Add files from ibiblio as of 2025-03-08 21:08:05HEADmain

1 files changed, 5403 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/40630-0.txt b/40630-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d239ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/40630-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,5403 @@
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40630 ***
+
+                            BRITISH CASTLES
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: BODIAM CASTLE, SUSSEX.]
+
+
+
+
+                                 BRITISH
+                                 CASTLES
+
+                                    BY
+
+                            CHARLES H. ASHDOWN
+
+              CONTAINING 32 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR
+               AND A NUMBER OF PLANS AND DIAGRAMS IN THE TEXT
+
+[Illustration: A TREBUCHET]
+
+
+                                  LONDON
+                          ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK
+                                   1911
+
+
+                                  AGENTS
+
+ AMERICA                     THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                               64 & 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
+
+ AUSTRALASIA                 THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
+                               205 FLINDERS LANE, MELBOURNE
+
+ CANADA                      THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA, LTD.
+                               ST. MARTIN'S HOUSE, 70 BOND STREET, TORONTO
+
+ INDIA                       MACMILLAN & COMPANY, LTD.
+                               MACMILLAN BUILDING, BOMBAY
+                               309 BOW BAZAAR STREET, CALCUTTA
+
+ GERMANY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,}
+ RUSSIA,                  }  BROCKHAUS AND PEHRSSON
+ SCANDINAVIA, AND         }    16 QUERSTRASSE, LEIPZIG
+ GERMAN SWITZERLAND       }
+
+
+
+
+                                 PREFACE
+
+
+Considering the richness and variety of both technical and popular
+literature upon Castles generally, it may appear superfluous to send
+forth another book upon the same subject, and, if investigation had been
+at a standstill or barren in results during the past decade, criticism
+would be justified. But much has come to light upon this interesting
+subject which undoubtedly revolutionises pre-existing ideas, both as to
+primitive forms of castellation and of those in historic periods. The
+allocation of the former to approximately definite epochs, and also of
+two great and important phases of the latter to well-defined periods,
+are the salient features of late investigations. Unfortunately the
+ordinary reader is debarred from becoming intimate with these changes of
+thought, inasmuch as newly acquired discoveries are generally to be
+found only in the transactions of learned Societies or in disconnected
+brochures not readily available. To bring these ideas to a focus and
+present them in such a form that the Man in the Street--undoubtedly a
+member of the preponderating majority--may readily comprehend them is
+one of the aims of the writer, while another is to suggest to the
+ordinary observer that the earthworks in our islands entitle primitive
+man to be considered with much more respect and consideration than has
+hitherto been afforded him.
+
+The monumental work of Mr. T. G. Clark, _Mediæval Military
+Architecture_, has had no formidable rival since its appearance, but
+unfortunately it must now be read with care since much of the matter is
+obsolete. The distinction between the Saxon _burh_ and the primitive
+type of castle thrown up by the early Norman invaders was not apparent
+at the time the work appeared, and consequently many scores of
+castellated works are assigned to incorrect periods. This had the effect
+of making the chronology of the Rectangular Keep incorrect. Unhappily
+_The History of the Art of War_ by Oman followed Clark's lead and with,
+of course, the same result. Mr. J. H. Round in his _Geoffrey de
+Mandeville_ appears to have been one of the first, if not the first, to
+differentiate between the _turris_ and the _castellum_ (_i.e._ the Keep
+and the Ward) of medieval writers, who were proverbially loose with
+respect to their employment of technical terms. Excellent work also in
+this respect has been carried out by Mrs. E. Armitage, who, by the
+process of practically investigating in detail some of the defences
+mentioned in Domesday Book, has been able to definitely assign the Motte
+and Bailey type to the early Norman Period. In the recently issued
+_Victoria History of the Counties of England_ the effect of these
+discoveries is discernible in those parts relating to castellation,
+which very carefully correct the errors prevailing in former standard
+and in local topographical works. With regard to Earthworks, the
+invaluable investigations carried out by "The Committee upon Ancient
+Earthworks and Fortified Enclosures," acting in co-operation with the
+Society of Antiquaries, has resulted in a flood of light being thrown
+upon these interesting remains, so that the old allocation to British,
+Roman, and Danish influence, so arbitrarily insisted upon in former
+times according to the contour of the earthwork in question, no longer
+subsists, or only as far as circumstances justify the nomenclature. No
+generally available work is to hand dealing with these subjects in a
+non-technical manner, and it may be hoped that this endeavour will help
+to fill the interregnum between the work of Clark and a future equally
+monumental tome.
