piece it has operated on, and as all take - the same road to the colony, the path they follow - becomes in a short time smooth and bare, looking like - the impression of a cart-wheel through the herbage. - -Each ant carries its semicircular piece of leaf upright over its head, -so that the home-returning train is rendered very conspicuous. Nearer -observation shows that this home-returning or ladened train of workers -keeps to one side of the road, while the outgoing or empty-handed train -keeps to the other side; so that on every road there is a double train -of ants going in opposite directions. When the leaves arrive at the nest -they are received by a smaller kind of workers, whose duty it is to cut -up the pieces of leaf into still smaller fragments, whereby the leaves -seem to be better fitted for the purpose to which, as we shall presently -see, they are put. These smaller workers never take any part in the -outdoor labours; but they occasionally leave the nest, apparently for -the sole purpose of obtaining air and exercise, for when they leave the -nest they merely run about doing nothing, and frequently, as if in mere -sport, mount some of the semicircular pieces of leaf which the carrier -ants are taking to the nest, and so get a ride home. - -From his continued observation of these ants, Bates concludes--and his -opinion has been corroborated by that both of Belt and Müller--that the -object of all this labour is highly interesting and remarkable. The -leaves when gathered do not themselves appear to be of any service to -the ants as food; but when cut into small fragments and stored away in -the nests, they become suited as a nidus for the growth of a minute kind -of fungus on which the ants feed. We may therefore call these insects -the 'gardening ants,' inasmuch as all their labour is given to the -rearing of nutritious vegetables on artificially prepared soil. They are -not particular as to the material which they collect and store up for -soil, provided that it is a material on which the fungus will grow. Thus -they are very partial to the inside white rind of oranges, and will -carry off the flowers of certain shrubs while leaving the leaves -untouched. But, to quote again from Bates,-- - - They are very particular about the ventilation of - their underground chambers, and have numerous holes - leading up to the surface from them. These they open - out or close up, apparently to keep up a regular - degree of temperature below. The great care they take - that the pieces of leaves they carry into the nest - should be neither too dry nor too damp, is also - consistent with the idea that the object is the growth - of a fungus that requires particular conditions of - temperature and moisture to ensure its vigorous - growth. If a sudden shower should come on, the ants do - not carry the wet pieces into the burrows, but throw - them down near the entrances. Should the weather clear - up again, these pieces are picked up when nearly - dried, and taken inside: should the rain, however, - continue, they get sodden down into the ground, and - are left there. On the contrary, in dry and hot - weather, when the leaves would get dried up before - they could be conveyed to the nest, the ants, when in - exposed situations, do not go out at all during the - hot hours, but bring in their leafy burdens in the - cool of the day and during the night. As soon as the - pieces of leaves are carried in they must be cut up by - the small class of workers into little pieces. Some of - the ants make mistakes, and carry in unsuitable - leaves. Thus grass is always rejected by them, but I - have seen some ants, perhaps young ones, carrying - leaves of grass; but after a while these pieces are - always brought out again and thrown away. I can - imagine a young ant getting a severe ear-wigging from - one of the major-domos for its stupidity. - - When a nest is disturbed and the masses of ant-food - spread about, the ants are in great concern to carry - every morsel of it under shelter again; and sometimes, - when I had dug into a nest, I found the next day all - the earth thrown out filled with little pits, that the - ants had dug into it to get out the covered-up food. - When they migrate from one part to another, they also - carry with them all the ant-food from their old - habitations. - -In Büchner's 'Geistesleben der Thiere' there is published an interesting -description of the habits of these ants, which was communicated to the -author by Dr. Fr. Ellendorf of Wiedenbrück, who has lived many years in -Central America. Dr. Ellendorf says that-- - - It would be quite impossible for them to creep even - through short grass with loads on their heads for - miles. They therefore bite off the grass close to the - ground for a breadth of about five inches, and throw - it on one side. Thus a road is constructed, which is - finally made quite smooth and even by the continual - passing to and fro of millions upon millions night and - day. . . . If the road is looked down upon from a height - with these millions thickly pressed together, and all - moving along with their green bannerets over their - heads, it looks as though a giant green snake were - gliding slowly along the ground; and this picture is - all the more striking in that all these bannerets are - swaying backwards and forwards.[33] - -This observer made the experiment of interrupting the advance of a -column of these ants, with the interesting result which he describes:-- - - I wished to see how they would manage if I put an - obstacle in their way. Thick high grass stood on - either side of their narrow road, so that they could - not pass through it with the load on their heads. I - placed a dry branch, nearly a foot in diameter, - obliquely across their path, and pressed it down so - tightly on the ground that they could not creep - underneath. The first comers crawled beneath the - branch as far as they could, and then tried to climb - over, but failed owing to the weight on their heads. - Meanwhile the unloaded ants from the other side came - on, and when these succeeded in climbing over the - bough there was such a crush that the unladen ants had - to clamber over the laden, and the result was a - terrible muddle. I now walked along the train, and - found that all the ants with their bannerets on their - heads were standing still, thickly pressed together, - awaiting the word of command from the front. When I - turned back to the obstacle, I saw with astonishment - that the loads had been laid aside by more than a - foot's length of the column, one imitating the other. - And now work began on both sides of the branch, and in - about half an hour a tunnel was made beneath it. Each - ant then took up its burden again, and the march was - resumed in the most perfect order. - -A migration of these ants is thus described by the same observer:-- - - The road led towards a cocoa plantation, and here I - soon discovered the building which I afterwards - visited daily. As I again went thither one day I was - met, at a considerable distance from the nest, by a - closely pressed column coming thence, and all the ants - laden with leaves, beetles, pupæ, butterflies, &c.; - the nearer I came to the nest, the greater was the - activity. It was soon plain to me that the ants were - in the act of leaving their dwelling, and I walked - along the train to discover the new abode. They had - gone for some distance along the old road, and had - then made a new one through the grass to a cooler - place, lying rather higher. The grass on the new road - was all bitten off close to the ground, and thousands - were busy carrying the path on to the new building. At - the new home itself was an unusual stir of life. There - were all sorts of labourers--architects, builders, - carpenters, sappers, helpers. A number were busy - digging a hole in the ground, and they carried out - little pellets of earth and laid them together on end - to make a wall. Others drew along little twigs, - straws, and grass-stalks, and put them near the place - of building. I was anxious to know why they had - quitted their old home, and when the departure was - complete, I dug it up with a spade. At a depth of - about a foot and a half I found several tunnels of a - large marmot species, the terror of cocoa planters, - because in making their passages they gnaw off the - thickest roots of the cocoa plants. The interior of - the ant-hill had apparently fallen in through these - mines. Unfortunately I was unable to follow further - the progress of the new building, for I was obliged to - leave the next day for San Juan del Sur. When I - returned at the end of a week the building was - finished, and the whole colony was again busy with the - leaves of the coffee plants. - -_Harvesting Ants_ (Atta).--The ants which, so far as at present known, -practise the peculiar and distinctive habits to be described under this -division belong for the most part to one genus, _Atta_, which, however, -comprises a number of species distributed in localised areas over all -the four quarters of the globe. Hitherto nineteen species have been -detected as having the habits in question. These consist of gathering -nutritious seeds of grasses during summer, and storing them in granaries -for winter consumption. We owe our present knowledge concerning these -insects to Mr. Moggridge,[34] who studied them in the south of Europe, -Dr. Lincecum,[35] and Mr. MacCook,[36] who studied them in Texas, and -Colonel Sykes[37] and Dr. Jerdon,[38] who made some observations upon them -in India. They also occur scattered over a great part of Europe and in -Palestine, where they were clearly known to Solomon and other classical -writers of antiquity,[39] whose claim to accurate observation, although -long disputed (owing to the authority of Huber), has now been amply -vindicated. - -Mr. Moggridge, who was a careful and industrious observer, found the -following points of interest in the habits of the European harvesters. -From the nest in various directions there proceed outgoing trains, which -may be from twenty to thirty or more yards in length, and each consists -of a double row of ants, moving, like the leaf-cutting ants, in opposite -directions. Those in the outgoing row are empty-handed, while those in -the incoming row are laden. But here the burdens are grass seeds. The -roads terminate in the foraging ground, or ant-fields, and the insects -composing the columns there become dispersed by hundreds among the -seed-yielding grasses. The following is their method of collecting -seeds; I quote from Moggridge:-- - - It is not a little surprising to see that the ants - bring in not only seeds of large size and fallen - grain, but also green capsules, the torn stalks of - which show that they have been freshly gathered from - the plant. The manner in which they accomplish this - feat is as follows. An ant ascends the stem of a - fruiting plant of shepherd's-purse (_Capsella - bursa-pastoris_), let us say, and selects a - well-filled but green pod about midway up the stem, - those below being ready to shed their seeds at a - touch. Then, seizing it in its jaws, and fixing its - hind legs firmly as a pivot, it contrives to turn - round and round, and so strain the fibres of the - fruit-stalk that at length they snap. It then descends - to the stem, patiently backing and turning upwards - again as often as the clumsy and disproportionate - burden becomes wedged between the thickly set stalks, - and joins the line of its companions on their way to - the nest. In this manner capsules of chickweed - (_Stellaria media_) and entire calyces, containing the - nutlets of calamint, are gathered; two ants also - sometimes combine their efforts, when one stations - itself near the base of the peduncle and gnaws it at - the point of greatest tension, while the other hauls - upon and twists it. I have never seen a capsule - severed from its stalk by cutting alone, and the - mandibles of this ant are perhaps incompetent to - perform such a task. I have occasionally seen ants - engaged in cutting the capsules of certain plants, - drop them, and allow their companions below to carry - them away; and this corresponds with the curious - account given by Ælian of the manner in which the - spikelets of corn are severed and thrown down 'to the - people below,' [Greek: tô dêmô tô katô]. - -The recognition of the principle of the division of labour which the -latter observation supplies, is further proved by the following -quotation from the same author. A dead grasshopper which was being -carried into their nest was-- - - Too large to pass through the door, so they tried to - dismember it. Failing in this, several ants drew the - wings and legs as far back as possible, while others - gnawed through the muscles where the strain was - greatest. They succeeded at last in thus pulling it - in. - -The same thing is strikingly shown by the following quotation from -Lespès:-- - - If the road from the place where they are gathering - their harvest to the nest is very long, they make - regular depôts for their provisions under large - leaves, stones, or other suitable places, and let - certain workers have the duty of carrying them from - depôt to depôt. - -Büchner (_loc. cit._ p. 101) also makes the following references to the -statements of previous observers:-- - - The subterranean workers of this remarkable genus are - very clever. The Rev. H. Clark reports from Rio de - Janeiro, that the _Sa-ubas_ have made a regular tunnel - under the bed of the river Parahyba, which is there as - broad as the Thames at London, in order to reach a - storehouse which is on the opposite bank. Bates tells - us that close to the Magoary rice-mills, near Para, - the ants bored through the dam of a large reservoir, - and the water escaped before the mischief could be - remedied. In the Para Botanical Gardens an - enterprising French gardener did everything he could - to drive the _Sa-ubas_ away. He lit fires at the chief - entrances of their nests, and blew sulphur vapour into - their galleries by means of bellows. But how - astonished was Bates when he saw the vapour come out - at no less a distance than seventy yards! Such an - extension have the subterranean passages of the - _Sa-ubas_. - -The recognition of the principle of the division of labour, which is -shown by the above observations, is further corroborated by the -following quotation from Belt:-- - - Between the old burrows and the new one was a steep - slope. Instead of descending this with their burdens, - they cast them down on the top of the slope, whence - they rolled down to the bottom, where another relay of - labourers picked them up and carried them to the new - burrow. It was amusing to watch the ants hurrying out - with bundles of food, dropping them over the slope, - and rushing back immediately for more. - -The same thing has been observed, as already stated, of the leaf-cutting -ants--those engaged in cutting frequently throwing down the fragments of -leaf which they cut to the carriers below. The prevalence of this habit -among various species of ants therefore renders credible the following -statements of Vincent Gredler of Botzen which are thus recorded in 'der -Zool. Gart.,' xv. p. 434:-- - - In Herr Gredler's monastery one of the monks had been - accustomed for some months to put food regularly on - his window-sill for ants coming up from the garden. - In consequence of Herr Gredler's communications he - took it into his head to put the bait for the ants, - pounded sugar, into an old inkstand, and hung this up - by a string to the cross-piece of his window, and left - it hanging freely. A few ants were in with the bait. - These soon found their road out over the string with - their grains of sugar, and so their way back to their - friends. Before long a procession was arranged on the - new road from the window-sill along the string to the - spot where the sugar was, and so things went on for - two days, nothing fresh occurring. But one day the - procession stopped at the old feeding-place on the - window-sill, and took the food thence, without going - up to the pendent sugar-jar. Closer observation - revealed that about a dozen of the rogues were in the - jar above, and were busily and unwearyingly carrying - the grains of sugar to the edge of the pot, and - throwing them over to their comrades down below. - -Many other instances of the division of labour might be given besides -these, and those to be mentioned hereafter in other connections -throughout the course of the present chapter; but enough has been said -to show that the principle is unquestionably acted upon by sundry -species of ants. - -That ants are liable to make mistakes, and, when they do, that they -profit by experience, is shown by the following experiment made by -Moggridge; and many other instances might be given were it desirable:-- - - It sometimes happens that an ant has manifestly made a - bad selection, and is told on its return that what it - has brought home with much pains is no better than - rubbish, and is hustled out of the nest, and forced to - throw its burden away. In order to try whether these - creatures were not fallible like other mortals, I one - day took out with me a little packet of grey and white - porcelain beads, and scattered these in the path of a - harvesting train. They had scarcely lain a minute on - the earth before one of the largest workers seized - upon a bead, and with some difficulty clipped it with - its mandibles and trotted back at a great pace to the - nest. I waited for a little while, my attention being - divided between the other ants who were vainly - endeavouring to remove the beads, and the entrance - down which the worker had disappeared, and then left - the spot. On my return in an hour's time, I found the - ants passing unconcernedly by and over the beads which - lay where I had strewed them in apparently - undiminished quantities; and I conclude from this that - they had found out their mistake, and had wisely - returned to their accustomed occupations. - -When the grain is thus taken into the nest, it is stored in regular -granaries, but not until it has been denuded of its 'husks' or 'chaff.' -The denuding process is carried on below ground, and the chaff is -brought up to the surface, where it is laid in heaps to be blown away by -the wind. - -It is a remarkable thing, and one not yet understood, why the seed, when -thus stored in subterranean chambers just far enough below the surface -to favour germination, does not germinate. Moggridge says that out of -twenty-one nests and among many thousands of seeds that he examined, he -only found twenty-seven cases of incipient germination. Moreover, all -these cases occurred in months from November to February, while in the -nests opened in October, March, April, and May, no sprouted seeds were -discovered, though these are the months highly favourable to -germination. He is at a loss to suggest the treatment to which the ants -expose the seeds in order to prevent their sprouting. 'Apparently it is -not that moisture or warmth or the influence of atmospheric air is -denied to the seeds, for we find them in damp soil in genial weather, -and often at but a trifling distance below the surface of the ground;' -and he has proved that the vitality of the seeds is not impaired, for he -succeeded in raising crops of young plants from seeds removed from the -granaries. - -He also says,-- - - By a fortunate chance I have been able to prove that - the seeds will germinate in an undisturbed granary - when the ants are prevented from obtaining access to - it: and this goes to show not only that the structure - and nature of the granary chamber is not sufficient of - itself to prevent germination, but also that the - presence of the ants is essential to secure the - dormant condition of the seeds. - - I discovered in two places portions of distinct nests - of _Atta structor_ which had been isolated owing to - the destruction of the hollow wall behind which they - lay, and then the granaries well filled up and - literally choked with growing seeds, though the earth - in which they lay completely enclosed and concealed - them until by chance I laid them bare. In one case I - knew that the destruction of the wall had only taken - place ten days before, so that the seeds had sprouted - in the interval. - - My experiments also tend to confirm this, and to - favour the belief that the non-germination of the - seeds is due to some direct influence voluntarily - exercised by the ants, and not merely to the - conditions found in the nest, or to acid vapours which - in certain cases are given off by the ants themselves. - -These experiments consisted in confining a large number of harvesting -ants with their queen and larvæ in a glass test-tube partly filled with -damp soil and various seeds, the whole being closed with a cork in the -mouth of the test-tube. Under these circumstances the seeds all -sprouted, showing that mere confinement in an atmosphere of exhalations -from the ants did not prevent germination. Another series of -experiments, undertaken at the suggestion of Mr. Darwin, on the effects -of an atmosphere of formic acid, showed that although this vapour was -very injurious to the seeds, it did not prevent their incipient -germination. Therefore it yet remains to be ascertained why the seeds do -not germinate in the granaries of the ants. - -But in whatever way the ants manage to prevent germination, it is -certain that they are aware of the importance in this connection of -keeping the seeds as dry as possible; for Moggridge repeatedly observed -that when the seeds which had been stored proved over-moist, the ants -again took them out and spread them in the sun to dry, to be again -brought into the nest after a sufficient exposure. - -Lastly, he also repeatedly observed the most surprising and interesting -fact that when, as we have seen was occasionally the case, the seeds did -begin to germinate in the nests, the ants knew the most effective method -of preventing the germination from proceeding; for he found that in -these cases the ants gnawed off the tips of the radicles. This fact -deserves to be considered as one of the most remarkable among the many -remarkable facts of ant-psychology. - -Passing on now to the harvesting or agricultural ants of Texas, -attention was first called to the habits of this insect by Mr. Buckley -in 1860,[40] and by Dr. Lincecum, who sent an account of his observations -to Mr. Darwin, by whom they were communicated to the Linnæan Society in -1861. Five years later a paper was published in the Proceedings of the -Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia from the MS. of Dr. -Lincecum. Lastly, in 1877 Mr. MacCook went to Texas expressly to study -the habits of these insects, and he has recently embodied the results of -his observations in a book of three hundred pages.[41] These observations -are for the most part confirmatory of those of Lincecum, and for this as -well as for reasons to be deduced from the work itself, they deserve to -be accepted as trustworthy, notwithstanding that in some cases they are -provokingly incomplete. The following is an epitome of these -observations. - -The ants clear away all the herbage above their nest in the form of a -perfect circle, or 'disk,' 15 or 20 feet in diameter, by carefully -felling every stalk of grass or weed that may be growing thereon. As the -nests are placed in thickly grown localities, the effect of these bald -or shaven disks is highly conspicuous and peculiar, exactly resembling -in miniature the clearings which the settlers make in the American -backwoods. The disk, however, is not merely cleared of herbage, but also -carefully levelled, all inequalities of the surface being reduced by -building pellets of soil into the hollows to an extent sufficient to -make a uniformly flat surface. The action of rain and the constant -motion of multitudes of ants cause this flat surface to become hard and -smooth. In the centre of the disk is the gateway of the nest. This may -be either a simple hole or a hollow cone. - -From the disk in various directions there radiate ant-roads or avenues, -which are cleared and smoothed like the disk itself, and which course -through the thick surrounding grass, branching and narrowing as they go -till they eventually taper away. These roads are usually three or four -in number before they begin to branch, but may be as many as seven. -They are usually two to three inches wide at their origin, but in large -nests may be as much as five. MacCook found no road longer than sixty -feet, but Lincecum describes one of three hundred feet. Along these hard -and level roads there is always passing, during the daytime of the -harvesting season, a constant stream of ants--those going from the nest -being empty-handed, and those returning to it being laden with seeds. Of -course the incoming ants, converging from all quarters upon the road, -and therefore increasing in numbers as they approach the nest, require -greater space for free locomotion; while the outgoing ants, diverging as -they get further from home, also require greater proportional space the -less their distance from the nest: hence the gradual swelling in the -width of the roads as they approach the nests. - -The manner of collecting the seeds in the jungle surrounding the roads -is thus described by MacCook:-- - - At last a satisfactory seed is found. It is simply - lifted from the ground, or, as often happens, has to - be pulled out of the soil into which it has been - tightly pressed by the rain or by passing feet. Now - follows a movement which at first I thought to be a - testing of the seed, and which, indeed, may be - partially that; but finally I concluded that it was - the adjusting of the burden for safe and convenient - carriage. The ant pulls at the seed-husk with its - mandibles, turning and pinching or 'feeling' it on all - sides. If this does not satisfy, and commonly it does - not, the body is raised by stiffening out the legs, - the abdomen is curved underneath, and the apex applied - to the seed. I suppose this to be simply a mechanical - action for the better adjusting of the load. Now the - worker starts homeward. It has not lost itself in the - mazes of the grass forest. It turns directly towards - the road with an unerring judgment. There are many - obstacles to overcome. Pebbles, pellets of earth, bits - of wood, obtruding rootlets, or bent-down spears of - grass block up or hinder the way. These were scarcely - noticed when the ant was empty-handed. But they are - troublesome barriers now that she is burdened with a - seed quite as thick, twice as wide, and half as long - as herself. It is most interesting to see the skill, - strength, and rapidity with which the little harvester - swings her treasure over or around, or pushes it - beneath these obstacles. Now the seed has caught - against the herbage as the porter dodges under a too - narrow opening. She backs out and tries another - passage. Now the sharp points of the husk are - entangled in the grass. She jerks or pulls the burden - loose, and hurries on. The road is reached, and - progress is comparatively easy. Holding the grain in - her mandibles well above the surface, she breaks into - what I may describe with sufficient accuracy as 'a - trot,' and with little further interruption reaches - the disk and disappears within the gate. There are - variations from this behaviour, more or less marked, - according to the nature of the grounds, the seeds, and - (I suppose) the individuality of the harvesters; but - the mode of ingathering the crop is substantially as - above. Each ant operated independently. Once only did - I see anything like an effort to extend sympathy and - aid. A worker minor seeming to have difficulty in - testing or adjusting a large seed of buffalo-grass, - was assisted (apparently) by one worker major, and - then by another, after which she went on her way. - -But these ants do not confine their harvesting operations to gathering -fallen seeds; they will, like the ants of Europe, also cut seeds from -the stalk. - - In order to test the disposition of _crudelis_ to - garner the seeds from the stem, bunches of millet were - obtained from the North, and stalks eighteen inches - high, crowned by the boll of close-set seeds, were - stuck in the mound of an active formicary. The ants - mounted the stems and set to work vigorously to secure - the seeds, clusters of twenty or more being engaged at - once upon one head. The seeds were carried off and - stored within the nest. This experiment proved pretty - conclusively that in the seeding season _crudelis_ - does not wait for the seeds to drop, but harvests them - from the plant. - -The 'granaries' into which the seeds are brought are kept distinct from -the 'nurseries' for the pupæ. Their walls, floor, and roof are so hard -and smooth, that MacCook thinks the insects must practise upon them -'some rude mason's craft.' - -He traced these granaries to a depth of four feet below the surface of -the ground, and believes, from the statements of a native peasant, that -they, or at least the formicaries, extend to a depth of fifteen feet. - -As regards the care that the ants take of the gathered grain, Lincecum -describes the same habit as Moggridge and Sykes describe--viz., the -sunning of wet seeds to dry. MacCook, however, neglected to make any -experiments on this subject. Neither has he been able to throw any light -upon the question as to why the stored seeds do not germinate, and is -doubtful whether the habit of gnawing the radicle of sprouting seeds, -which prevails in the European species, is likewise practised by the -American. On two other points of importance MacCook's observations are -also incomplete. One of these has reference to an alleged statement, -which he is disposed to believe, that when some ants in a community have -been killed by poison, the survivors avoid the poison: he, however, made -no experiments to test this statement. - -The other main point on which his observations are defective has -reference to a remarkable statement made by Lincecum in the most -emphatic terms. This statement is that upon the surface of their disk -the ants sow the seeds of a certain plant, called ant-rice, for the -purpose of subsequently reaping a harvest of the grain. There is no -doubt that the ant-disks do very often support this peculiar kind of -grass, and that the ants are particularly fond of its seed; but whether -the plant is actually sown in these situations by the insects, or grows -there on account of these situations being more open than the general -surface of the ground--this question MacCook has failed to answer, or -even to further. We are, therefore, still left with Dr. Lincecum's -emphatic assurance that he has witnessed the fact. His account is that -the seed of the ant-rice, which is a biennial plant, is sown in time for -the autumnal rains to bring up. At the beginning of November a green row -or ring of ant-rice, about four inches wide, is seen springing up round -the circumference of the disk. In the vicinity of this circular ring the -ants do not permit a single spire of any other grass or weed to remain a -day, but leave the aristida, or ant-rice, untouched until it ripens, -which occurs in June of the next year. After the maturing and harvesting -of the seed, the dry stubble is cut away and removed from the pavement -or disk, which is thus left unencumbered until the ensuing autumn, when -the same species of grass again appears as before, and so on. Lincecum -says he has seen the process go on year after year on the same -ant-farms, and adds,-- - - There can be no doubt of the fact that the particular - species of grain-bearing grass mentioned above is - intentionally planted. In farmer-like manner the - ground upon which it stands is carefully divested of - all other grasses and weeds during the time it is - growing. When it is ripe the grain is taken care of, - the dry stubble cut away and carried off, the paved - area being left unencumbered until the ensuing autumn, - when the same 'ant-rice' reappears within the same - circle, and receives the same agricultural attention - as was bestowed upon the previous crop--and so on year - after year, as I _know_ to be the case, in all - situations when the ant's settlements are protected - from graminivorous animals. - -In a second letter Dr. Lincecum, in reply to an inquiry from Mr. Darwin -whether he supposed that the ants plant seeds for the ensuing crop, -says:-- - - I have not the slightest doubt of it. And my - conclusions have not been arrived at from hasty or - careless observation, nor from seeing the ants do - something that looked a little like it, and then - guessing at the results. I have at all seasons watched - the same ant-cities during the last twelve years, and - I know that what I stated in my former letter is true. - I visited the same cities yesterday, and found the - crop of ant-rice growing finely, and exhibiting also - the signs of high cultivation, and not a blade of any - other kind of grass or weed was to be seen within - twelve inches of the circular row of - ant-rice.--(_Journ. Linn. Soc._, vol. vi. p. 30-1.) - -Now, MacCook found the ant-rice growing as described, but only on some -nests. Why it does not grow upon all the nests he does not understand. -So far, then, as his observations go, they confirm those of Dr. -Lincecum; but he does 'not believe that the ants deliberately sow a crop -as Lincecum asserts;' he thinks 'that they have for some reason found it -to their advantage to permit the aristida to grow upon their disks, -while they clear off all other herbage;' but finally concludes 'that -there is nothing unreasonable, nor beyond the probable capacity of the -emmet intellect, in the supposition that the crop is actually sown. -Simply, it is the Scotch verdict--"Not proven."' - -The following facts with regard to 'modes of mining' are worth quoting -from MacCook:-- - - In sinking the galleries the difficulty of carrying is - not great in a moist or tough soil, which permits the - ant to obtain goodly-sized pellets for portage. But - when the soil is light and dry, so that it crumbles - into dust as it is bitten off, the difficulty is - greatly increased. It would be a very tedious task - indeed to take out the diggings grain by grain. This - difficulty the worker overcomes by balling the small - particles against the surface of the gallery, the - under side of the head, or within and against the - mandibles. The fore-feet are used for this purpose, - being pressed against the side face, turned under, and - pushed upward with a motion similar to that of a man - putting his hand upon his mouth. The abdomen is then - swung underneath the body and the apex pressed against - the little heap of grains of dirt massed against the - under side of the mandibles, or between that and the - smooth under surface of the head. Thus the dust is - compressed into a ball which is of sufficient size to - justify deportation. - - The same operation is observed in the side-galleries, - where the ants work very frequently upon their sides - or backs, precisely as I have seen colliers do in - Pennsylvania coal-mines. - -The following is likewise worth quoting from the same author:-- - - Seeds are evidently not the only food of our - agriculturals. When the ants at disk No. 2 had broken - through the slight mud-sediment that sealed up their - gate, as described above, they exhibited a peculiar - behaviour. Instead of heading for the roads and - pressing along them, they distributed themselves at - once over the entire disk, radiating from the gate to - all points in the circumference, from which they - penetrated the jungle of grass beyond. In a moment a - large number were returning across the roads, out of - the grass, over the pavement toward the entrance. They - bore in their mandibles objects which I presently - found to be the males and females of white ants - (_Termes flavipes_), which were filling the air, - during and after the rain, in marriage flight. They - had probably swarmed just before the shower. The - agriculturals were under great excitement, and hurried - forth and back at the top of their speed. The number - of ants bearing termites was soon so great that the - vestibule became choked, and a mass of struggling - anthood was piled up around the gate. A stream of - eager insects continually poured out of the door, - pushing their way through the crowd that vainly but - persistently endeavoured to get in with their burdens. - The outcoming ants had the advantage, and succeeded in - jostling through the quivering rosette of antennæ, - legs, heads, and abdomens. Occasionally a worker - gained an entrance by dint of sheer physical force and - perseverance. Again and again would the crowd rush - from all sides upon the gate, only to be pushed back - by the issuing throng. In the meanwhile quite a heap - of termites, a good handful at least, had been - accumulated at one side of the gate, the ants having - evidently dropped them, in despair of entrance, and - hurried off to garner more. - - In due time the pressure upon the vestibule - diminished, the laden workers entered more freely, and - in the end this heap was transferred to the interior. - The rapidity with which the ants were distributed to - all parts of their roads, after the first opening of - the gates, was truly surprising. I was greatly - puzzled, at the first, to know what the cause of such - a rush might be. The whole behaviour was such as to - carry the conviction that they knew accurately what - effect the rain would have, had calculated upon it, - and were acting in accordance with previous - experience. I had no doubt at the time, and have none - now, that the capturing of insects beaten down by the - rain is one of the well-established customs of these - ants. I saw a few other insects taken in, and one - milliped, but chiefly the white ants. - - That very afternoon I found in a formicary which I - then opened several large colonies, or parts of one - colony of termites, nested within the limits of the - disk and quite at home. The next day numbers of the - winged white ants were found stored within the - granaries of a large formicary. There is no reason to - doubt that these insects were intended for food, in - accordance with the quite universal habit of the - _Formicariæ_. - -A curious habit has been noticed by most observers to occur in many -species of ant, and it is one on which Mr. MacCook has a good deal to -say. The habit in question consists in the ants transporting one another -from place to place. The carrying ant seizes her comrade by the middle, -and hurries along with it held aloft--the ant which is carried remaining -quite motionless with all her legs drawn together. Huber supposed the -process to be one enjoyable to both the insects concerned, and to be -performed by mutual understanding and consent; but MacCook, in common -with most other observers, supposes that it is merely a rough and -primitive way of communicating to fellow-workers the locality where -their services are required. He says:-- - - Keeping these facts in mind, we have a key to the - solution of the press-gang operations which Lincecum - observed among the agriculturals, and which have been - fully described in other species. In the absence of - any common head or directory, and of all executive - officers, a change of location or any other concerted - movement must be carried forward by the willing - co-operation of individuals. At first sight, the act - of seizing and carrying off workers does not appear - like an appeal to free-will. It is indeed coercive, so - far as the first act goes. But, in point of fact, the - coercion ceases the moment the captive is set down - within the precincts of the new movement. The - carrier-ant has depended upon securing her consent and - co-operation by thus bringing her within the circle of - activity for which her service is sought. As a rule, - no doubt, the deported ant at once yields to the - influence around her, and drops into the current of - fresh enterprise, in which she moves with as entire - freedom and as independently as any other worker. But - she is apparently under no restraint, and if she so - please, may return to her former haunts. - -_Certain Ants of Africa._--Livingstone says of certain ants of Africa:-- - - They have established themselves on the plain where - water stands so long annually as to allow the lotus - and other aqueous plants to come to maturity. When all - the ant-horizon is submerged a foot deep, they manage - to exist by ascending to little houses built of black - tenaceous loam on stalks of grass, and placed higher - than the line of inundation. This must have been the - result of experience, for, if they had waited till the - water actually invaded their terrestrial habitations, - they would not have been able to procure materials for - their aërial quarters, unless they dived down to the - bottom for every mouthful of clay.[42] - -_The Tree Ant of India and New South Wales._--These ants are remarkable -from their habit of forming nests only in trees. According to Col. -Sykes' account, the shape of the nest is more or less globular, and -about ten inches in diameter. It is formed entirely of cow-dung, which -the insects collect from the ground beneath, and work into the form of -thin scales. These are then built together in an imbricated manner, like -tiles or slates upon the roof of a house, the upper or outer scale, -however, being one unbroken sheet, which covers the whole nest like a -skull-cap. Below this the scales are placed one upon another in a wavy -or scalloped manner, so that numerous little arched entrances are left, -and yet, owing to the imbricated manner in which the scales are -arranged, the interior of the nest is perfectly protected from rain. -This interior consists of a number of irregular cells, the walls of -which are formed by the same process as the exterior. - -In New South Wales there is another species of ant which also frequents -trees, but builds within the stem and branches. In the report of Captain -Cook's expedition its habits are thus described:--'Their habitations are -the insides of the branches of a tree, which they contrive to excavate, -by working out the pith almost to the extremity of the slenderest twig; -the tree at the same time flourishing as if it had no such inmate.' On -breaking one of the branches the ants swarm out in legions. Some of our -native species also have the habit of excavating the interior of trees, -though not on so extensive a scale. - -_Honey-making Ant_ (Myrmecocystus mexicanus).--This ant is found in -Texas and New Mexico. Capt. W. B. Fleeson has observed its habits, and -his observations have been communicated to the Californian Academy of -Sciences, and also, by Mr. Henry Edwards, to Mr. Darwin. The following -are the chief points of interest in Capt. Fleeson's results:-- - - The community appears to consist of three distinct - kinds of ants, probably of two separate genera, whose - offices in the general order of the nest would seem to - be entirely apart from each other, and who perform the - labour allotted to them without the least encroachment - upon the duties of their fellows. These three kinds - are-- - - I. Yellow workers; nurses and feeders of II. - - II. Yellow honey-makers; sole function to secrete a - kind of honey in their large globose abdomens, on - which the other ants are supposed to feed. They never - quit the nest, and are fed and tended by I. - - III. Black workers, guards, and purveyors; surround - the nest as guards or sentinels, in a manner presently - to be described, and also forage for the food required - for I. They are much larger and stronger insects than - either I. or II., and are provided with very - formidable mandibles. - -The nest is placed in sandy soil in the neighbourhood of shrubs and -flowers, is a perfect square, and occupies about four or five square -feet of ground, the surface of which is kept almost unbroken. But the -boundaries of the nest are rendered conspicuous by the guard of black -workers (III.), which continuously parade round three of its sides in a -close double line of defence, moving in opposite directions. In the -accompanying diagram this sentry path is represented by the thick black -lines. These always face the same points of the compass, and the -direction in which the sentries march is one column from south-west to -south-east, and the other column from south-east to south-west--each -column, however, moving in regular order round three sides of a square. -The southern side of the encampment is left unguarded; but if any enemy -approaches on this or any other side, a number of the guards leave their -stations, and sally forth to face the foe--raising themselves on their -hind tarsi on meeting the enemy, and moving their large mandibles in -defiance. Spiders, wasps, beetles, and other insects, if they venture -too near the nest, are torn to pieces by the guard in a most merciless -manner, and the dead body of the vanquished is speedily removed from the -neighbourhood of the nest--the guard then marching back to resume their -places in the line of defence, their object in destroying other insects -being the defence of their encampment, and not the obtaining of food. - -The object of leaving the southern side of the square encampment open is -as follows. While some of the black workers are engaged on duty as -guard, another and larger division are engaged on duty as purveyors. -These enter and leave the quadrangle by its open or southern side along -the dotted line marked _a_ to the central point _c_. The incoming line -is composed of individuals each bearing a burden of fragments of -flowers or aromatic leaves. These are all deposited in the centre of the -quadrangle _c_. Along the other diagonal _e_ there is a no less -incessantly moving double line of yellow workers (I.), whose office it -is to convey the supplies deposited by the black workers at _c_ to _b_, -which is the gateway of the fortress. It is remarkable that no black ant -is ever seen upon the line _e_, and no yellow one upon the line _a_; -each keeps his own separate station, and follows his own particular duty -with a steadfastness and apparent adherence to discipline that are most -astonishing. The hole at _d_ seems to be a ventilating shaft; it is -never used as a gateway. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.] - -Section of the nest reveals, besides galleries, a small chamber about -three feet below the surface, across which is spread, like a spider's -web, a network of squares spun by the insects, the squares being about -1/4 inch across, and the ends of the whole net being fastened to the -earthen walls of the chamber. In each one of the squares, supported by -the web, sits one of the honey-making ants (II.). Here these honey -makers live in perpetual confinement, and receive a constant supply of -flowers, pollen, &c., which is continually being brought them by (I.), -and which, by a process analogous to that performed by the bee, they -convert into honey. - -Such is an epitome of the only account that the world has yet received -of the habits and economy of this wonderful insect, whose instincts of -military organization seem to be not less wonderful than those of the -Ecitons, though in this case they are developed with reference to -defence, and not to aggression. It is especially noteworthy that the -black and yellow workers are believed to belong to 'two separate -genera;' for if this is the case, it is the only one I can recall of two -distinct species co-operating for a common end; for even the nearest -parallel which we find supplied in other species of ants maintaining -aphides, is not quite the same thing, seeing that the aphides are merely -passive agents, like Class II., of the honey-making ant, and not -actively co-operating members of the community, like Class I. - -_Ecitons._--We have next to consider the habits of the wonderful -'foraging,' or, as it might be more appropriately called, the military -ant of the Amazon. These insects, which belong to several species of the -same genus, have been carefully watched by Belt, Bates, and other -naturalists. The following facts must therefore be accepted as fully -established. - -_Eciton legionis_ moves in enormous armies, and everything that these -insects do is done with the most perfect instinct of military -organization. The army marches in the form of a rather broad and regular -column, hundreds of yards in length. The object of the march is the -capture and plunder of other insects, &c., for food, and as the -well-organised host advances, its devastating legions set all other -terrestrial life at defiance. From the main column there are sent out -smaller lateral columns, the composing individuals of which play the -part of scouts, branching off in various directions, and searching -about with the utmost activity for insects, grubs, &c., over every log, -under every fallen leaf, and in every nook and cranny where there is any -chance of finding prey. When their errand is completed, they return into -the main column. If the prey found is sufficiently small for the scouts -themselves to manage, it is immediately seized, and carried back to the -main column; but if the amount is too large for the scouts to deal with -alone, messengers are sent back to the main column, whence there is -immediately dispatched a detachment large enough to cope with the -requirements. Insects which when killed are too large for single ants to -carry, are torn in pieces, and the pieces conveyed back to the main army -by different individuals. Many insects in trying to escape run up bushes -and shrubs, where they are pursued from branch to branch and twig to -twig by their remorseless enemies, until on arriving at some terminal -ramification they must either submit to immediate capture by their -pursuers, or drop down amid the murderous hosts beneath. As already -stated, all the spoils that are taken by the scouts or by the -detachments sent out in answer to their demands for assistance, are -immediately taken back to the main column. When they arrive there, they -are taken to the rear of that column by two smaller columns of carriers, -which are constantly running, one on either side of the main column, -with the supplies that are constantly pouring in from both sides. Each -of these outside columns is a double line, the ants composing one of the -two lines all running in the same direction as the main army, and the -ants composing the other line all running in the opposite direction. The -former are empty-handed carriers, which having deposited their burdens -in the rear, are again advancing to the van for fresh burdens. Those -composing the other line are all laden with the mangled remains of -insects, pupæ of other ants, &c. On either side of the main column there -are also constantly running up and down a few individuals of smaller -size and lighter colour than the other ants, which seem to play the part -of officers; for they never leave their stations, and while running up -and down the outsides of the column, they every now and again stop to -touch antennæ with some member of the rank and file, as if to give -instructions. When the scouts discover a wasp's nest in a tree, a strong -force is sent out from the main army, the nest is pulled to pieces, and -all the larvæ carried to the rear of the army, while the wasps fly -around defenceless against the invading multitude. Or, if the nest of -any other species of ant is found, a similarly strong force, or perhaps -the whole army is deflected towards it, and with the utmost energy the -innumerable insects set to work to sink shafts and dig mines till the -whole nest is rifled of its contents. In these mining operations the -ants work with an extraordinary display of organized co-operation; for -those low down in the shafts do not lose time by carrying up the earth -which they excavate, but pass on the pellets to those above; and the -ants on the surface, when they receive the pellets, carry them, 'with an -appearance of forethought that quite staggered' Mr. Bates, only just far -enough to ensure that they shall not roll back again into the shaft, -and, after depositing them, immediately hurry back for more. But there -is not a rigid division of labour, although the work 'seems to be -performed by intelligent co-operation amongst a host of eager little -creatures;' for some of them act 'sometimes as carriers of pellets, and -at another as miners, and all shortly afterwards assume the office of -conveyors of the spoil.' Again, as showing the instincts of -co-operation, the following may also be quoted from Bates's account:-- - - On the following morning no trace of ants could be - found near the place where I had seen them the - preceding day, nor were there signs of insects of any - description in the thicket; but at the distance of - eighty or one hundred yards, I came upon the same - army, engaged evidently on a razzia of a similar kind - to that of the previous evening; but requiring other - resources of their instinct, owing to the nature of - the ground. They were eagerly occupied on the face of - an inclined bank of light earth in excavating mines, - whence, from a depth of eight or ten inches, they were - extracting the bodies of a bulky species of ant of the - genus Formica. It was curious to see them crowding - round the orifices of the mines, some assisting their - comrades to lift out the bodies of the Formicæ, and - others tearing them in pieces, on account of their - weight being too great for a single Eciton; a number - of carriers seizing each a fragment, and carrying it - off down the slope. - -These Ecitons have no fixed nest themselves, but live, as it were, on a -perpetual campaign. At night, however, they call a halt and pitch a -camp. For this purpose they usually select a piece of broken ground, in -the interstices of which they temporarily store their plunder. In the -morning the army is again on the march, and before an hour or two has -passed not a single ant is to be seen where the countless multitudes had -previously covered the ground. - -Another and larger species of Eciton (_E. humata_) hunts sometimes in -dense armies, and sometimes in columns, according to the kind of prey of -which they are in search. When in columns they are seeking for the nests -of a certain species of ant which have their young in holes of rotten -logs. These Ecitons when seeking for these nests hunt about, like those -just described, in columns, which branch off in various directions. When -a fallen log is reached, the column spreads over it, searching through -all the holes and cracks. Mr. Belt says of them:-- - - The workers are of various sizes, and the smallest are - here of use, for they squeeze themselves into the - narrowest holes, and search out their prey in the - furthest ramifications of the nests. When a nest of - the _Hypoclinea_ is attacked, the ants rush out, - carrying the larvæ and pupæ in their jaws, but are - immediately despoiled of them by the Ecitons, which - are running about in every direction with great - swiftness. Whenever they come across a _Hypoclinea_ - carrying a larva or pupa, they take it from it so - quickly, that I could never ascertain exactly how it - was done. - - As soon as an Eciton gets hold of its prey, it rushes - off back along the advancing column, which is composed - of two sets, one hurrying forward, the other returning - laden with their booty, but all and always in the - greatest haste and apparent hurry. About the nest - which they are harrying, all appears in confusion, - Ecitons running here and there and everywhere in the - greatest haste and disorder; but the result of all - this apparent confusion is that scarcely a single - _Hypoclinea_ gets away with a pupa or larva. I never - saw the Ecitons injure the Hypoclineas themselves, - they were always contented with despoiling them of - their young. - -The columns of this species 'are composed almost entirely of workers of -different sizes;' but, as in the species previously mentioned, 'at -intervals of two or three yards there are larger and lighter coloured -individuals that often stop, and sometimes run a little backward, -stopping and touching some of the ants with their antennæ,' and looking -'like officers giving orders and directing the march of the column.' - -Concerning the other habits of this species, the same author writes:-- - - The eyes in the Ecitons are very small, in some of the - species imperfect, and in others entirely absent; in - this they differ greatly from the _Pseudomyrma_ ants, - which hunt singly and which have the eyes greatly - developed. The imperfection of eyesight in the Ecitons - is an advantage to the community, and to their - particular mode of hunting. It keeps them together, - and prevents individual ants from starting off alone - after objects that, if their eyesight was better, they - might discover at a distance; the Ecitons and most - other ants follow each other by scent, and, I believe, - they can communicate the presence of danger, of booty, - or other intelligence, to a distance by the different - intensity or qualities of the odours given off. I one - day saw a column of _Eciton hamata_ running along the - foot of a nearly perpendicular tramway cutting, the - side of which was about six feet high. At one point I - noticed a sort of assembly of about a dozen - individuals that appeared in consultation. Suddenly - one ant left the conclave, and ran with great speed up - the perpendicular face of the cutting without - stopping. It was followed by others, which, however, - did not keep straight on like the first, but ran a - short way, then returned, then again followed a little - further than the first time. They were evidently - scenting the trail of the pioneer, and making it - permanently recognisable. These ants followed the - exact line taken by the first one, although it was far - out of sight. Wherever it had made a slight _détour_ - they did so likewise. I scraped with my knife a small - portion of the clay on the trail, and the ants were - completely at fault for a time which way to go. Those - ascending and those descending stopped at the scraped - portion, and made short circuits until they hit the - scented trail again, when all their hesitation - vanished, and they ran up and down it with the - greatest confidence. On gaining the top of the - cutting, the ants entered some brushwood suitable for - hunting. In a very short space of time the information - was communicated to the ants below, and a dense column - rushed up to search for their prey. The Ecitons are - singular amongst the ants in this respect, that they - have no fixed habitations, but move on from one place - to another, as they exhaust the hunting grounds around - them. I think _Eciton hamata_ does not stay more than - four or five days in one place. I have sometimes come - across the migratory columns; they may easily be - known. Here and there one of the light-coloured - officers moves backwards and forwards directing the - columns. Such a column is of enormous length, and - contains many thousands if not millions of - individuals. I have sometimes followed them up for two - or three hundred yards without getting to the end. - - They make their temporary habitations in hollow trees, - and sometimes underneath large fallen trunks that - offer suitable hollows. A nest that I came across in - the latter situation was open at one side. The ants - were clustered together in a dense mass, like a great - swarm of bees, hanging from the roof but reaching to - the ground below. Their innumerable long legs looked - like brown threads binding together the mass, which - must have been at least a cubic yard in bulk, and - contained hundreds of thousands of individuals, - although many columns were outside, some bringing in - the pupæ of ants, others the legs and dissected bodies - of various insects. I was surprised to see in this - living nest tubular passages leading down to the - centre of the mass, kept open just as if it had been - formed of inorganic materials. Down these holes the - ants who were bringing in booty passed with their - prey. I thrust a long stick down to the centre of the - cluster, and brought out clinging to it many ants - holding larvæ and pupæ, which probably were kept warm - by the crowding together of the ants. Besides the - common dark-coloured workers and light-coloured - officers, I saw here many still larger individuals - with enormous jaws. These they go about holding wide - open in a threatening manner. - -It was this ant which, as previously stated, showed sympathy and -fellow-feeling with companions in difficulties. - -The habits of _E. drepanophora_ are closely similar to those of the -species already described; and, indeed, except in matters of detail, -all the species of Ecitons have much the same habits. Mr. Bates records -an interesting observation which he made on one of the moving columns of -this species. He says: 'When I interfered with the column or abstracted -an individual from it, news of the disturbance was quickly communicated -to a distance of several yards to the rear, and the column at that point -commenced retreating.' The main column is in this species narrower, -viz., 'from four to six deep,' but extends to a great length, viz., half -a mile or more. It was this species of Eciton that the same naturalist -describes as enjoying periods of leisure and recreation in the 'sunny -nooks of the forest.' - -Next we have to consider _E. prædator_, of which the same observer -writes:-- - - This is a small dark reddish species, very similar to - the common red stinging ant of England. It differs - from all other Ecitons in its habit of hunting, not in - columns, but in dense phalanxes consisting of myriads - of individuals, and was first met with at Ega, where - it is very common. Nothing in insect movements is more - striking than the rapid march of these large and - compact bodies. Wherever they pass, all the rest of - the animal world is thrown into a state of alarm. They - stream along the ground and climb to the summits of - all the lower trees, searching every leaf to its apex, - and whenever they encounter a mass of decaying - vegetable matter, where booty is plentiful, they - concentrate, like other Ecitons, all their forces upon - it, the dense phalanx of shining and quickly-moving - bodies, as it spreads over the surface, looking like a - flood of dark red liquid. They soon penetrate every - part of the confused heap, and then, gathering - together again in marching order, onward they move. - All soft-bodied and inactive insects fall an easy prey - to them, and, like other Ecitons, they tear their - victims in pieces for facility of carriage. A phalanx - of this species, when passing over a tract of smooth - ground, occupies a space of from four to six square - yards; on examining the ants closely they are seen to - move, not all together in one straightforward - direction, but in variously spreading contiguous - columns, now separating a little from the general - mass, now reuniting with it. The margins of the - phalanx spread out at times like a cloud of - skirmishers from the flanks of an army. I was never - able to find the hive of this species. - -Lastly, there are two species of Eciton totally blind, and their habits -differ from those of the species which we have hitherto considered. -Bates writes of them:-- - - The armies of _E. vastator_ and _E. erratica_ move, as - far as I could learn, wholly under covered roads, the - ants constructing them gradually but rapidly as they - advance. The column of foragers pushes forward step by - step, under the protection of these covered passages, - through the thickets, and on reaching a rotting log, - or other promising hunting-ground, pour into the - crevices in search of booty. I have traced their - arcades, occasionally, for a distance of one or two - hundred yards; the grains of earth are taken from the - soil over which the column is passing, and are fitted - together without cement. It is this last-mentioned - feature that distinguishes them from the similar - covered roads made by termites, who use their - glutinous saliva to cement the grains together. The - blind Ecitons, working in numbers, build up - simultaneously the sides of their convex arcades, and - contrive, in a surprising manner, to approximate them - and fit in the key-stones without letting the loose - uncemented structure fall to pieces. There was a very - clear division of labour between the two classes of - neuters in these blind species. The large-headed - class, although not possessing monstrously lengthened - jaws like the worker-majors in _E. hamata_ and _E. - drepanophora_, are rigidly defined in structure from - the small-headed class, and act as soldiers, defending - the working community (like soldier termites) against - all comers. Whenever I made a breach in one of their - covered ways, all the ants underneath were set in - commotion, but the worker-minors remained behind to - repair the damage, whilst the large-heads issued forth - in a most menacing manner, rearing their heads and - snapping their jaws with an expression of the fiercest - rage and defiance. - -_Annornia arcens._--This is the so-called 'driver' or 'marching' ant of -West Africa, which in habits and intelligence closely resembles the -military ants of the other hemisphere. I shall therefore not wait again -to describe these habits in detail. Like the Ecitons, the marching ants -of Africa have no fixed nest, but make temporary halts in the shade of -hollow trees, overhanging rocks, &c. They march in large armies, and, -like the Ecitons, always in the form of a long close column; but in this -case the relative position of the carriers of spoil and larvæ is -reversed, for while these occupy the middle place the soldiers and -officers march on either side. These have large heads armed with -powerful jaws, and never take part in carrying; their function is to -maintain order, act as scouts, and attack prey. The habits of these ants -resemble most closely those of the blind Ecitons in that they very -frequently, and indeed generally, build covered ways; they do so -apparently in order to protect themselves from the heat of the African -sun. Their line of march is therefore marked by a continuous arch or -tunnel, which is always being constructed by the van of the column. The -structure is made of earth moulded together by saliva, and is very -quickly built. But it is only built in places where the line of march is -exposed to the sunlight; at night, or in the shadow of trees or long -grass, it is not made. If their camp is flooded by a tropical rainstorm, -the ants congregate in a close mass, with the younger ants in the -centre; they thus form a floating island. - -It is remarkable that ants of different hemispheres should manifest so -close a similarity with respect to all these wonderful habits. The -Chasseur ants of Trinidad, and, according to Madame Merian, the ants of -visitation of Cayenne, also display habits of the same kind. - - -_General Intelligence of Various Species._ - -Many of the foregoing facts display an astonishing degree of -intelligence as obtaining among ants; for I think that however much -latitude we may be inclined to allow to 'blind instinct' in the way of -imitating actions elsewhere due to conscious purpose, some at least of -these foregoing facts can only be fairly reconciled with the view that -the insects know what they are doing and why they are doing it. But as I -am myself well aware of the difficulty that arises in all such cases of -drawing the line between purposeless instinct and purposive -intelligence, I have thought it desirable to reserve for this concluding -division of the present chapter several isolated facts which have been -observed among sundry species of ants, and which do not seem to admit -of being reasonably comprised under the category of instinctive action, -if by the latter we mean action pursued without knowledge of the -relation between the means adopted and the ends attained. - -It will be remembered that our test of instinctive as distinguished from -truly intelligent action is simply whether all individuals of a species -perform similar adaptive movements under the stimulus supplied by -similar and habitual circumstances, or whether they manifest individual -and peculiar adaptive movements to meet the exigencies of novel and -peculiar circumstances. The importance of this distinction may be -rendered manifest by the following illustrations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.] - -We have already seen that the ants which Sir John Lubbock observed -display many and complex instincts, which together might seem to justify -us in anticipating that animals which present such wonderful instincts -must also present sufficient general intelligence to meet simple though -novel exigencies by such simple adaptations as the unfamiliar -circumstances require. Yet experiments which he made in this connection -seem to show that such is not the case, but that these ants, with all -their wealth of instinctive endowments, are utterly destitute of -intelligent resources; they have abundance of common and detailed -knowledge (supposing the adaptations to be made consciously) how to act -under certain complex though familiar circumstances, but appear quite -unable to originate any adaptive action to obviate even the simplest -conceivable difficulty, if this is of a kind which they have not been -previously accustomed to meet. Thus, on a horizontal rod B supported in -a saucer of water S, and therefore inaccessible to the ants from -beneath, he placed some larvæ A. On the nest N he then placed a block of -wood C D, constructed so that the portion D should touch the larvæ at -A. When the ants had made a number of journeys over C D A and back -again, he raised the block C D so that there was an interval 3/10 of an -inch between the end of the block D and the larvæ at A. - - The ants kept on coming, and tried hard to reach down - from D to A, which was only just out of their - reach. . . . After a while they all gave up their - efforts and went away, losing their prize in spite of - most earnest efforts, because it did not occur to them - to drop 3/10 of an inch. At the moment when the - separation was made there were fifteen ants on the - larvæ. These could, of course, have returned if one had - stood still and allowed the others to get on its back. - This, however, did not occur to them; nor did they - think of letting themselves drop from the bottom of the - paper (P) on to the nest. Two or three, indeed, fell - down, I have no doubt by accident; but the remainder - wandered about, until at length most of them got into - the water. - - -In another experiment he interposed a light straw bridge on the way -between the nest and the larvæ, and when the ants had well learnt the -way, he drew the bridge a short distance towards the nest, so that a -small chasm was made in the road. The ants tried hard and ineffectually -to reach across it, but it did not occur to them to _push_ the straw -into its original position. - -The following experiment is still more illustrative of the absence of -intelligence, because the adjustive action required would not demand the -exercise of such high powers of imagination and abstraction as would -have been required for the moving forwards of the paper drawbridge. - - To test their intelligence I made the following - experiments: I suspended some honey over a nest of - _Lasius flavus_ at a height of about 1/2 an inch, and - accessible only by a paper bridge more than 10 feet - long. Under the glass I then placed a small heap of - earth. The ants soon swarmed over the earth on to the - glass, and began feeding on the honey. I then removed - a little of the earth, so that there was an interval - of about 1/3 of an inch between the glass and the - earth; but though the distance was so small, they - would not jump down, but preferred to go round by the - long bridge. They tried in vain to stretch up from the - earth to the glass, which, however, was just out of - their reach, though they could touch it with their - antennæ; but it did not occur to them to heap the - earth up a little, though if they had moved only half - a dozen particles of earth they would have secured for - themselves direct access to the food. This, however, - never occurred to them. At length they gave up all - attempts to reach up to the glass, and went round by - the paper bridge. I left the arrangement for several - weeks, but they continued to go round by the long - paper bridge. - -Another and somewhat similar experiment consisted in placing an upright -stick A, supporting at an angle another stick B, which nearly but not -quite touched the ground at C. At the end of the stick B there were -placed some larvæ in a horizontal glass cell at D. Into this cell were -also placed a number of ants along with the larvæ. The drop from D to C -was only 1/2 an inch; 'still, though the ants reached over and showed a -great anxiety to take this short cut home, they none of them faced the -leap, but all went round by the sticks, a distance of nearly 7 feet.' -Sir John then reduced the interruption to 2/5 of an inch, so that the -ants could even touch the glass cell with their antennæ; yet all day -long the ants continued to go the long way round rather than face the -drop. Next, therefore, he took still longer sticks and tapes, and -arranged them as before, only horizontally instead of vertically. He -also placed some fine earth under the glass cell containing the larvæ. -The ants as before continued to go the long way round (16 feet), though -the drop could not have hurt either themselves or the larvæ, and though -even this drop might have been obviated by heaping up the fine earth -into a little mound 1/8 of an inch high, so as to touch the glass cell. - -It is desirable, however, here to state that all species of ants do not -show this aversion to allowing themselves to drop through short -distances; for Moggridge describes the harvesting ants of Europe as -seeming rather to enjoy acrobatic performances of this kind; and the -same fact is recorded by Belt of the leaf-cutting ants of the Amazons. -Dr. Bastian, in his work on 'Brain as an Organ of Mind,' suggests that -the 'seeming lack of intelligence betrayed by our English ants, from -their disinclination to take a small leap, may be due simply to their -defective sight' (pp. 241-2). But even this consideration does not -extenuate the stupidity of the ants which failed to heap up the fine -earth to reach the glass cell which they were able to touch with their -antennæ. - -That the species of ants on which Sir John Lubbock experimented were -not, however, quite destitute of intelligence is proved by the result of -the following experiment:-- - - I put some provisions in a shallow box with a glass - top and a single hole in one side; I then put some - specimens of _Lasius niger_ to the food, and soon a - stream of ants was at work busily carrying supplies - off to the nest. When they had got to know their way - thoroughly, and from thirty to forty were so occupied, - I poured some fine mould in front of the hole, so as - to cover it to a depth of about 1/2 an inch. I then - took out the ants which were actually in the box. As - soon as the ants had recovered from the shock of this - unexpected proceeding on my part, they began to run - all round and about the box, looking for some other - place of entrance. Finding none, however, they began - digging down into the earth just over the hole, - carrying off the grains of earth one by one and - depositing them without any order all round at a - distance of from 1/2 to 6 inches, until they had - excavated down to the doorway, when they again began - carrying off the food as before. - -This experiment was several times repeated on _L. niger_ and on _L. -flavus_, always with the same result. - -Thus, then, we may conclude that the reasoning power of these ants, -although shown by the first experiments to be almost _nil_, is shown by -this experiment to be not quite _nil_; for the attempt to meet the -exigencies of the case by first going round the box to seek another -entrance, before taking the labour to remove the earth from the known -entrance, implies a certain rudimentary degree of adaptive capacity -which belongs to the category of the rational. - -Another point of considerable interest, as bearing on the general -intelligence of ants, is one that was brought out as the result of a -laborious series of hourly observations, extending without intermission -from 6.30 A.M. to 10 P.M. for a period of three months. The object of -these observations was to ascertain whether the principle of the -division of labour is practised by the ants. The result of these -observations was to show that during the winter-time, when the ants are -not active, certain individuals are told off to forage for supplies, and -that when any casualty overtakes these individuals, others are told off -to supply their places. Thus, in the words of Sir John Lubbock's -analysis of his lengthy tables,-- - - The feeders at the beginning of the experiment were - those known to us as Nos. 5, 6, and 7. On the 22nd of - November a friend, registered as No. 8, came to the - honey, and again on the 11th December; but with these - two exceptions the whole of the supplies were carried - in by Nos. 5 and 6, with a little help from No. 7. - Thinking now it might be alleged that possibly these - were merely unusually active or greedy individuals, I - imprisoned No. 6 when she came out to feed on the 5th. - As will be seen from the table, no other ant had been - out to the honey for some days; and it could therefore - hardly be accidental that on that very evening another - ant (then registered as No. 9) came out for food. This - ant, as will be seen from the table, then took the - place of No. 6 (No. 5 being imprisoned). On the 11th - January No. 9 took in all the supplies, again with a - little help from No. 7. So matters continued until the - 17th, when I imprisoned No. 9, and then again, _i.e._ - on the 19th, another ant (No. 10) came out for the - food, aided, on and after the 22nd, by another (No. - 11). This seems to me very curious. From the 1st - November to the 5th January, with two or three casual - exceptions, the whole of the supplies were carried in - by three ants, one of whom, however, did comparatively - little. The other two are imprisoned, and then, but - not till then, a fresh ant appears on the scene. She - carries in the food for a week, and then she being - imprisoned, two others undertake the task. On the - other hand, in nest 1, when the first foragers were - not imprisoned, they continued during the whole time - to carry in the necessary supplies. - -The facts, therefore, certainly seem to indicate that certain ants are -told off as foragers, and that during winter, when but little food is -required, two or three such foragers are sufficient to provide it. - -Although Sir John Lubbock's ants showed such meagre resources of -intelligent adjustment, other species of ants, which we have already had -occasion to consider, appear to be as remarkable in this respect as they -are in respect of their instinctive adjustments. Unfortunately -observations on this subject are very sparse, but such as they are they -hold out a strong inducement for any one who has the opportunity to -experiment with the view of testing the intelligence of those species in -connection with which the following observations have been made. - - Réaumur states that ants will make no attempt to enter - an inhabited beehive to get at the contained honey, - knowing that the bees will slaughter them if they do - so. But if the hive is uninhabited, or the bees all - dead, the ants will swarm into the hive as long as any - honey is to be found there. - -P. Huber records that a wall which had been partly erected by ants was -observed by him-- - - As though it were intended to support the still - unfinished arched roof of a large room, which was - being built from the opposite side. But the workers - which had begun the arch had given it too low an - elevation for the wall on which it was to rest, and if - it had been continued on the same lines it would have - met the partition wall halfway up, and this was to be - avoided. I had just made this criticism to myself, - when a new arrival, after looking at the work, came to - the same conclusion. For it began at once to destroy - what had been done, and to heighten the wall on which - it was supported, and to make a new arch with the - materials of the old one under my very eyes. When the - ants begin an undertaking it seems exactly as if an - idea slowly ripened into execution in their minds. - Thus if one of them finds two stalks lying crosswise - on the nest, which make possible the formation of a - room, or some little rafters which suggest the walls - and the corners, it first observes the various parts - accurately, and then quickly and neatly heaps little - pellets of earth in the interspaces and alongside the - stalks. It brings from every side materials that seem - appropriate, and sometimes takes such from the - uncompleted works of its companions, so much is it - urged on by the idea which it has once conceived, and - by the desire to execute it. It goes and comes and - turns back again, until its plan is recognisable by - the others. - -Ebrard, in his 'Etudes de Moeurs' (p. 3), gives the following -remarkable instance of the display of intelligence of _F. fusca_:-- - - The earth was damp and the workers were in full - swing. It was a constant coming and going of ants, - coming forth from their underground dwelling, and - carrying back little pellets of earth for building. In - order to concentrate my attention I fixed my gaze on - the largest of the rooms which were being built, - wherein several ants were busy. The work had made - considerable progress; but although a projection could - be plainly seen along the upper edge of the wall, - there remained an interspace of about twelve or - fifteen millimetres to fill in. Here would have been - the place, in order to support the earth still to be - brought in, to have had recourse to those pillars, - buttresses, or fragments of dried leaves, which many - ants are wont to use in building. But the use of this - expedient is not customary with the ants I was - observing (_F. fusca_). Our ants, however, were - sufficient for the occasion. For a moment they seemed - inclined to leave their work, but soon turned instead - to a grass-plant growing near, the long narrow leaves - of which ran close together. They chose the nearest, - and weighted its distal end with damp earth, until its - apex just bent down to the space to be covered. - Unfortunately the bend was too close to the extremity, - and it threatened to break. To prevent this - misfortune, the ants gnawed at the base of the leaf - until it bent along its whole length and covered the - space required. But as this did not seem to be quite - enough, they heaped damp earth between the base of the - plant and that of the leaf, until the latter was - sufficiently bent. After they had thus attained their - object, they heaped on the buttressing leaf the - materials required for building the arched roof. - - The characteristic _trait_ of the building of ants, - says Forel, is the almost complete absence of an - unchangeable model, peculiar to each species, such as - is found in wasps, bees, and others. The ants know how - to suit their indeed little perfect work to - circumstances, and to take advantage of each - situation. Besides, each works for itself and on a - given plan, and is only occasionally aided by others - when these understand its plan. Naturally many - collisions occur, and some destroy that which others - have made. This also gives the key to understanding - the labyrinth of the dwelling. For the rest, it is - always those workers which have discovered the most - advantageous method, or which have shown the most - patience, which win over to their plan the majority of - their comrades and at last the whole colony, although - not without many fights for supremacy. But if one - succeeds in obtaining a second to follow it, and this - second draws the others after it, the first is soon - lost again in the crowd. - -Espinas also observed ('Thierischen Gesellschaften,' German translation, -1879, p. 371) that each single ant made its own plan and followed it -until a comrade, which had caught the idea, joined it, and then they -worked together in the execution of the same plan. - -Moggridge says of the harvesters of Europe,-- - - I have observed on more than one occasion that when in - digging into an ants' nest I have thrown out an - _elater_ larva, the ants would cluster round it and - direct it towards some small opening in the soil, - which it would quickly enlarge and disappear down. At - other times, however, the ants would take no notice of - the _elater_, and it is my belief that the attentions - paid to it on former occasions were purely selfish, - and that they intended to avail themselves of the - tunnel thus made down into the soil, with the view of - reopening communications with the galleries and - granaries concealed below, the approaches to which had - been covered up. I have frequently watched the ants - make use of these passages mined by the _elater_ on - these occasions. - -And again, as showing apparently intelligent adaptation of their usual -habits to altered circumstances, he gives an account of the behaviour of -these ants when a great crowd of them were confined by him in a glass -jar containing earth. He says:-- - - On the following morning the openings were ten in - number, and the greatly increased heaps of excavated - earth showed that they must probably have been at work - all night. The amount of work done in this short time - was truly surprising, for it must be remembered that, - eighteen hours before, the earth presented a perfectly - level surface, and the larvæ and ants, now housed - below, found themselves prisoners in a strange place, - bounded by glass walls, and with no exit possible. - - It seems to me that the ants displayed extraordinary - intelligence in having thus at a moment's notice - devised a plan by which the superabundant number of - workers could be employed at one time without coming - in one another's way. The soil contained in the jar - was of course less than a tenth part of that comprised - within the limits of an ordinary nest, while the - number of workers was probably more than a third of - the total number belonging to the colony. If therefore - but one or two entrances had been pierced in the soil, - the workers would have been for ever running against - one another, and a great number could never have got - below to help in the all-important task of preparing - passages and chambers for the accommodation of the - larvæ. These numerous and funnel-shaped entrances - admitted of the simultaneous descent and ascent of - large numbers of ants, and the work progressed with - proportionate rapidity. After a few days only three - entrances, and eventually only one, remained open. - -Concerning the harvesting ant of Texas, the following quotation may be -made, under the present head, from MacCook. After remarking that these -ants always select sunny places wherein to build their nests, or disks, -he goes on to say that within a few paces of his tent-- - - A nest was made which was partly shaded by a small - mesquite tree that stood just beyond the margin of the - clearing. The sapling had probably grown up after the - location of the community, and for some reason had - been permitted to remain until too old to kill off. - The shadow thrown upon the pavement was very slight; - nevertheless, fifteen feet distant a new formicary was - being established. The path from the ranch to the - spring ran between this new hill and the old one, and - ants were in communication between the two. An opening - had been made in the ground, and the beginnings of a - new formicary were quite apparent. This is the only - instance observed of what seemed an attempt at - colonising or removing, and I associated it with the - presence of the small but growing shadow of the young - tree. - -He also gives us a still more remarkable observation, which indeed, I -must candidly say, does not appear to me credible. I am, therefore, glad -to add that it does not appear very distinctly from the account whether -the author himself made the observation, or had it narrated to him by -his guide. But here is the observation in his own words:-- - - While studying the habits of the cutting ant I was - tempted to make a night visit to a farm some distance - from camp, by the farmer's story of depredations made - by these insects upon certain plants and vegetables. A - long, dark tramp, a blind and vain search among the - fields, compelled us at last to call out the - countryman from his bed. He led us directly to one of - the cutting ants' nests, which was overshadowed by a - young peach tree. 'There they be, sir,' cried he - triumphantly. They were agriculturals! So also were - the other nests shown. The reason for this confounding - of the two ants on the part of the people hereabouts, - and the reason for the 'cutting' operations of our - harvesters, will be explained farther on. It is only - in point here to say that the farmer affirmed that the - ants under the peach tree had stripped off the first - tender leaves last spring, so that scarcely one had - been left upon the limbs. I am convinced that the - reason for this onslaught was the desire to be rid of - the obnoxious shade, and open the formicary to the - full light of the sun. - -From this account it is not very clear whether the writer himself saw -evidence of the former denudation of the tree, and if so whether there -was any indication, other than the word of the farmer, that the -denudation had been effected by the ants. To make this conclusion -credible the best conceivable evidence would be required, and this, -unfortunately, is just what we find wanting. Somewhat the same remarks -may be made on the following quotation from the same writer, though in -this case his view is to some extent supported by an observation of -Moggridge, as well as by that of Ebrard already quoted:-- - - Here I observed what appeared to be a new mode of - operation. The workers, in several cases, left the - point at which they had begun a cutting, ascended the - blade, and passed as far out toward the point as - possible. The blade was thus borne downward, and as - the ant swayed up and down it really seemed that she - was taking advantage of the leverage thus gained, and - was bringing the augmented force to bear upon the - fracture. In two or three cases there appeared to be a - division of labour; that is to say, while the cutter - at the roots kept on with her work, another ant - climbed the grass blade and applied the power at the - opposite end of the lever. This position may have been - quite accidental, but it certainly had the appearance - of a voluntary co-operation. I was sorry not to be - able to establish this last inference by a series of - observations, as the facts were only observed in this - one nest. - -The observation of Moggridge, to which I have alluded as in some measure -rendering support to the foregoing, is as follows. Speaking of European -harvesters which he kept in an artificial nest for the purposes of close -observation, he says:-- - - I was also in this way able to see for myself much - that I otherwise could not have seen. Thus I was able - to watch the operation of removing roots which had - pierced through their galleries, belonging to seedling - plants growing on the surface, and which was performed - by two ants, one pulling at the free end of the root, - and the other gnawing at its fibres where the strain - was greatest, until at length it gave way. - -And again,-- - - Two ants sometimes combine their efforts, when one - stations itself near the base of the peduncle, and - gnaws it at the point of greatest tension, while the - other hauls upon and twists it. . . . I have occasionally - seen ants engaged in cutting the capsules of certain - plants, drop them, and allow their companions below to - carry them away. - -Lastly, the statements of these three observers taken together serve to -render credible the following quotation from Bingley,[43] who says that -in Captain Cook's expedition in New South Wales ants were seen by Sir -Joseph Banks and others-- - - As green as a leaf, which live upon trees and build - their nests of various sizes, between that of a man's - head and his fist. These nests are of a very curious - structure: they are formed by bending down several of - the leaves, each of which is as broad as a man's hand, - and gluing the points of them together so as to form a - purse. The viscous matter used for this purpose is an - animal juice. . . . Their method of bending down leaves - we had no opportunity to observe; but we saw thousands - uniting all their strength to hold them in this - position, while other busy multitudes were employed - within, in applying this gluten, that was to prevent - their returning back. To satisfy ourselves that the - leaves were bent and held down by the efforts of these - diminutive artificers, we disturbed them in their - work; and as soon as they were driven from their - station, the leaves on which they were employed sprang - up with a force much greater than we could have - thought them able to conquer by any combination of - their strength. - -This remarkable fact also seems to be corroborated by the following -independent observation of Sir E. Tennent:-- - - The most formidable of all is the great red ant, or - Dimiya. It is particularly abundant in gardens and on - fruit-trees; it constructs its dwellings by gluing the - leaves of such species as are suitable from their - shape and pliancy into hollow balls, and these it - lines with a kind of transparent paper, like that - manufactured by the wasp. I have watched them at the - interesting operation of forming these dwellings;--a - line of ants standing on the edge of one leaf bring - another into contact with it, and hold both together - with their mandibles till their companions within - attach them firmly by means of their adhesive paper, - the assistants outside moving along as the work - proceeds. If it be necessary to draw closer a leaf too - distant to be laid hold of by the immediate workers, - they form a chain by depending one from the other till - the object is reached, when it is at length brought - into contact, and made fast by cement. - -I shall now pass on to the remarkable observation communicated to Kirby -by Colonel Sykes, F.R.S., and which is thus narrated by Kirby in his -'History, Habits, and Instincts of Animals:'-- - - When resident at Poona, the dessert, consisting of - fruits, cakes, and various preserves, always remained - upon a small side table, in a verandah of the - dining-room. To guard against inroads, the legs of the - table were immersed in four basins filled with water; - it was removed an inch from the wall, and, to keep off - dust from open windows, was covered with a tablecloth. - At first the ants did not attempt to cross the water, - but as the strait was very narrow, from an inch to an - inch and a half, and the sweets very tempting, they - appear, at length, to have braved all risks, to have - committed themselves to the deep, to have scrambled - across the channel, and to have reached the objects of - their desires, for hundreds were found every morning - revelling in enjoyment: daily vengeance was executed - upon them without lessening their numbers; at last the - legs of the table were painted, just above the water, - with a circle of turpentine. This at first seemed to - prove an effectual barrier, and for some days the - sweets were unmolested, after which they were again - attacked by these resolute plunderers; but how they - got at them seemed totally unaccountable, till Colonel - Sykes, who often passed the table, was surprised to - see an ant drop from the wall, about a foot above the - table, upon the cloth that covered it; another and - another succeeded. So that though the turpentine and - the distance from the wall appeared effectual - barriers, still the resources of the animal, when - determined to carry its point, were not exhausted, and - by ascending the wall to a certain height, with a - slight effort against it, in falling it managed to - land in safety upon the table. - -Colonel Sykes was a good observer, so that this statement, standing upon -his authority, ought not, perhaps, to be questioned. But in all cases of -remarkable intelligence displayed by animals, we naturally and properly -desire corroboration, however good the authority may be on which the -statement of such cases may rest. I will, therefore, add the following -instances of the ingenious and determined manner in which ants overcome -obstacles, and which so far lend confirmation to the above account. - -Professor Leuckart placed round the trunk of a tree, which was visited -by ants as a pasture for aphides, a broad cloth soaked in tobacco-water. -When the ants returning home down the trunk of the tree arrived at the -soaked cloth, they turned round, went up the tree again to some of the -overhanging branches, and allowed themselves to drop clear of the -obnoxious barrier. On the other hand, the ants which desired to mount -the tree first examined the nature of the barrier, then turned back and -procured from a distance little pellets of earth, which they carried in -their jaws and deposited one after another upon the tobacco-cloth till a -road of earth was made across it, over which the ants passed to and fro -with impunity. - -This interesting, and indeed surprising observation of Leuckart's is, in -turn, a corroboration of an almost identical one made more than a -century ago by Cardinal Fleury, and communicated by him to Réaumur, who -published it in his 'l'Histoire des Insectes' (1734). The Cardinal -smeared the trunk of a tree with birdlime in order to prevent the ants -from ascending it; but the insects overcame the obstacle by making a -road of earth, small stones, &c., as in the case just mentioned. In -another instance the Cardinal saw a number of ants make a bridge across -a vessel of water surrounding the bottom of an orange-tree tub. They did -so by conveying a number of little pieces of _wood_, the choice of which -material instead of earth or stones, as in the previous case, seems to -betoken no small knowledge of practical engineering. - -Büchner, after quoting these cases, proceeds to say (_loc. cit._, p. -120),-- - - The ants behaved in yet more ingenious fashion under - the following very similar circumstances. Herr G. - Theuerkauf, the painter (Wasserthorstr. 49, Berlin), - writes to the author, November 18, 1875: 'A maple tree - standing on the ground of the manufacturer, Vollbaum, - of Elbing (now of Dantzic), swarmed with aphides and - ants. In order to check the mischief, the proprietor - smeared about a foot width of the ground round the - tree with tar. The first ants who wanted to cross - naturally stuck fast. But what did the next? They - turned back to the tree and carried down aphides, - which they stuck down on the tar one after another - until they had made a bridge over which they could - cross the tarring without danger. The above-named - merchant, Vollbaum, is the guarantor of this story, - which I received from his own mouth on the very spot - whereat it occurred.' - -Büchner also gives the following case on the authority of Karl Vogt -(_loc. cit._, p. 128). An apiary of a friend was invaded by ants:-- - - To make this impossible for the future, the four legs - of the beehive-stand were put into small, shallow - bowls filled with water, as is often done with food in - ant-infested places. The ants soon found a way out of - this, or rather a way into their beloved honey, and - that over an iron staple with which the stand was - attached to a neighbouring wall. The staple was - removed, but the ants did not allow themselves to be - defeated. They climbed into some linden trees standing - near, the branches of which hung over the stand, and - then dropped upon it from the branches, doing just the - same as their comrades do with respect to food - surrounded by water, when they drop upon it from the - ceiling of the room. In order to make this impossible, - the boughs were cut away. But once more the ants were - found in the stand, and closer investigation showed - that one of the bowls was dried up, and that a crowd - of ants had gathered in it. But they found themselves - puzzled how to go on with their robbery, for the leg - did not, by chance, rest on the bottom of the bowl, - but was about half an inch from it. The ants were seen - rapidly touching each other with their antennæ, or - carrying on a consultation, until at last a rather - larger ant came forward and put an end to the - difficulty. It rose to its full height on its hind - legs, and struggled until at last it seized a rather - projecting splinter of the wooden leg, and managed to - take hold of it. As soon as this was done other ants - ran on to it, strengthened the hold by clinging, and - so made a little living bridge, over which the others - could easily pass. - -The same author publishes the following very remarkable observation, -quoted from a letter to him by Dr. Ellendorf:-- - - It is a hard matter to protect any eatables from these - creatures, let the custody be ever so close. The legs - of cupboards and tables in or on which eatables are - kept are placed in vessels of water. I myself did - this, but I none the less found thousands of ants in - the cupboard next morning. It was a puzzle to me how - they crossed the water, but the puzzle was soon - solved; for I found a straw in one of the saucers, - which lay obliquely across the edge of the pan and - touched the leg of the press: this they had used for a - bridge. Hundreds were drowned in the water, apparently - because disorder had reigned at first, those coming - down with booty meeting those going up. But now there - was perfect order; the descending stream used one side - of the straw, the ascending the other. I now pushed - the straw about an inch away from the cupboard leg; a - terrible confusion arose. In a moment the leg - immediately over the water was covered with hundreds - of ants, feeling for the bridge in every direction - with their antennæ, running back again and coming in - ever larger swarms, as though they had communicated to - their comrades within the cupboard the fearful - misfortune that had taken place. Meanwhile the - new-comers continued to run along the straw, and not - finding the leg of the cupboard the greatest - perplexity arose. They hurried round the edge of the - pan, and soon found out where the fault lay. With - united forces they quickly pulled and pushed at the - straw, until it again came into contact with the wood, - and the communication was again restored. - -This observation is strikingly, though unconsciously, confirmed by a -recent writer in the _Leisure Hour_ (1880, pp. 718-19), who having been -much troubled by small red ants in the tropics swarming over his -provisions, placed the latter in a meat-safe detached from the wall and -standing on four legs, each of which was placed in a little tin vessel -containing water. Eight or ten days afterwards he found his provisions -in the safe swarming with ants as before, and on investigating their -mode of access to them found-- - - Proceeding along the whitewashed wall a string of ants - going and coming from the outer door to a height of - four feet on my wall, and corresponding with that of - the safe; and looking between it and the wall, I - discovered the secret--the bridge which these - persevering little insects had made. It consisted of a - broken bit of straw, which rested with one end on a - mud buttress fixed to the wall, and the other on the - overhanging or projecting top of the safe, which came - within an inch and a half of the wall. So they must - have carried the straw up from the floor, and resting - their end of it on the support they had prepared, let - it fall until its other end reached the safe, and then - crossed and completed the structure, for it was - fastened at both ends with the mortar composed of - their saliva and fine earth. Ruthlessly I destroyed - the bridge, and moving the safe farther from the wall, - managed to prevent their inroads for that season at - least. Since then I have frequently seen short - bridges, composed entirely of the concrete or mortar - which the white ants use to cover up their workings, - extending from a damp earthen wall to anything not - more than three-quarters of an inch from it. - -Of the Ecitons Mr. Belt says:-- - - I shall relate two more instances of the use of a - reasoning faculty in these ants. I once saw a wide - column trying to pass along a crumbling, nearly - perpendicular slope. They would have got very slowly - over it, and many of them would have fallen, but a - number having secured their hold, and reaching to each - other, remained stationary, and over them the main - column passed. Another time they were crossing a - watercourse along a small branch, not thicker than a - goose-quill. They widened this natural bridge to three - times its width by a number of ants clinging to it and - to each other on each side, over which the column - passed three or four deep; whereas excepting for this - expedient they would have had to pass over in single - file, and treble the time would have been consumed. - Can it be contended that such insects are not able to - determine by reasoning powers which is the best way of - doing a thing? - -Another observer, writing from the same part of the world to Büchner, -gives a still more wonderful account of the ingenuity of Ecitons in -crossing water. This observer is Herr H. Kreplin, of Heidemühl (Station -Ducherom), 'who lived for nearly twenty years in South America as an -engineer, and had often the opportunity of seeing the driver ants in the -forests there.' He writes to Büchner, under date May 10, 1876, as -follows:-- - - On both sides of the train, at about 10 mm. distance - from each other, stronger ants are to be seen, - distinguishable from the others by their foxy colour - and very thick heads with gigantic mandibles. These - 'thickheads' play the same _rôle_ in the ant-state for - which they are cast in cultured communities. They look - after the order of the march, and allow none to turn - either to the right or left. The least confusion in - the regularity of the march makes them turn round and - put things straight again. While the procession of the - brown workers streams on unceasingly with a swarming - motion, the 'officers,' as the natives call these - thickheads, run constantly backwards and forwards, - ready to take the command on meeting any difficulty. - The crossing of streams by these creatures is the most - interesting point. If the watercourse be narrow, the - thickheads soon find trees, the branches of which meet - on the bank on either side, and after a short halt the - column set themselves in motion over these bridges, - rearranging themselves in the narrow train with - marvellous quickness on reaching the further side. But - if no natural bridge be available for the passage, - they travel along the bank of the river until they - arrive at a flat sandy shore. Each ant now seizes a - bit of dry wood, pulls it into the water, and mounts - thereupon. The hinder rows push the front ones even - further out, holding on to the wood with their feet - and to their comrades with their jaws. In a short time - the water is covered with ants, and when the raft has - grown too large to be held together by the small - creatures' strength, a part breaks itself off and - begins the journey across, while the ants left on the - bank busily pull their bits of wood into the water, - and work at enlarging the ferry-boat until it again - breaks. This is repeated as long as an ant remains on - shore. I had often heard described this method of - crossing rivers, but in the year 1859 I had the - opportunity of seeing it for myself. - -It is remarkable that the military or driving ants of Africa exhibit -precisely similar devices for the bridging of streams, namely, by -forming a chain of individuals over which the others pass. By means of -similar chains they also let themselves down from trees. It must be -observed, however, that these and all the above observations, being -independently made and separately recorded, serve to corroborate one -another so strongly that we can entertain no reasonable doubt concerning -the wonderful facts which they convey. - -I shall now bring these numerous instances to a close with a quotation -from Mr. Belt, which reveals in the most unequivocal manner surprising -powers of observation and rational action on the part of the -leaf-cutting ants of South America, whose general habits we have already -considered:-- - - A nest was made near one of our tramways, and to get - to the trees the ants had to cross the rails, over - which the waggons were continually passing and - repassing. Every time they came along a number of ants - were crushed to death. They persevered in crossing for - some time, but at last set to work and tunnelled - underneath each rail. One day, when the waggons were - not running, I stopped up the tunnels with stones; but - although great numbers carrying leaves were thus cut - off from the nest, they would not cross the rails, but - set to work making fresh tunnels underneath them. - - -_Anatomy and Physiology of Nerve-centres and Sense-organs._ - -The foregoing facts concerning the intelligence of ants fully justifies -Mr. Darwin's observation that 'the brain of an ant is one of the most -marvellous atoms of matter in the world, perhaps more so than the brain -of a man.' It may therefore be interesting in this particular case to -depart from the lines otherwise laid down throughout the present work, -and to devote a short section to the anatomy and physiology of this -nerve-centre with its appended organs of sense. - -The brain of an ant, then, is proportionally larger than that of any -other insect. (See Titus Graber, 'Insects,' vol. i. p. 255.) In -structure, also, the brain of an ant is in advance of that of other -insects, its nearest analogue being the brain of a bee. The superiority -of development is particularly remarkable with reference to the 'stalked -bodies' of Dujardin; and these are largest in neuter workers, which are -the most intelligent members of the community. - -Injury of the brain causes, as in higher animals, tetanic spasms and -involuntary reflex movements, followed by stupefaction. - - An ant, whose brain has been perforated by the pointed - mandibles of an amazon, remains as though nailed to - its place; a shudder runs from time to time through - its body, and one of its legs is lifted at regular - intervals. It occasionally makes a short and quick - step, as though driven by an unseen spring, but, like - that of an automaton, aimless and objectless. If it is - pulled, it makes a movement of avoidance, but falls - back into its stupefied condition as soon as it is - released. It is no longer capable of action - consciously directed to a given object; it neither - tries to escape, nor to attack, nor to go back to its - home, nor to rejoin its companions, nor to walk away; - it feels neither heat nor cold, it knows neither fear - nor desire for food. It is merely an automatic and - reflex machine, and is exactly similar to one of those - pigeons from which Flourens removed the hemispheres of - the cerebrum. Just in the same way behaves the body of - an ant from which the head has been taken away. In the - numerous fights between amazons and other ants, - countless cases have been observed of slight injury to - the brain, which have caused the most remarkable - phenomena. Many of the wounded were seized with a mad - rage, and flung themselves at every one that came in - their way, whether friend or foe. Others assumed an - appearance of indifference, and walked serenely about - in the midst of the fighting. Others exhibited a - sudden failure of strength; but they still recognised - their enemies, approached them, and tried to bite them - in cold blood, in a way quite foreign to the behaviour - of healthy ants. They were also often observed to run - round and round in a circle, the motion resembling the - _manège_, or riding-school action of mammals, when one - of the crura cerebri has been removed. - - If an ant is cut in half through the thorax, so that - the great nerve ganglia of the pro-thorax remain - untouched, the behaviour of the head shows that - intelligence also remains untouched. Ants mutilated in - this way try to go forwards with their two remaining - legs, and beg with their antennæ for their companions' - aid. If one of these latter lets itself be stopped, - then we observe a lively interchange of thanks and - sympathy expressed by the actively moving antennæ. - Forel placed near to each other two such mutilated - bodies of the _F. rufibarbis_. They conversed with - each other in the above-described way, and appeared - each to beg for help. But when he put in some - similarly mutilated ants of a hostile species, _F. - sanguinea_, the picture was changed; war broke out - between these cripples just in the same way and with - the same fury as between perfect ants.[44] - -The antennæ appear to be the most important of the sense-organs, as -their removal produces an extraordinary disturbance in the intelligence -of the animal. An ant so mutilated can no longer find its way or -recognise companions, and therefore is unable to distinguish between -friends and foes. It is also unable to find food, ceases to engage in -any labour, and loses all its regard for larvæ, remaining permanently -quiet and almost motionless. A somewhat similar disturbance, or rather -destruction, of the mental faculties is observable as a result of the -same mutilation in the case of bees.[45] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[19] While this MS. is passing through the press Sir John Lubbock has -read another paper before the Linnæan Society, which contains some -important additional matter concerning the sense of direction in ants. -It seems that in the experiment above described, the hat-box was not -provided with a cover or lid, i.e. was not a 'closed chamber,' and that -Sir John now finds the ants to take their bearings from the direction in -which they observe the light to fall upon them. For in the experiment -with the uncovered hat-box, if the source of light (candle) is moved -round together with the rotating table which supports the box, the ants -continue their way without making compensating changes in their -direction of advance. The same thing happens if the hat-box is covered, -so as to make of it a dark chamber. Direction of light being the source -of their information that their ground is being moved, we can understand -why they do not know that it is being moved when it is moved in the -direction of their advance, as in the experiment with the paper slip. - -[20] It is to be noted that although ants will attack stranger ants -introduced from other nests, they will carefully tend stranger larvæ -similarly introduced. - -[21] _The Naturalist in Nicaragua_, 1874, p. 26. - -[22] See _Leisure Hour_, 1880, p. 390. - -[23] _Introduction to Entomology_, vol. ii. p. 524. - -[24] Vol. vii. pp. 443-4. - -[25] Büchner, _Geistesleben der Thiere_, pp. 66-7. - -[26] _Origin of Species_, 6th ed. pp. 207-8. - -[27] _Loc. cit._ p. 121. - -[28] _Loc. cit._ p. 123. - -[29] _Origin of Species_, 6th ed. p. 218. - -[30] _Geistesleben der Thiere_, pp. 145-9. - -[31] _Loc. cit._ - -[32] _Loc. cit._ p. 337. - -[33] _Loc. cit._ p. 97. - -[34] _Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders_, London, 1873 and -Supplement, 1874. - -[35] _Journal Linn. Soc._, vol. vi. p. 29, 1862. - -[36] _Agricultural Ant of Texas_, Philadelphia, 1880. - -[37] _Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond._, i. 103, 1836. - -[38] _Madras Journ. Lit. Sc._, 1851. - -[39] For this see Moggridge, _loc. cit._ pp. 6-10, where, besides Prov. -iv. 6-8, and xxx. 25, quotations are given from Horace, Virgil, Plautus, -and others. - -[40] Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., xii. p. 445. - -[41] Agricultural Ant of Texas (Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1880). - -[42] _Missionary Travels_, p. 328. - -[43] _Animal Biography_, 'Ants.' - -[44] Büchner, _Geistesleben der Thiere_, English translation, p. 49. - -[45] While this work is passing through the press, an interesting Essay -has been published by Mr. MacCook on the Honey-making Ant. I am not here -able to refer to this Essay at greater length, but have done so in a -review in _Nature_ (March 2, 1882.)--G. J. R. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -BEES AND WASPS. - - -ARRANGING this chapter under the same general headings as the one on -ants, we shall consider first-- - - -_Powers of Special Sense._ - -Bees and wasps have much greater powers of sight than ants. They not -only perceive objects at a greater distance, but are also able to -distinguish their colours. This was proved by Sir John Lubbock, who -placed honey on slips of paper similarly formed, but of different -colours; when a bee had repeatedly visited a slip of one colour (A), he -transposed the slips during the absence of the bee; on its return the -insect did not fly to slip B, although this now occupied the _position_ -which had been previously occupied by slip A, but again visited slip A, -although this now occupied the position which had been previously -occupied by slip B. Therefore, as these experiments were again and again -repeated both on bees and wasps with uniform results, there can be no -question that the insects by their first visits to slip A established an -association between the colour of A and the honey upon it, such that, -when they again returned and found B in the place of A, they were guided -by their memory of the colour rather than by their memory of the -position. It was thus shown that the insects could distinguish green, -red, yellow, and blue. These experiments also brought out the further -fact that both bees and wasps exhibit a marked preference for some -colours over others. Thus, in a series of black, white, yellow, orange, -green, blue, and red slips, two or three bees paid twenty-one visits to -the orange and yellow, and only four to all the other slips. The slips -were then moved, after which, out of thirty-two visits, twenty-two were -to the orange and yellow. Another colour to which a similar preference -is shown is blue. - -As regards scent, Sir John found that on putting a few drops of eau de -Cologne at the entrance of a beehive, 'immediately a number (about 15) -came out to see what was the matter.' Other scents had a similar effect; -but on repetition several times the bees became accustomed to the scent, -and no longer came out. - -As in ants, so in bees, Sir John's experiments failed to yield any -evidence of a sense of hearing. But in this connection we must not -forget the well-known fact, first observed by Huber, that the queen bee -will answer by a certain sound the peculiar piping of a pupa queen; and -again, by making a certain cry or humming noise, will strike -consternation suddenly on all the bees in the hive--these remaining for -a long time motionless as if stupefied. - - -_Sense of Direction._ - -The following are Sir John Lubbock's observations upon this subject in -the case of bees and wasps:-- - - Every one has heard of a 'bee-line.' It would be no - less correct to speak of a wasp-line. On August 6 I - marked a wasp, the nest of which was round the corner - of the house, so that her direct way home was not out - at the window by which she had entered, but in the - opposite direction, across the room to a window which - was closed. I watched her for some hours, during which - time she constantly went to the wrong window, and lost - much time in buzzing about at it. For ten consecutive - days this wasp paid numerous visits, coming in at the - open window, and always trying, though always - unsuccessfully, to return to her nest in the - 'wasp-line' of the closed window--buzzing about that - window for hours at a time, though eventually on - finding it closed she returned and went round through - the open window by which she always entered. - -This observation shows how strong must be the instinct in a wasp to take -the shortest way home, and how much the insect depends upon its sense of -direction in so doing. It also shows how long a time it requires to -learn by individual experience the properties of a previously unknown -substance such as glass. But to this latter point we shall presently -have occasion to return. - -Next we must adduce evidence to show that in way-finding the 'sense of -direction' in bees appears to be largely supplemented by observation of -particular objects. - -Sir John Lubbock observes: 'I never found bees to return if brought any -considerable distance at once. By taking them, however, some twenty -yards each time they came to the honey, I at length _trained_ them to -come to my room;' that is to say, bees require to _learn_ their way -little by little before they can return to a store of honey which they -may have been fortunate enough to find; their general sense of direction -is not in itself a sufficient guide. This, at least, is the case where, -as in the experiments in question, the bees are _carried_ from the hive -to the store of honey (here a distance of less than 200 yards): possibly -if they had found the honey by themselves flying towards it, and so -probably taking note of objects by the way, one journey might have -proved sufficient to teach them the way. But, whether or not this would -have been the case, the fact that when carried they required also to be -taught the way piece by piece, is conclusive proof that their sense of -direction _alone_ is not sufficient to enable them to traverse a route -of 200 yards a second time. - -The same result is brought out by other experiments conducted on a -different plan, though not apparently with this object. 'My room is -square, with two windows on the south-west side, where the hive was -placed, and one on the south-east.' Besides the ordinary entrance from -outside, the hive had a small postern door opening into the room. - - At 6.50 a bee came out through the little postern - door. After she had fed, she evidently did not know - her way home; so I put her back. - - At 7.10 she came out again. I again fed her and put - her back. - - At 10.15 she came out a third time; and again I had to - put her back. - - At 10.55 she came out again, and still did not - remember the door. Though I was satisfied that she - really wished to return, and was not voluntarily - remaining outside; still, to make the matter clear, I - turned her out of a side window into the garden, when - she at once returned to the hive. - - At 11.15 she came out again; and again I had to show - her the way back. - - At 11.20 she came out again; and again I had to show - her the way back (this makes five times); when, - however,-- - - At 11.30 she came out again after feeding, she - returned straight to the hive. - - At 11.40 she came out, fed, and returned straight to - the hive. - - At 11.50 she came out, fed, and returned straight to - the hive; she then stayed in for some time. - - At 12.30 she came out again, but seemed to have - forgotten the way back; after some time, however, she - found the door and went in. - - Again:--August 24 at 7.20 a bee came through the - postern: I fed her; and though she was not frightened - or disturbed, when she had finished her meal she flew - to the window and had evidently lost her way; so at 8 - o'clock I in pity put her back myself. - - August 29.--A bee came out to the honey at 10.10; at - 10.12 she flew to the window, and remained buzzing - about till 11.12, when, being satisfied that she could - not find her way, I put her in. - - Nay, even those who seemed to know the postern, if - taken near the other window, flew to it, and seemed to - have lost themselves. - - This cost me a great many bees. Those which got into - my room by accident continually died on the floor near - the window. - -These observations show that even when a bee is not _carried_ from the -hive to the honey, but herself _flies_ to it, her sense of direction is -not alone sufficient to enable her to find the way back to the hive--or, -rather, to the unaccustomed entrance to the hive from which she had come -out. Probably if the side window had been open, the bee would have -returned to the hive round the corner of the house, and through the -entrance to which she was most accustomed. But as it was she had to -_learn_, by five or six journeys, the way between the postern entrance -and the food. - -But the following observation on a wasp is in this connection the most -conclusive. - -A marked wasp visited honey exposed in the room before mentioned. 'The -next morning she came-- - - At 7.25, and fed till 7.28, when she began flying - about the room and even into the next; so I thought it - well to put her out of the window, when she flew - straight away to her nest. My room, as already - mentioned, had windows on two sides; and the nest was - in the direction of a closed window, so that the wasp - had to go out of her way in going out through the open - one. - - At 7.45 she came back. I had moved the glass - containing the honey about two yards; and though it - stood conspicuously, the wasp seemed to have much - difficulty in finding it. Again she flew to the window - in the direction of her nest, and I had to put her - out, which I did at 8.2. - - At 8.15 she returned to the honey almost straight. - 8.21, she flew again to the closed window, and - apparently could not find her way; so at 8.35 I put - her out again. It seems obvious from this that wasps - have a sense of direction, and do not find their way - merely by sight. - - At 8.50 back to honey, and 8.54 again to wrong window; - but finding it closed, she took two or three turns - round the room, and then flew out through the open - window. - - At 9.24 back to the honey; and 9.27 away, first, - however, paying a visit to the wrong window, but - without alighting. - - At 9.36 back to the honey, and 9.39 away, but, as before, going - first to wrong window. - She was away therefore 9 minutes. - 9.50 " 9.53 away, this time straight. " 11 " - 10 " 10. 7 " " 11 " - 10.19 " 10.22 " " 12 " - 10.35 " 10.39 " " 13 " - 10.47 " 10.50 " " 9 " - 11. 4 " 11. 7 " " 14 " - 11.21 " 11.24 " " 14 " - 11.34 " 11.37 " " 10 " - 11.49 " 11.52 " " 1 " - 12. 3 " 12. 5 " Away therefore 11 minutes. - 12.13 " 12.15½ " " 8 " - 12.25 " 12.28 " " 10 " - 12.39 " 12.43 " " 11 " - 12.54 " 12.57 " " 11 " - 1.15 " 1.19 " " 18 " - 1.27 " 1.30 " " 8 minutes,' - &c., &c., the way being now clearly well learnt. - -But that the sense of direction is of much service to bees in finding -the locality of their hives seems to be indicated by the following -observation thus narrated, on the authority of the authors themselves, -by Messrs. Kirby and Spence:-- - - In vain, during my stay at St. Nicholas, I sallied out - at every outlet to try to gain some idea of the extent - and form of the town. Trees, trees, trees, still met - me, and intercepted the view in every direction; and I - defy any inhabitant bee of this rural metropolis, - after once quitting its hive, ever to gain a glimpse - of it again until nearly perpendicularly over it. The - bees, therefore, . . . must be led to their abodes by - instinct, &c. - -The observation, however, is not so conclusive as its authors suppose; -for there is nothing to show that the bees did not take note of -particular objects on their accustomed routes, and so learn these routes -by stages. It would be worth while in this connection to try the effect -of hooding the eyes of a bee, or, if this were deemed too disturbing an -experiment, removing the hive bodily to a distance from its accustomed -site, and observing whether the bees start away boldly as before for -long flights, or learn their new routes by stages. - -In this connection I may quote the following. - -Mr. John Topham, of Marlborough House, Torquay, writing to 'Nature,'[46] -says:-- - - On October 29, 1873, I removed a hive of bees in my - garden, after it was quite dark, for a distance of 12 - yards from the place in which it had stood for several - months; and between its original situation and the new - one there was a bushy evergreen tree, so that all - sight of its former place was obstructed to a person - looking from the new situation of the hive. - - Notwithstanding this change, the bees every day flew - to the locality where they formerly lived, and - continued flying around the site of what had been - their home until, as night came on, they many of them - sank upon the grass exhausted and chilled by the cold. - Numbers, however, returned alive to their new - position, after having looked in vain for their hive - in its old place. At night I picked the exhausted bees - up, and having restored warmth to them (by leaving - them for a time on my coat-sleeve), I returned them to - their companions. - - Here was an illustration that the faculty of memory - was superior to that of observation; but that was not - all. Nearly every bee which I picked up during the 23 - days through which this effort of memory lasted was an - _old one_, as was easily deduced from observing the - worn edges of the wings; showing that whilst the young - insects were quick in receiving new impressions and in - correcting errors, the nervous system of the old bees - continued _acting in the direction which early habit - had effected_. So true it is that 'one touch of nature - makes the whole world kin.' - -A closely similar observation has been told me by a friend, Mr. George -Turner. He found that when he removed a beehive only a yard or two from -its accustomed site, the bees, on returning home, flew in swarms around -the latter, and for a long time were unable to find the hive. And -several other similar cases might be adduced. Lastly, Thompson says:-- - - It is highly remarkable that they [bees] know their - hive more from its locality than from its appearance, - for if it be removed during their absence and a - similar one be substituted, they enter the strange - one. If the position of a hive be changed, the bees - for the first day take no distant flight till they - have thoroughly scrutinised every object in its - neighbourhood.[47] - -On the other hand, the writer of the article on 'Bees' in the -'Encyclopædia Britannica' says that in certain parts of France it is the -habit of bee-keepers to place a number of hives upon a boat, which, in -charge of a man, floats slowly down a river. The bees are thus -continuously changing their pasture-ground, and yet do not lose their -locomotive hives. - -It may be here worth while to add, parenthetically, as the only -authentic observation with which I am acquainted concerning the distance -that bees are accustomed to forage, the following statement of Prof. -Hugh Blackburn. Writing from Glasgow University to 'Nature,'[48] he says -that bees are found in a certain peach-house every spring at the time of -blossom, although, so far as he can ascertain, the beehives nearest to -the peach-house in question are his own, and these are at a distance of -ten miles. - -On the whole, then, and in the absence of further experiments, we must -conclude it to be probable that the sense of direction with which -hymenopterous insects are, as shown by some of Sir John Lubbock's -experiments, unquestionably endowed, is of no small use to them in -finding their way from home to food and _vice versâ_; although it -appears certain, from other of his experiments, that this sense of -direction is not in all cases a sufficient guide, and therefore requires -to be supplemented by the definite observation of landmarks. - -But the most conclusive evidence on this latter point is afforded by a -highly interesting observation of Mr. Bates on the sand-wasps at -Santurem, which may here be suitably introduced, as the insects are not -distantly allied. He describes these animals as always taking a few -turns in the air round the hole they had made in the sand before leaving -to seek for flies in the forest, apparently in order to mark well the -position of the burrow, so that on their return they might find it -without difficulty. This observation has been since confirmed in a -striking manner by Mr. Belt, who found that the sand-wasp takes the most -precise bearings of an object the position of which she desires to -remember. This observation is so interesting that it deserves to be -rendered _in extenso_:-- - - A specimen of _Polistes carnifex_ (_i.e._ the - sand-wasp noticed by Mr. Bates) was hunting about for - caterpillars in my garden. I found one about an inch - long, and held it out towards it on the point of a - stick. It seized it immediately, and commenced biting - it from head to tail, soon reducing the soft body to a - mass of pulp. It rolled up about one-half of it into a - ball, and prepared to carry it off. Being at the time - amidst a thick mass of a fine-leaved climbing plant, - it proceeded, before flying away, to take note of the - place where it was leaving the other half. To do this, - it hovered in front of it for a few seconds, then took - small circles in front of it, then larger ones round - the whole plant. I thought it had gone, but it - returned again, and had another look at the opening in - the dense foliage down which the other half of the - caterpillar lay. It then flew away, but must have left - its burden for distribution with its comrades at the - nest, for it returned in less than two minutes, and - making one circle around the bush, descended to the - opening, alighted on a leaf, and ran inside. The green - remnant of the caterpillar was lying on another leaf - inside, but not connected with the one on which the - wasp alighted, so that in running in it missed it, and - soon got hopelessly lost in the thick foliage. Coming - out again, it took another circle, and pounced down on - the same spot again, as soon as it came opposite to - it. Three small seed-pods, which here grew close - together, formed the marks that I had myself taken to - note the place, and these the wasp seemed also to have - taken as its guide, for it flew directly down to them, - and ran inside; but the small leaf on which the - fragment of caterpillar lay not being directly - connected with any on the outside, it again missed it, - and again got far away from the object of its search. - It then flew out again, and the same process was - repeated again and again. Always when in circling - round it came in sight of the seed-pods down it - pounced, alighted near them, and recommenced its quest - on foot. I was surprised at its perseverance, and - thought it would have given up the search; but not so, - it returned at least half-a-dozen times, and seemed to - get angry, hurrying about with buzzing wings. At last - it stumbled across its prey, seized it eagerly, and as - there was nothing more to come back for, flew straight - off to its nest, without taking any further note of - the locality. Such an action is not the result of - blind instinct, but of a thinking mind; and it is - wonderful to see an insect so differently constructed - using a mental process similar to that of man. - - -_Memory._ - -We may here first allude to an observation of Sir John Lubbock already -quoted in another connexion (see p. 147). It is here evident that the -wasp, after finding the store of honey in the room, and after finding -the window closed in the 'wasp-line' direction to its nest, required -three repeated _lessons_ from Sir John before she _learnt_ that the -window on the other side of the room, and away from the direction of her -nest, afforded no obstacle to her exit. Having learnt this, the fourth -time she came she again flew to the closed window as before, and then, -as if but dimly remembering that there was another opening somewhere -that offered no such mysterious resistance to her passage, 'she took two -or three turns round the room, and then flew out through the open -window.' Having now taken the bearings of all the room upon her own -wings, and having again found the difference between the two windows in -respect of resistance, although in all other respects so much alike, the -next time she came she made in the first instance as it were an -experimental flight towards the closed window, but clearly had the -alternative of going to the open one in her memory; for on finding the -window closed as before, she did not alight, but flew straight from the -closed to the open window. The same thing happened once again, but now, -with the distinction between the two windows thus fully learnt, and with -it the perception that in this case 'the shortest cut was the longest -way round,' she never again flew to the closed window; in the forty -successive visits which she paid through the remainder of that day, and -the hundred visits or so which she made during the two following days, -she seems to have uniformly flown to the open window. - -As evidence of _forgetfulness_, it will be enough to refer to the case -of another wasp which, under precisely similar circumstances to those -just detailed, learnt her way out of the open window one day, having -made fifty passages through it in five hours. Yet Sir John remarks,-- - - It struck me as curious that on the following day this - wasp seemed by no means so sure of her way, but over - and over again went to the closed window. - -It is further of interest to note, as showing the similarity of the -memory displayed by these insects with that of the higher animals, that -there are considerable individual differences to be found in the degree -of its manifestation. - - In this respect they certainly differ considerably. - Some of the bees which came out of the little postern - door (already described) were able to find their way - back after it had been shown to them a few times. - Others were much more stupid; thus one bee came out on - the 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, - 18th, and 19th, and came to the honey; but though I - repeatedly put her back through the postern, she was - never able to find her way for herself. - - I often found that if bees which were brought to honey - did not return at once, still they would do so a day - or two afterwards. For instance, on July 11, 1874, a - hot thundery day, and when the bees were much out of - humour, I brought twelve bees to some honey; only one - came back, and that one only twice; but on the - following day several of them returned. - -This latter observation is important, as proving that bees can remember -for at least a whole day the locality where they have found honey only -once before, and that they so far think about their past experiences as -to return to that locality when foraging. - -As the association of ideas by contiguity is the principle which forms -the basis of all psychology, it is desirable to consider still more -attentively this the earliest manifestation that we have of it in the -memory of the Hymenoptera. That it is not exercised with exclusive -reference to _locality_ is proved by the following observation of Sir -John Lubbock:-- - - I kept a specimen of _Polistes Gallica_ for no less - than nine months.[49] . . . I had no difficulty in - inducing her to feed on my hand; but at first she was - shy and nervous. She kept her sting in constant - readiness. . . . Gradually she became quite used to me, - and when I took her on my hand apparently expected to - be fed. She even allowed me to stroke her without any - appearance of fear, and for some months I never saw - her sting. - -One other observation which goes to prove that other things besides -locality are noted and remembered by bees may here be quoted. Sir John -placed a bee in a bell jar, the closed end of which he held towards a -window. The bee buzzed about at that end trying to make for the open -air. He then showed her the way out of the open end of the jar, and -after having thus learnt it, she was able to find the way out herself. -This seems to show that the bee, like the wasp on the closed -window-pane, was able to appreciate and to remember the difference -between the quality of glass as resisting and air as permeable, although -to her sense of vision the difference must have been very slight. In -other words, the bee must have remembered that by first flying _away_ -from the window, round the edge of the jar, and then _towards_ the -window, she could surmount the transparent obstacle; and this implies a -somewhat different act of memory from that of associating a particular -object--such as honey--with a particular locality. It is noteworthy that -a fly under similar circumstances did not require to be taught to find -its way out of the jar, but spontaneously found its own way out. This, -however, may be explained by the fact that flies do not always direct -their flight towards windows, and therefore the escape of this one was -probably not due to any act of intelligence. - -While upon the subject of memory in the Hymenoptera, it is indispensable -that we should again refer to the observation of Messrs. Belt and Bates -already alluded to on pages 150-51. For it is from that observation -rendered evident that these sand-wasps took definite pains, as it were, -to _teach themselves_ the localities to which they desired to return. -Mr. Bates further observed that after thus taking a careful mental note -of the place, they would return to it without a moment's hesitation -after an absence of an hour. The observation of Mr. Belt, already quoted -_in extenso_, proves that these mental notes may be taken with the -utmost minuteness, so that even in the most intricate places the insect, -on its return, is perfectly confident that it has not made a mistake. - -With regard to the duration of memory, Stickney relates a case in which -some bees took possession of a hollow place beneath a roof, and having -been then removed into a hive, continued for several years to return and -occupy the same hole with their successive swarms.[50] - -Similarly Huber relates an observation of his own showing the duration -of memory in bees. One autumn he put some honey in a window, which the -bees visited in large numbers. During the winter the honey was taken -away and the shutters shut. When they were again opened in the spring -the bees returned, although there was no honey in the window. - -These two cases amply prove that the memory of bees is comparable with -that of ants, which, as we have seen from analogous facts, also extends -at least over a period of many months. - - -_Emotions._ - -Sir John Lubbock's experiments on this head go to show that the social -sympathies of bees are even less developed than he found them to be in -certain species of ants. Thus he says:-- - - I have already mentioned with reference to the - attachment which bees have been said to show for one - another, that though I have repeatedly seen them lick - a bee which had smeared herself in honey, I never - observed them show the slightest attention to any of - their comrades who had been drowned in water. Far, - indeed, from having been able to discover any evidence - of affection among them, they appear to be thoroughly - callous and utterly indifferent to one another. As - already mentioned, it was necessary for me - occasionally to kill a bee; but I never found that the - others took the slightest notice. Thus on the 11th of - October I crushed a bee close to one which was - feeding--in fact, so close that their wings touched; - yet the survivor took no notice whatever of the death - of her sister, but went on feeding with every - appearance of composure and enjoyment, just as if - nothing had happened. When the pressure was removed, - she remained by the side of the corpse without the - slightest appearance of apprehension, sorrow, or - recognition. It was, of course, impossible for her to - understand my reason for killing her companion; yet - neither did she feel the slightest emotion at her - sister's death, nor did she show any alarm lest the - same fate should befall her also. In a second case - exactly the same occurred. Again, I have several - times, while a bee has been feeding, held a second bee - by the leg close to her; the prisoner, of course, - struggled to escape, and buzzed as loudly as she - could; yet the selfish eater took no notice whatever. - So far, therefore, from being at all affectionate, I - doubt whether bees are in the least fond of one - another. - -Réaumur, however ('Insects,' vol. v., p. 265), narrates a case in which -a hive-bee was partly drowned and so rendered insensible; the others in -the hive carefully licked and otherwise tended her till she recovered. -This seems to show that bees, like ants, are more apt to have their -sympathies aroused by the sight of ailing or injured companions than by -that of healthy companions in distress; but Sir John Lubbock's -observations above quoted go to prove that even in this case display of -sympathy is certainly not the rule. - - -_Powers of Communication._ - -Huber says that when one wasp finds a store of honey 'it returns to its -nest, and brings off in a short time a hundred other wasps;' and this -statement is confirmed by Dujardin, who witnessed a somewhat similar -performance in the case of bees--the individual which first found a -concealed store informing other individuals of the fact, and so on till -numberless individuals had found it. - -Although the systematic experiments of Sir John Lubbock have not tended -to confirm these observations with regard to bees and wasps, we must not -too readily allow his negative results to discredit these positive -observations--more especially as we have seen that his _later_ -experiments have fully confirmed the opinion of these previous authors -with respect to ants. His experiments on bees and wasps consisted in -exposing honey in a hidden situation, marking a bee or wasp that came to -it, and observing whether it afterwards brought any companions to share -the booty. He found that although the same insect would return over and -over again, strangers came so rarely that their visits could only be -attributed to accidental and independent discovery. Only if the honey -were in an exposed situation, where the insects could _see_ one another -feeding, would one follow the other to the food. - -But we have the more reason not to accept unreservedly the conclusion -to which these experiments in themselves might lead, because the very -able observer F. Müller states an observation of his own which must be -considered as alone sufficient to prove that bees are able to -communicate information to one another:-- - - Once (he says[51]) I assisted at a curious contest, - which took place between the queen and the other bees - in one of my hives, which throws some light on the - intellectual faculties of these animals. A set of - forty-seven cells have been filled, eight on a newly - completed comb, thirty-five on the following, and four - around the first cell of a new comb. When the queen - had laid eggs in all the cells of the two older combs - she went several times round their circumference (as - she always does, in order to ascertain whether she has - not forgotten any cell), and then prepared to retreat - into the lower part of the breeding-room. But as she - had overlooked the four cells of the new comb, the - workers ran impatiently from this part to the queen, - pushing her, in an odd manner, with their heads, as - they did also other workers they met with. In - consequence the queen began again to go around on the - two older combs; but as she did not find any cell - wanting an egg she tried to descend, but everywhere - she was pushed back by the workers. This contest - lasted for a rather long while, till the queen escaped - without having completed her work. Thus the workers - knew how to advise the queen that something was as yet - to be done, but they knew not how to show her _where_ - it had to be done. - -Again, Mr. Josiah Emery, writing to 'Nature,'[52] with reference to Sir -John Lubbock's experiments, says that the faculty of communication which -bees possess is so well and generally known to the 'bee-hunters' of -America, that the recognised method of finding a bees' nest is to act -upon the faculty in question:-- - - Going to a field or wood at a distance from tame bees, - with their box of honey they gather up from the - flowers and imprison one or more bees, and after they - have become sufficiently gorged, let them out to - return to their home with their easily gotten load. - Waiting patiently a longer or shorter time, according - to the distance of the bee-tree, the hunter scarcely - ever fails to see the bee or bees return accompanied - with other bees, which are in like manner imprisoned - till they in turn are filled, when one or more are - let out at places distant from each other, and the - direction in each case in which the bee flies noted, - and thus, by a kind of triangulation, the position of - the bee-tree proximately ascertained. - - Those who have stored honey in their houses understand - very well how important it is to prevent a single bee - from discovering its location. Such discovery is sure - to be followed by a general onslaught from the hive - unless all means of access is prevented. It is - possible that our American are more intelligent than - European bees, but hardly probable; and I certainly - shall not ask an Englishman to admit it. Those in - America who are in the habit of playing first, second, - and third fiddle to instinct will probably attribute - this seeming intelligence to that principle. - -According to De Fravière, bees have a number of different notes or tones -which they emit from the stigmata of the thorax and abdomen, and by -which they communicate information. He says:-- - - As soon as a bee arrives with important news, it is at - once surrounded, emits two or three shrill notes, and - taps a comrade with its long, flexible, and very - slender feelers, or antennæ. The friend passes on the - news in similar fashion, and the intelligence soon - traverses the whole hive. If it is of an agreeable - kind--if, for instance, it concerns the discovery of a - store of sugar or of honey, or of a flowering - meadow--all remains orderly. But, on the other hand, - great excitement arises if the news presages some - threatened danger, or if strange animals are - threatening invasion of the hive. It seems that such - intelligence is conveyed first to the queen, as the - most important person in the state. - -This account, which is quoted from Büchner, no doubt bears indications -of imaginative colouring; but if the observation as to the emission of -sounds is correct--and, as we shall see, this point is well confirmed by -other observers--it is most likely concerned in communicating by tone a -general idea of good or harm: probably in the former case it acts as a -sign, 'follow me;' and in the latter as a signal of danger. Büchner -further says that, according to Landois, if a saucer of honey is placed -before a hive, a few bees come out, which emit a cry of tut, tut, tut. -This note is rather shrill, and resembles the cry of an attacked bee. -Hereupon a large number of bees come out of the hive to collect the -offered honey. - -Again,-- - - The best way to observe the power of communication - possessed by bees by means of their interchange of - touches, is to take away the queen from a hive. In a - little time, about an hour afterwards, the sad event - will be noticed by a small part of the community, and - these will stop working and run hastily about over the - comb. But this only concerns part of the hive, and the - side of a single comb. The excited bees, however, soon - leave the little circle in which they at first - revolved, and when they meet their comrades they cross - their antennæ and lightly touch the others with them. - The bees which have received some impression from this - touch now become uneasy in their turn, and convey - their uneasiness and distress in the same way to the - other parts of the dwelling. The disorder increases - rapidly, spreads to the other side of the comb, and at - last to all the people. Then arises the general - confusion before described. - - Huber tested this communication by the antennæ by a - striking experiment. He divided a hive into two quite - separate parts by a partition wall, whereupon great - excitement arose in the division in which there was no - queen, and this was only quieted when some workers - began to build royal cells. - - He then divided a hive in similar fashion by a - trellis, through which the bees could pass their - feelers. In this case all remained quiet, and no - attempt was made to build royal cells: the queen could - also be clearly seen crossing her antennæ with the - workers on the other side of the trellis. - - Apparently the feelers are also connected with the - exceedingly fine scent of the bees, which enables - them, wonderful as it may seem, to distinguish friend - and foe, and to recognise the members of their own - hive among the thousands and thousands of bees - swarming around, and to drive back from the entrance - stranger or robber bees. The bee-masters, therefore, - when they want two separate colonies or the members of - them to unite in one hive, sprinkle water over the - bees, or stupefy them with some fumigating substance, - so as to make them to a certain extent insensible to - smell, in order to attain their object. It is always - possible to unite colonies by making the bees smell of - some strong-smelling stuff, such as musk.[53] - -Lastly, under the present heading I shall quote one other observation, -for which I am also indebted to Büchner's very admirable collection of -facts relating to the psychology of Hymenoptera:-- - - Herr L. Brofft relates, in 'der Zoologische Garten' - (XVIII. Year, No. 1, p. 67), that a poor and a rich - hive stood next each other on his father's bee stand, - and the latter suddenly lost its queen. Before the - owner had come to a decision thereupon the bees of the - two hives came to a mutual understanding as to the - condition of their two states. The dwellers in the - queenless hive, with their stores of provisions, went - over into the less populous or poorer hive, after they - had assured themselves, by many influential - deputations, as to the state of the interior of the - poor hive, and, as appeared, especially as to the - presence of an egg-laying queen! - - -_General Habits._ - -The active life of bees is divided between collecting food and rearing -young. We shall therefore consider these two functions separately. - -The food collected consists of two kinds, honey (which, although stored -in the 'crop' for the purpose of carriage from the flowers to the cells, -appears to be but the condensed nectar of flowers) and so-called -'bee-bread.' This consists of the pollen of flowers, which is worked -into a kind of paste by the bees and stored in their cells till it is -required to serve as food for their larvæ. It is then partly digested by -the nurses with honey, so that a sort of chyle is formed. It is -observable that in each flight the 'carrier bees' collect only one kind -of pollen, so that it is possible for the 'house bees' (which, by the -way, are the younger bees left at home to discharge domestic duties with -only a small proportion of older ones, left probably to direct the more -inexperienced young) to sort it for storage in different cells. In the -result there are several different kinds of bee-bread, some being more -stimulating or nutritious than others. The most nutritious has the -effect, when given to any female larva, of developing that larva into a -queen or fertile female. This fact is well known to the bees, who only -feed a small number of larvæ in this manner, and the larvæ which they -select so to feed they place in larger or 'royal' cells, with an obvious -foreknowledge of the increased dimensions to which the animal will grow -under the influence of this food. Only one queen is required for a -single hive; but the bees always raise several, so that if any mishap -should occur to one, other larvæ may be ready to fall back upon. - -Besides honey and bee-bread two other substances are found in beehives. -These are propolis and beeswax. The former is a kind of sticky resin -collected for the most part from coniferous trees. This is used as -mortar in building, &c. It adheres so strongly to the legs of the bee -which has gathered it, that it can only be detached by the help of -comrades. For this purpose the loaded bee presents her legs to her -fellow-workers, who clean it off with their jaws, and while it is still -ductile, apply it round the inside of the hive. According to Huber, who -made this observation, the propolis is applied also to the insides of -the cells. The workers first planed the surfaces with their mandibles, -and one of them then pulled out a thread of propolis from the heap -deposited by the carrier bees, severed it by a sudden throwing back of -the head, and returned with it to the cell which it had previously been -planing. It then laid the thread between the two walls which it had -planed; but, proving too long, a portion of the thread was bitten off. -The properly measured portion was then forced into the angle of the cell -by the fore-feet and mandibles. The thread, now converted into a narrow -ribbon, was next found to be too broad. It was therefore gnawed down to -the proper width. Other bees then completed the work which this one had -begun, till all the walls of the cells were framed with bands of -propolis. The object of the propolis here seems to be that of giving -strength to the cells. - -The wax is a secretion which proceeds from between the segments of the -abdomen. Having ingested a large meal of honey, the bees hang in a thick -cluster from the top of their hive in order to secrete the wax. When it -begins to exude, the bees, assisted by their companions, rub it off into -heaps, and when a sufficient quantity of the material has been thus -collected, the work begins of building the cells. As the cells are used -both for storing food and rearing young, I shall consider them later -on. Now we have to pass to the labours incidental to propagation. - -All the eggs are laid by one queen, who requires during this season a -large amount of nourishment, so much, indeed, that ten or twelve working -bees (_i.e._ sterile females) are set apart as her feeders. Leaving the -'royal cell,' she walks over the nursery-combs attended by a retinue of -workers, and drops a single egg into each open cell. It is a highly -remarkable fact that the queen is able to control the sex of the eggs -which she lays, and only deposits drone or male eggs in the drone cells, -and worker or female eggs in the worker cells--the cells prepared for -the reception of drone larvæ being larger than those required for the -worker larvæ. Young queens lay more worker eggs than old queens, and -when a queen, from increasing age or any other cause, lays too large a -proportion of drone eggs, she is expelled from the community or put to -death. It is remarkable, also, under these circumstances, that the queen -herself seems to know that she has become useless, for she loses her -propensity to attack other queens, and so does not run the risk of -making the hive virtually queenless. There is now no doubt at all that -the determining cause of an egg turning out male or female is that -which Dzierzon has shown, namely, the absence or presence of -fertilisation--unfertilised eggs always developing into males, and -fertilised ones into females. The manner, therefore, in which a queen -controls the sex of her eggs must depend on some power that she has of -controlling their fertilisation. - -The eggs hatch out into larvæ, which require constant attention from the -workers, who feed them with the chyle or bee-bread already mentioned. In -three weeks from the time that the egg is deposited, the white worm-like -larva has passed through its last metamorphosis. When it has emancipated -itself its nurses assemble round it to wash and caress it, as well as to -supply it with food. They then clean out the cell which it has left. - -When so large a number of the larvæ hatch out as to overcrowd the hive, -it is the function of the queen to lead forth a swarm. Meanwhile several -larval queens have been in course of development, and matters are so -arranged by the foresight of the bees, that one or more young queens are -ready to emerge at a time when otherwise the hive would be left -queenless. But the young queen or queens, although perfectly formed, -must not escape from their royal prison-houses until the swarm has -fairly taken place; the worker bees will even strengthen the coverings -of these prison-houses if, owing to bad weather or other causes, -swarming is delayed. The prisoner queens, which are fed through a small -hole in the roof of their cells, now continually give vent to a -plaintive cry, called by the bee-keepers 'piping,' and this is answered -by the mother queen. The tones of the piping vary. The reason why the -young queens are kept such close prisoners till after the departure of -the mother queen with her swarm, is simply that the mother queen would -destroy all the younger ones, could she get the chance, by stinging -them. The workers, therefore, never allow the old queen to approach the -prisons of the younger ones. They establish a guard all round these -prisons or royal cells, and beat off the old queen whenever she -endeavours to approach. But if the swarming season is over, or anything -should prevent a further swarm from being sent out, the worker bees -offer no further resistance to the jealousy of the mother queen, but -allow her in cold blood to sting to death all the young queens in their -nursery prisons. As soon as the old queen leaves with a swarm, the young -queens are liberated in succession, but at intervals of a few days; for -if they were all liberated at once they would fall upon and destroy one -another. Each young queen as it is liberated goes off with another -swarm, and those which remain unliberated are as carefully guarded from -the liberated sister queen as they were previously guarded from the -mother queen. When the season is too late for swarming the remaining -young queens are liberated simultaneously, and are then allowed to fight -to the death, the survivor being received as sovereign. - - The bees, far from seeking to prevent these battles, - appear to excite the combatants against each other, - surrounding and bringing them back to the charge when - they are disposed to recede from each other; and when - either of the queens shows a disposition to approach - her antagonist, all the bees forming the cluster - instantly give way to allow her full liberty of - attack. The first use which the conquering queen makes - of her victory is to secure herself against fresh - dangers by destroying all her future rivals in the - royal cells; while the other bees, which are - spectators of the carnage, share in the spoil, - greedily devouring any food which may be found at the - bottom of the cells, and even sucking the fluid from - the abdomen of the pupæ before they toss out the - carcasses.[54] - -Similarly, when a strange queen is put into a hive already provided with -a queen-- - - A circle of bees instinctively crowd around the - invader, not, however, to attack her--for a worker - never assaults a queen--but to respectfully prevent - her escape, in order that a combat may take place - between her and their reigning monarch. The lawful - possessor then advances towards the part of the comb - where the invader has established herself, the - attendant workers clear a space for the encounter, - and, without interfering, wait the result. A fearful - encounter then ensues, in which one is stung to death, - the survivor mounting the throne. Although the workers - of a _de facto_ monarch will not fight for her - defence, yet, if they perceive a strange queen - _attempting_ to enter the hive, they will surround - her, and hold her until she is starved to death; but - such is their respect for royalty that they never - attempt to sting her.[55] - -All these facts display a wonderful amount of apparently sagacious -purpose on the part of the workers, although they may not seem to -reflect much credit on the intelligence of the queens. But in this -connection we must remember the observation of F. Huber, who saw two -queens, which were the only ones left in the hive, engaged in mortal -combat; and when an opportunity arose for each to sting the other -simultaneously, they simultaneously released each other's grasp, as if -in horror of a situation that might have ended in leaving the hive -queenless. This, then, is the calamity to avert which all the instincts -both of workers and queens are directed. And that these instincts are -controlled by intelligence is suggested, if not proved, by the -adaptations which they show to special circumstances. Thus, for -instance, F. Huber smoked a hive so that the queen and older bees -effected their escape, and took up their quarters a short distance away. -The bees which remained behind set about constructing three royal cells -for the purpose of rearing a new queen. Huber now carried back the old -queen and ensconced her in the hive. Immediately the bees set about -carrying away all the food from the royal cells, in order to prevent the -larvæ contained therein from developing into queens. Again, if a strange -queen is presented to a hive already provided with one, the workers do -not wait for their own queen to destroy the pretender, but themselves -sting or smother her to death. When, on the other hand, a queen is -presented to a hive which is without one, the bees adopt her, although -it is often necessary for the bee-master to protect her for a day or two -in a trellis cage, until her subjects have become acquainted with her. -When a hive is queenless, the bees stop all work, become restless, and -make a dull complaining noise. This, however, is only the case if there -is likewise a total absence of royal pupæ, and of ordinary pupæ under -three days of age--_i.e._ the age during which it is possible to rear an -ordinary larva into a queen. - -As soon as the queen has been fertilised, and the services of the drones -therefore no longer required, the worker bees fall upon their -unfortunate and defenceless brothers to kill them, either by direct -stinging or by throwing them out of the hive to perish in the cold. The -drones' cells are then torn down, and any remaining drone eggs or pupæ -destroyed. Generally all the drones--which may number more than a -thousand--are slaughtered in the course of a single day. Evidently the -object of this massacre is that of getting rid of useless mouths; but -there is a more difficult question as to why these useless mouths ever -came into existence. It has been suggested that the enormous -disproportion between the present number of males and the single fertile -female refers to a time before the social instincts became so complex -or consolidated, and when, therefore, bees lived in lesser communities. -Probably this is the explanation, although I think we might still have -expected that before this period in their evolution had arrived bees -might have developed a compensating instinct, either not to allow the -queen to lay so many drone eggs, or else to massacre the drones while -still in the larval state. But here we must remember that among the -wasps the males do work (chiefly domestic work, for which they are fed -by their foraging sisters); so it is possible that in the hive-bee the -drones were originally useful members of the community, and that they -have lost their primitively useful instincts. But whatever the -explanation, it is very curious that here, among the animals which are -justly regarded as exhibiting the highest perfection of instinct, we -meet with perhaps the most flagrant instance in the animal kingdom of -instinct unperfected. It is the more remarkable that the drone-killing -instinct should not have been better developed in the direction of -killing the drones at the most profitable time--namely, in their larval -or oval state--from the fact that in many respects it seems to have been -advanced to a high degree of discriminative refinement. Thus, to quote -Büchner,-- - - That the massacre of the drones is not performed - entirely from an instinctive impulse, but in full - consciousness of the object to be gained, is proved by - the circumstance that it is carried out the more - completely and mercilessly the more fertile the queen - shows herself to be. But in cases where this fertility - is subject to serious doubt, or when the queen has - been fertilised too late or not at all, and therefore - only lays drones' eggs, or when the queen is barren, - and new queens, to be fertilised later, have to be - brought up from working-bee larvæ, then all or some of - the drones are left alive, in the clear prevision that - their services will be required later. . . . This wise - calculation of consequences is further exemplified in - that sometimes the massacre of the drones takes place - before the time for swarming, as, for instance, when - long-continued unfavourable weather succeeds a - favourable beginning of spring, and makes the bees - anxious for their own welfare. If, however, the - weather breaks, and work again becomes possible, so - that the bees take courage anew, they then bring up - new drones, and prepare them in time for the swarming. - This killing of drones is distinguished from the - regular drone massacre by the fact that the bees then - only kill the developed drones, and leave the drone - larvæ, save when absolute hunger compels their - destruction. Not less can it be regarded as a prudent - calculation of circumstances when the bees of a hive, - brought from our temperate climate to a more southern - country, where the time of collecting lasts longer, do - not kill the drones in August, as usual, but at a - later period, suitable to the new conditions. - -But the philosophy of drone-killing is, I think, even more difficult in -the case of the wasps than in that of the bees. For, unlike the bees, -whose communities live from year to year, the wasps all perish at the -end of autumn, with the exception of a very few fertilised females. As -this season of universal calamity approaches, the workers destroy all -the larval grubs--a proceeding which, in the opinion of some writers, -strikingly exemplifies the beneficence of the Deity! Now, it does not -appear to me easy to understand how the presence of such an instinct in -this case is to be explained. For, on the one hand, the individual -females which are destined to live through the winter cannot be -conspicuously benefited by this slaughter of grubs; and, on the other -hand, the rest of the community is so soon about to perish, that one -fails to see of what advantage it can be to it to get rid of the grubs. -If the whole human race, with the exception of a few women, were to -perish periodically once in a thousand years, the race would profit -nothing by destroying, a few months before the end of each millennium, -all sick persons, lunatics, and other 'useless mouths.' I have not seen -this difficulty with regard to the massacring instinct in wasps -mentioned before, and I only mention it now in order to draw attention -to the fact that there seems to be a more puzzling problem presented -here than in the case of the analogous instinct as exhibited by bees. -The only solution which has suggested itself to my mind is the -possibility that in earlier times, or in other climates, wasps may have -resembled bees in living through the winter, and that the grub-slaying -instinct is in them a survival of one which was then, as in the case of -the bees now, a clearly beneficial instinct. - -For some days before swarming begins, there is a great excitement and -buzzing in the hive, the temperature of which rises from 92° to 104°. -Scouts having been previously sent out to explore for suitable quarters -wherein to plant the new colony, these now act as guides. The swarm -leaves the hive with their queen. The bees which remain behind busy -themselves in rearing out the pupæ, which soon arriving at maturity, -also quit the hive in successive swarms. According to Büchner, -'secondary swarms with young queens send out no scouts, but fly at -random through the air. They clearly lack the experience and prudence of -the older bees.' And, regarding the behaviour of the scouts sent out by -primary swarms, this author says:-- - - M. de Fravière had the opportunity of observing the - manner in which such an examination is carried on, and - with what prudence and accuracy. He placed an empty - beehive, made in a new style, in front of his house, - so that he could exactly watch from his own window - what went on inside and out without disturbance to - himself or to the bees. A single bee came and examined - the building, flying all round it and touching it. It - then let itself down on the board, and walked - carefully and thoroughly over the interior, touching - it continually with its antennæ so as to subject it on - all sides to a thorough investigation. The result of - its examination must have been satisfactory, for after - it had gone away it returned accompanied by a crowd of - some fifty friends, which now together went through - the same process as their guide. This new trial must - also have had a good result, for soon a whole swarm - came, evidently from a distant spot, and took - possession. Still more remarkable is the behaviour of - the scouts when they take possession of a satisfactory - hive or box for an imminent or approaching swarm. - Although it is not yet inhabited they regard it as - their property, watch it and guard it against stranger - bees or other assailants, and busy themselves - earnestly in the most careful cleansing of it, so far - as this cleansing is impossible to the setter up of - the hive. Such a taking possession sometimes occurs - eight days before the entrance of the swarm. - -_Wars._--As with ants, so with bees, the great cause of war is plunder; -and facts now well substantiated by numberless observers concerning -'robber-bees' indicate a large measure of intelligence. These aim at -lessening their labour in collecting honey by plundering the store of -other hives. The robberies may be conducted singly or in concert. When -the thieving propensity is developed only in individual cases, the -thieves cannot rely on force in plundering a foreign state, and so -resort to cautious stealth. 'They show by their whole behaviour--creeping -into the hive with careful vigilance--that they are perfectly conscious -of their bad conduct; whereas the workers belonging to the hive fly in -quickly and openly, and in full consciousness of their right.' If such -solitary burglars are successful in obtaining plunder, their bad example -leads other members of their own community to imitate them; thus it is -that the whole bee-nation may develop marauding habits, and when they do -this they act in concert to rob by force. In this case an army of bees -precipitates itself upon the foreign hive, a battle ensues, and if -successful in overcoming resistance, the invaders first of all search -out the queen-bee and put her to death, whereby they disorganise their -enemies and plunder the hive with ease. It is observed that when this -policy is once successful, the spirit of aggrandisement is encouraged, -so that the robber-bees 'find more pleasure in robbery than in their own -work, and become at last formidable robber-states.' When an invaded hive -is fairly overcome by the invaders killing the queen, the owners of the -hive, finding that all is lost, not only abandon further resistance, but -very often reverse their policy and join the ranks of their conquerors. -They assist in the tearing down of their cells, and in the conveyance of -the honey to the hive of their invaders. 'When the assailed hive is -emptied, the next ones are attacked, and if no effective resistance is -offered, are robbed in similar fashion, so that in this way a whole -bee-stand may be gradually destroyed.' Siebold observed the same facts -in the case of wasps (_Polistes gallica_). If, however, the battle turns -in favour of the defenders, they pursue the flying legions of their -enemies to a distance from their home. It sometimes happens that the -plundered hive offers no resistance at all, owing to the robbers having -visited the same flowers as the robbed, and so probably (having much the -same smell) not being recognised as belonging to a different community. -The thieves, when they find such to be the case, may become so bold as -to stop the bees that are returning to the hive with their loads, of -which they deprive them at the entrance of the hive. This is done by a -process which one observer, Weygandt,[56] calls 'milking,' and it seems -that the milking bee attains the double advantage of securing the honey -from the milked one and disarming suspicion of the other bees by -contracting its smell and entering the hive loaded, into which it is -admitted without opposition to continue its plunder. - -Sometimes robber-bees attack their victims in the fields at a distance -from the hives. This sort of highway robbery is generally conducted by a -gang of four or five robber-bees which set upon a single honest bee, -'hold him by the legs, and pinch him until he unfolds his tongue, which -is sucked in succession by his assailants, who then suffer him to depart -in peace.' - -It is strange that hive-bees of dishonest temperaments seem able to coax -or wheedle humble-bees into the voluntary yielding of honey. -'Humble-bees have been known to permit hive-bees to take the whole honey -that they have collected, and to go on gathering more, and handing it -over, for three weeks, although they refuse to part with it, or seek -refuge in flight, when wasps make similar overtures.'[57] - -Besides theft and plunder, there are other causes of warfare among bees, -which, however, are only apparent in their effects. Thus, for some -undiscernible reason, duels are not infrequent, which generally end in -the death of one or both combatants. At other times, equally without -apparent reason, civil war breaks out in a hive, which is sometimes -attended with much slaughter. - -_Architecture._--Coming now to the construction of the cells and combs, -there is no doubt that here we meet with the most astonishing products -of instinct that are presented in the animal kingdom. A great deal has -been written on the practical exhibition of high mathematical principles -which bees display in constructing their combs in the form that secures -the utmost capacity for storage of honey with the smallest expenditure -of building material. The shortest and clearest statement of the subject -that I have met with is the following, which has been given by Dr. -Reid:-- - - There are only three possible figures of the cells - which can make them all equal and similar, without any - useless interstices. These are the equilateral - triangle, the square, and the regular hexagon. - Mathematicians know that there is not a fourth way - possible in which a plane may be cut into little - spaces that shall be equal, similar, and regular, - without useless spaces. Of the three figures, the - hexagon is the most proper for convenience and - strength. Bees, as if they knew this, make their cells - regular hexagons. - - Again, it has been demonstrated that, by making the - bottoms of the cells to consist of three planes - meeting in a point, there is a saving of material and - labour in no way inconsiderable. The bees, as if - acquainted with these principles of solid geometry, - follow them most accurately. It is a curious - mathematical problem, at what precise angle the three - planes which compose the bottom of a cell ought to - meet, in order to make the greatest possible saving, - or the least expense of material and labour. This is - one of the problems which belong to the higher parts - of mathematics. It has accordingly been resolved by - some mathematicians, particularly by the ingenious - Maclaurin, by a fluctionary calculation, which is to - be found in the Transactions of the Royal Society of - London. He has determined precisely the angle - required, and he found, by the most exact mensuration - the subject would admit, that it is the very angle in - which the three planes in the bottom of the cell of a - honeycomb do actually meet.[58] - -Marvellous as these facts undoubtedly are, they may now be regarded as -having been satisfactorily explained. Long ago Buffon sought to account -for the hexagonal form of the cells by an hypothesis of mutual pressure. -Supposing the bees to have a tendency to build tubular cells, if a -greater number of bees were to build in a given space than could admit -of all the parallel tubes being completed, tubes with flat sides and -sharp angles might result, and if the mutual pressure were exactly equal -in all directions, these sides and angles would assume the form of -hexagons. This hypothesis of Buffon was sustained by such physical -analogies as the blowing of a crowd of soap-bubbles in a cup, the -swelling of moistened peas in a confined space, &c. The hypothesis, -however, as thus presented was clearly inadequate; for no reason is -assigned why the mutual pressure, even if conceded to exist, should -always be so exactly equal in all directions as to convert all the -cylinders into perfect hexagons--even the analogy of the soap-bubbles -and the moistened peas failing, as pointed out by Brougham and others, -to sustain it, seeing that as a matter of fact bubbles and peas under -circumstances of mutual pressure do not assume the form of hexagons, -but, on the contrary, forms which are conspicuously irregular. Moreover, -the hypothesis fails to account for the particular prismatic shape -presented by the cell base. Therefore it is not surprising that this -hypothesis should have gained but small acceptance. Kirby and Spence -dispose of it thus:--'He (Buffon) gravely tells us that the boasted -hexagonal cells of the bee are produced by the reciprocal pressure of -the cylindrical bodies of these insects against each other!!'[59] The -double note of admiration here may be taken to express the feelings with -which this hypothesis of Buffon was regarded by all the more -sober-minded naturalists. Yet it turns out to have been not very wide of -the mark. As is often the case with the gropings of a great mind, the -idea contains the true principle of the explanation, although it fails -as an explanation from not being in a position to take sufficient -cognizance of all the facts. Safer it is for lesser minds to restrain -their notes of exclamation while considering the theories of a greater; -however crude or absurd the latter may appear, the place of their birth -renders it not impossible that some day they may prove to have been -prophetic of truth revealed by fuller knowledge. Usually in such cases -the final explanation is eventually reached by the working of a yet -greater mind, and in this case the undivided credit of solving the -problem is to be assigned to the genius of Darwin. - -Mr. Waterhouse pointed out 'that the form of the cell stands in close -relation to the presence of adjoining cells.' Starting from this fact, -Mr. Darwin says,-- - - Let us look to the great principle of gradation, and - see whether Nature does not reveal to us her method of - work. At one end of a short series we have - humble-bees, which use their old cocoons to hold - honey, sometimes adding to them short tubes of wax, - and likewise making separate and very irregular - rounded cells of wax. At the other end of the series - we have the cells of the hive-bee, placed in a double - layer. . . . In the series between the extreme perfection - of the cells of the hive-bee and the simplicity of - those of the humble-bee we have the cells of the - Mexican _Melipona domestica_, carefully described and - figured by Pierre Huber. . . . It forms a nearly regular - waxen comb of cylindrical cells, in which the young - are hatched, and, in addition, some large cells of wax - for holding honey. These latter cells are nearly - spherical and of nearly equal sizes, and are - aggregated into an irregular mass. But the important - thing to notice is, that these cells are always made - at that degree of nearness to each other that they - would have intersected or broken into each other if - the spheres had been completed; but this is never - permitted, the bees building perfectly flat cells of - wax between the spheres which thus tend to intersect. - Hence each cell consists of an outer spherical - portion; and of two, three, or more flat surfaces, - according as the cell adjoins two, three, or more - other cells. When one cell rests on three other cells, - which, from the spheres being nearly of the same size, - is very frequently and necessarily the case, the three - flat surfaces are united into a pyramid; and this - pyramid, as Huber has remarked, is manifestly a gross - imitation of the three-sided pyramidal base of the - cell of the hive-bee. . . . - - Reflecting on this case, it occurred to me that if the - Melipona had made its spheres at some given distance - from each other, and had made them of equal sizes, and - had arranged them symmetrically in a double layer, the - resulting structure would have been as perfect as the - comb of the hive-bee. Accordingly I wrote to Prof. - Miller of Cambridge, and this geometer has kindly read - over the following statement, drawn up from his - information, and tells me that it is strictly correct. - -This statement having fully borne out his theory, Mr. Darwin -continues:-- - - Hence we may safely conclude that, if we could - slightly modify the instincts already possessed by the - Melipona, and in themselves not very wonderful, this - bee would make a structure as wonderfully perfect as - that of the hive-bee. We must suppose the Melipona to - have the power of forming her cells truly spherical, - and of equal sizes; and this would not be very - surprising, seeing that she already does so to a - certain extent, and seeing what perfectly cylindrical - burrows many insects make in wood, apparently by - turning round on a fixed point. We must suppose the - Melipona to arrange her cells in level layers, as she - already does her cylindrical cells; and we must - further suppose--and this is the greatest - difficulty--that she can somehow judge accurately at - what distance to stand from her fellow-labourers when - several are making their spheres; but she is already - so far able to judge of distance that she always - describes her spheres so as to intersect to a certain - extent; and then she unites the points of intersection - by perfectly flat surfaces. By such modifications of - instinct, which in themselves are not very - wonderful--hardly more wonderful than those which - guide a bird to make its nest,--I believe that the - hive-bee has acquired through natural selection her - inimitable architectural powers.[60] - -Mr. Darwin next tested this theory by the experiment of introducing into -beehives plates of wax, and observing that the bees worked upon these -plates just as the theory required. That is to say, they made their -cells by excavating a number of little circular pits at equal distances -from one another, so that by the time the pits had acquired the width of -an ordinary cell, the sides of the pits intersected. As soon as this -occurred the bees ceased to excavate, and instead began to build up flat -walls of wax on the lines of intersection. Other experiments with very -thin plates of vermilion-coloured wax showed that the bees all worked at -about the same rate, and on opposite sides of the plates, so that the -common bottoms of any two opposite pits were flat. These flat bottoms -'were situated, as far as the eye could judge, exactly along the planes -of imaginary intersection between the basins on the opposite sides of -the ridge of wax;' so that if the plate of wax had been thick enough to -admit of the opposite basins being deepened (and widened) into cells, -the mutual intersection of _adjacent_ as well as _opposite_ bottoms -would have given rise, as in the first experiment with the thick plate -of wax, to the pyramidal bottoms. Experiments with the vermilion wax -also showed, as Huber had previously stated, that a number of individual -bees work by turns at the same cell; for by covering parts of growing -cells with vermilion wax, Mr. Darwin-- - - Invariably found that the colour was most delicately - diffused by the bees--as delicately as a painter could - have done it with his brush--by atoms of the coloured - wax having been taken from the spot on which it had - been placed, and worked into the growing edges of the - cells all round. - -Such, omitting details, is the substance of Mr. Darwin's theory. In -summary he concludes,-- - - The work of construction seems to be a sort of balance - struck between many bees, all instinctively standing - at the same relative distance from each other, all - trying to sweep equal spheres, and then building up, - or leaving ungnawed, the planes of intersection - between these spheres. - -This theory, while serving as a full and simple explanation of all the -facts, has, as we have seen, been so fully substantiated by observation -and experiment, that it deserves to be regarded as raised to the rank of -a completed demonstration. It differs from the theory of Buffon in two -important particulars: it embraces all the facts, and supplies a cause -adequate to explain them. This cause is natural selection, which -converts the random 'pressure' in Buffon's theory into a precisely -regulated principle. Random pressure alone could never produce the -beautifully symmetrical form of the hexagonal cell with the pyramidal -bottom; but it could and must have produced the intersection of -cylindrical cells among possibly many extinct species of bees, such as -the Melipona. Whenever this intersection occurred in crowded nests, it -must clearly have been of great benefit in securing economy of precious -wax; for in every case where a flat wall of partition between two -adjacent cells did duty instead of a double cylindrical wall of -separate cells, there wax should have been saved. Thus we can see how -natural selection would have worked towards the developing of an -instinct to excavate cells near enough together to produce intersection; -and once begun, there is no reason why this instinct should not have -been perfected by the same agency, till we meet with its ideal -perfection in the hive-bee. For as Mr. Darwin observes,-- - - With respect to the formation of wax, it is known that - bees are often hard pressed to get sufficient nectar; - and I am informed by Mr. Tegetmeier that it has been - experimentally proved that from twelve to fifteen - pounds of dry sugar are consumed by a hive of bees for - the secretion of a pound of wax; so that a prodigious - quantity of fluid nectar must be collected and - consumed by the bees in a hive for the secretion of - the wax necessary for the construction of their combs. - Moreover, many bees have to remain idle for many days - during the process of secretion. . . . Hence it would - continually be more and more advantageous to our - humble-bees if they were to make their cells more and - more regular, nearer together, and aggregated into a - mass, like the cells of Melipona; for in this case a - large part of the bounding surface of each cell would - serve to bound the adjoining cell, and much labour and - wax would be saved. Again, from the same cause, it - would be advantageous to the Melipona if she were to - make her cells closer together, and more regular in - every way than at present; for then, as we have seen, - the spherical surfaces would wholly disappear and be - replaced by plane surfaces; and the Melipona would - make a comb as perfect as that of the hive-bee. Beyond - this stage of perfection in architecture, natural - selection could not lead; for the comb of the - hive-bee, as far as we can see, is absolutely perfect - in economising labour and wax. - -The problem, then, as to the origin and perfection of the cell-making -instinct appears thus to have been fully and finally solved. I shall now -adduce a few facts to show that while the general instinct of building -hexagonal cells has doubtless been acquired by natural selection in the -way just explained, it is nevertheless an instinct not wholly of a blind -or mechanical kind, but is constantly under the control of intelligent -purpose. Thus Mr. Darwin observes,-- - - It was really curious to note in cases of difficulty, - as when two pieces of comb met at an angle, how often - the bees would pull down and rebuild in different ways - the same cell, sometimes recurring to a shape which - they had at first rejected.[61] - -Again, Huber saw a bee building upon the wax which had already been put -together by her comrades. But she did not arrange it properly, or in a -way to continue the design of her predecessors, so that her building -made an undesirable corner with theirs. 'Another bee perceived it, -pulled down the bad work before our eyes, and gave it to the first in -the requisite order, so that it might exactly follow the original -direction.' Similarly, to quote Büchner,-- - - All the cells have not the same shape, as would be the - case if the bees in building worked according to a - perfectly instinctive and unchangeable plan. There are - very manifold changes and irregularities. Almost in - every comb irregular and unfinished cells are to be - found, especially where the several divisions of a - comb come together. The small architects do not begin - their comb from a single centre, but begin building - from many different points, so as to progress as - rapidly as possible, and so that the greatest number - may work simultaneously; they therefore build from - above downwards, in the shape of flat truncated cones - or hanging pyramids, and these several portions are - afterwards united together during the winter budding. - At these lines of junction it is impossible to avoid - irregular cells between the pressed together or - unnaturally lengthened ones. The same is true more or - less of the passage cells, which are made to unite the - large cells of the so-called drone wax with the - smaller ones of the working bees, and which are - generally placed in two or three rows. The cells also - which they usually build from the combs to the glass - walls of their hives, in order to hold them up, show - somewhat irregular forms. Finally, in places where - special conditions of the situation do not otherwise - permit, it may be observed that the bees, far from - clinging obstinately to their plan, very well - understand how to accommodate themselves to - circumstances not only in cell-building, but also in - making their combs. F. Huber tried to mislead their - instinct, or rather to put to the proof their reason - and cleverness in every possible way, but they always - emerged triumphant from the ordeal. For instance, he - put bees in a hive the floor and roof of which were - made of glass, that is of a body which the bees use - very unwillingly for the attachment of their combs, on - account of its smoothness. Thus the possibility of - building as usual from above downwards, and also from - below upwards, was taken away from them; they had no - point of support save the perpendicular walls of their - dwelling. They thereupon built on one of these walls a - regular stratum of cells, from which, building - sideways, they tried to carry the comb to the opposite - side of the hive. To prevent this Huber covered that - side also with glass. But what way out of the - difficulty was found by the clever insects? Instead of - building further in the projected direction, they bent - the comb round at the extreme point, and carried it at - a right angle towards one of the inner sides of the - hive which was not covered with glass, and there - fastened it. The form and dimensions of the cells must - necessarily have been altered thereby, and the - arrangement of their work at the angle must have been - quite different from the usual. They made the cells of - the convex side so much broader than those of the - concave that they had a diameter two or three times as - great, and yet they managed to join them properly with - the others. They also did not wait to bend the comb - until they came to the glass itself, but recognised - the difficulty beforehand,[62] which had been - interposed by Huber while they were building with a - view to overcome the first difficulty. - - -_Special Habits._ - -_The Mason-Bee._--This insect closes the roof of its larval cell with a -kind of mortar, which sets as hard as stone. A little hole, closed only -with soft mud, is, however, left in one part of the roof as a door of -exit for the matured insect. It is said that when a mason-bee finds an -old and deserted nest, it saves itself the trouble of making a new -one--utilising the ready-made nest after having well cleaned it. In -Algiers the mason-bees have been observed in this way to utilise empty -snail-shells. According to Blanchard, some individuals avoid the labour -of making their own nests or houses for their young, by possessing -themselves of their neighbours' houses either by craft or by force. -'Does the mason-bee act like a machine,' says E. Menault, 'when it -directs its work according to circumstances, possesses itself of old -nests, cleanses and improves them, and thereby shows that it can fully -appreciate the immediate position? Can one believe that no kind of -reflection is here necessary?' - -_The Tapestry-Bee._--The so-called tapestry-bee digs holes for her larvæ -three or four inches deep in the earth, and lines the walls and floor of -the chamber with petals of the poppy laid perfectly smooth. Several -layers of petals are used, and when the eggs are introduced the chamber -is closed by drawing all the leaves together at the top. Loose earth is -then piled over the whole structure in order to conceal it. The -so-called rose-bee (_Megachile centuncularis_) displays very similar -habits.[63] - -_The Carpenter-Bee._--This was first observed and described by -Réaumur.[64] It makes a long cylindrical tube in the wood of beams, -palings, &c. This it divides into a number of successive chambers by -partitions made of agglutinated saw-dust built across the tube at right -angles to its axis. In each chamber there is deposited a single egg, -together with a store of pollen for the nourishment of the future larva. -The larvæ hatch out in succession and in the order of their age--_i.e._ -the dates at which they were deposited. To provide for this, the bee -bores a hole from the lower cell to the exterior, so that each larva, -when ready to escape from its chamber, finds an open way from the tube. -The larvæ have to cut their own way out through the walls of their -respective chambers, and it is remarkable that they always cut through -the wall that faces the tubular passage left by the parent; they never -bore their way out in the opposite direction, which, were they to do so, -would entail the destruction of all the other and immature larvæ. - -_The Carding-Bee._--This insect surrounds its nest with a layer of wax, -and then with a thick covering of moss. For this purpose a number of -bees co-operate, and in order to save time each bee does not find and -carry its own moss, but, with a division of labour similar to that -which we have already noticed in the case of certain ants, a row of bees -is formed, and the bits of moss passed from one to another along the -line. There is a long passage to the nest, through which the moss has to -be passed, and it is said that at the mouth of the tunnel a guard is -stationed to drive away ants or other intruders. - -_Wasps._--These usually construct their nests of wood-dust, which they -scrape off the weather-worn surfaces of boards, palings, &c., and work -into a kind of paper with their saliva. If they happen to find any real -paper, they perceive that it so much resembles the product of their own -manufacture that they utilise it forthwith. The wasps do not require any -special cells or chambers for the storage of honey, as they do not lay -up any supply for the winter. The cells which they construct are -therefore used exclusively for the rearing of larvæ. In form these cells -are sometimes cylindrical or globular, but more usually hexagonal, like -those of the hive-bee. Although the mode of building is different from -that employed by the bees, there can be little doubt that if it were as -carefully investigated Mr. Darwin's theory of transition from the -cylindrical to the hexagonal form would be found to apply here also, -seeing that both forms so frequently occur in the same nest. - -_The Mason-Wasp._--The habits of this insect are described by Mr. Bates. -It constructs its nest of clay. Each pellet that the insect brings it -lays on the top of its nest-wall, and then spreads it out with its jaws, -and treads it smooth with its feet. The nest, which is suspended on the -branch of a tree, is then stocked with spiders and insects paralysed by -stinging. The victims, not being wholly deprived of life, keep fresh -until required as food of the developing larvæ. - -_The Butcher-Wasps._--These also paralyse their prey in a similar -manner, and for a similar purpose. Fabre removed from a so-called -sphex-wasp a killed grasshopper, which it was conveying to its nest and -had momentarily laid down at the mouth of the burrow--as these insects -always do on returning with prey, in order to see that nothing has -intruded into the burrow during their absence. Fabre carried the dead -or paralysed grasshopper to a considerable distance from the hole. On -coming out the insect searched about until it found its prey. It then -again carried it to the mouth of its burrow, and again laid it down -while it once more went in to see that all was right at home. Again -Fabre removed the grasshopper, and so on for forty times in -succession--the sphex never omitting to go through its fixed routine of -examining the interior of its burrow every time that it brought the prey -to its mouth. - -Mr. Mivart, in his 'Lessons from Nature,' points to the instinct of this -animal in the stinging of the ganglion of its prey as one that cannot be -explained on Mr. Darwin's theory concerning the origin of instincts. In -my next work, which will have to deal with this theory, I shall consider -Mr. Mivart's difficulty, and also the difficulty first pointed out by -Mr. Darwin himself as to why neuter insects, separated as they appear to -be from the possibility of communicating by heredity any instinctive -acquirements of the individual to the species, should present any -instincts at all. - - -_General Intelligence._ - -Beginning with Sir John Lubbock's observations on this head, I shall -first quote his statements with regard to way-finding:-- - - I have found, he says, that some bees are much more - intelligent in this respect than others. A bee which I - had fed several times, and which had flown about in - the room, found its way out of the glass in a quarter - of an hour, and when put in a second time came out at - once. Another bee, when I closed the postern door, - used to come round to the honey through an open - window. - - Bees seem to me much less clever in finding things - than I had expected. One day (April 14, 1872), when a - number of them were very busy on some barberries, I - put a saucer with some honey between two bunches of - flowers; these were repeatedly visited, and were so - close that there was hardly room for the saucer - between them, yet from 9.30 to 3.30 not a single bee - took any notice of the honey. At 3.30 I put some - honey on one of the bunches of flowers, and it was - eagerly sucked by the bees; two kept continually - returning till past five in the evening. - - One day when I came home in the afternoon I found that - at least a hundred bees had got into my room through - the postern and were on the window, yet not one was - attracted by an open jar of honey which stood in a - shady corner about 3 feet 6 inches from the window. - - One day (29th April, 1872) I placed a saucer of honey - close to some forget-me-nots, on which bees were - numerous and busy; yet from 10 A.M. till 6 only one - bee went to the honey. - - I put some honey in a hollow in the garden wall - opposite the hives at 10.30 (this wall is about five - feet high and four feet from the hives); yet the bees - did not find it during the whole day. - - On the 30th March, 1873, a fine sunshiny day, when the - bees were very active, I placed a glass containing - honey at 9 in the morning on the wall in front of the - hives; but not a single bee went to the honey the - whole day. On April 20 I tried the same experiment, - with the same result. - - September 19.--At 9.30 I placed some honey in a glass - about four feet from and just in front of the hive; - but during the whole day not a bee observed it. - - As it then occurred to me that it might be suggested - that there was something about this honey which - rendered it unattractive to the bees, on a following - day I placed it again on the top of the wall for three - hours, during which not a single bee came, and then - moved it close to the alighting-board of the hive. It - remained unnoticed for a quarter of an hour, when two - bees observed it; and others soon followed in - considerable numbers. . . . On the whole, wasps seem to - me more clever in finding their way than bees. I tried - wasps with the glass mentioned on p. 124 [_i.e._ the - bell-jar], but they had no difficulty in finding their - way out. - -We shall now conclude this _résumé_ of Sir John Lubbock's observations -by quoting two other passages bearing on the general intelligence of -bees and wasps:-- - - The following fact struck me as rather remarkable. The - wasp already mentioned at the foot of p. 135 one day - smeared her wings with syrup, so that she could not - fly. When this happened to a bee, it was only - necessary to carry her to the alighting-board, when - she was soon cleaned by her comrades. But I did not - know where this wasp's nest was, and therefore could - not pursue a similar course with her. At first, then, - I was afraid that she was doomed. I thought, however, - that I would wash her, fully expecting, indeed, to - terrify her so much that she would not return again. I - therefore caught her, put her in a bottle half full of - water, and shook her up well till the honey was washed - off. I then transferred her to a dry bottle and put - her in the sun. When she was dry I let her out, and - she at once flew to her nest. To my surprise, in - thirteen minutes she returned, as if nothing had - happened, and continued her visits to the honey all - the afternoon. - - This experiment interested me so much that I repeated - it with another marked wasp, this time, however, - keeping the wasp in the water till she was quite - motionless and insensible. When taken out of the water - she soon recovered; I fed her; she went quietly away - to her nest as usual, and returned after the usual - absence. The next morning this wasp was the first to - visit the honey. - - I was not able to watch any of the above-mentioned - wasps for more than a few days; but I kept a specimen - of _Polistes Gallica_ for no less than nine months. - -This is the wasp which has already been alluded to under the heading -'Memory;' but it is evident that the capacity which the insect displayed -of becoming tamed implies no small degree of general intelligence; its -hereditary instincts were conspicuously modified by the individual -experiences incidental to its domestication. - -The remaining passages that deserve quotation are the following:-- - - It is sometimes said of bees that those of one hive - all know one another, and immediately recognise and - attack any intruder from another hive. At first sight - this certainly implies a great deal of intelligence. - It is, however, possible that the bees of particular - hives have a particular smell. Thus Langshaft, in his - interesting 'Treatise on the Honey-Bee,' says: - 'Members of different colonies appear to recognise - their hive companions by the sense of smell; and I - believe that if colonies are sprinkled with scented - syrup, they may generally be safely mixed. Moreover, a - bee returning to its own hive with a load of treasure - is a very different creature from a hungry marauder; - and it is said that a bee, if laden with honey, is - allowed to enter any hive with impunity.' Mr. - Langshaft continues, 'There is an air of roguery about - a thieving bee which, to the expert, is as - characteristic as are the motions of a pickpocket to a - skilful policeman. Its sneaking look, and nervous, - guilty agitation, once seen, can never be mistaken.' - It is, at any rate, natural that a bee which enters a - wrong hive by accident should be much surprised and - alarmed, and would thus probably betray herself. - - On the whole, then, I do not attach much importance to - their recognition of one another as an indication of - intelligence. - - Since their extreme eagerness for honey may be - attributed rather to their anxiety for the common weal - than to their desire for personal gratification, it - cannot fairly be imputed as greediness; still the - following scene, one which most of us have witnessed, - is incompatible surely with much intelligence. The sad - fate of their unfortunate companions does not in the - least deter others who approach the tempting lure from - madly alighting on the bodies of the dying and dead, - to share the same miserable end. No one can understand - the extent of their infatuation until he has seen a - confectioner's shop assailed by myriads of hungry - bees. I have seen thousands strained out from the - syrup in which they had perished; thousands more - alighting even upon the boiling sweets, the floor - covered and windows darkened with bees, some crawling, - others flying, and others still, so completely - besmeared as to be able neither to crawl nor fly, not - one in ten able to carry home its ill-gotten spoils, - and yet the air filled with new hosts of thoughtless - comers. - -Passing on now to the statements of other observers, Huber first noticed -the remarkable fact that when beehives are attacked by the death's-head -moth the bees close the entrance of their hive with wax and propolis to -keep out the marauder. The barricade, which is built immediately behind -the gateway, completely stops it up--only a small hole being left large -enough to admit a bee, and therefore of course too small to admit the -moth. Huber specially states that it was not until the beehives had been -_repeatedly_ attacked and robbed by the death's-head moth, that the bees -closed the entrance of their hive with wax and propolis. _Pure_ instinct -would have induced the bees to provide against the first attack. Huber -also observed that a wall built in 1804 against the death's-head -hawk-moth was destroyed in 1805. In the latter year there were no -death's-head moths, nor were any seen during the following. But in the -autumn of 1807 a large number again appeared, and the bees at once -protected themselves against their enemies. The bulwark was destroyed -again in 1808. - -Again, Huber (_loc. cit._, tom. ii., p. 280) gives a case of apparent -exercise of reason, or power of inference from a particular case to -other and general cases. A piece of comb fell down and was fixed in its -new position by wax. The bees then strengthened the attachments of all -the other combs, clearly because they inferred that they too might be in -danger of falling. This is a very remarkable case, and leads Huber to -exclaim, 'I admit that I was unable to avoid a feeling of astonishment -in the presence of a fact from which the purest reason seemed to shine -out.' - -A closely similar, and therefore corroborative case of an even more -remarkable kind is thus narrated in Watson's 'Reasoning Power of -Animals' (p. 448):-- - - Dr. Brown, in his book on the bee, gives another - illustration of the reasoning power of bees, observed - by a friend of his. A centre comb in a hive, being - overburdened with honey, had parted from its - fastenings, and was pressing against another comb, so - as to prevent the passage of the bees between them. - This accident excited great bustle in the colony, and - as soon as their proceedings could be observed, it was - found that they had constructed two horizontal beams - between the two combs, and had removed enough of the - honey and wax above them to admit the passage of a - bee, while the detached comb had been secured by - another beam, and fastened to the window with spare - wax. But what was most remarkable was, that, when the - comb was thus fixed, they removed the horizontal beams - first constructed, as being of no further use. The - whole occupation took about ten days. - -Again, Mr. Darwin's MS. quotes from Sir B. Brodie's 'Psychological -Inquiries' (1854, p. 88) the following case, which is analogous to the -above, except that the supports required had to be made in a vertical -instead of in a horizontal direction:-- - - On one occasion, when a large portion of the honeycomb - had been broken off, they pursued another course. The - fragment had somehow become fixed in the middle of the - hive, and the bees immediately began to erect a new - structure of comb on the floor, so placed as to form a - pillar supporting the fragment, and preventing its - further descent. They then filled up the space above, - joining the comb which had become detached to that - from which it had been separated, and they concluded - their labours by removing the newly constructed comb - below, thus proving that they had intended it to - answer a merely temporary purpose. - -Similarly, Dr. Dzierzon, an experienced keeper of bees, and the observer -who first discovered the fact of their parthenogenesis, makes the -general remark,-- - - The cleverness of the bees in repairing perfectly - injuries to their cells and combs, in supporting on - pillars pieces of their building accidentally knocked - down by a hasty push, in fastening them with rivets, - and bringing everything again into proper unity, - making hanging bridges, chains, and ladders, compels - our astonishment. - -Lastly, as still further corroboration of such facts, I shall quote the -following from Jesse's 'Gleanings:'[65]-- - - Bees show great ingenuity in obviating the - inconvenience they experience from the slipperiness of - glass, and certainly beyond what we can conceive that - mere instinct would enable them to do. I am in the - habit of putting small glass globes on the top of my - straw hives, for the purpose of having them filled - with honey; and I have invariably found that before - the bees commence the construction of combs, they - place a great number of spots of wax at regular - distances from each other, which serve as so many - footstools on the slippery glass, each bee resting on - one of these with its middle pair of legs, while the - fore claws were hooked with the hind ones of the bee - next above him; thus forming a ladder, by means of - which the workers were enabled to reach the top, and - begin to make their combs there. - -Herr Kleine, in his pamphlet on Italian Bees and Bee-keeping (Berlin, -1855), says that on substituting during the absence of the bees a hive -filled with empty comb for their own hive, the returning bees exhibit -the utmost perplexity. As the substituted hive stands in the exact spot -previously occupied by their own hive, the returning bees fly into it -without observing the change. But finding only empty combs inside, 'they -stop, do not know where they are, come out of the hole again without -depositing their loads, fly off, look most carefully round the stand to -assure themselves that they have made no mistake, and go in once more -when convinced that they are at the right place. The same thing is -repeated over and over again, until the bees at last bow to the -incomprehensible and unavoidable, lay down their loads, and set to work -at those tasks made necessary by the new circumstances of the hive. But -as all the newly arriving bees behave in similar fashion, the -disturbance lasts till late in the evening, and the uncertainty and -anxiety of the bees is so great that the bee-master cannot contemplate -it without deep sympathy.' Under such circumstances the bees take -quickly to a substituted queen; 'for the feeling of the first comers -that they have no right to the new dwelling, having, as they suppose, -made some inexplicable mistake which they cannot remedy, prevents them -from feeling any hostility to the new queen which they find; they -probably consider themselves as merely on sufferance, and feel that they -should be grateful that no action is taken against them for their -illegal entry, as generally happens in bee-experience.' Hence the writer -adopts this device when he desires to exchange or substitute queens. - -Büchner, after alluding to this case, supplements it with the -following:-- - - The wind threw down from the stand of a bee-master--a - friend of the author's, whose name will soon become - known--a straw beehive, the inmates of which were - surprised in full work, and no small disorder in the - interior was the result. The owner repaired the hive, - put the loose comb back in its place, and replaced it - in such a manner that the wind could not again catch - it, hoping that the accident would have no further - results. But when he examined the hive a few days - later, he found that the bees had left their old home - in the lurch, and had tried to enter other hives, - clearly because they could no longer trust the - weather, and feared that the terrible accident might - again befall them. - -Dr. Erasmus Darwin, in his 'Zoonomia,' asserts that bees, when -transported to Barbadoes, where there is no winter, cease to lay up -honey. In contradiction to this statement, however, Kirby and Spence -say, 'It is known to every naturalist acquainted with the fact, that -many different species of bees store up honey in the hottest climates, -and that there is no authentic instance on record of the hive-bees -altering in any age or climate their peculiar operations.' - -On the other hand, more recent observation has shown that Dr. Darwin's -statement is probably correct. For, according to a note in _Nature_,[66] -European bees, when transported to Australia, retain their industrious -habits only for the first two or three years. After that time they -gradually cease to collect honey till they become wholly idle. In a -subsequent number of the same periodical (p. 411) a correspondent writes -that the same fact is observable with bees transported to California, -but is obviated by abstracting honey as the bees collect it. - -There seems to be no doubt that bees and wasps are able to distinguish -between persons, and even to recognise those whom they are accustomed to -see, and to regard as friends. Bee-masters who attend much to their -bees, so as to give the insects a good chance of knowing them, are -generally of the opinion that the insects do know them, as shown by the -comparatively sparing use of their stings. Again, many instances might -be quoted, such as that given by Guerinzius,[67] who allowed a species of -wasp native to Natal to build in the doorposts of his house, and who -observed that although he often interfered with the nest, he was only -once stung, and this by a young wasp; while no Caffre could venture to -approach the door, much less to pass through it.[68] This power of -distinguishing between persons indicates a higher order of intelligence -than we might have expected to meet with among insects; and, according -to Bingley, bees will not only learn to distinguish persons, but even -lend themselves to tuition by those whom they know. For he says, 'Mr. -Wildman, whose remarks on the management of bees are well known, -possessed a secret by which he could at any time cause a hive of bees to -swarm upon his head, shoulders, or body, in a most surprising manner. He -has been seen to drink a glass of wine with the bees all over his head -and face more than an inch deep; several fell into the glass, but did -not sting him. He could even act the part of a general with them, by -marshalling them in battle array on a large table. Then he divided them -into regiments, battalions, and companies, according to military -discipline, waiting only for his word of command. The moment he uttered -the word _march!_ they began to march in a very regular manner in rank -and file, like soldiers. To these, his Lilliputians, he also taught so -much politeness that they never attempted to sting any of the numerous -company which, at different times, resorted to admire this singular -spectacle.' - -Huber's observation, since amply confirmed, of bees biting holes through -the base of corollas in order to get at the honey which the length of -the corollas prevent them from reaching in the ordinary way, also seems -to indicate a rational adjustment to unusual circumstances. For the bees -do not resort to this expedient until they find from trial that they -cannot reach the nectar from above; but having once ascertained this, -they forthwith proceed to pierce the bottoms of all the flowers of the -same species. From an interesting account by Mr. Francis Darwin[69] -(unfortunately too long to quote) it appears that, even when the nectar -may be reached from above, bees may still resort to the expedient of -biting through corollas in order to save time. - -In connection with biting holes in corollas I may quote an observation -communicated to me by a correspondent, Sir J. Clarke Jervoise. Speaking -of a humble-bee, he says: 'I watched him into the flower of a foxglove, -and, when out of sight, I closed the lips of the flower with my finger -and thumb. He did not hesitate a moment, but cut his way out at the -further end as if he had been served the same trick before. I never did -it.' - -Bees are highly particular in the matter of keeping their hives pure, -and their sanitary arrangements often exhibit intelligence of a high -order. - -The following is quoted from Büchner (_loc. cit._, p. 248):-- - - Impure air within the hive is that which the bees must - above all things fear and avoid, for with the pressure - together of so many individuals in a comparatively - small space, it would not only be directly harmful to - individual bees, but would produce among them - dangerous diseases. They therefore also never void - their excrements within, but always outside the hive. - While this is very easy to do in summer, it is, on the - contrary, very difficult in the winter, when the bees - sit close together and generally motionless in the - upper part of the hive, and when, from impure air and - foul evaporations, as well as from bad and - insufficient food, dysentery-like diseases break out - among them, and often carry off the whole community in - a brief space of time. In such cases they utilise the - first fine day to relieve themselves, and in the - spring they take a long general cleansing flight. But - they also know how to take advantage of special - circumstances so as to perform the process of - purification in the way least harmful to the hive. - Herr Heinrich Lehr, of Darmstadt, a bee-keeping friend - of the author, has sent the following - communication:--During an epidemic of dysentery in - winter, from which most of his hives suffered (as the - bees were no longer able to retain their excrements), - one hive suffered less than the others. Exact - investigation showed that this hive was soiled all - over at the back with the excrement of the bees, and - that the inmates had here made a kind of drain. On - this spot a little opening had been made by the - falling off of the covering clay, which led directly - to the upper part of the hive, where the bees were - accustomed to sit together during the winter. This - excellent opportunity, whereby they could reach in the - shortest way an otherwise difficult object, and one - rendered complicated by circumstances, did not escape - them. - -It sometimes happens that mice, slugs, &c., enter a beehive. They are -then killed and covered with a coating of propolis. Réaumur says[70] that -he once saw a snail enter a hive in this way. The hard shell was an -effective protection against the stings of the bees, so the insects -smeared round the edges of the shell with wax and resin, fastening down -the animal to the wall of the hive, so that it died of starvation or -want of air. If the encasing of an animal (such as a mouse) with -propolis is not sufficient to prevent its putrefaction, the bees gnaw -away all the putrescible parts of the carcass and carry them out of the -hive, leaving only the skeleton behind. The dead bodies of their -companions are also carried out of the hive and deposited at a distance. -There is no question about this fact (which it will be remembered is -analogous to that already mentioned in the case of ants); according to -Büchner, however, bees not only remove their dead, but also, -occasionally at least, bury them. But as he gives very inadequate -evidence in support of this assertion, we may safely set it aside as -insufficiently proven. - -Büchner, however, gives an admirable summary, and makes some judicious -remarks on the well-known and highly remarkable habit which bees -practise for the obvious purpose of ventilating their hives. As this -account gives all the facts in a brief compass, I cannot do better than -quote it:-- - - Very interesting, and closely connected with this - characteristic of cleanliness, is the conduct of the - so-called ventilating-bees, which have to take care - that in summer or hot weather the air necessary for - respiration of the bees in the interior of the hive is - renewed, and the too high temperature cooled down. The - latter precaution is necessary, not only on account of - the bees working within the hive, to whom, as already - said, a temperature risen beyond a certain point would - be intolerable, but also to guard against the melting - or softening of the wax. The bees charged with the - care of the ventilation divide themselves into rows - and stages in regular order through all parts of the - hive, and by swift fanning of their wings send little - currents of air in such fashion that a powerful stream - or change of air passes through all parts of the hive. - Other bees stand at the mouth of the hive, which fan - in the same way and considerably accelerate the wind - from within. The current of air thus caused is so - strong that little bits of paper hung in front of the - mouth are rapidly moved, and that, according to F. - Huber, a lighted match is extinguished. The wind can - be distinctly felt if the hand be held in front. - - The motion of the wings of the ventilating bees is so - rapid that it is scarcely perceptible, and Huber saw - some bees working their wings in this way for - five-and-twenty minutes. When they are tired they are - relieved by others. According to Jesse, the bees in - very hot weather, in spite of all their efforts, are - unable to sufficiently lower the temperature, and - prevent the melting of some of the wax; they then get - into a condition of great excitement, and it is - dangerous to approach them. In such a case they also - try to mend matters by a number leaving the hive and - settling in large masses on its surface, so as to - protect it as much as possible from the scorching rays - of the sun. - - Although the described plan of ventilation is - remarkable enough in itself, it is yet more remarkable - in that it is clearly only the result of bee-keeping, - and is evoked by this misfortune. For there could be - no need of such ventilation for bees in a state of - nature, whose dwellings in hollow trees and clefts of - rocks leave nothing to be desired as to roominess and - airiness, while in the narrow artificial hive this - need at once comes out strongly. In fact, the fanning - of the bees almost entirely ceased when Huber brought - them into large hives five feet high, in which there - was plenty of air. It follows, therefore, that the - fanning and ventilating can have absolutely nothing to - do with an inborn tendency or instinct, but have been - gradually evoked by necessity, thought, and - experience. - -As the following observation on the cautious sagacity of wasps is, so -far as I am aware, new, and as it certainly does not admit of -mal-observation, I introduce it on the authority of a correspondent, the -Rev. Mr. J. W. Mossman, who writes from Tarrington Rectory, Wragby. He -found an apple in his orchard which had fallen from a tree in apparently -good condition; but on taking it up observed that it was little more -than a shell filled with wasps. Giving the apple a shake, he saw a wasp -slowly emerging from a single small aperture in the rind:-- - - This aperture was sufficient, and only just - sufficient, to admit of the ingress or egress of a - single wasp. The circumstance which struck me as very - remarkable was this--that the wasp did not make its - way through the aperture with its head first, as I - should have expected, but with its tail, darting out - its sting to its utmost extent, and brandishing it - furiously. In this manner it came out of the apple - backwards. Then, finding itself in the open air upon - the outer surface of the apple, it turned round, and - without any attempt to molest me, flew off in the - usual way. The moment this first wasp had emerged, the - sting and tail of another was seen protruding. This, - too, I watched with much interest, and exactly the - same process was repeated as in the case of the first. - I held the apple in my hand until some ten or a dozen - wasps had made their exit in the same identical manner - in each individual case. I then threw down the apple, - inside of which, however, there were still apparently - a good many wasps. - - It seemed to me at the time, and I have always felt - since, that the wasps coming out of the apple - backwards, brandishing their stings as a defensive - weapon against possible enemies, whom of course they - were not able to see, was an evidence of what would be - called thought and reflection in the case of human - beings. It seems to me that these wasps must have - reflected that if they came out of the narrow aperture - in the apple, which was their only possible means of - ready egress, in the usual manner, head first, they - might be taken at a disadvantage by a possible enemy, - and destroyed in detail. They, therefore, with great - prudence and foresight, came out of the apple - backwards, protecting themselves by means of their - chief offensive and defensive weapons, their stings, - which, according to their normal method of locomotion, - would have been useless to them as long as they were - making their exit. - -With regard to the tactics displayed by hunting wasps I may quote the -following cases:-- - - Mr. Seth Green, writing to the _New York World_ of May - 14, says that one morning when he was watching a - spider's nest, a wasp alighted within an inch or two - of the nest, on the side opposite the opening. - Creeping noiselessly around towards the entrance of - the nest the wasp stopped a little short of it, and - for a moment remained perfectly quiet; then reaching - out one of his antennæ he wriggled it before the - opening and withdrew it. This overture had the desired - effect, for the boss of the nest, as large a spider as - one ordinarily sees, came out to see what was wrong - and to set it to rights. No sooner had the spider - emerged to that point at which he was at the worst - disadvantage than the wasp, with a quick movement, - thrust his sting into the body of his foe, killing him - easily and almost instantly. The experiment was - repeated on the part of the wasp, and when there was - no response from the inside he became satisfied, - probably, that he held the fort. At all events, he - proceeded to enter the nest and slaughter the young - spiders, which were afterwards lugged off one at a - time. - -Mr. Henry Cecil writes as follows (_Nature_, vol. xviii., p. 311):-- - - I was sitting one summer's afternoon at an open window - (my bedroom) looking into a garden, when I was - surprised to observe a large and rare species of - spider run across the window-sill in a crouching - attitude. It struck me the spider was evidently - alarmed, or it would not have so fearlessly approached - me. It hastened to conceal itself under the projecting - ledge of the window-sill inside the room, and had - hardly done so when a very fine large hunting wasp - buzzed in at the open window and flew about the room, - evidently in search of something. Finding nothing, the - wasp returned to the open window and settled on the - window-sill, running backwards and forwards as a dog - does when looking or searching for a lost scent. It - soon alighted on the track of the poor spider, and in - a moment it discovered its hiding-place, darted down - on it, and no doubt inflicted a wound with its sting. - The spider rushed off again, and this time took refuge - under the bed, trying to conceal itself under the - framework or planks which supported the mattress. The - same scene occurred here; the wasp now appeared to - follow the spider by sight, but ran backwards and - forwards in large circles like a hound. The moment the - trail of the spider was found the wasp followed all - the turns it had made till it came on it again. The - poor spider was chased from hiding-place to - hiding-place, out of the bedroom, across a passage, - and into the middle of another large room, where it - finally succumbed to the repeated stings inflicted by - the wasp. Rolling itself up into a ball the wasp then - took possession of its prey, and after ascertaining it - could make no resistance, tucked it up under its _very - long hind legs_, just as a hawk or eagle carries off - its quarry, when I interposed and secured both for my - collection. - -Mr. Belt, in his work already frequently quoted, gives the following -account of a struggle which not unfrequently occurs between wasps and -ants for the sweet secretion of 'frog-hoppers:'-- - - Similarly as, on the savannahs, I had observed a wasp - attending the honey-glands of the bull's-horn acacia - along with the ants; so at Santo Domingo another wasp, - belonging to quite a different genus (_Nectarina_), - attended some of the clusters of frog-hoppers, and for - the possession of others a constant skirmishing was - going on. The wasp stroked the young hoppers, and - sipped up the honey when it was exuded, just like the - ants. When an ant came up to a cluster of - leaf-hoppers attended by a wasp, the latter would not - attempt to grapple with its rival on the leaf, but - would fly off and hover over the ant; then when its - little foe was well exposed, it would dart at it and - strike it to the ground. The action was so quick that - I could not determine whether it struck with its - fore-feet or its jaws; but I think it was with the - feet. I often saw a wasp trying to clear a leaf from - ants that were already in full possession of a cluster - of leaf-hoppers. It would sometimes have to strike - three or four times at an ant before it made it quit - its hold and fall. At other times one ant after the - other would be struck off with great celerity and - ease, and I fancied that some wasps were much cleverer - than others. In those cases where it succeeded in - clearing the leaf, it was never left long in peace; - for fresh relays of ants were continually arriving, - and generally tired the wasp out. It would never wait - for an ant to get near it, doubtless knowing well that - if its little rival once fastened on its leg, it would - be a difficult matter to get rid of it again. If a - wasp first obtained possession, it was able to keep - it; for the first ants that came up were only - pioneers, and by knocking these off, it prevented them - from returning and scenting the trail to communicate - the intelligence to others. - -Dr. Erasmus Darwin records an observation ('Zoonomia,' i., p. 183) -which, from having since been so widely quoted, deserves to be called -classical. He saw a wasp upon the ground endeavouring to remove a large -fly which was too heavy for it to carry off. The wasp cut off the head -and abdomen, and flew away with the thorax alone. The wind, however, -catching the wings of this portion made it still too unwieldy for the -wasp to guide. It therefore again alighted, and nipped off first one -wing and then the other, when it was able to fly off with its booty -without further difficulty. - -This observation has since been amply confirmed. I shall quote some of -the confirmatory cases. - -Mr. R. S. Newall, F.R.S., in _Nature_, vol. xxi., p. 494, says:-- - - Many years ago I was examining an apple tree, when a - wasp alighted on a leaf which formed a caterpillar's - nest neatly rolled up. The wasp examined both ends, - and finding them closed, it soon clipped a hole in the - leaf at one end of the nest about one-eighth of an - inch in diameter. It then went to the other end and - made a noise which frightened the caterpillar, which - came rushing out of the hole. It was immediately - seized by the wasp, who finding it too large to carry - off at once, cut it in two and went off with his game. - I waited a little and saw the wasp come back for the - other half, with which it also flew away. - -Again, Büchner (_loc. cit._, p. 297) gives the following account in the -words of his informant, Herr H. Löwenfels, who himself witnessed the -incident:-- - - I here found a robber-wasp busied in lifting from the - ground a large fly which it had apparently killed. It - succeeded indeed in its attempt, but had scarcely - raised its prey a few inches above the ground when the - wind caught the wings of the dead fly, and they began - to act like a sail. The wasp was clearly unable to - resist this action, and was blown a little distance in - the direction of the wind, whereupon it let itself - fall to the ground with its prize. It now made no more - attempts to fly, but with eager industry pulled off - with its teeth the fly's wings which hindered it in - its object. When this was quite done it seized the - fly, which was heavier than itself, and flew off with - it untroubled on its journey through the air at a - height of about five feet. - -Büchner also records the two following remarkable observations, which -from being so similar corroborate one another. The first is received -from Herr Albert Schlüter, who writing from Texas says that he there saw -a cicada pursued by a large hornet, which threw itself upon its prey and -seemed to sting it to death:-- - - The murderer walked over its prey, which was - considerably larger than itself, grasped its body with - its feet, spread out its wings, and tried to fly away - with it. Its strength was not sufficient, and after - many efforts it gave up the attempt. Half a minute - went by; sitting astride on the corpse and - motionless--only the wings occasionally jerking--it - seems to reflect, and indeed not in vain. A mulberry - tree stood close by, really only a trunk--for the top - had been broken off, clearly by the last flood--of - about ten or twelve feet high. The hornet saw this - trunk, dragged its prey toilsomely to the foot of it, - and then up to the top. Arrived thereat, it rested for - a moment, grasped its victim firmly, and flew off with - it to the prairies. That which it was unable to raise - off the ground it could now carry easily once high in - the air. - -The other instance is as follows:-- - - Th. Meenan ('Proc. of the Acad. of Nat.,' - Philadelphia, Jan. 22, 1878) observed a very similar - case with _Vespa maculata_. He saw one of these wasps - try in vain to raise from the ground a grasshopper it - had killed. When all its efforts proved to be in vain, - it pulled its prey to a maple tree, about thirty feet - off, mounted it with its prize, and flew away from it. - 'This,' adds the writer, 'was more than instinct. It - was reflection and judgment, and the judgment was - proved to be correct.' - -Depriving bees of their antennæ has the effect of producing an even more -marked bewilderment than results from this operation in the case of -ants. A queen thus mutilated by Huber ran about in confusion, dropping -her eggs at random, and appeared unable to take with precision the food -that was offered her. She showed no resentment to a similarly mutilated -stranger queen that was introduced: the workers also heeded not the -mutilated stranger; but when an unmutilated stranger was introduced they -fell upon her. When the mutilated queen was allowed to escape, none of -the workers followed. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[46] Vol. ix. p. 484. - -[47] _Passions of Animals_, p. 53. - -[48] Vol. xii. p. 68. - -[49] 'Three months' in the Journal of the Linnæan Society, but Sir John -Lubbock informs me that this is a misprint. - -[50] See Kirby and Spence, vol. ii. p. 591. - -[51] Letter to Mr. Darwin, published in _Nature_, vol. x., p. 102. - -[52] Vol. xii., pp. 25-6. - -[53] _Loc. cit._ - -[54] Art. 'Bees,' _Encycl. Brit._ - -[55] Dr. Kemp, _Indications of Instinct_. - -[56] _The Bee_, 1877, No. 1. - -[57] Dr. Lindley Kemp, _Indications of Instinct_. - -[58] Handcock on Instinct, p. 18. - -[59] _Introd. Ent._, ii, p. 465. - -[60] _Origin of Species_, 'Cell-making Instinct.' - -[61] _Origin of Species_, p. 225. - -[62] _Mind in Animals_, pp. 252-3. - -[63] For a complete account of these habits see Bingley, _Animal -Biography_, vol. iii., pp. 272-5. - -[64] _Mém. sur les Insectes_, tom. vi., p. 39. - -[65] Vol. i., pp. 22-3 (3rd ed.). - -[66] Vol. xvii., p. 373. - -[67] See Brehm, _Thierleben_, ix., p. 252. - -[68] An exactly similar case is recorded by Stodmann in his _Travels in -Surinam_, ii., p. 286. - -[69] _Nature_, ix., p. 189. - -[70] See _Kirby and Spence_, vol. ii., p. 229. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -TERMITES. - - -THE habits of the Termites, or so-called White Ants, have not been so -closely studied as they deserve. Our chief knowledge concerning them is -derived from the observations of Jobson, in his 'History of Gambia;' -Bastian, in 'The Nations of Eastern Asia;' Forsteal, Lespès, König, -Sparman, Hugen, Quatrefages, Fritz Müller, and most of all, Smeathman, -in 'Philosophical Transactions,' vol. lxxi. In Africa these insects -raise their hills to a height of between ten and twenty feet, and -construct them of earth, stones, pieces of wood, &c., glued together by -a sticky saliva. The hills are in the form of a cone, and so strong that -it is said the buffaloes are in the habit of using them as watch-towers -on which to post sentries, and that they will even support the weight of -an elephant. The growth of these gigantic mounds is gradual, increasing -with the increase of the population. From the mound in all directions -there radiate subterranean tunnels, which may be as much as a foot in -width, and which serve as roadways. Besides these tunnels there are a -number of other subterranean tubes, which serve the purpose of drainage -to carry off the floods of water to which the nest is exposed during -tropical showers. Büchner calculates that a pyramid built by man on a -scale proportional to his size would only equal one of these nests if it -attained to the height of 3,000 feet. The following is this author's -description of the internal structure:-- - - These internal arrangements are so various and so - complicated that pages of description might be written - thereupon. There are myriads of rooms, cells, - nurseries, provision chambers, guard-rooms, passages, - corridors, vaults, bridges, subterranean streets and - canals, tunnels, arched ways, steps, smooth inclines, - domes, &c., &c., all arranged on a definite, coherent, - and well-considered plan. In the middle of the - building, sheltered as far as possible from outside - dangers, lies the stately royal dwelling, resembling - an arched oven, in which the royal pair reside, or - rather are imprisoned; for the entrances and outlets - are so small, that although the workers on service can - pass easily in and out, the queen cannot; for during - the egg-laying her body swells out to an enormous - size, two or three thousand times the size and weight - of an ordinary worker. The queen, therefore, never - leaves her dwelling, and dies therein. Round the - palace, which is at first small, but is later enlarged - in proportion as the queen increases in size until it - is at least a yard long and half a yard high, lie the - nurseries, or cells for the eggs and larvæ; next these - the servants' rooms, or cells for the workers which - wait on the queen; then special chambers for the - soldiers on guard, and, between these, numerous - store-rooms, filled with gums, resins, dried - plant-juices, meal, seeds, fruits, worked-up wood, &c. - According to Bettziech-Beta, there is always in the - midst of the nest a large common room, which is used - either for popular assemblies or as the meeting and - starting point of the countless passages and chambers - of the nest. Others are of the opinion that this space - serves for purposes of ventilation. - - Above and below the royal cell are the rooms of the - workers and soldiers which are specially charged with - the care and defence of the royal pair. They - communicate with each other, as well as with the - nursery-cells and store-rooms, by means of galleries - and passages which, as already said, open into the - common room in the middle under the dome. This room is - surrounded by high, boldly projected arched ways, - which lose themselves further out in the walls of the - countless rooms and galleries. Many roofs outside and - in protect this room and the surrounding chambers from - rain, which, as already said, is drained away by - countless subterranean canals, made of clay and of a - diameter of ten or twelve centimetres. There are also, - under the layer of clay covering the whole building, - broad spirally winding passages running from below to - the highest points, which communicate with the - passages of the interior, and apparently, as they - mainly consist of smooth inclines, serve for carrying - provisions to the higher parts of the nest.[71] - -The termites, like many species of true ants, are divided into two -distinct castes, the workers and the soldiers. If a breach is made in -the walls of the dome the soldiers rush out to meet the enemy, and fight -desperately with any enemy that they may find. Here, again, I cannot do -better than quote Büchner's epitome of facts:-- - - If the assailant withdraws beyond their reach and - inflicts no further injury, they retire within their - dwelling in the course of half an hour, as though they - had come to the conclusion that the enemy who had done - the mischief had fled. Scarcely have the soldiers - disappeared when crowds of workers appear in the - breach, each with a quantity of ready-made mortar in - its mouth. As soon as they arrive they stick this - mortar round the open place, and direct the whole - operation with such swiftness and facility that in - spite of their great number they never hinder each - other, nor are obliged to stop. During this spectacle - of apparent restlessness and confusion the observer is - agreeably surprised to see arising a regular wall, - filling up the gap. During the time that the workers - are thus busied the soldiers remain within the nest, - with the exception of a few, which walk about - apparently idly, never touching the mortar, among the - hundreds and thousands of workers. Nevertheless one of - them stands on guard close to the wall which is being - built. It turns gently each way in turn, lifting its - head at intervals of one or two minutes to strike the - building with its heavy mandibles, making the - before-mentioned crackling noise. This signal is - immediately answered by a loud rustling from the - interior of the nest and from all the subterranean - passages and holes. There is no doubt that this noise - arises from the workers, for as often as the sign is - given they work with increased energy and speed. A - renewal of the attack instantaneously changes the - scene. 'At the first stroke,' says Smeathman, 'the - workers run into the many tunnels and passages which - run through the building, and this happens so quickly - that they seem regularly to vanish. In a few seconds - they are all gone, and in their stead appear the - soldiers once more, as numerous and as pugnacious as - before. If they find no enemy, they turn back slowly - into the interior of the hill, and immediately the - mortar-laden workers again appear, and among them a - few soldiers, which behave just as on the first - occasion. So one can have the pleasure of seeing them - work and fight in turn, as often as one chooses; and - it will be found each time that one set never fight, - and the other never work, however great the need may - be.'[72] - -Similar facts have been observed by Fritz Müller of the South American -species. - -The Termites, being like the Ecitons blind, like them make all their -expeditions under the protection of covered ways. These are underground -tunnels in all cases where circumstances permit, but on arriving at a -rock or other impenetrable obstruction, they build a tubular passage -upon the surface. According to Büchner,-- - - They can even carry their viaducts through the air, - and that in such bold arches that it is difficult to - understand how they were projected. In order to reach - a sack of meal which was well protected below, they - broke through the roof of the room in which it was, - and built a straight tube from the breach they had - made down to the sack. As soon as they tried to carry - off their booty to a safe place, they became convinced - that it was impossible to pull it up the straight - road. In order to meet this difficulty, they adopted - the principle of the smooth incline, the use of which - we have already seen in the interior of their nests, - and built close to the first tube a second, which - wound spirally within, like the famous clock tower of - Venice. It was now an easy task to carry their booty - up this road and so away. . . . Either from the desire - to remain undiscovered, or from their liking for - darkness, they have the remarkable habit of destroying - and gnawing everything from within outwards, and of - leaving the outside shell standing, so that from the - outside appearance the dangerous state of the inside is - not perceptible. If, for instance, they have destroyed - a table or other piece of household furniture, in which - they always manage from the ground upwards to hit - exactly the places on which the feet of the article - rest, the table looks perfectly uninjured outside, and - people are quite astonished when it breaks down under - the slightest pressure. The whole inside is eaten away, - and only the thinnest shell is left standing. If fruits - are lying on the table, they also are eaten out from - the exact spot on which they rest on the surface of the - table. - - - In similar fashion things consisting wholly of wood, - such as wooden ships, trees, &c., are destroyed by - them so that they finally break in without any one - having noticed the mischief. Yet it is said that they - go so prudently to work in their destruction that the - main beams, the sudden breakage of which would - threaten the whole building and themselves therewith, - are either spared, or else so fastened together again - with a cement made out of clay and earth that their - strength is greater than ever!(?) Hagen also states - that they never cut right through the corks which stop - up stored bottles of wine, but leave a very thin - layer, which is sufficient to prevent the outflow of - the wine and the consequent destruction of the - workers. The same author relates that in order to - reach a box of wax lights they made a covered road - from the ground up to the second story of a house.[73] - -It is needless to give a special description of any of the other habits -of these insects, such as their swarming, breeding, &c., for they all -more or less closely resemble the analogous habits of ants and bees. It -is very remarkable that insects of two distinct orders should both -manifest such closely similar social habits of such high complexity, and -it rather surprises me that more has not been made of this point by -writers opposed to the principles of evolution. Of course if the point -were raised, the argument in answer would require to be, either that the -similar instincts were derived from common and very remote progenitors -(in which case the fact would form by far the most remarkable instance -of the permanency of instincts among changing species), or more -probably, that similar causes operating in the two orders have produced -similar effects--complex and otherwise unique though these effects -undoubtedly are. - -In connection with the theory of evolution I may conclude this chapter -with the following quotation from Smeathman, as it shows how natural -relation may develop for the benefit of the species instincts which are -detrimental to the individual. Speaking of the soldiers he says:-- - - I was always amused at the pugnacity displayed when, - in making a hole in the earthy cemented archway of - their covered roads, a host of these little fellows - mounted the breach to cover the retreat of the - workers. The edges of the rupture bristled with their - armed heads as the courageous warriors ranged - themselves in compact line around them. They attacked - fiercely any intruding object, and as fast as their - front ranks were destroyed, others filled up their - places. When the jaws closed in the flesh, they - suffered themselves to be torn in pieces rather than - loosen their hold. It might be said that this instinct - is rather a cause of their ruin than a protection when - a colony is attacked by the well-known enemy of - termites, the ant-bear; but it is the soldiers only - which attach themselves to the long worm-like tongue - of this animal, and the workers, on whom the - prosperity of the young brood immediately depends, are - left for the most part unharmed. I always found, on - thrusting my finger into a mixed crowd of termites, - that the soldiers only fastened upon it. Thus the - fighting caste do in the end serve to protect the - species by sacrificing themselves to its good.