+
+The thanks of the Author are herewith gratefully tendered to the
+Congress of Archæological Societies of 1903 for permission to make use
+of the plans of Earthworks issued in their "Scheme for Recording Ancient
+Defensive Earthworks and Fortified Enclosures," and also to Mr. Cecil C.
+Brewer for the plans of various floors in Hedingham Keep.
+
+                                             CHARLES H. ASHDOWN.
+
+    ST. ALBANS.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER I
+                                                PAGE
+    NATURAL FORTRESSES STRENGTHENED               1
+
+  CHAPTER II
+
+    FORTIFIED HILL-TOPS                          13
+
+  CHAPTER III
+
+    SIMPLE ARTIFICIAL ENCLOSURES                 33
+
+  CHAPTER IV
+
+    THE MOTTE AND BAILEY CASTLE                  48
+
+  CHAPTER V
+
+    THE SHELL KEEP                               64
+
+  CHAPTER VI
+
+    THE RECTANGULAR KEEP                         76
+
+  CHAPTER VII
+
+    THE CYLINDRICAL KEEP                        101
+
+  CHAPTER VIII
+
+    THE CONCENTRIC CASTLE                       110
+
+  CHAPTER IX
+
+    THE CASTELLATED MANSION                     147
+
+  CHAPTER X
+
+    THE CASTLES OF SCOTLAND                     173
+
+  CHAPTER XI
+
+    THE SIEGE AND DEFENCE OF A MEDIEVAL CASTLE  188
+
+  INDEX                                         201
+
+
+
+
+                          LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+FULL PAGE IN COLOUR
+
+  1. Bodiam Castle, Sussex                              _Frontispiece_
+
+   One of the most picturesque ruins in Sussex and the most
+   interesting of its class in the Kingdom. It was erected
+   by a veteran of Agincourt and is based upon the plan of
+   those existing in Gascony at that time. Only the
+   encircling walls and towers now remain, the interior
+   having been despoiled. The view shows the Gateway and a
+   portion of the defences of the Causeway across the Moat.
+
+                                                           FACING PAGE
+
+  2. Maiden Castle, Dorsetshire                                      9
+
+   This gigantic earthwork looms darkly in the distance,
+   with indications upon its broken outline of the enormous
+   mounds and fosses which render it one of the most
+   impressive examples of its class. As a work of Neolithic
+   man it commands attention, both by reason of the vastness
+   of its plan and the skill shown in the design.
+
+  3. Pevensey Castle, Sussex                                        16
+
+   Within the Roman walls encircling this ancient site a
+   Concentric Castle was erected during the time of Edward
+   I., a short portion of the existing wall being used for
+   the new building. It was partly surrounded by a moat, a
+   part of which appears in the view, while the drum tower
+   occupying the centre is one of those designed to protect
+   the approach to the Castle.
+
+  4. The Beauchamp Tower, Tower of London                           25
+
+   This building affords an interesting example of the
+   ground floor of a tower of the thirteenth century with
+   massive walls and deep embrasures. It became famous as a
+   prison in Tudor times and later when numerous notable
+   persons were incarcerated; the carvings on the walls
+   reveal many notable names.
+
+  5. Corfe Castle, Dorsetshire                                      32
+
+   The scattered ruins of the great Castle of Corfe owe
+   their present appearance to the "slighting" by gunpowder
+   in 1646, after its capture by the Parliamentarians. Amid
+   the desolation produced the great Keep still rears a
+   massive front towards the sky, as if protesting against
+   the indignity. The Gateway to the inner Bailey is nearly
+   perfect, and the smooth ashlar of many of the circular
+   towers remains wonderfully preserved.
+
+  6. The Tower of London                                            49
+
+   The three lines of defence which render the Tower one of
+   the most effective Concentric Castles in this country are
+   well seen in the illustration. The outer encircling
+   walls, the higher curtain wall of the second defence,
+   with one of the many towers which bestride it, and the
+   innermost of all, the White Tower, the finest example of
+   a Norman Keep in England, may be distinctly located.
+
+  7. Kenilworth Castle, Warwickshire                                56
+
+   Although deprived of the charm of the great Moat which
+   once surrounded the Castle, Kenilworth still forms a
+   beautiful object, magnificent in its decay. The halo of
+   romance hangs over these ruins, and speaks eloquently of
+   the Barons' War, and of the 'spacious days' of Queen
+   Elizabeth.
+
+  8. Arundel Castle, Sussex                                         73
+
+   This massive pile, overlooking the little river Arun at
+   its base, stands upon a spur of chalk which once bore a
+   Motte and Bailey Castle. The Motte is now crowned by a
+   Shell Keep, seen towards the right of the picture, while
+   some of the other buildings erected upon the enceinte
+   form an effective group in the centre.
+
+  9. Dover Castle, Kent                                             80
+
+   The great Keep dominates the view, with the buildings of
+   its fore-court at the base, while below are seen the
+   towers and massive defences of the formidable entrance to
+   the Castle. It is one of the most impressive piles to be
+   seen in the British Isles, and never fails to impress the
+   foreigner when approaching it from the coast of France.
+
+  10. Rochester Castle, Kent                                        89
+
+   Of Rochester Castle nothing of importance remains except
+   the great Keep and fragments of walls. The Norman Keep
+   was erected in the reign of Henry I. (1100-1135) and is
+   one of the finest now in existence. It has seen many
+   troublous times in its varied history, chiefly at the
+   hands of King John and Simon de Montfort. The combination
+   of Keep, Cathedral, and river presented in the view is
+   particularly pleasing.
+
+  11. Richmond Castle, Yorkshire                                    96
+
+   This lordly Castle occupies a commanding position in the
+   romantically beautiful valley of the Swale and dates back
+   to the Norman period. The Keep is a salient feature and
+   exemplifies in a remarkable degree nearly all the
+   characteristics inherent in buildings of this class. The
+   Norman hall is one of the best preserved of its type to
+   be found in this country.
+
+  12. Carnarvon Castle, Carnarvonshire                             105
+
+   One of the most impressive features of this great Castle,
+   termed the finest in Europe, is the Eagle Tower with its
+   many historical associations. The bands and dressings of
+   dark sandstone are well shown in the illustration, while
+   upon the merlons crowning the turrets may be perceived as
+   little dots the statuettes of men and animals which
+   usually occur upon the Edwardian Castles in Wales.
+
+  13. Castle Rushen, Isle of Man                                   112
+
+   Castle Rushen, in Castletown, is the ancient residence of
+   the Kings of Man; it probably dates from the thirteenth
+   century and is still quite entire. The Keep-like
+   structure upon the right are the curtain walls and towers
+   surrounding the inner Bailey.
+
+  14. Leeds Castle, Kent                                           121
+
+   Leeds Castle is of the Concentric type and stands upon
+   two islands in the middle of a lake which contains about
+   fifteen acres of water. It has a rich history and the
+   remains are of considerable interest, although the
+   earliest work now to be seen is not older than the
+   twelfth century. The Gloriette or Keep is that portion
+   lying to the right in the picture.