[74] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[71] _Loc. cit._, p. 189. - -[72] _Ibid._, p. 119. - -[73] _Geistesleben der Thiere_, pp. 194 and 199-200. - -[74] Phil. Trans., _loc. cit._ - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -SPIDERS AND SCORPIONS. - - -_Emotions._ - -THE emotional life of spiders, so far as we can observe it as expressed -in their actions, seems to be divided between sexual passion (including -maternal affection) and the sterner feelings incidental to their -fiercely predatory habits. But the emotions, although apparently few and -simple in character, are exceedingly strong in force. In many species -the male spider in conducting his courtship has to incur an amount of -personal danger at the hands (and jaws) of his terrific spouse, which -might well daunt the courage of a Leander. Ridiculously small and weak -in build, the males of these species can only conduct the rites of -marriage with their enormous and voracious brides by a process of active -manoeuvring, which if unsuccessful is certain to cost them their -lives. Yet their sexual emotions are so strong that, as proved by the -continuance of the species, no amount of personal risk is sufficient to -deter them from giving these emotions full play. There is no other case -in the animal kingdom where courtship is attended with any approach to -the gravity of danger that is here observable. Among many animals the -males have to meet a certain amount of inconvenience from the coquetry -or disinclination of the females; but here the coquetry and -disinclination has passed into the hungry determination of a ferocious -giantess. The case, therefore, because unique, is of interest from an -evolutionary point of view. We can see a direct advantage to species -from the danger incurred by males on account of mutual jealousy; for -this, giving rise to what Mr. Darwin has called 'the law of battle,' -must obviously be a constant source of the creation and the maintenance -of specific proficiency; the law of battle determines that only the -strongest and most courageous males shall breed. But the benefit to -species is not so obvious where the danger of courtship arises from the -side of the female. Still, that there must be some benefit is obvious, -seeing that the whole structure of the male, if we take that of the -female as the original type, has been greatly modified with reference to -this danger: had the latter been wholly useless, either it would not -have been allowed to arise, or the species must have become extinct. The -only suggestion I can make to meet this aberrant case is that the -courage and determination required of the male, besides being no doubt -of use to him in other relations in life, may be of benefit to the -species by instilling these qualities into the psychology both of his -male and female descendants. - -The courage and rapacity of spiders as a class are too well and -generally known to require special illustration. One instance, however, -may be quoted to show the strength of their maternal emotions. Bonnet -threw a spider with her bag of eggs into the pit of an ant-lion. The -latter seized the eggs and tore them away from the spider; but although -Bonnet forced her out of the pit, she returned, and chose to be dragged -in and buried alive rather than leave her charge. - -The only other point that occurs to me with reference to the emotions of -spiders is the somewhat remarkable one concerning their apparent -fondness of music. The testimony is so varied and abundant on this -matter that we can scarcely doubt the truth of the facts. These simply -are that spiders--or at any rate some species or individuals--approach a -sounding musical instrument, 'especially when the music is tender and -not too loud.' They usually approach as near as possible, often letting -themselves down from the ceiling of the room by a line of web, and -remain suspended above the instrument. Should the music become loud, -they often again retreat. Professor C. Reclain, during a concert at -Leipsic, saw a spider descend in this way from one of the chandeliers -while a violin solo was being played; but as soon as the orchestra -began to sound it quickly ran back again.[75] Similar observations have -been published by Rabigot, Simonius, von Hartmann, and others. - -A highly probable explanation of these facts has recently been given by -Mr. C. V. Boys, which relieves us of the necessity of imputing to -animals so low in the scale any rudiment of æsthetic emotion as aroused -by musical tones. As the observation is an interesting one, I shall -quote it _in extenso_:-- - - Having made some observations on the garden spider - which are I believe new, I send a short account of - them, in the hope that they may be of interest to the - readers of _Nature_. - - Last autumn, while watching some spiders spinning - their beautiful geometrical webs, it occurred to me to - try what effect a tuning-fork would have upon them. On - sounding an A fork, and lightly touching with it any - leaf or other support of the web, or any portion of - the web itself, I found that the spider, if at the - centre of the web, rapidly slues round so as to face - the direction of the fork, feeling with its fore-feet - along which radial thread the vibration travels. - Having become satisfied on this point, it next darts - along that thread till it reaches either the fork - itself or a junction of two or more threads, the right - one of which it instantly determines as before. If the - fork is not removed when the spider has arrived it - seems to have the same charm as any fly; for the - spider seizes it, embraces it, and runs about on the - legs of the fork as often as it is made to sound, - never seeming to learn by experience that other things - may buzz besides its natural food. - - If the spider is not at the centre of the web at the - time that the fork is applied, it cannot tell which - way to go until it has been to the centre to ascertain - which radial thread is vibrating, unless of course it - should happen to be on that particular thread, or on a - stretched supporting thread in contact with the fork. - - If, when a spider has been enticed to the edge of the - web the fork is withdrawn, and then gradually brought - near, the spider is aware of its presence and of its - direction, and reaches out as far as possible in the - direction of the fork; but if a sounding fork is - gradually brought near a spider that has not been - disturbed, but which is waiting as usual in the middle - of the web, then, instead of reaching out towards the - fork, the spider instantly drops--at the end of a - thread, of course. If under these conditions the fork - is made to touch any part of the web, the spider is - aware of the fact, and climbs the thread and reaches - the fork with marvellous rapidity. The spider never - leaves the centre of the web without a thread along - which to travel back. If after enticing a spider out - we cut this thread with a pair of scissors, the spider - seems to be unable to get back without doing - considerable damage to the web, generally gumming - together the sticky parallel threads in groups of - three and four. - - By means of a tuning-fork a spider may be made to eat - what it would otherwise avoid. I took a fly that had - been drowned in paraffin and put it into a spider's - web, and then attracted the spider by touching the fly - with a fork. When the spider had come to the - conclusion that it was not suitable food, and was - leaving it, I touched the fly again. This had the same - effect as before, and as often as the spider began to - leave the fly I again touched it, and by this means - compelled the spider to eat a large portion of the - fly. - - The few house-spiders that I have found do not seem to - appreciate the tuning-fork, but retreat into their - hiding-places as when frightened; yet the supposed - fondness of spiders for music must surely have some - connection with these observations; and when they come - out to listen, is it not that they cannot tell which - way to proceed? - - The few observations that I have made are necessarily - imperfect, but I send them, as they afford a method - which might lead a naturalist to notice habits - otherwise difficult to observe, and so to arrive at - conclusions which I in my ignorance of natural history - must leave to others.[76] - - -_General Habits._ - -Coming now to general habits, our attention is claimed by the only -general habit that is of interest--namely, that of web-building. The -instinct of constructing nets for the capture of prey occurs in no other -class of animals, while in spiders it not only attains to an -extraordinary degree of perfection (so that, in the opinion of some -geometers, the instinct is not less wonderful in this respect than is -that displayed by the hive-bee in the construction of its cells), but -also ramifies into a number of diverse directions. Thus we have, in -different species, wide open networks spread between the branches of -bushes, &c., closely woven textures in the corners of buildings, earth -tubes lined with silk, the strong muslin-like snare of the Mygale, -which, as first noticed by Madame Merian,[77] and since confirmed by -Bates,[78] is able to retain a struggling humming-bird while this most -beautiful animal in creation is being devoured by the most repulsive; -and many other varieties might be mentioned. It may at first sight -appear somewhat remarkable that this instinct of spreading snares should -on the one hand occur only in one class of the animal kingdom, while on -the other hand, in the class where it does occur, it should attain such -extreme perfection, and run into so much variety. But we must here -remember that the development of the instinct obviously depends upon the -presence of a web-secreting apparatus, which is a comparatively rare -anatomical feature. In caterpillars, which are not predaceous, the web -is used only for the purposes of protection and locomotion; and it is -easy to see that the spreading of snares would here be of no use to the -animals. But in spiders, of course, the case is otherwise. Once granting -the power of forming a web, and it is evident that there is much -potential service to which this power may be put with reference to the -voracious habits of the animal; and therefore it is not to be wondered -that both the anatomical structures and their correlated instincts -should attain to extreme perfection in sundry lines of development. The -origin of the web-building structure was probably due to the use of the -web for purposes of locomotion or of cocoon-spinning, as we see it still -so used in the same way that it is used by caterpillars for descending -from heights, and in the case of the gossamer spider for travelling -immense distances through the air. As the anatomical structures in -question differ very greatly in the case of spiders and in that of -caterpillars, we may wonder why analogous if not homologous structures -should never have been developed in the case of any other animal having -predaceous habits--especially, perhaps, in that of the imago form of -predaceous insects. It is easy to see how, if there were any original -tendency to secrete a viscid substance in the neighbourhood of the anus, -this might be utilised in descending from low elevations (as certain -kinds of slugs use their viscid slime as threads whereby to let -themselves down from low branches to the ground); and so we can -understand how natural selection might thus have the material supplied -out of which to develop such highly specialised organs as the spinnerets -of a spider. But if we are inclined to wonder why this should not have -happened among other animals, we must remember that any expectation that -it should rests on negative grounds; we have no reason to suppose that -in any other case the initial tendency to secrete a viscid substance was -present. One inference, however, in the case of spiders seems perfectly -valid. As this comparatively rare faculty of web-spinning occurs so -generally throughout the class, it must have had its earliest origin -very far back in the history of that class, though probably not so far -back as to include the common progenitors of the spiders and the -scorpions, seeing that the latter do not spin webs. - -I shall now give a few details on the manner in which spiders' webs are -made. Without going into the anatomy of the subject further than to -observe that a spider's 'thread' is a composite structure made up of a -number of finer threads, which leave their respective spinneret-holes in -an almost fluid condition, and immediately harden by exposure to the -air, I shall begin at once to describe the method of construction. - -The so-called 'geometric spider' constructs her web by first laying down -the radiating and unadhesive rays, and then, beginning from the centre, -spins a spiral line of unadhesive web, like that of the rays which it -intersects. This line, in being woven through the radii in a spiral from -centre to circumference, serves as a scaffolding for the spider to walk -over, and also keeps the rays properly stretched. She next spins another -spiral line, but this time from the circumference to near the centre, -and formed of web, covered with a viscid secretion to retain prey. -Lastly, she constructs her lair to bide and watch for prey, at some -distance from the web but connected with it by means of a line of -communication or telegraph, the vibrations of which inform her of the -struggling of an insect in the net.[79] - -According to Thompson,-- - - The web of the garden spider--the most ingenious and - perfect contrivance that can be imagined--is usually - fixed in a perpendicular or somewhat oblique direction - in an opening between the leaves of some plant or - shrub; and as it is obvious that round its whole - extent lines will be required to which those ends of - radii that are farthest from the centre can be - attached, the construction of those exterior lines is - the spider's first operation. It seems careless about - the shape of the area they are to enclose, well aware - that it can as readily inscribe a circle in a triangle - as a square; and in this respect it is guided by the - distance or proximity of the points to which it can - attach them. It spares no pains, however, to - strengthen and keep them in a proper degree of - tension. With the former view it composes each line of - five or six or even of more threads glued together; - and with the latter it fixes to them from different - points a numerous and intricate apparatus of smaller - threads; and having thus completed the foundation of - its snare, it proceeds to fill up the outline. - Attaching a thread to one of the main lines, it walks - along it, guiding it with one of its hind legs, that - it may not touch in any part and be prematurely glued, - and crosses over to the opposite side, where, by - applying its spinners, it firmly fixes it. To the - middle of this diagonal thread, which is to form the - centre of its net, it fixes a second, which in like - manner it conveys and fastens to another part of the - lines including the area. The work now proceeds - rapidly. During the preliminary operations it - sometimes rests, as though its plan required - meditation; but no sooner are the marginal lines of - the net firmly stretched, and two or three radii spun - from its centre, than it continues its labour so - quickly and unremittingly that the eye can scarcely - follow its progress. The radii, to the number of about - twenty, giving the net the appearance of a wheel, are - speedily finished. It then proceeds to the centre, - quickly turns itself round, pulls each thread with its - feet to ascertain its strength, breaking any one that - seems defective, and replacing it by another. Next it - glues, immediately round the centre, five or six small - concentric circles, distant about half a line from - each other, and then four or five larger ones, each - separated by the space of half an inch or more. These - last serve as a sort of temporary scaffolding to walk - over, and to keep the radii properly stretched while - it glues to them the concentric circles that are to - remain, which it now proceeds to construct. Placing - itself at the circumference, and fastening its thread - to the end of one of the radii, it walks up that one, - towards the centre, to such a distance as to draw the - thread from its body of a sufficient length to meet - the next. Then stepping across and conducting the - thread with one of its hind legs, it glues it with its - spinners to the point in the adjoining radius to which - it is to be fixed. This process it repeats until it - has filled up nearly the whole space from the - circumference to the centre with concentric circles, - distant from each other about two lines. It always, - however, leaves a vacant interval around the smallest - first spun circles that are nearest to the centre, and - bites away the small cotton-like tuft that united all - the radii, which being held now together by the - circular threads have thus probably their elasticity - increased; and in the circular opening, resulting from - this procedure, it takes its station and watches for - its prey, or occasionally retires to a little - apartment formed under some leaf, which it also uses - as a slaughter-house.[80] - -According to Büchner,-- - - The long main threads, with the help of which the - spider begins and attaches its web, are always the - thickest and strongest; while the others, forming the - web itself, are considerably weaker. Injuries to the - web at any spot the spider very quickly repairs, but - without keeping to the original plan, and without - taking more trouble than is absolutely necessary. Most - spiders' webs, therefore, if closely looked into, are - found to be somewhat irregular. When a storm - threatens, the spider, which is very economical with - its valuable spinning material, spins no web, for it - knows that the storm will tear it in pieces and waste - its pains, and it also does not mend a web which has - been torn. If it is seen spinning or mending, on the - other hand, fine weather may be generally reckoned - on. . . . The emerged young at first spin a very - irregular web, and only gradually learn to make a - larger and finer one, so that here, as everywhere - else, practice and experience play a great part. . . . - The position must also offer favourable opposite - points for the attachment of the web itself. People - have often puzzled their brains, wondering how - spiders, without being able to fly, had managed first - to stretch their web through the air between two - opposite points. But the little creature succeeds in - accomplishing this difficult task in the most various - and ingenious ways. It either, when the distance is - not too great, throws a moist viscid pellet, joined to - a thread, which will stick where it touches; or hangs - itself by a thread in the air and lets itself be - driven by the wind to the spot; or crawls there, - letting out a thread as it goes, and then pulls it - taut when arrived at the desired place; or floats a - number of threads in the air and waits till the wind - has thrown them here or there. The main or radial - threads which fasten the web possess such a high - degree of elasticity, that they tighten themselves - between two distant points to which the spider has - crawled, without it being necessary for the latter to - pull them towards itself. When the little artist has - once got a single thread at its disposition, it - strengthens this until it is sufficiently strong for - it to run backwards and forwards thereupon, and to - spin therefrom the web.[81] - - -_Special Habits._ - -_Water-spider._--The water-spider (_Argyroneta aquatica_), as is well -known, displays the curious instinct of building her nest below the -surface of water, and constructing it on the principle of a diving-bell. -The animal usually selects still waters for this purpose, and makes her -nest in the form of an oval hollow, lined with web, and held secure by a -number of threads passing in various directions and fastened to the -surrounding plants. In this oval bell, which is open below, she watches -for prey, and, according to Kirby,[82] passes the winter after having -closed the opening. The air needful for respiration the spider carries -from the surface of the water. To do this she swims upon her back in -order to entangle an air-bubble upon the hairy surface of her abdomen. -With this bubble she descends, 'like a globe of quicksilver,' to the -opening of her nest, where she liberates it and returns for more. - -_The Vagrant or Wolf Spider._--This insect catches its prey by -stealthily stalking it until within distance near enough to admit of a -sudden dart being successful in effecting capture. Some species, before -making the final dart (_e.g. Salticus scenicus_), fix a line of web upon -the surface over which they are creeping, so that whether their station -is vertical or horizontal with reference to the prey, they can leap -fearlessly, the thread in any case preventing their fall. Dr. H. F. -Hutchinson says that he has seen this spider crawling over a -looking-glass stalking its own reflection.[83] - -The following is quoted from Büchner:-- - - Less idyllic than the water-spider is our native - hunting-spider (_Dolomedes fimbriata_), which belongs - to those species which spin no web, but hunt their - victims like animals of prey. As the _Argyroneta_ is - the discoverer of the diving-bell, so may this be - regarded as the discoverer or first builder of a - floating raft. It is not content with hunting insects - on land, but follows them on the water, on the surface - of which it runs about with ease. It, however, needs a - place to rest on, and makes it by rolling together dry - leaves and such like bodies, binding them into a firm - whole with its silken threads. On this raft-like - vessel it floats at the mercy of wind and waves; and - if an unlucky water-insect comes for an instant to the - surface of the water to breathe, the spider darts at - it with lightning speed, and carries it back to its - raft to devour at its ease. Thus everywhere in nature - are battle, craft, and ingenuity, all following the - merciless law of egoism, in order to maintain their - own lives and to destroy those of others! - -_Trap-door Spiders._--These display the curious instinct of providing -their nests with trap-doors. The nest consists of a tube excavated in -the earth to the depth of half a foot or more. In all save one species -the tube is unbranched; it is always lined with silk, which is -continuous with the lining of the trap-door or doors, of which it forms -the hinge. In the species which constructs a branching tube, the branch -is always single, more or less straight, takes origin at a point -situated a few inches from the orifice of the main tube, is directed -upwards at an acute angle with that tube, and terminates blindly just -below the surface of the soil. At its point of junction with or -departure from the main tube it is provided with a trap-door resembling -that which closes the orifice of the main tube, and of such a size and -arrangement that when closed against the opening of the branch tube it -just fills that opening; while when turned outwards, so as to uncork -this opening, it just fills the diameter of the main tube: the latter, -therefore, is in this species provided with two trap-doors, one at the -surface of the soil, and the other at the fork of the branched tube. - -Each species of trap-door spider is very constant in building a -particular kind of trap-door; but among the different species there are -four several kinds of trap-doors to be distinguished. 1st. The -single-door cork nest, wherein the trap-door is a thick structure, and -fits into the tube like a cork into a bottle. 2nd. The single-door wafer -nest, wherein the trap-door is as thin as a piece of paper. 3rd. The -double-door unbranched nest, wherein there is a second trap-door -situated a few inches below the first one. And 4th, the double-door -branched nest already described. In all cases the trap-doors open -outwards, and when the nest is placed, as it usually is, on a sloping -bank, the trap-door opens upwards; hence there is no fear of its gaping, -for gravity is on the side of holding it shut. - -The object of the trap-door is to conceal the nest, and for this purpose -it is always made so closely to resemble the general surface of the -ground on which it occurs, that even a practised eye finds it difficult -to detect the structure when closed. In order to make the resemblance to -the surrounding objects as perfect as possible, the spider either -constructs the surface of its door of a portion of leaf, or weaves moss, -grass, &c., into the texture. Moggridge says,[84]-- - - Thus, for example, in one case where I had cut out a - little clod of mossy earth, about two inches thick and - three square on the surface, containing the top of the - tube and the moss-covered cork door of _N. - cæmentaria_, I found, on revisiting the place six - days later, that a new door had been made, and that - the spider had mounted up to fetch moss from the - undisturbed bank above, planting it in the earth which - formed the crown of the door. Here the moss actually - called the eye to the trap, which lay in the little - plain of brown earth made by my digging. - -If an enemy should detect the trap-door and endeavour to open it, the -spider frequently seizes hold of its internal surface, and, applying her -legs to the walls of the tube, forcibly holds the trap-door shut. In the -double trap-door species it is surmised that the second trap-door serves -as an inner barrier of defence, behind which the spider retires when -obliged to abandon the first one. In the branched tube species (which, -so far as at present known, only occurs in the south of Europe) it is -surmised that the spider, when it finds that an enemy is about to gain -entrance at the first trap-door, runs into the branch tube and draws up -behind it the second trap-door. The surface of this trap-door, being -overlaid with silk like the walls of the tube, is then invisible; so -that the enemy no doubt passes down the main tube to find it empty, -without observing the lateral branch in which the spider is concealed -behind the closed door. - -As showing that these animals are to no small extent able to adapt their -dwellings to unusual circumstances, I shall here quote the following -from Moggridge (_loc. cit._, p. 122):-- - - Certain nests which were furnished with two doors of - the cork type were observed by Mr. S. S. Saunders in - the Ionian Islands. The door at the surface of these - nests was normal in position and structure, but the - lower one was placed at the very bottom of the nest, - and inverted, so that, though apparently intended to - open downwards, it was permanently closed by the - surrounding earth. The presence of a carefully - constructed door in a situation which forbade the - possibility of its ever being opened seemed, indeed, - something difficult to account for. However, it - occurred to Mr. Saunders that, as these nests were - found in the cultivated ground round the roots of - olive trees, they may occasionally have got turned - topsy-turvy when the soil was broken up. The spider - then, finding her door buried below in the ground and - the bottom of the tube at the surface, would have - either to seek new quarters or to adapt the nest to - its altered position, and make an opening and door at - the exposed end. In order to try whether one of these - spiders would do this, Mr. Saunders placed a nest, - with its occupant inside, upside down in a flower-pot. - After the lapse of ten days a new door was made, - exactly as he had conjectured it would be, and the - nest presented two doors like those which he had found - at first. - -The most remarkable fact connected with these animals, if we regard -their peculiar instinct from the standpoint of the descent theory, is -the wide range of their geographical distribution. In all quarters of -the globe species of trap-door spiders are found occurring in more or -less localised areas; and as it is improbable that so peculiar an -instinct should have arisen independently in more than one line of -descent, we can only conclude that the wide dispersion of the species -presenting it has been subsequent to the origin and perfecting of the -instinct. This conclusion of course necessitates the supposition that -the instinct must be one of enormous antiquity; and in this connection -it is worthy of remark that we seem to have independent evidence to show -that such is the case. It is a principle of evolution that the earlier -any structure or instinct appears in the development of the race, the -sooner will it appear in the development of the individual; and read by -the light of this principle we should conclude, quite apart from all -considerations as to the wide geographical distribution of trap-door -spiders, that their instincts--as, indeed, is the case with the -characteristic instincts of many other species of spiders--must be of -immense age. Thus, again to quote Moggridge,-- - - It seems to be the rule with spiders generally that - the offspring should leave the nest and construct - dwellings for themselves when very young. - - Mr. Blackwall, speaking of British spiders, - says:--'Complicated as the processes are by which - these symmetrical nets are produced, nevertheless - young spiders, acting under the influence of - instinctive impulse, display, even in their first - attempts to fabricate them, as consummate skill as the - most experienced individuals.' - - Again, Mr. F. Pollock[85] relates of the young of - _Epeira aurelia_, which he observed in Madeira, that - when seven weeks old they made a web the size of a - penny, and that these nets have the same beautiful - symmetry as those of the full-grown spider. - -And, speaking of trap-door spiders, Moggridge says,-- - - I cannot help thinking that these very small nests, - built as they are by minute spiders probably not very - long hatched from the egg, must rank among the most - marvellous structures of this kind with which we are - acquainted. That so young and weak a creature should - be able to excavate a tube in the earth many times its - own length, and know how to make a perfect miniature - of the nest of its parents, seems to be a fact which - has scarcely a parallel in nature.[86] - -Regarding the steps whereby the instinct of building trap-doors probably -arose, Büchner quotes Moggridge thus:-- - - To show, lastly, how various are the transitional - forms and gradations so important in deciding upon the - gradual origin of the forms of nests, Moggridge also - alludes to the similar buildings made by other genera - of spiders. _Lycosa Narbonensis_, a spider of Southern - France much resembling the Apuleian tarantula, and - belonging to the family of the wolf spiders, makes - cylindrical holes in the earth, about one inch wide - and three or four inches deep, in a perpendicular - direction; when they have attained this depth they run - further horizontally, and end in a three cornered - room, from one to two inches broad, the floor of which - is covered with the remnants of dead insects. The - whole nest is lined within with a thick silken - material, and has at its opening--closed by no - door--an above-ground chimney-shaped extension, made - of leaves, needles, moss, wood, &c., woven together - with spider threads. These chimneys show various - differences in their manner of building, and are - intended chiefly, according to Moggridge, to prevent - the sand blown about by the violent sea-winds from - penetrating into the nests. During winter the opening - is wholly and continuously woven over, and it is very - well possible, or probable, that the process of - reopening such a warm covering in the spring, after - this opening was three-quarters completed, and was - large enough to let the spider pass out, may have long - ago awaked in the brain of some species of spider the - idea of making a permanent and moveable door. But from - this to the practical construction of so perfect a - door as we have learned to know, and even to the - building of the exceedingly complicated nest of the - _N. Manderstjernæ_, through all the gradations which - we already know, and which doubtless exist in far - greater number, is no great or impossible step. - - -_General Intelligence._ - -Coming now to the general intelligence of spiders, I think there can be -no reasonable doubt, from the force of concurrent testimony, that they -are able to distinguish between persons, and approach those whom they -have found to be friendly, while shunning strangers. This power of -discrimination, it will be remembered, also occurs among bees and wasps, -and therefore its presence in spiders is not antecedently improbable. I -myself know a lady who has 'tamed' spiders to recognise her, so that -they come out to be fed when she enters the room where they are kept; -and stories of the taming of spiders by prisoners are abundant. The -following anecdote recorded by Büchner is in this connection worth -quoting:-- - - Dr. Moschkau, of Gohlis, near Leipsic, writes as - follows to the author, on August 28, 1876:--'In - Oderwitz(?), where I lived in 1873 and 1874, I noticed - one day in a half-dark corner of the anteroom a - tolerably respectable spider's web, in which a - well-fed cross-spider had made its home, and sat at - the nest-opening early and late, watching for some - flying or creeping food. I was accidentally several - times a witness of the craft with which it caught its - victim and rendered it harmless, and it soon became a - regular duty to carry it flies several times during a - day, which I laid down before its door with a pair of - pincers. At first this feeding seemed to arouse small - confidence, the pincers perhaps being in fault, for it - let many of the flies escape again, or only seized - them when it knew that they were within reach of its - abode. After a while, however, the spider came each - time and took the flies out of the pincers and spun - them over. The latter business was sometimes done so - superficially, when I gave flies very quickly one - after the other, that some of the already ensnared - flies found time and opportunity to escape. This game - was carried on by me for some weeks, as it seemed to - me curious. But one day when the spider seemed very - ravenous, and regularly flew at each fly offered to - it, I began teasing it. As soon as it had got hold of - the fly I pulled it back again with the pincers. It - took this exceedingly ill. The first time, as I - finally left the fly with it, it managed to forgive - me, but when I later took a fly right away, our - friendship was destroyed for ever. On the following - day it treated my offered flies with contempt, and - would not move, and on the third day it had - disappeared.[87] - -Jesse relates the following anecdote, which seems to display on the part -of a spider somewhat remote adaptation of means to novel circumstances. -He confined a spider with her eggs under a glass upon a marble -mantelpiece. Having surrounded the eggs with web,-- - - She next proceeded to fix one of her threads to the - upper part of the glass which confined her, and - carried it to the further end of the piece of grass, - and in a short time had succeeded in raising it up and - fixing it perpendicularly, working her threads from - the sides of the glass to the top and sides of the - piece of grass. Her motive in doing this was obvious. - She not only rendered the object of her care more - secure than it would have been had it remained flat on - the marble, but she was probably aware that the cold - from the marble would chill her eggs, and prevent - their arriving at maturity: she therefore raised them - from it in the manner I have described.[88] - -Mr. Belt gives the following account of the intelligence which certain -species of South American spiders display in escaping from the terrible -hosts of the Eciton ants:-- - - Many of the spiders would escape by hanging suspended - by a thread of silk from the branches, safe from the - foes that swarmed both above and below. - - I noticed that spiders generally were most intelligent - in escaping, and did not, like the cockroaches and - other insects, take shelter in the first hiding-place - they found, only to be driven out again, or perhaps - caught by the advancing army of ants. I have often - seen large spiders making off many yards in advance, - and apparently determined to put a good distance - between themselves and the foe. I once saw one of the - false spiders, or harvest-men (_Phalangidæ_), standing - in the midst of an army of ants, and with the greatest - circumspection and coolness lifting, one after the - other, its long legs, which supported its body above - their reach. Sometimes as many as five out of its - eight legs would be lifted at once, and whenever an - ant approached one of those on which it stood, there - was always a clear space within reach to put down - another, so as to be able to hold up the threatened - one out of danger.[89] - -Mr. L. A. Morgan, writing to 'Nature' (Jan. 22, 1880), gives an account -of a spider conveying a large insect from the part of the web where it -was caught to the 'larder,' by the following means. The spider first -went two or three times backwards and forwards between the head of the -insect and the main strand of the web. After this he went about cutting -all the threads around the insect till the latter hung by the head -strands alone. The spider then fixed a thread to the tail end, and by -this dragged the carcass as far on its way to the larder as the head -strands would permit. As soon as these were taut, he made the tail rope -fast, went back to the head rope and cut it; then he attached himself to -the head and pulled the body towards the larder, until the tail rope was -taut. In this way, by alternately cutting the head and tail ropes and -dragging the insect bit by bit, he conveyed it safely to the larder. - -But the practical acquaintance with mechanical principles which this -observation displays is perhaps not so remarkable as that which is -sometimes shown by spiders when they find that a widely spread web is -not tightly enough stretched, and as a consequence is to an inconvenient -extent swayed about by the wind. Under such circumstances these animals -have been observed to suspend to their webs small stones or other heavy -objects, the weight of which serves to steady the whole system. -Gleditsch saw a spider so circumstanced let itself down to the ground by -means of a thread, seize a small stone, remount, and fasten the stone to -the lower part of its web, at a height sufficient to enable animals and -men to walk beneath it. After alluding to this case, Büchner observes -(_loc. cit._, p. 318),-- - - But a similar observation was made by Professor E. H. - Weber, the famous anatomist and physiologist, and was - published many years ago in Müller's Journal. A spider - had stretched its web between two posts standing - opposite each other, and had fastened it to a plant - below for the third point. But as the attachment below - was often broken by the garden work, by passers-by, - and in other ways, the little animal extricated itself - from the difficulty by spinning its web round a little - stone, and fastened this to the lower part of its web, - swinging freely, and so to draw the web down by its - weight instead of fastening it in this direction by a - connecting thread. Carus ('Vergl. Psycho.,' 1866, p. - 76) also made a similar observation. But the most - interesting observation on this head is related by J. - G. Wood ('Glimpses into Petland'), and repeated by - Watson (_loc. cit._, p. 455). One of my friends, says - Wood, was accustomed to grant shelter to a number of - garden spiders under a large verandah, and to watch - their habits. One day a sharp storm broke out, and the - wind raged so furiously through the garden that the - spiders suffered damage from it, although sheltered by - the verandah. The mainyards of one of these webs, as - the sailors would call them, were broken, so that the - web was blown hither and thither, like a slack sail in - a storm. The spider made no fresh threads, but tried - to help itself in another way. It let itself down to - the ground by a thread, and crawled to a place where - lay some splintered pieces of a wooden fence thrown - down by the storm. It fastened a thread to one of the - bits of wood, turned back with it, and hung it with a - strong thread to the lower part of its nest, about - five feet from the ground. The performance was a - wonderful one, for the weight of the wood sufficed to - keep the nest tolerably firm, while it was yet light - enough to yield to the wind, and so prevent further - injury. The piece of wood was about two and a half - inches long, and as thick as a goose-quill. On the - following day a careless servant knocked her head - against the wood, and it fell down. But in the course - of a few hours the spider had found it and brought it - back to its place. When the storm ceased, the spider - mended her web, broke the supporting thread in two, - and let the wood fall to the ground! - -If so well-observed a fact requires any further confirmation, I may -adduce the following account, which is of the more value as -corroborative evidence from the writer not appearing to be aware that -the fact had been observed before. This writer is Dr. John Topham, whom -the late Dr. Sharpey, F.R.S., assured me is a competent observer, and -who publishes the account in 'Nature' (xi. 18):-- - - A spider constructed its web in an angle of my garden, - the sides of which were attached by long threads to - shrubs at the height of nearly three feet from the - gravel path beneath. Being much exposed to the wind, - the equinoctial gales of this autumn destroyed the web - several times. - - The ingenious spider now adopted the contrivance here - represented. It secured a conical fragment of gravel - with its larger end upwards by two cords, one attached - to each of its opposite sides, to the apex of its - wedge-shaped web, and left it suspended as a moveable - weight to be opposed to the effect of such gusts of - air as had destroyed the webs previously occupying the - same situation. - - The spider must have descended to the gravel path for - this special object, and having attached threads to a - stone suited to its purpose, must have afterwards - raised this by fixing itself upon the web, and pulling - the weight up to a height of more than two feet from - the ground, where it hung suspended by elastic cords. - The excellence of the contrivance is too evident to - require further comment. - -An almost precisely analogous case, with a sketch, is published by -another observer in 'Land and Water,' Dec. 12, 1877. - - -_Scorpions._ - -Before quitting the Arachnida I must allude to some recent -correspondence on the alleged tendency of the scorpion to commit suicide -when surrounded by fire. This alleged tendency has long been recognised -in popular fables, and has been used by Byron as a poetical metaphor in -certain well-known lines. But until the publication of the -correspondence to which I allude, no one supposed the tendency in -question to have any existence in fact. This correspondence took place -in 'Nature' (vol. xi.), and as the subject is an interesting one, I -shall reproduce the more important contributions to it _in extenso_. It -was opened by Mr. W. G. Biddie as follows:-- - - I shall feel obliged if you will record in 'Nature' a - fact with reference to the common black scorpion of - Southern India, which was observed by me some years - ago in Madras. - - One morning a servant brought to me a large specimen - of this scorpion, which, having stayed out too long in - its nocturnal rambles, had apparently got bewildered - at daybreak, and been unable to find its way home. To - keep it safe the creature was at once put into a - glazed entomological case. Having a few leisure - minutes in the course of the forenoon I thought I - would see how my prisoner was getting on, and to have - a better view of it the case was placed in a window in - the rays of the hot sun. The light and heat seemed to - irritate it very much, and this recalled to my mind a - story which I had read somewhere that a scorpion, on - being surrounded with fire, had committed suicide. I - hesitated about subjecting my pet to such a terrible - ordeal, but taking a common botanical lens, I focussed - the rays of the sun on its back. The moment this was - done it began to run hurriedly about the case, hissing - and spitting in a very fierce way. This experiment was - repeated some four or five times with like results, - but on trying it once again, the scorpion turned up - its tail and plunged the sting, quick as lightning, - into its own back. The infliction of the wound was - followed by a sudden escape of fluid, and a friend - standing by me called out, 'See, it has stung itself: - it is dead;' and sure enough in less than half a - minute life was quite extinct. I have written this - brief note to show (1) that animals may commit - suicide; (2) that the poison of certain animals may be - destructive to themselves. - -The following corroborative evidence on the subject was then supplied by -Dr. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. ('Nature,' vol. xx., p. 577):-- - - Doubts having been expressed at various times, even by - learned naturalists, as to the reality of the suicide - or self-destruction of the scorpion by means of its - own poison, and these doubts having been again stated - in 'Nature,' vol. xx., p. 553, by Mr. B. F. - Hutchinson, of Peshawur, as the result of his own - observations, I think it may be useful to give an - articulate account of the phenomenon as it has been - related to me by an eye-witness, which removes all - possible doubt as to its occurrence under certain - circumstances. - - While residing many years ago, during the summer - months, at the baths of Sulla in Italy, in a somewhat - damp locality, my informant together with the rest of - the family was much annoyed by the frequent intrusion - of small black scorpions into the house, and their - being secreted among the bedclothes, in shoes, and - other articles of dress. It thus became necessary to - be constantly on the watch for these troublesome - creatures, and to take means for their removal and - destruction. Having been informed by the natives of - the place that the scorpion would destroy itself if - exposed to a sudden light, my informant and her - friends soon became adepts in catching the scorpions - and disposing of them in the manner suggested. This - consisted in confining the animal under an inverted - drinking-glass or tumbler, below which a card was - inserted when the capture was made, and then, waiting - till dark, suddenly bringing the light of a candle - near to the glass in which the animal was confined. No - sooner was this done than the scorpion invariably - showed signs of great excitement, running round and - round the interior of the tumbler with reckless - velocity for a number of times. This state having - lasted for a minute or more, the animal suddenly - became quiet, and turning its tail on the hinder part - of its body over its back, brought its recurved sting - down upon the middle of the head, and piercing it - forcibly, in a few seconds became quite motionless, - and in fact quite dead. This observation was repeated - very frequently; in truth, it was adopted as the best - plan of getting rid of the animals. The young people - were in the habit of handling the scorpions with - impunity immediately after they were so killed, and of - preserving many of them as curiosities. - - In this narrative the following circumstances are - worthy of attention:-- - - (1) The effect of light in producing the excitement - amounting to despair, which causes the animal to - commit self-destruction; - - (2) The suddenness of the operation of the poison, - which is probably inserted by the puncture of the head - into the upper cerebral ganglion; and - - (3) The completeness of the fatal symptoms at once - induced. - - I am aware that the phenomena now described have been - observed by others, and they appear to have been - familiarly known to the inhabitants of the district in - which the animals are found. Sufficient confirmation - of the facts is also to be found in the narratives of - 'G. Biddie' and 'M. L.' contained in 'Nature,' vol. - ix., pp. 29-47, and it will be observed that the - circumstances leading the animal to self-destruction - in these instances were somewhat similar to those - narrated by my informant. It is abundantly clear, - therefore, that the view taken by Mr. Hutchinson, - viz., that the 'popular idea regarding scorpionic - suicide is a delusion based on an impossibility,' is - wholly untenable; indeed, the recurved direction of - the sting, which he refers to as creating the - impossibility of the animal destroying itself, - actually facilitates the operation of inflicting the - wound. I suppose Mr. Hutchinson, arguing from the - analogy of bees or wasps, imagined that the sting - would be bent forwards upon the body, whereas the - wound of the scorpion is invariably inflicted by a - recurvation of the tail over the back of the animal. - -It will be perceived that these observations were not made by Dr. Allen -Thomson himself, and that there are certain inherent discrepancies in -the account which he has published--such, for instance, as the reason -given for trying and repeating the experiment, the method being clearly -a cumbersome one to employ if the only object were that of 'disposing -of' the animals. Nevertheless, as Dr. Thomson is a high authority, and -as I learn from him that he is satisfied regarding the capability and -veracity of his informant, I have not felt justified in suppressing his -evidence. Still I think that so remarkable a fact unquestionably demands -further corroboration before we should be justified in accepting it -unreservedly. For if it is a fact, it stands as a unique case of an -instinct detrimental alike to the individual and to the species. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[75] _Body and Mind_, p. 275. - -[76] _Nature_, xxiii., pp. 149-50. - -[77] _Naturalist on the Amazon_, p. 83. - -[78] For many other confirmations see Sir E. Tennent, _Nat. Hist. -Ceylon_, pp. 468-69. - -[79] Kirby, vol. ii., p. 298. - -[80] Thompson, _Passions of Animals_, p. 145. - -[81] _Loc. cit._, p. 316 _et seq._ - -[82] _Hist. Habits and Inst. of Animals_, vol. ii. p. 296. - -[83] _Nature_, vol. xx., p. 581. - -[A] _Loc. cit._, p. 323. - -[84] _Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders_, p. 120. - -[85] 'The History and Habits of _Epeira aurelia_,' in _Annals and Mag. -of Nat. Hist._ for June 1865. - -[86] _Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders_, p. 126. This admirable -work, with its appendix, contains a very full account of the whole -economy of the interesting animals with which it is concerned. - -[87] _Loc. cit._, p. 319. - -[88] _Gleanings_, vol. i., p. 103. - -[89] _Naturalist in Nicaragua_, p. 19. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -REMAINING ARTICULATA. - - -THE Hymenoptera being so much the most intelligent order, not merely of -insects, but of Invertebrata, and the Arachnida having been now -considered, very little space need be occupied with the remaining -classes of the Articulata. - - -_Coleoptera._ - -Sir John Lubbock, in his first paper on Bees and Wasps, quotes the -following case from Kirby and Spence, with the remarks which I append:-- - - The first of these anecdotes refers to a beetle - (_Ateuchus pilularius_) which, having made for the - reception of its eggs a pellet of dung too heavy for - it to move, repaired to an adjoining heap, and soon - returned with three of his companions. 'All four now - applied their united strength to the pellet, and at - length succeeded in pushing it out; which being done, - the three assistant beetles left the spot and returned - to their own quarters.' This observation rests on the - authority of an anonymous German artist; and though we - are assured that he was a 'man of strict veracity,' I - am not aware that any similar fact has been recorded - by any other observer. - -Catesby, however, says:-- - - I have attentively admired their industry, and their - mutual assisting of each other in rolling these - globular balls from the place where they made them, to - that of their interment, which is usually a distance - of some yards, more or less. This they perform back - foremost, by raising their hind parts and pushing away - the ball with their hind feet. Two or three of them - are sometimes engaged in trundling one ball, which - from meeting with impediments, on account of the - unevenness of the ground, is sometimes deserted by - them. It is, however, attempted by others with - success, unless it happen to roll into some deep - hollow or ditch, where they are accustomed to leave - it; but they continue their work by rolling off the - next ball that comes in their way. None of them seem - to know their own balls, but an equal care for the - whole appears to affect all the community. They form - these pellets while the dung remains moist, and leave - them to harden in the sun before they attempt to roll - them. In their rolling of them from place to place, - both they and the balls may frequently be seen - tumbling about over the little eminences that are in - their way. They are not, however, easily discouraged, - and by repeating their attempts usually surmount the - difficulties.[90] - -Büchner speaks of the fact that dung-beetles co-operate in their work as -one that is well established, but gives no authorities or references.[91] -A friend of my own, however, informs me that she has witnessed the fact; -and in view of analogous observations made on other species of -Coleoptera, I see no reason to doubt this one. Some of these -observations I may here append. - -Herr Gollitz writes to Büchner thus:-- - - Last summer, in the month of July, I was one day in my - field, and found there a mound of fresh earth like a - molehill, on which a striped black and red beetle, - with long legs, and about the size of a hornet, was - busy taking away the earth from a hole that led like a - pit into the mound, and levelling the place. After I - had watched this beetle for some time, I noticed a - second beetle of the same kind, which brought a little - lump of earth from the interior to the opening of the - hole, and then disappeared again in the mound; every - four or five minutes a pellet came out of the hole, - and was carried away by the first-named beetle. After - I had watched these proceedings for about half an - hour, the beetle which had been working underground - came out and ran to its comrade. Both put their heads - together, and clearly held a conversation, for - immediately afterwards they changed work. The one - which had been working outside went into the mound, - the other took the outside labour, and all went on - vigorously. I watched the affair still for a little - longer, and went away with the notion that these - insects could understand each other just like men. - Klingelhöffer, of Darmstadt (in Brehm, _loc. cit._, - ix., p. 86), says:--A golden running beetle came to a - cockchafer lying on its back in the garden, intending - to eat it, but was unable to master it; it ran to the - next bush, and returned with a friend, whereupon the - two overpowered the cockchafer, and pulled it off to - their hiding-place. - -Similarly, there is no doubt that the burying beetles (_Nicrophorus_) -co-operate. - - Several of them unite together to bury under the - ground, as food and shelter for their young, some dead - animal, such as a mouse, a toad, a mole, a bird, &c. - The burial is performed because the corpse, if left - above ground, would either dry up, or grow rotten, or - be eaten by other animals. In all these cases the - young would perish, whereas the dead body lying in the - earth and withdrawn from the outer air lasts very - well. The burying beetles go to work in a very - well-considered fashion, for they scrape away the - earth lying under the body, so that it sinks of itself - deeper and deeper. When it is deep enough down, it is - covered over from above. If the situation is stony, - the beetles with united forces and great efforts drag - the corpse to some place more suitable for burying. - They work so diligently that a mouse, for instance, is - buried within three hours. But they often work on for - days, so as to bury the body as deeply as possible. - From large carcasses, such as those of horses, sheep, - &c., they only bury pieces as large as they can - manage.[92] - -Lastly, Clarville gives a case of a burying beetle which wanted to carry -away a dead mouse, but, finding it too heavy for its unaided strength, -went off, like the beetles previously mentioned, and brought four others -to its assistance.[93] - -A friend of Gleditsch fastened a dead toad, which he desired to dry, -upon the top of an upright stick. The burying beetles were attracted by -the smell, and finding that they could not reach the toad, they -undermined the stick, so causing it to fall with the toad, which was -then buried safe out of harm's way.[94] - -A converse exemplification of beetle-intelligence is given by G. -Berkeley.[95] He saw a beetle carrying a dead spider up a heath plant, -and hanging it upon a twig of the heath in so secure a position, that -when the insect had left it Mr. Berkeley found that a sharp shake of the -heather would not bring the dead spider down. As the burying beetle -preserves its treasure by hiding it out of sight below ground, so this -beetle no doubt secured the same end but by other means; 'seeing,' as -Mr. Berkeley observes, 'that if it did not hang up its prey, it might -fall into the hands of other hunters, it took all possible pains to find -out the best store-room for it.' - -The above instances of beetle-intelligence lead me to credit the -following, which has been communicated to me by Dr. Garraway, of -Faversham. On a bank of moss in the Black Forest he saw a beetle alight -with a caterpillar which it was carrying, and proceed to excavate a -cylindrical hole in the peat, about an inch and a half deep, into which, -when completed, it dropped the caterpillar, and then flew away through -the pines. 'I was struck,' says my correspondent, 'with the creature's -folly in leaving the whole uncovered, as every curious wayfaring insect -would doubtless be tempted to enter therein. However, in about a minute -the beetle returned, this time carrying a small pebble, of which there -were none in the immediate vicinity, and having carefully fitted this -into the aperture, fled away into space.' - - -_Earwig._ - -I must devote a short division of this chapter to the earwig. M. Geer -describes a regular process of incubation as practised by the mother -insect. He placed one with her eggs in a box, and scattered the eggs on -the floor of the latter. The earwig, however, carried them one by one -into a certain part of the box, and then remained constantly sitting -upon the heap without ever quitting it for a moment. When the eggs were -hatched, the young earwigs kept close to their mother, following her -about everywhere, and often running under her abdomen, just as chickens -run under a hen.[96] - -A young lady, who objects to her name being published, informs me that -her two younger sisters (children) are in the habit of feeding every -morning with sugar an earwig, which they call 'Tom,' and which crawls up -a certain curtain regularly every day at the same hour, with the -apparent expectation of getting its breakfast. This resembles analogous -instances which, have been mentioned in the case of spiders. - - -_Dipterous Insects._ - -The gad-fly, whose eggs are hatched out in the intestines of the horse, -exhibits a singular refinement of instinct in depositing them upon those -parts of the horse which the animal is most likely to lick. For, -according to Bingley and other writers, 'the inside of the knee is the -part on which these flies principally deposit their eggs; and next to -this they fix them upon the sides, and the back part of the shoulder; -but almost always in places liable to be licked by the tongue.' The -female fly deposits her eggs while on the wing, or at least scarcely -appears to settle when she extends her ovidepositor to touch the horse. -She lays only a single egg at a time--flying away a short distance after -having deposited one in order to prepare another, and so on. - -The following anecdote, which I quote from Jesse, seems to indicate -no small degree of intelligence on the part of the common -house-fly--intelligence, for instance, the same both in kind and degree -as that which was displayed by Sir John Lubbock's pet wasp already -mentioned: - - Slingsby, the celebrated opera dancer, resided in the - large house in Cross-deep, Twickenham, next to Sir - Wathen Waller's, looking down the river. He was fond - of the study of natural history, and particularly of - insects, and he once tried to tame some house-flies, - and preserve them in a state of activity through the - winter. For this purpose, quite at the latter end of - autumn, and when they were becoming almost helpless, - he selected four from off his breakfast-table, put - them upon a large handful of cotton, and placed it in - one corner of the window nearest the fireplace. Not - long afterwards the weather became so cold that all - flies disappeared except these four, which constantly - left their bed of cotton at his breakfast-time, came - and fed at the table, and then returned to their home. - This continued for a short time, when three of them - became lifeless in their shelter, and only one came - down. This one Slingsby had trained to feed upon his - thumb-nail, by placing on it some moist, sugar mixed - with a little butter. Although there had been at - intervals several days of sharp frost, the fly never - missed taking his daily meal in this way till after - Christmas, when, his kind preserver having invited a - friend to dine and sleep at his house, the fly, the - next morning, perched upon the thumb of the visitor, - who, being ignorant that it was a pet of his host's, - clapped his hand upon it, and thus put an end to Mr. - Slingsby's experiment.[97] - - -_Crustacea._ - -There is no doubt that these are an intelligent group of animals, -although I have been able to collect but wonderfully little information -upon the subject. Mr. Moseley, F.R.S., in his very interesting work, -'Notes by a Naturalist on the _Challenger_,' says (p. 70):-- - - In the tropics one becomes accustomed to watch the - habits of various species of crabs, which there live - so commonly an aërial life. The more I have seen of - them, the more have I been astonished at their - sagacity. - -And again (pp. 48-9):-- - - A rock crab (_Grapsus stringosus_) was very abundant, - running about all over the rocks, and making off into - clefts on one's approach. I was astonished at the keen - and long sight of this crab. I noticed some made off - at full speed to their hiding-places at the instant - that my head showed above a rock fifty yards - distant. . . . - - At Still Bay, on the sandy beach of which a heavy surf - was breaking, I encountered a sand crab (_[OE]cypoda - ippeus_), which was walking about, and got between it - and its hole in the dry sand above the beach. The crab - was a large one, at least three inches in breadth of - its carapace. . . . With its curious column-like eyes - erect, the crab bolted down towards the surf as the - only escape, and as it saw a great wave rushing up the - shelving shore, dug itself tight into the sand, and - held on to prevent the undertide from carrying it into - the sea. As soon as the wave had retreated, it made - off full speed for the shore. I gave chase, and - whenever a wave approached, the crab repeated the - manoeuvre. I once touched it with my hand whilst it - was buried and blinded by the sandy water, but the - surf compelled me to retreat, and I could not snatch - hold of it for fear of its powerful claws. At last I - chased it, hard pressed, into the surf in a hurry, and - being unable to get proper hold in time, it was washed - into the sea. The crab evidently dreaded going into - the sea. . . . They soon die when kept a short time - beneath the water. - -The land crabs of the West Indies and North America descend from their -mountain home in May and June, to deposit their spawn in the sea. They -travel in such swarms that the roads and woods are covered with them. -They migrate in a straight line, and rather than allow themselves to be -deflected from it, 'they scale the houses, and surmount every other -obstacle that lies in their way' (Kirby). They travel chiefly by night, -and when they arrive at the sea-shore they 'bathe three or four -different times,' and then 'commit their eggs to the waves.' They return -to the mountains by the same route, but only the most vigorous survive -the double journey. - -Prof. Alex. Agassiz details some interesting observations on the -behaviour of young hermit crabs reared by himself 'from very young -stages,' when first presented with shells of mollusks. 'A number of -shells, some of them empty, others with the animal living, were placed -in a glass dish with the young crabs. Scarcely had the shells reached -the bottom before the crabs made a rush for the shells, turned them -round and round, invariably at the mouth, and soon a couple of the crabs -decided to venture in, which they did with remarkable alacrity.' The -crabs which obtained for their share the shells still inhabited by -living mollusks, 'remained riding round upon the mouth of their future -dwelling, and, on the death of the mollusk, which generally occurred -soon after in captivity, commenced at once to tear out the animal, and -having eaten him, proceeded to take its place within the shell.'[98] - -There is a species of small crustacean (_Podocerus capillatus_) -described by Mr. Bates, which builds a nest to contain its eggs. The -nest is in the form of a hollow cone, built upon seaweed, and composed -of fine thread-like material closely interlaced. 'These nests,' says Mr. -Bates, 'are evidently used as a place of refuge and security, in which -the parent protects and keeps her brood of young until they are old -enough to be independent of the mother's care.' - -Dr. Erasmus Darwin tells us, on the authority of a friend on whose -competency as an observer he relied, that the common crab during the -moulting season stations as sentinel an unmoulted or hard-shelled -individual, to prevent marine enemies from injuring moulted individuals -in their unprotected state. While thus mounting guard the hard-shelled -crab is much more courageous than at other times, when he has only his -own safety to consider. But these observations require to be -corroborated. - -In 'Nature' (xv., p. 415) there is a notice of a lobster (_Homarus -marinus_) in the Rothesay Aquarium which attacked a flounder that was -confined in the same tank with him, and having devoured a portion of his -victim, buried the rest beneath a heap of shingle, on which he 'mounted -guard.' 'Five times within two hours was the fish unearthed, and as -often did the lobster shovel the gravel over it with his huge claws, -each time ascending the pile and turning his bold defensive front to his -companions.' - -The following is quoted from Mr. Darwin's 'Descent of Man' (pp. -270-1):-- - - A trustworthy naturalist, Mr. Gardner, whilst watching - a shore-crab (_Gelasimus_) making its burrow, threw - some shells towards the hole. One rolled in, and three - other shells remained within a few inches of the - mouth. In about five minutes the crab brought out the - shell which had fallen in, and carried it away to the - distance of a foot; it then saw the three other shells - lying near, and evidently thinking that they might - likewise roll in, carried them to the spot where it - had laid the first. It would, I think, be difficult to - distinguish this act from one performed by man by the - aid of reason. - -Mr. Darwin also alludes to the curious instinctive habits of the large -shore-crab (_Birgus latro_), which feeds on fallen cocoa-nuts 'by -tearing off the husk fibre by fibre; and it always begins at that end -where the three eye-like depressions are situated. It then breaks -through one of these eyes by hammering with its heavy front pincers, and -turning round, extracts the albuminous core with its narrow posterior -pincers.' - -Remarkable cases occur of commensalism between certain crabs and -sea-anemones, and they betoken much intelligence. Thus Professor Möbius -says in his 'Beiträge zur Meeresfauna der Insel Mauritius' (1880) that -there are two crabs belonging to different genera which have the habit -of firmly grasping a sea-anemone in each claw and carrying them about, -presumably to secure some benefit to themselves. The more familiar case -of the species of anemone which lives on the shells tenanted by hermit -crabs is of special interest to us on account of a remarkable -observation published by Mr. Gosse, F.R.S. (_Zoologist_, June, 1859). He -found that on his detaching the anemone (_Adamsia_) from the shell, the -hermit crab always took it up in its claws and held it against the shell -'for the space of ten minutes at a time, until fairly attached by a good -strong base.' It was said by the late Dr. Robert Ball that when the -common _Sagartia parasitica_ is attached to a stone and a hermit crab is -placed in its vicinity, the anemone will leave the stone and attach -itself to the hermit's shell (_Critic_, March 24, 1860). - - -_Intelligence of Larvæ of Certain Insects._ - -I shall now allude to some of the more interesting facts touching the -psychology of insects when in their immature or larval state. This is an -interesting topic from the point of view which we occupy as -evolutionists, because a caterpillar is really a locomotive and -self-feeding embryo, whose entire mental constitution is destined to -undergo a metamorphosis no less complete and profound than that which is -also destined to take place in its corporeal structure. Yet although the -caterpillar has an embryo psychology, its instincts and even -intelligence often seem to be higher or more elaborated than is the case -with the imago form. Where such is the case the explanation of course -must be that it is of more importance to the species that the larval -form should be in a certain measure intelligent than that the imago form -should be so. Every larva is a potential imago, or breeding individual; -therefore its life is of no less value to the species during its larval -than during its adult existence; and if certain instincts or grades of -intelligence are of more use to it during the former than during the -latter period, of course natural selection would determine the unusual -event which we seem here in some cases to see--namely, that the embryo -should stand on a higher level of psychological development than the -adult. - -I may most fitly begin under this heading with the remarkable instincts -of the so-called 'ant-lion,' which is the larva of a neuropterous -insect, the common _Myrmeleon_ (_M. formicarium_). I quote the following -account of its habits from Thompson's 'Passions of Animals' (p. 258):-- - - The devices of the ant-lion are still more - extraordinary if possible. He forms, with astonishing - labour and perseverance, a pit in the shape of a - funnel, in a dry sandy soil, under some old wall or - other spot protected from the wind. His pit being - finished, he buries himself among the sand at the - bottom, leaving only his horns visible, and thus waits - patiently for his prey. When an ant or any other small - insect happens to walk on the edge of the hollow, it - forces down some of the particles of sand, which gives - the ant-lion notice of its presence. He immediately - throws up the sand which covers his head to overwhelm - the ant, and with its returning force brings it to the - bottom. This he continues to do till the insect is - overcome and falls between his horns. Every endeavour - to escape, when once the incautious ant has stepped - within the verge of the pit, is vain, for in all its - attempts to climb the side the deceptive sand slips - from under its feet, and every struggle precipitates - it still lower. When within reach its enemy plunges - the points of its jaws into its body, and having - sucked out all its juices, throws out the empty skin - to some distance. - -According to Bingley, if the ant-lion, while excavating its pitfall,-- - - Comes to a stone of some moderate size, it does not - desert the work on this account, but goes on, - intending to remove that impediment the last. When the - pit is finished, it crawls backward up the side of the - place where the stone is; and, getting its tail under - it, takes great pains and time to get it on a true - poise, and then begins to crawl backward with it up - the edge to the top of the pit, to get it out of the - way. It is a common thing to see an ant-lion labouring - in this manner at a stone four times as big as its own - body; and as it can only move backwards, and the poise - is difficult to keep, especially up a slope of such - crumbling matter as sand, which moulders away from - under its feet, and necessarily alters the position of - its body, the stone very frequently rolls down, when - near the verge, quite to the bottom. In this case the - animal attacks it again in the same way, and is often - not discouraged by five or six miscarriages, but - continues its struggle so long that it at length gets - over the verge of the place. When it has done this, it - does not leave it there, lest it should roll in again; - but is always at the pains of pushing it further on, - till it has removed it to a necessary distance from - the edge of the pit.[99] - -Passing on now to the intelligence of caterpillars, Mr. G. B. Buckton, -F.R.S., writing from Haslemere, says:-- - - Many caterpillars of _Pieris rapæ_ have, during this - autumn, fed below my windows. On searching for - suitable positions for passing into chrysalides, some - eight or ten individuals, in their direct march - upwards, encountered the plate-glass panes of my - windows; on these they appeared to be unable to stand. - Accordingly in every case they made silken ladders, - some of them five feet long, each ladder being formed - of a single continuous thread, woven in elegant loops - from side to side. . . . The reasoning, however, seems - to be but narrow, for one ladder was constructed - parallel to the window-frame for nearly three feet, - on which secure footing could be had by simply - diverting the track two inches.[100] - -In this case it appears clear that we have to do with instinct, and not -with reason. No doubt it is the congenital habit of these caterpillars -to overcome impediments in this way; but the instinct is one of -sufficient interest to be here stated. - -The following is quoted from Kirby and Spence:-- - - A caterpillar described by Bonnet, which, from being - confined in a box, was unable to obtain a supply of - the bark with which its ordinary instinct directs it - to make its cocoon, substituted pieces of paper that - were given to it, tied them together with silk, and - constructed a very passable cocoon with them. In - another instance the same naturalist having opened - several cocoons of a moth (_Noctura verbasci_), which - are composed of a mixture of grains of earth and silk, - just after being finished, the larvæ did not repair - the injury _in the same manner_. Some employed both - earth and silk; others contented themselves with - spinning a silken veil before the opening.[101] - -The same authorities state, as result of their own observation, that -the-- - - Common cabbage caterpillar, which, when building web - under stone or wooden surfaces, previously covers a - space with a web to form a base for supporting its - dependent pupa, when building a web beneath a muslin - surface dispenses with this base altogether: it - perceives that the woven texture of the muslin forms - facilities for attaching the threads of the cocoon - securely enough to support the weight of the cocoon - without the necessity of making the usual square inch - or so of basal support.[102] - -The instincts of the larva of the _Tinea_ moth are thus described by -Réaumur:-- - - It feeds upon the elm, using the leaves both as food - and clothing. To do this it only eats the parenchyma - of the leaf, preserving the upper and under epidermal - membranes, between which it then insinuates itself as - it progressively devours the parenchyma. It, however, - carefully avoids separating these membranes where they - unite at the extreme edge of the leaf, which is - designed to form 'one of the seams of its coat.' The - cavity when thus excavated between the two epidermal - membranes is then lined with silk, made cylindrical in - shape, cut off at the two ends and all along the side - remote from the 'seam,' and then the two epidermal - membranes sewn together along the side where they have - had to be cut in order to separate them from the tree. - The larva now has a coat exactly fitting its body, and - open at each end. By the one opening it feeds, and by - the other discharges its excrement, 'having on one - side a nicely jointed seam--that which is commonly - applied to its back--composed of the natural marginal - junction of the membranes of the leaf.' - -Réaumur cut off the edge of a newly finished coat, so as to expose the -body of the larva at that point. The animal did not set about making a -new coat _ab initio_, as we might expect that it would on the popular -supposition that a train of instinctive actions is always as mechanical -as the running down of a set of cog-wheels, and that wherever a novel -element is introduced the machinery must be thrown out of gear, so that -it cannot meet a new emergency of however simple a character, and must -therefore re-start the whole process over again from the beginning. In -this case the larva sewed up the rent; and not only so, but 'the -scissors having cut off one of the projections intended to enter into -the construction of the triangular end of the case, it entirely changed -the original plan, and made that end the head which had been first -designed for the tail.' - -Another remarkable case of the variation of instinct in the Lepidoptera -is stated by Bonnet. There are usually, he says, two generations of the -Angoumois moth: the first appear in early summer, and lay their eggs -upon the ears of wheat in the fields; the second appear later in the -summer, or in the autumn, and these lay their eggs upon wheat in the -granaries; from these eggs there comes the first generation of next -year's moths. This is a highly remarkable case--supposing the facts to -be as Bonnet states; for it seems that the early summer moths, although -born in the granaries, immediately fly to the unreaped fields to lay -their eggs in the standing corn, while the autumn moths never attempt to -leave the granaries, but lay their eggs upon the stored wheat.[103] - -Westwood says that-- - - A species of Tasmanian caterpillar (_Noctua Ewingii_) - swarms over the land in enormous companies, which - regularly begin to march at four o'clock in the - morning, and as regularly halt at midday. _Liparis - chrysorrhaca_, a kind of caterpillar, spins for the - winter a common web, in which several hundred - individuals find a common shelter.[104] - -According to Kirby and Spence,-- - - The larva of the ichneumon, while feeding upon its - caterpillar host, spares the walls of the intestines - until it is time for it to escape, when, the life of - the caterpillar being no longer necessary to its - development, it perforates these walls.[105] - - The larvæ _Theda isocrates_ live in a group of seven - or eight in the fruit of pomegranate. In consequence - of their excavations within the fruit, the latter is - apt to fall; and to prevent its doing so the larvæ - throw out a thread of attachment wherewith to secure - the fruit to the branch, so that if the stalk withers, - this thread serves to suspend the fruit.[106] - - - - - - The caterpillar of the Bombyx moth, which is a native - of France, exhibits very wonderful instincts. The - larva is gregarious in its habits, each society - (family) consisting of perhaps 600 or 800 - individuals. When young they have no fixed habitation, - but encamp sometimes in one place, and sometimes in - another, under the shelter of their web; but when they - have attained two-thirds of their growth, they weave - for themselves a common tent. About sunset the - regiment leaves its quarters. . . . At their head is a - chief, by whose movements their procession is - regulated. When he stops all stop, and proceed when he - proceeds; three or four of his immediate followers - succeed in the same line, the head of the second - touching the tail of the first; then comes an equal - series of pairs, next of threes, and so on, as far as - fifteen or twenty. The whole procession moves - regularly on with an even pace, each file treading in - the steps of those that precede it. If the leader, - arriving at a particular point, pursues a different - direction, all march to that point before they - turn.[107] - -The following additional facts concerning these remarkable habits may be -quoted. I take them from the account published by Mr. Davis in -'Loudoun's Magazine of Natural History:'-- - - The caterpillars, he observed, were Bombyces, and were - seen crossing a road in single file, each so close to - its predecessor that the line was quite continuous, - 'moving like a living cord.' The number of - caterpillars was 154, and the length of the line 27 - feet. When Mr. Davis removed one from the line the - caterpillar immediately in front suddenly stood still, - then the next, and next, and so on to the leader. - Similarly, those behind the point of interruption - successively halted. After a pause of a few moments, - the first caterpillar behind the break in the line - endeavoured to fill up the vacant space, and so - recover contact or communication, which after a time - it succeeded in doing, when the information that the - line was again closed was passed forward in some way - from caterpillar to caterpillar till it reached the - leader, when the whole fine was again put in motion. - The individual which had been abstracted remained - rolled up and motionless; but on being placed near the - moving column it immediately unrolled, and made every - attempt to get readmitted into the procession. After - many endeavours it succeeded, the one below falling - into the rear of the interloper. On repeating the - experiment by removing a caterpillar fifty from the - head of the procession, Mr. Davis found that it took - just thirty seconds by his watch for information of - the fact to reach the leader. All the same results - followed as in the previous case. It was observable - that the animals were guided neither by sight nor - smell while endeavouring to close up the interrupted - line; for the caterpillar next behind the - interruption, on whom the duty of closing up devolved, - 'turned right and left, and often in a wrong - direction, when within half an inch of the one - immediately before him; when he at last touched the - object of his search, the fact was communicated again - by signal; and in thirty seconds the whole line was in - rapid march.' This gentleman adds that the object of - the march was the search for new pasture. The - caterpillars feed on the Eucalyptus, and when they - have completely stripped one tree of its leaves, they - all congregate on the trunk, and proceed as described - to another tree. - -De Villiers[108] gives an account of his observations on the manner in -which these caterpillars (_Cnethocampii pitzocampa_) are able to pass -information, which does not quite agree with the above observation of -Mr. Davis. For he says that, in a train of 600 caterpillars, -interference by him in any part of the train was communicated through -the whole series instantaneously--all the 600 caterpillars stopping -immediately and with one consent like a single organism. - -According to Kirby and Spence there is a kind of caterpillar (_Pieris -cratægi_) which lives in little colonies of ten or twelve in common -chambers lined with silk. In one part they make of the same material a -little bag or pocket, which is used by the community or household as a -water-closet. When full of excrement the caterpillars empty it by -turning out the pellets with their feet.[109] - -Only two other instances of noteworthy intelligence as exhibited by -larvæ have fallen within my reading. One of these is mentioned by -Réaumur, who says that the larvæ of _Hemerobius chrysops_ chase aphides, -and having killed them, clothe themselves in their skins; and the other -case is the very remarkable one mentioned in his newly published work by -W. MacLachlan, F.R.S., of caddis-worms adjusting the specific gravity of -their tubes to suit that of the water in which they live, by attaching -heavy or light material to them according as they require sinking or -flotation. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[90] Quoted by Bingley, _Animal Biography_, vol. iii., p. 118. - -[91] _Loc. cit._, p. 344. - -[92] Büchner, _loc. cit._, p. 344. - -[93] Quoted in Strauss, _Insects_, s. 389. - -[94] Kirby and Spence, _loc. cit._, pp. 321-2. - -[95] _Life and Recollections_, vol. ii., p. 356. - -[96] Quoted by Bingley, _loc. cit._, vol. iii., pp. 150-51. - -[97] _Gleanings_, vol. ii., pp. 165-6. - -[98] _American Journ. Sc. and Art_, vol. x., Oct. 1875. - -[99] _Animal Biography_, vol. iii., pp. 244-5. - -[100] _Nature_, vii., p. 49. - -[101] _Intr. to Ent._, ii., p. 475. - -[102] _Ibid._, p. 475. - -[103] _[OE]uvres_, ix., p. 370. - -[104] _Trans. Ent. Soc._, vol. ii. - -[105] _Introd. Ent._, Letter xi. - -[106] Westwood, _Trans. Ent. Soc._, vol. ii., p. 1. - -[107] Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_, Letter xvi. - -[108] _Trans. Ent. Soc. France_, vol. i., p. 201. - -[109] _Introduction to Entomology_, Letter xxvi. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -FISH. - - -ALTHOUGH we here pass into the sub-kingdom of animals the intelligence -of which immeasurably surpasses that of the other sub-kingdoms, it is -remarkable that these lowest representatives of the higher group are -psychologically inferior to some of the higher members of the lower -groups. Neither in its instincts nor in general intelligence can any -fish be compared with an ant or a bee--a fact which shows how slightly a -psychological classification of animals depends upon zoological -affinity, or even morphological organisation. For although a highly -competent authority, namely Van Baer, has said that a bee is as highly -organised an animal as a fish, though on a different type,[110] no one -would be found to assert that an ant or a bee is so much more highly -organised than a fish as its higher intelligence would require, -supposing degrees of intelligence to stand in necessary relation to -degree of organic development. And this consideration is not materially -altered if, instead of regarding the whole organism, we look to the -nervous system alone. There is no doubt that the cerebral hemispheres of -a fish, although small as compared with these organs in the higher -Vertebrata, are, bulk for bulk, enormous as compared with the -oesophageal ganglia or 'brain' of an insect; while the disproportion -becomes still greater if the cerebral hemispheres of a fish are compared -with their supposed analogues in the brain of an ant, viz., the -pedunculated and convoluted lobes which surmount the cephalic ganglion. -But here the relative smallness of the ant as a whole must be taken into -consideration, and also the fact that its brain is relatively much more -massive as well as more highly organised than that which occurs in any -other order of invertebrated animals, except, perhaps, the octopus and -his allies. Therefore, although the brain of a fish is formed upon a -type which by increase of size and complexity is destined in function -far to eclipse all other types of nerve-centre, we have to observe that -in its lowest stage of evolution as presented to science in the fishes, -this type is functionally inferior to the invertebrate type, where this -reaches its highest stage of evolution in the Hymenoptera. - - -_Emotions._ - -Fish display emotions of fear, pugnacity; social, sexual, and parental -feelings; anger, jealousy, play, and curiosity. So far the class of -emotions is the same as that with which we have met in ants, and -corresponds with that which is distinctive of the psychology of a child -about four months old. I have not, however, any evidence of sympathy, -which would be required to make the list of emotions identical; but -sympathy may nevertheless be present. - -Fear and pugnacity are too apparent in fish to require special proof. -The social or gregarious feelings are strongly shown by the numberless -species which swim in shoals, the sexual feelings are proved by -courtships, and the parental by those species which build nests and -guard their young. Schneider saw several species of fish at the Naples -Aquarium protecting their eggs. In one case the male mounted guard over -a rock where the eggs were deposited, and swam with open mouth against -intruders. The following accounts of the nidification of certain species -of fish show that the parental instincts are not unlike those which -obtain in birds, and are comparable in point of strength with the same -instincts as they occur in ants, bees, and spiders. - - Agassiz remarks[111] that while examining the marine - products of the Sargasso Sea, Mr. Mansfield picked up - and brought to him a round mass of sargassum, about - the size of the two fists placed together. The whole - consisted, to all appearance, of nothing but - gulf-weed, the branches and leaves of which were, - however, evidently knit together, and not merely - balled into a roundish mass. The elastic threads which - held the gulf-weed together were beaded at intervals, - sometimes two or three beads being close together, or - a branch of them hanging from the cluster of threads. - This nest was full of eggs scattered throughout the - mass, and not placed together in a cavity. It was - evidently the work of the _Chironectes_. This rocking - fish-cradle is carried along as an undying arbour, - affording at the same time protection and afterwards - food for its living freight. It is suggested that the - fish must have used their peculiar pectoral fins when - constructing this elaborate nest. - - - The well-known tinker or ten-spined stickleback - (_Gasterosteus pungitius_) is one of our indigenous - fish which constructs a nest. On May 1, 1864, a - male[112] was placed in a well-established aquarium of - moderate size, to which, after three days, two ripe - females were added. Their presence at once roused him - into activity, and he soon began to build a nest of - bits of dirt and dead fibre, and of growing confervoid - filaments, upon a jutting point of rock among some - interlacing branches of _Myriophyllum spicatum_--all - the time, however, frequently interrupting his labours - to pay his addresses to the females. This was done in - most vigorous fashion, he swimming, by a series of - little jerks, near and about the female, even pushing - against her with open mouth, but usually not biting. - After a little coquetting she responds and follows - him, swimming just above him as he leads the way to - the nest. When there, the male commences to flirt--he - seems unaware of its situation, will not swim to the - right spot, and the female, after a few ineffectual - attempts to find the proper passage into it, turns - tail to swim away, but is then viciously pursued by - the male. When he first courts the female, if she, not - being ready, does not soon respond, he seems quickly - to lose his temper, and, attacking her with great - apparent fury, drives her to seek shelter in some - crevice or dark corner. The coquetting of the male - near the nest, which seems due to the fact that he - really has not quite finished it, at length terminates - by his pushing his head well into the entrance of the - nest, while the female closely follows him, placing - herself above him, and apparently much excited. As he - withdraws she passes into the nest, and pushes quite - through it, after a very brief delay, during which she - deposits her ova. The male now fertilises the eggs, - and drives the female away to a safe distance; then, - after patting down the nest, he proceeds in search of - another female. The nest is built and the ova - deposited in about twenty-four hours. The male - continued to watch it day and night, and during the - light hours he also continually added to the nest. - - - The marine fifteen-spined stickleback (_Gasterosteus - spinachia_) affords another instance of - nest-constructing fishes. The places selected for - their nests are usually harbours, or some sheltered - spots to where pure sea water reaches. The fish either - find growing, or even collect some of the softer kinds - of green or red seaweed, and join them with so much of - the coralline tufts (_Janiæ_) growing on the rock as - will serve the purpose of affording firmness to the - structure, and constitute a pear-shaped mass five or - six inches long, and about as stout as a man's fist. A - thread, which is elastic and resembles silk, is - employed for the purpose of binding the materials - together: under a magnifier it appears to consist of - several strands connected by a gluey substance, which - hardens by exposure to the water.[113] - - - M. Carbonnier, who has studied the habits of the - Chinese butterfly-fish (_Macropodus_) in his private - aquarium in Paris, where he had some in confinement, - observed that the male constructs a nest of froth of - considerable size, 15 to 18 centimetres horizontal - diameter, and 10 to 12 high. He prepares the bubbles - in the air (which he sucks in and then expels), - strengthening them with mucous matter from his mouth, - and brings them into the nest. Sometimes the buccal - secretion will fail him, whereupon he goes to the - bottom in search of confervæ, which he sucks and bites - for a little in order to stimulate the act of - secretion. The nest prepared, the female is induced to - enter. Not less curious is the way in which the male - brings the eggs from the bottom into the nest. He - appears unable to carry them up in his mouth; instead - of this, he first swallows an abundant supply of air, - then descending, he places himself beneath the eggs, - and suddenly, by a violent contraction of the muscles - in the interior of his mouth and pharynx, he exhales - the air which he had accumulated by the gills. This - air, finely divided by the lamellæ and fringes of the - gills, escapes in the form of two jets of veritable - gaseous powder, which envelopes the eggs and raises - them to the surface. In this manoeuvre the - _Macropodus_ entirely disappeared in a kind of - air-mist, and when this had dissipated he reappeared - with a multitude of air-bubbles like little pearls - clinging all over his body.[1] - -Again, in detailing Mr. Baker's observations on the three-spined -stickleback, published in the Philosophical Transactions, this author -says:-- - - It has been remarked that after the deposition of the - eggs the nest was opened more to the action of the - water, and the vibratory motion of the body of the - male fish, hovering over its surface, caused a current - of water to be propelled across the surface of the - ova, which action was repeated almost continuously. - After about ten days the nest was destroyed and the - materials removed; and now were seen the minute fry - fluttering upwards here and there, by a movement half - swimming, half leaping, and then falling rapidly again - upon or between the clear pebbles of the shingle - bottom. This arose from their having the remainder of - the yelk still attached to their body, which, acting - as a weight, caused them to sink the moment the - swimming effort had ceased. Around, across, and in - every direction the male fish, as the guardian, - continually moved. Now his labours became more - arduous, and his vigilance was taxed to the utmost - extreme, for the other fish (two tench and a gold - carp), some twenty times larger than himself, as soon - as they perceived the young fry in motion, - continuously used their utmost endeavours to snap them - up. The courage of the little stickleback was now put - to its severest test; but, nothing daunted, he drove - them all off, seizing their fins and striking with all - his strength at their heads and at their eyes. His - care of the young brood when encumbered with the yelk - was very extraordinary; and as this was gradually - absorbed and they gained strength, their attempts to - swim carried them to a greater distance from the - parent fish; his vigilance, however, seemed - everywhere, and if they rose by the action of their - fins above a certain height from the shingle bottom, - or flitted beyond a given distance from the nest, they - were immediately seized in his mouth, brought back, - and gently puffed or jetted into their place again. - The same care of the young, bringing them back to then - nest up till about the sixth day after hatching, has - been remarked by Dr. Ransom in the ten-spined - stickleback (_G. pungitius_).[114] - -The well-known habit of the lophobranchiate fish, of incubating their -eggs in their pouches, also displays highly elaborated parental -feeling.[115] M. Risso says that when the young of the pipe-fish are -hatched out, the parents show them marked attachment, and that the pouch -then serves them as a place of shelter or retreat from danger.[116] - - M. Carbonnier has recorded how the male of the - curiously grotesque telescope-fish, a variety of - _Carassius auratus_ (Linn.), acts as accoucheur to the - female. Three males pursued one female which was heavy - with spawn, and rolled her like a ball upon the ground - for a distance of several metres, and continued this - process without rest or relaxation for two days, until - the exhausted female, who had been unable to recover - her equilibrium for a moment, had at last evacuated - all her ova.[117] - - That adult fish are capable of feeling affection for - one another would seem to be well established: thus - Jesse relates how he once captured a female pike - (_Esox lucius_) during the breeding season, and that - nothing could drive away the male from the spot at - which he had perceived his partner slowly disappear, - and whom he had followed to the edge of the water. - - Mr. Arderon[118] gave an account of how he tamed a dace, - which would lie close to the glass watching its - master; and subsequently how he kept two ruffs - (_Acerina cernua_) in an aquarium, where they became - very much attached to one another. He gave one away, - when the other became so miserable that it would not - eat, and this continued for nearly three weeks. - Fearing his remaining fish might die, he sent for its - former companion, and on the two meeting they became - quite happy again. Jesse gives a similar account of - two gold carp.[119] - -Anger is strikingly shown by many fish, and notoriously by sticklebacks -when their territory is invaded by a neighbour. These animals display a -strange instinct of appropriating to themselves a certain part of the -tank in which they may be confined, and furiously attacking any other -stickleback which may presume to cross the imaginary frontier. Under -such circumstances of provocation I have seen the whole animal change -colour, and, darting at the trespasser, show rage and fury in every -movement. Of course, here, as elsewhere, it is impossible to be sure how -far apparent expression of an emotion is due to the presence of that -mental state which we recognise as the emotion in ourselves; but still -the best guide we have to follow is that of apparent expression. - -Following this principle, we are also entitled to attribute to fish the -emotions conducive to play; for nothing can well be more expressive of -sportive glee than many of their movements. As for jealousy, the fights -of many male fish for the possession of females constitutes evidence of -emotion which would be called by this name in the higher animals. -Schneider, in his recent work already often quoted, says that he has -observed a male fish (_Labrus_) show jealousy only towards other -individual males of his own species--chasing these away from the -neighbourhood of his female, but not objecting to the approach of fish -of other species. - -Curiosity is shown by the readiness, or even eagerness, with which fish -will approach to examine any unfamiliar object. So much is this the case -that fishermen, like hunters, sometimes trade upon this faculty:-- - - And the fisher, with his lamp - And spear, about the low rocks damp - Crept, and struck the fish which came - To worship the delusive flame.[120] - -Stephenson, the engineer, on sinking lighted lanterns in the water, also -found that fish were attracted to them.[121] - - -_Special Habits._ - -As curious instances of special instincts in fish we may notice the -well-known habit of the angler (_Lophius piscator_), which conceals -itself in mud and seaweed, while waving in the water certain filaments -with which it is provided above its snout. Other fish, attracted by -these moving objects, approach, and are thereupon seized by the angler. -We must also allude to the _Chelmon rostratus_, which shoots its prey by -means of a drop of water projected from the mouth with considerable -force and unerring aim. The mark thus shot at is always some small -object, such as a fly, at rest above the surface of the water, so that -when suddenly hit it falls into the water.[122] This remarkable instinct -can only, I think, have originated as a primordially intentional -adjustment, and as such shows a high degree of intelligence on the part -of these fishes' ancestors. Moreover, the wonderful co-ordination of -sight and muscular movements required to judge the distance, to make due -allowance for refraction, and to aim correctly, shows that the existing -representatives are not unworthy of their ancestors. - -Several species of fish in different parts of the world have the habit -of quitting pools which are about to dry up, and taking excursions -across country in search of more abundant water. Eels have this habit, -and perform their migrations by night. Dr. Hancock, in the 'Zoological -Journal,' gives an account of a species of _Doras_, the individuals of -which are about a foot in length, and travel by night in large shoals, -or 'droves,' when thus searching for water. A strong serrated arm -constitutes the first ray of the pectoral fin; and, using this as a kind -of foot, the animal pushes itself forward by means of its tail, thus -moving nearly as fast as a man can walk. Another migrating fish -(_Hydrargzra_) was found by thousands in the fresh waters of Carolina by -Bosc. It travels by leaps, and, according to Bosc, always directs itself -towards the nearest water, although he purposely placed them so that -they could not see it. - -But perhaps the strangest among this class of habits is that of the -climbing perch (_Perca scandens_), first discovered by Daldorff in -Tranquebar; for this animal not only creeps over land, but even climbs -the fan palm in search of certain Crustacea which form its food. In -climbing it uses its open gill-covers as hands wherewith to suspend -itself, while it deflects its tail laterally upwards so as to bring to -bear upon the bark certain little spines with which its anal fin is -provided; it then pushes itself upwards by straightening the tail, while -it closes the gill-covers not to prevent progress, and so on. Sir E. -Tennent, however, without disputing the evidence that these fish do -climb trees, says,-- - - The probability is, as suggested by Buchanan, that the - ascent which was witnessed by Daldorff was accidental, - and ought not to be regarded as the habit of the - animal.[123] - -A great number of species of fish perform migrations. In relation to -intelligence, the most interesting of these is the migration of salmon, -which annually leave the sea to spawn in rivers, though there is some -doubt whether the same individuals spawn every year. There is no doubt, -however, that the same individuals frequently, though not invariably, -revisit the same rivers for their successive spawnings. This fact may be -due either to the remembrance of locality, similar to that which is -unquestionably manifested by birds, or to the salmon not swimming far -along the coast during other seasons of the year, and therefore in the -spawning season when seeking a river happening to hit upon the same one. -The latter hypothesis is one which Mr. Herbert Spencer tells me he is -inclined to adopt, and, being a salmon-fisher, he has paid attention to -the subject. He informs me of an observation by a friend of his own, who -saw a salmon, when about to spawn, swimming along the coast-line, and -all round a boathouse, apparently seeking any stream that it might first -encounter. - -The distances up rivers to which salmon will swim in the spawning season -is no less surprising than the energy with which they perform the feat, -and the determination with which they overcome all obstacles. They reach -Bohemia by the Elbe, Switzerland by the Rhine, and, which is much more -wonderful, the Cordilleras of America by the Maragnon. - - They employ only three months in ascending to the - sources of the Maragnon (a journey of 3,000 miles), - the current of which is remarkably rapid, which is at - the rate of nearly forty miles a day; in a smooth - stream or lake their progress would increase in a - fourfold ratio. Their tail is a very powerful organ, - and its muscles have wonderful energy; by placing it - in their mouths they make of it a very elastic spring, - for letting it go with violence they raise themselves - in the air to the height of from twelve to fifteen - feet, and so clear the cataract that impedes their - course: if they fail in their first attempt, they - continue their efforts till they have accomplished - it.[124] - - -_General Intelligence._ - -With reference to the general intelligence of fish, allusion may first -be made to their marked increase of wariness in waters which are much -fished. This shows no small degree of intelligence, for the caution is -proved to be the result of observation by the fact that young trout -under such circumstances are less wary than old ones. Moreover, many -fish will abandon old haunts when much disturbed. Again, according to -Kirby, the carp thrusts itself into the mud in order that the net may -pass over it, or, if the bottom be stony, makes great leaps to clear it. - - At the Andaman Islands fish are captured by the - convicts by means of weirs fixed across the openings - of creeks. After existing a week or so, it is observed - that captures invariably cease; and it is believed - that such is due to barnacles, &c., clustering on to - the wood of which they are composed. It does not seem - improbable that the fish have learned to avoid a - locality out of terror at those which enter but do not - again return.[125] - -Lacepède[126] relates that some fish, which had been kept for many years -in a basin of the Tuileries, would come when called by their names. -Probably it was the sound of the voice and not the articulate words to -which they responded; for Lacepède also relates that in many parts of -Germany trout, carp, and tench were summoned to their food by the sound -of a bell; and the same thing has been recorded of various fish in -various localities, notably by Sir Joseph Banks, who used to collect his -fish by sounding a bell.[127] - -In 'Nature' (vol. xi., p. 48) Mr. Mitchell gives the following instance -of intelligence on the part of a small perch. Having one day disturbed -its nest full of young fry, Mr. Mitchell next day went to look for the -nest; 'but we searched in vain for the fish and her young. At length, a -few yards further up stream, we discovered the parent guarding her fry -with jealous care in a cavity scooped out of the coarse sand. . . . This is -the first and only instance that has come under my notice of a fish -watching over her young, and conveying them, when threatened with -danger, to some other place.' - -In 'Nature' (December 19, 1878) there is also published a communication -which was made by Mr. J. Faraday to the Manchester Anglers' Association, -concerning a skate which he observed in the aquarium of that town:-- - - A morsel of food thrown into the tank fell directly in - an angle formed by the glass front and the bottom. The - skate, a large example, made several vain attempts to - seize the food, owing to its mouth being on the - underside of its head and the food being close to the - glass. He lay quite still for a while as though - thinking, then suddenly raised himself into a slanting - posture, the head inclined upwards, and the under - surface of the body towards the food, when he waved - his broad expanse of fins, thus creating an upward - current or wave in the water, which lifted the food - from its position and carried it straight to his - mouth. - -It will be observed, however, that this observation is practically -worthless, from the observer having neglected to repeat the conditions -in order to show that the movements of the fish were not, in their -adaptation to these circumstances, purely accidental. Therefore I should -not have alluded to this observation, had I not found that it has been -quoted by several writers as a remarkable display of intelligence on the -part of the fish. - -I must not take leave of this class without making some allusion to the -alleged habits of the so-called 'pilot-fish,' and also to those of -'thresher' and 'sword-fish.' I class these widely different habits -together because they are alike in being dubious; different observers -give different accounts, and therefore, until more information is -forthcoming, we must suspend our judgment with regard to the habits in -question. The following describes what these habits are believed by many -observers to be. - -Captain Richards, R.N., says that he saw a blue shark following a bait -which was thrown out to him from the ship. The shark, which was attended -by four pilot-fish, repeatedly approached the bait; but every time he -did so one of the latter rushed in and prevented him. After a time the -shark swam away; but when he had gone a considerable distance, he turned -back again, swam quickly after the vessel, and before the pilot-fish -could overtake him, seized the bait and was caught. While hoisting him -on board, one of the pilots was seen to cling to his side until above -water, when it dropped off. All the pilots then swam about for a time, -as if searching for their friend, 'with every apparent mark of anxiety -and distress.'[128] Colonel Smith fully corroborates this observation; but -Mr. Geoffrey, on the other hand, saw a pilot-fish take great pains to -bring a shark to the bait.[129] Probably the truth is that the pilot-fish -attend the shark in order to obtain the crumbs that fall from his -feasts, and that the cases in which they appear to prevent his taking -the bait are without any psychological significance. - -With regard to the alleged co-operation of the threshing and sword-fish -in the destruction of whales, all that can be said is that the -statements, although antecedently improbable, are sufficient in number -not to be ignored. Mr. Day appears to accept the evidence as adequate, -and gives the following cases:-- - - Captain Arn, in a voyage to Memel in the Baltic, gives - the following interesting narrative:--One morning - during a calm, when near the Hebrides, all hands were - called up at 2 A.M. to witness a battle between - several of the fish called threshers or fox-sharks - (_Alopecias vulpes_), and some sword-fish on one side, - and an enormous whale on the other. It was in the - middle of the summer; and the weather being clear, and - the fish close to the vessel, we had a fine - opportunity of witnessing the contest. As soon as the - whale's back appeared above the water, the threshers - springing several yards into the air descended with - great violence upon the object of their rancour, and - inflicted upon him the most severe slaps with their - long tails, the sounds of which resembled the reports - of muskets fired at a distance. The sword-fish in - their turn attacked the distressed whale, stabbing - from below: and thus beset on all sides and wounded, - when the poor creature appeared, the water around him - was dyed with blood. In this manner they continued - tormenting and wounding him for many hours, until we - lost sight of him; and I have no doubt they in the end - completed his destruction. - - The master of a fishing-boat has recently observed - that the thresher-shark serves out the whales, the sea - sometimes being all blood. One whale, attacked by - these fish, once took refuge under his vessel, where - it lay an hour and a half without moving a fin. He - also remarked having seen the threshers jump out of - the water as high as the mast-head and down upon the - whale, while the sword fish was wounding him from - beneath, the two sorts of fish evidently acting in - concert. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[110] _Phil. Frags._, translated by Huxley, _Taylor's Mag._, 1853, p. -196. - -[111] Silliman's _American Journal_, Feb. 1872. - -[112] Ransom, _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._, 1865, xvi., p. 449. - -[113] Quoted from Francis Day, F.L.S., 'Instincts and Emotions of Fish,' -_Journ. Linn. Soc._, vol. xv., pp. 36-7, where see for other cases of -nest-building among fish. - -[114] _Ibid._ - -[115] Kaup, _Catal. Lopho. Fish in Brit. Mus._ 1856, p. i. - -[116] Yarrell, _Brit. Fishes_, 2nd ed. ii. p. 436. - -[117] _Compt. Rend._, Nov. 4, 1872, p. 1127. - -[118] _Phil. Trans. Royal Society_, 1747. - -[119] F. Day, _loc. cit._ - -[120] Shelley, _Lines written in the Bay of Lerici_. - -[121] See Smiles, _Lives of Engineers_, vol. iii., p. 69. - -[122] See 'On the Jaculator-Fish,' by Schlosser, _Phil. Trans._ 1764. - -[123] _Natural History of Ceylon_, p. 351. - -[124] Kirby, _Hist. Habits and Instincts of Animals_, vol i. p. 119. - -[125] F. Day, _loc. cit._ - -[126] _Hist. des Poiss._, _Introd._, cxxx. - -[127] For sundry other similar cases see Mr. Day's excellent paper -already quoted. - -[128] Cuv., _Anim. Kingd._ x. p. 636. - -[129] F. Day, _loc. cit._ - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -BATRACHIANS AND REPTILES. - - -ON the intelligence of frogs and toads very little has to be said. Frogs -seem to have definite ideas of locality; for several of my -correspondents inform me that they have known cases in which these -animals, after having been removed for a distance of 200 or 300 yards -from their habitual haunts, returned to them again and again. This, -however, may I think perhaps be due to these haunts having a moistness -which the animals are able to perceive at a great distance. But be this -as it may, certainly the distance at which frogs are able to perceive -moisture is surprising. Thus, for instance, Warden gives a case in which -a pond containing a number of frogs dried up, and the frogs thereupon -made straight for the nearest water, although this was at a distance of -eight kilometres.[130] - -A curious special instinct is met with in the toad _Bufo obstetricans_, -from which it derives its name; for the male here performs the function -of an accoucheur to the female, by severing from her body the gelatinous -cord by which the ova are attached. - -Another special instinct or habit manifested by toads is described by M. -Duchemin in a paper before the Academy of Sciences at Paris.[131] The -habit consists in the killing of carp by squatting on the head of the -fish and forcing the fore-feet into its eyes. Probably this habit arises -from sexual excitement on the part of the toads. - -I have one case, communicated to me by a correspondent, of a frog which -learnt to know her voice, and to come when called. As fish will -sometimes do the same thing, the account is sufficiently credible for -me to quote:-- - - I used to open the gate in the railings round the - pond, and call out 'Tommy' (the name I had given it), - and the frog would jump out from the bushes, dive into - the water, and swim across to me--get on my hand - sometimes. When I called 'Tommy,' it would nearly - always come, whatever the time of day, though it was - only fed after breakfast; but it seemed quite tame. - -A very similar case is recorded by Mr. Pennent[132] of a toad which was -domesticated for thirty-six years, and knew all his friends. - -There is no doubt that frogs are able to appreciate coming changes of -weather, and to adapt their movements in anticipation of them; but these -facts show delicate sensibility rather than remarkable intelligence. - -The following observation of Edward, the Scottish naturalist, however, -shows considerable powers of observation on the part of frogs. After -describing the great noise made by a number of frogs on a moonlight -night, he says:-- - - Presently, when the whole of the vocalists had reached - their highest notes, they became hushed in an instant. - I was amazed at this, and began to wonder at the - sudden termination of the concert. But, looking about, - I observed a brown owl drop down, with the silence of - death, on to the top of a low dyke close by the - orchestra.[133] - - -_Reptiles._ - -Like the other cold-blooded Vertebrata, the reptiles are characterised -by a sluggishness and low development of mental power which is to some -extent proverbial. Nevertheless, that some members of the class present -vivid emotions is not to be questioned. Thus, to quote from Thompson:-- - - The common guana (_Lacerta iguana_) is naturally - extremely gentle and harmless. Its appearance, - however, is much against it, especially when agitated - by fear or anger. Its eyes then seem on fire; it - hisses like a serpent, swells out the pouch under its - throat, lashes about its long tail, erects the scales - on its back, and extending its wide jaws, holds its - head, covered over with tubercles, in a menacing - attitude. The male, during the spring of the year, - exhibits great attachment towards the female. Throwing - aside his usual gentleness of character, he defends - her even with fury, attacking with undaunted courage - every animal that seems inclined to injure her; and at - this time, though his bite is by no means poisonous, - he fastens so firmly, that it is necessary either to - kill him or to beat him with great violence on the - nose, in order to make him quit his hold.[134] - -Several species of snake incubate their eggs and show parental affection -for their young when they are hatched out; but neither in these nor in -any other of their emotions do the reptiles appear to rise much above -the level of fish. The case, however, which I shall afterwards quote, of -the tame snakes kept by Mr. and Mrs. Mann, seems to show a somewhat -higher degree of emotional development than could be pointed to as -occurring in any lower Vertebrata. Moreover, according to Pliny, so much -affection subsists between the male and female asp, that when the one is -killed the other seeks to avenge its death; and this statement is so far -confirmed--or rather, its origin explained--by Sir Emerson Tennent that -he says when a cobra is killed, its mate is often found on the same spot -a day or two afterwards. - -Passing on to the general intelligence of reptiles, we shall find that -this also, although low as compared with the intelligence of birds and -mammals, is conspicuously higher than that of fish or batrachians. - -Taking first the case of special instincts, Mr. W. F. Barrett, in a -letter to Mr. Darwin, bearing the date May 6, 1873, and contained among -the MSS. already alluded to, gives an account of cutting open with a -penknife the egg of an alligator just about to hatch. The young animal, -although blind, 'instantly laid hold of the finger, and attempted to -bite.' Similarly, Dr. Davy, in his 'Account of Ceylon,' gives an -interesting observation of his own on a young crocodile, which he cut -out of the egg, and which, as soon as it escaped, started off in a -direct line for a neighbouring stream. Dr. Davy placed his stick before -it to try to make the little animal deviate from its course; but it -stoutly resisted the opposition, and raised itself into a posture of -offence, just as an older animal would have done. - -Humboldt made exactly the same observation with regard to young turtles, -and he remarks that as the young normally quit the egg at night, they -cannot see the water which they seek, and must therefore be guided to it -by discerning the direction in which the air is most humid. He adds that -experiments were made which consisted in putting the newly hatched -animals into bags, carrying them to some distance from the shore, and -liberating them with their tails turned towards the water. It was -invariably found that the young animals immediately faced round, and -took without hesitation the shortest way to the water. - -Scarcely less remarkable than the instincts of the young turtles are -those of the old ones. Their watchful timidity at the time of laying -their eggs is thus described by Bates:-- - - Great precautions are obliged to be taken to avoid - disturbing the sensitive turtles, who, previous to - crawling ashore to lay, assemble in great shoals off - the sand-bank. The men during this time take care not - to show themselves, and warn off any fisherman who - wishes to pass near the place. Their fires are made in - a deep hollow near the borders of the forest, so that - the smoke may not be visible. The passage of a boat - through the shallow waters where the animals are - congregated, or the sight of a man or a fire on the - sand-bank, would prevent the turtles from leaving the - water that night to lay their eggs; and if the causes - of alarm were repeated once or twice they would - forsake the praia for some other quieter place. . . . - I rose from my hammock by daylight, shivering with - cold--a praia, on account of the great radiation of - heat in the night from the sand, being towards the - dawn the coldest place that can be found in this - climate. Cardozo and the men were already up watching - the turtles. The sentinels had erected for this - purpose a stage about fifty feet high, on a tall tree - near their station, the ascent to which was by a - roughly made ladder of woody lianas. They are enabled, - by observing the turtles from this watch-tower, to - ascertain the date of successive deposits of eggs, - and thus guide the commandante in fixing the time for - the general invitation to the Ega people. The turtles - lay their eggs by night, leaving the water, when - nothing disturbs them, in vast crowds, and crawling to - the central and highest part of the praia. These - places are, of course, the last to go under water - when, in unusually wet seasons, the river rises before - the eggs are hatched by the heat of the sand. One - could almost believe, from this, that the animals used - forethought in choosing a place; but it is simply one - of those many instances in animals where unconscious - habit has the same result as conscious prevision. The - hours between midnight and dawn are the busiest. The - turtles excavate with their broad webbed paws deep - holes in the fine sand: the first comer, in each case, - making a pit about three feet deep, laying its eggs - (about 120 in number) and covering them with sand; the - next making its deposit at the top of that of its - predecessor, and so on until every pit is full. The - whole body of turtles frequenting a praia does not - finish laying in less than fourteen or fifteen days, - even when there is no interruption. When all have - done, the area (called by the Brazilians _taboleiro_) - over which they have excavated is distinguishable from - the rest of the praia only by signs of the sand having - been a little disturbed.[135] - -The same naturalist says of the alligator, - - These little incidents show the timidity and cowardice - (? prudence and caution) of the alligator. He never - attacks man when his intended victim is on his guard; - but he is cunning enough to know when this may be done - with impunity. Of this we had proof a few days - afterwards, &c.[136] - -Of the alligator, Jesse writes:[137]-- - - But a most singular instance of attachment between two - animals, whose natures and habits were most opposite, - was related to me by a person on whose veracity I can - place the greatest reliance. He had resided for nine - years in the American States, where he superintended - the execution of some extensive works for the American - Government. One of these works consisted in the - erection of a beacon in a swamp in one of the rivers, - where he caught a young alligator. This animal he made - so perfectly tame that it followed him about the house - like a dog, scrambling up the stairs after him, and - showing much affection and docility. Its great - favourite, however, was a cat, and the friendship was - mutual. When the cat was reposing herself before the - fire (this was at New York), the alligator would lay - himself down, place his head upon the cat, and in this - attitude go to sleep. If the cat was absent the - alligator was restless; but he always appeared happy - when the cat was near him. The only instance in which - he showed any ferocity was in attacking a fox, which - was tied up in the yard. Probably, however, the fox - resented some playful advances which the other had - made, and thus called forth the anger of the - alligator. In attacking the fox he did not make use of - his mouth, but beat him with so much severity with his - tail, that, had not the chain which confined the fox - broken, he would probably have killed him. The - alligator was fed on raw flesh, and sometimes with - milk, for which he showed a great fondness. In cold - weather he was shut up in a box, with wool in it; but, - having been forgotten one frosty night, he was found - dead in the morning. This is not, I believe, a - solitary instance of amphibia becoming tame, and - showing a fondness for those who have been kind to - them. Blumenbach mentions that crocodiles have been - tamed; and two instances have occurred under my own - observation of toads knowing their benefactors, and - coming to meet them with considerable alacrity. - -With regard to the higher intelligence of reptiles, I may quote the -following instances. - -Three or four different correspondents tell me of cases which they have -themselves observed, of snakes and tortoises unmistakably distinguishing -persons. In one of these cases the tortoise would come to the call of -the favoured person, and when it came would manifest its affection by -tapping the boot of this person with its mouth; 'but it would not answer -anyone else.' A separation of some weeks did not affect the memory of -this tortoise for his friend.[138] - -The following interesting observation on the intelligence of snakes -shows, not only that these animals are well able to distinguish persons, -and that they remember their friends for a period of at least six weeks, -but also that they possess an intensity of amiable emotion scarcely to -be expected in this class. Clearly the snakes in question were not only -perfectly tame, but entertained a remarkable affection for those who -tended and petted them. The facts were communicated to me by Mr. Walter -Severn, the well-known artist, who was a friend of Mr. and Mrs. Mann, -the gentleman and his wife to whom the snakes belonged. Mr. and Mrs. -Mann having got into trouble with their neighbours on account of the -fear and dislike which their pets occasioned, legal proceedings were -instituted, and so the matter came before the public. Mr. Severn then -wrote a letter to the _Times_, in order to show that the animals were -harmless. From this letter the following is an extract:-- - - I happen to know the gentleman and lady against whom a - complaint has been made because of the snakes they - keep, and I should like to give a short account of my - first visit to them. - - Mr. M., after we had talked for a little time, asked - if I had any fear of snakes; and after a timid 'No, - not very,' from me, he produced out of a cupboard a - large boa-constrictor, a python, and several small - snakes, which at once made themselves at home on the - writing-table among pens, ink, and books. I was at - first a good deal startled, especially when the two - large snakes coiled round and round my friend, and - began to notice me with their bright eyes and forked - tongues; but soon finding how tame they were, I ceased - to feel frightened. After a short time Mr. M. - expressed a wish to call Mrs. M., and left me with the - boa deposited on an arm-chair. I felt a little queer - when the animal began gradually to come near, but the - entrance of my host and hostess, followed by two - charming little children, put me at my ease again. - After the first interchange of civilities, she and the - children went at once to the boa, and, calling it by - the most endearing names, allowed it to twine itself - most gracefully round about them. I sat talking for a - long time, lost in wonder at the picture before me. - Two beautiful little girls with their charming mother - sat before me with a boa-constrictor (as thick round - as a small tree) twining playfully round the lady's - waist and neck, and forming a kind of turban round - her head, expecting to be petted and made much of - like a kitten. The children over and over again took - its head in their hands and kissed its mouth, pushing - aside its forked tongue in doing so. The animal seemed - much pleased, but kept turning its head continually - towards me with a curious gaze, until I allowed it to - nestle its head for a moment up my sleeve. Nothing - could be prettier than to see this splendid serpent - coiled all round Mrs. M. while she moved about the - room, and when she stood to pour out our coffee. He - seemed to adjust his weight so nicely, and every coil - with its beautiful marking was relieved by the black - velvet dress of the lady. It was long before I could - make up my mind to end the visit, and I returned soon - after with a friend (a distinguished M.P.[139]), to see - my snake-taming acquaintance again. . . . - - These (the snakes) seemed very obedient, and remained - in their cupboard when told to do so. - - About a year ago Mr. and Mrs. M. were away for six - weeks, and left the boa in charge of a keeper at the - Zoo. The poor reptile moped, slept, and refused to be - comforted, but when his master and mistress appeared - he sprang upon them with delight, coiling himself - round them, and showing every symptom of intense - delight.[140] - -The end of this python was remarkable and pathetic. Mr. Severn tells me -that some years after he had published the above letter Mr. Mann was -seized with an apoplectic fit. His wife, being the only other person in -the house at the time, ran out to fetch a doctor. She was absent about -ten minutes, and on returning found that the serpent during her absence -had crawled upstairs from the room below into that where her husband was -lying, and was stretched beside him dead. Such being the fact, we are -left to speculate whether the double seizure of the man and the snake -was a mere coincidence, or whether the sight of its stricken master, -acting on the emotions of a possibly not healthy animal, precipitated -its death. Looking to the extreme suddenness of the latter, as well as -to the fact of the animal having pined so greatly for his friends while -it was confined at the Zoological Gardens, I think the probability -rather points to the death of the animal having been accelerated by -emotional shock. But of course the question is an open one. - -So much for the power of reptiles to establish such definite and -complete associations as are required for the recognition of -persons--associations, however, to which, as we have seen, frogs, and -even insects may attain. As for other associations, a correspondent -writes to me:-- - - I believe tortoises are able to establish a definite - association between particular colours on a flat - surface and food. Only the day before reading your - article on animal intelligence I noticed the - endeavours of a small tortoise to eat the _yellow_ - flowers of an inlaid writing-table, and I have often - remarked the same recognition with regard to red. - -Lord Monboddo relates the following anecdote of a serpent:-- - - I am well informed of a tame serpent in the East - Indies, which belonged to the late Dr. Vigot, and was - kept by him in the suburbs of Madras. This serpent was - taken by the French, when they invested Madras in the - late war, and was carried to Pondicherry in a close - carriage. But from thence he found his way back again - to his old quarters, which it seems he liked better, - though Madras is distant from Pondicherry about one - hundred miles. This information, he adds, I have from - a lady who then was in India, and had seen the serpent - often before his journey and after his return. - -Considering the enormous distances over which turtles are able to find -their way in the season of migration, this display of the homing faculty -to so great a degree in a serpent is not to be regarded as incredible. - -Mr. E. L. Layard, in his 'Rambles in Ceylon' says of the cobra:[141]-- - - I once watched one which had thrust its head through a - narrow aperture and swallowed one (_i.e._ a toad). - With this encumbrance he could not withdraw himself. - Finding this, he reluctantly disgorged the precious - morsel, which began to move off. This was too much for - snake philosophy to bear, and the toad was again - seized; and again, after violent efforts to escape, - was the snake compelled to part with it. This time, - however, a lesson had been learnt, and the toad was - seized by one leg, withdrawn, and then swallowed in - triumph. - -Mr. E. C. Buck, B.C.S., says in 'Nature' (vol. viii., p. 303):-- - - I have witnessed exactly a similar plan pursued by a - large number of Ganges crocodiles, which had been - lying or swimming about all day in front of my tent, - at the mouth of a small stream which led from some - large inland lakes to the Ganges. Towards dusk, at the - same moment every one of them left the bank on which - they were lying, or the deep water in which they were - swimming, and formed a line across the stream, which - was about twenty yards wide. They had to form a double - line, as there was not room for all in a single line. - They then swam slowly up the shallow stream, driving - the fish before them, and I saw two or three fish - caught before they disappeared. - -An account of reptile psychology would be incomplete without some -reference to the alleged facts of snakes charming other animals by -'fascination,' and being themselves charmed by the arts of music, &c. -The testimony on both subjects is conflicting, and especially with -regard to the fascination of other animals by snakes. Thus:-- - - Mr. Pennant says that this snake (rattle-snake) will - frequently lie at the bottom of a tree on which a - squirrel is seated. He fixes his eyes on the animal, - and from that moment it cannot escape; it begins a - doleful outcry, which is so well known that a - passer-by, on hearing it, immediately knows that a - snake is present. The squirrel runs up the tree a - little way, comes down again, then goes up, and - afterwards comes still lower. The snake continues at - the bottom of the tree with its eyes fixed on the - squirrel, and his attention is so entirely taken up, - that a person accidentally approaching may make a - considerable noise without so much as the snake - turning about. The squirrel comes lower, and at last - leaps down to the snake, whose mouth is already - distended for its reception. Le Vaillant confirms this - fascinating terror by a scene he witnessed. He saw on - the branch of a tree a species of shrike, trembling as - if in convulsions, and at the distance of nearly four - feet, on another branch, a large snake that was lying - with outstretched neck and fiery eyes, gazing steadily - at the poor animal. The agony of the bird was so great - that it was deprived of the power of moving away; and - when one of the party killed the snake, it (_i.e._ the - bird) was found dead upon the spot--and that entirely - from fear; for, on examination, it appeared not to - have received the slightest wound. The same traveller - adds that a short time afterwards he observed a small - mouse in similar agonising convulsions, about two - yards from a snake, whose eyes were intently fixed - upon it; and on frightening away the reptile, and - taking up the mouse, it expired in his hand.[142] - -Many other observations, more or less similar, might be quoted; but, on -the other hand, Sir Joseph Fayrer tells me that 'fascination is only -fright;' and this appears to be the opinion of all persons who have had -the opportunity of looking into the subject in a scientific manner. The -truth probably is that small animals are occasionally much alarmed by -the sight of a snake looking at them, and as a consequence of this more -easily fall a prey. In some cases, it is likely enough, strong terror so -unnerves the animal as to make it behave in the manner which the -witnesses describe; in making half-palsied efforts to escape, it may -actually fall or draw nearer to the object of its dread. Perhaps, -therefore, Dr. Barton, of Philadelphia, is a little too severe on -previous observers when he says that-- - - The report of this fascinating property has had its - rise in nothing more than the fears and cries of birds - and other animals in the protection of their nests. . . . - The result of not a little attention has taught me - that there is but one wonder in the business--the - wonder that the story should ever have been believed - by any man of understanding and observation. - -But, be this as it may, it is certainly remarkable, as Sir J. Fayrer in -his letter to me observes, 'how little fear some animals show until the -moment that they are seized and struck.' - -As for snake-charming, the facts seem to be that cobras and other -serpents are attracted by the sound of a pipe to creep out of their -hiding-places, when they are captured and tamed. It is certain that the -fangs are not always drawn, and also that from the first moment of -capture, before there has been time for any process of training, a real -snake-charmer is able to make the reptile 'dance.' Thus, for instance, -Sir E. Tennent publishes the following letter from Mr. Reyne. After -describing all his precautions to ensure that the snake-charmer had no -tamed snakes concealed about his person, Mr. Reyne proceeds to tell how -he made the man accompany him to the jungle, where, attracted by the -music of a pipe which the man played, a large cobra came from an -ant-hill which Mr. Reyne knew it to occupy:-- - - On seeing the man it tried to escape, but he caught it - by the tail and kept swinging it round until we - reached the bungalow. He then made it dance, but - before long it bit him above the knee. He immediately - bandaged the leg above the bite and applied a - snake-stone to the wound to extract the poison. He was - in great pain for a few minutes, but after that it - gradually went away, the stone falling off just before - he was relieved.[143] - -Thus the only remarkable thing about the charming of a freshly caught -snake seems to be that the charmer is able to make the animal -'dance'--for the fact of the snake approaching the unfamiliar sound of -music is not in itself any more remarkable than a fish approaching the -unfamiliar sight of a lantern. It does not, however, appear that this -dancing is anything more than some series of gestures or movements which -may be merely the expressions, more or less natural, of uneasiness or -alarm. Anything else that charmed snakes may do is probably the result -of training; for there is no doubt that cobras admit of being tamed, and -even domesticated. Thus, for instance, Major Skinner, writing to Sir E. -Tennent, says:-- - - In one family near Negombo, cobras are kept as - protectors, in the place of dogs, by a wealthy man who - has always large sums of money in his house. But this - is not a solitary case of the kind. . . . The snakes - glide about the house, a terror to the thieves, but - never attempting to harm the inmates.[144] - -Thus, on the whole, we may accept Dr. Davey's opinion--who had good -opportunities for observation--that the snake-charmers control the -cobras by working upon the well-known timidity and reluctance of these -animals to use their fangs till they become virtually tame. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[130] _Account of the United States_, vol. ii., p. 9. - -[131] April 11, 1870. - -[132] See Bingley, _Animal Biography_, vol. ii., p. 406. - -[133] Smiles, _Life of Edwards_, p. 124. - -[134] _Passions of Animals_, p. 229. - -[135] _Naturalist on the Amazon_, pp. 285-6. - -[136] _Ibid._ The astonishing facts relating to the migration of turtles -in the laying season will be treated under the general heading -'Migration' in my forthcoming work. - -[137] _Gleanings_, vol. i., pp. 163-4. - -[138] The tortoise which has gained such immortal celebrity by having -fallen under the observation of the author of the _Natural History of -Selborne_, likewise distinguished persons in this way. For 'whenever the -good old lady came in sight, who had waited on it for more than thirty -years, it always hobbled with awkward alacrity towards its benefactress, -whilst to strangers it was altogether inattentive.' - -[139] This gentleman was Lord Arthur Russell. - -[140] The _Times_, July 25, 1872. - -[141] See _Annas. and Mag. of Nat. Hist._, 2nd series, vol. ix., p. 333. - -[142] Thompson, _Passions of Animals_, p. 118; see also Bingley, _Animal -Biography_, vol. ii., pp. 447-8. - -[143] _Natural History of Ceylon_, p. 314. - -[144] Tennent, _loc. cit._, p. 299. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -BIRDS. - - -ADEQUATELY to treat of the intelligence of birds a separate volume would -be required; here it must be enough to deal with this class as I shall -afterwards deal with the Mammalia--namely, by giving an outline sketch -of the more prominent features of their psychology. - - -_Memory._ - -The memory of birds is well developed. Thus, although we are much in the -dark on the whole subject of migration--so much so that I reserve its -discussion with all the problems that this presents for a separate -chapter in my next work--we may at least conclude that the return of the -same pair of swallows every year to the same nest must be due to the -animals remembering the precise locality of their nests. Again, Buckland -gives an account of a pigeon which remembered the voice of its mistress -after an absence of eighteen months;[145] but I have not been able to -meet with satisfactory evidence of the memory of a bird enduring for a -longer time than this. - -As it is a matter of interest in comparative psychology to trace as far -as possible into detail the similarities of a mental faculty as it -occurs in different groups of animals, and as the faculty of memory -first admits of detailed study in the class which we are now -considering, I shall here devote a paragraph to the facts concerning the -exhibition of memory by birds where its mechanism best admits of being -analysed; I refer to the learning of articulate phrases and tunes by -talking and musical birds. The best observations in this connection with -which I am acquainted are those of Dr. Samuel Wilks, F.R.S., and -therefore I shall quote _in extenso_ the portion of his paper which -refers to the memory of parrots: other portions of this paper I shall -have occasion to quote in my next work:-- - - When my parrot first came into my possession, several - years ago, it was quite unlettered, and I therefore - had an opportunity of observing the mode in which it - acquired the accomplishment of speech. I was very much - struck with its manner of learning, and the causes for - its speaking on special occasions. The first seemed to - resemble very much the method of children in learning - their lessons, and the second to be due to some - association or suggestion--the usual provocative for - set speeches at all periods of human life. A parrot is - well known to imitate sounds in a most perfect manner, - even to the tone of the voice, besides having a - compass which no human being can approach, ranging - from the gravest to the most acute note. My bird, - though possessing a good vocabulary of words and - sentences, can only retain them for a few months - unless kept constantly in practice by the suggestive - recurrence of some circumstance which causes their - continual utterance. If forgotten, however, they are - soon revived in the memory by again repeating them a - few times, and much more speedily than any new - sentence can be acquired. In beginning to teach the - parrot a sentence, it has to be repeated many times, - the bird all the while listening most attentively by - turning the opening of the ear as close as possible to - the speaker. After a few hours it is heard attempting - to say the phrase, or, I should say, trying to learn - it. It evidently has the phrase somewhere in store, - for eventually this is uttered perfectly, but at first - the attempts are very poor and ludicrous. If the - sentence be composed of a few words, the first two or - three are said over and over again, and then another - and another word added, until the sentence is - complete, the pronunciation at first being very - imperfect, and then becoming gradually more complete, - until the task is accomplished. Thus hour after hour - will the bird be indefatigably working at the - sentence, and not until some days have elapsed will it - be perfect. The mode of acquiring it seems to me - exactly what I have observed in a child learning a - French phrase; two or three words are constantly - repeated, and then others added, until the whole is - known, the pronunciation becoming more perfect as the - repetition goes on. I found also on whistling a - popular air to my parrot that she picked it up in the - same way, taking note by note until the whole - twenty-five notes were complete. Then the mode of - forgetting, or the way in which phrases and airs pass - from its recollection, may be worth remarking. The - last words or notes are first forgotten, so that soon - the sentence remains unfinished or the air only half - whistled through. The first words are the best fixed - in the memory; these suggest others which stand next - to them, and so on till the last, which have the least - hold on the brain. These, however, as I have before - mentioned, can be easily revived on repetition. This - is also a very usual process in the human subject: for - example, an Englishman speaking French will, in his - own country, if no opportunity occur for conversation, - apparently forget it; he no sooner, however, crosses - the Channel and hears the language than it very soon - comes back to him again. In trying to recall poems - learned in childhood or in school days, although at - that period hundreds of lines may have been known, it - is found that in manhood we remember only the two or - three first lines of the 'Iliad,' the 'Æneid,' or the - 'Paradise Lost.'[146] - -The following is communicated to me by Mr. Venn, of Cambridge, the -well-known logician:-- - - I had a grey parrot, three or four years old, which - had been taken from its nest in West Africa by those - through whom I received it. It stood ordinarily by the - window, where it could equally hear the front and back - door bells. In the yard, by the back door, was a - collie dog, who naturally barked violently at nearly - all the comers that way. The parrot took to imitating - the dog. After a time I was interested in observing - the discriminative association between the back-door - bell and the dog's bark in the parrot's mind. Even - when the dog was not there, or for any other cause did - not bark, the parrot would constantly bark when the - back-door bell sounded, but never (that I could hear) - when the front-door bell was heard. - - This is but a trifle in the way of intelligence, but - it struck me as an interesting analogous case to a law - of association often noticed by writers on human - psychology. - -The celebrated parrot that belonged to the Buffon family and of which -the Comte de Buffon wrote, exhibited in a strange manner the association -of its ideas. For he was frequently in the habit of asking himself for -his own claw, and then never failed to comply with his own request by -holding it out, in the same way as he did when asked for his claw by -anybody else. This, however, probably arose, not, as Buffon or his -sister Madame Nadault supposed, from the bird not knowing its own voice, -but rather from the association between the words and the gesture. - -According to Margrave, parrots sometimes chatter their phrases in their -dreams, and this shows a striking similarity of psychical processes in -the operations of memory with those which occur in ourselves. - -Similarly, Mr. Walter Pollock, writes me of his own parrot:-- - - In this parrot the sense of association is very - strongly developed. If one word picked up at a former - home comes into its head, and is uttered by it, it - immediately follows this word up with all the other - words and phrases picked up at the same place and - period. - -Lastly, parrots not only remember, but recollect; that is to say, they -know when there is a missing link in a train of association, and -purposely endeavour to pick it up. Thus, for instance, the late Lady -Napier told me an interesting series of observations on this point which -she had made upon an intelligent parrot of her own. They were of this -kind. Taking such a phrase as 'Old Dan Tucker,' the bird would remember -the beginning and the end, and try to recollect the middle. For it would -say very slowly, 'Old--old--old--old' (and then very quickly) 'Lucy -Tucker.' Feeling that this was not right, it would try again as before, -'Old--old--old--old--old Bessy Tucker,' substituting one word after -another in the place of the sought-for word 'Dan.' And that the process -was one of truly seeking for the desired word was proved by the fact -that if, while the bird was saying, 'Old--old--old--old,' any one threw -in the word 'Dan,' he immediately supplied the 'Tucker.' - - -_Emotions._ - -As regards emotions, it is among birds that we first meet with a -conspicuous advance in the tenderer feelings of affection and sympathy. -Those relating to the sexes and the care of progeny are in this class -proverbial for their intensity, offering, in fact, a favourite type for -the poet and moralist. The pining of the 'love-bird' for its absent -mate, and the keen distress of a hen on losing her chickens, furnish -abundant evidence of vivid feelings of the kind in question. Even the -stupid-looking ostrich has heart enough to die for love, as was the case -with a male in the Rotund of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, who, -having lost his wife, pined rapidly away. It is remarkable that in some -species--notably pigeons--conjugal fidelity should be so strongly -marked; for this shows, not only what may be called a refinement of -sexual feeling, but also the presence of an abiding image in the mind's -eye of the lover. For instance,-- - - Referring to the habits of the mandarin duck (a - Chinese species) Mr. Bennett says that Mr. Beale's - aviary afforded a singular corroboration of the - fidelity of the birds in question. Of a pair in that - gentleman's possession, the drake being one night - purloined by some thieves, the unfortunate duck - displayed the strongest marks of despair at her - bereavement, retiring into a corner, and altogether - neglecting food and drink, as well as the care of her - person. In this condition she was courted by a drake - who had lost his mate, but who met with no - encouragement from the widow. On the stolen drake - being subsequently recovered and restored to the - aviary, the most extravagant demonstrations of joy - were displayed by the fond couple; but this was not - all, for, as if informed by his spouse of the gallant - proposals made to her shortly before his arrival, the - drake attacked the luckless bird who would have - supplanted him, beat out his eyes, and inflicted so - many injuries as to cause his death.[147] - -Similarly, to give an instance or two with regard to other birds, Jesse -states the following as his own observation:-- - - A pair of swans had been inseparable companions for - three years, during which time they had reared three - broods of cygnets; last autumn the male was killed, - and since that time the female has separated herself - from all society with her own species; and, though at - the time I am writing (the end of March) the breeding - season for swans has far advanced, she remains in the - same state of seclusion, resisting the addresses of a - male swan, who has been making advances towards - forming an acquaintance with her, either driving him - away, or flying from him whenever he comes near her. - How long she will continue in this state of widowhood - I know not, but at present it is quite evident that - she has not forgotten her former partner. - - This reminds me of a circumstance which lately - happened at Chalk Farm, near Hampton. A man, set to - watch a field of peas which had been much preyed upon - by pigeons, shot an old cock pigeon which had long - been an inhabitant of the farm. His mate, around whom - he had for many a year cooed, whom he had nourished - from his own crop, and had assisted in rearing - numerous young ones, immediately settled on the ground - by his side, and showed her grief in the most - expressive manner. The labourer took up the dead bird, - and tied it to a short stake, thinking that it would - frighten away the other depredators. In this - situation, however, the widow did not forsake her - deceased husband, but continued, day after day, - walking slowly round the stick. The kind-hearted wife - of the bailiff of the farm at last heard of the - circumstance, and immediately went to afford what - relief she could to the poor bird. She told me that, - on arriving at the spot, she found the hen bird much - exhausted, and that she had made a circular beaten - track round the dead pigeon, making now and then a - little spring towards him. On the removal of the dead - bird the hen returned to the dove-cote.[148] - -As evidence of the intensity of the maternal instinct even in the case -of barren birds, I may quote the following from the naturalist Couch. I -do so because, although the instance is a trivial one, and also one of -frequent occurrence, it is interesting as showing that a deeply rooted -instinct or emotion may assert itself powerfully even in the absence of -what may be termed its natural stimulus or object:-- - - I was once witness to a curious instance of the - yearning for progeny in a diminutive bantam hen. - - There was at this time a nest of the common hen in a - secluded part of the garden, and the parent had been - sitting on its eggs, till compelled by hunger she left - them for a short time. This absence was fatal; for the - bantam had in the meantime found its situation in a - covered recess in the hedge, and I saw her creep into - it with all the triumph of the discoverer of a - treasure. The real mother now returned, and great was - her agony at finding an intruder in her nest. The - expression of her eye and the attitude of her head - were emphatic of surprise at the impudence of the - proceeding. But after many attempts to recover - possession she was compelled to resign her rights, for - the bantam was too resolute to be contended with; and - though its body was not big enough to cover the whole - of the eggs, and thus some of them were not hatched, - yet in due season the pride of this audacious - step-mother was gratified by strutting at the head of - a company of robust chickens, which she passed off - upon the feathered public as a brood of her own.[149] - -As evidence of sympathy I shall quote _in extenso_ an interesting case -which has been communicated to me by a young lady, who desires her name -withheld. There are several more or less corroborative cases in the -anecdote-books,[150] so that I have no doubt as to the substantial -accuracy of the account:-- - - My grandfather had a Swan River gander, which had been - reared near the house, and had consequently attached - himself to the members of the family; so much so that, - on seeing any of them at a distance, he would run to - meet them with all possible demonstrations of delight. - - But 'Swanny' was quite an outcast from his own tribe; - and as often as he made humble overtures to the other - geese, so often was he driven away with great - contempt, and on such occasions he would frequently - run to some of his human friends, and laying his head - on their laps, seem to seek for sympathy. At last, - however, he found a friend among his own species. An - old grey goose, becoming blind, was also discarded by - her more fortunate companions, and Swanny lost no - opportunity of recognising this comrade in distress. - He at once took her under his protection and led her - about. When he considered it well for her to have a - swim, he would gently take her neck in his bill, and - thus lead her, sometimes a considerable distance, to - the water's edge. Having fairly launched her, he kept - close by her side, and guided her from dangerous - places by arching his neck over hers, and so turning - her in the right direction. After cruising about a - sufficient time, he would guide her to a convenient - landing-place, and taking her neck in his bill as - before, lead her to _terra firma_ again. When she had - goslings, he would proudly convoy the whole party to - the water-side; and if any ill-fated gosling got into - difficulties in a hole or deep cart-rut, Swanny with - ready skill would put his bill under its body, and - carefully raise it to the level ground. - - My grandfather had also another gander who attached - himself to him, and would follow him for hours through - fields and lanes, pausing when he stood still, and - waddling gravely by his side as he proceeded. This - gander was not, like the other, discarded by his kind, - but would leave them any time to walk with his master, - and was exceedingly jealous of any one else who tried - to share this privilege, excepting only his mistress. - On one occasion, a gentleman venturing to place his - hand on my grandfather's arm, the gander flew at him, - and beat him severely with his wings, and it was with - great difficulty that he was induced to let go. - -The solicitude which most gregarious birds display when one of their -number is wounded or captured, constitutes strong evidence of sympathy. -As Jesse observes,-- - - There is one trait in the character of the rook which - is, I believe, peculiar to that bird, and which does - him no little credit; it is the distress which is - exhibited when one of his fellows has been killed or - wounded by a gun while they have been feeding in a - field or flying over it. Instead of being scared away - by the report of the gun, leaving their wounded or - dead companion to his fate, they show the greatest - anxiety and sympathy for him, uttering cries of - distress, and plainly proving that they wish to - render him assistance by hovering over him, or - sometimes making a dart from the air close up to him, - apparently to try and find out the reason why he did - not follow them. . . . I have seen one of my labourers - pick up a rook which he had shot at for the purpose of - putting him up as a scarecrow in a field of wheat, and - while the poor wounded bird was still fluttering in - his hand, I have observed one of his companions make a - wheel round in the air, and suddenly dart past him so - as almost to touch him, perhaps with the last hope - that he might still afford assistance to his - unfortunate mate or companion. Even when the dead bird - has been hung, _in terrorem_, to a stake in the field, - he has been visited by some of his former friends, but - as soon as they found that the case was hopeless, they - have generally abandoned that field altogether. - - When one considers the instinctive care with which - rooks avoid any one carrying a gun, and which is so - evident that I have often heard country people remark - that a rook can smell gunpowder, one can more justly - estimate the force of their love or friendship in thus - continuing to hover round a person who has just - destroyed one of their companions with an instrument - the dangerous nature of which they seem fully capable - of appreciating.[151] - -The justice of these remarks may be better appreciated in the light of -the following very remarkable observation, as an introduction to which I -have quoted them. - -Edward, the naturalist, having shot a tern, which fell winged into the -sea, its companions hovered around the floating bird, manifesting much -apparent solicitude, as terns and gulls always do under such -circumstances. How far this apparent solicitude is real I have often -speculated, as in the analogous case of the crows--wondering whether the -emotions concerned were really those of sympathy or mere curiosity. The -following observation, however, seems to set this question at rest. -Having begun to make preparations for securing the wounded bird, Edward -says: 'I expected in a few moments to have it in my possession, being -not very far from the water's edge, and drifting shorewards with the -wind.' He continues:-- - - While matters were in this position I beheld, to my - utter astonishment and surprise, two of the unwounded - terns take hold of their disabled comrade, one at - each wing, lift him out of the water, and bear him out - seawards. They were followed by two other birds. After - being carried about six or seven yards, he was let - gently down again, when he was taken up in a similar - manner by the two who had been hitherto inactive. In - this way they continued to carry him alternately, - until they had conveyed him to a rock at a - considerable distance, upon which they landed him in - safety. Having recovered my self-possession, I made - toward the rock, wishing to obtain the prize which had - been so unceremoniously snatched from my grasp. I was - observed, however, by the terns; and instead of four, - I had in a short time a whole swarm about me. On my - near approach to the rock I once more beheld two of - them take hold of the wounded bird as they had done - already, and bear him out to sea in triumph, far - beyond my reach. This, had I been so inclined, I could - no doubt have prevented. Under the circumstances, - however, my feelings would not permit me; and I - willingly allowed them to perform without molestation - an act of mercy, and to exhibit an instance of - affection which man himself need not be ashamed to - imitate.[152] - -According to Clavigero,[153] the inhabitants of Mexico utilise the -sympathy of the wild pelican for the procuring of fish. First a pelican -is caught and its wing broken. The bird is then tied to a tree, and -being both in pain and captivity, it utters cries of distress. Other -pelicans are attracted by the cries, and finding their friend in such a -sorry case, their bowels of compassion become moved in a very literal -sense; for they disgorge from their stomachs and pouches the fish which -they have caught, and deposit them within reach of the captive. As soon -as this is done the men, who have been lying in wait concealed, run to -the spot, drive off the friendly pelicans, and secure their fish, -leaving only a small quantity for the use of the captive. - -The parrot which belonged to the Buffon family showed much sympathy with -a female servant to whom it was attached when the girl had a sore -finger, which it displayed by its never leaving her sick room, and -groaning as if itself in pain. As soon as the girl got better the bird -again became cheerful. - -I shall conclude this brief demonstration of the keen sympathy which may -exist in birds, by quoting the following very conclusive case in the -words of its distinguished observer, Dr. Franklin:[1]-- - - I have known two parrots, said he, which had lived - together four years, when the female became weak, and - her legs swelled. These were symptoms of gout, a - disease to which all birds of this family are very - subject in England. It became impossible for her to - descend from the perch, or to take her food as - formerly, but the male was most assiduous in carrying - it to her in his beak. He continued feeding her in - this manner during four months, but the infirmities of - his companion increased from day to day, so that at - last she was unable to support herself on the perch. - She remained cowering down in the bottom of the cage, - making, from time to time, ineffectual efforts to - regain the perch. The male was always near her, and - with all his strength aided the feeble attempts of his - dear better half. Seizing the poor invalid by the - beak, or the upper part of the wing, he tried to raise - her, and renewed his efforts several times. - - His constancy, his gestures, and his continued - solicitude, all showed in this affectionate bird the - most ardent desire to relieve the sufferings and - assist the weakness of his companion. - - But the scene became still more interesting when the - female was dying. Her unhappy spouse moved around her - incessantly, his attention and tender cares redoubled. - He even tried to open her beak to give some - nourishment. He ran to her, then returned with a - troubled and agitated look. At intervals he uttered - the most plaintive cries; then, with his eyes fixed on - her, kept a mournful silence. At length his companion - breathed her last; from that moment he pined away, and - died in the course of a few weeks.[154] - -The jealousy of birds is proverbial; and that they also manifest the -kindred passion of emulation, no one can doubt who has heard them -singing against one another. Mr. Bold relates that a mule canary would -always sing at his own image in a mirror, becoming more and more -excited, till he ended by flying in rage against his supposed rival. - -The late Lady Napier wrote me, among other 'anecdotes of a grey parrot -left on a long visit to the family of General Sir William Napier, at the -time residing in Germany,' the following graphic description of the -exultation displayed by the bird when it baffled the imitative powers of -its master. The bird was the same as that already mentioned under the -head of 'Memory':-- - - Sometimes when only two or three were in the room, at - quiet occupations instead of talking, she would utter - at short intervals a series of strong squalls or cries - in an interjectional style, each more strange and - grotesque than the previous one. My father on these - occasions sometimes amused himself by imitating these - cries as she uttered them, which seemed to excite her - ingenuity in the production of them to the uttermost. - As a last resource she always had recourse to a very - peculiar one, which completely baffled him; upon - which, with a loud ha! ha! ha! she made a somersault - round her perch, swinging with her head downwards, - sprung from one part of the cage to another, and - tossed a bit of wood she used as a toy over her head - in the most exulting triumph, repeating at intervals - the inimitable cry, followed by peals of ha! ha! ha! - to the great amusement of all present. - -Allied to emulation is resentment, of which the following, communicated -to me by a correspondent, may be taken as an example. If space permitted -I could give confirmatory cases:-- - - One day the cat and the parrot had a quarrel. I think - the cat had upset Polly's food, or something of that - kind; however, they seemed all right again. An hour or - so after, Polly was standing on the edge of the table; - she called out in a tone of extreme affection, 'Puss, - puss, come then--come then, pussy.' Pussy went and - looked up innocently enough. Polly with her beak - seized a basin of milk standing by, and tipped the - basin and all its contents over the cat; then chuckled - diabolically, of course broke the basin, and half - drowned the cat. - -Several strange but mutually corroborative stories seem to show -cherished vindictiveness on the part of storks. Thus, in Captain Brown's -book there occurs an account of a tame stork which lived in the college -yard at Tübingen,-- - - And in a neighbouring house was a nest, in which other - storks, that annually resorted to the place, used to - hatch their eggs. At this nest, one day in autumn, a - young collegian fired a shot, by which the stork that - was sitting on it was probably wounded, for it did not - fly out of the nest for some weeks afterwards. It was - able, however, to take its departure at the usual time - with the rest of the storks. But in the ensuing spring - a strange stork was observed on the roof of the - college, which, by clapping his wings and other - gestures, seemed to invite the tame stork to come to - him; but, as the tame one's wings were clipped, he was - unable to accept the invitation. After some days the - strange stork appeared again, and came down into the - yard, when the tame one went out to meet him, clapping - his wings as if to bid him welcome, but was suddenly - attacked by the visitor with great fury. Some of the - neighbours protected the tame bird, and drove off the - assailant, but he returned several times afterwards, - and incommoded the other through the whole summer. The - next spring, instead of one stork only, four storks - came together into the yard, and fell upon the tame - one; when all the poultry present--cocks, hens, geese, - and ducks--flocked at once to his assistance, and - rescued him from his enemies. In consequence of this - serious attack, the people of the house took - precaution for the tame stork's security, and he was - no more molested that year. But in the beginning of - the third spring came upwards of twenty storks, which - rushed at once into the yard and killed the tame stork - before either man or any other animal could afford him - protection. - - A similar occurrence took place on the premises of a - farmer near Hamburg, who kept a tame stork, and, - having caught another, thought to make it a companion - for the one in his possession. But the two were no - sooner brought together than the tame one fell upon - the other, and beat him so severely that he made his - escape from the place. About four months afterwards, - however, the defeated stork returned with three - others, who all made a combined attack upon the tame - one and killed him.[155] - -The curiosity of birds is highly developed, so much so, indeed, that in -this and other countries it is played upon by sportsmen and trappers. -Unfamiliar objects being placed within sight, say, of ducks, the birds -approach to examine them, and fall into the snares which have been -prepared. Similarly, in oceanic islands unfrequented by man, the birds -fearlessly approach to examine the first human beings that they have -seen. - -That birds exhibit pride might be considered doubtful if we had to rely -only on the evidence supplied by the display of the peacock, and the -strutting of the turkey-gobbler; for these actions, although so -expressive of this emotion, may not really be due to it. But I think -that the evident pleasure which is taken in achievement by talking birds -can only be ascribed to the emotion in question. These birds regularly -practise their art, and when a new phrase is perfected they show an -unmistakable delight in displaying the result. - -Play is exhibited by many species in various ways, and it seems to be -this class of feelings in their most organised form which have led to -the extraordinary instincts of the bower-birds of New South Wales. The -'playhouses' of the animals have been described by Mr. Gould in his -'History of the Birds of New South Wales.' Of course the play-instincts -are here united with those of courtship, which are of such general -occurrence among birds; but I think no one can read Mr. Gould's -description of the bowers and the uses to which they are put without -feeling that the love of sportive play must have been joined with the -sexual instincts in producing the result. But, be this as it may, there -can be no question that these bowers are highly interesting structures, -as furnishing the most unexceptionable evidence of true æsthetic, if not -artistic feeling, on the part of the bird which constructs them; and, -according to Mr. Herbert Spencer, the artistic feelings are -physiologically allied with those of play. It is a matter of importance -to obtain definite proof of an æsthetic sense in animals, because this -constitutes the basis of Mr. Darwin's theory of sexual selection; but as -he has treated the evidence on this subject in so exhaustive a manner, I -shall not enter upon so wide a field further than to point out that the -case of the bower-bird, even if it stood alone, would be amply -sufficient to carry the general conclusion that some animals exhibit -emotions of the beautiful. The following is Mr. Gould's description, _in -extenso_, of the habits of the bird in question:-- - - The extraordinary bower-like structure, alluded to in - my remarks on the genus, first came under my notice in - the Sydney Museum, to which an example had been - presented by Charles Cox, Esq. . . . On visiting the - cedar bushes of the Liverpool range, I discovered - several of these bowers or playing-houses on the - ground, under the shelter of the branches of the - overhanging trees, in the most retired part of the - forest; they differed considerably in size, some being - a third larger than others. The base consists of an - extensive and rather convex platform of sticks firmly - interwoven, on the centre of which the bower itself is - built. This, like the platform on which it is placed, - and with which it is interwoven, is formed of sticks - and twigs, but of a more slender and flexible - description, the tips of the twigs being so arranged - as to curve inwards and nearly meet at the top; in the - interior the materials are so placed that the forks of - the twigs are always presented outwards, by which - arrangement not the slightest obstruction is offered - to the passage of the birds. The interest of this - curious bower is much enhanced by the manner in which - it is decorated with the most gaily coloured articles - that can be collected, such as the blue tail-feathers - of the Rose-hill and Pennantian parakeets, bleached - bones and shells of snails, &c.; some of the feathers - are inserted among the twigs, while others with the - bones and shells are strewed near the entrances. The - propensity of these birds to fly off with any - attractive object is so well known to the natives that - they always search the runs for any small missing - article that may have been accidentally dropped in the - bush. I myself found at the entrance of one of them a - small neatly worked stone tomahawk of an inch and a - half in length, together with some slips of blue - cotton rag, which the birds had doubtless picked up at - a deserted encampment of the natives. - -It has now been clearly ascertained that these curious bowers are merely -sporting-places in which the sexes meet, when the males display their -finery, and exhibit many remarkable actions; and so inherent is this -habit, that the living examples, which have been from time to time sent -to this country, continue it even in captivity.[156] Those belonging to -the Zoological Society have constructed their bowers, decorated and -kept them in repair, for several years. In a letter from the late Mr. F. -Strange, it is said:-- - - My aviary is now tenanted by a pair of satin-birds, - which for the last two months have been constantly - engaged in constructing bowers. Both sexes assist in - their erection, but the male is the principal workman. - At times the male will chase the female all over the - aviary, then go to the bower, pick up a gay feather or - a large leaf, utter a curious kind of note, set all - his feathers erect, run round the bower, and become so - excited that his eyes appear ready to start from his - head, and he continues opening first one wing and then - another, uttering a low whistling note, and, like the - domestic cock, seems to be picking up something from - the ground, until at last the female goes gently - towards him, when after two turns round her, he - suddenly makes a dash, and the scene ends.[157] - -I have said that if this case stood alone it would constitute ample -evidence that some animals possess emotions of the beautiful. But the -case does not stand alone. Certain humming-birds, according to Mr. -Gould, decorate the outsides of their nests 'with the utmost taste; they -instinctively fasten thereon beautiful pieces of flat lichen, the larger -pieces in the middle, and the smaller on the part attached to the -branch. Now and then a pretty feather is intertwined or fastened to the -outer sides, the stem being always so placed that the feather stands out -beyond the surface.' Several other instances might be rendered of the -display of artistic feeling in the architecture of birds; and, as Mr. -Darwin so elaborately shows, there can scarcely be question that these -animals take emotional pleasure in surveying beautiful plumage in the -opposite sex, looking to the careful manner in which the males of many -species display their fine colours to the females. Doubtless the -evidence of æsthetic feeling is much stronger in the case of birds than -it is in that of any other class; but if this feeling is accepted as a -sufficient cause, through sexual selection, of natural decoration in the -members of this class, we are justified in attributing to sexual -selection, and so to æsthetic feeling, natural decoration in other -classes, at least as low down in the scale as the Articulata. But, as I -have said, Mr. Darwin has dealt with this whole subject in so exhaustive -a manner that it is needless for me to enter upon it further than to say -in general terms, that whatever we may think of his theory of sexual -selection, his researches have unquestionably proved the existence of an -æsthetic sense in animals. - -The same fact appears to be shown in another way by the fondness of -song-birds for the music of their mates. There can be no doubt that male -birds charm their females with their strains, and that this, in fact, is -the reason why song in birds has become developed. Of course it may be -said that the vocal utterances of birds are not always, or even -generally, musical; but this does not affect the fact that birds find -some æsthetic pleasure in the sounds which they emit; it only shows that -the standard of æsthetic taste differs in different species of birds as -it does in different races of men. Moreover, the pleasure which birds -manifest in musical sounds is not always restricted to the sounds which -they themselves produce. Parrots seem certainly to take delight in -hearing a piano play or a girl sing; and the following instance, -published by the musician John Lockman, reveals in a remarkable manner -the power of distinguishing a particular air, and of preferring it above -others. He was staying at the house of a Mr. Lee in Cheshire, whose -daughter used to play; and whenever she played the air of 'Speri si' -from Handel's opera of 'Admetus,' a pigeon would descend from an -adjacent dovecot to the window of the room where she sat, 'and listen to -the air apparently with the most pleasing emotions,' always returning to -the dovecot immediately the air was finished. But it was only this one -air that would induce the bird to behave in this way.[158] - - -_Special Habits._ - -Under this heading we shall have a number of facts to consider, which -are more or less of a disconnected character. - -Taking first those special habits connected with the procuring of food, -we may notice the instinct manifested by blackbirds and thrushes of -conveying snails to considerable distances in order to hammer and break -their shells against what may happen to be the nearest stone,[159] and the -still more clever though somewhat analogous instinct exhibited by -certain gulls and crows of flying with shell-fish to a considerable -height and letting them fall upon stones for the purpose of smashing -their shells.[160] Both these instincts manifest a high degree of -intelligence, either on the part of the birds themselves, or on that of -their ancestors; for neither of these instincts can be regarded as due -to originally accidental adjustments favoured and improved by natural -selection; they must at least originally have been intelligent actions -purposely designed to secure the ends attained. - -An interesting instinct is that of piracy, which in the animal kingdom -reaches its highest or most systematic development among the birds. It -is easy to see how it may be of more advantage to a species of strong -bird that its members should become parasitic on the labours of other -species than that they should forage for themselves, and so there is no -difficulty in understanding the development of the plundering instinct -by natural selection. We find all stages of this development among the -sea-birds. Thus the gulls, although usually self-foragers, will, as I -have often observed, congregate in enormous numbers where the guillemots -have found a shoal of fish. Resting on or flying over the surface of -the water, the gulls wait till a guillemot comes to the surface with a -fish, and then wrest the latter from the beak of the former. In the -robber-tern this instinct has proceeded further, so that the animal -gains its subsistence entirely by plunder of other terns. I have often -observed this process, and it is interesting that the common tern well -knows the appearance of the robber; for no sooner does a robber-tern -come up than the greatest consternation is excited among a flock of -common terns, these flying about and screaming in a frantic manner. The -white-headed eagle has also developed the plundering instinct in great -perfection, as is shown by the following graphic account of Audubon:-- - - During spring and summer, the white-headed eagle, to - procure sustenance, follows a different course, and - one much less suited to a bird apparently so well able - to supply itself without interfering with other - plunderers. No sooner does the first hawk make its - appearance along the Atlantic shore, or around the - numerous and large rivers, than the eagle follows it, - and, like a selfish oppressor, robs it of the - hard-earned fruits of its labour. Perched on some tall - summit, in view of the ocean or of some watercourse, - he watches every motion of the osprey while on the - wing. When the latter rises from the water, with a - fish in its grasp, forth rushes the eagle in pursuit. - He mounts above the fish-hawk, and threatens it by - actions well understood; when the latter, fearing - perhaps that its life is in danger, drops its prey. In - an instant the eagle, accurately estimating the rapid - descent of the fish, closes its wings, follows it with - the swiftness of thought, and the next moment grasps - it. The prize is carried off in silence to the woods, - and assists in feeding the ever-hungry brood of the - eagle. - -The frigate pelican is likewise a professional thief, and attacks the -boobies not only to make them drop the fish which they have newly -caught, but also to disgorge those which are actually in their stomachs. -The latter process is effected by strong punishment, which they continue -until the unfortunate booby yields up its dinner. The punishment -consists in stabbing the victim with its powerful beak. Catesby and -Dampier have both observed and described these habits, and it seems from -their account that the plunderer may either commit highway robbery in -the air, or lie in wait for the boobies as they return to rest. - -In antithesis to this habit of plundering other birds I may quote the -following from 'Nature' (July 20, 1871), to show that the instinct of -provident labour, so common among insects and rodents, is not altogether -unrepresented in birds:-- - - The ant-eating woodpecker (_Melanerpes formicivorus_), - a common Californian species, has the curious and - peculiar habit of laying up provision against the - inclement season. Small round holes are dug in the - bark of the pine and oak, into each of which is - inserted an acorn, and so tightly is it fitted or - driven in, that it is with difficulty extricated. The - bark of the pine trees, when thus filled, presents at - a short distance the appearance of being studded with - nails. - -The following may also be quoted:-- - - It is the nature of this bird (guillemot), as well as - of most of those birds which habitually dive to take - their prey, to perform all their evolutions under - water with the aid of their wings; but instead of - dashing at once into the midst of the terrified group - of small prey, by which only a few would be captured, - it passes round and round them, and so drives them - into a heap; and thus has an opportunity of snatching - here one and there another as it finds it convenient - to swallow them; and if any one pushes out to escape, - it falls the first prey of the devourer. The manner in - which this bird removes the egg of a gull or hen to - some secure place to be devoured, when compared with - that in which a like conveyance is made by the parent - for the safety of its future progeny, affords a - striking manifestation of the difference between - appetite and affection. When influenced by affection, - the brittle treasure is removed without flaw or - fracture, and is replaced with tender care; but the - plunderer at once plunges his bill into its substance, - and carries it off on its point.[161] - -Speaking of the feeding habits of the lapwing, Jesse says:-- - - When the lapwing wants to procure food, it seeks for a - worm's cast, and stamps the ground by the side of it - with its feet. After doing this for a short time, the - bird waits for the issue of the worm from its hole, - which, alarmed at the shaking of the ground, - endeavours to make its escape, when it is immediately - seized, and becomes the prey of the ingenious bird. - The lapwing also frequents the haunts of moles, which, - when in pursuit of worms on which they feed, frighten - them, and the worm, in attempting to escape, comes to - the surface of the ground, when it is seized by the - lapwing.[162] - -Again,-- - - A lady of Dr. E. Darwin's acquaintance saw a little - bird repeatedly hop on a poppy stem, and shake the - head with his bill, till many seeds were scattered, - when it settled on the ground and picked up the - seeds.[163] - -It is a matter of common remark that in countries where vultures abound, -these birds rapidly 'gather together where the carcass is,' although -before the death of their prey no bird was to be seen in the sky. The -question has always been asked whether the vultures are guided to the -carcass by their sense of smell or by that of sight; but this question -is really no longer an open one. When Mr. Darwin was at Valparaiso he -tried the following experiment. Having tied a number of condors in a -long row, and having folded up a piece of meat in paper, he walked -backwards and forwards in front of the row, carrying the meat at a -distance of three yards from them, 'but no notice whatever was taken.' -He then threw the meat upon the ground, within one yard of an old male -bird; 'he looked at it for a moment with attention, but then regarded it -no more.' With a stick he next pushed the meat right under the beak of -the bird. Then for the first time the bird smelled it, and tore open the -paper 'with fury, and at the same moment every bird in the long row -began struggling and flapping its wings.'[164] Thus there can be no doubt -that vultures do not depend on their sense of smell for finding carrion -at a distance. Nor is it mysterious why they should find it by their -sense of sight. If over an area of many square miles there are a number -of vultures flying as they do at a very high elevation, and if one of -the number perceives a carcass and begins to descend, the next adjacent -vultures would see the descent of the first one, and follow him as a -guide, while the next in the series would follow these in the same way, -and so on. - -Coming now to special instincts relating to incubation and the care of -offspring, a correspondent writes:-- - - Last spring I had a pair of canaries, in an ordinary - breeding cage (with two small boxes for nests in a - compartment at one end). In due course the first egg - was laid, which I inspected through the little door - made for that purpose. The next day I looked again; - still only one egg, and so for four or five days. It - being evident, from the appearance of the hen, that - there were more eggs coming, and as she seemed in good - health, I supposed she might have broken some; and I - took out the box, and examined it carefully for the - shells (but without pulling the nest to pieces), and - found nothing, until towards the beginning of another - week I went to take the one egg away, as the hen - seemed preparing to sit upon it. There were two eggs! - The next morning, to my surprise, she was sitting upon - six eggs! She must therefore have buried four of them - in the four corners of the box, and so deep that I had - been unable to find them. At first I thought that she - had done so merely from dislike at their being looked - at, but on reflection it has occurred to me that she - did it that all might be hatched at the same time (as - they subsequently were); for she was perfectly tame, - and would almost suffer herself to be handled when on - her nest. Wild birds never seem to conceal their eggs - before sitting; but then (having more amusements than - cage birds) they do not revisit their eggs after - laying, until they have laid their number, whereas a - caged bird, having nothing to divert her attention - from her nest, often sits on it the greater part of - the day. - -I am not aware that this curious display of forethought on the part of a -caged bird has been hitherto recorded, and seeing, as my correspondent -points out, that it has reference to the changed conditions of life -brought about by domestication, it may be said to constitute the first -step in the development of a new instinct, which, if the conditions were -of sufficiently long continuance, might lead to an important and -permanent change of the ancestral instinct. - -I have several interesting facts, also communicated to me by -correspondents, similarly relating to individual variations of the -ancestral instinct of incubation in order to meet the requirements of a -novel environment. Thus Mr. J. F. Fisher tells me that while he was a -commander in the East India trade he always took a quantity of fowls to -sea for food. The laying-boxes being in a confined space, the hens used -to quarrel over their occupancy; and one of the hens adopted the habit -of removing the 'nest-eggs' which Mr. Fisher placed in one of the boxes -to another box of the same kind not very far away. He watched the -process through a chink of a door, and 'saw her curl her neck round the -egg, thus forming a cup by which she lifted the egg,' and conveyed it to -the other box. He adds:-- - - I can give no information as to the more recondite - question _why_ the egg was removed, or the fastidious - preference of the one box over the other, or the - inventive faculty that suggested the neck as a - makeshift hand; but from the despatch with which she - effected the removal of the egg in the case I saw, I - have no doubt that this hen was the one which had - performed the feat so often before. - -The explanation of the preference shown for the one box over the other -may, I think, be gathered from another part of my correspondent's -letter, for he there mentions incidentally that the box in which he -placed the nest-egg, and from which the hen removed it, was standing -near a door which was usually open, and thus situated in a more exposed -position than the other box. But be this as it may, considering that -among domestic fowls the habit of conveying eggs is not usual, such -isolated cases are interesting as showing how instincts may originate. -Jesse gives an exactly similar case ('Gleanings,' vol. i., p. 149) of -the Cape goose, which removed eggs from a nest attacked by rats, and -another case of a wild duck doing the same. - -In the same connection, and with the same remarks, I may quote the -following case in which a fowl adopted the habit of conveying, not her -eggs, but her young chickens. I quote it from Houzeau ('Journ.,' i., p. -332), who gives the observation on the authority of his brother as -eye-witness. The fowl had found good feeding-ground on the further side -of a stream four metres wide. She adopted the habit of flying across -with her chickens upon her back, taking one chicken on each journey. She -thus transferred her whole brood every morning, and brought them back in -a similar way to their nest every evening. The habit of carrying young -in this way is not natural to Grallinaceæ, and therefore this particular -instance of its display can only be set down as an intelligent -adjustment by a particular bird. - -Similarly, a correspondent (Mr. J. Street) informs me of a case in which -a pair of blackbirds, after having been disturbed by his gardener -looking into their nest at their young, removed the latter to a distance -of twenty yards, and deposited them in a more concealed place. -Partridges are well known to do this, and similarly, according to -Audubon, the goatsucker, when its nest is disturbed, removes its eggs to -another place, the male and female both transporting eggs in their -beaks.[165] - -Still more curiously, a case is recorded in 'Comptes Rendu' (1836) of a -pair of nightingales whose nest was threatened by a flood, and who -transported it to a safe place, the male and the female bearing the nest -between them. - -Now, it is easy to see that if any particular bird is intelligent -enough, as in the cases quoted, to perform this adjustive action of -conveying young--whether to feeding-grounds, as in the case of the hen, -or from sources of danger, as in the case of partridges, blackbirds, and -goatsuckers--inheritance and natural selection might develop the -originally intelligent adjustment into an instinct common to the -species. And it so happens that this has actually occurred in at least -two species of birds--viz., the woodcock and wild duck, both of which -have been repeatedly observed to fly with their young upon their backs -to and from their feeding-ground. - -Couch gives some facts of interest relating to the mode of escape -practised by the water-rail, swan, and some other aquatic birds. This -consists in sinking under water, with only the bill remaining above the -surface for respiration. When the swan has young, she may sink the head -quite under water in order to allow the young to mount on it, and so be -carried through even rapid currents. - -The same author remarks that-- - - Many birds will carefully remove the meetings of the - young from the neighbourhood of their nests, in order - not to attract the attention of enemies; for while we - find that birds which make no secret of their - nesting-places are careless in such matters, the - woodpecker and the marsh tit in particular are at - pains to remove even the chips which are made in - excavating the cavities where the nests are placed, - and which might lead an observer to the sacred spot. - -Similarly, Jesse observes:-- - - The excrement of the young of many birds who build - their nests without any pretensions to concealment, - such as the swallow, crow, &c., may at all times be - observed about or under the nest; while that of some - of those birds whose nests are more industriously - concealed is conveyed away in the mouths of the parent - birds, who generally drop it at a distance of twenty - or thirty yards from the nest. Were it not for this - precaution, the excrement itself, from its - accumulation, and commonly from its very colour, would - point out the place where the young were concealed. - When the young birds are ready to fly, or nearly so, - the old birds do not consider it any longer necessary - to remove the excrement. - -Sir H. Davy gives an account of a pair of eagles which he saw on Ben -Nevis teaching their young ones to fly; and every one must have observed -the same thing among commoner species of birds. The experiments of -Spalding, however, have shown that flying is an instinctive faculty; so -that when he reared swallows from the nest and liberated them only after -they were fully fledged, they flew well immediately on being liberated. -Therefore, the 'teaching to fly' by parent birds must be regarded as -mere encouragement to develop instinctive powers, which in virtue of -this encouragement are probably developed sooner than would otherwise be -the case. - -A few observations may here be offered on some habits which do not fall -under any particular heading. - -The habit which many small birds display of mobbing carnivorous ones is -probably due to a desire to drive off the enemy, and perhaps also to -warn friends by the hubbub. It may therefore perhaps be regarded as a -display of concerted action, of which, however, we shall have better -evidence further on. I have seen a flock of common terns mob a pirate -tern, which shows that this combined action may be directed as much -against robbery as against murder. Couch says he has seen blackbirds -mobbing a cat which was concealed in a bush, and here the motive would -seem to be that of warning friends rather than that of driving away the -enemy. - -I have observed among the sea-gulls at the Zoological Gardens a curious -habit, or mode of challenge. This consists in ostentatiously picking up -a small twig or piece of wood, and throwing it down before the bird -challenged, in the way that a glove used to be thrown down by the old -knights. I observed this action performed repeatedly by several -individuals of the glaucous and black-back species in the early -spring-time of the year, and so it probably has some remote connection -with the instinct of nest-building. - - -_Nidification._ - -In connection with the habits and instincts peculiar to certain species -of birds, I may give a short account of the more remarkable kinds of -nidification that are met with in this class of animals. As the account -must necessarily be brief, I shall only mention the more interesting of -the usual types. - -Petrels and puffins make their nests in burrows which they excavate in -the earth. The great sulphur mountain in Guadaloupe is described by -Wasser as 'all bored like a rabbit warren with the holes that these imps -(_i.e._ petrels) excavate.' In the case of the puffin it is the male -that does the work of burrowing. He throws himself upon his back in the -tunnel which he has made, and digs it longer and longer with his broad -bill, while casting out the mould with his webbed feet. The burrow when -finished has several twists and turns in it, and is about ten feet deep. -If a rabbit burrow is available, the puffin saves himself the trouble of -digging by taking possession of the one already made. The kingfisher and -land-martin also make their nests in burrows. - -Certain auks lay their single egg on the bare rock while the stone -curlew and goatsucker deposit theirs on the bare soil, returning, -however, year after year to the same spot. Ostriches scrape holes in the -sand to serve as extemporised nests for their eggs promiscuously -dropped, which are then buried by a light coating of sand, and incubated -during the day by the sunbeams, and at night by the male bird. Sometimes -a number of female ostriches deposit their eggs in a common nest, and -then take the duty of incubation by turns. Similarly, gulls, sandpipers, -plovers, &c., place their eggs in shallow pits hollowed out of the soil. -The kingfisher makes a bed of undigested fish-bones ejected as pellets -from her stomach, and 'some of the swifts secrete from their salivary -glands a fluid which rapidly hardens as it dries on exposure to the air -into a substance resembling isinglass, and thus furnish the "edible -birds' nests" that are the delight of the Chinese epicures.'[166] - -The house-martin builds its nest of clay, which it sticks upon the face -of a wall, and renders more tenacious by working into it little bits of -straw, splinters of wood, &c. According to Mr. Gilbert White:-- - - That this work may not, while it is soft and green, - pull itself down by its own weight, the provident - architect has prudence and forbearance enough not to - advance her work too fast; but by building only in the - morning, and by dedicating the rest of the day to food - and amusement, gives it sufficient time to dry and - harden. About half an inch seems a sufficient layer - for a day. Thus careful workmen, when they build mud - walls (informed at first perhaps by these little - birds), raise but a moderate layer at a time, and then - desist, lest the work should become top-heavy, and - ruined by its own weight. By this method, in about ten - or twelve days is formed a hemispheric nest, with a - small aperture towards the top, strong, compact, and - warm, and perfectly fitted for all the purposes for - which it was intended. - -Other birds build in wood. The tomtit and the woodpecker excavate a hole -in a tree, and carefully carry away the chips, so as not to give any -indication of the whereabouts of their nests. Wilson says that the -American woodpecker makes an excavation five feet in depth, of a -tortuous form, to keep out wind and rain. - -The orchard starling suspends its nest from the branches of a tree, and -uses for its material tough kinds of grass, the blades of which it -weaves together. Wilson found one of these blades to be thirteen inches -long, and to be woven in and out thirty-four times. - -We may next notice the weaver (_Ploceus textor_) and tailor (_Prinia_, -_Orthotomus_, and _Sylvia_). The former intertwines slender leaves of -grass so as to produce a web sufficiently substantial for the protection -of its young. The tailor-birds sew together leaves wherewith to make -their nests, using for the purpose cotton and thread where they can find -it, and natural vegetable fibres where they cannot obtain artificial. -Colonel Sykes says that he has found the threads thus used for sewing -knotted at the ends.[167] - -Forbes saw the tailor-bird of the East Indies constructing its nest, and -observed it to choose a plant with large leaves, gather cotton which it -regularly spun into a thread by means of its bill and claws, and then -sew the leaves together, using its beak as a needle, or rather awl. - -This instinct is rendered particularly interesting to evolutionists from -the fact that it is exhibited by three distinct genera. For, as the -instinct is so peculiar and unique, it is not likely to have originated -independently in the three genera, but must be regarded as almost -certainly derived from a common ancestral type--thus showing that an -instinct may be perpetuated unaltered after the differentiation of -structure has proceeded beyond a specific distinction. The genus -_Sylvia_ inhabits Italy, the other two inhabit India. _Sylvia_ uses for -thread spiders' web collected from the egg-pouches, which is stitched -through holes made in the edges of leaves, presumably with the beak. - -The baya bird of India 'hangs its pendulous dwelling from a projecting -bough, twisting it with grass into a form somewhat resembling a bottle -with a prolonged neck, the entrance being inverted, so as to baffle the -approaches of its enemies, the tree snakes and other reptiles.' - -Sir E. Tennent, from whom this account is taken, adds:-- - - The natives assert that the male bird carries - fire-flies to the nest, and fastens them to its sides - by particles of soft mud. Mr. Layard assures me that - although he has never succeeded in finding the - fire-fly, the nest of the male bird (for the female - occupies another during incubation) invariably - contains a patch of mud on each side of the perch. - -Dr. Buchanan confirms the report of the natives here alluded to, and -says:-- - - At night each of the habitations is lighted up by a - fire-fly stuck on the top with a bit of clay. The nest - consists of two rooms; sometimes there are three or - four fire-flies, and their blaze in the little cells - dazzles the eyes of the bats, which often kill the - young of these birds. - -While this work is passing through the press I meet with the following, -which appears to refer to some independent, and therefore corroborative -observation concerning the above-stated fact, and in any case is worth -adding, on account of the observation concerning the rats, which, if -trustworthy, would furnish a sufficient reason for the instinct of the -birds. The extract is taken from a letter to 'Nature' (xxiv., p. 165), -published by Mr. H. A. Severn: - - I have been informed on safe authority that the Indian - bottle-bird protects his nest at night by sticking - several of these glow-beetles around the entrance by - means of clay; and only a few days back an intimate - friend of my own was watching three rats on a roof - rafter of his bungalow when a glow-fly lodged very - close to them; the rats immediately scampered off. - -The Talegallus of Australia is, in the opinion of Gould,-- - - Among the most important of the ornithological - novelties which the exploration of Western and - Southern Australia has unfolded to us, and this from - the circumstance of its not hatching its own eggs, - which, instead of being incubated in the usual way, - are deposited in mounds of mixed sand and herbage, and - there left for the heating of the mass to develop the - young, which, when accomplished, force their way - through the sides of the mound, and commence an active - life from the moment they see the light of day.[168] - -Sir George Grey measured one of these mounds, and found it to be -'forty-five feet in circumference, and if rounded in proportion on the -top (it being at the time unfinished) would have been full five feet -high.' The heat round the eggs was taken to be 89°. - -A curious aberration of the nest-building instinct is sometimes shown by -certain birds--particularly the common wren--which consists in building -a supernumerary nest. That is to say, after one nest is completed, -another is begun and finished before the eggs are laid, and the first -nest is not used, though sometimes it is used in preference to the -second. - -As showing at once the eccentricity which birds sometimes display in the -choice of a site, and also the determination of certain birds to return -to the same site in successive years, I may allude to the case published -by Bingley, of a pair of swallows which built their nest upon the wings -and body of a dead owl, which was hanging from the rafters of a barn, -and so loosely as to sway about with every gust of wind. The owl with -the nest upon it was placed as a curiosity in the museum of Sir Ashton -Lever, and he directed that a shell should be hung upon the rafters in -the place which had been previously occupied by the dead owl. Next year -the swallows returned and constructed their new nest in the cavity of -the shell.[169] - -The following is quoted from Thompson's 'Passions of Animals,' p. 205:-- - - The sociable grosbeak of Africa is one of the few - instances of birds living in community and uniting in - constructing one huge nest for the whole society. L. - Valiant's account has been fully confirmed by other - travellers. He says: 'I observed on the way a tree - with an enormous nest of these birds, which I have - called republicans; and as soon as I arrived at my - camp I despatched a few men with a waggon to bring it - to me, that I might open and examine the hive. When it - arrived, I cut it in pieces with a hatchet, and saw - that the chief portion of the structure consisted of a - mass of Boshman's grass, without any mixture, but so - compact and firmly basketed together as to be - impenetrable to the rain. This is the commencement of - the structure, and each bird builds its particular - nest under this canopy. But the nests are formed only - beneath the eaves, the upper surface remaining void, - without, however, being useless; for as it has a - projecting rim, and is a little inclined, it serves to - let the water run off, and preserves each little - dwelling from the rain. Figure to yourself a huge - irregular sloping roof, all the eaves of which are - covered with nests, crowded one against another, and - you will have a tolerably accurate idea of these - singular edifices. Each individual nest is three or - four inches in diameter, which is sufficient for the - bird; but, as they are all in contact with one another - around the eaves, they appear to the eye to form but - one building, and are distinguishable from each other - only by a little external aperture which serves as an - entrance to the nest; and even this is sometimes - common to three different nests, one of which is - situated at the bottom and the other two at the sides. - This large nest, which was one of the most - considerable I had anywhere seen in the course of my - journey, contained 320 inhabited cells, which, - supposing a male and female to each, would form a - society of 640 individuals; but as these birds are - polygamous, such a calculation would not be exact.' - -The following is quoted from Couch ('Illustrations of Instinct,' p. 227 -_et seq._):-- - - Mr. Waterton says there is a peculiarity in the - nidification of the domestic swan too singular to be - passed over without notice. At the time it lays its - first egg the nest which it has prepared is of very - moderate size; but as incubation proceeds we see it - increase vastly in height and breadth. Every soft - material, such as pieces of grass and fragments of - sedges, is laid hold of by the sitting swan as they - float within her reach, and are added to the nest. - This work of accumulation is performed by her during - the entire period of incubation, be the weather wet or - dry, settled or unsettled; and it is perfectly - astonishing to see with what assiduity she plies her - work of aggrandisement to a nest already sufficient - in strength and size to answer every end. My swans - generally form their nest on an island quite above the - reach of a flood; and still the sitting bird never - appears satisfied with the quantity of materials which - are provided for her nest. I once gave her two huge - bundles of oaten straw, and she performed her work of - apparent supererogation by applying the whole of it to - her nest, already very large, and not exposed to - destruction had the weather become ever so rainy. - -This same author continues:-- - - It is probable that this disposition to accumulation, - in its general bearing, has reference to heat rather - than the flood; but that the wild swan has a foresight - regarding danger, and a quick perception as to the - means of securing safety, appears from an instance - mentioned by Captain Parry, in his Northern voyage. - When everything was deeply involved in ice, the - voyagers were obliged to pay much attention to discern - whether they were travelling over water or land; but - some birds, which formed their nest at no great - distance from the ships, were under no mistake in so - important a matter; and when the thaw took place it - was seen that the nest was situated on an island in - the lake. - -The following cases are likewise taken from Couch (_loc. cit._, p. -225):-- - - This swan was eighteen or nineteen years old, had - brought up many broods, and was highly valued by the - neighbours. She exhibited, some eight or nine years - past, one of the most remarkable powers of instinct - ever recorded. She was sitting on four or five eggs, - and was observed to be very busy in collecting weeds, - grasses, &c., to raise her nest; a farming man was - ordered to take down half a load of haulm, with which - she most industriously raised her nest and the eggs - two feet and a half; that very night there came down a - tremendous fall of rain, which flooded all the - malt-shops and did great damage. Man made no - preparation, the bird did; instinct prevailed over - reason. Her eggs were above, and only just above, the - water. - - During the early part of the summer of 1835, a pair of - water-hens built their nest by the margin of the - ornamental pond at Bell's Hill, a piece of water of - considerable extent, and ordinarily fed by a spring - from the height above, but into which the contents of - another large pond can occasionally be admitted. This - was done while the female was sitting; and as the nest - had been built when the water level stood low, the - sudden influx of this large body of water from the - second pond caused a rise of several inches, so as to - threaten the speedy immersion and consequent - destruction of the eggs. This the birds seem to have - been aware of, and immediately took precautions - against so imminent a danger; for when the gardener, - upon whose veracity I can safely rely, seeing the - sudden rise of the water, went to look after the nest, - expecting to find it covered and the eggs destroyed, - or at least forsaken by the hen, he observed, whilst - at a distance, both birds busily engaged about the - brink where the nest was placed; and when near enough - he clearly perceived that they were adding, with all - possible despatch, fresh materials to raise the fabric - beyond the level of the increased contents of the - pond; and that the eggs had by some means been removed - from the nest by the birds, and were then deposited - upon the grass about a foot or more from the margin of - the water. He watched them for some time, and saw the - nest rapidly increase in height; but I regret to add - that he did not remain long enough, fearing he might - create alarm, to witness the interesting act of - replacing the eggs which must have been effected - shortly after; for, upon his return in less than an - hour, he found the hen quietly sitting upon them in - the newly raised nest. In a few days afterwards the - young were hatched, and, as usual, soon quitted the - nest and took to the water with their parents. The - nest was shown to me _in situ_ shortly after, and I - could then plainly discern the formation of the new - with the older part of the fabric. - -We must not conclude these remarks on nidification without alluding to -Mr. Wallace's chapters on the 'Philosophy of Birds' Nests,' in his work -on 'Natural Selection.' This writer is inclined to suppose that birds do -not build their nests distinctive of their various species by the -teachings of hereditary instinct, but by the young birds intelligently -observing the construction of the nests in which they are hatched, and -purposely imitating this construction when in the following season they -have occasion to build nests of their own. With reference to this theory -it is only needful to say that it is antecedently improbable, and not -well substantiated by facts. It is antecedently improbable because, when -any habit has been continued for a number of generations--especially -when the habit is of a peculiar and detailed character--the probability -is that it has become instinctive; we should have almost as much reason -to anticipate that the nest of the little crustacean _Podocerus_, or the -cell of the hive-bee, is constructed by a process of conscious -imitation, as that this is the case with the nests of birds. And this -theory is not well substantiated by facts because, if the theory were -true, we should expect considerable differences to be usually presented -by nests of the same species. Unless the construction of the nest of any -given species were regulated by a common instinct, numberless -idiosyncratic peculiarities would necessarily require to arise, and -there would only be a very general uniformity of type presented by the -nests of the same species. - -A more valuable contribution to the 'Philosophy of Birds' Nests' is -furnished by this able naturalist when he directs attention to a certain -general correlation between the form of the nest and the colour of the -female. For, on reviewing the birds of the world, he certainly makes -good the proposition that, as a general rule, liable however to frequent -exceptions, dull-coloured females sit on open nests, while those that -are conspicuously coloured sit in domed nests. But Mr. Darwin, in a -careful review of all the evidence, clearly shows that this interesting -fact is to be attributed, not, as Mr. Wallace supposed, to the colour of -the female having been determined through natural selection by the form -of the nest, but to the reverse process of the form of the nest having -been determined by the colour of the female.[170] - -Another general fact of interest connected with nidification must not be -omitted. This is that the instincts of nidification, although not so -variable as the theory of Mr. Wallace would require, are nevertheless -highly plastic. The falcon, which usually builds on a cliff, has been -known to lay its eggs on the ground in a marsh; the golden eagle -sometimes builds in trees or on the ground, while the heron varies its -site between trees, cliffs, and open fen.[171] Again, Audubon, in his -'Ornithological Biography,' gives many cases of conspicuous local -variations in the nests of the same species in the northern and -southern United States; and, as Mr. Wallace truly observes,-- - - Many facts have already been given which show that - birds do adapt their nests to the situations in which - they place them; and the adoption of eaves, chimneys, - and boxes by swallows, wrens, and many other birds, - shows that they are always ready to take advantage of - changed conditions. It is probable, therefore, that a - permanent change of climate would cause many birds to - modify the form or materials of their abode, so as - better to protect their young.[172] - -In America the change of habits in this respect undergone by the -house-swallow has been accomplished within the last three hundred years. - -Closely connected, if not identical, with this fact is another, namely, -that in some species which have been watched closely for a sufficient -length of time, a steady improvement in the construction of nests has -been observed. Thus C. G. Leroy, who filled the post of Ranger of -Versailles about a century ago, and therefore had abundant opportunities -of studying the habits of animals, wrote an essay on 'The Intelligence -and Perfectibility of Animals from a Philosophical Point of View.' In -this essay he has anticipated the American observer Wilson in noticing -that the nests of young birds are distinctly inferior to those of older -ones, both as regards their situation and construction. As we have here -independent testimony of two good observers to a fact which in itself is -not improbable, I think we may conclude that the nest-making instinct -admits of being supplemented, at any rate in some birds, by the -experience and intelligence of the individual. M. Pouchet has also -recorded that he has found a decided improvement to have taken place in -the nests of the swallows at Rouen during his own lifetime; and this -accords with the anticipation of Leroy that if our observation extended -over a sufficient length of time, and in a manner sufficiently close, we -should find that the accumulation of intelligent improvements by -individuals of successive generations would begin to tell upon the -inherited instinct, so that all the nests in a given locality would -attain to a higher grade of excellence. - -Leroy also says that when swallows are hatched out too late to migrate -with the older birds, the instinct of migration is not sufficiently -imperative to induce them to undertake the journey by themselves. 'They -perish, the victims of their ignorance, and of the tardy birth which -made them unable to follow their parents.' - - -_Cuckoo._ - -Perhaps the strangest of the special instincts manifested by birds is -that of the cuckoo laying its eggs in the nests of other birds. As the -subject is an important one from several points of view, I shall -consider it at some length. - -It must first be observed that the parasitic habit in question is not -practised by all species of the genus--the American cuckoo, for -instance, being well known to build its nest and rear its young in the -ordinary manner. The Australian species, however, manifests the same -instinct as the European. The first observer of the habit practised by -the European cuckoo was the illustrious Jenner, who published his -account in the 'Philosophical Transactions.'[173] From this account the -following is an extract:-- - - The cuckoo makes choice of the nests of a great - variety of small birds. I have known its eggs - entrusted to the care of the hedge-sparrow, - water-wagtail, titlark, yellowhammer, green linnet, - and winchat. Among these it generally selects the - three former, but shows a much greater partiality to - the hedge-sparrow than to any of the rest; therefore, - for the purpose of avoiding confusion, this bird only, - in the following account, will be considered as the - foster-parent of the cuckoo, except in instances which - are particularly specified. - - When the hedge-sparrow has sat her usual time, and - disengaged the young cuckoo and some of her own - offspring from the shell,[174] her own young ones, and - any of her eggs that remain unhatched, are soon turned - out, the young cuckoo remaining possessor of the - nest, and sole object of her future care. The young - birds are not previously killed, nor are the eggs - demolished, but all are left to perish together, - either entangled about the bush which contains the - nest, or lying on the ground under it. - - - - On June 18, 1787, I examined the nest of a - hedge-sparrow, which then contained a cuckoo's and - three hedge-sparrow's eggs. On inspecting it the day - following, I found the bird had hatched, but that the - nest now contained a young cuckoo and only one young - hedge-sparrow. The nest was placed so near the - extremity of a hedge, that I could distinctly see what - was going forward in it; and, to my astonishment, saw - the young cuckoo, though so newly hatched, in the act - of turning out the young hedge-sparrow. - - The mode of accomplishing this was very curious. The - little animal, with the assistance of its rump and - wings, contrived to get the bird upon its back, and - making a lodgment for the burden by elevating its - elbows, clambered backward with it up the side of the - nest till it reached the top, when, resting for a - moment, it threw off its load with a jerk, and quite - disengaged it from the nest. It remained in this - situation a short time, feeling about with the - extremities of its wings, as if to be convinced - whether this business was properly executed, and then - dropped into the nest again. With these (the - extremities of its wings) I have often seen it - examine, as it were, an egg and nestling before it - began its operations; and the sensibility which these - parts appeared to possess seemed sufficiently to - compensate the want of sight, which as yet it was - destitute of. I afterwards put in an egg, and this by - a similar process was conveyed to the edge of the nest - and thrown out. These experiments I have since - repeated several times in different nests, and have - always found the young cuckoo disposed to act in the - same manner. In climbing up the nest it sometimes - drops its burden, and thus is foiled in its - endeavours; but after a little respite the work is - resumed, and goes on almost incessantly till it is - effected. It is wonderful to see the extraordinary - exertions of the young cuckoo, when it is two or three - days old, if a bird be put into the nest with it that - is too weighty for it to lift out. In this state it - seems ever restless and uneasy. But this disposition - for turning out its companions begins to decline from - the time it is two or three till it is about twelve - days old, when, as far as I have hitherto seen, it - ceases. Indeed, the disposition for throwing out the - egg appears to cease a few days sooner; for I have - frequently seen the young cuckoo, after it had been - hatched nine or ten days, remove a nestling that had - been placed in the nest with it, when it suffered an - egg, put there at the same time, to remain unmolested. - The singularity of its shape is well adapted to these - purposes; for, different from other newly hatched - birds, its back from the scapulæ downwards is very - broad, with a considerable depression in the middle. - This depression seems formed by nature for the design - of giving a more secure lodgment to the egg of the - hedge-sparrow, or its young one, when the young cuckoo - is employed in removing either of them from the nest. - When it is about twelve days old this cavity is quite - filled up, and then the back assumes the shape of - nestling birds in general. . . . The circumstance of the - young cuckoo being destined by nature to throw out the - young hedge-sparrows seems to account for the parent - cuckoo dropping her egg in the nests of birds so small - as those I have particularised. If she were to do this - in the nest of a bird which produced a large egg, and - consequently a large nestling, the young cuckoo would - probably find an insurmountable difficulty in solely - possessing the nest, as its exertions would be unequal - to the labour of turning out the young birds. (I have - known a case in which a hedge-sparrow sat upon a - cuckoo's egg and one of her own. Her own egg was - hatched five days before the cuckoo's, when the young - hedge-sparrow had gained such a superiority in size - that the young cuckoo had not powers sufficient to - lift it out of the nest till it was two days old, by - which time it had grown very considerably. This egg - was probably laid by the cuckoo several days after the - hedge-sparrow had begun to sit; and even in this case - it appears that its presence had created the - disturbance before alluded to, as all the - hedge-sparrow's eggs had gone except one.) . . . June - 27, 1787.--Two cuckoos and a hedge-sparrow were - hatched in the same nest this morning; one hedge - sparrow's egg remained unhatched. In a few hours - after, a contest began between the cuckoos for the - possession of the nest, which continued undetermined - till the next afternoon; when one of them, which was - somewhat superior in size, turned out the other, - together with the young hedge-sparrow and the - unhatched egg. This contest was very remarkable. The - combatants alternately appeared to have the advantage, - as each carried the other several times nearly to the - top of the nest, and then sunk down again oppressed - with the weight of its burden; till at length, after - various efforts, the strongest prevailed, and was - afterwards brought up by the hedge-sparrows. - - To what cause, then, may we attribute the - singularities of the cuckoo? May they not be owing to - the following circumstances,--the short residence this - bird is allowed to make in the country where it is - destined to propagate its species, and the call that - nature has upon it, during that short residence, to - produce a numerous progeny? The cuckoo's first - appearance here is about the middle of April, commonly - on the 17th. Its egg is not ready for incubation till - some weeks after its arrival, seldom before the middle - of May. A fortnight is taken up by the sitting bird in - hatching the egg. The young bird generally continues - three weeks in the nest before it flies, and the - foster-parents feed it more than five weeks after this - period; so that, if a cuckoo should be ready with an - egg much sooner than the time pointed out, not a - single nestling, even one of the earliest, would be - fit to provide for itself before its parent would be - instinctively directed to seek a new residence, and be - thus compelled to abandon its young one; for old - cuckoos take their final leave of this country the - first week in July. - - Had nature allowed the cuckoo to have stayed here as - long as some other migrating birds, which produce a - single set of young ones (as the swift or nightingale, - for example), and had allowed her to have reared as - large a number as any bird is capable of bringing up - at one time, there might not have been sufficient to - have answered her purpose; but by sending the cuckoo - from one nest to another, she is reduced to the same - state as the bird whose nest we daily rob of an egg, - in which case the stimulus for incubation is - suspended. - -A writer in 'Nature' (vol. v., p. 383; and vol. ix., p. 123), to whom -Mr. Darwin refers in the latest edition of 'The Origin of Species' as an -observer that Mr. Gould has found trustworthy, precisely confirms, from -observations of his own, the above description of Jenner. So far, -therefore, as the observations are common I shall not quote his -statements; but the following additional matter is worth rendering:-- - - But what struck me most was this: the cuckoo was - perfectly naked, without a vestige of a feather or - even a hint of future feathers; its eyes were not yet - opened, and its neck seemed too weak to support the - weight of its head. The pipits (in whose nest the - young cuckoo was parasitic) had well-developed quills - on the wings and back, and had bright eyes partially - open; yet they seemed quite helpless under the - manipulations of the cuckoo, which looked a much less - developed creature. The cuckoo's legs, however, - seemed very muscular, and it appeared to feel about - with its wings, which were absolutely featherless, as - with hands--the 'spurious wing' (unusually large in - proportion) looking like a spread-out thumb. The most - singular thing of all was the direct purpose with - which the blind little monster made for the open side - of the nest, the only part where it could throw its - burden down the bank. [The latter remark has reference - to the position of the nest below a heather bush, on - the declivity of a low abrupt bank, where the only - chance of dislodging the young birds was to eject them - over the side of the nest remote from its support upon - the bank.] As the young cuckoo was blind, it must have - known the part of the nest to choose by feeling from - the inside that that part was unsupported. - -Such being the facts, we have next to ask how they are to be explained -on the principles of evolution. At first sight it seems that although -the habit saves the bird which practises it much time and trouble, and -so is clearly of benefit to the individual, it is not so clear how the -instinct is of benefit to the species; for as cuckoos are not social -birds, and therefore cannot in any way depend on mutual co-operation, it -is difficult to see that this saving of time and trouble to the -individual can be of any use to the species. But Jenner seems to have -hit the right cause in the concluding part of the above quotation. If it -is an advantage that the cuckoo should migrate early, it clearly becomes -an advantage, in order to admit of this, that the habit should be formed -of leaving her eggs for other birds to incubate. At any rate, we have -here a sufficiently probable explanation of the _raison d'être_ of this -curious instinct; and whether it is the true reason or the only reason, -we are justified in setting down the instinct to the creating influence -of natural selection. - -Mr. Darwin, in his 'Origin of Species,' has some interesting remarks to -make on this subject. First, he is informed by Dr. Merrell that the -American cuckoo, although as a rule following the ordinary custom of -birds in incubating her own eggs, nevertheless occasionally deposits -them in the nests of other birds. - - Now let us suppose that the ancient progenitor of our - European cuckoo had the habits of the American cuckoo, - and that she occasionally laid her egg in another - bird's nest. If the old bird profited by this - occasional habit through being able to migrate - earlier, or through any other cause; or if the young - were made more vigorous by advantage being taken of - the mistaken instinct of another species than when - reared by their own mother, encumbered as she could - hardly fail to be by having eggs and young at the same - time;[175] then the old birds or the fostered young - would gain an advantage.[176] - -The instinct would seem to be a very old one, for there are two great -changes of structure in the European cuckoo which are manifestly -correlated with the instinct. Thus, the shape of the young bird's back -has already been noted; and not less remarkable than this is the small -size of the egg from which the young bird is hatched. For the egg of the -cuckoo is not any larger than that of the skylark, although an adult -cuckoo is four times the size of an adult skylark. And 'that the small -size of the egg is a real case of adaptation (in order to deceive the -small birds in whose nests it is laid), we may infer from the fact of -the non-parasitic American cuckoo laying full-sized eggs.' Yet, although -the instinct in question is doubtless of high antiquity, there have been -occasional instances observed in cuckoos of reversion to the ancestral -instinct of nidification; for, according to Adolf Müller, 'the cuckoo -occasionally lays her eggs on the bare ground, sits on them, and feeds -her young.' - -In 'Nature' for November 18, 1869, Professor A. Newton, F.R.S., has -published an article on a somewhat obscure point connected with the -instincts of the cuckoo. He says that Dr. Baldamus has satisfied him, by -an exhibition of sixteen specimens of cuckoos' eggs found in the nests -of different species of birds, 'that the egg of the cuckoo is -approximately coloured and marked like those of the bird in whose nest -it is found,' for the purpose, no doubt, of deceiving the -foster-parents. Professor Newton adds, however:-- - - Having said this much, and believing as I do the - Doctor to be partly justified in the carefully worded - enunciation of what he calls a 'law of nature,' I must - now declare that it is only 'approximately,' and by no - means _universally_ true that the cuckoo's egg is - coloured like those of the victims of her imposition, - &c. - -Still, when so great an authority as Professor Newton expresses himself -satisfied that there is a marked _tendency_ to such imitation, which in -some cases leads to extraordinary variations in the colouring of the -cuckoo's egg, the alleged fact becomes one which demands notice. The -question, of course, immediately arises, How is it conceivable that the -fact, if it is a fact, can be explained? We cannot imagine the cuckoo to -be able consciously to colour her egg during its formation in order to -imitate the eggs among which she is about to lay it; nor can we suppose -that having laid an egg and observed its colouring, she then carries it -to the nest of the bird whose eggs it most resembles. Professor Newton -suggests another theory, which he seems to think sufficient, but which I -confess seems to me little more satisfactory than the impossible -theories just stated. He says:-- - - Only one explanation of the process can, to my mind, - be offered. Every person who has studied the habits of - birds with sufficient attention will be conversant - with the tendency which certain of those habits have - to become hereditary. It is, I am sure, no violent - hypothesis to suppose that there is a very reasonable - probability of each cuckoo most commonly placing her - eggs in the nest of the same bird, and of this habit - being transmitted to her posterity. - - Now it will be seen that it requires but only an - application to this case of the principle of 'natural - selection,' or 'survival of the fittest,' to show that - if my argument be sound, nothing can be more likely - than that, in the course of time, that principle - should operate so as to produce the facts asserted, - the eggs which best imitated those of particular - foster-parents having the best chance of duping the - latter, and so of being hatched out. - -Now, granting to this hypothesis the assumption that individual cuckoos -have special predilections as to the species in whose nests they are to -lay their eggs, and that some of these species require to be deceived by -imitative colouring of the egg to prevent their tilting it out, there is -still an enormous difficulty to be met. Supposing that one cuckoo out of -a hundred happens to lay eggs sufficiently like those of the North -African magpies (a species alluded to by Professor Newton) to deceive -the latter into supposing the egg to be one of their own. This I cannot -think is too small a proportion to assume, seeing that, _ex hypothesi_, -the resemblance must be tolerably close, and that the egg of the magpie -does not resemble the great majority of eggs of the cuckoo. Now, in -order to sustain the theory, we must suppose that the particular cuckoo -which happens to have the peculiarity of laying eggs so closely -resembling those of the magpie, must also happen to have the peculiarity -of desiring to lay its eggs in the nest of a magpie. The conjunction of -these two peculiarities would, I should think, at a moderate estimate -reduce the chances of an approximately coloured egg being laid in the -appropriate nest to at least one thousand to one. But supposing the -happy accident to have taken place, we have next to suppose that the -peculiarity of laying these exceptionably coloured eggs is not only -constant for the same individual cuckoo, but is inherited by innumerable -generations of her progeny; and, what is much more difficult to grant, -that the fancy for laying eggs in the nest of a magpie is similarly -inherited. I think, therefore, notwithstanding Professor Newton's strong -opinion upon the subject, that the ingenious hypothesis must be -dismissed as too seriously encumbered by the difficulties which I have -mentioned. We may with philosophical safety invoke the influence of -natural selection to explain all cases of protective colouring when the -_modus operandi_ need only be supposed simple and direct; but in a case -such as this the number and complexity of the conditions that would -require to meet in order to give natural selection the possibility of -entrance, seem to me much too considerable to admit of our entertaining -the possibility of its action--at all events in the way that Professor -Newton suggests. Therefore, if the facts are facts, I cannot see how -they are to be explained. - -Cuckoos are not the only birds which manifest the parasitic habit of -laying their eggs in other birds' nests. - - Some species of _Melothrus_, a widely distinct genus - of American birds, allied to our starlings, have - parasitic habits like those of the cuckoo; and the - species present an interesting gradation in the - perfection of their instincts. The sexes of _Melothrus - cadius_ are stated by an excellent observer, Mr. - Hudson, sometimes to live promiscuously together in - flocks and sometimes to pair. They either build a nest - of their own, or seize on one belonging to some other - bird, occasionally throwing out the nestlings of the - stranger. They either lay their eggs in the nest thus - appropriated, or oddly enough build one for themselves - on the top of it. They usually sit on their own eggs - and rear their own young; but Mr. Hudson says it is - probable that they are occasionally parasitic, for he - has seen the young of this species feeding old birds - of a distinct kind and clamouring to be fed by them. - The parasitic habits of another species of - _Melothrus_, the _M. Canariensis_, are much more - highly developed than those of the last, but are still - far from perfect. This bird, as far as it is known, - invariably lays its eggs in the nests of strangers, - but it is remarkable that several together sometimes - commence to build an irregular untidy nest of their - own, placed in singularly ill-adapted situations, as - on the leaves of a large thistle. They must, however, - as far as Mr. Hudson has ascertained, complete a nest - for themselves. They often lay so many eggs, from - fifteen to twenty, in the same foster-nest, that few - or none can possibly be hatched. They have, moreover, - the extraordinary habit of pecking holes in the eggs, - whether of their own species or of their - foster-parents, which they find in the appropriated - nests. They drop also many eggs on the bare ground, - which are thus wasted. A third species, the _M. - precius_ of North America, has acquired instincts as - perfect as those of the cuckoo, for it never lays more - than an egg in a foster-nest, so that the young bird - is securely reared. Mr. Hudson is a strong disbeliever - in evolution, but he appears to have been so much - struck by the imperfect instincts of the _Melothrus - Canariensis_ that he quotes my words, and asks, 'Must - we consider these habits not as especially endowed or - created instincts, but as small consequences of one - general law, namely transition?'[177] - -Such are all the facts and considerations which I have to present with -reference to the curious instinct in question. It will be seen -that--with one doubtful or not sufficiently investigated exception, -viz., that of cuckoos adapting the colour of their eggs to that of the -eggs of the foster-parents--there is nothing connected with these -instincts that presents any difficulty to the theory of evolution. We -may, perhaps, at first sight wonder why some counteracting instinct -should not have been developed by the same agency in the birds which are -liable to be thus duped; but here we must remember that the deposition -of a parasitic egg is, comparatively speaking, an exceedingly rare -event, and therefore not one that is likely to lead to the development -of a special instinct to meet it. - - -_General Intelligence._ - -Under this heading I shall here, as in the case of this heading -elsewhere, string together all the instances which I have met with, and -which I deem trustworthy, of the display of unusually high intelligence -in the class, family, order, or species of animals under -consideration--the object of this heading in all cases being that of -supplying, by the facts mentioned beneath it, a general idea of the -upper limit of intelligence which is distinctive of each group of -animals. - -That birds recognise their own images in mirrors as birds there can be -no question. Houzeau, who records observations of his own in this -connection with parrots,[178] adds that dogs are more difficult to deceive -by mirrors in this way than birds, on account of their depending so -much upon smell for their information. No doubt individual differences -are to be met with in animals of both classes, and much depends on -previous experience. Young dogs, or dogs which have never seen a mirror -before, are not, as a rule, difficult to deceive, even though they have -good noses. I myself had a setter with an excellent nose, who on many -repeated occasions tried to fight his own image, till he found by -experience that it was of no use. As to birds, I have seen canaries -suppose their own images to be other canary birds, and also the -reflection of a room to be another room--the birds flying against a -large mirror and falling half stunned. I mention the latter circumstance -because it afforded evidence of the superior intelligence of a linnet, -which on the same occasion dashed itself against the mirror once, but -never a second time, while the canaries did so repeatedly. - -Mrs. Frankland, in 'Nature' (xxi., p. 82), gives the following account -of a bullfinch paying more attention to a portrait of a bullfinch than -to his own image in a mirror, which is certainly remarkable; and as the -fact seems to have been observed repeatedly, it can scarcely be -discredited: - - The following is a curious instance of discrimination - which I have observed in my bullfinch. He is in the - habit of coming out of his cage in my room in the - morning. In this room there is a mirror with a marble - slab before it, and also a very cleverly executed - water-colour drawing of a hen bullfinch, life size. - The first thing that my bullfinch does on leaving his - cage is to fly to the picture (perching on a vase just - below it) and pipe his tune in the most insinuating - manner, accompanied with much bowing to the portrait - of the hen bullfinch. After having duly paid his - addresses to it, he generally spends some time on the - marble slab in front of the looking-glass, but without - showing the slightest emotion at the sight of his own - reflection, or courting it with a song. Whether this - perfect coolness is due to the fact of the reflection - being that of a cock bird, or whether (since he shows - no desire to fight the reflected image) he is - perfectly well aware that he only sees himself, it is - difficult to say. - -That birds possess considerable powers of imagination, or forming mental -pictures of absent objects, may be inferred from the fact of their -pining for absent mates, parrots calling for absent friends, &c. The -same fact is further proved by birds dreaming, a faculty which has been -noticed by Cuvier, Jerdon, Thompson, Bennet, Houzeau, Bechstein, -Lindsay, and Darwin.[179] - -The facility with which birds lend themselves to the education of the -show-man is certain evidence of considerable docility, or the power of -forming novel associations of ideas. Thus, according to Bingley,-- - - Some years ago the Sieur Roman exhibited in this - country the wonderful performances of his birds. These - were goldfinches, linnets, and canary birds. One - appeared dead, and was held up by the tail or claw - without exhibiting any signs of life. A second stood - on its head, with its claws in the air, &c., &c.[180] - -And many years ago there was exhibited a very puzzling automaton, which, -although of very small size and quite isolated from any possibly -mechanical connection with its designer, performed certain movements in -any order that the fancy of the observers might dictate. The explanation -turned out to be that within the mechanism of the figure there was a -canary bird which had been taught to run in different directions at -different words or tones of command, so by its weight starting the -mechanism to perform the particular movement required. - -The rapidity with which birds learn not to fly against newly erected -telegraph wires, displays a large amount of observation and -intelligence. The fact has been repeatedly observed. For instance, Mr. -Holden says:-- - - About twelve years ago I was residing on the coast of - county Antrim, at the time the telegraph wires were - set up along that charming road which skirts the sea - between Larne and Cushendall. During the winter months - large flocks of starlings always migrated over from - Scotland, arriving in the early morning. The first - winter after the wires were stretched along the coast - I frequently found numbers of starlings lying dead or - wounded on the road-side, they having evidently in - their flight in the dusky morn struck against the - telegraph wires, not blown against them, as these - accidents often occurred when there was but little - wind. I found that the peasantry had come to the - conclusion that these unusual deaths were due to the - flash of the telegraph messages killing any starlings - that happened to be perched on the wires when working. - Strange to say that throughout the following and - succeeding winters hardly a death occurred among the - starlings on their arrival. It would thus appear that - the birds were deeply impressed, and understood the - cause of the fatal accidents among their - fellow-travellers the previous year, and hence - carefully avoided the telegraph wires; not only so, - but the young birds must also have acquired this - knowledge and perpetuated it, a knowledge which they - could not have acquired by experience or even - instinct, unless the instinct was really inherited - memory derived from the parents whose brains were - first impressed by it.[181] - -Similar facts are given in Buckland's 'Curiosities of Natural -History,'[182] and I have myself known of a case in Scotland where a -telegraph was erected across a piece of moorland. During the first -season some of the grouse were injured by flying against the wires, but -never in any succeeding season. Why the young birds should avoid them -without having had individual experience may, I think, be explained by -the consideration that in birds which fly in flocks or coveys, it is the -older ones that lead the way. This explanation would not, of course, -apply to birds which fly singly; but I am not aware that any -observations have gone to show that the young of such birds avoid the -wires. - -I quote the following exhibition of intelligence in an eagle from -Menault:-- - - The following account of the patience with which a - golden eagle submitted to surgical treatment, and the - care which it showed in the gradual use of the healing - limb, must suggest the idea that something very near - to prudence and reason existed in the bird. This eagle - was caught in a fox-trap set in the forest of - Fontainebleau, and its claw had been terribly torn. An - operation was performed on the limb by the - conservators of the Zoological Gardens at Paris, which - the noble bird bore with a rational patience. Though - his head was left loose, he made no attempts to - interfere with the agonising extraction of the - splinters, or to disturb the arrangements of the - annoying bandages. He seemed really to understand the - nature of the services rendered, and that they were - for his good.[183] - -Speaking of the Urubu vultures, Mr. Bates says:-- - - They assemble in great numbers in the villages about - the end of the wet season, and are then ravenous with - hunger. My cook could not leave the open kitchen at - the back of the house for a moment whilst the dinner - was cooking, on account of their thievish - propensities. Some of them were always loitering - about, watching their opportunity, and the instant the - kitchen was left unguarded, the bold marauders marched - in and lifted the lids of the saucepans with their - beaks to rob them of their contents. The boys of the - village lie in wait, and shoot them with bow and - arrow; and vultures have consequently acquired such a - dread of these weapons, that they may be often kept - off by hanging a bow from the rafters of the - kitchen.[184] - - - - Mrs. Lee, in her 'Anecdotes', says that one day her - gardener was struck by the strange conduct of a robin, - which the man had often fed. The bird fluttered about - him in so strange a manner--now coming close, then - hurrying away, always in the same direction--that the - gardener followed its retreating movements. The robin - stopped near a flower-pot, and fluttered over it in - great agitation. It was soon found that a nest had - been formed in the pot, and contained several young. - Close by was a snake, intent, doubtless, upon making a - meal of the brood. - -The following appeared in the 'Gardener's Chronicle' for Aug. 3, 1878, -under the initials 'T. G.' I wrote to the editor requesting him to -supply me with the name of his correspondent, and also to state whether -he knew him to be a trustworthy man. In reply the editor said that he -knew his correspondent to be trustworthy, and that his name is Thomas -Guring:-- - - About thirty years ago the small market town in which - I reside was skirted by an open common, upon which a - number of geese were kept by cottagers. The number of - the birds was very great. . . . Our corn market at that - time was held in the street in front of the principal - inn, and on the market day a good deal of corn was - scattered from sample bags by millers. Somehow the - geese found out about the spilling of corn, and they - appear to have held a consultation upon the - subject. . . . From this time they never missed their - opportunity, and the entry of the geese was always - looked for and invariably took place. On the morning - after the market, early, and always on the proper - morning, fortnightly, in they came cackling and - gobbling in merry mood, and they never came on the - wrong day. The corn, of course, was the attraction, - but in what manner did they mark the time? One might - have supposed that their perceptions were awakened on - the market day by the smell of corn, or perhaps by the - noise of the market traffic; but my story is not yet - finished, and its sequel is against this view. It - happened one year that a day of national humiliation - was kept, and the day appointed was that on which our - market should have been held. The market was - postponed, and the geese for once were baffled. There - was no corn to tickle their olfactory organs from - afar, no traffic to appeal to their sense of hearing. - I think our little town was as still as it usually is - on Sundays. . . . The geese should have stopped away; - but they knew their day, and came as usual. . . . I do - not pretend to remember under what precise - circumstances the habit of coming into the street was - acquired. It may have been formed by degrees, and - continued from year to year; but how the old birds, who - must have led the way, marked the time so as to come in - regularly and fortnightly, on a particular day of the - week, I am at a loss to conceive. - -Livingstone's 'Expedition to the Zambesi, 1865,' p. 209, gives a -conclusive account of the bird called the honey-guide, which leads -persons to bees' nests. 