+
+  15. Tower of London, The Middle Tower                            128
+
+   This building might more aptly be termed 'The Barbican,'
+   as it lies upon the farther side of the Moat from the
+   Fortress. It now forms the entrance to the Tower from
+   Tower Hill and affords access to the outer Bailey through
+   the Byward Tower, whose entrance may be perceived through
+   the archway. In earlier times this gate, which is one of
+   those built by Henry III., was separated from a former
+   outer barbican by the waters of the Moat, hence its name,
+   the Middle Tower.
+
+  16. Chepstow Castle, Monmouthshire                               137
+
+   Chepstow Castle is an example of an Early Norman Fortress
+   of the Rectangular Keep type, which was rendered
+   concentric by the addition of Baileys and a wall of
+   enceinte. A steep side towards the river is visible in
+   the picture upon which the domestic buildings were built.
+   Among the many beautiful spots to be found upon the banks
+   of the Wye, Chepstow Castle holds a worthy place. Perhaps
+   the 'beauty of decay' is in no case better exemplified in
+   any part of England than here.
+
+  17. Leeds Castle, Kent                                           144
+
+   The Gateway of the Castle is one of the most picturesque
+   portions of the building. A range of machicoulis is
+   placed over the entrance, while a small portion of an
+   original bretasche, a very rare survival of the medieval
+   period, is also preserved in the Castle.
+
+  18. Windsor Castle                                               147
+
+   Windsor Castle was originally of the Motte and Bailey
+   type, but the Motte was subsequently crowned with a
+   massive Shell Keep, one of the largest of its kind. It
+   appears in the illustration surmounted by the Royal
+   Standard. By later additions the Castle was rendered
+   concentric. In the centre is the upper portion of St.
+   George's Chapel, and on the right the Curfew Tower built
+   by Henry III. and restored by Salvin, while in the front
+   nestles a portion of the old town.
+
+  19. Skipton Castle, Yorkshire                                    150
+
+   Skipton Castle possesses a history reaching back to the
+   Norman Conquest, and has been in the possession of the
+   great Clifford family since the reign of Edward II. The
+   portion here shown is the Tudor Courtyard, erected by the
+   first Earl of Cumberland in the reign of Henry VIII.
+
+  20. Ightham Mote, Kent                                           155
+
+   Ightham Mote boasts of a Hall erected early in the
+   fourteenth century and one of the best of its kind. The
+   tower is of Perpendicular architecture, and most of the
+   other portions Elizabethan. The half-timber work
+   exhibited in this building is a beautiful example, and
+   the whole structure harmonizes in the happiest manner
+   with the uncommon beauty of the surroundings.
+
+  21. Wressle Castle, Yorkshire                                    158
+
+   Wressle Castle has a history which is indissolubly linked
+   up with the great house of the Percies, who periodically
+   maintained their court in it for centuries. Only the
+   south façade is now standing, as the Parliamentarians
+   destroyed the remaining three sides about 1650. It was
+   surrounded by a moat and a deep dry ditch. The famous
+   Household Book of Henry Percy, written soon after the
+   country settled down after the Wars of the Roses, reveals
+   elaborate details of the life in this Castle. The
+   illustration shows how a castle built on level ground is
+   able to look over a very extended area from its
+   battlements.
+
+  22. Hever Castle, Kent                                           161
+
+   Hever Castle dates from the time of Edward III., and a
+   romantic interest is attached to it in connection with
+   the ill-fated Anne Boleyn, whose family resided there.
+   The Gatehouse, not shown in the illustration, is
+   undoubtedly one of the most effective portions of the
+   building.
+
+  23. Maxstoke Castle, Warwickshire                                163
+
+   This Castle is practically entire, having escaped the
+   destructive hands of the Parliamentarians. It was raised
+   in the early part of the reign of Edward III. and the
+   Gatehouse forms an excellent example of castellation of
+   that period. Strange to say, some of the original
+   domestic apartments are still in a good state of
+   preservation.