'They are quite as anxious to lure the stranger -to the bees' hive as other birds are to draw him away from their own -nests.' The object of the bird is to obtain the pupæ of the bees which -are laid bare by the ravaging of the nest. The habits of this bird have -long been known and described in books on popular natural history; but -it is well that the facts have been observed by so trustworthy a man as -Livingstone. He adds, 'How is it that members of this family have -learned that all men, white and black, are fond of honey? 'We can only -answer, by intelligent observation in the first instance, passing into -individual and hereditary habit, and so eventually into a fixed -instinct. - -Brehm relates an instance of cautious sagacity in a pewit. He had placed -some horsehair snares over its nest, but the bird seeing them, pushed -them aside with her bill. Next day he set them thickly round the nest; -but now the bird, instead of running as usual to the nest along the -ground, alighted directly upon it. This shows a considerable -appreciation of mechanical appliances, as does also the following. - -Mrs. G. M. E. Campbell writes to me:-- - - At Ardglass, co. Down, Ireland, is a long tract of - turf coming to the edge of the rocks overhanging the - sea, where cattle and geese feed; at a barn on this - tract there was a low enclosure, with a door fastening - by a hook and staple to the side-post: when the hook - was out of the staple, the door fell open by its own - weight. I one day saw a goose with a large troop of - goslings coming off the turf to this door, which was - secured by the hook being in the staple. The goose - waited for a minute or two, as if for the door to be - opened, and then turned round as if to go away, but - what she did was to make a rush at the door, and - making a dart with her beak at the point of the hook - nearly threw it out of the staple; she repeated this - manoeuvre, and succeeded at the third attempt, the - door fell open, and the goose led her troop in with a - sound of triumphant chuckling. How had the goose - learned that the force of the rush was needful to give - the hook a sufficient toss? - -Mrs. K. Addison sends me the following instance of the use of signs on -the part of an intelligent jackdaw. The bird was eighteen months old, -and lived in some bushes in Mrs. Addison's garden. She writes:-- - - I generally made a practice of filling a large basin - which stands under the trees every morning for Jack's - bath. A few days ago I forgot this duty, and was - reminded of the fact in a very singular manner. - Another of my daily occupations is to open my - dressing-room shutters about eleven o'clock of a - morning. Now these said shutters open almost on to the - trees where Jack lives. The day I forgot his bath, - when I opened the shutters I found my little friend - waiting just outside them, as though he knew that he - should see me there; and when he did he placed himself - immediately in front of me, and then shook himself and - spread out his wings just as he always does in his - bath. The action was so suggestive and so - unmistakable, that I spoke just as I would have done - to a child--'Oh yes, Jack, of course you shall have - some water.' - -Mr. W. W. Nichols writes to 'Nature:'-- - - The Central Prison at Agra is the roosting-place of - great numbers of the common blue pigeon; they fly out - to the neighbouring country for food every morning, - and return in the evening, when they drink at a tank - just outside the prison walls. In this tank are a - large number of fresh-water turtles, which lie in wait - for the pigeons just under the surface of the water - and at the edge of it. Any bird alighting to drink - near one of these turtles has a good chance of having - its head bitten off and eaten; and the headless bodies - of pigeons have been picked up near the water, showing - the fate which has sometimes befallen the birds. The - pigeons, however, are aware of the danger, and have - hit on the following plan to escape it. A pigeon comes - in from its long flight, and, as it nears the tank, - instead of flying down at once to the water's edge, - will cross the tank at about twenty feet above its - surface, and then fly back to the side from which it - came, apparently selecting for alighting a safe spot - which it had remarked as it flew over the bank; but - even when such a spot has been selected the bird will - not alight at the edge of the water, but on the bank - about a yard from the water, and will then run down - quickly to the water, take two or three hurried gulps - of it, and then fly off to repeat the same process at - another part of the tank till its thirst is satisfied. - I had often watched the birds doing this, and could - not account for their strange mode of drinking till - told by my friend the superintendent of the prison, of - the turtles which lay in ambush for the pigeons. - -As a still more remarkable instance of the display of intelligence by a -bird of this species, I shall quote the following observation of -Commander R. H. Napier, also published in 'Nature' (viii., p. 324):-- - - A number of them (pouters) were feeding on a few oats - that had been accidentally let fall while fixing the - nose-bag on a horse standing at bait. Having finished - all the grain at hand, a large 'pouter' rose, and - flapping its wings furiously, flew directly at the - horse's eyes, causing the animal to toss his head, and - in doing so, of course shake out more corn. I saw this - several times repeated--in fact, whenever the supply - on hand had been exhausted. . . . Was not this something - more than instinct? - -The following display of intelligence on the part of swallows is -communicated to me by Mr. Charles Wilson. It can scarcely be attributed -to accident, and does not admit of mal-observation. My informant says:-- - - Two swallows were building a nest in the verandah of a - house in Victoria, but as their nest was resting - partly on a bell-wire, it was by this means twice - pulled down. They then began afresh, making a tunnel - through the lower part of the nest, through which the - wire was able to act without doing damage. - -Another gentleman writes me of another use to which he has observed -swallows put the artifice of building tunnels. Being molested by -sparrows which desired to take forcible possession of their nest, a pair -of swallows modified the entrance of the latter, so that instead of -opening by a simple hole under the eaves of a house, it was carried on -in the form of a tunnel. - -Linnæus says that the martin, when it builds under the eaves of houses, -sometimes is molested by sparrows taking possession of the nest. The -pair of martins to which the nest belongs are not strong enough to -dislodge the invaders; but they convoke their companions, some of whom -guard the captives, whilst others bring clay, close up the entrance of -the nest, and leave the sparrows to die miserably. This account has been -to a large extent independently confirmed by Jesse, who seems not to -have been acquainted with the statement of Linnæus. He writes:-- - - Swallows seem to entertain the recollection of injury, - and to resent it when an opportunity offers. A pair of - swallows built their nest under the ledge of a house - at Hampton Court. It was no sooner completed than a - couple of sparrows drove them from it, notwithstanding - the swallows kept up a good resistance, and even - brought others to assist them. The intruders were left - in peaceable possession of the nest, till the two old - birds were obliged to quit it to provide food for - their young. They had no sooner departed than several - swallows came and broke down the nest; and I saw the - young sparrows lying dead on the ground. As soon as - the nest was demolished, the swallows began to rebuild - it.[185] - -The same author gives the following and somewhat similar case:-- - - A pair of swallows built their nest against one of the - first-floor windows of an uninhabited house in Merrion - Square, Dublin. A sparrow, however, took possession of - it, and the swallows were repeatedly seen clinging to - the nest, and endeavouring to gain an entrance to the - abode they had erected with so much labour. All their - efforts, however, were defeated by the sparrow, who - never once quitted the nest. The perseverance of the - swallows was at length exhausted: they took flight, - but shortly afterwards returned, accompanied by a - number of their congeners, each of them having a piece - of dirt in its bill. By this means they succeeded in - stopping up the hole, and the intruder was immured in - total darkness. Soon afterwards the nest was taken - down and exhibited to several persons, with the dead - sparrow in it. In this case there appears to have been - not only a reasoning faculty, but the birds must have - been possessed of the power of communicating their - resentment and their wishes to their friends, without - whose aid they could not thus have avenged the injury - they had sustained.[186] - -That birds sometimes act in concert may also be gathered from the -following observations recorded by Mr. Buck:-- - - I have constantly seen a flock of pelicans, when on - the feed, form a line across a lake, and drive the - fish before them up its whole length, just as - fishermen would with a net.[187] - -The following is extracted from Sir E. Tennent's 'Natural History of -Ceylon,' and displays remarkable intelligence on the part of the crows -in that island:-- - - One of these ingenious marauders, after vainly - attitudinising in front of a chained watch-dog, that - was lazily gnawing a bone, and after fruitlessly - endeavouring to divert his attention by dancing before - him, with head awry and eye askance, at length flew - away for a moment, and returned bringing a companion - which perched itself on a branch a few yards in the - rear. The crow's grimaces were now actively renewed, - but with no better success, till its confederate, - poising itself on its wings, descended with the utmost - velocity, striking the dog upon the spine with all the - force of its strong beak. The ruse was successful; the - dog started with surprise and pain, but not quickly - enough to seize his assailant, whilst the bone he had - been gnawing was snatched away by the first crow the - instant his head was turned. Two well-authenticated - instances of the recurrence of this device came within - my knowledge at Colombo, and attest the sagacity and - powers of communication and combination possessed by - these astute and courageous birds. - - -This account, which would be difficult of credence if narrated by a less -competent author, is strikingly confirmed by an independent observation -on the crows of Japan, which has recently been published by Miss Bird, -in whose words I shall render it. She writes:-- - - In the inn garden I saw a dog eating a piece of - carrion in the presence of several of these covetous - birds. They evidently said a great deal to each other - on the subject, and now and then, one or two of them - tried to pull the meat away from him, which he - resented. At last a big strong crow succeeded in - tearing off a piece, with which he returned to the - pine where the others were congregated, and after much - earnest speech they all surrounded the dog, and the - leading bird dexterously dropped the small piece of - meat within reach of his mouth, when he immediately - snapped at it, letting go the big piece unwisely for a - second, on which two of the crows flew away with it to - the pine, and with much fluttering and hilarity they - all ate, or rather gorged it, the deceived dog looking - vacant and bewildered for a moment, after which he sat - under the tree and barked at them inanely. A gentleman - told me that he saw a dog holding a piece of meat in - like manner in the presence of three crows, which also - vainly tried to tear it from him, and after a - consultation they separated, two going as near as they - dared to the meat, while the third gave the tail a - bite sharp enough to make the dog turn round with a - squeak, on which the other villains seized the meat, - and the three fed triumphantly upon it on the top of a - wall.[188] - -These two independent statements by competent observers of such similar -exhibitions of intelligence by crows, justifies us in accepting the -fact, remarkable though it be. As further corroboration, however, I -shall quote still another independent and closely similar observation, -which I find in a letter to me from Sir J. Clarke Jervoise, who says, -while writing of rooks which he has observed in England:-- - - A pheasant used to come very boldly and run off with - large pieces of food, which he could only divide by - shaking, and he was closely watched by the rooks for - the pieces that flew out of his reach. He learned to - run off into the shrubs, followed by the rooks, who - pulled his tail to make him drop his food. - -I shall next quote a highly interesting observation which seems to have -been well made, and which displays remarkable intelligence on the part -of the birds described. These are Turnstones, which, as their name -implies, turn over stones, &c., in order to obtain as food the sundry -small creatures concealed beneath. In this case the observer was Edward. -Being concealed in a hollow, and unnoticed by the birds, he saw a pair -trying to turn over the body of a stranded cod-fish, three and a half -feet long, and buried in the sand to a depth of several inches. He thus -describes what he saw:-- - - Having got fairly settled down in my pebbly - observatory, I turned my undivided attention to the - birds before me. They were boldly pushing at the fish - with their bills, and then with their breasts. Their - endeavours, however, were in vain: the object remained - immovable. On this they both went round to the - opposite side, and began to scrape away the sand from - beneath the fish. After removing a considerable - quantity, they again came back to the spot which they - had left, and went once more to work with their bills - and breasts, but with as little apparent success as - formerly. Nothing daunted, however, they ran round a - second time to the other side, and recommenced their - trenching operations with a seeming determination not - to be baffled in their object, which evidently was to - undermine the dead animal before them, in order that - it might be the more easily overturned. - - While they were thus employed, and after they had - laboured in this manner at both sides alternately for - nearly half an hour, they were joined by another of - their own species, which came flying with rapidity - from the neighbouring rocks. Its timely arrival was - hailed with evident signs of joy. I was led to this - conclusion from the gestures which they exhibited, and - from a low but pleasant murmuring noise to which they - gave utterance so soon as the new-comer made his - appearance. Of their feelings he seemed to be - perfectly aware, and he made his reply to them in a - similar strain. Their mutual congratulations being - over, they all three set to work; and after labouring - vigorously for a few minutes in removing the sand, - they came round to the other side, and putting their - breasts simultaneously to the fish, they succeeded in - raising it some inches from the sand, but were unable - to turn it over. It went down again into its sandy - bed, to the manifest disappointment of the three. - Resting, however, for a space, and without leaving - their respective positions, which were a little apart - the one from the other, they resolved, it appears, to - give the work another trial. Lowering themselves, with - their breasts pressed close to the sand, they managed - to push their bills underneath the fish, which they - made to rise about the same height as before. - Afterwards, withdrawing their bills, but without - losing the advantage which they had gained, they - applied their breasts to the object. This they did - with such force, and to such purpose, that at length - it went over, and rolled several yards down a slight - declivity. It was followed to some distance by the - birds themselves before they could recover their - bearing.[189] - -I shall now bring this chapter to a close by presenting all the evidence -that I have been able to collect with regard to the punishment of -malefactors among rooks. - -Goldsmith, who used constantly to observe a rookery from his window, -says that the selection of a site for the building of a nest is a matter -of much anxious deliberation on the part of a young crow couple; the -male and female 'examining all the trees of a grove very attentively, -and when they have fixed upon a branch that seems fit for their purpose, -they continue to sit upon it, and observe it very sedulously for two or -three days longer:'-- - - It often happens that the young couple have made - choice of a place too near the mansion of an older - pair, who do not choose to be incommoded by such - troublesome neighbours; a quarrel, therefore, - instantly ensues, in which the old ones are always - victorious. The young couple, thus expelled, are - obliged again to go through their - fatigues--deliberating, examining, and choosing; and, - having taken care to keep their due distance, the nest - begins again, and their industry deserves - commendation. But their activity is often too great in - the beginning; they soon grow weary of bringing the - materials of their nests from distant places, and they - very early perceive that sticks may be provided nearer - home, with less honesty indeed, but some degree of - address. Away they go, therefore, to pilfer as fast as - they can, and, whenever they see a nest unguarded, - they take care to rob it of the very choicest sticks - of which it is composed. But these thefts never go - unpunished, and probably, upon complaint being made, - there is a general punishment inflicted. I have seen - eight or ten rooks come upon such occasions, and, - setting upon the new nest of the young couple, all at - once tear it to pieces in a moment. - - At length, however, the young pair find the necessity - of going more regularly to work. While one flies to - fetch the materials, the other sits upon the tree to - guard it; and thus in the space of three or four days, - with a skirmish now and then between, the pair have - filled up a commodious nest, composed of sticks - without, and of fibrous roots and long grass within. - From the instant the female begins to lay, all - hostilities are at an end; not one of the whole grove, - that a little before treated her so rudely, will now - venture to molest her, so that she brings forth her - brood with perfect tranquillity. Such is the severity - with which even native rooks are treated by each - other; but if a foreign rook should attempt to make - himself a denizen of their society, he would meet with - no favour, the whole grove would at once be up in arms - against him, and expel him without mercy. - -Couch says ('Illustrations of Instinct,' p. 334 _et seq._):-- - - The wrong-doers being discovered, the punishment is - appropriate to the offence; by the destruction of - their dishonest work they are taught that they who - build must find their own bricks or sticks, and not - their neighbours', and that if they wish to live in - the enjoyment of the advantages of the social - condition, they must endeavour to conform their - actions to the principles of the rookery of which they - have been made members. - - It is not known what enormities led to the institution - of another tribunal of the same kind, called the Crow - Court, but according to Dr. Edmonson, in his 'View of - the Shetland Islands,' its proceedings are as - authoritative and regular, and it is remarkable as - occurring in a species (_Corvus Cornice_) so near akin - to the rook. The Crow Court is a sort of general - assembling of birds who, in their usual habits, are - accustomed to live in pairs, scattered at great - distances from each other; when they visit the south - or west of England, as they do in severe winters, they - are commonly solitary. In their summer haunts in the - Shetland Islands, numbers meet together from different - points on a particular hill or field; and on these - occasions the assembly is not complete, and does not - begin its business for a day or two, till, all the - deputies having arrived, a general clamour or - croaking ensues, and the whole of the court, judges, - barristers, ushers, audience, and all, fall upon the - two or three prisoners at the bar, and beat them till - they kill them. When this is accomplished the court - breaks up and quietly disperses. - - In the northern parts of Scotland (says Dr. Edmonson), - and in the Faroe Islands, extraordinary meetings of - crows are occasionally known to occur. They collect in - great numbers, as if they had all been summoned for - the occasion; a few of the flock sit with drooping - heads, and others seem as grave as judges, while - others again are exceedingly active and noisy; in the - course of about one hour they disperse, and it is not - uncommon, after they have flown away, to find one or - two left dead on the spot. These meetings will - sometimes continue for a day or two before the object, - whatever it may be, is completed. Crows continue to - arrive from all quarters during the session. As soon - as they have all arrived, a very general noise ensues; - and, shortly after, the whole fall upon one or two - individuals, and put them to death. When the execution - has been performed, they quietly disperse. - -Similarly, the Bishop of Carlisle writes in the 'Nineteenth Century' for -July 1881:-- - - I have seen also a jackdaw in the midst of a - congregation of rooks, apparently being tried for some - misdemeanour. First Jack made a speech, which was - answered by a general cawing of the rooks; this - subsiding, Jack again took up his parable, and the - rooks in their turn replied in chorus. After a time - the business, whatever it was, appeared to be settled - satisfactorily: if Jack was on his trial, as he seemed - to be, he was honourably acquitted by acclamation; for - he went to his home in the towers of Ely Cathedral, - and the rooks also went their way. - -Lastly, Major-General Sir George Le Grand Jacob, K.C.S.I., C.B., writes -to me that while sitting in a verandah in India, he saw three or four -crows come and perch on a neighbouring house. They then cawed -continuously with such peculiar sound and vigour as to attract his -attention. His account proceeds:-- - - Soon a gathering of crows from all quarters took - place, until the roof of the guard-house was blackened - by them. Thereupon a prodigious clatter ensued; it was - plain that a 'palaver' was going forward. Some of its - members, more eager than others, skipping about, I - became much interested, and narrowly watched the - proceedings, all within a dozen yards of me. After - much cawing and clamour, the whole group suddenly rose - into the air, and kept circling round half a dozen of - their fellows, one of whom had been clearly told off - for punishment, for the five repeatedly attacked it in - quick succession, allowing no opportunity for their - victim to escape, which he was trying to do, until - they had cast him fluttering on the ground about - thirty yards from my chair. Unfortunately I rushed - forward to pick up the bird, prostrate but fluttering - on the grass which was like a lawn before the - building. I succeeded only in touching it, for it - wriggled away from my grasp, and flew greatly crippled - and close to the ground into the neighbouring bushes, - where I lost sight of it. All the others, after - circling round me and chattering, angrily as I - thought, flew away, on my resuming my seat, in the - direction taken by their victim. - - [Since going to press I have seen, through the - kindness of Mr. Seebohm, some specimens of cuckoo's - eggs coloured in imitation of those belonging to the - birds in the nests of which they are laid. There can - be no question about the imitation, and I add this - note to mitigate the criticism which I have passed - upon Professor Newton's theory of the cause. For Mr. - Seebohm has pointed out to me that the theory becomes - more probable if we consider that a cuckoo reared in - the nest of any particular bird is likely afterwards - to choose a similar nest for the deposition of its own - eggs. Whether or not the memory of a bird would thus - act could only, of course, be certainly proved by - experiment; but in view of the possibility that it - may, Professor Newton's theory becomes more probable - than it is if the selection of the appropriate nest is - supposed to depend only on inheritance. - - I most also add that Dr. Sclater has been kind enough - to draw my attention to a remarkable description of a - species of Bower-bird, published by Dr. Beccari in the - _Gardener's Chronicle_ for March 16, 1879. This - species is called the Gardener Bower-bird (_Amblyornis - niornata_), and inhabits New Guinea. The animal is - about the size of a turtle-dove, and its bower--or - rather hut--is built round the stem of a tree in the - shape of a cone, with a space between the stem of the - tree and the walls of the hut. The latter are composed - of stems of an orchid with their leaves on--this - particular plant being chosen by the birds apparently - because its leaves remain long fresh. But the most - extraordinary structure is the garden, which is thus - described by Dr. Beccari:--'Before the cottage there - is a meadow of moss. This is brought to the spot and - left free from grass, stones, or anything which would - offend the eye. On this green turf flowers and fruits - of pretty colour are placed, so as to form an elegant - little garden. The greater part of the decoration is - collected round the entrance to the nest, and it would - appear that the husband offers these his daily gifts - to his wife. The objects are very various, but always - of a vivid colour. There were some fruits of a - Garcinia like a small-sized apple. Others were the - fruits of Gardencias of a deep yellow colour in the - interior. I saw also small rosy fruits, probably of a - Scitamineous plant, and beautiful rosy flowers of a - new Vaccinium. There were also fungi and mottled - insects placed on the turf. As soon as the objects are - faded they are moved to the back of the hut.' There is - a fine-coloured plate of this bird in its garden, - published in the _Birds of New Guinea_, by Mr. Gould - Part ix., 1879.] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[145] _Curiosities_, &c., p. 126. Wilson also, in his _American -Ornithology_, gives the following sufficiently credible account of the -memory of a crow:--'A gentleman who resided on the Delaware, a few miles -below Easton, had raised [reared] a crow, with whose tricks and society -he used frequently to amuse himself. This crow lived long in the family, -but at length disappeared, having, as was then supposed, been shot by -some vagrant gunner, or destroyed by accident. About eleven months after -this, as the gentleman one morning, in company with several others, was -standing on the river shore, a number of crows happened to pass by; one -of them left the flock, and flying directly towards the company, -alighted on the gentleman's shoulder, and began to gabble away with -great volubility, as one long-absent friend naturally enough does on -meeting another. On recovering from his surprise the gentleman instantly -recognised his old acquaintance, and endeavoured, by several civil but -sly manoeuvres, to lay hold of him; but the crow, not altogether -relishing quite so much familiarity, having now had a taste of the -sweets of liberty, cautiously eluded all his attempts; and suddenly -glancing his eye on his distant companions, mounted in the air after -them, soon overtook and mingled with them, and was never afterwards seen -to return.' - -[146] _Journal of Mental Science_, July 1879. - -[147] Couch, _Illustrations of Instinct_, p. 165. - -[148] _Gleanings_, vol. i., pp. 112-13. - -[149] Couch, _Illustrations of Instinct_, p. 232. - -[150] See especially Bingley, _Animal Biography_, vol. ii., pp. 327-29. - -[151] _Gleanings_, pp. 58-9. - -[152] Smiles, _Life of Edward_, p. 240. - -[153] _History of Mexico_, p. 220. - -[154] _Zoologist_, vol. ii. - -[155] Watson, _Reasoning Power of Animals_, pp. 375-76, where see also -some curious cases of male storks slaying their females upon the latter -hatching out eggs of other birds. He gives an exactly similar case as -having occurred with the domestic cock; and in Bingley (_loc. cit._, -vol. ii., p. 241) there is quoted from Dr. Percival another case of the -same kind, in which a cock killed his hen as soon as she had hatched out -a brood of young partridges from eggs which had been set to her. - -[156] See Darwin. _Descent of Man_, pp. 92, 381, 406, 413. - -[157] Gould, _Birds of Australia_, vol. i., pp. 442-45. - -[158] Bingley, _Animal Biography_, vol. ii., p. 220. - -[159] For full information, see Buckland, _Curiosities of Natural -History_, p. 183. - -[160] Of the crow (carrion and hooded), Edward says: 'He goes aloft with -a crab, and lets it fall upon a stone or a rock chosen for the purpose. -If it does not break, he seizes it again, goes up higher, lets it fall, -and repeats his operation again and again until his object is -accomplished. When a convenient stone is once met with, the birds resort -to it for a long time. I myself know a pretty high rock, that has been -used by successive generations of crows for about twenty years!' Also, -as Handcock says, 'a friend of Dr. Darwin saw on the north coast of -Ireland above a hundred crows preying upon mussels, which is not their -natural food; each crow took a mussel up into the air, twenty or forty -yards high, and let it fall on the stones, and thus breaking the shell, -got possession of the animal. Ravens, we are told, often resort to the -same contrivance.' - -[161] Couch, _Illustrations of Instinct_, pp. 192-93. - -[162] _Gleanings_, &c., vol. i., p. 71. - -[163] _Ibid._ - -[164] _Voyage of a Naturalist_, &c., p. 184. - -[165] _Orn. Biog._, i., p. 276. - -[166] Newton, _Encycl. Brit._, art. 'Birds.' - -[167] _Catalogue of Birds_, &c., p. 16. - -[168] Gould, _Birds of Australia_, vol. ii., p. 155, where see for -further description. - -[169] _Animal Biography_, vol. ii., p. 204. - -[170] See _Descent of Man_, p. 452 _et seq._ - -[171] See Newton, _Ency. Brit._, art. 'Birds.' - -[172] _Natural Selection_, pp. 232-3. - -[173] _Phil. Trans._, vol. lxxviii., p. 221 _et seq._ - -[174] The young cuckoo is generally hatched first. - -[175] Allusion is here made to the fact that the cuckoo lays her eggs at -intervals of two or three days, and therefore that if all were incubated -by the mother, they would hatch out at different times--a state of -things which actually obtains in the case of the American cuckoo, whose -nest contains eggs and young at the same time. - -[176] It is worth while to observe, as bearing on this theory of the -origin of this parasitic habit, that even non-parasitic birds -occasionally deposit their eggs in nests of other birds. Thus, Professor -A. Newton writes in his admirable essay on 'Birds' in the Encyclopædia -Britannica, 'Certain it is that some birds, whether by mistake or -stupidity, do not unfrequently lay their eggs in the nests of others. It -is within the knowledge of many that pheasants' eggs and partridges' -eggs are often laid in the same nest; and it is within the knowledge of -the writer that gulls' eggs have been found in the nests of eider-ducks, -and _vice versâ_; that a redstart and a pied flycatcher will lay their -eggs in the same convenient hole--the forest being rather deficient in -such accommodation; that an owl and a duck will resort to the same -nest-hole, set up by the scheming woodman for his own advantage; and -that the starling, which constantly dispossesses the green woodpecker, -sometimes discovers that the rightful heir of the domicile has to be -brought up by the intruding tenant.' - -[177] _Origin of Species_, p. 215. - -[178] Tom. i., p. 130. - -[179] See _Birds of India_, i., p. 21; _Passions of Animals_, p. 60; -_Fac. Men. des Ani._, tom. ii., p. 183; _Mind in Lower Animals_, vol. -ii., p. 96; and _Descent of Man_, p. 74. - -[180] _Animal Biography_, vol. ii., p. 173. - -[181] _Nature_, xx., p. 266. - -[182] Vol. i., p. 216. See also _Descent of Man_, p. 80. - -[183] Menault, _Wonders of Instinct_, p. 132. - -[184] _Nat. on Amazons_, p. 177; _Anecdotes_, p. 135. - -[185] _Gleanings_, vol. ii., p. 96. - -[186] _Ibid._, p. 99. - -[187] _Nature_, vol. xiii., p. 303. - -[188] _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_, vol. ii, pp. 149-50. - -[189] Smiles, _Life of Edward_, pp. 244-6. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -MAMMALS. - - -I SHALL devote this chapter to the psychology of all the Mammalia which -present any features of psychological interest, with the exception of -the rodents, the elephant, the dog and cat tribe among Carnivora, and -the Primates--all of which I shall reserve for separate treatment. - - -_Marsupials._ - -In the 'Transactions of the Linnean Society,' Major Mitchell gives an -interesting account of the structure reared by a small Australian -marsupial (_Conilurus constructor_) for the purposes of defence against -the dingo dog. It consists of a large pile of dry sticks and brushwood, -'big enough to make two or three good cart-loads.' Each stick and -fragment is closely intertwined or woven with the rest, so that the -whole forms a solid, compact mass. In the middle of this large structure -is the nest of the animal. - -The marsupials are as low in the scale of mammalian intelligence as they -are in that of mammalian structure: so that, except the above, I have -met with no fact connected with the psychology of this group that is -worth quoting, except, perhaps, the following, which appears to show -deliberation and decision on the part of the kangaroo. Jesse writes:-- - - A gentleman who had resided for several years in New - South Wales related the following circumstance, which - he assured me he had frequently witnessed while - hunting the kangaroo: it furnishes a strong proof of - the affection of that animal for her young, even when - her own life has been placed in the most imminent - danger. He informed me that, when a female kangaroo - has been hard pressed by dogs, he has seen her, while - she has been making her bounds, put her fore-paws into - her pouch, take a young one from it, and then throw it - as far on one side as she possibly could out of the - way of the dogs. But for this manoeuvre her own life - and that of her young one would have been sacrificed. - By getting rid of the latter she has frequently - effected her escape, and probably returned afterwards - to seek for her offspring. - - -_Cetaceans._ - -The following is quoted from Thompson:-- - - In 1811, says Mr. Scoresby, one of my harpooners - struck a sucker, with the hope of leading to the - capture of the mother. Presently she arose close to - the 'fast boat,' and seizing the young one, dragged - about 600 feet of line out of the boat with remarkable - force and velocity. Again she rose to the surface, - darted furiously to and fro, frequently stopped short - or suddenly changed her direction, and gave every - possible intimation of extreme agony. For a length of - time she continued thus to act, though pursued closely - by the boats; and, inspired with courage and - resolution by her concern for her young, seemed - regardless of the danger's which surrounded her. At - length one of the boats approached so near that a - harpoon was hove at her; it hit, but did not attach - itself. A second harpoon was struck, but this also - failed to penetrate; but a third was more successful, - and held. Still she did not attempt to escape, but - allowed other boats to approach; so that in a few - minutes three more harpoons were fastened, and in the - course of an hour afterwards she was killed.[190] - -Mr. Saville Kent communicates an article to 'Nature' (vol. viii., p. -229) on 'Intellect of Porpoises.' He says:-- - - The keeper in charge of these interesting animals is - now in the habit of summoning them to their meals by - the call of a whistle; his approaching footsteps, - even, cause great excitement in their movements. . . . - The curiosity attributed to these creatures, as - illustrated by the experiences of Mr. Matthew - Williams, receives ample confirmation from their - habits and confinement. A new arrival is at once - subjected to the most importunate attention, and, - advancing from familiarity to contempt if disapproved - of, soon becomes the object of attack and persecution. - A few dog-fish (_Acanthias_ and _Mastelus_), three or - four feet long, now fell victims to their tyranny, the - porpoises seizing them by their tails, and swimming - off with and shaking them in a manner scarcely - conducive to their comfort or dignified appearance, - reminding the spectator of a large dog worrying a - rat. . . . On one occasion I witnessed the two _Cetacea_ - acting evidently in concert against one of these - unwieldy fish (skates), the latter swimming close to - the top of the water, and seeking momentary respite - from its relentless enemies by lifting its unfortunate - caudal appendage high above its surface--the peculiar - tail of the skate being the object of sport to the - porpoises, which seized it in their mouths as a - convenient handle whereby to pull the animal about, - and worry it incessantly. - -In a subsequent number of 'Nature' (vol. ix., p. 42) Mr. C. Fox -writes:-- - - Several years ago a herd of porpoises was scattered by - a net which I had got made to enclose some of them. . . . - The whole 'sculle' was much alarmed, and two were - secured. I conclude that their companions retained a - vivid remembrance of the sea-fight, as these - _Cetacea_, although frequent visitants in this harbour - (Falmouth) previously, and often watched for, were not - seen in it again for two years or more. - - -_Horse and Ass._ - -The horse is not so intelligent an animal as any of the larger -Carnivora, while among herbivorous quadrupeds his sagacity is greatly -exceeded by that of the elephant, and in a lesser degree by that of his -congener the ass. On the other hand, his intelligence is a grade or two -above that of perhaps any ruminant or other herbivorous quadruped. - -The emotional life of this animal is remarkable, in that it appears to -admit of undergoing a sudden transformation in the hands of the -'horse-tamer.' The celebrated results obtained by Rarey in this -connection have since been repeated with more or less success by many -persons in various parts of the world, and the 'method' appears to be in -all cases essentially the same. The untamed and apparently untamable -animal has its fore-leg or legs strapped up, is cast on its side and -allowed to struggle for a while. It is then subjected to various -manipulations, which, without necessarily causing pain, make the animal -feel its helplessness and the mastery of the operator. The extraordinary -fact is that, after having once felt this, the spirit or emotional life -of the animal undergoes a complete and sudden change, so that from -having been 'wild' it becomes 'tame.' In some cases there are subsequent -relapses, but these are easily checked. Even the truly 'wild' horse from -the prairie admits of being completely subdued in a marvellously short -time by the Gauchos, who employ an essentially similar method, although -the struggle is here much more fierce and prolonged.[191] The same may be -said of the taming of wild elephants, although in this case the facts -are not nearly so remarkable from a psychological point of view, seeing -that the process of taming is so much more slow. - -Another curious emotional feature in the horse is the liability of all -the other mental faculties of the animal to become abandoned to that of -terror. For I think I am right in saying that the horse is the only -animal which, under the influence of fear, loses the possession of every -other sense in one mad and mastering desire to run. With its entire -mental life thus overwhelmed by the flood of a single emotion, the horse -not only loses, as other animals lose, 'presence of mind,' or a due -balance among the distinctively intellectual faculties, but even the -avenues of special sense become stopped, so that the wholly demented -animal may run headlong and at terrific speed against a stone wall. I -have known a hare come to grief in a somewhat similar fashion when hotly -pursued by a dog; this, however, was clearly owing to the hare looking -behind instead of before, in a manner not, under the circumstances, -unwise; but, as I have said, there is no animal except the horse whose -whole psychology is thus liable to be completely dominated by a single -emotion. - -As for its other emotions, the horse is certainly an affectionate -animal, pleased at being petted, jealous of companions receiving -favour, greatly enjoying play with others of its kind, and also the -sport of the hunting-field. Lastly, horses exhibit pride in a marked -degree, as do also mules. Such animals, when well kept, are unmistakably -pleased with gay trappings, so that 'in Spain, as a punishment for -disobedience, it is usual to strip the animal of its gaudy coronal and -bells, and to transfer them to another' (Thompson). - -The memory of the horse is remarkably good, as almost every one must -have had occasion to observe who has driven one over roads which the -animal may have only once traversed a long time before. As showing the -duration of memory I may quote the following letter to Mr. Darwin from -the Rev. Rowland H. Wedgwood, which I find among the MSS. of the -former:-- - - I want to tell you of an instance of long memory in a - horse. I have just driven my pony down from London - here, and though she has not been here for eight - years, she remembered her way quite well, and made a - bolt for the stables where I used to keep her. - -A few instances of the display of intelligence by members of the horse -tribe may bring this section to a close. - - * * * * * - -Mr. W. J. Fleming writes me concerning a vicious horse he had which, -while being groomed, frequently used to throw a ball of wood attached to -his halter at the groom. He did so by flexing his fetlock and jamming -the ball between the pastern and the leg, then throwing the ball -backwards 'with great force.' - -I myself had a horse which was very clever at slipping his halter after -he knew that the coachman was in bed. He would then draw out the two -sticks in the pipe of the oat-bin, so as to let all the oats run down -from the bin above upon the stable floor. Of course he must have -observed that this was the manner in which the coachman obtained the -oats, and desiring to obtain them, did what he had observed to be -required. Similarly, on other occasions he used to turn the water-tap to -obtain a drink, and pull the window cord to open the window on hot -nights. - -The anecdote books contain several stories very much alike concerning -horses spontaneously visiting blacksmiths' shops when they require -shoeing, or feel their shoes uncomfortable. The appended account, -vouched for as it is by a good authority, may be taken as corroborative -of these stories. I quote the account from 'Nature' (May 19, 1881):-- - - The following instance of animal intelligence is sent - to us by Dr. John Rae, F.R.S., who states that the Mr. - William Sinclair mentioned is respectable and - trustworthy. The anecdote is taken from the 'Orkney - Herald' of May 11:--"A well-authenticated and - extraordinary case of the sagacity of the Shetland - pony has just come under our notice. A year or two ago - Mr. William Sinclair, pupil-teacher, Holm, imported - one of these little animals from Shetland on which to - ride to and from school, his residence being at a - considerable distance from the school buildings. Up to - that time the animal had been unshod, but some time - afterwards Mr. Sinclair had it shod by Mr. Pratt, the - parish blacksmith. The other day Mr. Pratt, whose - smithy is a long distance from Mr. Sinclair's house, - saw the pony, without halter or anything upon it, - walking up to where he was working. Thinking the - animal had strayed from home, he drove it off, - throwing stones after the beast to make it run - homewards. This had the desired effect for a short - time; but Mr. Pratt had only got fairly at work once - more in the smithy when the pony's head again made its - appearance at the door. On proceeding a second time - outside to drive the pony away, Mr. Pratt, with a - blacksmith's instinct, took a look at the pony's feet, - when he observed that one of its shoes had been lost. - Having made a shoe he put it on, and then waited to - see what the animal would do. For a moment it looked - at the blacksmith as if asking whether he was done, - then pawed once or twice to see if the newly-shod foot - was comfortable, and finally gave a pleased neigh, - erected its head, and started homewards at a brisk - trot. The owner was also exceedingly surprised to find - the animal at home completely shod the same evening, - and it was only on calling at the smithy some days - afterwards that he learned the full extent of his - pony's sagacity." - -In 'Nature,' also (vol. xx., p. 21), Mr. Claypole, of Antioch Cottage, -Ohio, writes as follows:-- - - A friend of mine is employed on a farm near Toronto, - Ontario, where a horse, belonging to the wife of the - farmer, is never required to work, but is allowed to - live the life of a gentleman, for the following - reason. Some years ago the lady above mentioned fell - off a plank bridge into a stream when the water was - deep. The horse, which was feeding in a field close - by, ran to the spot, and held her up with his teeth - till assistance arrived, thus probably saving her - life. Was this reason or instinct? - -Mr. Strickland, also writing to 'Nature' (vol. xix., p. 410), says:-- - - A mare here had her first foal when she was ten or - twelve years old. She was blind of one eye. The result - was, she frequently trod upon the foal or knocked it - over when it happened to be on the blind side of her, - in consequence of which the foal died when it was - three or four months old. The next year she had - another foal, and we fully expected the result would - be the same. But no; from the day it was born she - never moved in the stall without looking round to see - where the foal was, and she never trod upon it or - injured it in any way. You see that reason did not - teach her that she was killing her first foal; her - care for the second was the result of memory, - imagination, and thought after the foal was dead, and - before the next one was born. The only difference that - I can see between the reasoning power of men and - animals is that the latter is applied only to the very - limited space of providing for their bodily wants, - whereas that of men embraces a vast amount of other - objects besides this. - -Houzeau (vol. ii., p. 207) says that the mules used in the tramways at -New Orleans prove that they are able to count five; for they have to -make five journeys from one end of the tramway to the other before they -are released, and they make four of these journeys without showing that -they expect to be released, but bray at the end of the fifth. This -observation, however, requires to be confirmed, for unless carefully -made we must suppose that the fact may be due to the mules seeing the -ostler waiting to take them out. - -Mr. Samuel Goodbehere, solicitor, writes me from Birmingham the -following instance as having fallen under his own observation:-- - - We had a Welsh cob pony or Galloway about 14 hands - high, who was occasionally kept in a shed (in a - farmyard), partly closed at the front by a gate which - was secured by a bolt inside and a drop latch outside. - The pony (who was able to put his head and neck over - the gate, but could not reach the outside latch) was - constantly found loose in the yard, which was - considered quite a mystery until it was solved one day - by my observing the pony first pushing back the inside - bolt, and then neighing until a donkey, who had the - run of the yard and an adjoining paddock, came and - pushed up the outside latch with his nose, thus - letting the pony at liberty, when the two marched off - together. - -The following is the only instance that I have met with in any of the -horse tribe of that degree of sagacity which leads to the intentional -concealment of wrong-doing. In the case of elephants, dogs, and monkeys -we find abundant evidence on this head, which therefore renders the -following instance more antecedently credible, and, as it is also -narrated on good authority, I do not hesitate to quote it. - -Professor Niphon, of Washington University, St. Louis, U.S., says:-- - - A friend of mine living at Iowa City had a mule, whose - ingenuity in getting into mischief was more than - ordinarily remarkable. This animal had a great liking - for the company of an oat-bin, and lost no - opportunity, when the yard gate and barn door were - open, to secure a mouthful of oats. Finally the mule - was found in the barn in the morning, and for a long - time it was found impossible to discover how he had - come there. This went on for some time, until the - animal was 'caught in the act.' It was found that he - had learned how to open the gate, reaching over the - fence to lift the latch, and that he then effectually - mystified his masters by turning round and backing - against it until it was latched. He then proceeded to - the barn door, and pulling out the pin which held the - door, it swung open of its own accord. From the - intelligence which this animal displayed on many - occasions, I am of the opinion that had not discovery - of his trick prevented, it would soon have occurred to - him to retrace his steps before daylight, in order to - avoid the clubbing which the stable boys gave him in - the morning. It may be added that this animal had - enjoyed no unusual educational advantages, and his - owners found it to their interest to discourage his - intellectual efforts as much as possible.[192] - - -_Ruminants._ - -Concerning sympathy, Major-General Sir George Le Grand Jacob, C.B., &c., -writes me of instances which he observed of doe ibexes raising with -their heads the bucks which he shot, and supporting them during flight. - -A vivid and intelligent class of emotions, in which sympathy and -rational fear are blended, seem to be exhibited by cattle in -slaughterhouses. Many years ago a pamphlet was written upon the subject, -and more recently Mr. Robert Hamilton, F.C.S., without apparently -knowing of this previous publication, wrote another pamphlet, conveying -precisely similar statements. These are too long to quote _in extenso_; -but from a letter which the latter gentleman writes to me I may make the -following extract:-- - - The animal witnessing the process of killing, flaying, - &c., repeated on one after another of its fellows, - gets to comprehend to the full extent the dreadful - ordeal, and as it mentally grasps the meaning of it - all, the increasing horror depicted in its condition - can be clearly seen. Of course some portray it much - more vividly than others; the varying intelligence - manifested in this respect is only another link which - knits them in oneness with the human family. - -Pride is well marked in sheep and cattle, as shown by the depressing -effects produced on a 'bell-wether' or leading cow by transferring the -bell to another member of the herd; and it is said that in Switzerland -the beasts which on show days are provided with garlands, are evidently -aware of the distinction thus placed upon them. With some amount of -poetic exaggeration this fact is noted by Schiller, who says in 'Wilhelm -Tell,'-- - - See with what pride your steer his garland wears; - He knows himself the leader of the herd; - But strip him of it, and he'd die of grief. - -With regard to the general intelligence of ruminants I may first quote -the following:-- - - The sagacity with which the bisons defend themselves - against the attack of wolves is admirable. When they - scent the approach of a drove of these ravenous - creatures, the herd throws itself into the form of a - circle, having the weakest and the calves in the - middle, and the strongest ranged on the outside; thus - presenting an impenetrable front of horns.[193] - -The buffalo of the Old World manifests sagacity very similar. As Sir J. -E. Tennent informs us,-- - - The temper of the wild buffalo is morose and - uncertain; and such is its strength and courage, that - in the Hindu epic of the 'Ramayana' its onslaught is - compared with that of the tiger. It is never quite - safe to approach them if disturbed in their pasture, - or alarmed from their repose in the shallow lakes. On - such occasions they hurry into line, draw up in - defensive array, with a few of the oldest bulls in - advance; and, wheeling in circles, their horns - clashing with a loud sound as they clank them together - in their rapid evolutions, they prepare for attack: - but generally, after a menacing display, the herd - betake themselves to flight; then forming again at a - safer distance, they halt as before, elevating their - nostrils, and throwing back their heads to take a - defiant survey of the intruders.[194] - -When tamed this animal is used for sporting purposes in a manner which -displays the spirit of curiosity of deer, hogs, and other animals. Thus, -Sir J. E. Tennent continues:-- - - A bell is attached to its neck, and a box or basket - with one side open is securely strapped on its back. - This at night is lighted with flambeaux of wax, and - the buffalo bearing it is slowly driven into the - jungle. The huntsmen with their fowling-pieces keep - close under the darkened side, and as it moves slowly - onwards, the wild animals, startled by the sound and - bewildered by the light, steal cautiously towards it - in stupefied fascination. Even the snake, I am - assured, will be attracted by this extraordinary - object; and the leopard, too, falls a victim to - curiosity.[195] - -Livingstone says of the African buffalo, that he has known the animal, -when pursued by hunters, to 'turn back to a point a few yards from its -own trail, and then lie down in a hollow for the hunter to come up,'--a -fact which displays a level of intelligence in this animal surpassing -that which is met with in most Carnivora.[196] - -Livingstone also says:-- - - It is curious to observe the intelligence of game; in - districts where they are much annoyed by fire-arms - they keep out on the most open spots of country they - can find, in order to have a widely extended range of - vision, and a man armed is carefully shunned. . . . - But here, where they are killed by the arrows of the - Balonda, they select for safety the densest forest, - where the arrow cannot be easily shot.[197] - -Jesse, who had many opportunities of observing the fact, says:-- - - I have been much delighted with watching the manner in - which some of the old bucks in Bushey Park continue to - get the berries from the fine thorn trees there. They - will raise themselves on their hind legs, give a - spring, entangle their horns in the lower branches of - the tree, give them one or two shakes, and they will - then quietly pick them up.[198] - -The same author elsewhere says:-- - - Few things, indeed, can show more forcibly the - powerful instinct which is implanted in animals for - their self-preservation than the means which they take - to avoid danger. I saw an instance of this lately in a - stag. It had been turned out before a pack of hounds, - and, when somewhat pressed by them, I observed it - twice to go amongst a flock of sheep, and in both - cases to double back, evidently, I should imagine, - with the intention of baffling the pursuit of the - dogs. It would thus seem that the animal was aware of - its being followed by the scent, and not by sight. If - this be the case, it affords another proof that - animals are possessed of something more than common - instinct.[199] - -This author also says that he has 'frequently observed the buffalo at -the Zoological Farm on Kingston Hill' display the following proof of -intelligence. Being of a ferocious disposition, a strong iron ring was -fixed through the septum of his nose, to which a chain about two feet -long was attached. At the free end of the chain there was another ring -about four inches in diameter. 'In grazing the buffalo must have put his -feet on this ring, and in raising his head the jerk would have produced -considerable pain. In order to avoid this the animal has the sense to -put his horn through the lower ring, and thus avoid the inconvenience he -is put to. I have seen him do this in a very deliberate manner, putting -his head on one side while he got his horn through the ring, and then -shaking his head till the ring rested at the bottom of the horn.'[200] - -The following is quoted from Mrs. Lee's 'Anecdotes' (p. 366), and is -rendered credible not only because her own observations are generally -good, but also because we shall subsequently find unquestionable -evidence of the display of similar intelligence by cats:-- - - A goat and her kids frequented a square in which I - once lived, and were often fed by myself and - servants--a circumstance which would have made no - impression, had I not heard a thumping at the hall - door, which arose from the buttings of the goat when - the food was not forthcoming, and whose example was - followed by the two little things. After a time this - remained unheeded, and, to our great astonishment, one - day the area bell used by the tradespeople, the wire - of which passed by the side of one of the railings, - was sounded. The cook answered it, but no one was - there save the goat and kids, with their heads bent - down towards the kitchen window. It was thought that - some boy had rung for them; but they were watched, and - the old goat was seen to hook one of her horns into - the wire and pull it. This is too much like reason to - be ascribed to mere instinct. - -P. Wakefield, in his 'Instinct Displayed,'[201] gives two separate cases -of an intelligent manoeuvre performed by goats. On both occasions two -goats met on a ridge of rock with a precipice on each side, and too -narrow to admit of their passing one another. One of these cases -occurred on the ramparts of Plymouth Citadel, and was witnessed by 'many -persons;' the other took place at Ardenglass, in Ireland. 'In both these -instances the animals looked at each other for some time, as if they -were considering their situation, and deliberating what was best to be -done in the emergency.' In each case one of the goats then 'knelt down -with great caution, and crouched as close as it could lie, when the -other walked over its back.' This manoeuvre on the part of goats has -also been recorded by other writers, and is not so incredible as it may -at first sight appear, if we remember that in their wild state these -animals must not unfrequently find themselves in this predicament. - -Mr. W. Forster, writing from Australia, gives me the following account -of the intelligence of a bull:-- - - A rather tame bull, bred of a milch cow, used to - puzzle me by being found inside a paddock used for - cultivation, and enclosed by a two-railed fence, of - which the lower rail was unusually high. At last I saw - the animal lie down close to the fence, and roll over - on his back, with four legs in the air, by which - proceeding he was inside the paddock. I never knew - another beast perform this feat; and although it must - have been often done in the presence of a number of - cows, not one of them ever imitated it, though they - would all have unquestionably followed the bull - through an opening in the fence, or by the slip-rails. - -Mr. G. S. Erb, writing from Salt Lake City, gives me an interesting -account of the sagacity displayed by the wild deer of the United States -in avoiding gun-traps, which, except for the cutting of the string, to -which the teeth of the animal are not so well adapted, is strikingly -similar to the sagacity which we shall see to be displayed in this -respect by sundry species of Carnivora. He says:-- - - My method was this: I would fell or cut down a maple - tree, the top of which they are very partial to; and - as the ground was invariably covered with snow to the - depth of 12 inches, food was scarce, and the deer - would come and browse, probably from hearing the tree - fall. I would place a loaded gun 20 feet from the top - of the tree at which it was pointing; I would attach a - line the size of an ordinary fish-line to a lever that - pressed against the trigger; the other end of the line - I would fasten to the tree-top. By this means the deer - could not pass between the tree and the gun without - getting shot, or at least shot at; but I never - succeeded in killing one when my line was as large as - a fish-line, _i.e._ about one-sixteenth of an inch in - thickness. Commencing at the body of the tree on one - side, the deer would eat all the tops to within 12 - inches of the line, and then go around the gun and eat - all on the other side, never touching the line. I - tried this at least sixty times, always with the same - result. Then I took a black linen thread, and had no - difficulty in killing them, as it was so small and - black that they could not distinguish it. - - -_Pigs._ - -There can be no doubt that pigs exhibit a degree of intelligence which -falls short only of that of the most intelligent Carnivora. The tricks -taught the so-called 'learned pigs' would alone suffice to show this; -while the marvellous skill with which swine sometimes open latches and -fastenings of gates, &c., is only equalled by that of the cat. The -following account of pigs in their wild state shows that they manifest -the same kind of sagacious co-operation in facing an enemy as that which -we have just seen to be manifested by the bison and the buffalo, -although here it seems to be displayed in a manner still more -organised:-- - - Wild swine associate in herds and defend themselves in - common. Green relates that in the wilds of Vermont a - person fell in with a large herd in a state of - extraordinary restlessness; they had formed a circle - with their heads outwards, and the young ones placed - in the middle. A wolf was using every artifice to snap - one, and on his return he found the herd scattered, - but the wolf was dead and completely ripped up. - Schmarda recounts an almost similar encounter between - a herd of tame swine and a wolf, which he witnessed on - the military positions of Croatia. He says that the - swine, seeing two wolves, formed themselves into a - wedge, and approached the wolves slowly, grunting and - erecting their bristles. One wolf fled, but the other - leaped on to the trunk of a tree. As soon as the swine - reached it they surrounded it with one accord, when, - suddenly and instantaneously, as the wolf attempted to - leap over them, they got him down and destroyed him in - a moment.[202] - -In Bingley's 'Memoirs of British Quadrupeds' (page 452) there is an -account drawn up at his request by Sir Henry Mildmay, concerning the -docility of the pig. The Toomer brothers were King's keepers in the New -Forest, and they conceived the idea of training a sow to point game. -This they succeeded in doing within a fortnight, and in a few more -weeks it also learnt to retrieve. Her scent was exceedingly good, and -she stood well at partridges, black game, pheasants, snipes, and -rabbits, but never pointed hares. She was more useful than a dog, and -afterwards became the property of Sir Henry Mildmay. According to -Youatt,[203] Colonel Thornton also had a sow similarly trained. The same -author says that a sow belonging to Mr. Craven had a litter of pigs, one -of which, when old enough, was taken and roasted, then a second and a -third. These were necessarily taken when the mother returned in the -evening from the woods for supper. But the next time she came she was -alone, and, 'as her owners were anxious to know what was become of her -brood, she was watched on the following evening, and observed driving -back her pigs at the extremity of the wood, with much earnest grunting, -while she went off to the house, leaving them to wait for her return. It -was evident that she had noticed the diminution of her family, and had -adopted this method to save those that remained.'[204] - -Mr. Stephen Harding sends me the following as an observation of his -own:-- - - On the 15th ult. (Nov. 1879) I saw an intelligent sow - pig about twelve months old, running in an orchard, - going to a young apple tree and shaking it, pricking - up her ears at the same time, as if to listen to hear - the apples fall. She then picked the apples up and ate - them. After they were all down she shook the tree - again and listened, but as there were no more to fall - she went away. - -The proverbial indifference to dirt attributed to the pig seems scarcely -to be justified; the worst that can be said is that the animal prefers -cool mud to dry heat, and the filth which swine often exhibit in their -sty is the fault of the farmers rather than of the animals. Or, to quote -from Thompson's 'Passions,'-- - - A washed sow in the hot season of our temperate - climate, and in almost every season of such a climate - as that of Palestine, 'returns to her wallowing in the - mire' simply because she feels scorched, and - blistered, and sickened under the ardent sunshine; - and hence, when she receives from man the aid which is - due to her as a domesticated animal, she demands not - dirt all the year through, nor any day at all, but - shade in summer, shelter in winter, and a clean, dry - bed in every season. - - -_Cheiroptera._ - -Mr. Bates says of bats: 'The fact of their sucking the blood of persons -sleeping is now well established; but it is only a few persons who are -subject to this bloodletting. . . . I am inclined to think many different -kinds of bats have this propensity' ('Nat. on Amaz.,' p. 91). The -particular species of bat, however, which has been most universally -accredited with this habit, viz., the vampire, is perfectly harmless. - -Mr. G. Clark ('A Brief Notice of the Fauna of Mauritius') gives an -account of the intelligence displayed by a tame bat (_Pteropus -vulgaris_). As soon as its master came into the room, it welcomed him -with cries; and if not at once taken up to be petted, it climbed up his -dress, rubbed its head against him, and licked his hands. If Mr. Clark -took anything in his hand, the bat would carefully examine it by sight -and smell, and when he sat down the bat would hang upon the back of his -chair, following all his movements with its eyes. - - -_Carnivora._ - -I shall here run together a few facts relating to the intelligence of -carnivorous animals other than those to be considered in subsequent -chapters. - -_Seals._--In their wild state these animals have not much opportunity -for the display of intelligence; but when tamed it is seen that the -latter is considerable. They are then affectionate animals, liking to be -petted, and showing attachment to their homes. The most remarkable -species of the order from a psychological point of view are the -so-called Pinnipeds, whose habits during the breeding season are so -peculiar that I think it is worth while to quote the best account that -has hitherto been published on the subject. This is the elaborate work -of Mr. Joel Asaph Allen:[205]-- - - From the time of the first arrivals in May up to the - 1st of June, as late as the middle of this month if - the weather be clear, is an interval in which - everything seems quiet; very few seals are added to - the pioneers. By the 1st of June, however, or - thereabouts, the foggy, humid weather of summer sets - in, and with it the bull-seals come up by hundreds and - thousands, and locate themselves in advantageous - positions for the reception of the females, which are - from three weeks to a month later, as a rule. The - labour of locating and maintaining a position in the - rookery is really a serious business for those bulls - which come in last, and for those that occupy the - water-line, frequently resulting in death from severe - wounds in combat sustained. It appears to be a well - understood principle among the able-bodied bulls that - each one shall remain undisturbed on his ground, which - is usually about ten feet square, provided he is - strong enough to hold it against all comers; for the - crowding in of fresh bulls often causes the removal of - those who, though equally able-bodied at first, have - exhausted themselves by fighting earlier, and are - driven by the fresher animals back further and higher - up on the rookery. Some of these bulls show wonderful - strength and courage. I have marked one veteran, who - was among the first to take up his position, and that - one on the water-line, when at least fifty or sixty - desperate battles were fought victoriously by him with - nearly as many different seals who coveted his - position; and when the fighting season was over (after - the cows have mostly all hauled up) I saw him covered - with scars and gashes, raw and bloody, an eye gouged - out, but holding it bravely over his harem of fifteen - or twenty cows, all huddled together on the same spot - he had first chosen. The fighting is mostly or - entirely done with the mouth, the opponents seizing - each other with the teeth and clenching the jaws; - nothing but sheer strength can shake them loose, and - that effort almost always leaves an ugly wound, the - sharp canines tearing out deep gutters in the skin and - blubber, or shredding the flippers into ribbon-strips. - They usually approach each other with averted heads - and a great many false passes before either one or the - other takes the initiative by gripping; the heads are - darted out and back as quick as flash, their hoarse - roaring and shrill piping whistle never ceases, while - their fat bodies writhe and swell with exertion and - rage, fur flying in air and blood streaming down--all - combined make a picture fierce and savage enough, and, - from its great novelty, exceedingly strange at first - sight. In these battles the parties are always - distinct, the offensive and the defensive; if the - latter proves the weaker he withdraws from the - position occupied, and is never followed by his - conqueror, who complacently throws up one of his hind - flippers, fans himself, as it were, to cool himself - from the heat of the conflict, uttering a peculiar - chuckle of satisfaction and contempt, with a sharp eye - open for the next covetous bull or 'sea-catch' (native - name for the bulls on the rookeries, especially those - which are able to maintain their position). - - * * * * * - - All the bulls, from the very first, that have been - able to hold their positions have not left them for an - instant, night or day; nor do they do so until the end - of the rutting season, which subsides entirely between - the 1st and 10th of August, beginning shortly after - the coming of the cows in June. Of necessity, - therefore, this causes them to fast, to abstain - entirely from food of any kind, or water for at least - three months; and a few of them stay four months - before going into the water for the first time after - hauling up in May. This alone is remarkable enough, - but it is simply wonderful when we come to associate - the condition with unceasing activity, restlessness, - and duty devolved upon the bulls as heads and fathers - of large families. They do not stagnate like bears in - caves; it is evidently accomplished or due to the - absorption of their own fat, with which they are so - literally supplied when they take their positions on - the breeding-ground, and which gradually diminishes - while they remain on it. - - * * * * * - - They are noticed and received by the bulls on the - water-line station with much attention; they are - alternately coaxed and urged up on the rocks, and are - immediately under the most jealous supervision; but - owing to the covetous and ambitious nature of the - bulls which occupy the stations reaching some way back - from the water-line, the little cows have a - rough-and-tumble time of it when they begin to arrive - in small numbers at first; for no sooner is the pretty - animal fairly established on the station of bull No. 1 - who has installed her there, than he perhaps sees - another one of her style down in the water from which - she has just come, and in obedience to his polygamous - feeling, he devotes himself anew to coaxing the later - arrival in the same winning manner so successful in - her case, when bull No. 2, seeing bull No. 1 off his - guard, reaches out his long strong neck, and picks the - unhappy but passive creature up by the scruff of hers, - just as a cat does a kitten, and deposits her on his - seraglio-ground; then bulls Nos. 3, 4, 5, and so on in - the vicinity, seeing this high-handed operation, all - assail one another, and especially bull No. 2, and - have a tremendous fight perhaps for half a minute or - so; and during this commotion the cow is generally - moved or moves farther back from the water two or - three stations more, where, when all gets quiet, she - usually remains in peace. Her late lord and master, - not having the exposure to such diverting temptation - as had her first, gives her such care that she not - only is unable to leave did she wish, but no other - bull can seize upon her. This is only one instance of - the many different trials and tribulations which both - parties on the rookery subject themselves to before - the harems are filled. Far back, fifteen or twenty - stations deep from the water-line sometimes, but - generally not more than, on an average, ten or - fifteen, the cows crowd in at the close of the season - for arriving, July 10 to 14, and then they are able to - go about pretty much as they please, for the bulls - have become greatly enfeebled by this constant - fighting and excitement during the past two months, - and are quite content with even only one or two - partners. - - * * * * * - - I have found it difficult to ascertain the average - number of cows to one bull on the rookery, but I think - it will be nearly correct to assign to each male from - twelve to fifteen females occupying the stations - nearest the water, those back in the rear from five to - nine. I have counted forty-five cows all under the - charge of one bull, which had them penned up on a flat - table-rock near Kestaire Point; the bull was enabled - to do this quite easily, as there was but one way to - go to or come from this seraglio, and on this path the - old Turk took his stand and guarded it well. At the - rear of all these rookeries there is always a large - number of able-bodied bulls, who wait patiently, but - in vain, for families, most of them having had to - fight as desperately for the privilege of being there - as any of their more fortunately located neighbours, - who are nearer the water than themselves; but the cows - do not like to be in any outside position, when they - are not in close company lying most quiet and content - in the largest harems; and these large families pack - the surface of the ground so thickly that there is - hardly moving or turning room until the females cease - to come up from the sea; but the inaction on the part - of the bulls in the rear during the rutting season - only serves to qualify them to move into the places - vacated by those males who are obliged to leave from - exhaustion, or to take the position of fearless and - jealous protectors for the young pups in the fall. The - courage with which the fur-seal holds his position as - the head and guardian of a family is of the very - highest order compared with that of other animals. I - have repeatedly tried to drive them when they have - fairly established themselves, and have almost always - failed, using every stone at my command, making all - the noise I could, and finally, to put their courage - to the full test, I walked up to within twenty feet of - a bull at the rear and extreme end of Tolstoi Rookery, - who had four cows in charge, and commenced with my - double-barrelled breech-loading shot-gun to pepper him - all over with mustard-seed or dust-shot. His bearing - in spite of the noise, smell of powder, and pain, did - not change in the least from the usual attitude of - determined defence which nearly all the bulls assume - when attacked with showers of stones and noise; he - would dart out right and left and catch the cows which - timidly attempted to run after each report, fling and - drag them back to their places; then, stretching up to - his full height, look me directly and defiantly in the - face, roaring and spitting most vehemently. The cows, - however, soon got away from him, but he still stood - his ground, making little charges on me of ten or - fifteen feet in a succession of gallops or lunges, - spitting furiously and then retreating to the old - position, back of which he would not go, fully - resolved to hold his own or die in the attempt. - - This courage is all the more noteworthy from the fact - that, in regard to man, it is invariably of a - defensive character. The seal, if it makes you turn - when you attack it, never follows you much farther - than the boundary of its station, and no aggravation - will compel it to become offensive, as far as I have - been able to observe. - - * * * * * - - The apathy with which the young are treated by the old - on the breeding-grounds is somewhat strange. I have - never seen a cow caress or fondle her offspring, and - should it stray but a short distance from the harem, - it can be picked up and killed before the mother's - eyes, without causing her to show the slightest - concern. The same indifference is exhibited by the - bull to all that takes place outside of the boundary - of his seraglio. While the pups are, however, within - the limits of his harem-ground he is a jealous and - fearless protector; but if the little animals pass - beyond this boundary, then they may be carried off - without the slightest attention in their behalf from - their guardian. - - * * * * * - - Early in August (8th) the pups that are nearest the - water on the rookeries essay swimming, but make slow - and clumsy progress, floundering about, when over head - in depth, in the most awkward manner, thrashing the - water with their fore-flippers, not using the hinder - ones. In a few seconds, or a minute at the most, the - youngest is so wary that he crawls out upon the rocks - or beach, and immediately takes a recuperative nap, - repeating the lesson as quick as he awakes and is - rested. They soon get familiar with the water and - delight in it, swimming in endless evolutions, - twisting, turning, diving; and when exhausted, they - draw up on the beach again, shake themselves as young - dogs do, either going to sleep on the spot, or having - a lazy frolic among themselves. - - In this matter of learning to swim, I have not seen - any 'driving' of the young pups into the water by the - old in order to teach them this process, as has been - affirmed by writers on the subject of seal life. - -_Otter._--The fact that otters admit of being taught to catch fish and -bring them to their masters, shows no small degree of docility on the -part of these animals. 'I have seen,' says Dr. Goldsmith, 'an otter go -to a gentleman's pond at word of command, drive the fish into a corner, -and, seizing upon the largest of the whole, bring it off in his mouth to -his master.' And several other cases of the same kind are given by -Bingley.[206] - -_Weasel._--'Mdlle. de Faister described her tame weasel to Buffon as -playing with her fingers like a kitten, jumping on her head and neck; -and if she presented her hands at the distance of three feet, it jumped -into them without ever missing. It distinguished her voice amidst twenty -people, and sprang over everybody to get at her. She found it impossible -to open a drawer or a box, or even to look at a paper, without his -examining it also. If she took up a paper or book, and looked -attentively at it, the weasel immediately ran upon her hand, and -surveyed with an inquisitive air whatever she happened to hold.'[207] - -_Polecat._--Professor Alison, in his article on 'Instinct,' in Todd's -'Cyclopædia of Anatomy,' quotes the following account from the 'Magazine -of Natural History' (vol. iv., p. 206) touching a remarkable instinct -manifested by polecats. 'I dug out five young polecats, comfortably -embedded in dry, withered grass; and in a side-hole, of proper -dimensions for such a larder, I picked out forty large frogs and two -toads, all alive, but merely capable of sprawling a little. On -examination, I found that the whole number, toads and all, had been -purposely and dexterously bitten through the brain.' The analogy of this -instinct to that which has already been mentioned as having been much -more recently observed by M. Fabre in the sphex insect is noteworthy. - -_Ferret._--I once kept a ferret as a domestic pet. He was a very large -specimen, and my sister taught him a number of tricks, such as begging -for food (which he did quite as well and patiently as any terrier), -leaping over sticks, &c. He became a very affectionate animal, -delighting much in being petted, and following like a dog when taken out -for walk. He would, however, only follow those persons whom he well -knew. That his memory was exceedingly good was shown by the fact that -after an absence of many months, during which he was never required to -beg, or to perform any of his tricks, he went through all his paces -perfectly the first time that we again tried him. - -I strongly suspect that ferrets dream, as I have frequently seen them -when fast asleep moving their noses and twitching their claws as if in -pursuit of rabbits. Another fact I may mention as bearing on the -intelligence of these animals. On one occasion, while ferreting rabbits, -I lost the ferret about a mile away from home. Some days afterwards the -animal returned to his home. Similar cases have been communicated to me -by several sporting friends, but certainly the return of a ferret under -such circumstances is the exception, and not the rule. - -_Wolverine._--Amazing tales are told concerning the intelligence of this -animal, which for the most part are certainly exaggerations. Still there -is no doubt that the creature does display a degree of sagacious cunning -unsurpassed, if not unequalled, in the animal kingdom. This may be -shown by the two following quotations from the statements of trustworthy -writers. The first is a letter kindly sent me by Dr. J. Rae, F.R.S., in -reply to my request for information concerning the intelligence of this -animal:-- - - The narratives of most travellers in America tell - wonderful stories of the glutton or wolverine, but I - do not know that any of my experiences of this - extremely acute animal indicate what I call reasoning - powers. They are very suspicious, and can seldom or - never be taken with poisoned bait, trap, or gun. The - poisoned baits are usually found broken up, but not - eaten by them; traps are destroyed or entered, but not - where the trapper desired; and guns, except when - concealed after the Eskimo fashion by a covering of - snow, are avoided. - - In 1853, on the Arctic coast, when about to change our - domicile from a tent to the warmer snow hut, my man - had carried over about 100 lbs. or more of fine - venison steaks to the snow houses about a quarter of a - mile from our tents; and as there were at the time no - traces either of foxes, wolves, or wolverines about, - the meat was placed overnight in one of the huts, and - the door left open. During the night two wolverines - came, but, evidently dreading some trap or danger in - the open door, would not enter that way, but cut a - hole for themselves through the wall of the snow hut, - and carried off all our fine steaks, a considerable - quantity of which was picked up close to our house - when the thaw took place in the spring, it having been - hid in the snow, but completely spoilt for use, by a - well-known filthy habit. - -Dr. Rae has also drawn my attention to the following account contained -in the Miscellaneous Publications of the Geological Survey of the United -States.[208] The writer of this account is Captain Elliot Cones:-- - - To the trapper the wolverines are equally annoying. - When they have discovered a line of marten traps they - will never abandon the road, and must be killed before - the trapping can be successfully carried on. Beginning - at one end, they proceed from trap to trap along the - whole line, pulling them successively to pieces, and - taking out the baits from behind. When they can eat no - more, they continue to steal the baits and câche - them. If hungry they may devour two or three of the - martens they find captured, the remainder being - carried off and hidden in the snow at a considerable - distance. The work of demolition goes on as fast as - the traps can be renewed. - - The propensity to steal and hide things is one of the - strongest traits of the wolverine. To such an extent - is it developed that the animal will often secrete - articles of no possible use to itself. Besides the - wanton destruction of marten traps, it will carry off - the sticks and hide them at a distance, apparently in - sheer malice. Mr. Ross, in the article above quoted, - has given an amusing instance of the extreme of this - propensity. The desire for accumulating property seems - so deeply implanted in this animal, that, like tame - ravens, it does not appear to care much what it steals - so that it can exercise its favourite propensity to - commit mischief. An instance occurred within my own - knowledge, in which a hunter and his family having - left their lodge unguarded during their absence, on - their return found it completely gutted--the walls - were there, but nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles, - axes, cans, knives, and all the other paraphernalia of - a trapper's tent had vanished, and the tracks left by - the beast showed who had been the thief. The family - set to work, and by carefully following up all his - paths recovered, with some trifling exceptions, the - whole of the lost property. - - * * * * * - - At Peel's River, on one occasion, a very old carcajou - discovered my marten road, on which I had nearly a - hundred and fifty traps. I was in the habit of - visiting the line about once a fortnight, but the - beast fell into the way of coming oftener than I did, - to my great annoyance and vexation. I determined to - put a stop to his thieving and his life together, cost - what it might. So I made six strong traps at as many - different points, and also set three steel traps. For - three weeks I tried my best to catch the beast without - success; and my worst enemy would allow that I am no - green hand in these matters. The animal carefully - avoided the traps set for his own benefit, and seemed - to be taking more delight than ever in demolishing my - marten traps and eating the martens, scattering the - poles in every direction, and câching what baits or - martens he did not devour on the spot. As we had no - poison in those days, I next set a gun on the bank of - a little lake. The gun was concealed in some low - bushes, but the bait was so placed that the carcajou - must see it on his way up the bank. I blockaded my - path to the gun with a small pine tree, which - completely hid it. On my first visit afterwards I - found that the beast had gone up to the bait and - smelled it, but had left it untouched. He had next - pulled up the pine tree that blocked the path, and - gone around the gun and cut the line which connected - the bait with the trigger, just behind the muzzle. - Then he had gone back and pulled the bait away, and - carried it out on the lake, where he lay down and - devoured it at his leisure. There I found my string. I - could scarcely believe that all this had been done - designedly, for it seemed that faculties fully on a - par with human reason would be required for such an - exploit if done intentionally. I therefore rearranged - things, tying the string where it had been bitten. But - the result was exactly the same for three successive - occasions, as I could plainly see by the footprints; - and what is most singular of all, each time the brute - was careful to cut the line a little back of where it - had been tied before, as if actually reasoning with - himself that even the knots might be some new device - of mine, and therefore a source of hidden danger he - would prudently avoid. I came to the conclusion that - that carcajou ought to live, as he must be something - at least human, if not worse. I gave it up, and - abandoned the road for a period. - - * * * * * - - With so much for the tricks and the manners of the - beast behind our backs, roaming at will in his vast - solitudes, what of his actions in the presence of man? - It is said that if one only stands still, even in full - view of an approaching carcajou, he will come within - fifty or sixty yards, provided he be to windward, - before he takes the alarm. Even then, if he be not - warned by sense of smell, he seems in doubt, and will - gaze earnestly several times before he finally - concludes to take himself off. On these and similar - occasions he has a singular habit--one not shared, so - far as I am aware, by any other beast whatever. He - sits on his haunches and shades his eyes with one of - his fore-paws, just as a human being would do in - scrutinising a dim or distant object. The carcajou, - then, in addition to his other and varied - accomplishments, is a perfect sceptic--to use this - word in its original signification. A sceptic, with - the Greeks, was simply one who would shade his eyes to - see more clearly. - -_Bears._--There is no doubt that the intelligence of these animals -stands very high in the psychological scale, although the actual -instances which I have met of the display of their intelligence are few. -The tricks which are taught performing bears do not count for much as -proof of high sagacity, as they for the most part consist in teaching -the animals to assume unnatural positions, or display grotesque -antics--performances which speak indeed for the general docility of the -creatures, but scarcely for their high intelligence. Still even here it -is worth while to remark that all species of bears would probably not -lend themselves to this kind of education, for the emotional temperament -manifested by the different species is unquestionably diverse. Thus, -making all allowances for exaggeration, it seems certain that the -grizzly bear displays a courage and ferocity which are foreign to the -disposition of the brown bear, and indeed to that of most other animals. -The polar bear likewise displays much bravery under the influence of -hunger or maternal feeling, although under other circumstances it -usually deems discretion the better part of valour. The following -incident displays considerable intelligence on the part of this animal. - -Scoresby, in his 'Account of the Arctic Regions,' gives the instance to -which I allude:-- - - The animal with two cubs was being pursued by a party - of sailors over an ice-field. She urged her young to - an increase of speed by running before them, turning - round, and manifesting, by a peculiar action and - voice, her anxiety for their progress; but finding - that her pursuers were gaining upon them, she carried, - or pushed, or pitched them alternately forward, until - she effected their escape. In throwing them before - her, the little creatures placed themselves across her - path to receive the impulse; and when projected some - yards in advance, they ran onwards until she overtook - them, when they alternately adjusted themselves for a - second throw. - -As the polar bear is not exposed to any enemies except man, this method -of escaping is not likely to be instinctive, but was probably an -intelligent adaptation to the particular circumstances of the case. - -Mr. S. J. Hutchinson writes me as follows with regard to this same -species:-- - - One Sunday, at the 'Zoo,' some one threw a bun to the - bears, but it fell in the water in that - quadrant-shaped pond you will remember. The bun fell - just at the angle, and the bear seemed disinclined to - enter the water, but stood on the edge of the pond, - and commenced _stirring_ the water with its paw, so - that it established a sort of rotatory current, which - eventually brought the bun within reach. When one leg - got tired it used the other, but in the same - direction. I watched the whole performance with the - greatest interest myself. - -In corroboration of this most remarkable observation I quote the -following from Mr. Darwin's 'Descent of Man' (p. 76), which is so -precisely similar, that the fact of bears reaching the high level of -intelligence which the fact implies can scarcely be doubted. 'A -well-known entomologist, Mr. Westropp, informs me that he observed in -Vienna a bear deliberately making with his paw a current in some water -which was close to the bars of his cage, so as to draw a piece of -floating bread within his reach.' - -FOOTNOTES: - -[190] _Passions of Animals_, p. 154. - -[191] See Mr. Darwin's account in _Naturalist's Voyage round the World_, -pp. 151-2. - -[192] _Nature_, vol. xx., p. 21. - -[193] Thompson, _Passions of Animals_, p. 308. - -[194] _Natural History of Ceylon_, p. 54. - -[195] _Ibid._, p. 56. - -[196] _Missionary Travels_, p. 328. - -[197] _Ibid._, p. 280. - -[198] _Gleanings_, &c., vol. i., p. 20. - -[199] _Ibid._, vol. ii., p. 20. - -[200] _Ibid._, pp. 226-7. - -[201] Pp. 66 and 97. - -[202] Thompson, _Passions of Animals_, p. 308. - -[203] _On the Pig_, p. 17. - -[204] _Ibid._ - -[205] _History of the North American Pinnipeds._ The quotations are -taken from pp. 348 to 361. - -[206] _Animal Biography_, vol. iii., pp. 301-2. - -[207] Thompson, _Passions in Animals_, p. 337. - -[208] Vol. viii., Washington, 1877: 'A Monograph of the North American -_Mustelidæ_.' - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -RODENTS. - - -THE rodents, psychologically considered, are, of all orders in the -animal kingdom, most remarkable for the differences presented by -constituent species. For while the group contains many animals, such as -the guinea-pig, whose instincts and intelligence cannot be said to rise -above the lowest level that obtains among mammalian forms, it also -contains other animals with instincts as remarkable as those of the -squirrel, intelligence as considerable as that of the rat, and a -psychological development as unique as that of the beaver. In no other -group of animals do we meet with nearly so striking an exemplification -of the truth that zoological or structural affinity is only related in a -most loose and general way to psychological or mental similarity. Up to -a certain point, however, even here we meet with an exemplification of -what I may call a complementary truth, namely, that similarity of -organisation and environment is in a general way related to similarity -of instincts (though not necessarily of intelligence). This is obviously -the case with the habit from which the order takes its name; for whether -the instinct of gnawing is here the cause or the result of peculiar -organisation, the instinct is unquestionably correlated with the -peculiarity. And similarly, though less obviously, is this the case with -the instinct of storing food for winter consumption, which is more -prevalent among the rodents than in any other order of mammals--rats, -mice, squirrels, harvesters, beavers, &c., all manifesting it with -remarkable vigour and persistency. Here we probably have a case of -similar organisation and environment determining the same instinct; for -the latter is not of sufficiently general occurrence among all species -of rodents to allow us to suppose that the species in which it does -occur have derived it from a common ancestry. - - -_Rabbit._ - -Rabbits are somewhat stupid animals, exhibiting but small resources -under novel circumstances, although inheriting several clever instincts, -such as that of rapidly deciding upon the alternative of flight or -crouching, which is usually done with the best judgment. I have, -however, often observed that the animal does not seem to have sense -enough to regard the colour of the surface on which it crouches, so that -if this happens to be inappropriate, the rabbit may become conspicuous, -and so its crouching a source of danger. I have been particularly struck -with the fact that black rabbits inherit the crouching instinct as -strongly as do normally coloured ones, with the effect of rendering -themselves highly conspicuous. This shows that the instinct is not -necessarily correlated with the colour which alone renders the instinct -useful, but that both have developed simultaneously and independently, -and by natural selection. The fact also shows that the crouching of -rabbits is purely instinctive, and not due to any conscious process of -comparing their own colour with that of the surfaces on which they -crouch. No doubt the instinct began and was developed by natural -selection placing a premium upon the better judgment of those -individuals which know when best to seek safety in flight and when by -crouching--protective colouring being added at the same time by the same -agency. - -Another fact, which every one who shoots must have observed, goes to -show the stupidity of rabbits, or their inability to learn by -experience. When alarmed they run for their burrows, and when they reach -them, instead of entering they very frequently squat down to watch the -enemy. Now, although they well know the distance at which it is safe to -allow a man with a gun to approach, excess of curiosity, or a mistaken -feeling of security in being so near their homes, induces the animals to -allow a man to approach within easy shooting distance. Yet that in -other respects rabbits can learn much by experience must be evident to -all who are accustomed to shoot with ferrets. From burrows which have -not been much ferreted, rabbits will bolt soon after the ferret is put -in; but this is not the case where rabbits have had previous experience -of the association between ferrets and sportsmen. Rather than bolt under -such circumstances, and so face the known danger of the waiting gun, -rabbits will often allow themselves to be torn with the ferrets' claws -and mutilated by their teeth. This is the case, no matter how silently -the sportsmen may conduct their operations; the mere fact of a ferret -entering their burrows seems to be enough to assure the rabbits that -sportsmen are waiting outside.[209] - -In its emotions the rabbit is for the most part a very timid animal, -although the males fight severely with one another--having more strongly -developed than any other animal the strange but effectual instinct of -castrating their rivals. Moreover, even against other animals, rabbits -will, when compelled to do so, stand upon the defensive. To show this I -may quote a letter which several years ago I published in 'Nature:'-- - - I have occasion just now to keep over thirty Himalayan - rabbits in an outhouse. A short time ago it was - observed that some of these rabbits had been attacked - and slightly bitten by rats. Next day the person who - feeds the rabbits observed, upon entering the - outhouse, that nearly all the inmates were congregated - in one corner; and upon going to ascertain the cause, - found one rat dead, and another so much injured that - it could scarcely run. Both rats were of an unusually - large size, and their bodies were much mangled by the - rabbits' teeth. - - I never before knew that domestic rabbits would fight - with any carnivorous antagonist. That wild rabbits - never do so I infer from having several times seen - ferrets turn out from the most crowded burrow in a - warren young stoats and weasels not more than four - inches long. - - It is evident that the show-fight instinct cannot have - been developed in Himalayan rabbits by means of - natural selection, but it is no less evident that if - it ever arose in wild rabbits it would be preserved - and intensified by such means. - -The following observation of my own on a previously unnoticed instinct -displayed by wild rabbits is, I think, of sufficient interest to render. -Most people are aware that if a rabbit is shot near the mouth of its -burrow, the animal will employ the last remnant of its life in -struggling into it. Having several times observed that wounded rabbits -which had thus escaped appeared again several days afterwards above -ground, lying dead a few feet from the mouth of the burrow, I wished to -ascertain whether the wounded animals had themselves come out before -dying, possibly for air, or had been taken out by their companions. I -therefore shot numerous rabbits while they were sitting near their -burrows, taking care that the distance between the gun and the animal -should be such as to insure a speedy, though not an immediate death. -Having marked the burrows at which I shot rabbits in this manner I -returned to them at intervals for a fortnight or more, and found that -about one-half of the bodies appeared again on the surface in the way -described. That this reappearance above ground is not due to the -victim's own exertions, I am now quite satisfied; for not only did two -or three days generally elapse before the body thus showed itself--a -period much too long for a severely wounded rabbit to survive--but in a -number of cases decomposition had set in. Indeed, on one occasion -scarcely anything of the animal was left save the skin and bones. This -was in a large warren. - -It is a curious thing that I have hitherto been unable to get any bodies -returned to the surface, of rabbits which I _inserted_ into their -burrows _after death_. I account for this by supposing that the stench -of the decomposing carcass is not so intolerable to the other occupants -of the burrow when it is near the orifice as it is when further in. -Similarly, I find that there is not so good a chance of bodies being -returned from an extensive warren of intercommunicating holes, as there -is from smaller warrens or blind holes; the reason probably being that -in the one case the living inhabitants are free to vacate the offensive -locality, while in the other case they are not so. Anyhow, there can be -no reasonable doubt that the instinct of removing their dead has arisen -in rabbits from the necessity of keeping their confined domiciles in a -pure state. - - -_Hare._ - -The hare is a more intelligent animal than the rabbit. Possibly its much -greater powers of locomotion may be one cause of its mental superiority -to its nearest congener. I have never myself observed a hare commit the -mistake already mentioned in the case of the rabbit, viz., that of -crouching for concealment upon an inappropriately coloured surface. But -the best idea of the comparatively high intelligence of the hare will be -gained by the following quotations. The first of these is taken from -Loudoun's 'Magazine of Natural History' (vol. iv., p. 143):-- - - It is especially conscious of the scent left by its - feet, and of the danger which threatens it in - consequence; a reflection which implies as much - knowledge of the habits of its enemies as of its own. - When about to enter its seat for the purpose of rest, - it leaps in various directions, and crosses and - recrosses its path with repeated springs; and at last, - by a leap of greater energy than it has yet used, it - effects a lodgment in the selected spot, which is - chosen rather to disarm suspicion than to protect it - from injury. In the 'Manuel du Chasseur' some - instances are quoted from an ancient volume on hunting - by Jaques du Fouillouse. A hare intending to mislead - its pursuers has been seen spontaneously to quit its - seat and to proceed to a pond at the distance of - nearly a mile, and having washed itself, push off - again through a quantity of rushes. It has, too, been - known, when pursued to fatigue by dogs, to thrust - another hare from its seat and squat itself down in - its place. This author has seen hares swim - successively through two or three ponds, of which the - smallest was eighty paces round. He has known it, - after a long chase, to creep under the door of a - sheep-house and rest among the cattle, and when the - hounds were in pursuit, it would get into the middle - of a flock of sheep and accompany them in all their - motions round the field, refusing by any means to quit - the shelter they afforded. The stratagem of its - passing forward on one side of a hedge and returning - by the other, with only the breadth of the hedge - between itself and its enemies, is of frequent - occurrence, and it has even been known to select its - seat close to the walls of a dog-kennel. This latter - circumstance, however, is illustrative of the - principles of reflection and reasoning; for the fox, - weasel, and polecat are to the hare more dangerous - enemies than the hound; and the situations chosen were - such as those ferocious creatures were not likely to - approach. A gentleman was engaged in the amusement of - coursing, when a hare, closely pressed, passed under a - gate, while the dogs followed by leaping over it. The - delay caused to her pursuers by this manoeuvre seems - to have taught a sudden and useful lesson to the - persecuted creature; for as soon as the dogs had - cleared the gate and overtaken her, she doubled and - returned under the gate as before, the dogs again - following and passing over it. And this flirtation - continued backwards and forwards until the dogs were - fairly tired of the amusement; when the hare, taking - advantage of their fatigue, quietly stole away. - -The following note, by Mr. Yarrell, is significant of a process of -reasoning derived from observations of the course of nature, such as -would do no discredit to a higher race of creatures:-- - - A harbour of great extent on our northern coast has an - island near the middle of considerable size, the - nearest point of which is a mile distant from the - mainland at high water, and with which point there is - frequent communication by a ferry. Early one morning - in spring two hares were observed to come down from - the hills of the mainland towards the sea-side; one of - which from time to time left its companion, and - proceeding to the very edge of the water, stopped - there a minute or two, and then returned to its mate. - The tide was rising, and after waiting some time, one - of them, exactly at high water, took to the sea, and - swam rapidly over, in a straight line, to the opposite - projecting point of land. The observer on this - occasion, who was near the spot, but remained - unperceived by the hares, had no doubt they were of - different sexes, and that it was the male (like - another Leander) which swam across the water, as he - had probably done many times before. It was remarkable - that the hares had remained on the shore nearly half - an hour; one of them occasionally examining, as it - would seem, the state of the current, and ultimately - taking to the sea at that precise period of the tide - called slackwater, when the passage across could be - effected without being carried by the force of the - stream either above or below the desired point of - landing. The other hare then cantered back to the - hills. (Loudoun's 'Magazine of Natural History,' vol. - v., p. 99.) - -According to Couch ('Illustrations of Instinct,' p. 177)-- - - When followed by dogs, it will not run through a gate, - though this is obviously the most ready passage; nor - in crossing a hedge will it prefer a smooth and even - part, but the roughest, where thorns and briars - abound; and when it mounts an eminence it proceeds - obliquely, and not straightforward. And whether we - suppose these actions to proceed from a desire to - avoid those places where traps may probably have been - laid, or from knowing that his pursuers will exactly - follow his footsteps, and he has resolved to lead them - through as many obstacles as possible, in either case - an estimation of causes and consequences is to be - discovered. - -It is a remarkable thing that both hares and rabbits should allow -themselves to be overtaken in the open field by weasels. I have myself -witnessed the process, and am at a loss to account for it. The hare or -rabbit seems perfectly aware of the dangerous character of the weasel, -and yet does not put forth its powers of escape. It merely toddles along -with the weasel toddling behind, until tamely allowing itself to be -overtaken. This anomalous case may perhaps be akin to the alleged -phenomena of the fascination of birds and small rodents by snakes; but -in any case there seems to have been here a remarkable failure of -natural selection in doing duty to the instincts of these swift-footed -animals. - -We must not close this account of the intelligence of the hare genus -without alluding to the classical case of Cowper's hares. The following -abstract is taken from Tegg's edition of 'The Life and Works of William -Cowper,' p. 633:-- - - Puss was ill three days, during which time I nursed - him, kept him apart from his fellows, . . . and by - constant care, &c., restored him to perfect health. No - creature could be more grateful than my patient after - his recovery, a sentiment which he most significantly - expressed by licking my hand, first the back of it, - then the palm, then every finger separately, then - between all the fingers, as if anxious to leave no - part of it unsaluted; _a ceremony which he never - performed but once again upon a similar occasion_. - Finding him extremely tractable, I made it my custom - to carry him always after breakfast into the garden. . . . - I had not long habituated him to this taste of - liberty before he began to be impatient for the return - of the time when he might enjoy it. He would invite me - to the garden by drumming upon my knee, and by a look - of such expression as it was not possible to - misinterpret. If this rhetoric did not immediately - succeed, _he would take the skirt of my coat between - his teeth and pull it with all his force_. He seemed to - be happier in human society than when shut up with his - natural companions. - - -_Rats and Mice._ - -Rats are well known to be highly intelligent animals. Unlike the hare or -rabbit, their shyness seems to proceed from a wise caution rather than -from timidity; for, when circumstances require, their boldness and -courage in combat is surprising. Moreover, they never seem to lose their -presence of mind; for, however great their danger, they seem always -ready to take advantage of any favouring circumstances that may arise. -Thus, when matched with so formidable an opponent as a ferret in a -closed room, they have been known to display wonderful cunning in taking -advantage of the light--keeping close under the window so as to throw -the glare into the eyes of the enemy, darting forwards time after time -to deliver a bite, and then as often retiring to their vantage-ground.[210] -But the emotions of rats do not appear to be of an entirely selfish -character. There are so many accounts in the anecdote books of blind -rats being led about by their seeing companions, that it is difficult to -discredit an observation so frequently confirmed.[211] Moreover, rats -have been frequently known to assist one another in defending themselves -from dangerous enemies. Several observations of this kind are recorded -by the trustworthy writer Mr. Rodwell, in his somewhat elaborate work -upon this animal. - -Again, as showing affection for human beings, I may quote the -following:--'The mouse which had been tamed by Baron Trench in his -prison having been taken from him, watched at the door and crept in when -it was opened; being removed again, it refused all food, and died in -three days.'[212] - -With regard to general intelligence, every one knows the extraordinary -wariness of rats in relation to traps, which is only equalled in the -animal kingdom by that of the fox and the wolverine. It has frequently -been regarded as a wonderful display of intelligence on the part of rats -that while gnawing through the woodwork of a ship, they always stop -before they completely perforate the side; but, as Mr. Jesse suggests, -this is probably due to their distaste of the salt water. No such -disparaging explanation, however, is possible in some other instances of -the display of rat-intelligence. Thus, the manner in which they -transport eggs to their burrows has been too frequently observed to -admit of doubt. Rodwell gives a case in which a number of eggs were -carried from the top of a house to the bottom by two rats devoting -themselves to each egg, and alternately passing it down to each other at -every step of the staircase.[213] Dr. Carpenter also received from an -eye-witness a similar account of another instance.[214] According to the -article in the _Quarterly Review_, already mentioned, rats will not only -convey eggs from the top of the house to the bottom, but from bottom to -top. 'The male rat places himself on his fore-paws, with his head -downwards, and raising up his hind legs and catching the egg between -them, pushes it up to the female, who stands on the step above, and -secures it with her fore-paws till he jumps up to her; and this process -is repeated from step to step till the top is reached.' - -'The captain of a merchantman,' says Mr. Jesse, 'trading to the port of -Boston, in Lincolnshire, had constantly missed eggs from his sea stock. -He suspected that he was robbed by his crew, but not being able to -discover the thief, he was determined to watch his store-room. -Accordingly, having laid in a fresh stock of eggs, he seated himself at -night in a situation that commanded a view of his eggs. To his great -astonishment he saw a number of rats approach; they formed a line from -his egg baskets to their hole, and handed the eggs from one to another -in their fore-paws.'[215] - -Another device to which rats resort for the procuring of food is -mentioned in all the anecdote books, and it seemed so interesting that I -tried some direct experiments upon the subject. I shall first state the -alleged facts in the words of Watson:-- - - As to oil, rats have been known to get oil out of a - narrow-necked bottle in the following way:--One of - them would place himself, on some convenient support, - by the side of the bottle, and then, dipping his tail - into the oil, would give it to another to lick. In - this act there is something more than what we call - instinct; there is reason and understanding.[216] - -Jesse also gives the following account:-- - - A box containing some bottles of Florence oil was - placed in a store-room which was seldom opened; the - box had no lid to it. On going to the room one day for - one of the bottles, the owner found that the pieces of - bladder and cotton at the mouth of each bottle had - disappeared, and that much of the contents of the - bottles had been consumed. The circumstance having - excited suspicion, a few bottles were refilled with - oil, and the mouths of them secured as before. Next - morning the coverings of the bottles had been removed, - and some of the oil was gone. However, upon watching - the room, which was done through a little window, some - rats were seen to get into the box, and insert their - tails into the necks of the bottles, and then - withdrawing them, they licked off the oil which - adhered to them.[217] - -Lastly, Rodwell gives another case similar in all essential respects, -save that the rat licked its own tail instead of presenting it to a -companion. - -The experiment whereby I tested the truth of these statements was a -very simple one. I recorded it in 'Nature' as follows:-- - - It is, I believe, pretty generally supposed that rats - and mice use their tails for feeding purposes when the - food to be eaten is contained in vessels too narrow to - admit the entire body of the animal. I am not aware, - however, that the truth of this supposition has ever - been actually tested by any trustworthy person, and so - think the following simple experiments are worth - publishing. Having obtained a couple of tall-shaped - preserve bottles with rather short and narrow necks, I - filled them to within three inches of the top with red - currant jelly which had only half stiffened. I covered - the bottles with bladder in the ordinary way, and then - stood them in a place infested by rats. Next morning - the bladder covering each of the bottles had a small - hole gnawed through it, and the level of the jelly was - reduced in both bottles to the same extent. Now, as - this extent corresponded to about the length of a - rat's tail if inserted at the hole in the bladder, and - as this hole was not much more than just large enough - to admit the root of this organ, I do not see that any - further evidence is required to prove the manner in - which the rats obtained the jelly, viz., by repeatedly - introducing their tails into the viscid matter, and as - repeatedly licking them clean. However, to put the - question beyond doubt, I refilled the bottles to the - extent of half an inch above the jelly level left by - the rats, and having placed a circle of moist paper - upon each of the jelly surfaces, covered the bottles - with bladder as before. I now left the bottles in a - place where there were no rats or mice, until a good - crop of mould had grown upon one of the moistened - pieces of paper. The bottle containing this crop of - mould I then transferred to the place where the rats - were numerous. Next morning the bladder had again been - eaten through at one edge, and upon the mould there - were numerous and distinct tracings of the rats' - tails, resembling marks made with the top of a - pen-holder. These tracings were evidently caused by - the animals sweeping their tails about in a fruitless - endeavour to find a hole in the circle of paper which - covered the jelly. - -With regard to mice, the Rev. W. North, rector of Ashdown, in Essex, -placed a pot of honey in a closet, in which a quantity of plaster -rubbish had been left by builders. The mice piled up the plaster in the -form of a heap against the sides of the pot, in order to constitute an -inclined plane whereby to reach the rim. A quantity of the rubbish had -also been thrown into the pot, with the effect of raising the level of -the honey that remained to near the rim of the pot; but, of course, the -latter fact may have been due to accident, and not to design.[218] This is -a case in which mal-observation does not seem to have been likely. - -Powelsen, a writer on Iceland, has related an account of the -intelligence displayed by the mice of that country, which has given rise -to a difference of competent opinion, and which perhaps can hardly yet -be said to have been definitely settled. What Powelsen said is that the -mice collect in parties of from six to ten, select a flat piece of dried -cow-dung, pile berries or other food upon it, then with united strength -drag it to the edge of any stream they wish to cross, launch it, embark, -and range themselves round the central heap of provisions with their -heads joined over it, and their tails hanging in the water, perhaps -serving as rudders. Pennant afterwards gave credit to this account, -observing that in a country where berries were scarce, the mice were -compelled to cross streams for distant forages.[219] Dr. Hooker, however, -in his 'Tour in Iceland,' concludes that the account is a pure -fabrication. Dr. Henderson, therefore, determined on trying to arrive at -the truth of the matter, with the following result:--'I made a point of -inquiring of different individuals as to the reality of the account, and -am happy in being able to say that it is now established as an important -fact in natural history by the testimony of two eye-witnesses of -unquestionable veracity, the clergyman of Briamslaek, and Madame -Benedictson of Stickesholm, both of whom assured me that they had seen -the expedition performed repeatedly. Madame Benedictson, in particular, -recollected having spent a whole afternoon, in her younger days, at the -margin of a small lake on which these skilful navigators had embarked, -and amusing herself and her companions by driving them away from the -sides of the lake as they approached them. I was also informed that -they make use of dried mushrooms as sacks, in which they convey their -provisions to the river, and thence to their homes.'[220] - -Before leaving the mice and rats I may say a few words upon certain -mouse- and rat-like animals which scarcely require a separate section -for their consideration. Of the harvesting mouse Gilbert White says:-- - - One of their nests I procured this autumn, most - artificially plaited and composed of blades of wheat, - perfectly round, and about the size of a cricket-ball, - with the aperture so ingeniously closed that there was - no discovering to what part it belonged. It was so - compact and well filled that it would roll across the - table without being discomposed, though it contained - eight little mice that were naked and blind. As the - nest was perfectly full, how could the dam come at her - litter respectively, so as to administer a teat to - each? Perhaps she opens different places for that - purpose, adjusting them again when the business is - over; but she could not possibly be contained herself - in the ball with the young ones, which, moreover, - would be daily increasing in size. This wonderful - procreant cradle, an elegant instance of the efforts - of instinct, was found in a wheat field, suspended on - the head of a thistle. - -Pallas has described the provident habits of the so-called 'rat-hare' -(_Lagomys_), which lays up a store of grass, or rather hay, for winter -consumption. These animals, which occur in the Altai Mountains, live in -holes or crevices of rock. About the middle of the month of August they -collect grass, and spread it out to dry into hay. In September they form -heaps or stacks of the hay, which may be as much as six feet high, and -eight feet in diameter. It is stored in their chosen hole or crevice, -protected from the rain. - -The following is quoted from Thompson's 'Passions of Animals,' pp. -235-6:-- - - The life of the harvester rat is divided between - eating and fighting. It seems to have no other passion - than that of rage, which induces it to attack every - animal that comes in its way, without in the least - attending to the superior strength of its enemy. - Ignorant of the art of saving itself by flight, - rather than yield, it will allow itself to be beaten - to pieces with a stick. If it seizes a man's hand, it - must be killed before it will quit its hold. The - magnitude of the horse terrifies it as little as the - address of the dog, which last is fond of hunting it. - When a harvester perceives a dog at a distance, it - begins by emptying its cheek-pouches, if they happen - to be filled with grain; it then blows them up so - prodigiously, that the size of the head and neck - greatly exceeds that of the rest of the body. It rears - itself upon its hind legs, and thus darts upon the - enemy. If it catches hold, it never quits it but with - the loss of its life; but the dog generally seizes it - behind, and strangles it. This ferocious disposition - prevents it from being at peace with any animal - whatever. It even makes war against its own species. - When two harvesters meet, they never fail to attack - each other, and the stronger always devours the - weaker. A combat between a male and a female commonly - lasts longer than between two males. They begin by - pursuing and biting each other, then each of them - retires aside, as if to take breath. After a short - interval they renew the combat, and continue to fight - till one of them falls. The vanquished uniformly - serves as a repast to the conqueror. - -If we contrast the fearless disposition of the harvester with the -timidity of the hare or rabbit, we observe that in respect of emotions, -no less than in that of intelligence, the order Rodentia comprises the -utmost extremes. - -The so-called 'prairie-dog' is a kind of small rodent, which makes -burrows in the ground, and a slight elevation above it. The animals -being social in their habits, their warrens are called 'dog-towns.' -Prof. Jillson, Ph.D., kept a pair in confinement (see 'American -Naturalist,' vol. v., pp. 24-29), and found them to be intelligent and -highly affectionate animals. These burrows he found to contain a -'granary,' or chambers set apart for the reception of stored food. With -regard to the association said to exist between this animal and the owl -and rattle-snake, Prof. Jillson says, 'I have seen many dog-towns, with -owls and dogs standing on contiguous, and in some cases on the same -mound, but never saw a snake in the vicinity.' The popular notion that -the owl acts the part of sentry to the dog requires, to say the least, -confirmation. - - -_Beaver._ - -Most remarkable among rodents for instinct and intelligence -unquestionably stands the beaver. Indeed, there is no animal--not even -excepting the ants and bees--where instinct has risen to a higher level -of far-reaching adaptation to certain constant conditions of -environment, or where faculties, undoubtedly instinctive, are more -puzzlingly wrought up with faculties no less undoubtedly intelligent. So -much is this the case that, as we shall presently see, it is really -impossible by the closest study of the psychology of this animal to -distinguish the web of instinct from the woof of intelligence; the two -principles seem here to have been so intimately woven together, that in -the result, as expressed by certain particular actions, it cannot be -determined how much we are to attribute to mechanical impulse, and how -much to reasoned purpose. - -Fortunately, the doubt that for many years shrouded the facts has been -dispelled by the conscientious and laborious observations of the late -Mr. Lewis H. Morgan,[221] whose work throughout displays the judicious -accuracy of a scientific mind. As this is much the most trustworthy, as -well as the most exhaustive essay upon the subject, I shall mainly rely -upon it for my statement of facts, and while presenting these I shall -endeavour to point out the psychological explanation, or difficulty of -explanation, to which they are severally open. - -The beaver is a social animal, the male living with his single female -and progeny in a separate burrow or 'lodge.' Several of these lodges, -however, are usually built close together, so as to form a beaver -colony. The young quit the lodge of their parents when they enter upon -the summer of their third year, seek mates, and establish new lodges for -themselves. As each litter numbers three or four, and breeding is -annual, it follows that a beaver lodge never or rarely contains more -than twelve individuals, while the number usually ranges from four to -eight. Every season, and particularly when a district becomes -overstocked, some of the beavers migrate. The Indians say that in their -local migrations the old beavers go up stream, and the young down; -assigning as a reason that in the struggle for existence greater -advantages are afforded near the source than lower down a stream, and -therefore that the old beavers appropriate the former. But although -lodges may thus be vacated by the old beavers, they are not left -tenantless; their lease is, as it were, transferred to another beaver -couple. This process of transference of ownership goes on from -generation to generation, so that the same lodges are continuously -occupied for centuries. - -These lodges, which are always constructed in or near water, are of -three kinds--the island, bank, and lake lodge. The first are formed on -small islands which may happen to occur in the ponds made by the -beaver-dams. The floor of the lodge is a few inches above the level of -the water, and into it there open two, or sometimes more entrances: - - These are made with great skill, and in the most - artistic manner. One is straight, or as nearly so as - possible, with its floor, which is of course under - water, an inclined plane, rising gradually from the - bottom of the pond into the chamber; while the other - is abrupt in its descent, and often sinuous in its - course. The first we shall call the 'wood entrance,' - from its evident design to facilitate the admission - into the chamber of their wood cuttings, upon which - they subsist during the season of winter. These - cuttings, as will elsewhere be shown, are of such size - and length that such an entrance is absolutely - necessary for their free admission into the lodge. The - other, which we shall call the 'beaver entrance,' is - the ordinary run-way for their exit and return. It is - usually abrupt, and often winding. In the lodge under - consideration, the wood entrance descended from the - outer run of the chamber entrance about ten feet to - the bottom of the pond in a straight line, and upon an - inclined plane; while the other, emerging from the - line of the chamber at the side, descended quite - abruptly to the bottom of the moat or trench, through - which the beavers must pass, in open water, out into - the pond. Both entrances were rudely arched, with a - roof of interlaced sticks filled in with mud - intermixed with vegetable fibre, and were extended to - the bottom of the pond or trench, with the exception - of the opening at their ends. At the places where they - were constructed through the floor they were finished - with neatness and precision; the upper parts and sides - forming an arch more or less regular, while the bottom - and floor edges were formed with firm and compacted - earth, in which small sticks were embedded. It is - difficult to realise the artistic appearance of some - of these entrances without actual inspection. - -Upon the floor of the lodge there is constructed a house of sticks, -brushwood, and mud, in the form of a circular or oval chamber, the size -of which varies with the age of the lodge; for by a continuous process -of repair (which consists in removing the decayed sticks, &c., from the -interior and working them up with new material upon the exterior) the -whole lodge progressively increases in size: eventually in this way the -interior chamber may attain a diameter of seven or eight feet. - -The 'bank lodges' are of two kinds:-- - - One is situated upon the bank of the stream or pond, a - few feet back from its edge, and entered by an - underground passage from the bed of the stream, - excavated through the natural earth up into the - chamber. The other is situated upon the edge of the - bank, a portion of it projecting over and resting upon - the bed of the channel, so as to have the floor of the - chamber rest upon the bank as upon solid ground, while - the external wall on the pond side projects beyond it, - and is built up from the bottom of the pond. - -Lastly, the 'lake lodges' are constructed on the shores of lakes, which, -being usually shelving and hard, require some further variation in the -structure of the lodges. These, therefore, are of interest 'as -illustrations of the capacity of the beavers to vary the mode of -construction of their lodges in accordance with the changes of -situation.' One-half or two-thirds of the lodge is in this case 'built -out upon the lake for the obvious purpose of covering the entrance, as -well as for its extension into deep water.' - -All these forms of lodge are, historically regarded, modified burrows. - - The beaver is a burrowing animal. Indulging this - propensity, he excavates chambers underground, and - constructs artificial lodges upon its surface, both of - which are indispensable to his security and happiness. - The lodge is but a burrow above ground, covered with - an artificial roof, and possesses some advantages over - the latter as a place for rearing young. - - There are reasons for believing that the burrow is the - normal residence of the beavers, and that the lodge - grew out of it, in the progress of their experience, - by a process of natural suggestion. . . . In addition - to the lodge, the same beavers who inhabit it have - burrows in the banks surrounding the pond. They never - risk their personal safety upon their lodge alone, - which, being conspicuous to their enemies, is liable - to attack. . . . As the entrances are always below the - surface level of the pond, there are no external - indications to mark the site of the burrow, - -except occasionally a small pile of beaver-cuttings a foot or more high. -These, the trappers affirm, are purposely left there by the beavers to -keep the snow loose over the ends of their burrows during winter for the -admission of air. - -Mr. Morgan adds the very probable suggestion that this habit of piling -up cuttings for purposes of ventilation may have constituted the origin -of lodge-building. - - It is but a step from such a surface-pile of sticks to - a lodge, with its chamber above ground, and the - previous burrow as its entrance from the pond. A - burrow accidentally broken through at its upper end, - and repaired with a covering of sticks and earth, - would lead to a lodge above ground, and thus - inaugurate a beaver lodge out of a broken burrow. - -It is evidence of an important local variation of instinct, that in the -Cascade Mountains the beavers live chiefly in burrows in the banks of -streams, and rarely construct either lodges or dams. Dr. Newbury, in his -report on the zoology of Oregon and California, says: 'We found the -beavers in numbers, of which, when applied to beavers, I had no -conception,' and yet 'we never saw their houses and seldom a dam.' -Whether this local variation be due to a relapse from dam- and -lodge-building instincts to the primitive burrowing instinct, or to a -failure in the full development of the newer instinct, is immaterial. -Probably, I think, looking to the high antiquity of the building -instinct, and also to its being occasionally manifested by the -Californian beavers, their case is to be regarded as one of relapsing -instinct. - -In selecting the site of their lodges beavers display much sagacity and -forethought. - - The severity of the climate in these high northern - latitudes lays upon them the necessity of so locating - their lodges as to be assured of water deep enough in - their entrances, and also so protected in other - respects, as not to freeze to the bottom;[222] otherwise - they would perish with hunger, locked up in ice-bound - habitations. To guard against this danger, the dam, - also, must be sufficiently stable through the winter - to maintain the water at a constant level; and this - level, again, must be so adjusted with reference to - the floor of the lodge as to enable them, at all - times, to take in their cuttings from without as they - are needed for food. When they leave their normal mode - of life in the banks of the rivers, and undertake to - live in dependence upon artificial ponds of their own - formation, they are compelled to prevent the - consequences of their acts at the peril of their - lives. - -On the upper Missouri, where the banks of the river are for miles -together vertical, and rising from three to eight feet above its -surface, the beavers resort to the device of making what are called -'beaver slides.' These are narrow inclined planes cut into the banks at -intervals, the angle of inclination being 45° to 60°, so as to form a -gradual descent from a point a few feet back from the edge of the bank -to the level of the river. As Mr. Morgan observes, 'they furnish another -conspicuous illustration of the fact that beavers possess a free -intelligence, by means of which they are enabled to adapt themselves to -the circumstances in which they are placed.' - -Coming now to the habits of these animals in connection with the -procuring and storing of food, it is first to be observed that 'the -thick bark upon the trunks of large trees, and even upon those of medium -size, is unsuitable for food; but the smaller limbs, the bark of which -is tender and nutritious, afford the aliment which they prefer.' To -obtain this food, the animals, as is well known, fell the trees by -gnawing a ring round their base. Two or three nights' successive work by -a pair of beavers is enough to bring down a half-grown tree, 'each -family being left to the undisturbed enjoyment of the fruits of their -own toil and industry.' 'When the tree begins to crackle they desist -from cutting, which they afterwards continue with caution until it -begins to fall, when they plunge into the pond usually, and wait -concealed for a time, as if fearful that the cracking noise of the -tree-fall might attract some enemy to the place.' It is of much interest -that the beavers when thus felling trees know how to regulate the -direction of the fall; by gnawing chiefly on the side of the trunk -remote from the water, they make the tree fall towards the water, with -the obvious purpose of saving as much as possible the labour of -subsequent transport. For as soon as a tree is down, the next work is to -cut off the branches, or such as are from two to six inches in diameter; -and then, when they have been cleared of their twigs, to divide them -into lengths sufficient to admit of the beavers transporting them to -their lodges. The cutting into lengths is effected by making a number of -semi-sections through the branch at more or less equal distances as it -lies upon the ground, and then turning the branch half round and -continuing the sections from the opposite side. 'To cut it (the branch) -entirely through from the upper side would require an incision of such -width as to involve a loss of labour.' The thicker the branch, the -closer together are the sections made, and consequently the shorter are -the resulting portions--the reason, of course, being that the strength -of the animal would not be sufficient to transport a thick piece of -timber of the same length as a thin piece which it is only just able to -manage. - - In moving cuttings of this description they are quite - ingenious. They shove and roll them with their hips, - using also their legs and tails as levers, moving - sideways in the act. In this way they move the larger - pieces from the more or less elevated ground on which - the deciduous trees are found, over the uneven but - generally descending surface to the pond. . . . After - one of these cuttings has been transported to the water, - a beaver, placing one end of it under his throat, pushes - it before him to the place where it is to be sunk. - -The sinking is no doubt partly effected by mere soaking; but there is -also some evidence to show that the beavers have a method of anchoring -down their supplies. Thus they have been observed towing pieces of brush -to their lodges, and then, while holding the large end in their mouths, -'going down with it to the bottom, apparently to fix it in the mud -bottom of the pond.' A brush-heap being thus formed, the cuttings from -the felled trees are stuck through the brushwork, without which -'protection they would be liable to be floated off by the strong -currents, and thus be lost to the beavers at the time when their lives -might depend upon their safe custody.' - -Lastly, as a method whereby the beavers can save themselves the trouble -of cutting, transporting, and anchoring all at the same time, they are -prone, when circumstances permit, to fell a tree growing near enough to -their pond to admit of its branches being submerged in the water. The -animals then well know that the branches and young shoots will remain -preserved throughout the winter without any further trouble from them. -But of course the supply of trees thus growing conveniently near a -beaver-pond is too limited to last long. - -We have next to consider the most wonderful, and I think the most -psychologically puzzling structures that are presented as the works of -any animal; I mean, of course, the dams and canals. - -The object of the dam is that of forming an artificial pond, the use of -which is to afford refuge to the animals as well as water connection -with their lodges. Therefore the level of the pond must in all cases be -higher than that of the lodge- and burrow-entrances, and it is usually -maintained two or three feet above them. - - As the dam is not an absolute necessity to the beaver - for the maintenance of his life--his normal habitation - being rather natural ponds and rivers, and the burrows - in their banks--it is, in itself considered, a - remarkable fact that he should have voluntarily - transferred himself, by means of dams and ponds of his - own construction, from a natural to an artificial mode - of life. - -In external appearance there are two distinct kinds of dams, although -all are constructed on the same principle. One, the more common, is the -'stick dam,' which is composed of interlaced stick and pole work upon -the lower face, with an embankment of earth mixed with the same -materials on the upper face. The other is the 'solid-bank dam,' which -differs from the former in having much more brush and mud worked into -its construction, especially upon its surfaces; the result being that -the whole formation looks like a solid bank of earth. In the first kind -of dam the surplus water percolates through the structure along its -entire length; but in the second kind the discharge takes place through -a single furrow in the crest, which, remarkable though the fact -unquestionably is, the beavers intentionally form for this purpose. - -In the construction of the dam, stones are used here and there to give -down-weight and solidity. These stones weigh from one to six pounds, and -are carried by the beavers in the same way as they carry their -mud--namely, by walking on their hind legs while holding their burden -against the chest with their fore-paws. The solid dams are much firmer -in their consistence than the stick dams; for while a horse might walk -across the former, the weight of a man would be too great to be -sustained by the latter. Each kind of dam is adapted to the locality in -which it is built, the difference between the two kinds being due to the -following cause. As a stream gains water and force in its descent, it -develops banks, and also a broader and deeper channel. These banks -assume a vertical form in the level areas where the soil is alluvial. -Thus, an open stick-work dam could not in such places be led off from -either bank; and even if it could, the force and depth of the stream -would carry it away. Therefore in such places the beavers build their -solid-bank dams, while in shallow and comparatively sluggish waters they -content themselves with the smaller amount of labour involved in the -building of a stick dam. - -To give some idea of the proportions of a dam, I shall epitomise a -number of measurements given by Mr. Morgan:-- - - Feet - Height of structure from base line 2 to 6 - Difference in depth of water above and below dam 4 to 5 - Width of base or section 6 to 18 - Length of slope, lower face 6 to 13 - Length of slope, upper face 4 to 8 - -The only other measurement is that of length, and this, of course, -varies with the width of water to be spanned. Where this width is -considerable the length of a dam may be prodigious, as the following -quotation will show:-- - - Some of the dams in this region are not less - remarkable for their prodigious length, a statement of - which, in fact, would scarcely be credited unless - verified by actual measurement. The largest one yet - mentioned measures 260 feet, but there are dams 400 - and even 500 feet long. - - There is a dam in two sections, situated upon a - tributary of the main branch of the Esconauba River, - about a mile and a half north-west of the Washington - Main. One section measures 110 and the other 400 feet, - with an interval of natural bank, worked here and - there, of 1,000 feet. A solid-bank dam, 20 feet in - length, was first constructed across the channel of - the stream, from bank to bank, with the usual opening - for the surplus water, five feet wide. As the water - rose and overflowed the bank on the left side, the dam - was extended for 90 feet, until it reached ground high - enough to confine the pond. This natural bank extended - up the stream, and nearly parallel with it, for 1,000 - feet, where the ground again subsided, and allowed the - water in the upper part of the pond to flow out and - around into the channel of the stream below the dam. - To meet this emergency a second dam, 420 feet long, - was constructed. For the greater part of its length it - is low, but in some places it is two and a half and - three feet high, and constructed of stick-work on the - land, and with an earth embankment on its outer face. - In effect, therefore, it is one structure 1,530 feet - in length, of which 530 feet in two sections is - artificial, and the remainder natural bank, but worked - here and there where depressions in the ground - required raising by artificial means. - -It is truly an astonishing fact that animals should engage in such vast -architectural labours with what appears to be the deliberate purpose of -securing, by such very artificial means, the special benefits that arise -from their high engineering skill. So astonishing, indeed, does this -fact appear, that as sober-minded interpreters of fact we would fain -look for some explanation which would not necessitate the inference that -these actions are due to any intelligent appreciation, either of the -benefits that arise from the labour, or of the hydrostatic principles to -which this labour so clearly refers. Yet the more closely we look into -the subject, the more impossible do we find it to account for the facts -by any such easy method. Thus it seems perfectly certain that the -beavers, properly and strictly speaking, understand the use of their -dams in maintaining a certain level of water. For it is unquestionable -that in the solid-bank dams, as already observed, a regular opening or -trough is cut at one part of its crest to provide for the overflow; and -now it has to be added that this opening is purposely widened or -narrowed with reference to the amount of water in the stream at -different times, so as to ensure the maintenance of a constant level in -the pond. Similarly, though by different means, the same end is secured -in the case of the stick dams. For 'in most of these dams the rapidity -or slowness with which the surplus water is discharged is undoubtedly -regulated by the beavers; otherwise the level of the pond would -continually vary. There must be a constant tendency to enlarge the -orifices through which the water passes,' when the stream is small, and -_vice versâ_; otherwise the lodges would be either inundated or have -their sub-aquatic entrances exposed.[223] Moreover, a very little -consideration is enough to show that in stick dams the tendency to -increased leakage from the effects of percolation, and to a settling -down of the dam as its materials decay from underneath, must demand -unceasing vigilance and care to avert the consequences. And accordingly -it is found that 'in the fall of the year a new supply of materials is -placed upon the lower face of these dams to compensate this waste from -decay.' - -Now, it is obvious that we have here presented a continual variation of -conditions, imposed by continual variations in the amount of water -coming down; and it is a matter of observation that these variations are -met by the beavers in the only way that they can be met--namely, by -regulating the amount of flow taking place through the dams. It will -therefore be seen that we have here to consider a totally different case -from that of the operation of pure instinct, however wonderful such -operation may be. For the adaptations of pure instinct only have -reference to conditions that are unchanging; so that if in this case we -suppose pure instinct to account for all the facts, we must greatly -modify our ideas of what pure instinct is taken to mean. Thus we must -suppose that when the beavers find the level of their ponds rising or -falling, the discomfort which they experience acts as a stimulus to -cause them, without intelligent purpose, either to widen or to narrow -the orifices in their dams as the case may be. And not only so, but the -conditions of stimulation and response must be so nicely balanced that -the animals widen or narrow these orifices with a more or less precise -_quantitative_ reference to the degree of discomfort, actual or -prospective, which they experience. Now it seems to me that even thus -far it is an extremely difficult thing to believe that the mechanism of -pure or wholly unintelligent instinct could admit of sufficient -refinement to meet so complex a case of compensating adaptation; and, as -we shall immediately see, this difficulty increases still more as we -contemplate additional facts relating to these structures. - -Thus it sometimes happens that in large dams the pressure of the water -which they keep back is so considerable that their stability is -endangered. In such cases it has been observed by Mr. Morgan that, at a -short distance beneath the main dam, another and lower dam is thrown -across the stream, with the result of forming a shallow pond between the -two. This pond is-- - - Of no apparent use for beaver occupation, but yet - subserving the important purpose of setting back water - to the depth of twelve or fifteen inches; . . . and the - small dam, by maintaining the water a foot deep below - the great dam, diminishes to this extent the - difference in level above and below, and neutralises - to the same extent the pressure of the water in the - pond above against the main structure. - -'Whether,' adds Mr. Morgan, with commendable caution, 'the lower dam was -constructed with this motive and for this object, or is explainable on -some other hypothesis, I shall not venture an opinion.' But as, he -further adds, 'I have also found the same precise work repeated below -other large dams,' we are led to conclude that their correlation cannot -at least be accidental; and as it is of so definite a character, there -really seems no 'other hypothesis' open to us than that of its having -reference to the stability of the main dam. Yet, if this is the case, it -becomes in my opinion simply impossible to attribute the fact to the -operation of pure instinct. - -Again, Mr. Morgan observed one case in which, higher up stream than the -main dam, there was constructed another dam, ninety-three feet long, and -two and a half feet high at the centre:-- - - A dam at this point is apparently of no conceivable - use to improve the lake for beaver occupation. It has - one feature, also, in which it differs from other dams - except those upon lake outlets, and that consists in - its elevation, at all points, of about two feet above - the level of the lake at ordinary stages of the water. - In all other dams, except those upon lake outlets, and - in most of the latter, the water stands quite near - their crests, while in the one under consideration it - stood about two feet below it. This fact suggests at - least the inference, although it may have but little - of probability to sustain it, that it was constructed - with special reference to sudden rises of the lake in - times of freshet, and that it was designed to hold - this surplus water until it could be gradually - discharged through the dam into the great space below. - It would at least subserve this purpose very - efficiently, and thus protect the dam below it from - the effects of freshets. To ascribe the origin of this - dam to such motives of intelligence is to invest this - animal with a higher degree of sagacity than we have - probable reason to concede to him, and yet it is - proper to mention the relation in which these dams - stand to each other--whether that relation is regarded - as accidental or intentional. - -As before, we have here to commend the caution displayed by the closing -sentence; but, as useless dams are not found in other places, the -inference clearly is that the dam in question, both as regards its -exceptional position and exceptional height, can only be explained by -supposing the structure to have been designed for the use which it -unquestionably served. That is to say, if we do not entertain this -explanation, there is no other to be suggested; and although in any -ordinary or occasional instance of the display of animal intelligence in -such a degree as this I should not hesitate to attribute the facts to -accident, in the case of the beaver there are such a multitude of -constantly recurring facts, all and only referable to a practical though -not less extraordinary appreciation of hydrostatic principles, that the -hypothesis of accident must here, I think, be laid aside. To -substantiate this statement I shall detail the facts concerning the -beaver-canals. - -As Mr. Morgan, who first discovered and described these astonishing -structures, observes,-- - - Remarkable as the dam may still be considered, from - its structure and objects, it scarcely surpasses, if - it may be said to equal, these water-ways, here called - canals, which are excavated through the low lands - bordering their ponds for the purpose of reaching the - hard wood, and for affording a channel for its - transportation to their lodges. To conceive and - execute such a design presupposes a more complicated - and extended process of reasoning than that required - for the construction of a dam, and, although a much - simpler work to perform when the thought was fully - developed, it was far less to have been expected from - a mute animal. - -These canals are developed in this way. One of the principal objects -served by a dam thrown across a small stream, is that of flooding the -low ground so as to obtain water connection with the first high ground -upon which hard wood is to be found, such connection being convenient, -or even necessary, for the purposes of transport. - - Where the pond fails to accomplish this fully, and - also where the banks are defined and mark the limits - of the pond, the deficiency is supplied by the canals - in question. On descending surfaces, as has elsewhere - been stated, beavers roll and drag their short - cuttings down into the ponds. But where the ground is - low it is generally so uneven and rough as to render - it extremely difficult, if not impossible, for the - beavers to move them for any considerable distance by - physical force. Hence the canal for floating them - across the intervening level ground to the pond. The - necessity for it is so apparent as to diminish our - astonishment at its construction; and yet that the - beaver should devise a canal to surmount this - difficulty is not the less remarkable. - -The canals, which are made by excavation, are usually from three to five -feet wide, three feet deep, and perhaps hundreds of feet long--the -length of course depending on the distance between the lodge and the -wood supply. They are cut in the form of trenches, having perpendicular -sides and abrupt ends. All roots of trees, under-brush, &c., are cleared -away in their course, so as to afford an unobstructed passage. These -canals are of such frequent occurrence that it is impossible to -attribute them to accident; they are evidently made, at the cost of much -labour, with the deliberate purpose of putting them to the use for which -they are designed. In executing this purpose there is sometimes -displayed a depth of engineering forethought over details of structure -required by the circumstances of special localities, which is even more -astonishing than the execution of the general idea. Thus it not -unfrequently happens that when a canal has been run for a certain -distance, a rise in the level of the ground renders it impossible to -continue the structure further from the water supply or lodge-pond, -without either incurring a great amount of labour in digging the canal -with progressively deepening sides, or leaving the trench empty of -water, and so useless. In such cases the beavers resort to various -expedients, according to the nature of the ground. - -[Illustration] - -Mr. Morgan gives an interesting sketch of one such case, where the canal -is excavated through low ground for a distance of 450 feet, when it -reaches the first rise of ground, and throughout this distance, being -level with the pond, it is supplied with water from this source. Where -the rise begins a dam is made, and the canal is then continued for 25 -feet at a level of one foot higher than before. This higher level reach -is supplied with water collected from still higher levels by another -dam, extending for 75 feet upon one side of the canal and 25 feet on the -other, in the form of a crescent with its concavity directed towards the -highlands, so as to collect all the drainage water, and concentrate it -into the second reach of the canal. Beyond this larger dam there is -another abrupt rise of a foot, and the canal is there continued for 47 -feet more, where a third dam is built resembling the second in -construction, only having a still wider span on either side of the canal -(142 feet), so as to catch a still larger quantity of drainage water to -supply the third or uppermost reach of the canal. We have, therefore, -here presented, not only a perfect application of the principle of -'locks,' which are used in canals of human construction, but also the -principle of collecting water to supply the reaches situated on the -slope by means of elaborately constructed dams of wide extent, and of -the best form for the purpose. There is thus shown much too great a -concurrence of engineering principles to the attainment of one object to -admit of our attributing the facts to accident. On this structure Mr. -Morgan observes:-- - - The crests of these dams where they cross the canals - are depressed, or worn down, in the centre, by the - constant passage of beavers over them while going to - and fro and dragging their cuttings. This canal with - its adjuncts of dams and its manifest objects is a - remarkable work, transcending very much the ordinary - estimates of the intelligence of the beaver. It served - to bring the occupants of the pond into easy - connection by water with the trees that supplied them - with food, as well as to relieve them from the tedious - and perhaps impossible task of transporting their - cuttings 500 feet over uneven ground unassisted by any - descent. - -Again, in another case, also sketched by Mr. Morgan, another device is -resorted to, and one which, having reference to the particular -circumstances of the case, is the best that could have been adopted. -Here the canal, proceeding from the pond to the woodland 150 feet -distant, encounters at the woodland a rising slope covered with hard -wood. Thereupon the canal bifurcates, and the two diverging branches or -prongs are carried in opposite directions along the base of the woodland -rise, one for a distance of 100 and the other for 115 feet. The level -being throughout the same, the water from the pond supplies the two -branch-canals as well as the trunk. Both branches end with abrupt -vertical faces. Now the object of these branches is sufficiently -apparent:-- - - After the rising ground, and with it the hard wood - trees, were reached at the point where it branches, - there was no very urgent necessity for the branches. - But their construction along the base of the high - ground gave them a frontage upon the canal of 215 feet - of hard-wood lands, thus affording to them, along this - extended line, the great advantages of water - transportation for their cuttings. - -One more proof of engineering purpose in the construction of canals will -be sufficient to place beyond all question the fact that beavers form -these canals, as they form their dams, with a far-seeing perception of -the suitability of highly artificial means to the attainment of -particular ends, under a variety of special circumstances. Mr. Morgan -observed one or two instances where the land included in a wind or loop -of a river was cut through by a beaver canal across the narrowest part, -'apparently to shorten the distance in going up and down by water.' -Judging from the figures which he gives, drawn to measurement, there can -be no question that such was the object; and as these structures may be -one or two hundred feet in length, and represent the laborious -excavation of some 1,500 cubic feet of soil, the animals must be -actuated by the most vivid conception of the subsequent saving in labour -that is to be effected by making an artificial communication across the -chord of an arc, instead of always going round the natural curve of a -stream. - -Regarding now together all these facts relating to the psychology of the -beaver, it must be confessed, as I said at the outset, that we have -presented to us a problem perhaps the most difficult of any that we have -to encounter in the whole range of animal intelligence. On the one hand, -it seems incredible that the beaver should attain to such a level of -abstract thought as would be implied by his forming his various -structures with the calculated purpose of achieving the ends which they -undoubtedly subserve. On the other hand, as we have seen, it seems -little less than impossible that the formation of these structures can -be due to instinct. Yet one or other hypothesis, either singly or in -combination, must be resorted to. The case, it will be observed, thus -differs from that of the more wonderful performances of instinct -elsewhere, such as that of ants and bees, inasmuch as the performances -here are so complex and varied, as well as having reference to physical -principles of a much more recondite or less observable nature. The case -from its theoretical side being thus one of much difficulty, I think it -will be better to postpone its discussion till in 'Mental Evolution' I -come to treat of the whole subject of instinct in relation to -intelligence. - -I must not, however, conclude this epitome of the facts without alluding -to the only other publication on the habits of the beaver which is of -distinctly scientific value. This is a short but interesting paper by -Prof. Alexander Agassiz.[224] He says that the largest dam he has himself -seen measured 650 feet in length, and 3-1/2 feet in height, with a small -number of lodges in the vicinity of the pond. The number of lodges is -always thus very small in proportion to the size of the dam, the -greatest number of lodges that he has observed upon one pond being five. -It is evident from this that beavers are not really gregarious in their -habits, and that their dams and canals 'are the work of a comparatively -small number of animals; but to make up for the numbers the work of -succeeding inhabitants of any one pond must have been carried on for -centuries to accomplish the gigantic results we find in some -localities.' - -In one case Prof. Agassiz obtained what may be termed geological -evidence of the truth of an opinion advanced by Mr. Morgan, that -beaver-works may be hundreds if not thousands of years in course of -continuous formation. For the purpose of obtaining a secure foundation -for a mill dam erected above a beaver dam, it was necessary to clear -away the soil from the bottom of the beaver pond. This soil was found to -be a peat bog. A trench was dug into the peat 12 feet wide by 1,200 feet -long, and 9 feet deep; all the way along this trench old stumps of trees -were found at various depths, some still bearing marks of having been -gnawed by beavers' teeth. Agassiz calculated the growth of the bog as -about a foot per century, so that here we have tolerably accurate -evidence of an existing beaver dam being somewhere about a thousand -years old. - -The gradual growth of these enormous dams has the effect of greatly -altering the configuration of the country where they occur. By taking -levels from dams towards the sources of streams on which they occur, -Agassiz was able ideally to reconstruct the original landscape before -the growth of the dams, and he found that, 'from the nature of the -surrounding country, the open spaces now joining the beaver ponds--the -beaver meadows where the trees are scanty or small--must at one time -have been all covered with forests.' At first the beavers 'began to -clear the forest just in the immediate vicinity of the dams, extending -in every direction, first up the stream as far as the nature of the -creek would allow, and then laterally by means of their canals, as far -as the level of the ground would allow, thus little by little clearing a -larger area according to the time they have occupied any particular -place,' In this way beavers may change the whole aspect of large tracts -of country, covering with water a great extent of ground which was once -thickly wooded. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[209] It is particularly remarkable that if under these circumstances a -rabbit bolts and, seeing the sportsman, doubles back into its burrow, -being then certain that the sportsman is waiting, it will usually allow -itself to be slowly and painfully killed by the ferret rather than bolt -a second time. This is remarkable because it proves the strength of an -abiding image or idea in the mind of the animal. - -[210] See Watson's _Reasoning Power in Animals_, and _Quarterly Review_, -c. i., p. 135. - -[211] See especially Jesse, _Gleanings_, &c., iii., p. 206; and -_Quarterly Review_, c. i., p. 135. - -[212] Thompson, _Passions of Animals_, p. 368. - -[213] _The Rat, its Natural History_, p. 102. - -[214] Mrs. Lee, _Anecdotes of Animals_, p. 264. - -[215] Jesse, _Gleanings_, &c., ii., p. 281. - -[216] _Reasoning Power in Animals_, p. 293. - -[217] _Loc. cit._ - -[218] Jesse, _Gleanings_, iii., p. 176. - -[219] _Introduction to Arctic Zoology_, p 70. - -[220] Dr. Henderson, _Journal of a Residence in Iceland in 1814 and -1815_, vol. ii., p. 187. - -[221] _The American Beaver and his Works_ (Lippincott & Co. 1868). - -[222] To obviate this possibility, they often select as their site a -place where a spring happens to rise in the bottom of the lake or pond. - -[223] In times of considerable 'freshet' the former case sometimes -occurs; the beavers not being able to provide for a very considerable -overflow through their dams, the latter become then wholly submerged. -When again exposed, the animals take great pains in repairing the -injuries sustained. - -[224] Note on Beaver Dams (_Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist._, 1869, p. 101, -_et seq._). - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -ELEPHANT. - - -THE intelligence of the elephant is no doubt considerable, although -there is equally little doubt that it is generally exaggerated. Some of -the most notorious instances of the display of remarkable sagacity by -this animal are probably fabulous, or at least are not sufficiently -corroborated to justify belief. Such, for instance, is the celebrated -story told by Pliny with all the assurance of a '_certum est_,'[225] and -repeated by Plutarch,[226] of the elephant, who having been beaten for not -dancing properly, was afterwards found practising his steps alone in the -light of the moon. Although this story cannot, in the absence of -corroboration, be accepted as fact, we ought to remember, in connection -with it, that many talking and piping birds unquestionably practise in -solitude the accomplishments which they desire to learn. - -Quitting, however, the enormous multitude of anecdotes, more or less -doubtful, and which may or may not be true, I shall select a few -well-authenticated instances of the display of elephant intelligence. - - -_Memory._ - -As regards memory, several cases are on record of tamed elephants having -become wild, and, on again being captured after many years, returning to -all their old habits under domestication. Mr. Corse publishes in the -'Philosophical Transactions'[227] an instance which came under his own -notice. He saw an elephant, which was carrying baggage, take fright at -the smell of a tiger and run off. Eighteen months afterwards this -elephant was recognised by its keepers among a herd of wild companions, -which had been captured and were confined in an enclosure. But when -anyone approached the animal he struck out with his trunk, and seemed as -fierce as any of the wild herd. An old hunter then mounted a tame -elephant, went up to the feral one, seized his ear and ordered him to -lie down. Immediately the force of old associations broke through all -opposition, the word of command was obeyed, and the elephant while lying -down gave a certain peculiar squeak which he had been known to utter in -former days. The same author gives another and more interesting account -of an elephant which, after having been for only two years tamed, ran -wild for fifteen years, and on being then recaptured, remembered in all -details the words of command. This, with several other well-authenticated -facts of the same kind,[228] shows that the elephant certainly has an -exceedingly tenacious memory, rendering credible the statement of Pliny, -that in their more advanced age these animals recognise men who were -their drivers when young.[229] - - -_Emotions._ - -Concerning emotions, the elephant seems to be usually actuated by the -most magnanimous of feelings. Even his proverbial vindictiveness appears -only to be excited under a sense of remembered injustice. The -universally known story of the tailor and the elephant doubtless had a -foundation in fact, for there are several authentic cases on record of -elephants resenting injuries in precisely the same way;[230] and Captain -Shipp[231] personally tested the matter by giving to an elephant a -sandwich of bread, butter, and cayenne pepper. He then waited for six -weeks before again visiting the animal, when he went into the stable and -began to fondle the elephant as he had previously been accustomed to do. -For a time no resentment was shown, so that the Captain began to think -that the experiment had failed; but at last, watching for an -opportunity, the elephant filled his trunk with dirty water, and -drenched the Captain from head to foot. - -Griffiths says that at the siege of Bhurtpore, in 1805, the British army -had been a long time before the city, and, owing to the hot dry winds, -the ponds and tanks had dried up. There used therefore to be no little -struggle for priority in procuring water at one of the large wells which -still contained water:-- - - On one occasion two elephant-drivers, each with his - elephant, the one remarkably large and strong, and the - other comparatively small and weak, were at the well - together; the small elephant had been provided by his - master with a bucket for the occasion, which he - carried on the end of his proboscis, but the larger - animal, being destitute of this necessary vessel, - either spontaneously, or by the desire of his keeper, - seized the bucket, and easily wrested it from his less - powerful fellow-servant; the latter was too sensible - of his inferiority openly to resent the insult, though - it is obvious that he felt it; but great squabbling - and abuse ensued between the keepers. At length the - weaker animal, watching the opportunity when the other - was standing with his side to the well, retired - backwards a few paces in a very quiet and unsuspicious - manner, and then, rushing forward with all his might, - drove his head against the side of the other, and - fairly pushed him into the well. - -Great trouble was experienced in extricating this elephant from the -well--a task which would, indeed, have been impossible but for the -intelligence of the animal itself. For when a number of fascines, which -had been employed by the army in conducting the siege, were thrown down -the well, the elephant showed sagacity enough to arrange them with his -trunk so as to construct a continuously rising platform, by which he -gradually raised himself to a level with the ground. - -Allied to vindictiveness for small injuries is revenge for large ones, -and this is often shown in a terrible manner by wounded elephants. For -instance, Sir E. Tennent writes:-- - - Some years ago an elephant which had been wounded by a - native, near Hambangtotte, pursued the man into the - town, followed him along the street, trampled him to - death in the bazaar before a crowd of terrified - spectators, and succeeded in making good its retreat - to the jungle. - -Many other cases of vindictiveness, more or less well authenticated, may -be found mentioned by Broderip,[232] Bingley,[233] Mrs. Lee,[234] -Swainson,[235] and Watson.[236] This trait of emotional character seems -to be more generally present in the elephant than in any other animal, -except perhaps the monkey. - -Another emotion strongly developed in the elephant is sympathy. -Numberless examples on this head might be adduced, but one or two may -suffice. Bishop Huber saw an old elephant fall down from weakness, and -another elephant was brought to assist the fallen one to rise. Huber -says he was much struck with the almost human expression of surprise, -alarm, and sympathy manifested by the second elephant on witnessing the -condition of the first. A chain was fastened round the neck and body of -the sick animal, which the other was directed to pull. For a minute or -two the healthy elephant pulled strongly; but on the first groan given -by its distressed companion it stopped abruptly, 'turned fiercely round -with a loud roar, and with trunk and fore-feet began to loosen the chain -from the neck.' - -Again, Sir E. Tennent says:-- - - The devotion and loyalty which the herd evince to - their leader are very remarkable. This is more readily - seen in the case of a tusker than any other, because - in a herd he is generally the object of the keenest - pursuit by the hunters. On such occasions the others - do their utmost to protect him from danger: when - driven to extremity they place their leader in the - centre and crowd so eagerly in front of him that the - sportsmen have to shoot a number which they might - otherwise have spared. In one instance a tusker, which - was badly wounded by Major Rogers, was promptly - surrounded by his companions, who supported him - between their shoulders, and actually succeeded in - covering his retreat to the forest. - -Lastly, allusion may be made to the celebrated observation of M. le -Baron de Lauriston, who was at Laknaor during an epidemic which -stretched a number of natives sick and dying upon the road. The Nabob -riding his elephant over the road was careless whether or not the animal -crushed the men and women to death, but not so the elephant, which took -great pains to pick his steps among the people so as not to injure them. - -The following account of emotion and sagacity is quoted from the Rev. -Julius Young's Memoirs of his father, Mr. Charles Young, the actor. The -animal mentioned is the one that subsequently attained such widespread -notoriety at Exeter Change, not only on account of his immense size, but -still more because of his cruel death:-- - - In July 1810, the largest elephant ever seen in - England was advertised as 'just arrived.' As soon as - Henry Harris, the manager of Covent Garden Theatre, - heard of it, he determined, if possible, to obtain it; - for it struck him that if it were to be introduced - into the new pantomime of 'Harlequin Padmenaba,' which - he was about to produce at great cost, it would add - greatly to its attraction. Under this impression, and - before the proprietor of Exeter Change had seen it, he - purchased it for the sum of 900 guineas. Mrs. Henry - Johnston was to ride it, and Miss Parker, the - columbine, was to play up to it. Young happened to be - one morning at the box-office adjoining Covent Garden - Theatre, when his ears were assailed by a strange and - unusual uproar within the walls. On asking one of the - carpenters the cause of it, he was told 'it was - something going wrong with the elephant; he could not - exactly tell what.' I am not aware what the usage may - be nowadays, but then, whenever a new piece had been - announced for presentation on a given night, and there - was but scant time for its preparation, a rehearsal - would take place after the night's regular performance - was over, and the audience had been dismissed. One - such there had been the night before my father's - curiosity had been roused. As it had been arranged - that Mrs. Henry Johnston, seated in a howdah on the - elephant's back, should pass over a bridge in the - centre of a numerous group of followers, it was - thought expedient that the unwieldy monster's - tractability should be tested. On stepping up to the - bridge, which was slight and temporary, the sagacious - brute drew back his fore-feet and refused to budge. It - is well known as a fact in natural history that the - elephant, aware of his unusual bulk, will never trust - its weight on any object which is unequal to its - support. The stage-manager, seeing how resolutely the - animal resisted every attempt made to compel or induce - it to go over the bridge in question, proposed that - they should stay proceedings till next day, when he - might be in a better mood. It was during the - repetition of the experiment that my father, having - heard the extraordinary sounds, determined to go upon - the stage, and see if he could ascertain the cause of - them. The first sight that met his eyes kindled his - indignation. There stood the high animal, with - downcast eyes and flapping ears, meekly submitting to - blow after blow from a sharp iron goad, which his - keeper was driving ferociously into the fleshy part of - his neck, at the root of the ear. The floor on which - he stood was converted into a pool of blood. One of - the proprietors, impatient at what he regarded as - senseless obstinacy, kept urging the driver to proceed - to still severer extremities, when Charles Young, who - was a great lover of animals, expostulated with him, - went up to the poor patient sufferer, and patted and - caressed him; and when the driver was about to wield - his instrument again, with even still more vigour, he - caught him by the wrist as in a vice, and stayed his - hand from further violence. While an angry altercation - was going on between Young and the man of colour, who - was the driver, Captain Hay, of the _Ashel_, who had - brought over 'Chuny' in his ship, and had petted him - greatly on the voyage, came in and begged to know what - was the matter. Before a word of explanation could be - given, the much-wronged creature spoke for himself; - for, as soon as he perceived the entrance of his - patron, he waddled up to him, and, with a look of - gentle appeal, caught hold of his hand with his - proboscis, plunged it into his bleeding wound, and - then thrust it before his eyes. The gesture seemed to - say, as plainly as if it had been enforced by speech, - 'See how these cruel men treat Chuny. Can _you_ - approve of it?' The hearts of the hardest present were - sensibly touched by what they saw, and among them that - of the gentleman who had been so energetic in - promoting its harsh treatment. It was under a far - better impulse that he ran out into the street, - purchased a few apples at a stall, and offered them - to him. Chuny eyed him askance, took them, threw them - beneath his feet, and when he had crushed them to - pulp, spurned them from him. Young, who had gone into - Covent Garden on the same errand as the gentleman who - had preceded him, shortly after re-entered, and also - held out to him some fruit, when, to the astonishment - of the bystanders, the elephant ate every morsel, and - after he had done so, twined his trunk with studied - gentleness around Young's waist, marking by his action - that, though he had resented a wrong, he did not - forget a kindness. - - It was in the year 1814 that Harris parted with Chuny - to Cross, the proprietor of the menagerie at Exeter - Change. One of the purchaser's first acts was to send - Charles Young a life ticket of admission to his - exhibition; and it was one of his little innocent - vanities, when passing through the Strand with any - friend, to drop in on Chuny, pay him a visit in his - den, and show the intimate relations which existed - between them. Some years after, when the elephant's - theatrical career was run, and he was reduced to play - the part of captive in one of the cages of Exeter - Change, a thoughtless dandy one day amused himself by - teasing him with the repeated offer of lettuces--a - vegetable for which he was known to have an antipathy. - At last he presented him with an apple, but, at the - moment of his taking it, drove a large pin into his - trunk, and then sprang out of big reach. The keeper - seeing that the poor creature was getting angry, - warned the silly fellow off, lest he should become - dangerous. With a contemptuous shrug of the shoulder, - he trudged off to the other end of the gallery, and - there displayed his cruel ingenuity on other humbler - beasts, till, after the absence of half-an-hour, he - once more approached one of the cages opposite the - elephant's. By this time he had forgotten his pranks - with Chuny, but Chuny had not forgotten him; and as he - was standing with his back towards him, he thrust his - proboscis through the bars of his prison, twitched off - the offender's hat, dragged it in to him, tore it to - shreds, then threw it into the face of the offending - gaby, consummating his revenge with a loud guffaw of - exultation. All present proclaimed their approbation - of this act of retributive justice, and the - discomfited coxcomb had to retreat from the scene in - confusion, jump into a hackney coach, and betake - himself to the hatter's in quest of a new tile for his - unroofed skull. The tragic end of poor Chuny must be - within the recollection of many of my readers. From - some cause unknown he went mad, and after poison had - been tried in vain it took 152 shots, discharged by a - detachment of the Guards, to despatch him.[237] - -The elephant in many respects displays strange peculiarities of -emotional temperament. Thus Mr. Corse says:--'If a wild elephant happens -to be separated from its young for only two or three days, though giving -suck, she never after recognises or acknowledges it;'[238] yet the young -one knows its dam, and cries plaintively for her assistance. - -Again, in the wild state, the spirit of exclusiveness shown by members -of a herd (_i.e._ family) towards elephants of other herds is -remarkable. Sir E. Tennent writes:-- - - If by any accident an elephant becomes hopelessly - separated from his own herd, he is not permitted to - attach himself to any other. He may browse in the - vicinity, or frequent the same place to drink and to - bathe; but the intercourse is only on a distant and - conventional footing, and no familiarity or intimate - association is under any circumstances permitted. To - such a height is this exclusiveness carried, that even - amidst the terror of an elephant corral, when an - individual, detached from his own party in the _mêlée_ - and confusion, has been driven into the enclosure with - an unbroken herd, I have seen him repulsed in every - attempt to take refuge among them, and driven off by - heavy blows with their trunks as often as he attempted - to insinuate himself within the circle which they had - formed for common security. There can be no reasonable - doubt that this jealous and exclusive policy not only - contributes to produce, but mainly serves to - perpetuate, the class of solitary elephants which are - known by the term _goondahs_ in India, and which from - their vicious propensities and predatory habits are - called _Hora_, or _Rogues_, in Ceylon.[239] - -The emotional temper, or rather transformation of emotional psychology, -which is exhibited by the Rogues here mentioned, is as extraordinary as -it is notorious. From being a peaceable, sympathetic, and magnanimous -animal, the elephant, when excluded from the society of its kind, -becomes savage, cruel, and morose to a degree unequalled in any other -animal. The repulsive accounts of the bloodthirsty rage and wanton -destructiveness of Rogues show that their actions are not due to sudden -bursts of fury at the sight of man or his works, but rather to a -deliberate and brooding resolve to wage war on everything, so that the -animal patiently lies in wait for travellers, rushing from his ambush -only when he finds that the latter are within his power. As showing the -cold-blooded determination of this murderous desire, I may quote the -following case, as it was communicated to Sir E. Tennent:-- - - We had, says the writer, calculated to come up with - the brute where it had been seen half an hour before; - but no sooner had one of our men, who was walking - foremost, seen the animal at the distance of some - fifteen or twenty fathoms, than he exclaimed, 'There! - there!' and immediately took to his heels, and we all - followed his example. The elephant did not see us - until we had run some fifteen or twenty paces from the - spot where we turned, when he gave us chase, screaming - frightfully as he came on. The Englishman managed to - climb a tree, and the rest of my companions did the - same; as for myself, I could not, although I made one - or two superhuman efforts. But there was no time to be - lost. The elephant was running at me with his trunk - bent down in a curve towards the ground. At this - critical moment Mr. Lindsay held out his foot to me, - with the help of which and then of the branches of the - tree, which were three or four feet above my head, I - managed to scramble up to a branch. The elephant came - directly to the tree and attempted to force it down, - which he could not. He first coiled his trunk round - the stem, and pulled it with all his might, but with - no effect. He then applied his head to the tree, and - pushed for several minutes, but with no better - success. He then trampled with his feet all the - projecting roots, moving, as he did so, several times - round and round the tree. Lastly, failing in all this, - and seeing a pile of timber, which I had lately cut, - at a short distance from us, he removed it all - (thirty-six pieces) one at a time to the root of the - tree, and piled them up in a regular business-like - manner; then placing his hind feet on this pile, he - raised the fore part of his body, and reached out his - trunk, but still he could not touch us, as we were too - far above him. The Englishman then fired, and the ball - took effect somewhere on the elephant's head, but did - not kill him. It made him only the more furious. The - next shot, however, levelled him to the ground. I - afterwards brought the skull of the animal to Colombo, - and it is still to be seen at the house of Mr. - Armitage.[240] - -Another highly curious trait in the emotional psychology of the elephant -is the readiness with which the huge animal expires under the mere -influence of what the natives call a 'broken heart.' The facts on this -head are without a parallel in any other animal, and are the more -remarkable from the fact that, so far as natural length of life is any -token, the elephant may be said to have more vitality, or innate power -of living, than any other terrestrial mammal. Again, to quote from Sir -E. Tennent:-- - - Amongst the last of the elephants noosed was the - _rogue_. Though far more savage than the others, he - joined in none of their charges and assaults on the - fences, as they uniformly drove him off, and would not - permit him to enter their circle. When dragged past - another of his companions in misfortune, who was lying - exhausted on the ground, he flew upon him and - attempted to fasten his teeth in his head; this was - the only instance of viciousness which occurred during - the progress of the corral. When tied up and - overpowered, he was at first noisy and violent, but - soon lay down peacefully, a sign, according to the - hunters, that his death was at hand. Their - prognostication was correct; he continued for about - twelve hours to cover himself with dust like the - others, and to moisten it with water from his trunk; - but at length he lay exhausted, and died so calmly, - that having been moving but a few moments before, his - death was only perceived by the myriads of black flies - by which his body was almost instantly covered, - although not one was visible a moment before.[241] - -But this peculiarity is not confined to rogue elephants. Thus Captain -Yule, in his 'Narrative of an Embassy to Ava in 1855,' records an -illustration of this tendency of the elephant to sudden death. One newly -captured, the process of taming which was exhibited to the British -Envoy, 'made vigorous resistance to the placing of a collar on its neck, -and the people were proceeding to tighten it, when the elephant, which -had lain down as if quite exhausted, reared suddenly on the hind -quarters, and fell on its side--_dead_!' - -Mr. Strachan noticed the same liability of the elephants to sudden death -from very slight causes. 'Of the fall,' he says, 'at any time, though -on plain ground, they either die immediately, or languish till they die; -their great weight occasioning them so much hurt by the fall.'[242] - -And Sir E. Tennent observes that,-- - - In the process of taming, the presence of the tame - ones can generally be dispensed with after two months, - and the captive may then be ridden by the driver - alone; and after three or four months he may be - entrusted with labour, so far as regards docility; but - it is undesirable, and even involves the risk of life, - to work an elephant too soon; it has frequently - happened that a valuable animal has lain down and died - the first time it was tried in harness, from what the - natives believed to be 'broken heart,' certainly - without any cause inferable from injury or previous - disease.[243] - -Nor is this tendency to die under the influence of mere emotion -restricted to the effect of a 'broken heart;' it seems also to occur -under the power of strong emotional disturbances of other kinds. For -instance, an elephant caught and trained by Mr. Cripps is thus alluded -to by Sir E. Tennent:-- - - This was the largest elephant that had been tamed in - Ceylon; he measured upwards of nine feet at the - shoulders, and belonged to the caste so highly prized - for the temples. He was gentle after his first - capture, but his removal from the corral to the - stables, though only a distance of six miles, was a - matter of the extremest difficulty; his extraordinary - strength rendering him more than a match for the - attendant decoys. He on one occasion escaped, but was - recaptured in the forest; and he afterwards became so - docile as to perform a variety of tricks. He was at - length ordered to be removed to Colombo; but such was - his terror on approaching the fort, that on coaxing - him to enter the gate he became paralysed in the - extraordinary way elsewhere alluded to, and _died on - the spot_. - - -_General Intelligence._ - -The higher mental faculties of the elephant are more advanced in their -development than in any other animal, except the dog and monkey. I -shall, therefore, devote some considerable space to the narration of -instances of its display. The general fact that elephants are habitually -employed in certain parts of India for the purposes of building, storing -timber, &c., in itself shows a level of docile intelligence which only -that of the dog can rival; but I shall here confine myself to stating -special instances of the display of sagacity unusually high, even for -the elephant. - -Capt. Shipp, in his 'Memoirs,' gives the following incident, of which he -was an eye-witness. During a march with guns in the mountainous -districts of India, the force of which he was a member came to a steep -ascent. A staircase of logs was prepared to enable the elephants to -ascend the slope. When all was ready the first elephant was led to the -bottom of the staircase:-- - - He looked up, shook his head, and when forced by his - driver, roared piteously. There can be no question, in - my opinion, but that this sagacious animal was - competent instinctively to judge of the practicability - of the artificial flight of steps thus constructed; - for the moment some little alteration had been made, - he seemed willing to approach. He then commenced his - examination and scrutiny by pressing with his trunk - the trees that had been thrown across; and after this - he put his fore-leg on with great caution. . . . The next - step for him to ascend by was a projecting rock, which - he could not remove. Here the same sagacious - examination took place, the elephant keeping his flat - side close to the side of the trunk, and leaning - against it. The next step was against a tree, but - this, on the first pressure of his trunk, he did not - like. Here the driver made use of the most endearing - epithets, such as 'Wonderful,' 'My life,' 'Well done, - my dear,' 'My dove,' 'My son,' 'My wife;' but all - these endearing appellations, of which elephants are - so fond, would not induce him to try again. Force was - at length resorted to, and the elephant roared - terrifically, but would not move. - -Something was then altered, the elephant was satisfied, and at last -succeeded in mounting to the top of the staircase:-- - - On reaching the top his delight was visible in a most - eminent degree; he caressed his keepers, and threw - dirt about in a most playful manner. Another elephant, - a much younger animal, had now to follow. He had - watched the ascent of the other with the utmost - interest, making motions all the while as though he - was assisting him by shouldering him up the acclivity, - in such gestures as I have seen some men make when - spectators of gymnastic exercises. When he saw his - comrade up, he evinced his pleasure by giving a salute - something like the sound of a trumpet. When called - upon to take his turn, however, he seemed much - alarmed, and would not act at all without force. - -After a performance similar to that of the previous elephant, however, -he too neared the top, when 'the other, who had already performed his -task, extended his trunk to the assistance of his brother in distress, -round which the younger animal entwined his, and thus reached the -summit.' There was then a cordial greeting between the two animals, 'as -if they had been long separated from each other, and had just escaped -from some perilous achievement. They mutually embraced each other, and -stood face to face for a considerable time, as if whispering -congratulations.'[244] - -Mr. Jesse says: 'I was one day feeding the poor elephant (who was so -barbarously put to death at Exeter Change) with potatoes, which he took -out of my hand. One of them, a round one, fell on the floor, just out of -reach of his proboscis.' After several ineffectual attempts to reach it, -'he at length _blew_ the potato against the opposite wall with -sufficient force to make it rebound, and he then without difficulty -secured it.'[245] - -This remarkable observation has fortunately been corroborated by Mr. -Darwin. He writes:-- - - I have seen, as I dare say have others, that when a - small object is thrown on the ground beyond the reach - of one of the elephants at the Zoological Gardens, he - blows through his trunk on the ground beyond the - object, so that the current reflected on all sides may - drive the object within his reach.[246] - -The observation has also been corroborated by other observers.[247] - -The following is quoted from Mr. Watson's book:[248]-- - - Of the elephant's sense and judgment the following - instance is given as a well-known fact in a letter of - Dr. Daniel Wilson, Bishop of Calcutta, to his son in - England, printed in a Life of the bishop, published a - few years ago. An elephant belonging to an Engineer - officer in his diocese had a disease in his eyes, and - had for three days been completely blind. His owner - asked Dr. Webb, a physician intimate with the bishop, - if he could do anything for the relief of the animal. - Dr. Webb replied that he was willing to try, on one of - the eyes, the effect of nitrate of silver, which was a - remedy commonly used for similar diseases in the human - eye. The animal was accordingly made to lie down, and - when the nitrate of silver was applied, uttered a - terrific roar at the acute pain which it occasioned. - But the effect of the application was wonderful, for - the eye was in a great degree restored, and the - elephant could partially see. The doctor was in - consequence ready to operate similarly on the other - eye on the following day; and the animal, when he was - brought out and heard the doctor's voice, lay down of - himself, placed his head quietly on one side, curled - up his trunk, drew in his breath like a human being - about to endure a painful operation, gave a sigh of - relief when it was over, and then, by motions of his - trunk and other gestures, gave evident signs of - wishing to express his gratitude. Here we plainly see - in the elephant memory, understanding, and reasoning - from one thing to another. The animal remembered the - benefit that he had felt from the application to one - eye, and when he was brought to the same place on the - following day and heard the operator's voice, he - concluded that a like service was to be done to his - other eye. - -The fact that elephants exhibit this sagacious fortitude under surgical -operations--thus resembling, as we shall afterwards observe, both dogs -and monkeys--is corroborated by another instance given in Bingley's -'Animal Biography,'[249] and serves to render credible the following story -given in the same work:-- - - In the last war in India a young elephant received a - violent wound in its head, the pain of which rendered - it so frantic and ungovernable that it was found - impossible to persuade the animal to have the part - dressed. Whenever any one approached it ran off with - fury, and would suffer no person to come within - several yards of it. The man who had care of it at - length hit upon a contrivance for securing it. By a - few words and signs he gave the mother of the animal - sufficient intelligence of what was wanted; the - sensible creature immediately seized her young one - with her trunk, and held it firmly down, though - groaning with agony, while the surgeon completely - dressed the wound; and she continued to perform this - service every day till the animal was perfectly - recovered.[250] - -Again, as still further corroboration of this point, I may quote the -following from Sir E. Tennent's 'Natural History of Ceylon:'-- - - Nothing can more strongly exhibit the impulse to - obedience in the elephant than the patience with - which, at the order of his keeper, he swallows the - nauseous medicines of the native elephant-doctors; and - it is impossible to witness the fortitude with which - (without shrinking) he submits to excruciating - surgical operations for the removal of tumours and - ulcers to which he is subject, without conceiving a - vivid impression of his gentleness and intelligence. - Dr. Davy when in Ceylon was consulted about an - elephant in the Government stud, which was suffering - from a deep, burrowing sore in the back, just over the - back-bone, which had long resisted the treatment - ordinarily employed. He recommended the use of the - knife, that issue might be given to the accumulated - matter, but no one of the attendants was competent to - undertake the operation. 'Being assured,' he - continues, 'that the creature would behave well, I - undertook it myself. The elephant was not bound, but - was made to kneel down at his keeper's command; and - with an amputating knife, using all my force, I made - the incision required through the tough integuments. - The elephant did not flinch, but rather inclined - towards me when using the knife; and merely uttered a - low, and as it were suppressed groan. In short, he - behaved as like a human being as possible, as if - conscious (as I believe he was) that the operation was - for his good, and the pain unavoidable.' - -Major Skinner witnessed the following display of intelligent action by a -large herd of wild elephants. During the hot season at Nenera Kalama the -elephants have a difficulty in finding water, and are therefore obliged -to congregate in large numbers where water is to be obtained. Being -stationed near a water supply, and knowing that a large herd of -elephants were in the neighbourhood, Major Skinner resolved to watch -their proceedings. On a moonlight night, therefore, he - - climbed a tree about four hundred yards from the - water, and waited patiently for two hours before he - heard or saw anything of the elephants. At length he - saw a huge beast issue from the wood, and advance - cautiously across the open ground to within a hundred - yards of the tank, where he stood perfectly - motionless; and the rest of the herd, meanwhile, were - so quiet that not the least sound was to be heard from - them. Gradually, at three successive advances, halting - some minutes after each, he moved up to the water's - edge, in which, however, he did not think proper to - quench his thirst, but remained for several minutes - listening in perfect stillness. He then returned - cautiously and slowly to the point at which he had - issued from the wood, from whence he came back with - five other elephants, with which he proceeded, - somewhat less slowly than before, to within a few - yards of the tank, where he posted them as patrols. He - then re-entered the wood and collected the whole herd, - which must have amounted to between eighty and a - hundred, and led them across the open ground with the - most extraordinary composure and quiet till they came - up to the five sentinels, when he left them for a - moment, and again made a reconnaissance at the edge of - the tank. At last, being apparently satisfied that all - was safe, he turned back, and obviously gave the order - to advance; 'for in a moment,' says Major Skinner, - 'the whole herd rushed to the water with a degree of - unreserved confidence so opposite to the caution and - timidity which had marked their previous movements, - that nothing will ever persuade me that there was not - rational and preconcerted co-operation throughout the - whole party, and a degree of responsible authority - exercised by the patriarch-leader.'[251] - -Mr. H. L. Jenkins writes to me:-- - - What I particularly wish to observe is that there are - good reasons for supposing that elephants possess - abstract ideas; for instance, I think it is impossible - to doubt that they acquire through their own - experience notions of hardness and weight, and the - grounds on which I am led to think this are as - follows. A captured elephant after he has been taught - his ordinary duty, say about three months after he is - taken, is taught to pick up things from the ground and - give them to his mahout sitting on his shoulders. Now - for the first few months it is dangerous to require - him to pick up anything but soft articles, such as - clothes, because the things are often handed up with - considerable force. After a time, longer with some - elephants than others, they appear to take in a - knowledge of the nature of the things they are - required to lift, and the bundle of clothes will be - thrown up sharply as before, but heavy things, such as - a crowbar or piece of iron chain, will be handed up in - a gentle manner; a sharp knife will be picked up by - its handle and placed on the elephant's head, so that - the mahout can also take it by the handle. I have - purposely given elephants things to lift which they - could never have seen before, and they were all - handled in such a manner as to convince me that they - recognised such qualities as hardness, sharpness, and - weight. You are quite at liberty to make any use of - these remarks you please if they are of service. - -Again, as Dr. Lindley Kemp observes,[252] 'the manner in which tame -elephants assist in capturing wild ones affords us an instance of -reasoning in an animal,' &c.; and similarly, Mr. Darwin observes: 'It -is, I think, impossible to read the account given by Sir E. Tennent of -the behaviour of the female elephants used as decoys, without admitting -that they intentionally practise deceit.'[253] - -The following is an extract from the more interesting of the -observations to which Mr. Darwin here alludes, and I think it is -impossible to read them without assenting to his judgment. Several herds -of wild elephants having been driven into a corral, two tame decoys were -ridden into it:-- - - One was of prodigious age, having been in the service - of the Dutch and English Governments in succession for - upwards of a century. The other, called by her keeper - 'Siribeddi,' was about fifty years old, and - distinguished for gentleness and docility. She was a - most accomplished decoy, and evinced the utmost relish - for the sport. Having entered the corral noiselessly, - carrying a mahout on her shoulders with the headman - of the noosers seated behind him, she moved slowly - along with a sly composure and an assumed air of easy - indifference; sauntering leisurely in the direction of - the captives, and halting now and then to pluck a - bunch of grass or a few leaves as she passed. As she - approached the herd they put themselves in motion to - meet her, and the leader, having advanced in front and - passed his trunk gently over her head, turned and - paced slowly back to his dejected companions. - Siribeddi followed with the same listless step, and - drew herself up close behind him, thus affording the - nooser an opportunity to stoop under her and slip the - noose over the hind foot of the wild one. The latter - instantly perceived his danger, shook off the rope, - and turned to attack the man. He would have suffered - for his temerity had not Siribeddi protected him by - raising her trunk and driving the assailant into the - midst of the herd, when the old man, being slightly - wounded, was helped out of the corral, and his son, - Ranghanie, took his place. - - The herd again collected in a circle, with their heads - towards the centre. The largest male was singled out, - and two tame ones pushed boldly in, one on either side - of him, till the three stood nearly abreast. He made - no resistance, but betrayed his uneasiness by shifting - restlessly from foot to foot. Ranghanie now crept up, - and holding the rope open with both hands (its other - extremity being made fast to Siribeddi's collar), and - watching the instant when the wild elephant lifted its - hind foot, succeeded in passing the noose over its - leg, drew it close, and fled to the rear. The two tame - elephants instantly fell back, Siribeddi stretched the - rope to its full length, and whilst she dragged out - the captive, her companion placed himself between her - and the herd to prevent any interference. - - In order to tie him to a tree he had to be drawn - backwards some twenty or thirty yards, making furious - resistance, bellowing in terror, plunging on all - sides, and crushing the smaller timber, which bent - like reeds beneath his clumsy struggles. Siribeddi - drew him steadily after her, and wound the rope round - the proper tree, holding it all the time at its full - tension, and stepping cautiously across it when, in - order to give it a second turn, it was necessary to - pass between the tree and the elephant. With a coil - round the stem, however, it was beyond her strength to - haul the prisoner close up, which was, nevertheless, - necessary in order to make him perfectly fast; but the - second tame one, perceiving the difficulty, returned - from the herd, confronted the struggling prisoner, - pushed him shoulder to shoulder, and head to head, - forcing him backwards, whilst at every step Siribeddi - hauled in the slackened rope till she brought him - fairly up to the foot of the tree, where he was made - fast by the cooroowe people. A second noose was then - passed over the other hind-leg, and secured like the - first, both legs being afterwards hobbled together by - ropes made from the fibre of the kitool or jaggery - palm, which, being more flexible than that of the - cocoa-nut, occasions less formidable ulcerations. The - two decoys then ranged themselves, as before, abreast - of the prisoner on either side, thus enabling - Ranghanie to stoop under them and noose the two - fore-feet as he had already done the hind; and these - ropes being made fast to the tree in front, the - capture was complete, and the tame elephants and - keepers withdrew to repeat the operation on another of - the herd. - - The second victim singled out from the herd was - secured in the same manner as the first. It was a - female. The tame ones forced themselves in on either - side as before, cutting her off from her companions, - whilst Ranghanie stooped under them and attached the - fatal noose, and Siribeddi dragged her out amidst - unavailing struggles, when she was made fast by each - leg to the nearest group of strong trees. When the - noose was placed upon her fore-foot, she seized it - with her trunk, and succeeded in carrying it to her - mouth, where she would speedily have severed it had - not a tame elephant interfered, and placing his foot - on the rope pressed it downwards out of her jaws. . . . - The conduct of the tame ones during all these - proceedings was truly wonderful. They displayed the - most perfect conception of every movement, both of the - object to be attained and of the means to accomplish - it. They manifested the utmost enjoyment in what was - going on. There was no ill-humour, no malignity in the - spirit displayed, in what was otherwise a heartless - proceeding, but they set about it in a way that showed - a thorough relish for it, as an agreeable pastime. - Their caution was as remarkable as their sagacity; - there was no hurrying, no confusion, they never ran - foul of the ropes, were never in the way of the - animals already noosed; and amidst the most violent - struggles, when the tame ones had frequently to step - across the captives, they in no instance trampled on - them, or occasioned the slightest accident or - annoyance. So far from this, they saw intuitively a - difficulty or a danger, and addressed themselves - unbidden to remove it. In tying up one of the larger - elephants, he contrived, before he could be hauled - close up to the tree, to walk once or twice round it, - carrying the rope with him; the decoy, perceiving the - advantage he had thus gained over the nooser, walked - up of her own accord, and pushed him backwards with - her head, till she made him unwind himself again; upon - which the rope was hauled tight and made fast. More - than once, when a wild one was extending his trunk, - and would have intercepted the rope about to be placed - over his leg, Siribeddi, by a sudden motion of her own - trunk, pushed his aside, and prevented him; and on one - occasion, when successive efforts had failed to put - the noose over the fore-leg of an elephant which was - already secured by one foot, but which wisely put the - other to the ground as often as it was attempted to - pass the noose under it, I saw the decoy watch her - opportunity, and when his foot was again raised, - suddenly push in her own leg beneath it, and hold it - up till the noose was attached and drawn tight. - - One could almost fancy there was a display of dry - humour in the manner in which the decoys thus played - with the fears of the wild herd, and made light of - their efforts at resistance. When reluctant they - shoved them forward, when violent they drove them - back; when the wild ones threw themselves down, the - tame ones butted them with head and shoulders, and - forced them up again. And when it was necessary to - keep them down, they knelt upon them, and prevented - them from rising, till the ropes were secured. - - At every moment of leisure they fanned themselves with - a bunch of leaves, and the graceful ease with which an - elephant uses his trunk on such occasions is very - striking. It is doubtless owing to the combination of - a circular with a horizontal movement in that flexible - limb; but it is impossible to see an elephant fanning - himself without being struck by the singular elegance - of motion which he displays. The tame ones, too, - indulged in the luxury of dusting themselves with - sand, by flinging it from their trunks; but it was a - curious illustration of their delicate sagacity, that - so long as the mahout was on their necks, they - confined themselves to flinging the dust along their - sides and stomach, as if aware that to throw it over - their heads and back would cause annoyance to their - riders.[254] - -Sir E. Tennent has also some observations on other uses to which tame -elephants are put, which are well worth quoting. Thus, speaking of the -labour of piling timber, he says that the elephant - - manifests an intelligence and dexterity which are - surprising to a stranger, because the sameness of the - operation enables the animal to go on for hours - disposing of log after log, almost without a hint or - direction from his attendant. For example, two - elephants employed in piling ebony and satinwood in - the yards attached to the commissariat stores at - Colombo, were so accustomed to their work, that they - were able to accomplish it with equal precision and - with greater rapidity than if it had been done by - dock-labourers. When the pile attained a certain - height, and they were no longer able by their conjoint - efforts to raise one of the heavy logs of ebony to the - summit, they had been taught to lean two pieces - against the heap, up the inclined plane of which they - gently rolled the remaining logs, and placed them - trimly on the top. - - It has been asserted that in their occupations - 'elephants are to a surprising extent the creatures of - habit,' that their movements are altogether - mechanical, and that 'they are annoyed by any - deviation from their accustomed practice, and resent - any constrained departure from the regularity of their - course.' So far as my own observation goes, this is - incorrect; and I am assured by officers of experience, - that in regard to changing his treatment, his hours or - his occupation, an elephant evinces no more - consideration than a horse, but exhibits the same - pliancy and facility. - - At one point, however, the utility of the elephant - stops short. Such is the intelligence and earnestness - he displays in work, which he seems to conduct almost - without supervision, that it has been assumed that he - would continue his labour, and accomplish his given - task, as well in the absence of his keeper as during - his presence. But here his innate love of ease - displays itself, and if the eye of his attendant be - withdrawn, the moment he has finished the thing - immediately in hand, he will stroll away lazily, to - browse or enjoy the luxury of fanning himself and - blowing dust over his back. - - The means of punishing so powerful an animal is a - question of difficulty to his attendants. Force being - almost inapplicable, they try to work on his passions - and feelings, by such expedients as altering the - nature of his food or withholding it altogether for a - time. On such occasions the demeanour of the creature - will sometimes evince a sense of humiliation as well - as of discontent. In some parts of India it is - customary, in dealing with offenders, to stop their - allowance of sugar canes or of jaggery; or to restrain - them from eating their own share of fodder and leaves - till their companions shall have finished; and in - such cases the consciousness of degradation betrayed - by the looks and attitudes of the culprit is quite - sufficient to identify him, and to excite a feeling of - sympathy and pity. - - The elephant's obedience to his keeper is the result - of affection, as well as of fear; and although his - attachment becomes so strong that an elephant in - Ceylon has been known to remain out all night, without - food, rather than abandon his mahout, lying - intoxicated in the jungle, yet he manifests little - difficulty in yielding the same submission to a new - driver in the event of a change of attendants.[255] - -Lastly, Sir E. Tennent writes:-- - - One evening, whilst riding in the vicinity of Candy, - towards the scene of the massacre of Major Dabies' - party in 1803, my horse evinced some excitement at a - noise which approached us in the thick jungle, and - which consisted of a repetition of the ejaculation - _urmph! urmph!_ in a hoarse and dissatisfied tone. A - turn in the forest explained the mystery, by bringing - us face to face with a tame elephant, unaccompanied by - any attendant. He was labouring painfully to carry a - heavy beam of timber, which he balanced across his - tusks, but, the pathway being narrow, he was forced to - bend his head to one side to permit it to pass - endways; and the exertion and this inconvenience - combined led him to utter the dissatisfied sounds - which disturbed the composure of my horse. On seeing - us halt, the elephant raised his head, reconnoitred us - for a moment, then flung down the timber, and - voluntarily forced himself backwards among the - brushwood so as to leave a passage, of which he - expected us to avail ourselves. My horse hesitated: - the elephant observed it, and impatiently thrust - himself deeper into the jungle, repeating his cry of - _urmph!_ but in a voice evidently meant to encourage - us to advance. Still the horse trembled; and, anxious - to observe the instinct of the two sagacious animals, - I forebore any interference: again the elephant of his - own accord wedged himself further in amongst the - trees, and manifested some impatience that we did not - pass him. At length the horse moved forward; and when - we were fairly past, I saw the wise creature stoop and - take up its heavy burden, trim and balance it on its - tusks, and resume its route as before, hoarsely - snorting its discontented remonstrance. - -Dr. Erasmus Darwin records an observation which was communicated to him -by a 'gentleman of undoubted veracity,' of an elephant in India which -the keeper was in the habit of leaving to play the part of nurse to his -child when he and his wife had occasion to go away from home. The -elephant was chained up, and whenever the child in its creeping about -came to the end of the elephant's tether, he used gently to draw it back -again with his trunk. - -In 'Nature,' vol. xix., p. 385, Mr. J. J. Furniss writes:-- - - In Central Park one very hot day my attention was - drawn to the conduct of an elephant which had been - placed in an enclosure in the open air. On the ground - was a large heap of newly-mown grass, which the - sagacious animal was taking up by the trunkful, and - laying carefully upon his sun-heated back. He - continued the operation until his back was _completely - thatched_, when he remained quiet, apparently enjoying - the result of his ingenuity. - -Mr. Furniss in a later communication (vol. xx., p. 21) continues:-- - - Since the publication of my former letter (as above), - I have received additional data bearing on the subject - from Mr. W. A. Conklin, the superintendent of the - Central Park Menagerie. I am informed by him that he - has frequently observed elephants, when out of doors - in the hot sunshine, thatch their backs with hay or - grass; that they do so to a certain extent when under - cover in the summer time, and when the flies which - then attack the animals, often so fiercely as to draw - blood, are particularly numerous; but that they never - attempt to thatch their backs in winter. This seems to - prove that they act intelligently for the attainment - of a definite end. It would be interesting to learn - whether elephants in their wild state are in the habit - of so thatching their backs. It seems more probable to - suppose that in their native wilds they would avail - themselves of the natural shade afforded by the - jungle, and that the habit is one which has been - developed in consequence of their changed surroundings - in captivity. - -Mr. G. E. Peal writes to 'Nature' (vol. xxi., p. 34):-- - - One evening, soon after my arrival in Eastern Assam, - and while the five elephants were as usual being fed - opposite the bungalow, I observed a young and lately - caught one step up to a bamboo-stake fence, and - quietly pull one of the stakes up. Placing it under - foot, it broke a piece off with the trunk, and after - lifting it to its mouth threw it away. It repeated - this twice or thrice, and then drew another stake and - began again. Seeing that the bamboo was old and dry I - asked the reason of this, and was told to wait and see - what it would do. At last it seemed to get a piece - that suited, and holding it in the trunk firmly, and - stepping the left fore-leg well forward, passed the - piece of bamboo under the armpit, so to speak, and - began to scratch with some force. My surprise reached - its climax when I saw a large elephant leech fall on - the ground, quite six inches long and thick as one's - finger, and which, from its position, could not easily - be detached without this scraper or scratcher which - was deliberately made by the elephant. I subsequently - found that it was a common occurrence. Such scrapers - are used by every elephant daily. - - On another occasion, when travelling at a time of the - year when the large flies are so tormenting to an - elephant, I noticed that the one I rode had no fan or - wisp to beat them off with. The mahout, at my order, - slackened pace and allowed her to go to the side of - the road, when for some moments she moved along - rummaging the smaller jungle on the bank; at last she - came to a cluster of young shoots well branched, and - after feeling among them and selecting one, raised her - trunk and neatly stripped down the stem, taking off - all the lower branches and leaving a fine bunch on - top. She deliberately cleaned it down several times, - and then laying hold at the lower end broke off a - beautiful fan or switch about five feet long, handle - included. With this she kept the flies at bay as we - went along, flapping them off on each side. - - Say what we may, these are both really _bonâ fide_ - implements, each intelligently made for a definite - purpose. - -My friend Mrs. A. S. H. Richardson sends me the following. The Rev. Mr. -Townsend, who narrated the episode, is personally known to her:-- - - An elephant was chained to a tree in the compound - opposite Mr. Townsend's house. Its driver made an oven - at a short distance, in which he put his rice-cakes to - bake, and then covered them with stones and grass and - went away. When he was gone, the elephant with his - trunk unfastened the chain round his foot, went to the - oven and uncovered it, took out and ate the cakes, - re-covered the oven with the stones and grass as - before, and went back to his place. He could not - fasten the chain again round his own foot, so he - twisted it round and round it, in order to look the - same, and when the driver returned the elephant was - standing with his back to the oven. The driver went to - his cakes, discovered the theft, and, looking round, - caught the elephant's eye as he looked back over his - shoulder out of the corner of it. Instantly he - detected the culprit, and condign punishment followed. - The whole occurrence was witnessed from the windows by - the family. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[225] Plin., _Hist. Nat._, viii. 1-13. - -[226] _De Solert. Anim._, c. 12. - -[227] _Philosophical Transactions_, 1799, p. 40. - -[228] See Bingley, _loc. cit._, vol. i., pp. 148-51. - -[229] _Hist. Nat._, viii., 5. - -[230] For these and other cases of vindictiveness, see Bingley, _loc. -cit._, vol. i., pp. 156-8. - -[231] _Memoirs_, vol. i., p. 448. - -[232] _Zoological Recreations_, p. 315. - -[233] _Animal Biography_, i., pp. 156-8. - -[234] _Anecdotes of Animals_, p. 276. - -[235] _Habits and Instincts of Animals_, p. 37. - -[236] _Reasoning Power of Animals_, chap. iv. - -[237] Quoted in _Animal World_, March 1882. - -[238] _Philosophical Transactions_, 1873. - -[239] _Natural History of Ceylon_, p. 114. - -[240] _Natural History of Ceylon_, p. 140. - -[241] _Natural History of Ceylon_, p. 196. - -[242] _Phil. Trans._, A.D. 1701, vol. xxiii., p. 1052. - -[243] _Loc. cit._, p. 216. - -[244] _Memoirs_, vol. ii., p. 64 _et seq._ - -[245] Jesse, _Gleanings in Natural History_, vol. i, p. 19. - -[246] _Descent of Man_, p. 96. - -[247] See _Animal Kingdom_, vol. iii., p. 374. - -[248] _Reasoning Power of Animals_, pp. 54-5. - -[249] Bingley, _Animal Biography_, vol. i., p. 155. - -[250] Bingley, _Animal Biography_, vol. i., p. 155. - -[251] See his letter to Sir E. Tennent in _Nat. Hist. of Ceylon_, pp. -118-20. - -[252] _Indications of Instinct_, p. 129. - -[253] _Descent of Man_, p. 69. - -[254] _Natural History of Ceylon_, pp. 181-94. - -[255] _Natural History of Ceylon_, pp. 181-94. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -THE CAT. - - -THE cat is unquestionably a highly intelligent animal, though when -contrasted with its great domestic rival, the dog, its intelligence, -from being cast in quite a different mould, is very frequently -underrated. Comparatively unsocial in temperament, wanderingly -predaceous in habits, and lacking in the affectionate docility of the -canine nature, this animal has never in any considerable degree been -subject to those psychologically transforming influences whereby a -prolonged and intimate association with man has, as we shall -subsequently see, so profoundly modified the psychology of the dog. -Nevertheless, as we shall immediately find, the cat is not only by -nature an animal remarkable for intelligence, but in spite of its -naturally imposed disadvantages of temperament, has not altogether -escaped those privileges of nurture which unnumbered centuries of -domestication could scarcely fail to supply. Thus, as contrasted with -most of the wild species of the genus when tamed from their youngest -days, the domestic cat is conspicuously of less uncertain temper towards -its masters--the uncertainty of temper displayed by nearly all the wild -members of the feline tribe when tamed being, of course, an expression -of the interference of individual with hereditary experience. And, as -contrasted with all the wild species of the genus when tamed, the -domestic cat is conspicuous in alone manifesting any exalted development -of affection towards the human kind; for in many individual cases such -affection, under favouring circumstances, reaches a level fully -comparable to that which it attains in the dog. We do not know the wild -stock from which the domestic cat originally sprang, and therefore -cannot estimate the extent of the psychological results which human -agency has here produced; but it is worth while in this connection to -remember that the nearest ally of the domestic cat is the wild cat, and -that this animal, while so closely resembling its congener in size and -anatomical structure, differs so enormously from it in the branch of -psychological structure which we are considering, that there is no -animal on the face of the earth so obstinately untamable. - -As regards the wild species of the tribe in general, it may be said that -they all exhibit the same unsocial, fierce, and rapacious character. -Bold when brought to bay, they do not court battle with dangerous -antagonists, but prefer to seek safety in flight. Even the proverbial -courage of the lion is now known, as a rule, to consist in 'the better -part of valour;' and those exceptional individuals among tigers which -adopt a 'man-eating' propensity, snatch their human victims by stealth. -That the larger feline animals possess high intelligence would be shown, -even in the absence of information concerning their ordinary habits, by -the numerous tricks which they prove themselves capable of learning at -the hands of menagerie-keepers; though in such cases the conflict of -nature with nurture renders even the best-trained specimens highly -uncertain in their behaviour, and therefore always more or less -dangerous to the 'lion-kings.' The only wild species that is employed -for any practical purpose--the cheetah--is so employed by utilising -directly its natural instincts; it is shown the antelope, and runs it -down after the manner of all its ancestors. - -Returning now to the domestic cat, it is commonly remarked as a peculiar -and distinctive trait in its emotional character that it shows a -strongly rooted attachment to places as distinguished from persons. -There can be no question that this peculiarity is a marked feature in -the psychology of domestic cats considered as a class, although of -course individual exceptions occur in abundance. Probably this feature -is a survival of an instinctive attachment to dens or lairs bequeathed -to our cats by their wild progenitors. - -The only other feature in the emotional life of cats which calls for -special notice is that which leads to their universal and proverbial -treatment of helpless prey. The feelings that prompt a cat to torture a -captured mouse can only, I think, be assigned to the category to which -by common consent they are ascribed--delight in torturing for torture's -sake. Speaking of man, John S. Mill somewhere observes that there is in -some human beings a special faculty or instinct of cruelty, which is not -merely a passive indifference to the sight of physical sufferings, but -an active pleasure in witnessing or causing it. Now, so far as I have -been able to discover, the only animals in which there is any evidence -of a class of feelings in any way similar to these--if, indeed, in the -case even of such animals the feelings which prompt actions of -gratuitous cruelty really are similar to those which prompt it in -man--are cats and monkeys. With regard to monkeys I shall adduce -evidence on this point in the chapter which treats of these animals. -With regard to cats it is needless to dwell further upon facts so -universally known. - - -_General Intelligence._ - -Coming now to the higher faculties, it is to be noted as a general -feature of interest that all cats, however domesticated they may be, -when circumstances require it, and often even quite spontaneously, throw -off with the utmost ease the whole mental clothing of their artificial -experience, and return in naked simplicity to the natural habits of -their ancestors. This readiness of cats to become feral is a strong -expression of the shallow psychological influence which prolonged -domestication has here exerted, in comparison with that which it has -produced in the case of the dog. A pet terrier lost in the haunts of his -ancestors is almost as pitiable an object as a babe in the wood; a pet -cat under similar circumstances soon finds itself quite at home. The -reason of this difference is, of course, that the psychology of the cat, -never having lent itself to the practical uses of, and intelligent -dependency on, man, has never, as in the case of the dog, been under -the cumulative influence of human agency in becoming further and further -bent away from its original and naturally imposed position of -self-reliance; so that when now a severance takes place between a cat -and its human protectors, the animal, inheriting unimpaired the -transmitted experience of wild progenitors, knows very well how to take -care of itself. - -Having made these general remarks, I shall now pass on to quote a few -instances showing the highest level of intelligence to which cats -attain. - -As to observation, Mrs. Hubbard tells me of a cat which she possessed, -and which was in the habit of poaching young rabbits to 'eat privately -in the seclusion of a disused pigsty.' One day this cat caught a small -black rabbit, and instead of eating it, as she always did the brown -ones, brought it into the house unhurt, and laid it at the feet of her -mistress. 'She clearly recognised the black rabbit as an unusual -specimen, and apparently thought it right to show it to her mistress.' -Such was 'not the only instance this cat showed of zoological -discrimination,' for on another occasion, 'having caught another unusual -animal--viz., a stoat--she also brought this alive into the house for -the purpose of exhibiting it.' - -Mr. A. Percy Smith informs me of a cat which he possesses, and which, to -test her intelligence, he used to punish whenever her kittens -misbehaved. Very soon this had the effect of causing the cat herself to -train the kittens, for whenever they misbehaved 'she swore at them and -boxed their ears, until she taught the kittens to be clean.' - -Mr. Blackman, writing from the London Institution, tells me of a cat -which he has, and which without tuition began to 'beg' for food, in -imitation of a terrier in the same house whose begging gesture it must -have observed to be successful in the obtaining of tit-bits. The cat, -however, would never beg unless it was hungry;-- - - And no coaxing could persuade it to do so unless it - felt so inclined. The same cat also, whenever it - wanted to go out, would come into the sitting-room, - and make a peculiar noise to attract attention: - failing that mode being successful, it would pull - one's dress with its claw and then having succeeded in - attracting the desired attention, it would walk to the - street door and stop there, making the same cry until - let out. - -Coming now to cases indicative of reason in cats, Mr. John Martin, -writing from St. Clement's, Oxford, informs me: 'I have a cat which a -short time ago had kittens, and from some cause or other her milk -failed. My housekeeper saw her carrying a piece of bread to them.' The -process of reasoning here is obvious. - -Mr. Bidie, writing from the Government Museum of Madras to 'Nature' -(vol. xx., p. 96), relates this instance of reasoning in a cat:-- - - In 1877 I was absent from Madras for two months, and - left in my quarters three cats, one of which, an - English tabby, was a very gentle and affectionate - creature. During my absence the quarters were occupied - by two young gentlemen, who delighted in teasing and - frightening the cats. About a week before my return - the English cat had kittens, which she carefully - concealed behind bookshelves in the library. On the - morning of my return I saw the cat, and patted her as - usual, and then left the house for about an hour. On - returning to dress I found that the kittens were - located in a corner of my dressing-room, where - previous broods had been deposited and nursed. On - questioning the servant as to how they came there, he - at once replied, 'Sir, the old cat taking one by one - in her mouth, brought them here.' In other words, the - mother had carried them one by one in her mouth from - the library to the dressing-room, where they lay quite - exposed. I do not think I have heard of a more - remarkable instance of reasoning and affectionate - confidence in an animal, and I need hardly say that - the latter manifestation gave me great pleasure. The - train of reasoning seems to have been as follows: 'Now - that my master has returned there is no risk of the - kittens being injured by the two young savages in the - house, so I will take them out for my protector to see - and admire, and keep them in the corner in which all - my former pets have been nursed in safety.' - -Dr. Bannister writes me from Chicago, of a cat belonging to his friend -the late Mr. Meek, the palæontologist, who drew my correspondent's -attention to the fact:-- - - He had fixed upright on his table a small - looking-glass, from which he used to draw objects - from nature, reversed on wood. The cat seeing her - image in this glass made several attempts to - investigate it, striking at it, &c. Then coming - apparently to the conclusion that there was something - between her and the other animal, she very slily and - cautiously approached it, keeping her eye on it all - the while, and struck her paw around behind the - mirror, becoming seemingly much surprised at finding - nothing there. This was done repeatedly, until she was - at last convinced that it was beyond her - comprehension, or she lost interest in the matter. - -Mr. T. B. Groves communicates an almost precisely similar observation to -'Nature' (vol. xx., p. 291), of a cat which, on first seeing his own -reflection in a mirror, tried to fight it. Meeting with resistance from -the glass, the cat next ran behind the mirror. Not finding the object of -his search, he again came to the front, and while keeping his eyes -deliberately fixed on the image, felt round the edge of the glass with -one paw, whilst with his head twisted round to the front he assured -himself of the persistence of the reflection. He never afterwards -condescended to notice a mirror. - -The following is communicated to me by a correspondent whose name I -cannot obtain permission to publish. I am sure, however, that it is -communicated in good faith, and the incident can scarcely be supposed to -have been due to accident. After describing the cat and the parrot in -their amiable relationship, my correspondent proceeds:-- - - One evening there was no one in the kitchen. Cook had - gone upstairs, and left a bowl full of dough to rise - by the fire. Shortly after, the cat rushed up after - her, mewing, and making what signs she could for her - to go down; then she jumped up and seized her apron, - and tried to drag her down. As she was in such a state - of excitement cook went, and found 'Polly' shrieking, - calling out, flapping her wings and struggling - violently, 'up to her knees' in dough, and stuck quite - fast. - - No doubt if she had not been rescued she would have - sunk in the morass and been smothered. - -I shall here introduce two or three cases to show the ingenious devices -to which clever cats will resort for the purpose of capturing prey. - -Mr. James Hutchings writes in 'Nature' (vol. xii., p. 330) an account of -an old tom cat using a young bird, which had fallen out of its nest, as -a decoy for the old birds. The cat touched the young bird with his paw -when it ceased to flutter and cry, in order that, by thus making it -display its terror, the old cock bird, which was all the while flying -about in great consternation, might be induced to approach near enough -to be caught. Many times the cock bird did so, and the cat made numerous -attempts to catch it, but without success. All the while a kitten had to -be kept from killing the young bird. As this scene continued for a long -time--in fact, till terminated by Mr. Hutchings--and as there does not -appear to have been any opportunity for errors of observation, I think -the case worth recording. - -The following case is communicated to me by Mr. James G. Stevens, of St. -Stephen, New Brunswick:-- - - Looking out on the garden in front of my residence, I - observed a robin alight on a small tree: it was - midwinter, the ground covered with about a foot of - _light_ snow. A cat came stealthily along, with - difficulty making her way through the snow until - within about three feet of the tree where the bird - was; the robin was sluggishly resting on a twig - distant three feet from the ground or surface of snow; - the cat could not well, owing to the softness of the - snow, venture to make a spring. She crouched down and - at first gently stirred herself, evidently with the - purpose of causing the bird to move. The first attempt - failed. She again more actively stirred herself by a - shaking motion. She again failed, when she stirred - herself vigorously again and started the bird, which - flew about fifty feet away, and alighted on a small - low bush on the _northern_ side of a _close-boarded_ - fence. The cat keenly watched the flight and the - alighting of the bird; as quickly as she could cross - through the snow, she then _took a circuit of about - one hundred feet_, watching the place where the bird - was all the while, and covering her march by making - _available every bush to hide her_. When out of range - of vision of the bird she more actively made for the - fence, leaped over it, came up on the _southern_ side - of it, and jumped on it, calculating her distance so - accurately that she came within a foot of the bush - where the bird was, and at once sprung. She missed her - prey, but I thought she proved herself a cunning - hunter. If this case is worth relating you may use the - name of Judge Stevens, of St. Stephen, New Brunswick, - as a witness to the same. - -Again, I quote the following case communicated to 'Nature' by Dr. Frost, -because, although it shows an almost incredible amount of far-sighted -stratagem, I cannot on the one hand see much room for mal-observation, -and on the other hand it is, as I shall show, to some extent -corroborated by an independent observation of my friend Dr. Klein, and -another correspondent:-- - - Our servants have been accustomed during the late - frost to throw the crumbs remaining from the - breakfast-table to the birds, and I have several times - noticed that our cat used to wait there in ambush in - the expectation of obtaining a hearty meal from one or - two of the assembled birds. Now, so far, this - circumstance in itself is not an 'example of abstract - reasoning.' But to continue. For the last few days - this practice of feeding the birds has been left off. - The cat, however, with an almost incredible amount of - forethought, was observed by myself, together with two - other members of the household, to scatter crumbs on - the grass with the obvious intention of enticing the - birds.[256] - -Although this account, as I have said, borders on the incredible, I have -allowed it to pass, because up to a certain point it is, as I have also -said, corroborated by an observation communicated to me by my friend Dr. -Klein, F.R.S. - -Dr. Klein satisfied himself that the cat he observed had established a -definite association between crumbs already sprinkled on the garden -walk, and sparrows coming to eat them; for as soon as the crumbs were -sprinkled on the walk, the cat used to conceal himself from the walk in -a neighbouring shrubbery, there to await in ambush the coming of the -birds. The latter, however, showed themselves more wide awake than the -cat, for there was a wall running behind the shrubbery, from the top of -which the birds could see the cat in his supposed concealment, and then -a long line of sparrows used to wait watching the cat and the crumbs at -the same time, but never venturing to fly down to the latter until the -former, wearied with waiting, went away. In this case the reasoning -observation of the cat--'crumbs attract birds, therefore I will wait -for birds when crumbs are scattered'--was as complete as in the case of -Dr. Frost's cat, but the reasoning in the latter case seems to have -proceeded a stage further--'therefore I will scatter crumbs to attract -birds.' - -Now, in the face of the definite statement made by Dr. Frost, that his -cat did advance to this further stage of reasoning, I have not felt -justified in suppressing his remarkable observation. And, as lending -still further credence to the account, I may quote the corroborative -observation of another correspondent in 'Nature,' which is of value -because forming an intermediate step between the intelligence displayed -by Dr. Klein's cat and that displayed by Dr. Frost's. This correspondent -says:-- - - A case somewhat similar to that mentioned by Dr. - Frost, of a cat scattering crumbs, occurred here - within my own knowledge. During the recent severe - winter a friend was in the habit of throwing crumbs - outside his bedroom window. The family have a fine - black cat, which, seeing that the crumbs brought - birds, would occasionally hide herself behind some - shrubs, and when the birds came for their breakfast, - would pounce out upon them with varying success. The - crumbs had been laid out as usual one afternoon, but - left untouched, and during the night a slight fall of - snow occurred. On looking out next morning my friend - observed puss busily engaged scratching away the snow. - Curious to learn what she sought, he waited, and saw - her take the crumbs up from the cleared space and lay - them one by one after another on the snow. After doing - this she retired behind the shrubs to wait further - developments. This was repeated on two other - occasions.[257] - -Taking, then, these three cases together, we have an ascending series in -the grades of intelligence from that displayed by Dr. Klein's cat, which -merely observed that crumbs attracted birds, through that of the cat -which exposed the concealed crumbs for the purpose of attracting birds, -to that of Dr. Frost's cat, which actually sprinkled the crumbs. -Therefore, although, if the last-mentioned or most remarkable case had -stood alone, I should not have felt justified in quoting it, as we find -it thus led up to by other and independent observations, I do not feel -that I should be justified in suppressing it. And, after all, regarded -as an act of reason, the sprinkling of crumbs to attract birds does not -involve ideas or inferences very much more abstruse or remote than those -which are concerned in some of the other and better corroborated -instances of the display of feline intelligence, which I shall now -proceed to state. - -In the understanding of mechanical appliances, cats attain to a higher -level of intelligence than any other animals, except monkeys, and -perhaps elephants. Doubtless it is not accidental that these three kinds -of animals fall to be associated in this particular. The monkey in its -hands, the elephant in its trunk, and the cat in its agile limbs -provided with mobile claws, all possess instruments adapted to -manipulation, with which no other organs in the brute creation can -properly be compared, except the beak and toes of the parrot, where, as -we have already seen, a similar correlation with intelligence may be -traced. Probably, therefore, the higher aptitude which these animals -display in their understanding of mechanical appliances is due to the -reaction exerted upon their intelligence by these organs of -manipulation. But, be this as it may, I am quite sure that, excepting -only the monkey and elephant, the cat shows a higher intelligence of the -special kind in question than any other animal, not forgetting even the -dog. Thus, for instance, while I have only heard of one solitary case -(communicated to me by a correspondent) of a dog which, without tuition, -divined the use of a thumb-latch, so as to open a closed door by jumping -upon the handle and depressing the thumb-piece, I have received some -half-dozen instances of this display of intelligence on the part of -cats. These instances are all such precise repetitions of one another, -that I conclude the fact to be one of tolerably ordinary occurrence -among cats, while it is certainly very rare among dogs. I may add that -my own coachman once had a cat which, certainly without tuition, learnt -thus to open a door that led into the stables from a yard into which -looked some of the windows of the house. Standing at these windows when -the cat did not see me, I have many times witnessed her _modus -operandi_. Walking up to the door with a most matter-of-course kind of -air, she used to spring at the half-hoop handle just below the -thumb-latch. Holding on to the bottom of this half-hoop with one -fore-paw, she then raised the other to the thumb-piece, and while -depressing the latter, finally with her hind legs scratched and pushed -the doorposts so as to open the door. Precisely similar movements are -described by my correspondents as having been witnessed by them. - -Of course in all such cases the cats must have previously observed that -the doors are opened by persons placing their hands upon the handles, -and, having observed this, the animals forthwith act by what may be -strictly termed rational imitation. But it should be observed that the -process as a whole is something more than imitative. For not only would -observation alone be scarcely enough (within any limits of thoughtful -reflection that it would be reasonable to ascribe to an animal) to -enable a cat upon the ground to distinguish that the essential part of -the process as performed by the human hand consists, not in grasping the -handle, but in depressing the latch; but the cat certainly never saw any -one, after having depressed the latch, pushing the doorposts with his -legs; and that this pushing action is due to an originally deliberate -intention of opening the door, and not to having accidentally found this -action to assist the process, is shown by one of the cases communicated -to me (by Mr. Henry A. Gaphaus); for in this case, my correspondent -says, 'the door was not a loose-fitting one by any means, and I was -surprised that by the force of one hind leg she should have been able to -push it open after unlatching it.' Hence we can only conclude that the -cats in such cases have a very definite idea as to the mechanical -properties of a door; they know that to make it open, even when -unlatched, it requires to be _pushed_--a very different thing from -trying to imitate any particular action which they may see to be -performed for the same purpose by man. The whole psychological process, -therefore, implied by the fact of a cat opening a door in this way is -really most complex. First the animal must have observed that the door -is opened by the hand grasping the handle and moving the latch. Next she -must reason, by 'the logic of feelings'--If a hand can do it, why not a -paw? Then, strongly moved by this idea, she makes the first trial. The -steps which follow have not been observed, so we cannot certainly say -whether she learns by a succession of trials that depression of the -thumb-piece constitutes the essential part of the process, or, perhaps -more probably, that her initial observations supplied her with the idea -of clicking the thumb-piece. But, however this may be, it is certain -that the pushing with the hind feet after depressing the latch must be -due to adaptive reasoning unassisted by observation; and only by the -concerted action of all her limbs in the performance of a highly complex -and most unnatural movement is her final purpose attained. - -Again, several very similar cases are communicated to me of cats -spontaneously, or without tuition, learning to knock knockers and ring -bells. Of course in both cases the animals must have observed the use to -which knockers and bells are put, and when desiring a door to be opened, -employ these signals for the purpose. It betokens no small amount of -observation and reasoning in a cat to jump at a knocker with the -expectation of thereby summoning a servant to open the door--especially -as in some of the cases the jump is not a random jump at the knocker, -but a deliberate and complex action, having for its purposes the raising -and letting fall of the knocker. For instance, Mr. Belshaw, writing to -'Nature' (vol. xix., p. 659), says:-- - - I was sitting in one of the rooms, the first evening - there, and hearing a loud knock at the front door was - told not to heed it, as it was only this kitten asking - admittance. Not believing it, I watched for myself, - and very soon saw the kitten jump onto the door, hang - on by one leg, and put the other fore-paw right - through the knocker and rap twice. - -In such cases the action closely resembles that of opening -thumb-latches, but clearly is performed with the purpose of summoning -some one else to open the door. Wonderful, however, as these cases of -summoning by knockers undoubtedly are, I think they are surpassed by -other cases in which the instrument used is the bell. For here it is not -merely that cats perfectly well understand the use of bells as calls,[258] -but I have one or two cases of cats jumping at bell-_wires_ passing from -outside into houses the doors of which the cats desired to be -opened.