+
+  24. Herstmonceaux Castle, Sussex                                 166
+
+   This Castle is one of the later type, and erected in
+   brick. It is contemporary with Tattershall in
+   Lincolnshire, also built of brick, and undoubtedly forms
+   one of the finest examples of the Castellated Mansion to
+   be found in England.
+
+  25. Penshurst Place, Kent                                        168
+
+   The manor-house of the Sydneys first came into existence
+   in the reign of Edward II., and gradually expanded into a
+   happy mixture of the manorial mansion and the Castle. The
+   Hall, seen in the centre of the picture, dates from the
+   middle of the fourteenth century and is one of the
+   earliest parts of the building.
+
+  26. Bothwell Castle, Lanarkshire                                 179
+
+   Bothwell Castle stands in all the majesty of ruin upon
+   the banks of the Clyde, and is without doubt the grandest
+   example in Scotland of the simple enclosure castle of the
+   thirteenth century. A deep and wide moat protects it upon
+   the land side, and its Donjon is also strengthened by its
+   own ditch.
+
+  27. Neidpath Castle, Peeblesshire                                182
+
+   Is a typical Lowland Keep or Peel overlooking the Tweed,
+   and although it probably does not date back earlier than
+   the fourteenth century in its present form, an older
+   structure existed in the time of David I. (1124-1153),
+   who dated charters there. The Castle was held by the
+   Frasers until the fourteenth century, and John, Lord
+   Yester, afterwards the Earl of Tweeddale, defended the
+   place against Cromwell in 1646 but was obliged to
+   surrender.
+
+  28. Edinburgh Castle from the Terrace of Heriot's Hospital       185
+
+   Edinburgh Castle is the centre of the national history of
+   Scotland. It stands upon the ancient Burgh of Edwin, King
+   of Northumbria, and although sadly altered and disfigured
+   in comparatively modern times by the addition of many
+   unpicturesque buildings, it still possesses interesting
+   features of the past, and an imposing aspect when viewed
+   from the city.
+
+  29. Dunnottar Castle, Kincardineshire                            187
+
+   Dunnottar Castle is undoubtedly one of the most majestic
+   ruins of the fourteenth century in Scotland, with a rich
+   store of interesting history casting a halo of romance
+   around the massive pile. The sea surrounds it on three
+   sides, while a deep ravine upon the fourth severs it from
+   the mainland. The tide of war has often ebbed and flowed
+   before its hoary walls. The Keep was built by Sir William
+   Keith in 1392, and in the Great Civil War the regalia of
+   Scotland, which had been sent here for safety, was sent
+   out of the Castle before its surrender to the English.
+
+  30. Tantallon Castle, Haddingtonshire                            190
+
+   Tantallon Castle stands upon a bold spur of rock south of
+   the Firth of Forth. It is a magnificent example of a
+   Quadrangular Castle, surrounded upon three sides by the
+   waters of the North Sea, and defended upon the remaining
+   side by gigantic walls flanked by the Keep, and also a
+   deep ditch.
+
+  31. Stirling Castle, Stirlingshire                               192
+
+   Stirling Castle occupies a precipitous site upon the
+   river Forth and is connected with the history of Scotland
+   from a very early period. Of sieges and battles it has
+   seen its full share, and although modern fortifications
+   and barracks somewhat detract from its appearance, it
+   still possesses a number of medieval structures of great
+   beauty and interest.
+
+  32. Raising the Portcullis                                       196
+
+   The method for raising and lowering the Portcullis of a
+   medieval castle is shown here, the example being taken
+   from the Tower of London. This effective defence could be
+   entirely detached if required and dropped at a critical
+   moment when, perhaps, a few assailants had gained
+   admission, and were in that manner cut off from their
+   comrades.