[259] My informants tell me that they do not know how these cats, -from any process of observation, can have surmised that pulling the wire -in an exposed part of its length would have the effect of ringing the -bell; for they can never have observed any one pulling the wires. I can -only suggest that in these cases the animals must have observed that -when the bells were rung the wires moved, and that the doors were -afterwards opened; then a process of inference must have led them to try -whether jumping at the wires would produce the same effects. But even -this, which is the simplest explanation possible, implies powers of -observation scarcely less remarkable than the process of reasoning to -which they gave rise. - -As further instances corroborating the fact that both these faculties -are developed in cats to a wonderful degree, I may add the following. -Couch ('Illustrations of Instinct,' p. 196) gives a case within his own -knowledge of a cat which, in order to get at milk kept in a locked -cupboard, used to unlock the door by seating herself on an adjoining -table, and 'repeatedly patting on the bow of the key with her paw, when -with a slight pull on the door' she was able to open it; the lock was -old, and the key turned in it 'on a very slight impulse.' - -As a still further instance of the high appreciation of mechanical -appliances to which cats attain, I shall quote an extract from a paper -by Mr. Otto, which will have been read at the Linnean Society before -this work is published. After describing the case of a cat opening a -thumb-latch in the same way as those already mentioned, this writer -proceeds:-- - - At Parara, the residence of Parker Bowman, Esq., a - full-grown cat was one day accidentally locked up in a - room without any other outlet than a small window, - moving on hinges, and kept shut by means of a swivel. - Not long afterwards the window was found open and the - cat gone. This having happened several times, it was - at last found that the cat jumped upon the - window-sill, placed her fore-paws as high as she could - reach against the side, deliberately reached with one - over to the swivel, moved it from its horizontal to a - perpendicular position, and then, leaning with her - whole weight against the window, swung it open and - escaped. - -To give only one other instance of high reasoning power in this animal, -Mr. W. Brown, writing from Greenock to 'Nature' (vol. xxi., p. 397), -gives a remarkable story of a cat, the facts in which do not seem to -have admitted of mal-observation. While a paraffine lamp was being -trimmed, some of the oil fell upon the back of the cat, and was -afterwards ignited by a cinder falling upon it from the fire. The cat -with her back 'in a blaze, in an instant made for the door (which -happened to be open) and sped up the street about 100 yards,' where she -plunged into the village watering-trough, and extinguished the flame. -'The trough had eight or nine inches of water, and puss was in the habit -of seeing the fire put out with water every night.' The latter point is -important, as it shows the data of observation on which the animal -reasoned. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[256] _Nature_, vol. xix., p. 519. - -[257] _Nature_, vol. xx., p. 197. - -[258] Some of my correspondents tell me of pet or drawing-room cats -jumping on chairs and looking at bells when they want milk--this being -their sign that they want the bell pulled to call the servant who brings -the milk; and Mr. Lawson Tait tells me that one of his cats--of course -without tuition--has gone a step further, in that she places her paws -upon the bell as a still more emphatic sign that she desires it pulled. -But Dr. Creighton Browne tells me of a cat which he has that goes a step -further than this, and herself rings the bell. This is corroborative of -Archbishop Whately's anecdote. 'This cat lived many years in my mother's -family, and its feats of sagacity were witnessed by her, my sisters, and -myself. It was known, not merely once or twice, but habitually, to ring -the parlour bell whenever it wished the door to be opened. Some alarm -was excited on the first occasion that it turned bell-ringer. The family -had retired to rest, and in the middle of the night the parlour bell was -rung violently; the sleepers were startled from their repose, and -proceeded downstairs with poker and tongs, to intercept, as they -thought, the predatory movements of some burglar; but they were equally -surprised to find that the bell had been rung by pussy, who frequently -repeated the act whenever she wished to get out of the parlour.' The -cases, however, mentioned in the text are more remarkable than any of -these, which, nevertheless, all tend to lead up to them as by a series -of steps. Dogs attain to the level of asking by gesture their masters to -ring bells. One instance will be sufficient to quote. Mr. Rae says in -'Nature' (vol. xix., p. 459): 'A small English terrier belonging to a -friend has been taught to ring for the servant. To test if the dog knew -_why_ it rang the bell he was told to do so while the girl was in the -room. The little fellow looked up in the most intelligent manner at the -person giving the order (his master or mistress, I forget which), then -at the servant, and refused to obey, although the order was repeated -more than once. The servant left the room, and a few minutes afterwards -the dog rang the bell immediately on being told to do so.' - -It must also be added that dogs sometimes attain to the level of -knocking knockers--though I should think this must be very rare with -these animals, as I have only met with one case of it. This, however, is -a remarkably good case, not only because it rests upon the authority of -a famous observer, but also because it is so very definite as proving an -act of reason. Dureau de la Malle had a terrier born in his house. It -had never seen a knocker in its native home, and when grown up it was -taken by its master to Paris. Getting fatigued by a walk in the streets, -the animal returned to the house, but found the door shut, and it -endeavoured vainly to attract the attention of those within by barking. -At length a visitor called, knocked at the knocker, and gained -admittance. The dog observed what had been done, and went in together -with the visitor. The same afternoon he went in and out half a dozen -times, gaining admittance on each occasion by springing at the knocker. - -Lastly, Dr. W. H. Kesteven writes to 'Nature' (xx., p. 428) of a cat -which used to knock at a knocker to gain admittance, in the way already -described of so many other cats; but as showing how much more readily -cats acquire this practice than dogs, it is interesting to note that Dr. -Kesteven adds that a dog which lived in the same house ascertained that -the cat was able to gain admittance by knocking, and yet did not imitate -the action, but 'was in the habit of searching for her when he wanted to -come in, and either waiting till she was ready to knock at the door, or -inducing her to do it to please him.' - -[259] Consul E. L. Layard gives in _Nature_ (xx., p. 339) a precisely -similar case of a cat habitually and without tuition ringing a bell by -pulling at an exposed wire. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -FOXES, WOLVES, JACKALS, ETC. - - -THE general psychology of these animals is, of course, very much the -same as that of the dog; but, from never having been submitted to the -influences of domestication, their mental qualities present a sufficient -number of differences from those of the dog to require another chapter -for their consideration. - -If we could subtract from the domestic dog all the emotions arising from -his prolonged companionship with man, and at the same time intensify the -emotions of self-reliance, rapacity, &c., we should get the emotional -character now presented by the wolves and jackals. It is interesting to -note that this genetic similarity of emotional character extends to what -may be termed idiosyncratic details in cases where it has not been -interfered with by human agency. Thus the peculiar, weird, and -unaccountable class of emotions which cause wolves to bay at the moon -has been propagated unchanged to our domestic dogs. - -The intelligence of the fox is proverbial; but as I have not received -many original observations on this head, I shall merely refer to some of -the best authenticated observations already published, and shall begin -with the instance narrated by Mr. St. John in his 'Wild Sports of the -Highlands':-- - - When living in Ross-shire I went out one morning in - July, before daybreak, to endeavour to shoot a stag, - which had been complained of very much by an adjoining - farmer, as having done great damage to his crops. Just - after it was daylight I saw a large fox coming quietly - along the edge of the plantation in which I was - concealed; he looked with great care over the turf - wall into the field, and seemed to long to get hold of - some hares that were feeding in it, but apparently - knew that he had no chance of catching one by dint of - running; after considering a short time he seemed to - have formed his plans, and having examined the - different gaps in the wall by which the hares might be - supposed to go in and out, he fixed upon the one that - seemed the most frequented, and laid himself down - close to it in an attitude like a cat watching a - mouse. Cunning as he was, he was too intent on his own - hunting to be aware that I was within twenty yards of - him with a loaded rifle, and able to watch every - movement that he made. I was much amazed to see the - fellow so completely outwitted, and kept my rifle - ready to shoot him if he found me out and attempted to - escape. In the meantime I watched all his plans. He - first with great silence and care scraped a small - hollow in the ground, throwing up the sand as a kind - of screen between his hiding-place and the hares' - mews; every now and then, however, he stopped to - listen, and sometimes to take a most cautious look - into the field; when he had done this he laid himself - down in a convenient position for springing upon his - prey, and remained perfectly motionless with the - exception of an occasional reconnoitre of the feeding - hares. When the sun began to rise, they came one by - one from the field to the cover of the plantation; - three had already come in without passing by his - ambush; one of them came within twenty yards of him, - but he made no movement beyond crouching still more - closely to the ground. Presently two came directly - towards him; though he did not venture to look up, I - saw by an involuntary motion of his ears that those - quick organs had already warned him of their approach: - the two hares came through the gap together, and the - fox, springing with the quickness of lightning, caught - one and killed her immediately; he then lifted up his - booty and was carrying it off like a retriever, when - my rifle-ball stopped his course by passing through - his back-bone, and I went up and despatched him. - -Numberless instances are on record showing the remarkable cunning of -foxes in procuring bait from traps without allowing themselves to be -caught. These cases are so numerous, and all display so much the same -quality of intelligence, that it is impossible to doubt so great a -concurrence of testimony. I shall only give two or three specific cases, -to show the kind of intelligence that is in question. It will be -observed that it is much the same as that which is displayed under -similar circumstances by rats and wolverines, in which animals we have -already considered it. In all these cases the intelligence displayed -must justly be deemed to be of a very remarkable order. For, inasmuch as -traps are not things to be met with in nature, hereditary experience -cannot be supposed to have played any part in the formation of special -instincts to avoid the dangers arising from traps, and therefore the -astonishing devices by which these dangers are avoided can only be -attributed to observation, coupled with intelligent investigation of a -remarkably high character. - -I extract the following from Couch's 'Illustrations of Instinct' (p. -175):-- - - Whenever a cat is tempted by the bait, and caught in a - fox-trap, Reynard is at hand to devour the bait and - the cat too, and fearlessly approaches an instrument - which the fox must know cannot _then_ do it any harm. - Let us compare with this boldness the incredible - caution with which the animal proceeds when tempted by - the bait in a _set_ trap. Dietrich aus dem Winkell had - once the good fortune of observing, on a winter - evening, a fox which for many preceding days had been - allured with loop baits, and as often as it ate one it - sat comfortably down, wagging its brush. The nearer it - approached the trap, the longer did it hesitate to - take the baits, and the oftener did it make the tour - round the catching-place. When arrived near the trap - it squatted down, and eyed the bait for ten minutes at - least; whereupon it ran three or four times round the - trap, then it stretched out one of its fore-paws after - the bait, but did not touch it; again a pause, during - which the fox stared immovably at the bait. At last, - as if in despair, the animal made a rush and was - caught by the neck. (Mag. Nat. Hist., N. S., vol. i., - p. 512.) - -In 'Nature,' vol. xxi., p. 132, Mr. Crehore, writing from Boston, -says:-- - - Some years since, while hunting in Northern Michigan, - I tried with the aid of a professional trapper to - entrap a fox who made nightly visits to a spot where - the entrails of a deer had been thrown. Although we - tried every expedient that suggested itself to us we - were unsuccessful, and, what seemed very singular, we - always found the trap sprung. My companion insisted - that the animal dug beneath it, and putting his paw - beneath the jaw, pushed down the pan with safety to - himself; but though the appearance seemed to confirm - it, I could hardly credit his explanation. This year, - in another locality of the same region, an old and - experienced trapper assured me of its correctness, and - said in confirmation that he had several times caught - them, after they had made two or three successful - attempts to spring the trap, by the simple expedient - of setting it upside down, when of course the act of - undermining and touching the pan would bring the paw - within the grasp of the jaws. - -In connection with traps, my friend Dr. Rae has communicated to me a -highly remarkable instance of the display of reason on the part of the -Arctic foxes. I have previously published the facts in my lecture before -the British Association in 1879, and therefore shall here quote them -from it:-- - - Desiring to obtain some Arctic foxes, Dr. Rae set - various kinds of traps; but as the foxes knew these - traps from previous experience, he was unsuccessful. - Accordingly he set a kind of trap with which the foxes - in that part of the country were not acquainted. This - consisted of a loaded gun set upon a stand pointing at - the bait. A string connected the trigger of the gun - with the bait, so that when the fox seized the bait he - discharged the gun, and thus committed suicide. In - this arrangement the gun was separated from the bait - by a distance of about 30 yards, and the string which - connected the trigger with the bait was concealed - throughout nearly its whole distance in the snow. The - gun-trap thus set was successful in killing one fox, - but never in killing a second; for the foxes - afterwards adopted either of two devices whereby to - secure the bait without injuring themselves. One of - these devices was to bite through the string at its - exposed part near the trigger, and the other device - was to burrow up to the bait through the snow at right - angles to the line of fire, so that, although in this - way they discharged the gun, they escaped with perhaps - only a pellet or two in the nose. Now both of these - devices exhibited a wonderful degree of what I think - must fairly be called power of reasoning. I have - carefully interrogated Dr. Rae on all the - circumstances of the case, and he tells me that in - that part of the world traps are never set with - strings; so that there can have been no special - association in the foxes' minds between strings and - traps. Moreover, after the death of fox No. 1, the - track on the snow showed that fox No. 2, - notwithstanding the temptation offered by the bait, - had expended a great deal of scientific observation on - the gun before he undertook to sever the cord. Lastly, - with regard to burrowing at right angles to the line - of fire, Dr. Rae justly deemed this so extraordinary a - circumstance, that he repeated the experiment a number - of times, in order to satisfy himself that the - direction of the burrowing was really to be attributed - to thought, and not to chance.[260] - -Dr. Rae also informs me with, regard to wolves, that 'they have been -frequently known to take the bait from a gun without injury to -themselves, by first cutting the line of communication between the -two.'[261] He adds:-- - - I may also mention what I have been told, although I - have never had an opportunity of seeing it, that - wolves watch the fishermen who set lines in deep water - for trout, through holes in the ice on Lake Superior, - and very soon after the man has left, the wolf goes up - to the place, takes hold of the stick which is placed - across the hole and attached to the line, trots off - with it along the ice until the bait is brought to the - surface, then returns and eats the bait and the fish, - if any happens to be on the hook. The trout of Lake - Superior are very large, and the baits are of a size - in proportion. - -Mr. Murray Browne, Inspector of the Local Government Board, writes to me -from Whitehall as follows:-- - - I once, at the Devil's Glen, Wicklow, found a fox fast - in a trap by the foot. We did not like to touch him, - but got sticks and poked at the trap till we got it - open. The process took ten minutes or a quarter-hour. - When first we came up the fox strained to get free, - and looked frightfully savage; but we had not poked at - the trap more than a very short time before the whole - expression of his face changed, he lay perfectly quiet - (though we must at times have hurt him); and when at - last we had got the trap completely off his foot, he - still lay quiet, and looked calmly at us, as if he - knew we were friends. In fact, we had some little - difficulty in getting him to move away, which he did - readily enough when he chose. Was not this a case of - reason and good sense _overpowering_ natural instinct? - -Couch says ('Illustrations of Instinct,' p. 178): 'Derham quotes Olaus -in his account of Norway as having himself witnessed the fact of a fox -dropping his tail among the rocks on the sea-shore to catch the crabs -below, and hauling up and devouring such as laid hold of it.' - -Under the present heading I must not omit to refer to an interesting -class of instincts which are manifested by those species of the genus -_Canis_, whose custom it is to hunt in packs. The instincts to which I -refer are those which lead to a combination among different members of -the same pack for the capture of prey by stratagem. These instincts, -which no doubt arose and are now maintained by intelligent adaptation to -the requirements of the chase, I shall call 'collective instincts.' Thus -Sir E. Tennent writes:-- - - At dusk, and after nightfall, a pack of jackals, - having watched a hare or a small deer take refuge in - one of these retreats, immediately surrounded it on - all sides; and having stationed a few to watch the - path by which the game entered, the leader commences - the attack by raising the cry peculiar to their race, - and which resembles the sound 'okkay' loudly and - rapidly repeated. The whole party then rush into the - jungle and drive out the victim, which generally falls - into the ambush previously laid to entrap it. - - A native gentleman, who had favourable opportunities - of observing the movements of these animals, informed - me that when a jackal has brought down his game and - killed it, his first impulse is to hide it in the - nearest jungle, whence he issues with an air of easy - indifference to observe whether anything more powerful - than himself may be at hand, from which he might - encounter the risk of being despoiled of his capture. - If the coast be clear he returns to the concealed - carcass and carries it away, followed by his - companions. But if a man be in sight, or any other - animal to be avoided, my informant has seen the jackal - seize a cocoa-nut husk in his mouth, or any similar - substance, and fly at full speed, as if eager to carry - off his pretended prize, returning for the real booty - at some more convenient season.[262] - -Again, Jesse records the following display of the same instinct by the -fox, as having been communicated to him by a friend on whose veracity he -could rely:-- - - Part of this rocky ground was on the side of a very - high hill, which was not accessible for a sportsman, - and from which both hares and foxes took their way in - the evening to the plain below. There were two - channels or gullies made by the rains, leading from - these rocks to the lower ground. Near one of these - channels, the sportsman in question, and his - attendant, stationed themselves one evening in hopes - of being able to shoot some hares. They had not been - there long, when they observed a fox coming down the - gully, and followed by another. After playing together - for a little time, one of the foxes concealed himself - under a large stone or rock, which was at the bottom - of the channel, and the other returned to the rocks. - He soon, however, came back, chasing a hare before - him. As the hare was passing the stone where the first - fox had concealed himself, he tried to seize her by a - sudden spring, but missed his aim. The chasing fox - then came up, and finding that his expected prey had - escaped, through the want of skill in his associate, - he fell upon him, and they both fought with so much - animosity, that the parties who had been watching - their proceedings came up and destroyed them both. - -Similarly, Mr. E. C. Buck records ('Nature,' viii., 303) the following -interesting observation made by his friend Mr. Elliot, B.C.S., Secretary -to Government, N.W.P.:-- - - He saw two wolves standing together, and shortly after - noticing them was surprised to see one of them lie - down in a ditch, and the other walk away over the open - plain. He watched the latter, which deliberately went - to the far side of a herd of antelopes standing in the - plain, and drove them, as a sheep-dog would a flock of - sheep, to the very spot where his companion lay in - ambush. As the antelopes crossed the ditch, the - concealed wolf jumped up as in the former case, seized - a doe, and was joined by his colleague. - -Mr. Buck draws attention to another closely similar display of -collective instinct of wolves in the same district observed by a 'writer -of one of the books on Indian sport.' - -With reference to this case I wrote to 'Nature' as follows. The friend -to whom I allude was the late Dr. Brydon, C.B. (the 'last man' of the -Afghan expedition of 1841), whom I knew intimately for several years, -and always found his observations on animals to be trustworthy:-- - - In response to the appeal which closes Mr. Buck's - interesting letter ('Nature,' vol. viii., p. 302), the - following instance of 'collective instinct' exhibited - by an animal closely allied to the wolf, viz., the - Indian jackal, deserves to be recorded. It was - communicated to me by a gentleman (since deceased) on - whose veracity I can depend. This gentleman was - waiting in a tree to shoot tigers as they came to - drink at a large lake (I forget the district), skirted - by a dense jungle, when about midnight a large axis - deer emerged from the latter and went to the water's - edge. Then it stopped and sniffed the air in the - direction of the jungle, as if suspecting the presence - of an enemy; apparently satisfied, however, it began - to drink, and continued to do so for a most inordinate - length of time. When literally swollen with water it - turned to go into the jungle, but was met on its - extreme margin by a jackal, which, with a sharp yelp, - turned it again into the open. The deer seemed much - startled, and ran along the shore for some distance, - when it again attempted to enter the jungle, but was - again met and driven back in the same manner. The - night being calm, my friend could hear this process - being repeated time after time--the yelps becoming - successively fainter and fainter in the distance, - until they became wholly inaudible. The stratagem thus - employed was sufficiently evident. The lake having a - long narrow shore intervening between it and the - jungle, the jackals formed themselves in line along it - while concealed within the extreme edge of the cover, - and waited until the deer was waterlogged. Their prey, - being thus rendered heavy and short-winded, would fall - an easy victim if induced to run sufficiently far, - _i.e._, if prevented from entering the jungle. It was, - of course, impossible to estimate the number of - jackals engaged in this hunt, for it is not impossible - that as soon as one had done duty at one place, it - outran the deer to await it in another. - - A native servant who accompanied my friend told him - that this was a stratagem habitually employed by the - jackals in that place, and that they hunted in - sufficient numbers 'to leave nothing but the bones.' - As it is a stratagem which could only be effectual - under the peculiar local conditions described, it - must appear that this example of collective instinct - is due to 'separate expression,' and not to 'inherited - habit.' - - Cases of collective instinct are not of unfrequent - occurrence among dogs. For the accuracy of the two - following I can vouch. A small Skye and a large - mongrel were in the habit of hunting hares and rabbits - upon their own account, the small dog having a good - nose, and the larger one great fleetness. These - qualities they combined in the most advantageous - manner, the terrier driving the cover towards his - fleet-footed companion which was waiting for it - outside. - - The second case is remarkable for a display of sly - sagacity. A friend of mine in Ross-shire had a small - terrier and a large Newfoundland. One day a shepherd - called upon him to say that his dogs had been worrying - sheep the night before. The gentleman said there must - be some mistake, as the Newfoundland had not been - unchained. A few days afterwards the shepherd again - called with the same complaint, vehemently asserting - that he was positive as to the identity of the dogs. - Consequently the owner set one watch upon the kennel - and another outside the sheep enclosure, directing - them (in consequence of what the shepherd had told - him) not to interfere with the action of the dogs. - After this had been done several nights in succession, - the small dog was observed to come at daydawn to the - place where the large one was chained; the latter - immediately slipped his collar, and the two animals - made straight for the sheep. Upon arriving at the - enclosure the Newfoundland concealed himself behind a - hedge, while the terrier drove the sheep towards his - ambush, and the fate of one of them was quickly - sealed. When their breakfast was finished the dogs - returned home, and the larger one, thrusting his head - into his collar, lay down again as though nothing had - happened. Why this animal should have chosen to hunt - by stratagem prey which it could easily run down, I - cannot suggest; but there can be little doubt that so - wise a dog must have had some good reason. - -A similar instance of the display of collective instinct is thus -narrated by M. Dureau de la Malle:-- - - I had at one time two sporting dogs, the one an - excellent pointer with a very smooth skin, and of - remarkable beauty and intelligence; the other was a - spaniel with long and thick hair, but which had not - been taught to point, but only coursed in the woods - like a harrier. My _château_ is situated on a level - spot of ground, opposite to copse wood filled with - hares and rabbits. When sitting at my window, I have - observed these two dogs, which were at large in the - yard, approach and make signs to each other, and first - glancing at me, as if to see if I offered any obstacle - to their wishes, step away very gently, then quicken - their pace when they were at a little distance from my - sight, and finally dart off at full speed when they - thought I could neither see them nor order them back. - Surprised at this mysterious manoeuvre, I followed - them, and witnessed a singular sight. The pointer, who - seemed to be the leader of the enterprise, had sent - the spaniel out to beat the bushes, and give tongue at - the opposite extremity of the bushwood. As to himself, - he made with slow steps the circuit of the wood by - following it along the border, and I observed him stop - before a passage much frequented by rabbits, and there - point. I continued at a distance to observe how the - intrigue was going to end. At length I heard the - spaniel, which had started a hare, drive it with much - tongue towards the place where its companion was lying - in ambush, and the moment that the hare came out of - the passage to gain the fields, the latter darted upon - it and brought it to me with an air of triumph. I have - seen these two dogs repeat this same manoeuvre more - than a hundred times; and this conformity has - convinced me that it was not accidental, but the - result of a concerted agreement and combined plan of - operations understood beforehand. - -Again, among Mr. Darwin's MSS., I find a letter from Mr. H. Reeks -(1871), which says that the wolves of Newfoundland adopt exactly the -same stratagem for the capture of deer in winter as that which is -adopted by the hunters. That is to say, some of the pack secrete -themselves in one or more of the _leeward_ deer-paths in the forest or -'belting,' while one or two wolves make a circuit round the herd of deer -to windward. The herd invariably retreats by one of its accustomed runs, -and 'it rarely happens . . . that the wolves do not manage by this -stratagem to secure a doe or young stag.' And Leroy, in his book on -Animal Intelligence, narrates closely similar facts of the wolves of -Europe as having fallen within his own observation. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[260] I have requested Dr. Rae to write out all the particulars of these -remarkable observations, and the following is the response which he has -kindly made:--'When trapping foxes in Hudson's Bay it sometimes happens -that certain of these acute animals, probably from having seen their -companions caught, studiously avoid the ordinary steel and wooden traps, -however carefully set. The trapper then sets one or more guns in a -peculiar manner, having a line 15 or 20 yards long uniting the trigger -with a bait, on taking hold of which the fox sets the gun off, and -commits suicide. The double object of the bait being placed so near the -gun is that the fox may be certainly killed--not wounded only--and that -the head alone should be hit, and the body not riddled all over with -shot, which would spoil the skin. It is also necessary to mention that -four or five inches of slack line must be allowed for contraction of the -line by change from a dry to a moist atmosphere, which otherwise would -cause so great a strain on the trigger that the gun would be discharged -without the bait being touched. So as to conceal as far as possible all -connection between bait and gun, that part of the line next the bait is -carefully hid under the snow. - -'When the fox takes the bait, he will have lifted it five inches (the -length of the slack line) from its normal position before the gun goes -off; consequently, instead of pointing the gun at the bait, it is aimed -fully eight or nine inches higher, at the probable position of the brain -of the animal when the gun is discharged. - -'For reasons which scarcely require explanation, foxes very generally go -about in pairs (long before the snow disappears), not necessarily always -close together, because they have a better chance of finding food if -separated some distance from each other. - -'After one or more foxes have been shot, the trapper on visiting his -guns perhaps finds that a fox has first cut the line connecting the bait -with the gun, and then gone up and eaten the bait; or, if the gun has -been set on a drift bank of snow, he or she has scraped a trench ten or -twelve inches deep up to the bait, taken hold of it whilst lying in the -trench, set the gun off, and then trotted coolly away with the food -(taken, one may say, from the gun's mouth) safe and uninjured, as is -clearly evinced by there being no mark of blood on the tracks. - -'In pulling the bait whilst in the trench, the fox would drag it five -inches, or the length of the slack line, _downwards_, and therefore his -_head_ and _nose_ would be completely out of harm's way, both because of -the snow protection, and also these parts of his body being twelve or -thirteen inches below the line of aim. - -'In the cases seen by myself, and by a friend of greater experience, the -trench was always scraped at right angles, or nearly so, to the line of -fire of the gun. This at first sight may appear erroneous, but on -reflection it really is not so, for if the trench is to be a shelter -one--thinking, as the fox must have done, that the gun or something -coming from it was the danger to be protected from or guarded -against--it must be made across the line of fire, for if scratched in -the direction of fire it would afford little or no protection or -concealment, and the reasoning power or intelligence of the fox would be -at fault. - -'My belief is that one of these knowing foxes had seen his or her -companion shot, or found it dead shortly after it had been killed, and -not unnaturally attributed the cause of the mishap to the only strange -thing it saw near, namely, the gun. - -'It was evident that in all cases they had studied the situation -carefully, as was sufficiently shown by their tracks in the snow, which -indicated their extremely cautious approach when either the -string-cutting or trench-making dodge was resorted to, in attempting to -obtain the coveted bait without injury to themselves.' - -[261] It will be remembered that, from evidence previously detailed, -both the wolverine or glutton and certain deer have been shown capable -of similarly obviating the danger of gun-traps. - -[262] _Nat. Hist. of Ceylon_, p. 35. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -THE DOG. - - -THE intelligence of the dog is of special, and indeed of unique interest -from an evolutionary point of view, in that from time out of record this -animal has been domesticated on account of the high level of its natural -intelligence; and by persistent contact with man, coupled with training -and breeding, its natural intelligence has been greatly changed. In the -result we see, not only a general modification in the way of dependent -companionship and docility, so unlike the fierce and self-reliant -disposition of all wild species of the genus; but also a number of -special modifications, peculiar to certain breeds, which all have -obvious reference to the requirements of man. The whole psychological -character of the dog may therefore be said to have been moulded by human -agency with reference to human requirements, so that now it is not more -true that man has in a sense created the structure of the bull-dog and -greyhound, than that he has implanted the instincts of the watch-dog and -pointer. The definite proof which we thus have afforded of the -transforming and creating influence exerted upon the mental character -and instincts of species by long and persistent training, coupled with -artificial selection, furnishes the strongest possible corroboration of -the theory which assigns psychological development in general to the -joint operation of individual experience coupled with natural selection. -For thousands of years man has here been virtually, though -unconsciously, performing what evolutionists may regard as a gigantic -experiment upon the potency of individual experience accumulated by -heredity; and now there stands before us this most wonderful monument -of his labours--the culmination of his experiment in the transformed -psychology of the dog. - -In my next work I shall treat of this subject with the fulness that it -deserves--especially in its relation to the origin of instincts and the -development of the moral sense; but to enter upon this topic at present -would demand more space than can be allowed. - -To do full justice to the psychology of the dog a separate treatise -would be required. Here I can only trace a sketch. - - -_Memory._ - -As regards memory, one or two instances will suffice. Mr. Darwin writes: -'I had a dog who was savage and averse to all strangers, and I purposely -tried his memory after an absence of five years and two days. I went -near the stable where he lived, and shouted to him in my old manner; he -showed no joy, but instantly followed me out walking, and obeyed me, as -if I had parted with him only an hour before.'[263] - -It is not only persons or places that dogs remember for long periods. I -had a setter in the country, which one year I took up with me to town -for a few months. While in town he was never allowed to go out without a -collar on which was engraved my address. A ring upon this collar made a -clinking sound, and the setter soon learnt to associate the approach of -this sound with the prospect of a walk. Three years afterwards I again -took this setter up to town. He remembered every nook and corner of my -house in town, and also his way about the streets, and the first time -that I brought his collar, slightly clinking as before, he showed by his -demonstrations of joy that he well remembered the sound with all its old -associations, although he had not heard this sound for three years. - - -_Emotions._ - -The emotional life of the dog is highly developed--more highly, indeed, -than that of any other animal. His gregarious instincts, united with -his high intelligence and constant companionship with man, give to this -animal a psychological basis for the construction of emotional -character, having a more massive as well as more complex consistency -than that which is presented even in the case of the monkey, which, as -we shall afterwards see, attains to a remarkably high level in this -respect. - -Pride, sense of dignity, and self-respect are very conspicuously -exhibited by well-treated dogs. As with man, so with the friend of man, -it is only those whose lines of fortune have fallen in pleasant places, -and whose feelings may therefore be said to have profited by the -refining influences of culture, that display in any conspicuous measure -the emotions in question. 'Curs of low degree,' and even many dogs of -better social position, have never enjoyed those conditions essential to -moral refinement, which alone can engender a true sense of self-respect -and dignity. A 'low-life' dog may not like to have his tail pulled, any -more than a gutter child may like to have his ears boxed; but here it is -physical pain rather than wounded pride that causes the smart. Among -'high-life' dogs, however, the case is different. Here wounded -sensibilities and loss of esteem are capable of producing much keener -suffering than is mere physical pain; so that among such dogs a whipping -produces quite a different and a much more lasting effect than in the -case of their rougher brethren, who, as soon as it is over, give -themselves a shake and think no more about it. As evidence of the -delicacy of feeling to which dogs of aristocratic estate may attain, I -shall give one or two among many instances that I could render. - -A reproachful word or look from any of his friends would make a Skye -terrier that I owned miserable for a whole day. If we had ever ventured -to strike him I do not know what would have happened, for his sentiments -were quite abreast of the age with respect to moral repugnance to the -use of the lash. Thus, for instance, at one time when all his own -friends were out of town, he was taken for a walk every day in the park -by my brother, to whose care he had been entrusted. He enjoyed his walks -very much, and was wholly dependent upon my brother for obtaining them. -Nevertheless, one day while he was amusing himself with another dog in -the park, my brother, in order to persuade him to follow, struck him -with a glove. The terrier looked up at his face with an astonished and -indignant gaze, deliberately turned round, and trotted home. Next day he -went out with my brother as before, but after he had gone a short -distance he looked up at his face significantly, and again trotted home -with a dignified air. After thus making his protest in the strongest way -he could, the dog ever afterwards refused to accompany him. - -This terrier habitually exhibited a strong repugnance to corporal -punishment, even when inflicted upon others. Thus, whenever or wherever -he saw a man striking a dog, whether in the house or outside, near at -hand or at a distance, he used to rush in to interfere, snarling and -snapping in a most threatening way. Again, when driving with me in a -dog-cart, he always used to hold the sleeve of my coat every time I -touched the horse with the whip. As bearing upon this sensitiveness of -feeling produced in dogs by habitually kind treatment, I shall here give -an extract from the letter of one of my correspondents (Mrs. E. Picton). -It relates to a Skye terrier which had a strong aversion to being -washed:-- - - In process of time this aversion increased so much - that all the servants I had refused to perform the - ablutions, being in terror of doing so from the - ferocity the animal evinced on such occasions. I - myself did not choose to undertake the office, for - though the animal was passionately attached to me, - such was his horror of the operation, that even I was - not safe. Threats, beating, and starving were all of - no avail; he still persisted in his obstinacy. At - length I hit upon a new device. Leaving him perfectly - free, and not curtailing his liberty in any way, I let - him know, by taking no notice of him, that he had - offended me. He was usually the companion of my walks, - but now I refused to let him accompany me. When I - returned home I took no notice of his demonstrative - welcome, and when he came looking up at me for - caresses when I was engaged either in reading or - needlework, I deliberately turned my head aside. This - state of things continued for about a week or ten - days, and the poor animal looked wretched and forlorn. - There was evidently a conflict going on within him, - which told visibly on his outward appearance. At - length one morning he crept quietly up to me, and gave - me a look which said as plainly as any spoken words - could have done, 'I can stand it no longer; I submit.' - And submit he did quite quietly and patiently to one - of the roughest ablutions it had ever been his lot to - experience; for by this time he sorely needed it. - After it was over he bounded to me with a joyous bark - and wag of his tail, saying unmistakably, 'I know all - is right now.' He took his place by my side as his - right when I went for my walk, and retained from that - time his usually glad and joyous expression of - countenance. When the period for the next ablution - came round the old spirit of obstinacy resumed its - sway for a while, but a single look at my averted - countenance was sufficient for him, and he again - submitted without a murmur. Must there not have been - something akin to the reasoning faculty in the breast - of an animal who could thus for ten days carry on such - a struggle? - -This strong effect of silent coldness shows that the loss of -affectionate regard caused the terrier more suffering than beating, -starving, or even the hated bath; and as many analogous cases might be -quoted, I have no hesitation in adducing this one as typical of the -craving for affectionate regard, which is manifested by sensitive dogs. - -In this connection I may point out the remarkable change which has been -produced in the domestic dog as compared with wild dogs, with reference -to the enduring of pain. A wolf or a fox will sustain the severest kinds -of physical suffering without giving utterance to a sound, while a dog -will scream when any one accidentally treads upon its toes. This -contrast is strikingly analogous to that which obtains between savage -and civilised man: the North American Indian, and even the Hindoo, will -endure without a moan an amount of physical pain--or at least bodily -injury--which would produce vehement expressions of suffering from a -European. And doubtless the explanation is in both cases the -same--namely, that refinement of life engenders refinement of nervous -organisation, which renders nervous lesions more intolerable. - -As evidence of the idea of caste in a dog, I shall quote only one -instance, although many others might be given: this also may be taken -as typical. I extract it from St. John's 'Wild Sports of the Highlands,' -where, speaking of his retriever, this very good observer states: 'He -struck up an acquaintance with a ratcatcher and his cur, thoroughly -entering into their way of business; but the moment he saw me he -instantly cut his humble friends, and denied all acquaintance with them -in the most comical manner.'[264] - -Dogs likewise display in a high degree the feelings of emulation and -jealousy. I once had a terrier which took great pains, and manifested -paternal delight, in teaching his puppy to hunt rabbits. But in time the -puppy outgrew his father in strength and fleetness, so that in the -chase, in spite of straining every nerve, the father used to be -gradually distanced. His whole demeanour then changed, and every time -that he found his son drawing away from him he used in desperation to -seize the receding tail of the youngster. Although the son was now much -stronger than the father, he never used to resent this exercise of -paternal authority, even though the rabbit were close under his nose. - -Of jealousy in dogs innumerable instances might be given, but I shall -merely quote one from my bulky correspondence on this head. It is sent -me by Mr. A. Oldham:-- - - He had grown old, and having some affection in his - legs which made walking difficult to him, he had sunk - into a very stagnant sort of life, when a Scotch - terrier was brought to live with us, and treated with - much favour. All Charlie's old vigour revived upon the - advent of this rival. He exhibited agonies of - jealousy, and has since spent his life in following, - watching, and imitating him. He insists on doing - everything that Jack does. Although he had previously - given up walking, he now makes a point of going out - whenever Jack does so. Several times he has started - with us, but finding that Jack was not of the party, - has turned back and quietly gone home. In the same - way, although before he ate nothing but meat, he now - eats any food that is also given to Jack; and if Jack - is caressed he watches for some time, and then bursts - out whining and barking. I have seen the same rage - manifested by a fine cockatoo at the sight of his - mistress carrying on her wrist and stroking - affectionately a little green parrot. Such jealousy - seems to me a very advanced emotion, as it has passed - beyond the stage when it may be supposed to be caused - by a fear of other animals monopolising _material_ - benefits which they desire for themselves; it is - excited solely by seeing _affection_ or _attention_ - bestowed by those they love upon other animals. The - actions in which Charlie tries to participate--such as - walking far, plunging into cold water after sticks, - &c.--are in themselves extremely disagreeable to him, - and he performs them only that he may obtain a share - in the companionship and notice bestowed upon Jack. - -Akin to jealousy is the sense of justice. If a master is not equal in -his ways towards his dogs, the dogs are very apt to discover the -injustice and to resent it accordingly. The well-known observation of -the great Arago may be taken as a typical one in this connection. Having -been detained by a storm at a country inn, and having ordered a chicken -for his dinner, Arago was warming himself by the kitchen fire, when he -saw the innkeeper put the fowl on the spit and attempt to seize a -turnspit dog lying in the kitchen. The brute, however, refused to enter -the wheel, got under a table, and showed fight. On Arago asking what -could be the meaning of such conduct, the host replied that the dog had -some excuse, that it was not his turn but his comrade's, who did not -happen to be in the kitchen. Accordingly, the other turnspit was sent -for, and he entered the spit very willingly, and turned away. When the -fowl was half roasted Arago took him out, and the other dog, no longer -smarting under the sense of injustice, now took his turn without any -opposition, and completed the roasting of the fowl. - -Deceitfulness is another trait in canine character of which numberless -instances might be given; but here, again, it seems unnecessary to quote -more than one or two cases as illustrative of the general fact. Another -of my correspondents, after giving several examples of the display of -hypocrisy of a King Charles spaniel, proceeds:-- - - He showed the same deliberate design of deceiving on - other occasions. Having hurt his foot he became lame - for a time, during which he received more pity and - attention than usual. For months after he had - recovered, whenever he was harshly spoken to, he - commenced hobbling about the room as if lame and - suffering pain from his foot. He only gave up the - practice when he gradually perceived that it was - unsuccessful. - -The following instance, which I observed myself, I regard as more -remarkable. It has already been published in 'Nature' (vol. xii., p. -66), from which I quote it: - - The terrier used to be very fond of catching flies - upon the window-panes, and if ridiculed when - unsuccessful was evidently much annoyed. On one - occasion, in order to see what he would do, I - purposely laughed immoderately every time he failed. - It so happened that he did so several times in - succession--partly, I believe, in consequence of my - laughing--and eventually he became so distressed that - he positively _pretended_ to catch the fly, going - through all the appropriate actions with his lips and - tongue, and afterwards rubbing the ground with his - neck as if to kill the victim: he then looked up at me - with a triumphant air of success. So well was the - whole process simulated that I should have been quite - deceived, had I not seen that the fly was still upon - the window. Accordingly I drew his attention to this - fact, as well as to the absence of anything upon the - floor; and when he saw that his hypocrisy had been - detected he slunk away under some furniture, evidently - very much ashamed of himself. - -This allusion to the marked effects of ridicule upon a dog leads to a -consideration of the next emotion with which I feel certain that some -dogs are to be accredited. I mean the emotion of the ludicrous. This -same terrier used, when in good humour, to perform several tricks, which -I know to have been self-taught, and which clearly had the object of -exciting laughter. For instance, while lying on his side and violently -grinning, he would hold one leg in his mouth. Under such circumstances, -nothing pleased him so much as having his joke duly appreciated, while -if no notice was taken of him he would become sulky. On the other hand, -nothing displeased him so much as being laughed at when he did not -intend to be ridiculous, as could not be more conclusively proved than -by the fact of his behaviour in pretending to catch the fly. Mr. Darwin -observes: 'Dogs show what may be fairly called a sense of humour, as -distinct from mere play; if a bit of stick or other such object be -thrown to one, he will often carry it away for a short distance; and -then squatting down with it on the ground close before him, will wait -until his master comes close to take it away. The dog will seize it and -rush away in triumph, repeating the same manoeuvre, and evidently -enjoying the practical joke.'[265] - - -_General Intelligence._ - -I have very definite evidence of the fact that dogs are able to -communicate to one another simple ideas. The communication is always -effected by gesture or tones of barking, and the ideas are always of -such a simple nature as that of a mere 'follow me.' According to my own -observations, the dogs must be above the average of canine intelligence, -and the gesture they invariably employ is a contact of heads, with a -motion between a rub and a butt. It is quite different from anything -that occurs in play, and is always followed by a definite course of -action. I must add, however, that although the information thus conveyed -is always definite, I have never known a case in which it was -complex--anything like asking or telling the way, which several writers -have said that dogs can do, being, I believe, quite out of the question. -One example will suffice. A Skye terrier (not quite pure) was asleep in -the room where I was, while his son lay upon a wall which separates the -lawn from the high road. The young dog, when alone, would never attack a -strange one, but was a keen fighter when in company with his father. -Upon the present occasion a large mongrel passed along the road, and -shortly afterwards the old dog awoke and went sleepily downstairs. When -he arrived upon the door-step his son ran up to him and made the sign -just described. His whole manner immediately altered to that of high -animation. Clearing the wall together, the two animals ran down the road -as terriers only can when pursuing an enemy. I watched them for a mile -and a half, within which distance their speed never abated, although the -object of their pursuit had not from the first been in sight. - -It is almost superfluous to give cases illustrating the well-known fact -that dogs communicate their desires and ideas to man; but as the subject -of the communication by signs will afterwards be found of importance in -connection with the philosophy of communication by words, I shall here -give a few examples of dogs communicating by signs with man, which for -my purpose will be the more valuable the less they are recognised as -unusual. - -Lieutenant-Gen. Sir John H. Lefroy, C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S., writes me -that he has a terrier which it is the duty of his wife's maid to wash -and feed. 'It was her habit after calling her mistress in the morning to -go out and milk a goat which was tethered near the house, and give -"Button" the milk. One morning, being rather earlier than usual, instead -of going out at once she took up some needlework and began to occupy -herself. The dog endeavoured in every possible way to attract her -attention and draw her forth, and at last pushed aside the curtain of a -closet, and never having been taught to fetch or carry, took between his -teeth the cup she habitually used, and brought it to her feet. I -inquired into every circumstance strictly on the spot, and was shown -where he found the cup.' - -Similarly I select the following case from a great number of others that -I might quote, because it is so closely analogous to the above. It is -communicated to me by Mr. A. H. Baines:-- - - There is a drinking-trough for him in my sitting-room: - if at any time it happens to be without water when he - goes to drink, he scratches the dish with his - fore-paws in order to call attention to his wants, and - this is done in an authoritative way, which generally - has the desired effect. Another Pomeranian--a member - of the same family--when quite young used to soak - hard biscuits in water till soft enough to eat. She - would carry the biscuit in her mouth to the - drinking-trough, drop it in and leave it there for a - few minutes, and then fish it out with her paw. - -One more instance of the communication of ideas by gestures will no -doubt be deemed sufficient. It is one of a kind which has many analogies -in the literature of canine intelligence. - -Dr. Beattie relates this case of canine sagacity, of which the scene was -a place near Aberdeen. The Dee being frozen, a gentleman named Irvine -was crossing the ice, which gave way with him about the middle of the -river. Having a gun, he was able to keep himself from sinking by placing -it across the opening. 'The dog made many fruitless efforts to save his -master, and then ran to a neighbouring village, where he saw a man, and -with the most significant gestures pulled him by the coat, and prevailed -on him to follow. The man arrived on the spot in time to save the -gentleman's life.' - -Numberless other instances of the same kind might be given, and they -display a high degree of intelligence. Even the idea of saving life -implies in itself no small amount of intelligence; but in such cases as -these we have added the idea of going for help, communicating news of a -disaster, and leading the way to its occurrence. - -Having thus as briefly as possible considered the emotional and the more -ordinary intellectual faculties of the dog, I shall pass on to the -statement of cases showing the higher and more exceptional developments -of canine sagacity. - -Were the purpose of this work that of accumulating anecdotes of animal -intelligence, this would be the place to let loose a flood of facts, -which might all be well attested, relating to the high intelligence of -dogs. But as my aim is rather that of suppressing anecdotes, except in -so far as facts are required to prove the presence in animals of the -sundry psychological faculties which I believe the different classes to -present, I shall here, as elsewhere, follow the method of not -multiplying anecdotes further than seems necessary fully to demonstrate -the highest level of intelligence to which the animal under -consideration can certainly be said to attain. But in order that any who -read these pages for the sake of the anecdotes which they necessarily -present may not be disappointed by meeting with cases already known to -them, I shall draw my material mainly from the facts communicated to me -by private correspondents, alluding to previously published facts only -as supplementary to those now published for the first time. It may be -well to explain to my numerous correspondents that I select the -following cases for quoting, not because they are the most sensational -that I have received, but rather because they either contain nothing -sufficiently exceptional to excite the criticism of incredulity, or -because they happen to have been corroborated by the more or less -similar cases which I quote from other correspondents. - -As showing the high general intelligence of the dog, I shall first begin -with the collie. It is certain that many of these dogs can be trusted to -gather and drive sheep without supervision. It is enough on this head to -refer to the well-known anecdotes of the poet Hogg in his 'Shepherd's -Calendar,' concerning his dog 'Sirrah.' - -Williams, in his book on 'Dogs and their Ways,' says (p. 124) that a -friend of his had a collie which, whenever his master said the words -'Cast, cast,' would run off to seek any sheep that might be cast, and on -finding it would at once assist it to rise. He also knew of another dog -(p. 102), which would perform the same office even in the absence of his -master, going the round of the fields and pastures by himself to right -all the sheep that he found to be cast.[266] - -One of my correspondents (Mr. Laurie Gentles) sends me an account of a -sheep-dog belonging to a friend of his (Mr. Mitchell, of -Inverness-shire) which strayed to a neighbouring farm, and took up his -residence with the farmer. On the second night after the dog arrived at -the farm the farmer 'took the dog down to the meadow to see if the -cattle were all right. To his dismay he found that the fence between -his meadow and his neighbour's had got broken down, and that the whole -of his neighbour's cattle had got mixed up with his. By the help of the -dog the strange cattle were driven back into their proper meadow, and -the fence put into temporary repair. The _next_ night, at the same hour, -the gentleman started off to look after the cattle. The dog, however, -was not to be seen. On arriving at the meadow, what was the gentleman's -astonishment to find that the dog had preceded him! His astonishment -soon changed into delighted approbation when he found the dog sitting on -the broken fence between the two meadows, and daring the cattle from -either side to cross. The cattle had during the interval between the -first and second visits broken down the fence, and had got mixed up with -each other. The dog had quietly gone off on his own account to see if -all was right, and finding a similar accident to the one the previous -evening, had _alone_ and _unaided_ driven back the _strange_ cattle to -their proper meadow, and had mounted guard over the broken fence as I -have already indicated.' - -Colonel Hamilton Smith says that the cattle-dogs of Cuba and Terra Firma -are very wise in managing cattle, but require to display different -tactics from the cattle-dogs of Europe:-- - - When vessels with live stock arrive at any of the West - India harbours, these animals, some of which are - nearly as large as mastiffs, are wonderfully efficient - in assisting to land the cargo. The oxen are hoisted - out with a sling passing round the base of their - horns; and when an ox, thus suspended by the head, is - lowered, and allowed to fall into the water, so that - it may swim to land, men sometimes swim by the side of - it and guide it, but they have often dogs of this - breed which will perform the service equally well; - for, catching the perplexed animal by the ears, one on - each side, they will force it to swim in the direction - of the landing-place, and instantly let go their hold - when they feel it touch the ground, as the ox will - then naturally walk out of the water by itself.[267] - -That this sagacity need not be due to special tuition, may be inferred -from a closely similar display spontaneously shown in the following -case. It is communicated to me by a correspondent, Mr. A. H. Browning. -This gentleman was looking at a litter of young pigs in their sty, and -when he went away the door of the sty was inadvertently left unfastened. -The pigs all escaped into his garden. My correspondent then proceeds:-- - - My attention was called to my dog appearing in a great - state of excitement, _not_ barking (he seldom barks), - but whining and performing all sorts of antics (in a - human subject I should have said 'gesticulating'). The - herdmen and myself returned to the sty; we caught but - one pig, and put him back; no sooner had we done so - than the dog ran after each pig in succession, brought - him back to the sty by the ear, and then went after - another, until the whole number were again housed. - -In Lord Brougham's 'Dialogues on Instinct' (iii.) there is narrated the -story told to the author by Lord Truro of a dog that used to worry sheep -at night. The animal quietly submitted to be tied up in the evening, but -when everybody was asleep he used to slip his collar, worry the sheep, -and, returning before dawn, again get into his collar to avoid -suspicion. I allude to this remarkable display of sagacity because I am -myself able fully to corroborate it by precisely similar cases. A friend -of mine (the late Mr. Sutherland Murray) had a dog which was always kept -tied up at night, but nevertheless the neighbouring farmers complained -of having detected him as the culprit when watching to find what dog it -was that committed nightly slaughter among their sheep. My friend, -therefore, set a watch upon his dog, and found that when all was still -be slipped his collar, and after being absent for some hours, returned -and slipped his head in again. - -A precisely similar case is given further back, and others are -communicated to me by two correspondents (Mr. Goodbehere, of Birmingham, -and Mr. Richard Williams, of Buffalo). The latter says:-- - - And here let me ask if you are aware of the cunning - and sagacity of these sheep-killing dogs, that they - never kill sheep on the farm to which they belong, or - in the immediate vicinity, but often go miles away; - that they always return before daylight, and before - doing so wash themselves in some stream to get rid of - the blood. - -In Germany I knew a large dog that was very fond of grapes, and at night -used to slip his collar in order to satisfy his propensity; and it was -not for some time that the thief was suspected, owing to his returning -before daylight and appearing innocently chained up in his kennel. - -A closely similar case is recorded in Mr. Duncan's book on 'Instinct' of -a dog belonging to the Rev. Mr. Taylor, of Colton. The only difference -is that the delinquent dog slipped and afterwards readjusted a muzzle -instead of a collar. - -In connection with sly sagacity I may also give another story contained -in my correspondence, although in this case I am specially requested by -my correspondent not to publish his name. I can, therefore, only say -that he occupies a high position in the Church, and that the dog (a -retriever) was his own property:-- - - The dog was lying one evening before the kitchen fire - where the cook had prepared a turkey for roasting. She - left the kitchen for a few moments, when the dog - immediately carried away the turkey and placed it in - the cleft of a tree close to the house, but which was - well concealed by the surrounding laurels. So rapid - were his movements that he returned to his post before - the cook had come back, and stretching himself before - the fire, looked 'as innocent as a child unborn.' - Unfortunately for him, however, a man who was in the - habit of taking him to shoot, saw him carrying away - his prize and watched his progress. On coming into the - kitchen the man found the dog in his old place - pretending to be asleep. Diver's conduct was all along - dictated by a desire to conceal his theft, and if he - were a man I should have said that he intended, in - case of inquiry, to prove an alibi. - -Mr. W. H. Bodley writes me of a retriever dog that belonged to him:-- - - Before he came to me he lived where another dog of - similar size was kept, and on one occasion they - fought. Having been chastised for this, on future - occasions when they quarrelled they used to swim over - a river of some breadth, where they could not be - interfered with, and fight out their quarrel on the - other side. What seems to me noteworthy in this - conduct is the _self-restraint_ manifested under the - influence of _passion_, and the mutual understanding - to defer the fight till they could prosecute it - unmolested; like two duellists crossing the Channel to - fight in France. - -It is, of course, a well-known thing that dogs may easily be taught the -use of coin for buying buns, &c. In the 'Scottish Naturalist' for April, -1881, Mr. Japp vouches for the fact that a collie which he knew was in -the habit of purchasing cakes with coppers without ever having been -taught the use of coin for such purposes. This fact, however, of a dog -spontaneously divining the use of money requires corroboration, although -it is certain that many dogs have an instinctive idea of giving -peace-offerings, and the step from this to the idea of barter may not be -large. Thus, to give only two illustrations, Mr. Badcock writes to me -that a friend of his had a dog which one day had a quarrel with a -companion dog, so that they parted at variance. 'On the next day the -friend appeared with a biscuit, which he presented as a peace-offering.' -Again, Mr. Thomas D. Smeaton writes to me of his dog that he 'has an -amusing practice when he is restored to favour after some slight -offence, of immediately picking up and carrying anything that is -handiest, stone, stick, paper: it is a deliberate effort to please, a -sort of good-will offering, a shaking hands over the past.' - -I am indebted for the following to Mr. Goodbehere, of Birmingham; it may -be taken as typical of many similar cases:-- - - My friend (Mr. James Canning, of Birmingham) was - acquainted with a small mongrel dog who on being - presented with a penny or a halfpenny would run with - it in his mouth to a baker's, jump on to the top of - the half-door leading into the shop, and ring the bell - behind the door until the baker came forward and gave - him a bun or a biscuit in exchange for the coin. The - dog would accept any small biscuit for a halfpenny, - but nothing less than a bun would satisfy him for a - penny. On one occasion the baker (being annoyed at the - dog's too frequent visits), after receiving the coin, - refused to give the dog anything in exchange, and on - every future occasion the latter (who declined being - _taken in_ a second time) would put the coin on the - floor, and not permit the baker to pick it up until he - had received its equivalent. - -Mr. R. O. Backhouse writes to me:-- - - My dog is a broken-haired rabbit-coursing dog, and is - very intelligent. I took him one day to an exhibition - of pictures and objects of interest, among which were - statues and a bust of Sir Walter Scott. It was a local - exhibition, and as there was jewellery, some one had - to sit up all night with it as guard. I volunteered, - and as we were looking about and sitting on a stand of - flowers, my dog suddenly began to bark, and made as if - he had found some one hiding. On looking round I found - that it was the bust of Sir Walter Scott standing - among the flowers, and in which he evidently - recognised sufficient likeness to a human being to - think the supposed man had no business there at so - late an hour. - -I adduce this instance because it serves as a sort of introduction to -the more remarkable faculty which I cannot have the least doubt is -manifested by some dogs--the faculty, namely, of recognising portraits -as representing persons, or possibly of mistaking portraits for persons. - -Mr. Crehore, writing to 'Nature' (vol. xxi., p. 132), says:-- - - A Dandie-Dinmont terrier, after the death of his - mistress, was playing with some children in a room - into which was brought a photograph (large) of her - that he had never previously seen. It was placed upon - the floor leaning against the wall. In the words of my - informant, who witnessed it, the dog, when he suddenly - caught sight of the picture, crouched and trembled all - over, his whole body quivering. Then he crept along - the floor till he reached it, and, seating himself - before it, began to bark loudly, as if he would say, - 'Why don't you speak to me?' The picture was moved to - other parts of the room, and he followed, seating - himself before it and repeating his barking. - -Mr. Charles W. Peach also gives an account in 'Nature' (vol. xx., p. -196) of a large dog recognising his portrait:-- - - When it (the portrait) was brought to my house, my old - dog was present with the family at the unveiling; - nothing was said to him, nor invitation given to him - to notice it. We saw that his gaze was steadily fixed - on it, and he soon became excited and whined, and - tried to lick and scratch it, and was so much taken up - with it that we--although so well knowing his - intelligence--were all quite surprised--in fact, could - scarcely believe that he should know it was my - likeness. We, however, had sufficient proof after it - was hung up in our parlour. The room was rather low, - and under the picture stood a chair: the door was left - open, without any thought about the dog; he, however, - soon found it out, when a low whining and scratching - was heard by the family, and on search being made, he - was in the chair trying to get at the picture. After - this I put it up higher, so as to prevent its being - injured by him. This did not prevent him from paying - attention to it, for whenever I was away from home, - whether for a short or a long time--sometimes for - several days--he spent most of his time gazing on it, - and as it appeared to give him comfort the door was - always left open for him. When I was long away he made - a low whining, as if to draw attention to it. This - lasted for years--in fact, as long as he lived. - -From this account it appears that when in the first instance the dog's -attention was drawn to the picture it was on the floor in the line of -the dog's sight; the behaviour of the animal then and subsequently was -too marked and peculiar to admit of mistake. - -Another correspondent in 'Nature' (vol. xx., p. 220), alluding to the -previous letter, writes:-- - - Having read Mr. Peach's letter on 'Intellect in - Brutes,' as shown by the sagacity he witnessed in his - dog, I have been asked to send a similar anecdote, - which I have often told to friends. Many years ago my - husband had his portrait taken by J. Phillips, R.A., - and subsequently went to India, leaving the portrait - in London to be finished and framed. When it was sent - home, about two years after it was taken, it was - placed on the floor against the sofa, preparatory to - being hung on the wall. We had then a very handsome - black-and-tan setter, which was a great pet in the - house. As soon as the dog came into the room he - recognised his master, though he had not seen him for - two years, and went up to the picture and licked the - face. When this anecdote was told to Phillips, he said - it was the highest compliment that had ever been paid - him. - -Similarly, in the same periodical (vol. xx., p. 220), Mr. Henry Clark -writes:-- - - Some years ago a fine arts exhibition was held at - Derby. A portrait of a Derby artist (Wright) was thus - signalised:--'The artist's pet dog distinguished this - from a lot of pictures upon the floor of the studio by - licking the face of the portrait.' - -Again, I learn from Dr. Samuel Wilks, F.R.S., that a friend of his, whom -I shall call Mrs. E., has a terrier which recognised her portrait. 'The -portrait is now (1881) hanging in the Royal Academy. When it first -arrived home the dog barked at it, as it did at strangers; but after a -day or two, when Mrs. E. opened the door to show the portrait to some -friends, the dog went straight to the picture and licked the hand. The -picture is a three-quarter length portrait of a lady with the hand at -the bottom of the picture.' - -Lastly, my sister, who is a very conscientious and accurate observer, -witnessed a most unmistakable recognition of portraits as representative -of persons on the part of a small but intelligent terrier of her own. At -my request she committed the facts to writing shortly after they -occurred. The following is her statement of them:-- - - I have a small terrier who attained the age of eight - months without ever having seen a large picture. One - day three nearly life-sized portraits were placed in - my room during his absence. Two were hung up, and one - left standing against the wall on the floor awaiting - the arrival of a picture-rod. When the dog entered the - room he appeared much alarmed by the sight of the - pictures, barking in a terrified manner first at one - and then at another. That is to say, instead of - attacking them in an aggressive way with tail erect, - as he would have done on thus encountering a strange - person, he barked violently and incessantly at some - distance from the paintings, with tail down and body - elongated, sometimes bolting under the chairs and - sofas in the extremity of his fear, and continuing - barking from there. Thinking it might be merely the - presence of strange objects in the room which excited - him, I covered the faces of the portraits with cloths - and turned the face of the one on the floor to the - wall. The dog soon after emerged from his - hiding-place, and having looked intently at the - covered pictures and examined the back of the frame on - the ground, became quite quiet and contented. I then - uncovered one of the pictures, when he immediately - flew at it, barking in the same frightened manner as - before. I then re-covered that one and took the cover - off another. The dog left the covered one and rushed - at the one which was exposed. I then turned the face - of the one on the floor to the room, and he flew at - that with increased fierceness. This I did many times, - covering and uncovering each picture alternately, - always with the same result. It was only when all - three paintings were uncovered at the same time, and - he saw one looking at him in whatever direction he - turned, that he became utterly terrified. He continued - in this state for nearly an hour, at the end of which - time, although evidently very nervous and apt to - start, he ceased to bark. After that day he never took - any more notice of the pictures during the three - months he remained in the house. He was then absent - from the house for seven months. On his return he went - with me into the room where the portraits were hung, - immediately on his arrival. He was evidently again - much startled on first seeing them, for he rushed at - one, barking as he had done on the first occasion, but - he only gave three or four barks when he ran back to - me with the same apologetic manner as he has when he - has barked at a well-known friend by mistake. - -It will have been observed that in all these cases the portraits, when -first recognised as bearing resemblance to human beings, were placed on -the floor, or in the ordinary line of the dog's sight. This is probably -an important condition to the success of the recognition. That it -certainly was so in the case of my sister's terrier was strikingly -proved on a subsequent occasion, when she took the animal into a -picture-shop where there were a number of portraits hanging round the -walls, and also one of Carlyle standing on the floor. The terrier did -not heed those upon the walls, but barked excitedly at the one upon the -floor. This case was further interesting from the fact that there were a -number of purchasers in the shop who were, of course, strangers to the -terrier; yet he took no notice of them, although so much excited by the -picture. This shows that the pictorial illusion was not so complete as -to make the animal suppose the portrait to be a real person; it was only -sufficiently so to make it feel a sense of bewildered uncertainty at the -kind of life-in-death appearance of the motionless representation. - -If, notwithstanding all this body of mutually corroborative cases, it is -still thought incredible that dogs should be able to recognise pictorial -representations,[268] we should do well to remember that this grade of -mental evolution is reached very early in the psychical development of -the human child. In my next work I shall adduce evidence to show that -children of one year, or even less, are able to distinguish pictures as -representations of particular objects, and will point at the proper -pictures when asked to show these objects. - -Coming now to cases more distinctly indicative of reason in the strict -sense of the word, numberless ordinary acts performed by dogs -indisputably show that they possess this faculty. Thus, for instance, -Livingstone gives the following observation.[269] A dog tracking his -master along a road came to a place where three roads diverged. Scenting -along two of the roads and not finding the trail, he ran off on the -third without waiting to smell. Here, therefore, is a true act of -inference. If the track is not on A or B, it must be on C, there being -no other alternative. - -Again, it is not an unusual thing for intelligent dogs, who know that -their masters do not wish to take them out, to leave the house and run a -long distance in the direction in which they suppose their masters are -about to go, in order that when they are there found the distance may be -too great for their masters to return home for the purpose of shutting -them up. I have myself known several terriers that would do this, and -one of the instances I shall give _in extenso_ (quoted from an account -which I published at the time in 'Nature'); for I think it displays -remarkably complex processes of far-seeing calculation:-- - - The terrier in question followed a conveyance from the - house in which I resided in the country, to a town ten - miles distant. _He only did this on one occasion_, and - about five months afterwards was taken _by train_ to - the same town as a present to some friends there. - Shortly afterwards I called upon these friends in a - different conveyance from the one which the dog had - previously followed; but the latter may have known - that the two conveyances belonged to the same house. - Anyhow, after I had put up the horses at an inn, I - spent the morning with the terrier and his new - masters, and in the afternoon was accompanied by them - to the inn. I should have mentioned that the inn was - the same as that at which the conveyance had been put - up on the previous occasion, five months before. Now, - the dog evidently remembered this, and, reasoning from - analogy, inferred that I was about to return. This is - shown by the fact that he stole away from our - party--although at what precise moment he did so I - cannot say, but it was certainly _after_ we had - arrived at the inn, for subsequently we all remembered - his having entered the coffee-room with us. Now, not - only did he infer from a single precedent that I was - going home, and make up his mind to go with me, but he - also further reasoned thus:--'As my previous master - lately sent me to town, it is probable that he does - not want me to return to the country; therefore, if I - am to seize this opportunity of resuming my poaching - life, I must now steal a march upon the conveyance. - But not only so, my former master may possibly pick me - up and return with me to my proper owners; therefore I - must take care only to intercept the conveyance at a - point sufficiently far without the town to make sure - that he will not think it worth his while to go back - with me.' - -Complicated as this train of reasoning is, it is the simplest one I can -devise to account for the fact that slightly beyond the _third_ -milestone the terrier was awaiting me, lying right in the middle of the -road with his face towards the town. I should add that the second two -miles of the road were quite straight, so that I could easily have seen -the dog if he had been merely running a comparatively short distance in -front of the horses. Why this animal should never have returned to his -former home on his own account I cannot suggest, but I think it was -merely due to an excessive caution which he also manifested in other -things. However, be the explanation of this what it may, as a fact he -never did venture to come back upon his own account, although there -never was a subsequent occasion upon which any of his former friends -went to the town but the terrier was seen to return with them, having -always found some way of escape from his intended imprisonment. - -The Rev. J. C. Atkinson gives an account ('Zoologist,' vol. vii., p. -2338) of his terrier, which, on starting a water-rat out of reeds into -the running stream, would not plunge directly after it, knowing that the -rat would beat him at swimming. But the moment the rat plunged, the dog -ran four or five yards down the bank, and there waited till the -water-rat, being carried down stream, appeared upon the surface, when he -pounced upon it successfully. - -Cases of this kind might be multiplied indefinitely, and they appear to -show a true faculty of reason or inferring. - -Professor W. W. Bailey, writing from Brown University to 'Nature' -(xxii., p. 607), says:-- - - A friend of mine, a naturalist, and a very - conscientious man, whose word can be implicitly - trusted, gives the following, to which he was an - eye-witness. His grandfather, then a very old but hale - and hearty man, had a splendid Newfoundland. There was - a narrow and precipitous road leading from the fields - to the house. It was regarded as a very dangerous - place. One day when the old gentleman was doing some - work about the farm his horse became alarmed, and - started off with the waggon along this causeway. The - chances were that he would dash himself and the empty - waggon to pieces. At once the dog seemed to take in - the situation, although until that time he had been - impassive. He started after the horse at full speed, - overtook him, caught the bridle, and by his strength - arrested the frightened creature until help could - reach him. My friend gives many other stories of this - fine dog, and thinks he had a decided sense of humour. - I will repeat that both of these tales come to me well - authenticated, and I could, by seeking permission, - give names and places. - -Couch gives the following, which is worth quoting, as showing the -intelligence of dogs in attacking unusual prey:-- - - On the first discovery of the prey (crabs) a terrier - runs in to seize it, and is immediately and severely - bitten in the nose. But a sedate Newfoundland dog of - my acquaintance proceeds more soberly in his work. He - lays his paw on it to arrest it in its escape; then - tumbling it over he bares his teeth, and, seizing it - with the mouth, throws the crab aloft. It falls upon - the stones; the shell is cracked beyond redemption, - and then the dainty dish is devoured at his - leisure.[270] - -I myself know a large dog in Germany which used to kill snakes by -dexterously tossing them in the air a great number of times, too quickly -to admit of the snake biting. When the snake was thus quite confused, -the dog would tear it in pieces. This dog can never have been poisoned -by the bite of a snake; but he seems to have had an instinctive idea -that the snake might be more harmful in its bite than other animals; for -while he was bold in fighting with dogs, and did not then object to -receiving his fair share of laceration, he was extremely careful never -to begin to tear a snake till he had thoroughly bewildered it by tossing -it as described. - -The reasoning displayed by dogs may not always be of a high order, but -little incidents, from being of constant occurrence among all dogs, are -the more important as showing the reasoning faculty to be general to -these animals. I shall therefore give a few cases to show the kind of -reasoning that is of constant occurrence. - -Mr. Stone writes to me from Norbury Park concerning two of his dogs, one -large and the other small. Both being in a room at the same time, - - one of them, the larger, had a bone, and when he had - left it the smaller dog went to take it, the larger - one growled, and the other retired to a corner. - Shortly afterwards the larger dog went out, but the - other did not appear to notice this, and at any rate - did not move. A few minutes later the large dog was - heard to bark out of doors; the little dog then, - without a moment's hesitation, went straight to the - bone and took it. It thus appears quite evident that - she reasoned--'That dog is barking out of doors, - therefore he is not in this room, therefore it is safe - for me to take the bone.' The action was so rapid as - to be clearly a consequence of the other dog's - barking. - -Again, Mr. John Le Conte, writing from the University of California, -tells me of a dog which used to hunt rabbits in an extensive -pasture-ground where there was a hollow tree, which frequently served as -a place of refuge for the rabbits when they were pressed:-- - - On one occasion a rabbit was 'started,' and all of the - dogs, with the exception of 'Bonus,' dashed off in - full pursuit. We were astonished to observe that the - sedate 'Bonus,' foregoing the intense excitement of - the chase, deliberately trotted by a short cut to a - hollow oak trunk, and crouching at its base calmly - awaited the advent of the fleeing rabbit. And he was - not disappointed (they frequently escaped without - being reduced to this extremity), for the pursuing - dogs pressed the rabbit so hard that, after making a - long detour, it made for the place of refuge. As it - was about entering the hollow trunk, the crouching - 'Bonus' captured the astonished rodent. - -Similarly, Dr. Andrew Wilson, F.R.S.E., writes me as follows:-- - - There is a shrubbery near the house, about 200 or 300 - yards long, and running in the shape of a horseshoe. A - small terrier used to start a rabbit nearly every - morning, at the end of the shrubbery next the house, - and hunt him through the whole length of it to the - other end, where the rabbit escaped into an old drain. - The dog then appears to have come to the conclusion - that the chord of a circle is shorter than its arc, - for he raised the rabbit again, and instead of - following him through the shrubbery as usual, he took - the short cut to the drain, and was ready and in - waiting on the rabbit when he arrived, and caught him. - -A somewhat similar instance is communicated to me by Mr. William Cairns, -of Argyll House, N.B.:-- - - I was watching the operations of a little Skye terrier - on a wheatstack which was in the course of being - thrashed, when suddenly a very large rat bounced off, - just from under Fan's nose. It darted into a pit of - water about a dozen yards from the stack, and tried to - escape. Fan, however, plunged after, and swam for some - distance, but found she was being left behind. So she - turned to the shore again _and ran round to the other - side of the pit, and was ready and caught it just on - landing_. - - I never saw anything more remarkable. If it was not - reason, I do not know how it is possible that it could - come much more closely to the exercise of that - faculty. - -Dr. Bannister, editor of the 'Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases,' -writes me from Chicago, that having spent a winter in Alaska, he 'had a -good opportunity to study animal intelligence in the Eskimo dogs,' and -he reports it as 'a fact of common occurrence,' when the dogs are -drawing sledges on the ice near the coast, that on coming to -sinuosities in the coast-line, they spontaneously leave the beaten track -and strike out so as to 'cut across the windings by going straight from -point to point' of land. This is frequently done even when the leading -dog 'could not see the whole winding of the beaten track; he seemed to -reason that the route must lead around the headlands, and that he could -economise travel by cutting across.' - -It will be remembered in connection with these dogs, that Mr. Darwin in -the 'Descent of Man' (p. 75) quotes Dr. Hayes, who, in his work on 'The -Open Polar Sea,' 'repeatedly remarks that his dogs, instead of -continuing to draw the sledges in a compact body, diverged and separated -when they came to thin ice, so that their weight might be more evenly -[and widely] distributed. This was often the first warning which the -travellers received that the ice was becoming thin and dangerous.' Mr. -Darwin remarks, 'This instinct may possibly have arisen since the time, -long ago, when dogs were first employed by the natives in drawing their -sledges; or the Arctic wolves, the parent stock of the Esquimaux dog, -may have acquired an instinct, impelling them not to attack their prey -in a close pack when on thin ice.' - -Mrs. Horn writes me:-- - - One morning, soon after his usual time for starting, I - saw the dog looking anxiously about, evidently afraid - that my brother had gone without him. He looked into - the room where we had breakfasted, but my brother was - not there. He went up two or three stairs, and - listened attentively. Then, to my astonishment, he - came down, and going to the hat-stand in the hall, - stood on his hind legs and sniffed at the great-coats - hanging there, undoubtedly trying to ascertain whether - my brother's coat was there or not. - -Another correspondent (Mr. Westlecombe) writes:-- - - My cat had kittens, of which two were preserved, the - rest being drowned. The dog tolerated the two kittens, - but did not care about them with any friendship. When - the kittens were a few weeks old, I--finding that I - could get but one of them off my hands--determined to - kill the other, and, as the quickest mode of death, to - shoot it by a pistol close behind its head. The dog - saw me do this in my garden, and in a few minutes - afterwards she appeared with the other kitten dead in - her mouth; she had killed it. If that was not - reasoning I do not know what is. - -Mr. W. F. Hooper writes me of a Newfoundland dog that was in the habit -of accompanying the nursemaid and baby belonging to its mistress. On one -occasion a keen wind began to blow, and the nursemaid drew her shawl -over the child:-- - - The nursemaid had not taken many steps towards home - before her progress was barred by the dog, who placed - himself in the centre of the path and growled whenever - she advanced. She was much alarmed, and tried to coax - the dog to move, but Leo would not, and abated nothing - of the hostile display. Half an hour passed, and the - girl became nearly distracted. What could be the - matter with the dog? Was she to be a prisoner all day? - Would the animal fly at her throat? Was Leo suffering - from hydrophobia? These and similar questions crossed - the girl's mind. At length a suggestion of despair--it - was nothing more--occurred to her. She thought it - might win the dog round to good humour if she showed - it the baby; so she removed the folds of her shawl and - presented it at arm's length to the dog. The result - was magical, and far in excess of all expectation, for - not only did the dog cease to growl, but he began to - gambol and caress, and removed himself from the path - altogether, so that there was now a free course, and - home was soon reached. The explanation of the whole - affair is, when the nursemaid turned on her path - thinking she had gone sufficiently far, the dog missed - sight of the baby, and believed it was gone. Under - this impression the dog converted himself into a - sentinel, with the resolve that not one step should be - taken towards home without the baby; and faithfully - did the animal keep watch and ward until the - demonstration was given that the child had not been - left behind, but was still in the nurse's arms alive - and well. I think this is an exhibition of - intelligence worthy of being known to you. - -I extract the following instance from Col. Hutchinson's 'Dog-breaking.' -It is briefly alluded to in the 'Descent of Man.' The observer and -narrator is Mr. Colquhoun:-- - - I may mention a proof of his sagacity. Having a couple - of long shots across a pretty broad stream, I stopped - a mallard with each barrel, but both were only - wounded. I sent him across for the birds. He first - attempted to bring them both, but one always struggled - out of his mouth: he then laid down one intending to - bring the other; but whenever he attempted to cross to - me, the bird left fluttered into the water; he - immediately returned again, laid down the first on the - shore and recovered the other. The first now fluttered - away, but he instantly secured it, and, standing over - them both, seemed to cogitate for a moment; then, - although on any other occasion he never ruffles a - feather, deliberately killed one, brought over the - other, and then returned for the dead bird. - -The following, communicated to me by Mr. Blood, is a closely analogous, -and therefore confirmatory case. He was out shooting with a companion, -and three wild ducks were simultaneously dropped into a lake--one -falling dead and the other two winged. Mr. Blood sent in his spaniel to -retrieve, - - and of course when the wounded birds saw her coming - they swam out, so that she first reached the dead - duck. She swam up to it, paused for a moment, and - passing it went after the nearest wounded bird. Having - caught this, she again hesitated, and apparently after - consideration she gave it a chop and let it go, - quieted for the present. She then caught and brought - to land the other wounded duck, and going back she - again reached the dead bird; but looking at the other - and seeing that it was again moving, she went out and - brought it in, and last of all brought the dead bird. - The dog was a first-rate retriever and never injured - game, so that it was an entirely new thing for her to - kill a bird. - -Again, Mr. Arthur Nicols, in 'Nature,' vol. xix., page 496, says:-- - - Can we conceive any human being reasoning more - correctly than a dog did in the following instance? - Towards the evening of a long day's snipe-shooting on - Dartmoor, the party was walking down the bank of the - Dart, when my retriever flushed a widgeon which fell - to my gun in the river, and of course instantly dived. - I said no word to the dog. He did not plunge into the - river _then_, but galloped _down_ stream some fifty or - sixty yards, and then entered and dashed from side to - side--it was about twenty or thirty feet wide--working - up stream, and making a great commotion in the water - until he came to the place where we stood. Then he - landed and shook himself, and carefully hunted the - near bank a considerable distance down, crossed to - the opposite side, and diligently explored that bank. - Two or three minutes elapsed, and the party was for - moving on, when I called their attention to a sudden - change in the dog's demeanour. His 'flag' was now up - and going from side to side in that energetic manner - which, as every sportsman knows, betokens a hot scent. - I then knew that the bird was as safe as if it was - already in my bag. Away through the heather went the - waving tail, until twenty or thirty yards from the - bank opposite to that on which we were standing there - was a momentary scuffle; the bird just rose from the - ground above the heather, the dog sprang into the air, - caught it, came away at full gallop, dashed across the - stream, and delivered it into my hands. Need I - interpret all this for the experienced sportsman? The - dog had learned from long experience in Australia and - the narrow cañadas in the La Plata that a wounded duck - goes down stream; if winged, his maimed wing sticks - out and renders it impossible for him to go up, so he - will invariably land and try to hide away from the - bank. But if the dog enters at the place where the - bird fell, the latter will go on with the stream for - an indefinite distance, rising now and then for - breath, and give infinite trouble. My dog had found - out all this long since, and had proved the - correctness of his knowledge times out of number, and - by his actions had _taught me_ the whole art and - mystery of retrieving duck. His object, I say without - a doubt, because I had numberless opportunities of - observing it, was to fling the bird and force it to - land by cutting it off lower down the stream. Then - assuming, as his experience justified him, that the - bird had landed, he hunted each bank in succession for - the trail, which he knew must betray the fugitive. - -As showing in a higher, and therefore rarer degree, the ratiocinative -faculty in dogs, I may quote a brief extract from my British Association -lecture:-- - - My friend Dr. Rae, the well-known traveller and - naturalist, knew a dog in Orkney which used to - accompany his master to church on alternate Sundays. - To do so he had to swim a channel about a mile wide; - and before taking to the water he used to run about a - mile to the north when the tide was flowing, and a - nearly equal distance to the south when the tide was - ebbing, 'almost invariably calculating his distance so - well that he landed at the nearest point to the - church.' In his letter to me Dr. Rae continues: 'How - the dog managed to calculate the strength of the - spring and neap tides at their various rates of - speed, and always to swim at the proper angle, is most - surprising.' - -As a confirmatory case, I may also quote an extract from a letter sent -me by Mr. Percival Fothergill. Writing of a retriever which he has, he -says:-- - - I have seen her spring overboard from our gangway 16 - feet from the water-line. The tides ran more than 5 - knots, and she invariably came down to a little wharf - abreast the ship, and gazed intently for small pieces - of stick or straw, and having thus ascertained the - drift of the tide (did as you mention of another dog), - ran up tide and swam off. The sentry on the forecastle - always kept a look-out for the dog, and threw over a - line with a bowling knot, and she was hauled on board. - - But one day she was observed to wait an unusual time - on the wharf; no wood or straw gave her the required - information. After waiting some time, she lay down on - the planks, and dropped one paw into the water, and - found by the feel which way the tide ran, got up, and - ran up stream as usual. - -Mr. George Cook writes me that he recently had a pointer, which one -morning, when the grass was covered with frost, dragged a mat out of his -kennel, from which he had got loose, to the lawn beneath the house -windows, where he was found lying upon the mat, which thus served to -protect him from the frost. The distance over which he had dragged the -mat for this purpose was about 100 yards. Mr. Cook adds: 'I have since -frequently seen him bring this mat out of his kennel and lay it in the -sunshine, shifting it if a shadow came upon the place where he had laid -it.' - -The following is sent me by the Rev. F. J. Penky. He gives me the name -of his friend the canon, but does not give me express permission to -publish it. In quoting his account, therefore, I leave this name blank. -He says:-- - - The following is an instance of sagacity--indeed, - amounting to reason--in a dog, a French poodle that - belonged to Colonel Pearson (not the lately - beleaguered colonel at Ekowe, but a Colonel Pearson - living some years ago at Lichfield). The circumstance - happened to a friend of mine, Canon ----, rector of - ----. I have the story from his own lips, but I have - no permission for his name to be used in any - publication, should the story be thought worthy of - it. My friend the canon, I may say, has no leanings. - Being a guest at luncheon with the dog's master, my - friend fed the dog with pieces of beef. After luncheon - the beef was taken into the larder. The dog did not - think he had his fair share. What did he do? Now he - had been taught to stand on his hind legs, put his paw - on a lady's wrist, and hand her into the dining-room. - He adopted the same tactics with my friend the canon, - stood on his hind legs, put his paw on his arm, and - made for the door. To see what would follow, Canon - ---- suffered himself to be led; but the sagacious - dog, instead of steering for the dining-room, led him - in the direction of the larder, along a passage, down - steps, &c., and did not halt till he brought him to - the larder, and close to the shelf where the beef had - been put. The dog had a small bit given him for his - sagacity, and Canon ---- returned to the drawing-room. - But the dog was still not satisfied. He tried the same - trick again, but this time fruitlessly. The canon was - not going again with him to the larder. What was Mori - to do? And here comes the instance of reason in the - poodle. Finding he could not prevail on the visitor to - make a second excursion to the larder, he went out - into the hall, took in his teeth Canon ----'s hat from - off the hall table, and carried it under the shelf in - the larder, where the coveted beef lay out of his - reach. There he was found with the hat, waiting for - the owner of the hat, and expecting another savoury - bit when he should come for his hat. - -Many anecdotes might be adduced of the cleverness which some dogs show -in finding their way by train; but I shall give only three, and I select -these, not only because they all mutually corroborate one another, but -likewise because they all display such high intelligence on the part of -the dogs. - -Mr. Horsfall, in 'Nature,' vol. xx., p. 505, says:-- - - Last year we spent our holidays at Llan Bedr, - Merionethshire. Our host has a house in the above - village, and another at Harlech, a town three miles - distant. His favourite dog, Nero, is of Norwegian - birth, and a highly intelligent animal. He is at - liberty to pass his time at either of the houses owned - by his master, and he occasionally walks from one to - the other. More frequently, however, he goes to the - railway station at Llan Bedr, gets into the train, and - jumps out at Harlech. Being most probably unable to - get out of the carriage, he was on one occasion taken - to Salsernau, the station beyond Harlech, when he - left the carriage and waited on the platform for the - return train to Harlech. If Nero did not make use of - 'abstract reasoning' we may as well give up the use of - the term. - -Miss M. C. Young writes to me:-- - - You may perhaps think the following worthy of notice, - as illustrating the comparative failure of _instinct_ - in an animal which has begun to _reason_. A friend of - mine has a mongrel fox-terrier of remarkable - intelligence, though undeveloped by any training. This - dog has always shown a great fondness for accompanying - any of the family on a railway journey, often having - to be taken out of the train by force. One morning in - the summer of 1877 the groom came, in great distress, - to say that Spot had followed him to the station, and - jumped into the train after a visitor's maid who was - going to see her friends, and he (the groom) felt sure - the dog would be stolen. The railway is a short single - line, with three trains down and up each day, and my - friend is well known to all the officials, so she sent - to meet the next train, when the guard said the dog - (apparently finding no _friend_ in the train) had - jumped out at a little roadside station about five - miles distant. Most dogs would have found their way - home easily, though the place itself was strange, but - Spot did not appear till late in the evening, after - ten hours' absence, and _dead tired_. On inquiry we - found that the guard had seen nothing of her at 9 - A.M., at 12 A.M., at 1 P.M., nor at 4 P.M.; but when - he reached the little station on his return at 5.30, - 'she was walking up and down the platform like a - Christian,' jumped into his box, and jumped out again - of her own accord at the right station for her home. - She had evidently spent the interval in trying to find - her way home on foot, and not succeeding, had resolved - on returning the way she came. - -Lastly, for the following very remarkable case I am indebted to my -friend Mrs. A. S. H. Richardson:-- - - The Rev. Mr. Townsend, incumbent of Lucan, was - formerly an engineer on the Dundalk line of railway. - He had a very intelligent Scotch retriever dog, which - used to have a habit of jumping into any carriage in - which Mr. Townsend travelled; but this had been - discontinued for a year when the following incident - happened. Mr. Townsend and the dog were on the - platform at Dundalk station; Mr. Townsend went to get - a ticket for a lady, and during his absence the dog - jumped into a carriage, and when the train started, - was carried down to Clones. There he found himself - alone when he jumped out; he went into the - station-master's office and looked about, then into - the ticket-collector's and searched there, and then - ran off to the town of Clones, a mile distant. There - he searched the resident engineer's office, and not - finding his master, returned to the station and went - to the _up_ platform. When the up train arrived, he - jumped in, but was driven out by the guard. A ballast - train then drew up, going on to a branch line which - was being constructed to Caran, but which was not - finished yet. The dog travelled on the engine as far - as the line went, and then ran the remaining five - miles to Caran, where Mr. Townsend's sister lived. He - visited her house, and not finding his master, ran - back to the station, and took a return train to - Clones, where he slept, and was fed by the - station-master. At four in the morning he took a goods - train down to Dundalk, where he found Mr. Townsend. - -[Illustration] - -It would be easy to continue multiplying anecdotes of canine -intelligence; but I think a sufficient number of instances have now been -given for the only purpose that I have in view--namely, that of -exhibiting in a connected manner the various psychological faculties -which are presented by dogs, and the level of development to which they -severally attain. I may again remark that I have selected these -instances for publication from among many others that I could have -given, only because they conform to one or other of the general -principles to which I everywhere adhere in the quoting of facts. That is -to say, these facts are either matters of ordinary observation, and so -intrinsically credible; or they stand upon the authority of observers -well known to me as competent; or they are of a kind which do not admit -of mal-observation; or, lastly, they are well corroborated by similar -accounts received from independent observers. I think, therefore, that -this sketch of the psychology of the dog is as accurate as the nature of -the materials admits of my drawing it. If it is fairly open to criticism -on any one side, I believe it is from the side of the dog-lovers, who -may perhaps with justice complain that I have ignored a number of -published facts, standing on more or less good authority, and appearing -more wonderful than any of the facts that I have rendered. To this -criticism I have only to answer that it is better to err on the safe -side, and that if the facts which I have rendered are sufficient to -prove the existence of all the psychological faculties which the dog can -fairly be said to possess, it is of less moment that partly doubtful -cases should be suppressed, where the only object of introducing them -would be to show that some particular faculties were in some particular -instances more highly developed than was the case in the instances here -recorded. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[263] _Descent of Man_, p. 74. - -[264] So many cases are on record of large dogs (especially of the -Newfoundland breed) throwing troublesome curs into the water, and again -rescuing them if they show danger of drowning, that we can scarcely fail -to accept them as true. Such cases exhibit a wonderful play of -human-like emotions. - -[265] _Descent of Man_, p. 71. - -[266] For many other instances of sheep-dog sagacity, see Watson, -_Reasoning Power of Animals_, under 'Shepherd's Dog.' - -[267] _Naturalist's Library_, vol. x., p. 154 (quoted by Watson). - -[268] Since my MS. went to press I have myself met with a striking -display of the recognition of a portrait by a dog. The portrait was one -of myself, and the dog a half-bred setter and retriever of my own. - -[269] _Missionary Travels_, chap. i. - -[270] _Illustrations of Instinct_, p. 179. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -MONKEYS, APES AND BABOONS. - - -WE now come to the last group of animals which we shall have occasion to -consider, and these, from an evolutionary point of view, are the most -interesting. Unfortunately, however, the intelligence of apes, monkeys, -and baboons has not presented material for nearly so many observations -as that of other intelligent mammals. Useless for all purposes of labour -or art, mischievous as domestic pets, and in all cases troublesome to -keep, these animals have never enjoyed the improving influences of -hereditary domestication, while for the same reasons observation of the -intelligence of captured individuals has been comparatively scant. Still -more unfortunately, these remarks apply most of all to the most man-like -of the group, and the nearest existing prototypes of the human race: our -knowledge of the psychology of the anthropoid apes is less than our -knowledge of the psychology of any other animal. But notwithstanding the -scarcity of the material which I have to present, I think there is -enough to show that the mental life of the _Simiadæ_ is of a distinctly -different type from any that we have hitherto considered, and that in -their psychology, as in their anatomy, these animals approach most -nearly to _Homo sapiens_. - - -_Emotions._ - -Affection and sympathy are strongly marked--the latter indeed more so -than in any other animal, not even excepting the dog. A few instances -from many that might be quoted will be sufficient to show this. - -Mr. Darwin writes:-- - - Rengger observed an American monkey (a Cebus) - carefully driving away the flies which plagued her - infant; and Duvancel saw a Hylobates washing the faces - of her young ones in a stream. So intense is the grief - of female monkeys for the loss of their young, that it - invariably caused the death of certain kinds kept - under confinement by Brehm in North Africa. Orphan - monkeys were always adopted and carefully guarded by - the other monkeys, both male and female.[271] - -Again, Jobson says that whenever his party shot an orang-outang from -their boat, the body was carried off by others before the men could -reach the shore. - -So, again, James Forbes, F.R.S., in his 'Oriental Memoirs,' narrates the -following remarkable instance of the display of solicitude and care for -a dead companion exhibited by a monkey:-- - - One of a shooting-party under a banian tree killed a - female monkey, and carried it to his tent, which was - soon surrounded by forty or fifty of the tribe, who - made a great noise and seemed disposed to attack their - aggressor. They retreated when he presented his - fowling-piece, the dreadful effect of which they had - witnessed and appeared perfectly to understand. The - head of the troop, however, stood his ground, - chattering furiously; the sportsman, who perhaps felt - some little degree of compunction for having killed - one of the family, did not like to fire at the - creature, and nothing short of firing would suffice to - drive him off. At length he came to the door of the - tent, and, finding threats of no avail, began a - lamentable moaning, and by the most expressive gesture - seemed to beg for the dead body. It was given him; he - took it sorrowfully in his arms and bore it away to - his expecting companions. They who were witnesses of - this extraordinary scene resolved never again to fire - at one of the monkey race. - -Of course it is not to be supposed from this instance that all, or even -most monkeys display any care for their dead. A writer in 'Nature' (vol. -ix., p. 243), for instance, says expressly that such is not the case -with Gibbons (_Hylobates agilis_), which he has observed to be highly -sympathetic to injured companions, but 'take no notice whatever' of dead -ones. - -Regarding their sympathy for injured companions this writer says:-- - - I keep in my garden a number of Gibbon apes - (_Hylobates agilis_); they live quite free from all - restraint in the trees, merely coming when called to - be fed. One of them, a young male, on one occasion - fell from a tree and dislocated his wrist; it received - the greatest attention from the others, especially - from an old female, who, however, was no relation; she - used before eating her own plantains to take up the - first that were offered to her every day, and give - them to the cripple, who was living in the eaves of a - wooden house; and I have frequently noticed that a cry - of fright, pain, or distress from one would bring all - the others at once to the complainer, and they would - then condole with him and fold him in their arms. - -Captain Hugh Crow, in his 'Narrative of my Life,' relates an interesting -tale of the conduct of some monkeys on board his ship. He says:-- - - We had several monkeys on board; they were of - different species and sizes, and amongst them was a - beautiful little creature, the body of which was about - ten inches or a foot in length, and about the - circumference of a common drinking glass. This - interesting little animal, which, when I received it - from the Governor of the Island of St. Thomas, - diverted me by its innocent gambols, became afflicted - by the malady which unfortunately prevailed in the - ship. It had always been a favourite with the other - monkeys, who seemed to regard it as the last born and - the pet of the family; and they granted it many - indulgences which they seldom conceded to one another. - It was very tractable and gentle in its temper, and - never took advantage of the partiality shown to it. - From the moment it was taken ill their attention and - care of it redoubled; and it was truly affecting and - interesting to see with what anxiety and tenderness - they tended and nursed the little creature. A struggle - often ensued among them for priority in those offices - of affection; and some would steal one thing and some - another, which they would carry to it untasted, - however tempting it might be to their own palates. - Then they would take it up gently in their fore-paws, - hug it to their breasts, and cry over it as a fond - mother would over her suffering child. The little - creature seemed sensible of their assiduities, but it - was wofully overpowered by sickness. It would - sometimes come to me and look me pitifully in the - face, and moan and cry like an infant, as if it - besought me to give it relief; and we did everything - we could think of to restore it to health: but, in - spite of the united attention of its kindred tribes - and ourselves, the interesting little creature did not - survive long. - -Here is a case which I myself witnessed at the Zoological Gardens, and -published in the 'Quarterly Journal of Science,' from which I now -quote:-- - - A year or two ago there was an Arabian baboon and an - Anubis baboon confined in one cage, adjoining that - which contained a dog-headed baboon. The Anubis baboon - passed its hand through the wires of the partition, in - order to purloin a nut which the large dog-headed - baboon had left within reach--expressly, I believe, - that it might act as a bait. The Anubis baboon very - well knew the danger he ran, for he waited until his - bulky neighbour had turned his back upon the nut with - the appearance of having forgotten all about it. The - dog-headed baboon, however, was all the time slyly - looking round with the corner of his eye, and no - sooner was the arm of his victim well within his cage - than he sprang with astonishing rapidity and caught - the retreating hand in his mouth. The cries of the - Anubis baboon quickly brought the keeper to the - rescue, when, by dint of a good deal of physical - persuasion, the dog-headed baboon was induced to leave - go his hold. The Anubis baboon then retired to the - middle of his cage, moaning piteously, and holding the - injured hand against his chest while he rubbed it with - the other one. The Arabian baboon now approached him - from the top part of the cage, and, while making a - soothing sound very expressive of sympathy, folded the - sufferer in its arms--exactly as a mother would her - child under similar circumstances. It must be stated, - also, that this expression of sympathy had a decidedly - quieting effect upon the sufferer, his moans becoming - less piteous so soon as he was enfolded in the arms of - his comforter; and the manner in which he laid his - cheek upon the bosom of his friend was as expressive - as anything could be of sympathy appreciated. This - really affecting spectacle lasted a considerable time, - and while watching it I felt that, even had it stood - alone, it would in itself have been sufficient to - prove the essential identity of some of the noblest - among human emotions with those of the lower animals. - -As a beautiful instance of the display of sympathy, I may narrate an -occurrence which was witnessed by my friend Sir James Malcolm--a -gentleman on the accuracy of whose observation I can rely. He was on -board a steamer where there were two common East India monkeys, one of -which was older and larger than the other, though they were not mother -and child. The smaller monkey one day fell overboard amidships. The -larger one became frantically excited, and running over the bulwarks -down to a part of the ship which is called 'the bend,' it held on to the -side of the vessel with one hand, while with the other it extended to -her drowning companion a cord with which she had been tied up, and one -end of which was fastened round her waist. The incident astonished -everyone on board, but unfortunately for the romance of the story the -little monkey was not near enough to grasp the floating end of the cord. -The animal, however, was eventually saved by a sailor throwing out a -longer rope to the little swimmer, who had sense enough to grasp it, and -so to be hauled on board. - -The following account of the behaviour of a wounded monkey seems to -suggest the presence of a class of emotions similar to those which we -know as feelings of reproach. The observer was Capt. Johnson:-- - - I was one of a party of Jeekary in the Bahar district; - our tents were pitched in a large mango garden, and - our horses were picquetted in the same garden a little - distance off. When we were at dinner a Syer came to - us, complaining that some of the horses had broken - loose in consequence of being frightened by monkeys - (i.e. Macacus Orhesus) on the trees. As soon as dinner - was over I went out with my gun to drive them off, and - I fired with small shot at one of them, which - instantly ran down to the lowest branch of the tree, - as if he were going to fly at me, stopped suddenly, - and coolly put his paw to the part wounded, covered - with blood, and held it out for me to see. I was so - much hurt at the time that it has left an impression - never to be effaced, and I have never since fired a - gun at any of the tribe. Almost immediately on my - return to the party, before I had fully described what - had passed, a Syer came to inform us that the monkey - was dead. We ordered the Syer to bring it to us, but - by the time he returned the other monkeys had carried - the dead one off, and none of them could anywhere be - seen. - -This case is strikingly corroborated by the following allusion to Sir -W. Hoste's Memoirs, given by Jesse as follows:-- - - One of his officers, coming home after a long day's - shooting, saw a female monkey running along the rocks, - with her young one in her arms. He immediately fired, - and the animal fell. On his coming up, she grasped her - little one close to her breast, and with her other - hand pointed to the wound which the ball had made, and - which had entered above her breast. Dipping her finger - in the blood, and then holding it up, she seemed to - reproach him with being the cause of her death, and - consequently that of the young one, to which she - frequently pointed. 'I never,' says Sir William, 'felt - so much as when I heard the story, and I determined - never to shoot one of these animals as long as I - lived.'[272] - -Mr. Darwin says that most persons who have observed monkeys have seen -them show a sense of the ludicrous. Here is an instance which I have -myself observed, and now quote from my article in the 'Quarterly Journal -of Science:'-- - - Several years ago I used to watch carefully the young - orang-outang in the Zoological Gardens, and I am quite - sure that she manifested a sense of the ludicrous. One - example will suffice. Her feeding tin was of a - somewhat peculiar shape, and when it was empty she - used sometimes to invert it upon her head. The tin - then presented a comical resemblance to a bonnet, and - as its wearer would generally favour the spectators - with a broad grin at the time of putting it on, she - never failed to raise a laugh from them. Her success - in this respect was evidently attended with no small - gratification on her part. - -But perhaps the strongest evidence of monkeys having an appreciation of -the ludicrous is the same as that which we have seen to be presented in -the case of certain dogs--namely, in the animals disliking ridicule. -Abundant evidence on this head in the case of monkeys will be given -further on. - -That monkeys enjoy play no one can question who spends an hour or two in -the monkey-house at the Zoological Gardens. According to Savage, -chimpanzees congregate together for the sole purpose of play, when they -beat or drum with pieces of stick on sonorous pieces of wood.[273] - -Curiosity is more strongly pronounced in monkeys than in any other -animals. We all know the interesting illustration on this head furnished -by the experiment of Mr. Darwin, who, in order to test the statement of -Brehm that monkeys have an instinctive dread of snakes, and yet cannot -'desist from occasionally satiating their curiosity in a most human -fashion, by lifting up the lid of the box in which the snakes were -kept,' took a stuffed snake to the monkey-house at the Zoological -Gardens. Mr. Darwin says:-- - - The excitement thus caused was one of the most curious - spectacles I ever beheld. . . . I then placed a live - snake in a paper bag, with the mouth loosely closed, - in one of the larger compartments. One of the monkeys - immediately approached, cautiously opened the bag, - peeped in, and instantly dashed away. Then I witnessed - what Brehm has described, for monkey after monkey, - with head raised high and turned on one side, could - not resist taking a momentary peep into the upright - bag, at the dreadful object lying quietly at the - bottom.[274] - -Allied, perhaps, to curiosity, and so connected with the emotions, is -what Mr. Darwin calls 'the principle of imitation.' It is proverbial -that monkeys carry this principle to ludicrous lengths, and they are the -only animals which imitate for the mere sake of imitating, as has been -observed by Desor, though an exception ought to be made in favour of -talking birds. The psychology of imitation is difficult of analysis, but -it is remarkable as well as suggestive that it should be confined in its -manifestations to monkeys and certain birds among animals, and to the -lower mental levels among men. As Mr. Darwin says:-- - - The principle of imitation is strong in man, and - especially, as I have myself observed, with savages. - In certain morbid states of the brain, this tendency - is exaggerated to an extraordinary degree; some - hemiplegic patients and others, at the commencement - of inflammatory softening of the brain, unconsciously - imitate every word that is uttered, whether in their - own or in a foreign language, and every gesture or - action which is performed near them. - -The same sort of tendency is often observable in young children, so that -it seems to be frequently distinctive of a certain stage or grade of -mental evolution, and particularly in the branch _Primates_. Other -animals, however, certainly imitate each other's actions to a certain -extent, as I shall have occasion fully to notice in my next work. - -As for the sterner emotions, rage may be so pronounced as to make a -monkey exhaust itself with beating about its cage, or a baboon bite its -own limbs till the blood flows.