+
+
+                         LINE DRAWINGS IN THE TEXT
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  1. A Trebuchet                                            Title-page
+
+  2. Comb Moss, Derbyshire                                          11
+
+  3. Maiden Castle, West Entrance                                   16
+
+  4. Maiden Castle, East Entrance                                   17
+
+  5. Stockade of Stone and Rubble, with Palisade of Wood            19
+
+  6. Simple Stockade of Stone and Earth, retained by
+       Wooden Stakes                                                20
+
+  7. Stone Stockade, with Inner Core of Masonry                     20
+
+  8. Wooden Palisade of Tree-Trunks, strengthened with
+       Earth                                                        21
+
+  9. Badbury Rings, Dorset                                          23
+
+  10. The Berm of Cadbury Castle                                    24
+
+  11. Ravensburgh Castle, Hexton, Herts                             26
+
+  12. Mam Tor, Derbyshire                                           28
+
+  13. Hunsbury, Northamptonshire                                    30
+
+  14. Yarnbury, Wilts                                               31
+
+  15. Melandra, Derbyshire                                          35
+
+  16. Section of the City Defences of Verulamium (near
+       St. Albans)                                                  37
+
+  17. Battlemented Parapet shown in Caedmon's Paraphrase            41
+
+  18. Battlements shown in Harl. MS. 603                            41
+
+  19. The Danish Burh at Gannock's Castle, near Tempsford           44
+
+  20. Pevensey Castle                                               46
+
+  21. Clifford's Castle, Northants                                  51
+
+  22. Forebuilding of the Keep, Berkeley                            79
+
+  23. Dover Castle                                                  81
+
+  24. Clun Castle, Salop                                            89
+
+  25. Bamborough Castle                                             95
+
+  26. Plans of the Keep of Hedingham Castle                        100
+
+  27. Ground Plan of Conisborough Keep                             107
+
+  28. Conisborough                                                 108
+
+  29. The Ideal Concentric Castle                                  115
+
+  30. Machicoulis supporting an Alur                               117
+
+  31. Merlon pierced with Oillet                                   124
+
+  32. Caerphilly Castle                                            127
+
+  33. Kidwelly Castle, Carmarthenshire                             129
+
+  34. Chepstow Castle                                              141
+
+  35. Leeds Castle, Kent                                           143
+
+  36. Bartizan                                                     178
+
+  37. Diagram illustrating the Principle of Construction in
+       Classical Engines                                           192
+
+
+
+
+                             BRITISH CASTLES
+
+
+
+
+                                 CHAPTER I
+
+                      NATURAL FORTRESSES STRENGTHENED
+
+
+Man is essentially a pugilistic animal and experiences a keen sense of
+delight in hunting all objects of the chase, ferocious or otherwise, but
+the keenest undoubtedly when upon the track of the grandest of all
+game--man. But at the same time though willing to inflict injury he
+invariably does so at the minimum of risk to himself, deeming the
+preservation of his own life, the greatest of the gifts that Nature has
+bestowed upon him, of the first importance. Thus it is conceivable that
+after the selection of a stone or the fabrication of a club by primitive
+man he naturally proceeded to make a protection for himself to
+counteract the effect of those weapons when wielded by others, and the
+shield would follow as a logical sequence. The shield was to all intents
+and purposes a movable castle, since it afforded him the means of
+causing the greatest amount of annoyance to his enemy, while at the same
+time furnishing the maximum means of protection to himself; a definition
+which is appropriate to the first and latest type of feudal castle. As a
+non-movable protection he would soon recognise the advantages afforded
+by a tree, a rock, a fold in the ground; and the efficacy of these
+natural defences would suggest artificial examples where they were
+non-existent.
+
+Hence the earthwork and the parapet of rock, singly or combined, may be
+regarded as the first of all castellation, with an origin so remote as
+to be practically coeval with man's first appearance upon earth. These
+simple means of defence are found in every country occupied by primitive
+races; in America they are numerous and undoubtedly point to a high
+antiquity, and the same holds good in many parts of Asia and Europe. In
+the British Isles we have a richer collection probably than can be found
+in any other portion of the globe, for in the habitable districts hardly
+a square mile exists without some indication of disturbance of the soil
+due in the majority of cases to some work of a defensive character.