[275] Jealousy occurs in a correspondingly -high degree, while retaliation and revenge are shown by all the higher -monkeys when injury has been done to them, as any one may find by -offering an insult to a baboon. The following is a good case of this, as -it shows what may be called brooding resentment deliberately preparing a -satisfactory revenge. Mr. Darwin writes:-- - - Sir Andrew Smith, a zoologist whose scrupulous - accuracy was known to many persons, told me the - following story of which he was himself an - eye-witness. At the Cape of Good Hope, an officer had - often plagued a certain baboon, and the animal, seeing - him approaching one Sunday for parade, poured water - into a hole and hastily made some thick mud, which he - skilfully dashed over the officer as he passed by, to - the amusement of many bystanders. For long afterwards - the baboon rejoiced and triumphed whenever he saw his - victim.[276] - - -_General Intelligence._ - -Coming now to the higher powers, I shall give a few cases to show that -monkeys certainly surpass all other animals in the scope of their -rational faculty. Professor Croora Robertson writes me:-- - - I witnessed the following incident in the Jardin des - Plantes, now many years ago; but it struck me greatly - at the time, and I have narrated it repeatedly in the - interval. A large ape--I believe anthropoid, but - cannot tell the species--was in the great iron cage - with a number of smaller monkeys, and was lording it - over them with many wild gambols, to the amusement of - a crowd of spectators. Many things--fruits and the - like--had been thrown between the bars into the cage, - which the ape was always forward to seize. At last - some one threw in a small hand looking-glass, with a - strongly made frame of wood. This the ape at once laid - hold of, and began to brandish like a hammer. Suddenly - he was arrested by the reflection of himself in the - glass, and looked puzzled for a moment; then he darted - his head behind the glass to find the other of his - kind that he evidently supposed to be there. - Astonished to find nothing, he apparently bethought - himself that he had not been quick enough with his - movement. He now proceeded to raise and draw the glass - nearer to him with great caution, and then with a - swifter dart looked behind. Again finding nothing, he - repeated the attempt once more. He now passed from - astonishment to anger, and began to beat with the - frame violently on the floor of the cage. Soon the - glass was shattered, and pieces fell out. Continuing - to beat, he was in the course of one blow again - arrested by his image in the piece of glass still - remaining in the frame. Then, as it seemed, he - determined to make one trial more. More circumspectly - than ever the whole first part of the process was gone - through with; more violently than ever the final dart - made. His fury over this last failure knew no bounds. - He crunched the frame and glass together with his - teeth, he beat on the floor, he crunched again, till - nothing but splinters was left. - -Mr. Darwin writes: 'Rengger, a most careful observer, states that when -first he gave eggs to his monkeys in Paraguay, they smashed them, and -thus lost much of their contents; afterwards they generally hit one end -against some hard body, and picked off the bits with their fingers. -After cutting themselves only _once_ with any sharp tool, they would not -touch it again, or would handle it with the greatest caution. Lumps of -sugar were often given them wrapped up in paper; and Rengger sometimes -put a live wasp in the paper, so that in hastily unfolding it they got -stung; after this had _once_ happened, they always first held the packet -to their ears to detect any movement within.'[277] - -The powers of observation and readiness to establish new associations -thus rendered apparent, display a high level of general intelligence. -Mr. Darwin further observes that Mr. Belt 'likewise describes various -actions of a tamed cebus, which, I think, clearly show that this animal -possessed some reasoning power.' The following is the account to which -Mr. Darwin here refers, and I quote it _in extenso_, because, as I shall -presently show, I have myself been able to confirm most of the -observations on another monkey of the same genus:-- - - It would sometimes entangle itself round a pole to - which it was fastened, and then unwind the coils again - with the greatest discernment. Its chain allowed it to - swing down below the verandah, but it could not reach - to the ground. Sometimes, when there were broods of - young ducks about, it would hold out a piece of bread - in one hand, and when it had tempted a duckling within - reach, seize it by the other, and kill it with a bite - in the breast. There was such an uproar amongst the - fowls on these occasions, that we soon knew what was - the matter, and would rush out and punish Mickey (as - we called him) with a switch; so that he was - ultimately cured of his poultry-killing propensities. - One day, when whipping him, I held up the dead - duckling in front of him, and at each blow of the - light switch told him to take hold of it, and at last, - much to my surprise, he did so, taking it and holding - it tremblingly in one hand. He would draw things - towards him with a stick, and even used a swing for - the same purpose. It had been put up for the children, - and could be reached by Mickey, who now and then - indulged himself in a swing on it. One day I had put - down some bird-skins on a chair to dry, far beyond, as - I thought, Mickey's reach; but, fertile in expedients, - he took the swing and launched it towards the chair, - and actually managed to knock the skins off in the - return of the swing, so as to bring them within his - reach. He also procured some jelly that was set out to - cool in the same way. Mickey's actions were very - human-like. When any one came near to fondle him, he - never neglected the opportunity of pocket-picking. He - would pull out letters, and quickly take them from - their envelopes.[278] - -I shall now proceed to state some further facts, showing the high level -of intelligence to which monkeys of various kinds attain. - -The orang which Cuvier had used to draw a chair from one end to the -other of a room, in order to stand upon it so as to reach a latch which -it desired to open; and in this we have a display of rationally adaptive -action which no dog has equalled, although, as in the case before given -of the dog dragging the mat, it has been closely approached. Again, -Rengger describes a monkey employing a stick wherewith to prise up the -lid of a chest, which was too heavy for the animal to raise otherwise. -This use of a lever as a mechanical instrument is an action to which no -animal other than a monkey has ever been known to attain; and, as we -shall subsequently see, my own observation has fully corroborated that -of Rengger in this respect. More remarkable still, as we shall also -subsequently see, the monkey to which I allude as having myself -observed, succeeded also by methodical investigation, and without any -assistance, in discovering for himself the mechanical principle of the -screw; and that monkeys well understand how to use stones as hammers is -a matter of common observation since Dampier and Wafer first described -this action as practised by these animals in the breaking open of -oyster-shells. The additional observation of Gernelli Carreri of monkeys -thrusting stones into the open valves of oysters so as to save -themselves the trouble of smashing the shells, though not incredible, -requires confirmation. But Mr. Haden, of Dundee, has communicated to me -the following very remarkable appreciation of mechanical principles -which he himself observed in a monkey (species not noted), and which -would certainly be beyond the mental powers of any other animal:-- - -'A large monkey, confined alone in a large cage, had its sleeping-place -in the form of a kind of hut in the centre of the cage. Springing near -the hut was a tree, or imitation tree, the main branch of which ascended -over the top of the hut, and then came forwards away from it. Whether -the roof of the hut enabled this animal to gain any part of this branch, -I did not observe, but only remarked its method at the time of gaining -the part of the branch which led frontwards, and away from the hut. -This could be done by means of the hut door, which, when opened, swung -beneath this part of the branch. The door, either by accident or by the -design of its construction, _swung_ to each time the animal opened it to -mount upon its top edge. After one or two efforts to mount by it in -spite of its immediate swinging to, the creature procured a thick -blanket which lay in the cage, and threw it over the door, having opened -the same, so that its complete swinging to was prevented sufficiently -for the creature to mount upon its free edge, and so gain that part of -the branch which ran above it.' - -The following, which I quote from 'Nature' (vol. xxiii., p. 533), also -displays high intelligence:-- - - One of the large monkeys at the Alexandra Palace had - been for some time suffering from the decay of the - right lower canine, and an abscess, forming a large - protuberance on the jaw, had resulted. The pain seemed - so great, it was decided to consult a dentist as to - what should be done; and, as the poor creature was at - times very savage, it was thought that if the tooth - had to be extracted, gas should be used for the safety - of the operation. Preparations were made accordingly, - but the behaviour of the monkey was quite a surprise - to all who were concerned. He showed great fight on - being taken out of the cage, and not only struggled - against being put into a sack prepared with a hole cut - for his head, but forced one of his hands out, and - snapped and screamed, and gave promise of being very - troublesome. Directly, however, Mr. Lewen Moseley, who - had undertaken the operation, managed to get his hand - on the abscess and gave relief, the monkey's demeanour - changed entirely. He laid his head down quietly for - examination, and, without the use of the gas, - submitted to the removal of a stump of a tooth as - quietly as possible. - -According to D'Osbonville, certain monkeys that he observed in the wild -state were in the habit of administering corporal chastisement to their -young. After suckling and cleansing them, the mothers used to sit down -and watch the youngsters play. These would wrestle, throw and chase each -other, &c.; but if any of them grew malicious, the dams would spring up, -and, seizing their offspring by the tail with one hand, correct them -severely with the other. - -We have already seen that dogs and cats display the idea of maintaining -discipline among their progeny. - -According to Houzeau the sacred monkey of India (_Semnopithecus -entellus_) is very clever in catching snakes, and in the case of -poisonous species destroy the fangs by breaking them against stones.[279] - -Of the fact that monkeys act in co-operation, many proofs might be -given, but one will suffice. - -Lieutenant Schipp, in his Memoirs, says:-- - - A Cape baboon having taken off some clothes from the - barracks, I formed a party to recover them. With - twenty men I made a circuit to cut them off from the - caverns, to which they always fled for shelter. They - observed my movements, and detaching about fifty to - guard the entrance, the others kept their post. We - could see them collecting large stones and other - missiles. One old grey-headed one, who had often paid - us a visit at the barracks, was seen distributing his - orders, as if a general. We rushed on to the attack, - when, at a scream from him, they rolled down enormous - stones on us, so that we were forced to give up the - contest. - -I shall here bring to a close my selections from the literature of -monkey psychology, because I wish to devote a good deal of space to -detailing a number of observations which have not yet been published. -Thinking it desirable for the purposes of this work that an intelligent -monkey should be subjected to close observation for some length of time, -I applied to Mr. Sclater for the loan of one from the collection of the -Zoological Society. He kindly consented to my proposal, and I selected a -specimen of _Cebus fatuellus_, which appeared to me to be the most -intelligent monkey in the collection. Not having facilities for keeping -the animal in my own house, I consigned him to the charge of my sister -(who lives close by), with the request that she should carefully note -all points of interest connected with his intelligence. Therefore, from -the day of his arrival till that of his departure she kept a diary, or -note-book, in which all the observations that she made when I was absent -were entered. It was originally my intention to make an abstract of this -note-book; but on afterwards reading it through for this purpose, it -seemed to me that I should rather spoil matters by attempting a -condensation. There is a certain graphic effect incidental to the diary -form and spontaneous style of diction--the notes, of course, not having -been written with a view to verbatim publication; and besides, as the -psychology of monkeys has been so little studied, I think it is well to -give all the details of a continuous series of observations. It is -desirable to add that on occasions subsequent to the taking of this or -that particular note, I generally had the opportunity of verifying the -observation myself; but I may state that I attach no more importance to -this circumstance than I should to verifying an observation of my own; -for as a careful observer of animals I have quite as much confidence in -my sister as in myself. It only remains to explain that my mother, being -an invalid, is confined most of the time to her bedroom; and that the -monkey was kept there for the first six weeks of his stay at her house, -partly in order that he might be under constant observation, and partly -also to furnish her with an entertaining pet. The following are my -sister's notes _in extenso_ and without alteration:-- - - _Brown Capuchin_ (_Cebus fatuellus_--Linn.), _Brazil_. - - DIARY, 1880. - - _December_ 18th. Arrived in box with keeper. Seemed - rather frightened and screamed a good deal on being - transferred from small box to a larger one. - - 19th. Took him out of the box he had been in all night - and fastened chain on to collar. Was meek and subdued, - hiding his face in my lap. - - 20th. Has become much more lively and somewhat - aggressive, especially towards the servants. He has - taken a fancy to my mother, and (she holding his - chain) he plays with her in a gentle and affectionate - manner in her bed, but flies angrily at any of the - servants who come near the bed. I observed to-day that - he breaks walnuts (which are too hard for him to crack - with his teeth) by striking them with the flat bottom - of a dish he has for drinking out of. He is - ceaselessly active all day, and at night covers - himself very neatly with warm shawls, and sleeps - soundly till about eight o'clock. - - 21st. I notice that the love of mischief is very - strong in him. To-day he got hold of a wine-glass and - an egg-cup. The glass he dashed on the floor with all - his might, and of course broke it. Finding, however, - that the egg-cup would not break for being thrown - down, he looked round for some hard substance against - which to dash it. The post of the brass bedstead - appearing to be suitable for the purpose, he raised - the egg-cup high over his head and gave it several - hard blows. When it was completely smashed he was - quite satisfied. He breaks a stick by passing it down - between a heavy object and the wall, and then hanging - on to the end, thus breaking it across the heavy - object. He frequently destroys an article of dress by - carefully pulling out the threads (thus unripping it) - before he begins to tear it with his teeth in a more - violent manner. If he gets hold of anything that he - sees we do not care about, he soon leaves it again; - but if it is an article of value (even if it be only a - scrap of paper) which he sees we are anxious about, - nothing will induce him to give it up. No food, - however inviting, will distract his attention: - scolding only makes him more angry, and he keeps the - article until it is quite destroyed. To-day I gave him - a hammer to break his walnuts with, and he uses it in - a proper manner for that purpose. - - 22nd. To-day a strange person (a dressmaker) came into - the room where he is tied up, and I gave him a walnut - that she might see him break it with his hammer. The - nut was a bad one, and the woman laughed at his - disappointed face. He then became very angry, and - threw at her everything he could lay hands on; first - the nut, then the hammer, then a coffee-pot which he - seized out of the grate, and, lastly, all his own - shawls. He throws things with great force and - precision by holding them in both hands, and extending - his long arms well back over his head before - projecting the missile, standing erect the while. - - 23rd. There is continual war between him and Sharp [a - small terrier], but they both seem to have a certain - mutual respect for each other. The dog makes snatches - at nuts, &c., and runs away with them beyond the reach - of his chain, and the monkey catches at the dog, but - seems afraid to hold him or hurt him. He however pelts - him with nuts or bits of carrot, and chatters at him. - At other times he holds out his hand as if to make - friends, but the dog is too suspicious to go near him. - His hostility towards the servants (one especially) - increases, so that he will not even take a nut from - her without catching fiercely at her hand; he also - frequently throws things at her. On the other hand, he - allows my mother to do anything with him. - - 24th. He bit me in several places to-day when I was - taking him away from my mother's bed after his - morning's game there. I took no notice, but he seemed - ashamed of himself afterwards, hiding his face in his - arms and sitting quiet for a time.[280] In accordance - with his desire for mischief, he is of course very - fond of upsetting things, but he always takes great - care they do not fall on himself. Thus he will pull a - chair towards him till it is almost over-balanced, - then he intently fixes his eyes on the top bar of the - back, and when he sees it coming over his way, darts - from underneath and watches the fall with great - delight; and similarly with heavier things. There is a - washhand-stand, for example, with a heavy marble top, - which he has with great labour upset several times, - and always without hurting himself.[281] - - - - 25th. I observed to-day that if a nut or any object he - wishes to get hold of is beyond the reach of his - chain, he puts out a stick to draw it towards him, or, - if that does not succeed, he stands upright and throws - a shawl back over his head, holding it by the two - corners so that it falls down his back; he then throws - it forward with all his strength, still holding on by - the corners; thus it goes out far in front of him and - covers the nut, which he then draws towards him by - pulling in the shawl. When his chain becomes twisted - round the bars of a 'clothes-horse' (which is given - him to run about upon), and thus too short for his - comfort, he looks at it intently and pulls it with his - fingers this way and that, and when he sees how the - turns are taken, he deliberately goes round and round - the bars, first this way, then that, until the chain - is quite disentangled. He often carries his chain - grasped in his tail and held high over his back to - keep it from getting into the way of his feet. He is - always rather excited in the morning when I loosen his - chain preparatory to taking him to my mother's bed; - jumps about and tugs at the chain. Sometimes, however, - if the chain is entangled, and I am rather long in - getting it unfastened, he sits quietly down beside me, - and begins picking at the chain with his fingers as - if to help me to untie it. I cannot say, however, that - he succeeds in helping me at all. - - 26th. He seems very fond of spinning things round. If - he gets a whole apple or orange he generally sits - spinning it on one end, before beginning to eat it. He - eats an orange by biting off a tiny piece of the peel, - and putting his long, thin finger deep into the fruit; - he then lays the whole orange under a piece of wire - netting he has near him, and, putting his mouth to the - hole he has made, presses the wire netting down upon - the fruit, thus squeezing the juice up into his mouth. - When a good deal of juice begins to run out, he holds - the orange up over his head and lets the juice run - into his mouth. - - 27th. To-day he obtained possession of a rather - valuable document, and, as usual, nothing I could do - would persuade him to give it up. He neglected any - kind of food I offered him, and only chattered when I - coaxed him. When at last I tried threatening him with - a cane, he only became savage and flew at me, - chattering. My mother now came and sat down in a chair - beside him. He immediately jumped into her lap, and - remained quite still while she took the paper out of - his hands. When, however, she handed it to me and I - laughed at her success, he showed his teeth and - screamed and chattered at me angrily. I find laughing - generally irritates him. Thus, when he is playing with - my mother in the bed in the best of humour, as long as - I sit quietly on the bed all is well, but if I laugh, - for example at any of his affectionate glances, he - makes a dart at me to send me off, and then returns - with renewed demonstrations of affection to my mother, - tumbling head over heels and lying on his back, - grinning in a most comical manner, and making a sound - very like slight laughter. - - 28th. His chain is fastened to the marble slab of a - washhand-stand, placed on the floor against the wall. - It is too heavy for him to pull along by his chain - without hurting himself, so when he desires to do any - mischief which is beyond the reach of his chain, he - deliberately goes to the marble and pushes an arm down - between an upright part of it and the wall, until he - has moved the whole slab sufficiently far from the - wall to admit of his slipping down behind the upright - part himself. He then places his back against the wall - and his four hands against the upright part of the - marble, and pushes the slab as far as he can stretch - his long legs. He only does this, however, when he is - bent on mischief, as the fact of food being beyond the - reach of his chain does not furnish a strong enough - inducement to lead him to take so much exertion. Thus - to-day he began to pull the glazed leather cover off - a trunk which was near him. I pulled the trunk away, - and when he found it was out of his reach he ran and - pushed the marble towards the trunk in the manner I - have described, and when he knew his chain was then - sufficiently long to reach the trunk, he ran to the - latter and hastily resumed his destructive process. - - 29th. I notice that nothing the person does who has - hold of his chain offends him. I mean, although he is - furiously angry at having anything taken away from - him, he is not at all angry if he is pulled away by - his chain. If he is trying to bite a person, and - another person takes hold of his chain behind him and - so prevents his spring forward, he does not turn to - bite the person who has taken hold of his chain, as a - dog would do under similar circumstances, but quietly - submits to be thus held. He seems to look upon his - confinement and management by a chain as a natural law - against which it is useless to struggle. On the other - hand, he seems to be quite aware of the place where - his chain is fastened, and to know that if he were - clever enough to undo it he would be free. After we - found he could move about the marble slab of the - washhand-stand in the way described, we had a ring - sunk in the floor to tie him to. The moment the chain - was fastened to that[282] he began to investigate its - new connection, and continued to do so for hours, - passing the chain rapidly backward and forwards - through the ring. When he found this did not loosen - it, he began to hammer it and the ring also with all - his strength, and this he continued to do for the rest - of the day. - - 30th. He still continues to work at the chain where it - is fastened to the ring. He passed the whole of the - chain through the ring so many times with his fingers - that it became quite blocked up in the ring, which - made it very short, and it took me a quarter of an - hour to disentangle it. He was very much interested in - this process, sitting quietly beside me and watching - my fingers intently, sometimes gently pulling my - fingers on one side in order to see better, and - sometimes casting a quick intelligent glance into my - face as if asking how I did it. After I had - disentangled and lengthened the chain he worked at it - again for hours, but took care not to twist it into - the ring a second time. - - - 31st. To-day he hurt himself by getting one of his - toes caught in a hinge of the clothes-horse. He did - not make any fuss, although the accident must have - been somewhat a painful one, nor did he try to pull - the toe out, which would have been useless and only - hurt him more; but he sat almost motionless, making - slight complaining noises until I discovered that - there was something wrong with him. When I began to - extricate his foot, he remained perfectly - passive--although I dare say I hurt him a good - deal--and only looked at me gratefully. - - _January_ 1, 1881. He has now quite given up trying to - loosen his chain himself; having tried every way and - failed, he has evidently become hopeless about it. He - now resents being tied up. When I loosen him he is - quite pleased, and when I tie him he waits until he is - quite sure he is being tied, and not loosened, and - then he flies at me and bites me. - - 10th. As he is always tied up in the same place he has - no new opportunities given him of showing his - intelligence. His attachment to my mother has - increased. When she goes out he immediately gives up - all play and mischief, and does nothing but run round - and round in a restless manner, making a peculiar - sweet calling noise, such as he never makes when she - is in the room, listening intently between times. As - long as she remains away he takes no rest or - amusement, nor does he ever, or hardly ever, become - angry; but the moment she returns he begins all his - old ways again, usually becoming more savage at other - people than before. - - My mother frequently takes things away from him, and - he never resents it to her as he would do to any other - person. He generally, however, chatters angrily at - some one else when my mother removes anything he - wishes to keep. At first I thought he was deceived in - the matter--that he could not believe it possible that - his best friend could deprive him of what he valued, - and so thought someone else must have done it. But the - same thing has now happened so frequently that I can - hardly think he is not really aware of who takes the - things away. He seems rather to think it politic to - keep on good terms with one person, and that although - he does see her remove the things, and feels angry in - consequence, he thinks it more prudent to vent his - anger upon someone with whom he has already - quarrelled. He always shows more irritation when my - mother gives anything to me after having taken it away - from him, than when she keeps it herself (as mentioned - on December 26), and this may be the reason partly why - he resents these matters to me; he thinks when I - obtain possession of anything he wants that it is a - sort of triumph to me. In the same way my mother may - laugh as much as she likes whether he is with her or - not, but if I laugh at all at anything it generally - results in something being thrown at me. If my mother - calls out to the servants--if, for instance, a servant - has left the room and my mother calls her back--he - becomes very angry at the servant, and salutes her on - her return with a shower of missiles. Sometimes my - mother pretends to scold or beat the servants, and - then he joins with great energy, by way of supporting - his friend. If I scold or beat the servants he does - not mind so much. When my mother comes back after - being out he does not show any great demonstrations of - joy. He screams out with pleasure when he hears her - voice approaching on the stairs, but does not make - much ado when she enters the room. While my mother is - out I can do anything I like with him, just as she can - when she is at home. Perhaps being in low spirits he - does not feel angry, or perhaps he thinks it prudent - to be amiable when his best friend is away. When my - mother comes back, all his ill-temper returns at once - and even in an increased degree towards other people, - and he immediately resumes playing with all his toys. - - 11th. When he throws things at people now he first - runs up the bars of the clothes-horse; he seems to - have found out that people do not much care for having - things thrown at their feet, and he is not strong - enough to throw such heavy objects as a poker or a - hammer at people's heads; he therefore mounts to a - level with his enemy's head, and thus succeeds in - sending his missile to a greater height and also to a - greater distance. - - 14th. To-day he obtained possession of a hearth-brush, - one of the kind which has the handle screwed into the - brush. He soon found the way to unscrew the handle, - and having done that he immediately began to try to - find out the way to screw it in again. This he in time - accomplished. At first he put the wrong end of the - handle into the hole, but turned it round and round - the _right way for screwing_. Finding it did not hold, - he turned the other end of the handle and carefully - stuck it into the hole, and began again to turn it the - right way. It was of course a very difficult feat for - him to perform, for he required both his hands to hold - the handle in the proper position and to turn it - between his hands in order to screw it in, and the - long bristles of the brush prevented it from remaining - steady or with the right side up. He held the brush - with his hind hand, but even so it was very difficult - for him to get the first turn of the screw to fit into - the thread; he worked at it, however, with the most - unwearying perseverance until he got the first turn of - the screw to catch, and he then quickly turned it - round and round until it was screwed up to the end. - The most remarkable thing was that, however often he - was disappointed in the beginning, he never was - induced to try turning the handle the wrong way; he - always screwed it from right to left. As soon as he - had accomplished his wish, he unscrewed it again, and - then screwed it in again the second time rather more - easily than the first, and so on many times. When he - had become by practice tolerably perfect in screwing - and unscrewing, he gave it up and took to some other - amusement. One remarkable thing is that he should take - so much trouble to do that which is no material - benefit to him. The desire to accomplish a chosen task - seems a sufficient inducement to lead him to take any - amount of trouble. This seems a very human feeling, - such as is not shown, I believe, by any other animal. - It is not the desire of praise, as he never notices - people looking on; it is simply the desire to achieve - an object for the sake of achieving an object, and he - never rests nor allows his attention to be distracted - until it is done. - - 16th. When he is angry, and has at hand only those - things which he wishes to keep, he makes a great show - of throwing them at people, but always retains a hold. - Thus if he has had a plaything a long time and is - tired of it, he throws it right at a person without - the least hesitation; but if he has a new thing which - he values, he goes through all the appropriate motions - for throwing, but only brings the object down with a - noise upon the ground, taking care not to let go his - hold. He beats people with a long cane he has, and - when he cannot reach people he strikes it with all his - strength upon the ground to show what he would do if - he had the chance. There is no more comical sight than - to see him hurriedly climbing his screen in fierce - anger, taking (not without great difficulty) his long - and awkward stick up with him in order to be high - enough to give a good blow to a person. The dog is - quite afraid of the stick in the monkey's hands, - although he is too petted to be afraid of it in a - person's. The monkey is jealous of the dog lying in - the arm-chair in which he sometimes seats himself with - my mother, so he pokes the stick at the dog (as the - chair is beyond the reach of his chain) and makes him - get off. - - 18th. He was very angry to-day at a servant girl - sweeping out his place with a long brush, and he - seized the brush every time the servant attempted to - sweep. My mother then took it, and he at once became - not only quite good-tempered, but assisted her in - sweeping, by gathering the rubbish in the corners of - his place into little heaps with his hands, and - putting the heaps into the way of the brush. - - 20th. To-day he broke his chain, and flew at a - servant savagely, but seeing my mother he immediately - jumped into her lap. While another chain was being - prepared he got to the trunk where his nuts are kept. - I have long noticed that he looks upon that trunk as - in some special sense his own property. There are - other things kept in the trunk as well as the nuts, - and if any person goes to the trunk for anything he - becomes furiously angry. Indeed nothing makes him so - angry as people opening the trunk, and this is not - because he wants nuts out of it, for he always has - more than he can eat beside him, and generally refuses - to take any that are offered to him. Well, to-day, as - soon as the breaking of his chain enabled him to get - to the trunk, he began picking at the lock with his - fingers. I then gave him the key, and he tried for two - full hours without ceasing to unlock the trunk with - this key. It was a very difficult lock to open, being - slightly out of order, and requires the lid of the - trunk to be pressed down before it would work, so I - believe it was absolutely impossible for him to open - it, but he found in time the right way to put the key - in, and to turn it backwards and forwards, and after - every attempt he pulled the lid upwards to see if it - were unlocked. That this was the result of observing - people is obvious, from the fact that after every time - he put the key into the lock and failed to open the - trunk, he passed the key round and round the outside - of the lock several times. The explanation of this is - that, my mother's sight being bad, she often misses - the lock when putting in the key, and then feels round - and round the lock with the key; the monkey therefore - evidently seems to think that this feeling round and - round the lock with the key is in some way necessary - to the success of unlocking the lock, so that, - although he could see perfectly well how to put the - key in straight himself, he went through this useless - operation first. - - 21st. To-day I gave him a wooden box with the lid - nailed on, and an iron spoon, to see if he would use - the latter as a lever wherewith to raise the lid. The - experiment was somewhat spoiled by my mother putting - the handle of the spoon into the crack between the lid - and the box to show him how to do it. Therefore I - cannot tell whether or not he would have taken this - first step himself, if he had had time to do so. - However, when the handle of the spoon was in he - certainly used it in the proper manner, pulling it - down with all his strength at the extreme end, thus - drawing the nails out of the box and raising the lid. - - 22nd. He was sitting on my mother's knee, and she - washing his hands with a little sponge, a process of - which he is very fond; she tried to wash his face, - and that he disliked very much. Every time she began, - the expression of his face became more angry; at last - he suddenly jumped off her knee, and made a violent - attack on one of the servants who is usually his - favourite, although she was doing nothing at all to - anger him. This is a good instance of his habit of - venting his anger at my mother on other people. He - always eats vigorously when he is angry, or after a - fit of passion. After a prolonged fit of passion he - always lies down on his side as if dead, probably from - exhaustion. - - 30th. He quite understands the meaning of shaking - hands. He always holds out his own hand when he wishes - to be friendly, especially when a friend is entering - or leaving the room. To-day he had been a long time - playing with his toys, taking no notice of any one. - Suddenly my mother remembered that to-day was my - birthday, and (for the first time since he came to the - house) shook hands with me in congratulation. He - immediately became very angry with me, screamed and - chattered and threw things at me, being evidently - jealous of the attention my mother was paying me. - - _February_ 1st. He has now been moved down to the - dining-room, where he is chained between the fireplace - and the window. He seems quite miserable on account of - the change, as he does not see so much of my mother. - - 4th. His low spirits continue, and threaten to make - him ill. He will not play with anything, but sits - moping and shivering in a corner. To-day I found him - very cold and unhappy, and warmed his hands for him. - He is very meek and gentle, and seems to be getting - fond of me. - - 8th. He has quite recovered his spirits since he took - a fancy to me. He likes me now apparently as well as - he used to do my mother; that is to say, he allows me - to nurse him, and walk about in his place, and even - take things away from him. When, however, my mother - comes to see him, he does not care for me, although he - shows none of his old hostility. To the servants, - however, he continues to do so when my mother is - present. - - 10th. We gave him a bundle of sticks this morning, and - he amused himself all day by poking them into the fire - and pulling them out again to smell the smoking end. - He likewise pulls out hot cinders from the grate and - passes them over his head and chest, evidently - enjoying the warmth, but never burning himself. He - also puts hot ashes on his head. I gave him some - paper, and, as he cannot, from the length of his - chain, quite reach the fire, he rolled the paper up - into the form of a stick, and then put it into the - fire, pulling it out as soon as it caught light, and - watching the blaze in the fender with great - satisfaction. I gave him a whole newspaper, and he - tore it in pieces, rolled up each piece as I have - described, to make it long enough to reach the fire, - and so burnt it all piece by piece. He never once - burnt his own fingers during the operation. - - 13th. He can open and shut the folding shutters with - ease, and this seems to be an amusement to him. He - also unscrewed all the knobs that belong to the - fender. The bell-handle beside the mantelpiece he - likewise took to bits, which involves the unscrewing - of three screws. - - 15th. He is so amiable to me now that he constantly - gives me bits of things that he himself is eating, - evidently expecting me to share his repast with him. - Sometimes this attention on his part is not altogether - agreeable. For instance, to-day he thrust into my - hand, when I was not looking, a quantity of sopped - bread and milk out of his pan, no doubt thinking - himself very kind-hearted thus to supply me with food. - - 17th. He offered the dog a bit of toast which he - himself was eating, and the dog took a part of it. I - think, however, that he had at the same time a sly - design of catching the dog with the other hand, but he - did not do so--perhaps because I was looking on, and - he knows the dog is a friend of mine; but he had a - wicked look in his eye while feeding the dog, which he - has not when he extends his bounty to me. - - 19th. When I was brushing him to-day he took the brush - away from me. Playthings are especially valuable to - him now, as he is not allowed to have any lest he - should break the windows with them. For this reason I - was afraid to leave the brush with him, but found he - was not at all disposed to give it up. I threw other - things within his reach, but he carried the brush in - his hind hand while going after the other things. At - last I sat down and called him gently, when he mildly - came up to my lap and put the brush into my two hands, - evidently resolving that he would not now quarrel with - his only friend. - - 22nd. His manner of showing his humours is - interesting, as illustrating the principle of - antithesis. Thus when he is angry he springs forward - on all four hands with tail very erect and hair - raised, so making himself look much bigger. When - affectionate he advances slowly _backwards_ with his - body in the form of a hoop, so that the crown of his - head rests on the ground, face inwards. He walks on - three hands (hair very smooth), and puts the fourth - fore-hand out at his back in advance of his body. He - expects this hand to be taken kindly, and he then - assumes his natural attitude. In that manner of - advancing it is obviously impossible that he could - bite, as his mouth is towards his own chest, so it is - the best way of showing how far he is from thinking of - hostility. - - February 28, 1881. - -The above account may be taken as fully trustworthy. Most of the -observations recorded I have myself subsequently verified numberless -times. From the account, however, several observations which I happened -to make myself in the first instance are designedly omitted, and these I -shall therefore now supply. - -I bought at a toy-shop a very good imitation of a monkey, and brought it -into the room with the real monkey, stroking and speaking to it as if it -were alive. The monkey evidently mistook the figure for a real animal, -manifesting intense curiosity, mixed with much alarm if I made the -figure approach him. Even when I placed the figure upon a table, and -left it standing motionless, the monkey was afraid to approach it. From -this it would appear that the animal trusted much more to his sense of -sight than to that of smell in recognising one of his own kind. - -I placed a mirror upon the floor, and the monkey at once mistook his -reflection in it for a real animal. At first he was a little afraid of -it; but in a short time he gained courage enough to approach and try to -touch it. Finding he could not do so, he went round behind the mirror -and then again before it a great number of times; but he did not become -angry, as the monkey of which Prof. Brown Robertson wrote me. Strange to -say, he appeared to mistake the sex of the image, and began in the most -indescribably ludicrous manner to pay to it the addresses of courtship. -First placing his lips against the glass he rose to his full height on -his hind legs, retired slowly, and while doing so turned his back to the -mirror, looking over his shoulder at the image, and, with a preposterous -amount of 'pinch' in his back, strutted up and down before the glass -with all the appearance of the most laughable foppery. This display was -always gone through when at any subsequent time the mirror was placed -upon the floor. - -From the first time that he saw me, this monkey took as violently -passionate an attachment to me as that which he took to my mother. His -mode of greeting, however, was different. When she entered the room -after an absence, his welcome was of a quiet and contented character; -but when I came in, his demonstrations were positively painful to -witness. Standing erect on his hind legs at the full length of his -tether, and extending both hands as far as he could reach, he screamed -with all his strength, in a tone and with an intensity which he never -adopted on any other occasion. So loud, indeed, were his rapidly and -continuously reiterated screams, that it was impossible for any one to -hold even a shouting conversation till I took the animal in my arms, -when he became placid, with many signs of intense affection. Even the -sound of my voice down two flights of stairs used to set him screaming -in this manner, so that whenever I called at my mother's house I had to -keep silent while on the staircase, unless I intended first of all to -pay a visit to the monkey. - -It has frequently been noticed that monkeys are very capricious in -forming their attachments and aversions; but I never knew before that -this peculiarity could be so strongly marked as it was in this case. His -demonstrations of affection to my mother and myself were piteous; while -towards every one else, male or female, he was either passively -indifferent or actively hostile. Yet no shadow of a reason could be -assigned for the difference. My sister, to whom animals are usually much -more attached than they are to me, used always to be forbearingly kind -to this one--taking all his bites, &c., with the utmost good humour. -Moreover, she supplied him with all his food, and most of his -playthings, so that she was really in every way his best friend. Yet his -antipathy to her was only less remarkable than his passionate fondness -of my mother and myself. - -Another trait in the psychology of this animal which is worth observing -was his quietness of manner towards my mother. With me, and indeed with -every one else, his movements were unrestrained, and generally -monkey-like; but with her he was always as gentle as a kitten: he -appeared to know that her age and infirmities rendered boisterousness on -his part unacceptable. - -I returned the monkey to the Zoological Gardens at the end of February, -and up to the time of his death in October 1881, he remembered me as -well as the first day that he was sent back. I visited the monkey-house -about once a month, and whenever I approached his cage he saw me with -astonishing quickness--indeed, generally before I saw him--and ran to -the bars, through which he thrust both hands with every expression of -joy. He did not, however, scream aloud; his mind seemed too much -occupied by the cares of monkey-society to admit of a vacancy large -enough for such very intense emotion as he used to experience in the -calmer life that he lived before. Being much struck with the extreme -rapidity of his discernment whenever I approached the cage, however many -other persons might be standing round, I purposely visited the -monkey-house on Easter Monday, in order to see whether he would pick me -out of the solid mass of people who fill the place on that day. Although -I could only obtain a place three or four rows back from the cage, and -although I made no sound wherewith to attract his attention, he saw me -almost immediately, and with a sudden intelligent look of recognition -ran across the cage to greet me. When I went away he followed me, as he -always did, to the extreme end of his cage, and stood there watching my -departure as long as I remained in sight. - -In conclusion, I should say that much the most striking feature in the -psychology of this animal, and the one which is least like anything met -with in other animals, was the tireless spirit of investigation. The -hours and hours of patient industry which this poor monkey has spent in -ascertaining all that his monkey-intelligence could of the sundry -unfamiliar objects that fell into his hands, might well read a lesson in -carefulness to many a hasty observer. And the keen satisfaction which he -displayed when he had succeeded in making any little discovery, such as -that of the mechanical principle of the screw, repeating the results of -his newly earned knowledge over and over again, till one could not but -marvel at the intent abstraction of the 'dumb brute'--this was so -different from anything to be met with in any other animal, that I -confess I should not have believed what I saw unless I had repeatedly -seen it with my own eyes. As my sister once observed, while we were -watching him conducting some of his researches, in oblivion to his food -and all his other surroundings--'when a monkey behaves like this, it is -no wonder that man is a scientific animal!' And in my next work I shall -hope to show how, from so high a starting-point, the psychology of the -monkey has passed into that of the man. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[271] _Descent of Man_, p. 70. - -[272] _Gleanings_, vol. iii. pp. 86-7. - -[273] _Boston Journal of Nat. Hist._, iv. p. 324. - -[274] _Descent of Man_, p. 72. - -[275] _Descent of Man_, 71. - -[276] _Ibid._, p. 69. - -[277] _Descent of Man_, pp. 77-8. - -[278] _Naturalist in Nicaragua_, p. 119. - -[279] _Loc. cit._, vol. i., p. 305. - -[280] On subsequent observation (January 14, 1881), I find this -quietness was not due to shame at having bitten me, for whether he -succeeds in biting any person or not he always sits quiet and -dull-looking after a fit of passion, being, I think, fatigued. He has -bitten me often since December 24, and seems to enjoy the fun on the -whole. - -[281] These heavy objects he overturns with exceeding caution, balancing -them several times carefully, and studying them before finally throwing -or pulling them over. - -[282] January 14, 1881. The marble slab was left with him after the -chain had been fastened to the ring; but since that time he has never -attempted to move the marble. - - - - -INDEX. - - - ACCOUCHEUR, fish, 246; - toad, 254 - - _Acerina cernua_, 246 - - _Acinia prehensa_, 233 - - _Actinia_, 233, 234 - - _Actinophrys_, apparent intelligence of, 20 - - _Adamsia_, 234 - - Adaptive movement, as evidence of mind, 2, 3 - - Addison, his definition of instinct, 11 - - Addison, Mrs. K., on gesticulating signs made by a jackdaw, 316 - - Ælian, on division of labour in harvesting ants, 98 - - Æsthetic emotions of birds, 279-82 - - Affection, sexual, parental, and social, of snails, 27; - of ants, 45-9 and 58, 59; - of bees, 155, 156, and 162; - of earwig, 229; - of fish, 242-6; - of reptiles, 256, 258, 259; - of birds, 270-6; - of kangaroo, 326, 327; - of whale, 327; - of horse, 329; - of deer, 334; - of bat, 341; - of seal, 341-6; - of hare, 338-40; - of rats, 340; - of mice, 341; - of beaver, 367; - of elephant, 387-92; - of cat, 411, 412; - of dog, 437, 440, 441; - of monkeys, 471-5 and 484-98 - - Agassiz, Professor A., on instinct of hermit-crab, 232; - nest of fish, 242-3; - on beaver-dams, 384, 385 - - Agassiz, Professor L., on intelligence of snails, 26 - - Alison, Professor, on curious instinct of polecat, 347 - - Allen, J. A., on breeding habits of pinniped seals, 341-6 - - Alligators, 256-8 and 263 - - _Alopecias vulpes_, 252 - - _Amoeba_, apparent intelligence of, 21 - - Anemones, sea, 233, 234 - - Anger, of ants and bees, _see_ under; - of fish, 246, 247; - of monkeys, 478, 479 and 484-96 - - Angler-fish, 247, 248 - - _Annelida_, apparent intelligence of, 24 - - Antennæ, effects of removal in ants, 142; - in bees, 197 - - Antithesis, principle of, in expression of emotions by - monkeys, 494, 495 - - Ant-lion, 234, 235 - - Ants, powers of special sense, 31-37; - of sight, 31-33; - of hearing, 33; - of smell, 33-37; - sense of direction, 37, 38; - memory, 39-45; - recognition of companions and nest-mates, 41-45; - emotions, 45-49; - affection, 45-48; - sympathy, 48, 49; - communication, 49-57; - habits general in sundry species, 57-93; - swarming, 57, 58; - nursing, 58, 59; - education, 59, 60; - keeping aphides, 60-64; - making slaves, 64-68; - wars, 68-83; - keeping domestic pets, 83, 84; - sleep and cleanliness, 84-7; - play and leisure, 87-89; - funeral habits, 89-93; - habits peculiar to certain species, 93-122; - leaf-cutting, 93-96; - harvesting, 96-110; - African, 110, 111; - tree, 110, 111; - honey making, 111-114 and 142; - ecitons, or military, 114-122; - general intelligence, 122-142; - Sir John Lubbock's experiments on intelligence, 123-128; - intelligence displayed in architecture, 128-130; - in using burrows made by elater larvæ, 130; - in artificial hives, 130; - in removing nest from shadow of tree, 131; - in cutting leaves off overshadowing tree, 131, 132; - in bending blades of grass while cutting them, 132, 133; - in co-operating to glue leaves together, 133, 134; - in getting at food in difficult places, 134, 135; - in making bridges, &c., 135-139; - in tunnelling under rails, 140; - anatomy and physiology of nerve-centres and sense organs, 140-2 - - Apes, _see_ Monkeys - - _Arachnidæ_, 204-225, _see_ Spiders and Scorpions - - Arago, his observation regarding sense of justice in dog, 443 - - Arderon, on taming a dace, 246 - - _Argyroneta aquatica_, 212 - - Arn, Capt., on sword- and thresher-fish, 252, 253 - - _Articulata_, _see_ under divisions of - - Ass, general intelligence of, 328 and 333 - - Association of ideas, _see_ under various animals - - _Ateuchus pilularius_, 226 - - _Athealium_, apparent intelligence of, 19-20 - - Atkinson, the Rev. J. C., on reasoning power of a dog, 458, 459 - - Audubon, on ants making beasts of burden of bugs, 68; - plundering instincts of white-headed eagle, 284; - variations in instinct of incubation, 299, 300 - - Auk, nidification of, 292 - - Automatism, hypothesis of animal, 6 - - - BABOON, sympathy shown by Arabian, 474; - rage of, 478; - revenge of, 478 - - Badcock, on dog making peace-offerings, 452 - - Baer, Van, on organisation of bee, 241 - - Backhouse, R. O., on dog being alarmed at a statue, 453 - - Bailey, Professor W. W., on dog stopping a runaway horse, 459 - - Baines, A. H., on dog communicating wants by signs, 446, 447 - - Baker, on sticklebacks, 245 - - Baldamus, Dr., on cuckoo laying eggs coloured in imitation of - those of the birds in whose nests they lay them, 307 - - Ball, Dr. Robert, on commensalism of crab and anemone, 234 - - Banks, Sir Joseph, on intelligence of tree-ants, 133; - fish coming to sound of bell, 250 - - Bannister, Dr., on cat trying to catch image behind mirror, 415, 416; - on intelligence of the Eskimo dogs, 461, 462 - - Barrett, W. F., on instincts of young alligator, 256 - - Barton, Dr., on alleged fascination by snakes, 264 - - Bastian, on termites, 198 - - Bates, on ants' habit of keeping pets, 84; - cleaning one another, 87; - play and leisure, 88, 89; - leaf-cutting, 93-95; - tunnelling, 99; - ecitons, 114-21; - on sand-wasp taking bearings to remember precise locality, 150; - mygale eating humming-birds, 208; - on nidification of small crustacean, 232, 233; - habits of turtles, and alligators, 257, 258; - intelligence of vultures, 314; - bats sucking blood, 341 - - Batrachians, 254, 255 - - Bats, 341 - - Baya-bird, nidification of, 294 - - Bears, 350-352 - - Beattie, Dr., on dog communicating desires by signs, 447 - - Beaver, 367-85; - breeding habits, 367, 368; - lodges, 368-73; - dams, 373-79; - canals, 379-83; - general remarks upon, 368, 377, 379, 383; - age of their buildings, 384; - effects of their buildings on the configuration of - landscapes, 384, 385 - - Bechstein, on birds dreaming, 312 - - Bee, mason, 178, 179; - tapestry, 179; - carpenter, 179; - rose, 179; - carding, 179, 180 - - Bees, sense of sight, 143, 144; - of smell and hearing, 144; - of direction, 144-51; - remembering exact locality of absent hive, 148-49; - following floating hives, 149; - memory, 151-55; - sympathy, 155, 156; - distances over which they forage, 150; - powers of communication, 156-60; - economy of hive, 160-8; - food and rearing, 160-163; - swarming and battles of queens, 163, 164; - drone-killing, 164-68; - plunder and wars, 168-170; - architecture, 170-8; - way-finding, 181, 182; - instinct of neuters, 181; - recognising companions, 183, 184; - barricading doors against moths, 184, 185; - strengthening combs in danger of falling, 185, 186; - mode of dealing with surfaces of glass, 186; - with strange hives, 186, 187; - evacuating fallen hive, 187; - ceasing to store honey in Barbadoes and California, 187, 188; - recognising persons, 188, 189; - biting holes in corollas, 189; - ventilating hives, 191, 192; - covering slugs, &c., with propolis, 190, 191; - effects of removing antennæ, 197 - - Beetles, _see_ _Coleoptera_ - - Belshaw, on cat knocking knockers, 422 - - Belt, on ants, duration of memory in, 39, 40; - sympathy, 48; - division of labour, 99; - ecitons, 114-19 and 138; - tunnelling under rails, 140; - on sand-wasp taking precise bearings to remember - locality, 150, 151; - struggle between wasps and ants for secretion of - frog-hoppers, 194, 195; - intelligence of spiders in protecting themselves - from ecitons, 219, 220; - beetles undermining stick supporting a dead toad, 228; - intelligence of monkeys, 480 - - Benedictson, on navigating habits of Iceland mice, 364, 365 - - Bennet, on birds dreaming, 312 - - Bennett, on conjugal fidelity of duck, 270, 271 - - Berkeley, G., on beetle storing its food, 228, 229 - - Bettziech-Beta, on termites, 199 - - Bidie, on suicide of scorpion, 222, 223; - on reasoning power of cat, 415 - - Bingley, on intelligence of ants, 133; - carpenter-bees, 179; - account of alleged training of bees, 189; - co-operation of beetles, 226, 227; - ant-lion, 230, 235; - domestication of toad, 255; - fascination by snakes, 264; - sympathy in birds, 272; - eccentricity of nest building instinct, 295; - education of birds, 312; - pigs pointing game, 339, 340; - intelligence of otter, 346; - memory of elephant, 387; - vindictiveness of elephant, 387, 389; - elephants enduring surgical operations, 399, 400 - - Bird, Miss, on combined action of crows in obtaining food - from dogs, 320 - - Birds, 266-325; - memory of, 266-70; - emotions, 270-82; - special habits of procuring food, 283-6; - of incubation and taking care of offspring, 287-310; - general intelligence, 310-25; - dreaming and imagination, 311-12; - learning to avoid telegraph wires, 313; - recognising painting of birds, 311; - submitting to surgical operation, 313-14; - honey-guide, 315-16; - appreciation of mechanical appliances, 315-16; - concerted action, 318-322 - - _Birgus latro_, 233 - - Bison, 334-5 - - Blackbirds, breaking shells against stones, 283; - removing eggs, 289; - mobbing cat, 291 - - Blackburn, Professor H., on distances over which bees forage, 150 - - Blackman, on cats learning to beg for food, 414-15 - - Blackwall, on early display of instincts by spiders, 216 - - Blanchard, on mason-bee, 178 - - Blood, on reasoning power of a dog, 464 - - Boa-constrictor, really a Python, which _see_ - - Bodley, W. H., on dogs crossing a river to fight undisturbed, 451-2 - - Bold, on canary singing against own image in mirror, 276 - - Bombyx moth, larva of, 238-40 - - Bonnet, on spider following her eggs into pit of ant-lion, 205; - his experiments on instincts of caterpillars, 236; - observations on ditto, 238 - - Boobies, plundered by frigate pelicans, 284 - - Bosc, on migrating fish, 248 - - Bower-bird, instincts of, 279-81, 325 - - Bowman, Parker, his cat opening swivel of window, 425 - - Boys, C. V., his experiments with a tuning-fork on spiders, 206, 207 - - Brehm, on wasps recognising persons, 188; - intelligence of lapwing, 315, 316; - curiosity of monkeys, 477 - - Broderip, on vindictiveness of elephant, 389 - - Brodie, Sir B., his definition of instinct, 15; - on bees strengthening their combs, 185, 186 - - Brofft, Herr L., on powers of communication in bees, 160 - - Brougham, Lord, on hexagonal form of bees' cells, 172; - on intelligence of a dog, 450 - - Brown, Capt., on vindictiveness of a stork, 277-8 - - Brown, W., on a cat extinguishing fire by water, 425 - - Browne, Dr. Crichton, on cat ringing bell, 423 - - Browne, Murray, on fox allowing itself to be extricated from - trap, 431 - - Browning, A. H., on intelligence of a dog, 450 - - Brydon, Dr., on collective instinct of jackals, 434 - - Buchanan, Dr., on climbing perch, 249; - on nidification of baya-bird, 294 - - Büchner, Professor, - on ants: - nursing habits, 59; - stocking trees with aphides, 63; - warfare, 71-9; - play, 87-88; - leaf cutting, 95-96; - intelligence in making a bridge of aphides over tar, 136; - of themselves over a space, 136-37; - and of a straw over water, 137; - ecitons, 139; - anatomy and physiology of brain, 141-42. - On bees and wasps: - powers of communication, 158-60; - swarming habits, 168; - wars and plunder, 169; - cell-building, 177-78; - evacuating dangerous hive, 187; - keeping hives clean, 190; - carrying dead from hive and burying them, 191; - ventilating hives, 191-92; - hornet and wasp dismembering heavy prey, and carrying it to - an eminence in order to fly away with it, 196. - On termites, 198-202. - On spiders: - web-building, 211-12; - wolf spider, 213; - trap-door spiders, 217-18; - intelligence of a spider habitually fed by Dr. Moschkau, 218-19; - spiders weighting their webs, 221. - On beetles: - co-operation of, 227-28 - - Buck, E. C., on intelligence of crocodiles, 263; - on collective instinct of wolves, 433; - on combined action of pelicans, 319 - - Buckland, F., on pigeon remembering voice of mistress, 266; - crows breaking shells by dropping them on stones, 283; - birds avoiding telegraph wires, 313 - - Buckley, on harvesting ants, 103 - - Buckton, G. B., on caterpillars, 236 - - Buffalo, 335-37 - - Buffon, on hexagonal form of bees' cells, 171-72; - association of ideas in parrot, 269; - sympathy in ditto, 275; - goat sucker removing eggs, 289 - - _Bufo obstetricans_, 254 - - Bull, intelligence of, 338 - - Burmeister, on powers of communication in ants, 49 - - Byron, Lord, lines on alleged tendency to scorpion to commit - suicide, 222 - - - CADDIS-WORMS, 240 - - Cairns, Mr. W., on reasoning power of a dog, 461 - - Campbell, Mrs. G. M. F., on intelligence of goose, 316 - - Canary, jealousy of, 276; - modification of incubating instinct in cage, 287; - flying against mirror, 311; - trained, 312 - - Canning, J., his dog knowing value of different coins, 452-3 - - _Carassius auratus_, 246 - - Carbonnier, M., on telescope-fish, 246 - - Carlisle, Bishop of, on congregation or court held by jackdaws, 324 - - Carpenter, Dr., on intelligence of rats, 361 - - Carreri, Gernelli, on monkeys thrusting stones between - oyster-shells to keep them from closing, 481 - - Carter, H. J., on apparent intelligence of _athealium_, 19; - of _actinophrys_ and _amoeba_, 20-1 - - Carus, Professor, on spiders weighting their webs, 221 - - Cat, the, 411-25; - general remarks upon, 411-14; - emotions of, 412-13; - general intelligence of, 413-25; - showing zoological discrimination, 414; - punishing kittens for misbehaviour, 414; - begging for food, 414-15; - feeding kittens on bread when milk fails, 415; - carrying kittens to be protected by master, 415; - trying to catch image behind mirror, 416; - communicating by signs, 419; - devices for catching prey, 417-20; - appreciation of mechanical appliances, 420-25; - extinguishing fire by water, 425 - - Caterpillars, instinct of assisted by intelligence, 236-8; - migrating, 238-40 - - Catesby, on co-operation of beetles, 226, 227; - on frigate-pelican plundering boobies, 284 - - Cattle, fear exhibited by in slaughterhouses, 334; - pride of, 334 - - _Cebus fatuellus_, observations on intelligence of, 484-98 - - Cecil, H., on tactics displayed by hunting wasps, 194 - - _Cephalopoda_, intelligence of, 29-30 - - _Cetacea_, 327-28 - - Challenge, mode of, in gulls, 291 - - Charming of snakes, 264 - - _Cheiroptera_, 341 - - _Chelmon rostratus_, 248 - - Chimpanzee, play of, 476-77 - - Chinese swallow, nidification of, 292 - - _Chironectes_, 243 - - Choice, as evidence of mind, 2 - - Clark, G., on intelligence of a bat, 341 - - Clark, Rev. H., on harvesting ants, 99; - on dog recognising portrait, 454-5 - - Clarville, on co-operation of beetles, 228 - - Clavigero, on sympathy of pelicans for wounded companions, 275 - - Claypole, on intelligence of horse, 331-2 - - _Cnethocampii pitzocampa_, 244 - - Cobra, sexual affection of, 256; - charming, 265; - intelligence of, 262 - - Cock, domestic, killing hen upon hatching out eggs of other - birds, 278 - - _Coelenterata_, movements of, and question concerning their - intelligence, 22 - - _Coleoptera_, 226-9; - co-operation of, 226-8; - other instances of intelligence, 228-9 - - Colquhoun, on reasoning power of a dog, 463-4 - - Commensalism, between crab and anemone, and between mollusk - and anemone, 233 - - Communication, _see_ Co-operation - - Concerted action, _see_ Co-operation - - Cones, Captain Elliot, on intelligence of wolverine, 348-50 - - _Conilurus constructor_, 326 - - Conklin, W. A., on elephants thatching their backs, 409 - - Consciousness, as evidence of mind, 2; - gradual dawn of, 13 - - Conte, John Le, on reasoning power of a dog, 460-1 - - Cook, Capt., on tree ants, 111; - intelligence of tree-ants, 133 - - Cook, George, on dog dragging mat about to lie upon, 466 - - Co-operation, - of ants, 48-49, 51-59, 64 _et seq._ - (in making slaves and waging war), 85-96; - (in sundry occupations), 96-100; - (in harvesting), 108-10, 111-14; - (of apparently different species), 114-122; - (of military ants), 127-30, 132-4, 136-40; - of bees, 159-74; - (in general work, wars, and architecture), 177, 178, 184-6, - 190-2; - of termites, 198-203; - of beetles, 226-8; of birds, 318-22; - of horses and asses, 333; - of bison and buffalo, 335; - of pigs, 339; - of rats, 361, 362; - of mice, 364; - of beavers, 367-83; - of elephants, 401; - of foxes, 433; - of wolves, 433 and 436; - of jackals, 432-5; - of baboons, 483 - - Corse, on memory of elephant, 386, 387; - emotions of elephant, 393 - - Couch, on maternal instinct of hen, 272; - mode in which guillemots catch fish, 285; - mode of escape practised by swan, 290; - birds removing dung from neighbourhood of their nests, 290; - blackbirds mobbing cat, 291; - nidification of swan, 296-8; - crows punishing offenders, 323-4; - intelligence of hare, 359; - cat unlocking door, 424; - fox avoiding trap, 428; - catching crabs with tail, 432; - mode by which a dog killed crabs, 459 - - _Corvus cornice_, punishing offenders, 323, 324 - - Cowper, on intelligence of hare, 359, 360 - - Cox, C., playhouses of bower-birds presented by him to Sydney - Museum, 280 - - Crabs, 231-4 - - Craven, on intelligence of a sow, 340 - - Crehore, on foxes avoiding traps, 428, 429; - on dog recognising portrait, 453 - - Cripps, his elephant dying under emotional disturbance, 396 - - Criterion of mind, 4-8 - - Crocodiles, 263 - - Crow, Capt. Hugh, on sympathy shown by monkeys for sick - companion, 473, 474 - - Crows, memory of, 266; - breaking shells by dropping them on the stones, 283; - punishing offenders, 323-5 - - Cruelty, of cat, 413 - - Crustacea, 231-34 - - Cuckoo, parasitic instincts of, 301-7; - eggs of coloured like those of the bird in whose nest they - are laid, 307-9; - American, 305, 306 - - Curiosity, of fish, 247; - of birds, 278, 279; - of ruminants and swine, 335; - of monkeys, 477 - - Curlew, nidification of, 292 - - Cuvier, his orang drawing chair to stand upon to reach a latch, 481; - on birds dreaming, 312 - - - DACE, tamed, 246 - - Daldorff, on climbing perch, 248, 249 - - Dampier, on frigate-pelicans plundering boobies, 284; - on monkeys hammering oyster shells with stones, 481 - - _Daphnia pulex_, seeking light, especially yellow ray, 23 - - Darwin, Charles, on apparent intelligence of worms, 24; - of oyster, 25; - of snail, 27; - Mr. Hague's letter to, on powers of communication in ants, 54-7; - observations on ants keeping aphides, 60, 61; - on ants making slaves, 64, 66, 67; - communications of Lincecum to, on harvesting ants, 103, 107; - on proportional size of ants' brain, 140; - communication of Müller on powers of communication in bees, 157; - origin and development of cell-making instinct, 173-7; - instincts of neuters, 181; - quotation in MS. from Sir B. Brodie on bees supporting their - combs, 185-6; - his 'law of battle' in relation to spiders, 205; - intelligence of crab, 233; - his theory of sexual selection, 279-82; - sense of smell in vultures, 286; - on Wallace's theory of correlation between colour of sitting - birds and form of their nests, 299; - instincts of cuckoo, 304-6; - birds dreaming, 312; - Gauchos taming wild horses, 329; - memory of horse, 330; - intelligence of bear, 352; - of elephant, 398, 402; - collective instinct of wolves, 436; - duration of memory in dogs, 438; - intelligence of Eskimo dogs, 462; - reasoning of retriever, 463-4; - maternal care and grief of monkey, 472; - sense of ludicrous in monkeys, 476; - curiosity and imitativeness of monkeys, 477; - imitativeness of man, 477-8; - intelligent observation displayed by monkeys, 479, 480 - - Darwin, Erasmus, on bees ceasing to store honey in Barbadoes, 187; - wasp dismembering fly to facilitate carriage, 195; - unmoulted crab guarding moulted, 233; - crows breaking shells by dropping them on stones, 283; - bird shaking seed out of poppy, 286; - elephant acting nurse to young child, 408 - - Darwin, F., on bees biting holes through corollas, 189 - - Davis, on instincts of larvæ of bombyx moth, 239 - - Davy, Dr., on instincts of alligators, 256, 257; - taming cobra, 265; - performing operation on elephants, 400 - - Davy, Sir H., on eagles teaching young to fly, 290 - - Day, F., on intelligence of fish, 244-52 - - Deceitfulness, of elephant 410; - of dog, 443, 444, 450-52, 457, 458; - of monkey, 494 - - Deer, intelligence of, 336, 338, 339 - - De Fravière, on powers of communication in bees, 158; - their scouts, 168 - - Descartes, his hypothesis of animal automatism, 6 - - Dicquemase, on intelligence of oyster, 25 - - Dipterous insects, intelligence in finding way out of - a bell-jar, 153, 154; - gad-fly, 230; - house-fly, 230, 231 - - Division of labour, _see_ Co-operation - - Dog, ringing bell, 423; - knocking knocker, 423; - collective instinct of, 435, 436; - general remarks on psychology of, as influenced by - domestication, 437, 438; - memory of, 438; - emotions of, 438-45; - pride and sensitiveness, 439-42; - intolerance of pain, 441; - emulation and jealousy, 442, 443; - sense of justice, 443; - deceitfulness, 443, 444; - sense of ludicrous and dislike of ridicule, 444, 445; - general intelligence of, 445-70; - communicating ideas, 445-7; - instances of reason, 447-69 - - _Dolomedes fimbriata_, 213 - - _Doras_, 248 - - D'Osbonville, on monkeys administering corporal chastisement - to their young, 482, 483 - - Dreaming, of birds, 269, 312; - of ferrets, 347 - - Duchemin, M., on toads killing carp, 254 - - Duck, conjugal fidelity of, 270, 271; - conveying young on back, 289 - - Dugardin, on communication among ants, 49; - in bees, 156 - - Duncan, on cunning of a dog, 451 - - Dzierzon, on cause determining sex of bees' eggs, 162; - bees repairing injuries to their cells, 186 - - - EAGLE, plundering instinct of white-headed, 284; - teaching young to fly, 290; - variations in nest-building, 299; - submitting to surgical operations, 313, 314 - - Earwig, 229, 230 - - Ebrard, on co-operation of ants, 132 - - _Echinodermata_, movements of, 23 - - Edmonson, Dr., on crows punishing offenders, 323, 324 - - Edward, on intelligence of frogs, 255; - sympathy of terns for wounded companion, 274, 275; - crows breaking shells by dropping them on stones, 283; - co-operation of turnstones, 321 - - Edward, H., on honey-making ants, 111-14 - - Eimer, Dr., on voluntary and involuntary movements of - _Medusæ_, 22, 23 - - Elephant, general remarks upon, 386; - memory of, 386, 387; - emotions of, 387-96; - vindictiveness, 387-9; - sympathy, 389-90; - rogue, 393, 394; - dying under effects of emotion, 395, 396; - general intelligence of, 396-410; - enduring surgical operations, 399-400; - vigilance, 401; - formation of abstract ideas, 401, 402; - intelligence of tame decoys, 402-6; - of tame workers, 306-8; - thatching their backs, 308, 309; - removing leeches, and fanning away flies, 309, 310; - concealing theft, 410 - - Ellendorf, Dr. F., on leaf-cutting ants, 95, 96; - on ants making a bridge, 137 - - Elliot, on collective instinct of wolves, 433 - - Emery, J., on powers of communication in bees, 157 - - Emulation, of birds, 277; - of dogs, 442 - - Encyclopædia Britannica, on bees following floating - hives, 149; - battles of queen-bees, 163, 164; - parasitic instincts in birds, 306 - - Endurance, of pain by wild dogs, 441; - of surgical operations by eagle, 313, 314; - by elephants, 399, 400; - by monkey, 482 - - Engelmann, on _Daphnia pulex_ seeking yellow light, 23 - - _Epeira aurelia_, Mr. F. Pollock on perfection of web built - by young, 217 - - Erb, G. S., on intelligence of deer, 338, 339 - - _Esox lucius_, 246 - - Espinas, on co-operation of ants, 130 - - - FABRE, on instincts of sphex-wasp, 180, 181 - - Faister, Mdlle de, her tame weasel, 346 - - Falcon, variations in nest-building, 299 - - Faraday, J., on intelligence of skate, 251 - - Fascination, alleged, by snakes, 263, 264 - - Fayrer, Sir J., on fascination by and charming of snakes, 264 - - Fear, in horses, 329; - in ruminants, 334; - in rabbits, 355; - in rats, 360 - excited in dogs by portraits, 455-7; - in monkey by snakes, 477, - and by imitation monkey, 495 - - Ferret, 347 - - Fire-flies, stuck on nests by baya-birds, 294 - - Fish, 241-53; - comparison of brain with that of invertebrata, 241; - emotions, 242-7; - nidification, courtship, and care of young, 242-6; - pugnacity, and social feelings, 242; - anger, 246, 247; - play, jealousy, curiosity, 247; - angler, 247, 248; - jaculator, 248; - travelling over land, 248; - climbing trees, 248, 249; - migrations, 249, 250; - general intelligence, 250-53 - - Fisher, J. F., on hen removing eggs with her neck, 288 - - Fleeson, Captain B., on honey-making ants, 111-14 - - Fleming, W. J., on intelligence of horse, 330 - - Fleury, Cardinal, on intelligence of ants in making bridges, 135 - - Forbes, on nidification of tailor-bird, 293 - - Forbes, James, on monkey begging for dead body of companion, 472 - - Forel, on ants; - recognising slaves, 43; - and fellow-citizens, 44; - swarming habits, 58; - experiment in rearing together hostile species, 59, 60; - tunnelling to obtain aphides, 61; - warfare, 68-77; - play, 88; - intelligence shown in architecture, 129 - - Forsteal, on termites, 198 - - Forster, W., on intelligence of a bull, 338 - - Fothergill, Percival, on reasoning power of a dog, 466 - - Fouillouse, J. de, on intelligence of hares, 357, 358 - - Fox, 426-33; - lying in wait for hares, 426, 427; - avoiding traps, 427-30; - allowing itself to be extricated from trap, 431; - catching crabs with tail, 432; - collective instinct in hunting, 433 - - Fox, C., on intelligence of porpoises, 328 - - Frankland, Mrs., on cock bullfinch recognising portrait of hen, 311 - - Franklin, on powers of communication in ants, 49 - - Franklin, Dr., on sympathy in parrots, 276 - - Frogs, 254, 255 - - Frost, Dr., on cat sprinkling crumbs to attract birds, 418, 419 - - Furniss, J. J., on elephants thatching their backs, 408, 409 - - - GAD-FLY, instinct of, 230 - - Gander, _see_ Goose - - Gaphaus, H. A., on cat opening thumb-latch, 421 - - Gardener, on intelligence of crab, 233 - - Garraway, Dr., on beetle concealing its store of food, 229 - - _Gasteropoda_, intelligence of, 26-29 - - _Gasterosteus pungitius_, 243; - _G. spinachia_, 243 - - Geer, M., on earwig incubating young, 229 - - _Gelasimus_, 233 - - Gentles, W. Laurie, on intelligence of a sheep-dog, 448, 449 - - Geoffrey, on pilot fish, 252 - - Gibbons, their sympathy for suffering companions, 472, 473 - - Gleditsch, on beetles undermining stick supporting a dead toad, 228; - on spiders weighting their webs, 221 - - Glutton, 347-50 - - Goat, intelligence of, 337, 338 - - Goat-sucker, removing eggs, 289; - nidification of, 292 - - Goldfinch, trained, 312 - - Goldsmith on habits of rooks, 322, 323 - - Goldsmith, Dr., on intelligence of otter, 346 - - Gollitz, Herr, on co-operation of beetles, 227 - - Goodbehere, S., on intelligence of a pony and ass, 332, 333; - on cunning of sheep-killing dogs, 450; - on dog knowing value of different coins, 452, 453 - - Goose, affection and sympathy of, 272, 273; - removing eggs from rats, 288; - noting time, 314; - opening latch of gate, 316 - - Gosse, on commensalism of crab and anemone, 234 - - Gould, on bower-bird, 279-81; - on humming-birds, 281; - on talegallus, 294, 295 - - Graber, Titus, on proportional size of ant's brain, 141 - - _Grapsus stringosus_, 231 - - Gray, Sir George, on nidification of talegallus, 295 - - Gredler, Vincent, on division of labour among leaf-cutting - ants, 99, 100 - - Green, on intelligence of pigs, 339 - - Green, Seth, on tactics displayed by hunting wasps, 193 - - Griffiths, on intelligence of elephant, 388, 389 - - Grosbeak, nidification of, 295, 296 - - Grouse, learning to avoid telegraph wires, 312, 313 - - Groves, J. B., on cat trying to catch image behind mirror, 416 - - Guana, _see_ Reptiles - - Guerinzius, on wasps recognising persons, 188 - - Guillemots, plundering of by gulls, 283, 284; - mode of catching fish, 285 - - Gulls, plundering guillemots, 283, 284; - mode of challenge, 291; - nidification, 292 - - Guring, Thomas, on intelligence of geese, 314, 315 - - - HAGEN, on termites, 202 - - Hague, on powers of communication in ants, 54-7 - - Hamilton, R., on fear exhibited by cattle in slaughterhouses, 334 - - Hancock, Dr., on fish quitting water, 248; - crows breaking shells by dropping them on stones, 283 - - Harding, S., on intelligence of a pig, 340 - - Hare, 357-60 - - Hartmann, Von, his definition of instinct, 15; - on fondness of spiders for music, 206 - - Harvesting-ants, 96-110; - mice, 365, 366 - - Hawkshaw, J. Clarke, on limpet remembering locality, 28-9 - - Hayden, on monkey keeping door open with blanket, 481 - - Hayes, Dr., on intelligence of Eskimo dogs, 462 - - _Helix pomatia_, intelligence of, 26, 27 - - _Hemerobius chrysops_, 240 - - Hen, maternal instinct of, 272; - removing eggs with neck, 288; - and young chicken on back, 288, 289 - - Henderson, on navigating habits of Iceland mice, 364, 365 - - Heron, variations in nest-building, 299 - - Hogg, on intelligence of his sheep-dog, 448 - - Holden, on starlings learning to avoid telegraph wires, 312, 313 - - Hollmann, on intelligence of _octopus_, 30 - - _Homarus marinus_, 233 - - Hooker, Sir Joseph, on navigating habits of Iceland mice, 364 - - Hooper, W. F., on intelligence of a dog, 463 - - Horn, Mrs., on reasoning powers of a dog, 462 - - Hornet, carrying heavy prey up an elevation in order to fly away - with it, 196 - - Horse, emotions of, 328-30; - memory, 330; - general intelligence, 328, 330-3 - - Horse-fly, tamed, 230, 231 - - Horsfall, on dog finding his way about by train, 467, 468 - - Hoste, Sir W., on wounded monkey showing its blood to the - sportsman, 476 - - Houzeau, on hen transporting young chicken on her back, 288, 289; - parrots not being deceived by mirrors, 310, 311; - birds dreaming, 312; - mules counting their journeys, 332; - monkeys destroying poison-fangs of snakes, 483 - - Hubbard, Mrs., on intelligence of a cat, 414 - - Huber, Bishop, on sympathy of elephant, 389 - - Huber, F. and P., on instinct, 16. - On ants: - sense of smell in, 33; - recognising companions, 41; - powers of communication, 49, 50; - observations on slave-making instinct, 65; - on warfare, 76; - play, 87, 88; - harvesting, 97; - carrying one another, 109; - intelligence shown in architecture, 128, 129. - On bees: - sense of hearing in, 144; - duration of memory, 155; - powers of communication, 156, 159; - manipulation and uses of propolis, 161; - battles of queen-bees, 164, 165; - form of cells, 173; - building cells, 177, 178; - barricading doors against moths, 184; - strengthening combs, 185; - biting holes in corollas, 189; - ventilating hives, 191, 192; - effects of removing antennæ of bees, 197 - - Hudson, on habits of _Melothrus_, 309, 310 - - Hugen, on termites, 198 - - Humboldt, on instincts of young turtles, 257 - - Humming-birds, æsthetic instincts of, 281 - - Hutchings, J., on intelligence of a cat, 417 - - Hutchinson, on alleged tendency of scorpion to commit suicide, 225 - - Hutchinson, Col., on reasoning power of a dog, 463, 464 - - Hutchinson, Dr. H. F., on wolf-spider stalking own image in - mirror, 213 - - Hutchinson, S. J., on intelligence of polar bear, 351, 352 - - Hutton, Mrs., on ants burying their dead, 91, 92 - - _Hydrargrza_, 248 - - _Hymenoptera_, _see_ Ants and Bees - - - IBEX, does assisting wounded buck to escape, 334 - - Idealism, cannot be refuted by argument, 6 - - Ideas, _see_ Association - - Imitation, shown by talking birds, monkeys, and idiots, 477, 478 - - Instinct, defined and distinguished from reason and reflex - action, 10-17; - of medusæ, 23; - of worms, 24; - of mollusca, 25; - of ants with reference to colour, 32, 33; - to smell, 33-7; - to sense of direction, 37-9; - to recognising friends, 41-5; - to swarming, 57, 58; - to nursing, 58; - to education, 59, 60; - to keeping aphides, 60-4; - to making slaves, 64-8; - to wars, 68-83; - to keeping pets, 83, 84; - to sleep and cleanliness, 84-7; - to play and leisure, 87-9; - to treatment of dead, 89-93; - of leaf-cutting species, 93-6; - of harvesting species, 97-110; - of tree-inhabiting species, 110, 111; - of honey-making species, 111-14; - of ecitons, 114-22; - of driver and marching species, 121-2; - of bees and wasps, with reference to colour, 143-4; - to sense of direction, 144-51; - to food-collecting and wax-making, 160-2; - to propagation, 162-8; - of queens, 162-5; - of killing drones, 165-8; - with reference to wars, 169, 170; - to architecture, 170-80; - of sphex-wasp, 180, 181; - of termites, 198-203; - of spiders, 204-18; - of scorpion, 222-5; - of beetles, 226-9; - of earwig, 229, 230; - of flies, 230, 231; - of crustacea, 231, 232; - of larvæ, 234-40; - of fish, 242-53; - of batrachians, 254; - of reptiles, 256-9; - of birds, with reference to procuring food, 283-7; - to incubation, 287-91; - to nidification, 291-301; - of cuckoo, 301-10; - of marsupials, 320; - of whale, 327; - of ruminants, 335; - of swine, 339; - of bats, 341; - of seals, 341-8; - of wolverine, 348-50; - of rodents, 353, 354; - of rabbit, 354-7; - of hare, 354-9; - of rats, 360; - of mice, 364-5; - of rat-hare, 365, 366; - of beaver, mixed with intelligence, 367; - with reference to propagation and lodges, 367-71; - to procuring food, 371-3; - to dams, 373-80; - to canals, 380-4; - of cat, 411-12; - of dog, 437, 438; - of monkey, 471 - - - JACKAL, 426; - collective instinct in hunting, 432-35 - - Jackdaw, gesticulating signs made by, 316; - congregation for court held by, 324 - - Jacob, Sir G. Le Grand, on crows punishing offender, 324-5; - ibexes assisting wounded mate to escape, 334 - - Japp, on dog spontaneously learning use of coin, 452 - - Jealousy, of fish, 242; - of birds, 276-7; - of horse, 329, 330; - of dogs, 442, 443; - of monkey, 493 - - Jenkins, H. L., on formation of abstract ideas by elephants, 401, 402 - - Jenner, on instinct of young cuckoo, 301-4 - - Jerdon, Dr., on harvesting-ants, 97; - on birds dreaming, 312 - - Jervoise, Sir J. C., on bee biting hole in a corolla, 189; - on combined action of rooks in obtaining food from pheasants, 321 - - Jesse, on intelligence of bees in adapting their combs to smooth - surface, 186; - spider protecting eggs from cold, 219; - tame house-fly, 230, 231; - affection of male for female pike, 246; - attachment between alligator and cat, 258, 259; - conjugal fidelity of swan, and pigeon, 271; - sympathy of rooks, 273, 274; - lapwing stamping on ground to make worms rise, 285; - goose removing eggs from rats, 288; - birds removing dung from neighbourhood of their nests, 290; - swallows killing and imprisoning hostile sparrows, 318, 319; - kangaroo throwing young from pouch when pursued, 326, 327; - stag shaking berries from trees, and manifesting intelligence - in escaping from dogs, 336; - intelligence of buffalo, 336, 337; - intelligence of rats, 360-2; - of elephants, 398; - collective instinct of foxes, 433; - wounded monkey showing its blood to the sportsman, 476 - - Jillson, Professor, on habits of the 'prairie-dog,' 366 - - John, St., on intelligence of fox, 426, 427; - idea of caste in dog, 442 - - Johnson, on termites, 198; - on orang-outangs removing their dead companions, 472 - - Johnson, Capt., on wounded monkey showing its blood to the - sportsman, 475 - - Johnson, Dr., his definition of reason, 14 - - - KANGAROO, throwing young from pouch when pursued, 326, 327 - - Kaup, on fish, 246 - - Kemp, Dr. L., on battles of queen-bees, 164; - robber bees, 170; - on intelligence of decoy elephants, 402 - - Kent, Saville, on intelligence of porpoises, 327, 328 - - Kesteven, Dr. W. H., on cat knocking knocker, 424 - - Kingfisher, nidification of, 292 - - Kirby, on water-spider, 212; - shore crabs, 232; - migration of salmon, 249, 250; - intelligence of carp, 250 - - Kirby and Spence, on powers of communication in ants, 49; - sense of direction in bees, 148; - hexagonal form of bees' cells, 172; - ceasing to store honey in tropics, 188; - co-operation of beetles, 226; - caterpillars, 236, and 238, 239 - - Klein, Dr., on intelligence of a cat, 418, 419 - - Kleine, Herr, on behaviour of bees when finding empty combs - substituted for full ones, 186, 187 - - Klingelhöffer, Herr, on co-operation of beetles, 227-8 - - König, on termites, 198 - - Kreplin, Herr H., on ecitons, 139 - - - _LABRUS_, 247 - - Lacepède, on fish coming to sound of bell, &c., 250 - - _Lacerta iguana_, 255 - - _Lagomys_, provident habits of, 365 - - Landois, on powers of communication in bees, 158 - - Langshaft, on bees recognising hive companions, 183; - on robber bees, 183-4 - - Lapwing, stamping on ground to make worms rise, 285; - intelligence of, 315, 316 - - Larvæ, of insects, intelligence of, 234-40 - - Latreille, on ants, sympathy of, 47 - - Lauriston, Baron, on sympathy of elephant, 390 - - Layard, Consul, on intelligence of cobra, 262; - on nidification of baya-bird, 294; - on cat pulling bell-wire, 424 - - Lee, Mrs., on intelligence of robin, 314; - of goats, 337; - of rats, 361; - on vindictiveness of elephant, 389 - - Leeches, apparent intelligence of, 24 - - Lefroy, Lieut-Gen, Sir John, on terrier communicating wants - by signs, 446 - - Lehr, Herr H., on bees draining their hive, 190 - - Leroy, C. G., - on nidification of birds, 300; - on migration, 301; - on collective instinct of wolves, 436 - - Lespès, - on ants: - slave-making instinct, 65, 66; - warfare, 68, 69; - division of labour, 98, 99; - on termites, 198 - - Leuckart, Prof., on intelligence of ants in surmounting - obstacles, 135 - - Lever, Sir Ashton, his experiment on eccentricity of - nest-building instinct, 295 - - Limpet, remembering locality, 28, 29 - - Lincecum, Dr., on harvesting ants, 97 and 103-7; - carrying one another, 109 - - Lindsay, Dr. L., on birds dreaming, 312 - - Linnæus, on swallows imprisoning sparrows, 318 - - Linnet, intelligence of in not flying against mirror, 311; - trained, 312 - - _Liparis chrysorrhaca_, 238 - - Livingstone, Dr., on certain ants of Africa, 110; - honey-guide, 315; - intelligence of buffalo, 335, 336; - reasoning power of dog, 457 - - Lobster, 233 - - Lockman, J., on fondness of pigeon for a particular air of - music, 282 - - Lonsdale, on intelligence of snails, 27 - - _Lophius piscator_, 247-8 - - Lophobranchiate fish, incubating eggs in mouth, 245-6 - - Loudoun's 'Magazine of Natural History,' quotations from, 357 - - Love-bird, conjugal affection of, 270 - - Löwenfels, Herr H., on a wasp dismembering a fly to facilitate - carriage, 196. - - Lubbock, Sir John, - on ants: - sense of sight in, 32; - of hearing, 33; - of smell, 33-7; - of direction, 37-8; - recognising companions and nest-mates, 41-3 and 44-5; - deficiency of affection and sympathy, 45-7; - powers of communication, 50-3; - collecting hatching eggs of aphides, 61-2; - keeping pets, 84; - general intelligence, 123-8. - On bees and wasps: - sense of sight in, 143; - of smell and hearing, 144; - of direction, 144-8; - memory, 151-4; - taming wasps, 153; - experiment on comparative intelligence of wasp and fly in - finding way out of a bell-jar, 153-4; - experiments to test sympathy, 155-6; - way-finding, 181-3; - recognising one another, 183-4. - On co-operation of beetles, 226. - - Ludicrous, sense of, - in dogs, 444-5; - in monkeys, 476, 485, 487, and 490 - - Lukis, F. C., on limpet remembering locality, 29 - - - MACLACHLAN, on caddis-worms, 244 - - Maclaurin, on mathematical principles observed by bees in - constructing their cells, 171 - - _Macropodus_, 244 - - Malcolm, Sir James, on sympathy shown by monkey, 474-5 - - Malle, Dureau de la, on dog knocking knocker, 423-4; - collective instinct of dogs, 435-6 - - Mammals, 326-498 - - Mann, Mr. and Mrs., their tame snakes, 256, 260-2 - - Mansfield, nest of fish, 242-43 - - Marsupials, 326-7 - - Martin, nidification of house, 292; - of land, 292 - - Martin, John, on reasoning power of cat, 415 - - MacCook, the Rev. Dr., - on ants: recognising fellow-citizens, 44; - feeding comrades with aphides-secretion, 63-4; - keeping cocci and caterpillars, 64; - warfare, 78, 81-3; - sleep and cleanliness, 84-87; - play, 88; - funeral habits, 89-91; - agricultural, 97, 103-10; - modes of mining, 108; - swarming habits of agriculturals, 108-9; - carrying one another, 109-10; - removing nest from shade of tree, 131; - cutting leaves from shading tree, 131-2; - co-operation in cutting grass, 132 - - M'Crady, on larva of _Medusæ_ sucking nutriment from parent, 34 - - Meek, his cat trying to catch image behind mirror, 415-16 - - Meenan, on a wasp carrying heavy prey up an elevation in order - to fly away with it, 197 - - _Melanerpes formicivorus_, 285 - - _Melia tessellata_, 233-4 - - _Melipona domestica_, form of its cells, 173-6 - - _Melothrus_, 309-10 - - Memory, - of mollusca, 25-9; - of ants, 39-45; - of bees, 151-5; - of beetles and earwig, 226-30; - of batrachians, 255; - of reptiles, 259 _et seq._; - of birds, 266-70; - of horse, 330; - of elephant, 386-7; - of dog, 438; - of monkey, 497 - - Menault, - on eagle submitting to surgical operation, 313-14; - on mason bee, 178-9 - - Merian, Madame, on ants of visitation, 130; - mygale spider eating humming-birds, 208 - - Merrell, Dr., on instinct of American cuckoo, 305-6 - - Mice, 360-4 - - Migration, - of caterpillars, 238; - of crabs, 232; - of fish, 248-50; - of reptiles, 257-8; - of birds, 266; - of mammals, 341-50, and 368 - - Mildmay, Sir Henry, on pigs learning to point game, 339-40 - - Mill, John S., on instinct of cruelty in man, 413 - - Miller, Prof., calculations regarding form of bee's cell, 173 - - Mind, subjective and objective analysis of, 1; - evidence of, 2; - criterion of, 4-8 - - Mischievousness, fondness of, shown by monkeys, 485 _et seq._ - - Mitchell, on fish removing eggs from disturbed nest, 251 - - Mitchell, Major, on habits of _Conilurus constructor_, 326 - - Mivart, on instincts of sphex-wasps, 181 - - Mobbing instinct in birds, 291 - - Möbius, Prof., on commensalism between crab and anemone, 233 - - Moggridge, - on ants: - sympathy of, 48; - suggestion to Mr. Hague, 56; - warfare of, 79-81; - keeping pets, 83; - harvesting, 97-8 and 100-2; - division of labour, 98; - harvesters using burrows made by elater, 130; - intelligent adaptation to artificial conditions, 130; - co-operation in cutting grass, &c., 133. - On trap-door spiders covering trap-doors with moss, &c., 214-15; - making trap-door at exposed end of accidentally inverted - tube, 215-216; - perfection of dwellings built by young spiders, 216-17; - manner in which instinct of making trap-doors probably - arose, 217-18 - - Mollusca, intelligence of, 25-30 - - Monboddo, Lord, on snake finding way home, 262 - - Monkeys, 471-98; - general remarks on psychology of, 471 and 497-98; - emotions of, 471-8; - affection and sympathy, 471-5; - reproach, 475-6; - ludicrous, 476, 485, 487, 490; - play, 476-77; - curiosity, 477; - imitation, 477; - rage, jealousy, and revenge, 478; - memory of, 497; - general intelligence of, 478; - behaviour with mirror, 478-9 and 495-6; - picking shells off eggs, and taking care not to be stung - by wasps in paper, 479; - intelligence of Mr. Belt's, 480; - disentangling chains, 480 and 486-8; - raking in objects with sticks or cloths, 480 and 486; - drawing chair to stand upon, 481; - using levers, 481 and 492; - using hammers, 481 and 485; - divining principle of screw, 490-91; - keeping door open with blanket, 481-2; - allowing tooth to be drawn, 482; - punishing young, 482-3; - destroying snake's fangs, 483; - concerted action, 483; - love of mischief, 485 _et seq._; - throwing things in rage, 485 _et seq._; - pushing slab to which tied, 484-7; - capricious attachments and dislikes, 484 _et seq._; - trying to unlock a box, 492; - playing with fire, 493-4; - expression of emotions, 494-5; - dread of imitation monkey, 495 - - Morgan, L. A., on spider conveying insect to larder, 220 - - Morgan, L. H., on the beaver, 367-83 - - Moschkau, Dr., on intelligence shown by a spider which he - habitually fed, 218-19 - - Moseley, Lewin, performing operation on a monkey, 482 - - Moseley, Prof., on intelligence of crabs, 231-2 - - Mossman, Rev. J. W., on wasps coming out of small aperture - backwards, 192-3 - - Mule, alleged counting by, 332; - intelligence of, 333-4 - - Müller, Adolph, on instinct of cuckoo, 306-7 - - Müller, F., - on powers of communication in bees, 157; - on termites, 198 and 201 - - Murray, S., intelligence of his dog, 450 - - Music, fondness of spiders for, 205-7; - of parrots and pigeon, 282 - - Mygale spider eating humming-birds, 208 - - _Myriophyllum spicatum_, 243 - - _Myrmeleon formicarium_, 234-5 - - - NADAULT, Madame, the association of ideas shown by her - parrot, 269 - - Napier, Commander, on pigeon making a horse shake oats - from nose-bag, 317 - - Napier, Lady, recollection in parrot, 269, 270; - emulation in parrot, 276, 277 - - Nest, _see_ Nidification - - Newall, R. S., on wasp dividing caterpillar to facilitate - carriage, 195, 196 - - Newbury, on absence of beaver dams in California, 370, 371 - - Newton, Professor A., on instincts of cuckoo, 306-9 - - Nichols, W. W., on intelligence of pigeons, 317 - - Nicols, A., on reasoning power of a retriever, 464, 465 - - _Nicrophorus_, 228 - - Nidification, - of crustacean, 232, 233; - of fish, 242-5; - of birds, 291-301; - petrels and puffins, 291, 292; - auks, curlew, goatsucker, ostrich, gulls, sandpipers, plovers, - kingfisher, Chinese swallow, house-martin, 292; - tomtit, woodpecker, starling, weaver, 293; - baya, talegallus, 294; - grosbeak, 295, 296; - swan, 296-8; - Wallace's theories concerning, 298, 299; - variability of 299-301; - of harvesting mice, 365 - - Nightingales, removing nest, 289 - - Niphon, Professor, on intelligence of a mule, 333, 334 - - _Noctua Ewingii_, 238 - - _Noctura verbasci_, 236 - - North, the Rev. W., on intelligence of mice, 361, 362 - - Nottebohm, Herr, on ants stocking trees with aphides, 63 - - - OBSTETRIC-FISH, 246; - toad, 254 - - _Octopus_, intelligence of, 29, 30 - - _[OE]cypoda ippeus_, 231 - - Oldham, A., on jealousy in dog, 442, 443 - - Orang-outang, removing dead companions, 472; - sense of humour in, 476; - drawing chair to stand upon to reach high places, 481 - - _Orthotomus_, 293 - - Ostrich, conjugal affection of, 270; - nidification, 292 - - Otter, 346 - - Oyster, intelligence of, 25 - - - PALLAS, on provident habits of Lagomys, 365 - - Parrot, memory of, 267-9; - recollection, 269, 270; - talking, &c., 267-70; - sympathy, 275, 276; - exultation on baffling imitative powers of master, 277; - vindictiveness, 277; - fondness of music, 282; - difficult to deceive by mirrors, 310, 311 - - Parry, Captain, on instincts of wild swan, 297 - - Partridge, removing eggs, 289 - - Peach, C. W., on dog recognising portrait, 453, 454 - - Peal, G. E., on elephants removing leeches and fanning away - flies, 409, 410 - - Pearson, Colonel, the reasoning power of his dog, 466, 467 - - Peeweet, _see_ Lapwing. - - Pelicans, sympathy of for wounded companions, 275; - frigate, 284; - combined action of in fishing, 319 - - Penky, the Rev. Mr., on reasoning power of a dog, 466, 467 - - Pennant, on navigating habits of Iceland mice, 364 - - Pennent, - on domestication of toad, 255; - on fascination by rattle-snake, 263 - - _Perca scandens_, 248, 249 - - Perception, 9 - - Perch, climbing, 248, 249 - - Percival, Dr., on cock killing hen when she hatched out eggs - of partridge, 278 - - Petrels, nidification of, 291, 292 - - Phillips, J., his portrait-painting recognised by a dog, 454 - - Picton, Mrs. E., on sensitiveness of a terrier, 440, 441 - - _Pieris rapæ_, 236 - - Pigeon, memory of, 266; - conjugal affection and fidelity, 270, 271; - fondness for a particular air of music, 282; - intelligence in avoiding turtles, 317; - in making horse shake oats from nose-bag, 317 - - Pigs, 339-41 - - Pike, affection of male for female, 246 - - Pilot-fish, 251, 252 - - Pinnipeds, breeding habits of, 342, 346 - - Pipe-fish, 246 - - Piracy, instinct of, in birds, 283, 284, 301-7 - - _Pisces_, _see_ Fish - - Play, - of ants, 87, 89; - of fish, 242; - of birds, 279; - of porpoise, 327, 328; - of dogs, 445; - of monkeys, 476, 477 - - Pliny, on ants burying their dead, 91; - sexual affection of snakes, 256; - on intelligence of elephant, 386; - on memory of elephant, 387 - - _Ploceus textor_, 293 - - Plover, _see_ Lapwing; - nidification of, 292 - - Plutarch, on intelligence of elephant, 386 - - _Podocerus capillatus_, 232 - - Polar bear, 352, 353 - - Polecat, curious instinct of, 347 - - _Polistes carnifex_, taking precise bearings to remember - locality, 150, 151 - - _Polistes Gallica_, tamed by Sir John Lubbock, 153; - robber, 169 - - Pollock, F., on perfection of webs built by young spiders, 217 - - Pollock, W., on association of ideas in parrot, 269 - - _Polydectes cupulifer_, 233 - - Pope, on instinct and reason, 15 - - Porpoise, intelligence of, 327, 328 - - Portraits, recognised by birds, 311; - by dogs, 453-7 - - Pouchet, on improvement in nidification of swallows, 300, 301 - - Powelsen, on navigating habits of Iceland mice, 364 - - Prairie dog, 366 - - Pride, - of birds, 279; - of horse, 330; - of ruminants, 334; - of dog, 439-42 - - _Prinia_, 293 - - _Protozoa_, movements of, 18; - apparent intelligence of, 19-21 - - Provident instincts, - of ants, 97-110; - of bees, 160-162; - of a bird, 285; - of rodents, 353, 354, and 365, 366; - of beaver, 368-70 - - Puffins, nidification of, 291, 292 - - Pugnacity, - of ants, 45; - of bees, 165-70; - of spiders, 204-5; - of fish, 242; - of seal, 341-6; - of rabbits, 355; - of rat-hare, 365, 366; - of canine animals, 426 - - Python, tame, affection of, &c., 256 and 260-2 - - - QUARTERLY REVIEW, on intelligence of rats, 360, 361 - - Quatrefages, on termites, 198 - - - RABBIT, 354-7 - - Rabigot, on fondness of spiders for music, 206 - - Rae, Dr. John, on intelligence of horse, 331; - of wolverine, 348; - of wolves and foxes, 429, 430; - of dog, 465, 466 - - Rae, on dog ringing bell, 423 - - Ransom, Dr., on sticklebacks, 245 - - Rarey, his method of taming horses, 328, 329 - - Rats, 360-3 - - Rattlesnake, alleged fascination by, 263 - - Ravens, breaking shells by dropping them on stones, 283 - - Razor-fish, intelligence of, 25 - - Reason, definition of, and distinguished from instinct, 13-17; - exhibitions of, by various animals, _see_ under sections - headed 'general intelligence' - - Réaumur, on intelligence of ants, 128; - sympathy of bees, 156; - carpenter-bee, 179; - encasing snail with propolis, 190; - conveying carrion out of hive, 191; - experiments on instincts of caterpillars, 237; - on larvæ chasing aphides, 240 - - Reclain, Professor C., on spider descending to - violin-player, 205, 206 - - Recognition of persons, - by bees, 188; - by snakes and tortoises, 259-61; - of places, by mollusca, 27-9; - by ants, 33 _et seq._; - by bees, 144 _et seq._; - of offspring, by earwig, 229; - of portraits, _see_ Birds and Dogs; - of other members of a hive by ants and bees, _see_ Ants and Bees - - Reeks, H., on collective instinct of wolves, 436 - - Reflex action, 2-4 - - Reid, Dr., on mathematical principles observed by bees in - constructing their cells, 171 - - Rengger, on maternal care and grief of a cebus, 472; - monkeys displaying intelligent observation, 479; - using levers, 481 - - Reproach, shown by gestures of monkeys 475-478 - - Reptiles, 255-265; - emotions of, 255, 256, and 260-2; - incubating eggs, sexual and parental affection of, 256; - general intelligence of, 256-263; - fascination by, 263, 264; - charming of, 264, 265 - - Reyne, his observations on snake-charming, 264, 265 - - _Rhizopoda_, apparent intelligence of, 19-21 - - Richards, Captain, on pilot-fish, 252 - - Richardson, Mrs. A. S. H., - on elephant concealing theft, 410; - on dog finding its way home by train, 468, 469 - - Ridicule, dislike of, by dogs and monkeys, _see_ Ludicrous - - Risso, M., on habits of pipe-fish, 246 - - Robertson, Professor G. Croora, on behaviour of an ape with - a mirror, 478, 479 - - Robin, intelligence of, 314 - - Rodents, 353 - - Rodwell, on intelligence of rats, 360-2 - - Rogue-elephants, _see_ Elephant - - Romanes, Miss C., - on dog recognising portrait, 455, 456; - on intelligence of cebus, 484-95 - - Romanes, G. J., on movements of rotifer, 18, 19; - of medusæ, 22; - of echinodermata, 23; - emotions of stickleback, 246, 247; - piracy of terns and gulls, 283-4; - mode of challenge practised by gulls, 291; - birds deceived by mirrors, 311; - grouse learning to avoid telegraph wires, 313; - intelligence of horse, 330; - intelligence of ferrets, 347; - instincts of rabbits, 354; - intelligence of rabbits, 354, 355; - rabbits fighting rats, 355; - drawing dead companions out of holes, 356, 357; - intelligence of hare, 357; - hares and rabbits allowing themselves to be caught by weasels, 359; - rats using their tails for feeding purposes, 363; - cat opening thumb-latch, 420, 421; - collective instinct of jackals, 434, 435; - of dogs, 435; - duration of memory in dog, 438; - pride and sensitiveness in dog, 439, 440; - intolerance of dog towards pain, 441; - emulation and jealousy in dog, 442; - deceitfulness and dislike of ridicule in dog, 444; - sense of ludicrous in dog, 444, 445; - dogs communicating ideas, 445, 446; - dogs slipping into their collars to conceal their sheep-killing, - &c., 435 and 450, 451; - dog recognising portrait, 456, 457; - reasoning of dog, 457, 458; - caution of a dog in killing snakes, 460; - sympathy of an Arabian baboon, 474; - sense of ludicrous and dislike of ridicule in monkey, 476; - intelligence of _Cebus fatuellus_, 484-98 - - Rooks, sympathy of, for wounded companions, 273, 274; - concerted action of, in obtaining food from dogs, 319, 320; - from pheasants, 321; - nesting habits and punishment of culprits, 322-5 - - _Rotifera_, movements of, 18 - - Ruminants, 334 - - Russell, Lord Arthur, witnessing tameness of snakes, 261 - - - _SAGARTIA parasitica_, 234 - - Salmon, migration of, 249, 250 - - _Salticus scenicus_, 213 - - Sandpipers, nidification of, 292 - - _Sarsia_, seeking light, 23 - - Saunders, S. S., on trap-door spiders, 215 - - Savage, on play of chimpanzees, 476, 477 - - Schiller, on pride of bell-wether steers, 334 - - Schipp, Lieut., on combined action of baboons, 483 - - Schlosser, on jaculator-fish, 248 - - Schlüter, Herr A., on a hornet carrying heavy prey up an elevation - in order to fly away with it, 196 - - Schneider, on intelligence of _octopus_, 29, 30; - on fish guarding eggs, 242; - jealousy of fish, 247 - - Sclater, Dr., on instincts of cuckoo, 325; - lending a cebus for observation, 483 - - Scoresby, on maternal affection of whale, 327; - on intelligence of polar bear, 351 - - Scorpion, alleged suicide of, when surrounded by fire or heat, 222-25 - - Sea-anemones, 233, 234 - - Seals, intelligence of, and breeding-habits of pinnipeds, 341-6 - - Seebohm, on instincts of cuckoo, 325 - - _Semnopithecus entellus_, destroying poison fangs of snakes, 483 - - Sensation, 8 - - Severn, H. A., on nidification of baya-bird, 294 - - Severn, W., on snakes, 260, 261 - - Sheep, pride of leaders, 334 - - Shelley, lines on curiosity of fish, 247 - - Shipp, Capt., - on vindictiveness of elephant, 387, 388; - on intelligence of elephant, 397, 398 - - Siebold, on robber-wasps, 169 - - Sieur, Roman, his trained birds, 312 - - Signs, made by ants, 49 _et seq._; - by bees, 157 _et seq._; - by termites, 200; - by birds, 315, 316; - by elephants, 391 and 401; - by cat, 416; - by dog, 445-7; - by monkey, 472, 475, 476 - - _Simiadæ_, _see_ Monkeys - - Simonius, on fondness of spiders for music, 206 - - Sinclair, W., on intelligence of horse, 33 - - Skate, supposed intelligence of, 251 - - Skinner, Major, - on intelligent vigilance of elephants, 400, 401; - on training of cobra, 265 - - Slingsby, his experiment in training a house-fly, 230, 231 - - Smeathman, on termites, 198-203 - - Smeaton, Th. D., on dog making peace-offerings, 452 - - Smiles, Dr. S., - on observation of Stephenson, 247; - on observations of Edward, 255, 275, 283, 321 - - Smith, A. P., on intelligence of a cat, 414 - - Smith, Colonel, on pilot-fish, 252 - - Smith, Colonel Hamilton, on intelligence of cattle-dogs, 449 - - Smith, Sir Andrew, on revenge of a baboon, 478 - - Snails, intelligence of, 26-28 - - Snakes, incubating eggs, sexual and parental affection of, 256; - tamed, 256, 260-3, 265; - finding way home, 262; - intelligence of, 262-3; - fascination by, 263-4; - charming of, 264-5 - - Social feelings, _see_ Sympathy and Affection; - habits common to Hymenoptera and termites, 202 - - Sow, pointing game, 339, 340 - - Sparman, on termites, 198 - - Spencer, Herbert, - on migration of salmon, 249; - on play as allied to artistic feeling, 279 - - Sphex, _see_ under Wasp - - Spiders, emotions of, 204-7; - courtship, 204, 205; - strength of maternal instinct, 205; - fondness of music, 205-7; - web-building, 207-12; - geometric, 209; - water, 212; - wolf or vagrant, 213; - trap-door, 213-18; - admit of being tamed and distinguish persons, 218-19; - protecting eggs from cold, 219; - protecting themselves from ecitons, 219; - conveying prey to larder, 220; - suspending weights to steady web, 220-2; - wide geographical range of trap-door spiders, 216 - - Stag, intelligence of, 336 - - Starlings, nidification of, 293; - learning to avoid telegraph-wires, 312-13 - - Stephenson, on curiosity of fish, 247 - - Stevens, J. G., on intelligence of a cat, 417-18 - - Sticklebacks, 243-5, 246-7 - - Stickney, on bees remembering in successive years the position - of a disused hive, 154 - - Stodmann, on wasps recognising persons, 188 - - Stone, on reasoning power of a dog, 460 - - Stork, vindictiveness of, 277-8 - - Strachan, on elephants dying under emotional disturbance, 395-6 - - Strange, F., on habits of bower-bird, 281 - - Strauss, on co-operation of beetles, 228 - - Street, J., on blackbirds removing their young, 289 - - Strickland, on intelligence of a mare, 332 - - Swainson, on vindictiveness of elephant, 389 - - Swallows, memory of, 266; - improvement in their nidification and adopting new modes of, 300; - migration, 301; - making tunnels, 318; - killing imprisoned hostile sparrows, 318-19 - - Swan, conjugal fidelity of, 271; - mode of escaping with young, 290; - nidification, 496-8 - - Swine, 339-41 - - Sword-fish, 252-3 - - Sykes, Colonel, - on harvesting ants, 97; - on tree ants, 110-11; - intelligence of ants in getting at food in difficult - situations, 134, 135; - on nidification of tailor-bird, 293 - - _Sylvia_, 293 - - Sympathy, - of ants, 46-9; - of bees, 155-6; - of fish, 242; - of birds, 270-6; - of horse, 331-2; - of ruminants, 334; - of elephants, 387-92, and 397, 398; - of cat, 416; - of monkeys, 471-5 - - - TAIT, LAWSON, on cat signing to have bell pulled, 423 - - _Talegallus_, nidification of, 294 - - Taylor, the Rev. Mr., cunning of his dog, 451 - - Tegetmeier, on amount of sugar required by bees to make honey, 176 - - Telescope-fish, 246 - - Tennent, Sir E., on apparent intelligence of land-leeches, 24; - intelligence of tree-ants, 134; - mygale eating humming birds, 208; - climbing-perch, 249; - sexual affection of cobra, 246; - snake-charming, 264, 265; - taming of cobra, 265; - nidification of baya-bird, 294; - combined action of crows, 319, 320; - of buffaloes, 335; - use of tame buffalo, 335; - on emotions and intelligence of elephant, 389, 390, 393-6, 400-8; - collective instinct of jackals, 432, 433 - - Tepper, Mr. Otto, on intelligence of a cat, 424 - - Termites, 198-203; - architecture, 198, 199, and 201, 202; - workers and soldiers, 200, 201; - swarming, breeding, &c., 202; - remarkable similarity of instincts to those of Hymenoptera, 202; - instincts detrimental to individual but beneficial to - species, 202, 203 - - Terns, sympathy of, for wounded companions, 274, 275; - robber, 284; - mobbing robber-terns, 291 - - _Theda isocrates_, 238 - - Theuerkauf, Herr G., on intelligence of ants in making a bridge - of aphides over tar, 136 - - Thompson, E. P., - on bees remembering exact position of absent hive, 149; - on garden-spider's mode of web-building, 210, 211; - ant-lion, 234, 235; - emotions of guana, 255, 256; - fascination by snakes, 264; - nidification of sociable grosbeak, 295, 296; - birds dreaming, 312; - maternal affection of whale, 327; - bisons defending themselves from wolves, 334, 335; - pigs defending themselves from wolves, 339; - cleanliness of pig, 340, 341; - intelligence of weasel, 346; - of mouse, 361; - harvesting-mice, 365, 366 - - Thomson, Dr. Allen, on scorpions committing suicide, 223-5 - - Thornton, Colonel, his sow trained to point game, 340 - - Thresher-fish, 252, 253 - - Thrushes, breaking shells against stones, 283 - - _Tinea_, 237 - - Toads, 254, 255 - - Tomtit, nidification of, 293 - - Topham, Dr. J., on spiders weighting their webs, 222 - - Topham, Mr. J., on bees remembering exact position of absent - hive, 149 - - Tortoises, knowing persons, 259 - - Townsend, the Rev. W., - on elephant concealing theft, 410; - on dog finding its way about by train, 468-9 - - Truro, Lord, on intelligence of a dog, 450 - - Turner, George, on bees remembering exact position of absent - hive, 149 - - Turnstones, intelligence of, 321 - - Turtles, 257, 258, and 262 - - - VAILLANT, Le, on fascination by tree-snake, 263, 264 - - Valiant, L., on nidification of sociable grosbeak, 296 - - Venn, on association of ideas in parrot, 267, 268 - - Vigot, Dr., on snake finding way home, 262 - - Villiers, De, on instincts of larvæ of bombyx moth, 240 - - Vindictiveness, - of birds, 277, 278, and 318-25; - of horse, 330, 331; - of elephant, 387-9; - of monkeys, 478, and 484-96 - - Virchow, on difficulty of distinguishing between instinct an - reason, 12 - - Vogt, Karl, on duration of memory in ants, 41; - bridge-making, 136 - - Vultures, finding carrion by sight and not by smell, 286, 287; - intelligence, 314 - - - WAFER, on monkeys hammering oyster-shells with stones, 481 - - Wakefield, P., on intelligence of goats, 337, 338 - - Wallace, A. R., on philosophy of birds'-nests, 298-300 - - Warden, on frogs going straight to nearest water, 254 - - Wasp-mason, 180; - butcher, 180, 181; - sphex, 181; - hunting, 193, 194; - common, tamed by Sir John Lubbock, 153 - - Wasps, sense of direction in, 147; - teaching themselves, 154; - killing larvæ, 167, 168; - making cells, 180; - instincts of neuters, 181; - recognising persons, 188; - coming out of small aperture backwards, 192, 193; - struggles with ants for secretion of frog-hoppers, 194, 195; - dismembering heavy prey for convenience of carriage, and - mounting eminences for same purpose, 195, 197 - - Wasser, on nidification of puffins, 291 - - Waterhouse, on hexagonal form of bee's cell, 173 - - Water-rail, its mode of escape, 289 - - Waterton, on nidification of swan, 295, 296 - - Watson, on spiders weighting their webs, 221; - cock killing hen on her hatching out eggs of other birds, 278; - intelligence of rats, 360-62; - vindictiveness of elephant, 389; - elephant enduring surgical operation, 399; - intelligence of sheep-dogs, 448; - of cattle-dogs, 449 - - Weasel, 346, 347 - - Weaver, nidification of, 293 - - Web, _see_ Spider - - Web-building, _see_ Spiders - - Webb, Dr., performing operation on elephant, 399 - - Weber, Professor E. H., on spiders weighting their webs, 221 - - Wedgwood, the Rev. R. H., on memory of horse, 330 - - Westlecombe, on reasoning power of a dog, 462, 463 - - Westropp, on intelligence of bear, 352 - - Westwood, on instinct of caterpillars, 288 - - Weygandt, on robber-bees, 170 - - Whale, maternal affection of, 327; - attacks on, by sword- and thresher-fish, 252, 253 - - Whately, Archbishop, on cat ringing bell, 423 - - White ants, _see_ Termites - - White, the Rev. Gilbert, on nests of harvesting-mice, 365; - on nidification of house-martin, 292, 293 - - White, W., on intelligence of snails, 26 - - White, the Rev. W. W. F., on sympathy of ants, 49; - keeping pets, 84; - burying dead, 92, 93 - - White-headed eagle, _see_ Eagle - - Wildman, his alleged training of bees, 189 - - Wilks, Dr. S., observations on talking of parrot, 267, 268; - on dog recognising a portrait, 455 - - Williams, on intelligence of sheep-dogs, 448 - - Williams, B., on cunning of sheep-killing dogs, 450, 451 - - Wilson, on memory of crow, 266 - - Wilson, Dr. Andrew, on reasoning power of a dog, 460 - - Wilson, Charles, on intelligence of swallows, 318 - - Wilson, Dr. D., on elephant enduring surgical operation, 399 - - Winkell, Dietrich aus dem, on intelligence of fox, 428 - - Wolf, 426-36; avoiding gun-traps, 431; - drawing up fish-lines to take fish, 431; - collective instinct in hunting, 433, 436 - - Wolverine, 347-50 - - Wood, Rev. G. J., on spiders weighting their webs, 221 - - Woodcock, conveying young on back, 289 - - Woodpecker, ant-eating, its instinct of storing food, 285; - nidification, 293 - - Words, understanding of, - by bees, 189; - by talking birds, 267-9 - - Worms, apparent intelligence of, 24 - - Wright, his portrait-painting recognised by a dog, 454-5 - - - YARRELL, - on fish, 246; - on intelligence of hare, 358-9 - - Youatt, on pigs learning to point game, 340 - - Young, the Rev. Charles, on emotions and intelligence of - elephant, 390-92 - - Young, Miss E., on dog finding his way about by train, 468 - - Yule, Captain, on elephants dying under emotional disturbance, 395 - - -THE END. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[282] January 14, 1881. The marble slab was left with him after the -chain had been fastened to the ring; but since that time he has never -attempted to move the marble. - - - - -ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE. - -By GEORGE J. ROMANES, F.R.S., - -Zoölogical Secretary of the Linnæan Society, etc. - -12MO. CLOTH, $1.75. - - -"My object in the work as a whole is twofold: First, I have thought it -desirable that there should be something resembling a text-book of the -facts of Comparative Psychology, to which men of science, and also -metaphysicians, may turn whenever they have occasion to acquaint -themselves with the particular level of intelligence to which this or -that species of animal attains. My second and much more important object -is that of considering the facts of animal intelligence in their -relation to the theory of descent."--_From the Preface._ - -"Unless we are greatly mistaken, Mr. Romanes's work will take its place -as one of the most attractive volumes of the INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC -SERIES. Some persons may, indeed, be disposed to say that it is too -attractive, that it feeds the popular taste for the curious and -marvelous without supplying any commensurate discipline in exact -scientific reflection; but the author has, we think, fully justified -himself in his modest preface. The result is the appearance of a -collection of facts which will be a real boon to the student of -Comparative Psychology, for this is the first attempt to present -systematically well-assured observations on the mental life of -animals."--_Saturday Review._ - -"The author believes himself, not without ample cause, to have -completely bridged the supposed gap between instinct and reason by the -authentic proofs here marshaled of remarkable intelligence in some of -the higher animals. It is the seemingly conclusive evidence of reasoning -powers furnished by the adaptation of means to ends in cases which can -not be explained on the theory of inherited aptitude or habit."--_New -York Sun._ - -"The high standing of the author as an original investigator is a -sufficient guarantee that his task has been conscientiously carried out. -His subject is one of absorbing interest. He has collected and -classified an enormous amount of information concerning the mental -attributes of the animal world. The result is astonishing. We find -marvelous intelligence exhibited not only by animals which are known to -be clever, but by others seemingly without a glimmer of light, like the -snail, for instance. Some animals display imagination, others affection, -and so on. The psychological portion of the discussion is deeply -interesting."--_New York Herald._ - -"The chapter on monkeys closes this excellent work, and perhaps the most -instructive portion of it is that devoted to the life-history of a -monkey."--_New York Times._ - -"Mr. Romanes brings to his work a wide information and the best of -scientific methods. He has carefully culled and selected an immense mass -of data, choosing with admirable skill those facts which are really -significant, and rejecting those which lacked sustaining evidence or -relevancy. The contents of the volume are arranged with reference to the -principles which they seem to him to establish. The volume is rich and -suggestive, and a model in its way."--_Boston Courier._ - -"It presents the facts of animal intelligence in relation to the theory -of descent, supplementing Darwin and Spencer in tracing the principles -which are concerned in the genesis of mind."--_Boston Commonwealth._ - -"One of the most interesting volumes of the series."--_New York -Christian at Work._ - -"Few subjects have a greater fascination for the general reader than -that with which this book is occupied."--_Good Literature, New York._ - - - -_For sale by all booksellers; or sent by mail, post-paid, on receipt of -price._ - - -New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, and 5 Bond Street. - - - - -ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. - -_A Record of Observations on the Habits of the Social Hymenoptera._ - -By Sir JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., M. P., F. R. S., etc., - -Author of "Origin of Civilization, and the Primitive Condition of Man," -etc., etc. - - -WITH COLORED PLATES. 12MO. Cloth, $2.00. - - -"This volume contains the record of various experiments made with ants, -bees, and wasps during the last ten years, with a view to test their -mental condition and powers of sense. The principal point in which Sir -John's mode of experiment differs from those of Huber, Forel, McCook, -and others, is that he has carefully watched and marked particular -insects, and has had their nests under observation for long periods--one -of his ants' nests having been under constant inspection ever since -1874. His observations are made principally upon ants because they show -more power and flexibility of mind; and the value of his studies is that -they belong to the department of original research." - -"We have no hesitation in saying that the author has presented us with -the most valuable series of observations on a special subject that has -ever been produced, charmingly written, full of logical deductions, and, -when we consider his multitudinous engagements, a remarkable -illustration of economy of time. As a contribution to insect psychology, -it will be long before this book finds a parallel."--_London Athenæum._ - -"These studies, when handled by such a master as Sir John Lubbock, rise -far above the ordinary dry treatment of such topics. The work is an -effort made to discover what are the general, not the special, laws -which govern communities of insects composed of inhabitants as numerous -as the human beings living in London and Peking, and who labor together -in the utmost harmony for the common good. That there are remarkable -analogies between societies of ants and human beings no one can doubt. -If, according to Mr. Grote, 'positive morality under some form or other -has existed in every society of which the world has ever had -experience,' the present volume is an effort to show whether this -passage be correct or not."--_New York Times._ - -"In this work the reader will find the record of a series of experiments -and observations more thorough and ingenious than those instituted by -any of the accomplished author's predecessors. . . . Sir John has been a -close observer of the habits of ants for many years, generally having -from thirty to forty communities under his notice, and not only watching -each of these in its carefully isolated glass house, but, by the use of -paint-marks, following the fortunes of individuals. . . . One notable -result of this system has been the correcting of previous theories as to -the age to which ants attain: instead of living merely a year, as the -popular belief has been, some of Sir John's queens and workers are -thriving after being under observation since 1874 and 1875."--_New York -World._ - -"Sir John Lubbock's book on 'Ants, Bees, and Wasps' is mainly devoted to -the crawlers, and not the fliers, though he has some observations upon -honey-bees and more interesting ones upon the unpopular wasp, which he -fondly deems to be capable of gratitude. Darwin made a strong case for -the monkeys, but Lubbock may yet make us out to be, as Irishmen say, -'The sons of our ants.' For he begins his entertaining book thus: 'The -anthropoid apes no doubt approach nearer to man in bodily structure than -do any other animals, but, when we consider the habits of ants, their -large communities and elaborate habitations, their roadways, their -possession of domestic animals, and, even in some cases, of slaves, it -must be admitted that they have a fair claim to rank next to man in the -scale of intelligence.'"--_Springfield Republican._ - - -_For sale by all booksellers; or sent by mail, post-paid, on receipt of -price._ - - -New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street. - - - * * * * * - -Transcriber's Notes: - -Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Sometimes the footnote number did -not appear with the footnote at the bottom of the page. (Page 27, 154) -In these cases it was replaced. - -Page 76, "every" changed to "ever" (scarcely ever return) - -Page 95, "1" changed to "I" (I now walked) - -Page 119, "trucks" changed to "trunks" (under fallen trunks) - -Page 177, "circumstancces" changed to "circumstances" (themselves to -circumstances) - -Page 178, section header "Special Habits" was small-capped instead of -italic in the original. This was changed to italic to match the rest of -the text's usage. - -Page 181, "betweeen" changed to "between" (saucer between them) - -Page 213, this page had two footnote references but only one footnote -anchor. This footnote has been renamed "[A] _Loc. cit._, p. 323." It is -right after footnote [83]. - -Page 218, "tamd" changed to "tamed" (who has 'tamed' spiders) - -Page 246, "Uunder" changed to "Under" (Under such circumstances) - -Page 285, the footnote number was missing at the bottom of the page and -was inserted in the text. - -Page 316, "shuuters" changed to "shutters" (these said shutters) - -Page 322, "tri l" changed to "trial" (the work another trial) - -Page 324, "appa ently" changed to "apparently" (apparently being tried) - -Page 367, "pyschology" changed to "psychology" (of the psychology of -this) - -Page 375, "eth" changed to "the" (the building of a stick) - -Page 384, "once" changed to "one" (In one case Prof. Aggaziz) - -Page 420, "intelgence" changed to "intelligence" (exerted upon their -intelligence) - -Page 457, footnote originally at bottom of page (now on page 470), -"retreiver" changed to "retriever" (and retriever of my own) - -Page 459, "Broun" changed to "Brown" (writing from Brown university) - -Page 476, "on" changed to "an" (spends an hour or two) - -Page 483, footnote missing number was added. - -Index: when an entry was changed so that its correct spelling placed it -out of alphabetical order from its original location, it was relocated. - -Page 500, "Atenchus" changed to "Ateuchus" (_Atenchus pilularius_, 226) - -Page 501, "Blackhouse" changed to "Backhouse" to match usage in text -(Backhouse, R. O., on dog) - -Page 502, under entry: "Büchner, Professor," "On termites" was -originally printed "on termites." As this was a subheading, the "On" was -capitalized to match the form of the rest of the index. - -Page 503, under entry: "Cat, the", "42" changed to "25" (general -intelligence of, 413-25) - -Page 504, entry: "_Corvus cornice_" was originally above "Couch". This -was adjusted. - -Page 505, "Doldorff" changed to "Daldorff" (Daldorff, on climbing perch) - -Pgae 507, "Gelasinnus" changed to "Gelasimus" (_Gelasimus_, 233) - -Page 508, "Heber" changed to "Huber"; "289" changed to "389" (Huber, -Bishop, on sympathy of elephant, 389) - -Page 509, "Hydrargyra" changed to "Hydrargzra" (_Hydrargrza_, 248) - -Page 510, "Jilson" changed to "Jillson" (Jillson, Professor, on habits) - -Page 511, "Lespes" changed to "Lespès." - -Page 511, "MacLaurin" changed to "Maclaurin" (Maclaurin, on mathematical -principles) - -Page 511, "Macropodos" changed to "Macropodus" (_Macropodus_, 244) - -Page 511, "M'Cook" changed to "MacCook" (MacCook, the Rev. Dr.) - -Page 512, "M'Cready" changed to "M'Crady" (M'Crady, on larva of -_Medusæ_) - -Page 513, "Myrionphyllum" changed to "Myriophyllum" (_Myriophyllum -spicatum_, 243) - -Page 513, "Ervingii" changed to "Ewingii" (_Noctua Ewingii_, 238) - -Page 514, "capillata" changed to "capillatus"; "332" changed to "232" -(_Podocerus capillatus_, 232) - -Page 515, entry under "Recognition," "by snakes and tortoises," "269" -changed to "259." (tortoises, 259-61) - -Page 515, "Croom" changed to "Croora" (Robertson, Professor G. Croora) - -Page 517, entry: "Strauss, on co-operation of beetles" was missing its -page reference. "228" added to text. (co-operation of beetles, 228) - -Page 518, "Timea" changed to "Tinea" (_Tinea_, 237) - -Page 519, "Wedgewood" changed to "Wedgwood" (Wedgwood, the Rev. R. H., -on memory) - -Ad for "Ants, Bees and Wasps," "communties" changed to "communities" -(govern communities of insects) - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Animal Intelligence, by George J. 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