+
+Earthworks are of such a varied nature, with so many differences of
+contrast alike as regards shape, elevation and area, that to the
+ordinary observer any classification seems impossible, and practically
+it is only when descriptions and plans of the whole are aggregated for
+selection that they fall under different headings by presenting
+essential features common to a class. Hence in late years a system of
+differentiation has been evolved, and the allocation of an earthwork to
+a definite class is now possible. To the antiquary this is a source of
+keen satisfaction, and it is hoped that to the ordinary observer it may
+prove one of equal interest.
+
+It should be borne in mind that earthworks of great antiquity are found
+only in those districts and localities where man could delve with his
+primitive appliances, and thus a classification presents itself at once
+in a contradistinction between the Western and Central parts of England
+compared with the Southern and Eastern. It is obvious that no primitive
+race, with their crude appliances, could dig into Cambrian, Silurian, or
+Carboniferous rock in order to entrench themselves, and that in those
+localities the breastwork would necessarily be paramount; and that
+entrenching would only be possible where an accumulation of detritus or
+alluvium existed, that is to say, in the valleys. So that, broadly
+speaking, the parapet prevails in Wales and the Midland counties and the
+ditch in the remaining portions. Those districts, reaching approximately
+from Dorsetshire to Yorkshire and belonging to the Cretaceous formation,
+would therefore roughly divide the country into two portions--the fosse
+prevailing to the east of it, and the breastwork to the west.
+
+Another fact is apparent when dealing with this subject: the earthwork
+is much more durable than any other form of castrametation, in fact it
+is almost indestructible so far as meteoric agencies are concerned,
+whereas the parapet suffers not only from disintegration by the
+weathering influences of rain, frost, wind, and heat, but also from the
+tendency to lose its original shape through having no natural or
+artificial coherence between the separate parts. Thus undoubted examples
+of prehistoric ramparts are comparatively rare when compared with the
+wealth of existent earthworks.
+
+It must be borne in mind that the study of the earthwork is the alphabet
+to that of castellation, and that the evolution of the latter cannot be
+efficiently comprehended without an intelligent appreciation of the
+former. So far as classification of earthworks has been made to the
+present time, the following table represents the general mode of
+procedure, and under one or other of its separate headings the whole of
+the earthworks, so far as our knowledge extends at the time of writing,
+may be allocated.
+
+
+                     CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHWORKS
+
+1. _Natural Fortresses strengthened._ This refers to fortresses partly
+inaccessible by reason of precipices, cliffs, or water, additionally
+defended by artificial banks or walls.
+
+2. _Fortified Hill-Tops strengthened._ This includes fortresses situated
+on hill-tops, with artificial defences adapted to the natural
+configuration of the ground, or to those which are less dependent on the
+natural slopes.
+
+3. _Simple Artificial Enclosures_, including rectangular or other forms,
+and all the fortifications and towns of the Romano-British period.
+
+4. _The Mount and Fosse._
+
+5. _The Mount and Bailey_, consisting of natural or artificial mounds
+with one or more courts attached.
+
+6. _Homestead Moats._
+
+7. _Homestead Moats developed_, referring to enclosures similar to No. 6
+but augmented by supplementary defences.
+
+8. _Protected Village Sites._
+
+
+           _Class I.--Natural Fortresses strengthened._
+
+This division may very readily be subdivided into three parts dealing
+with natural fortresses according to the topographical characteristics
+as follows:
+
+    (_a_) Promontory forts, or cliff castles both upon the coasts
+      and inland.
+
+    (_b_) Those depending upon rivers, woods, marshes, etc. for
+      efficiency.
+
+    (_c_) Plateau forts.
+
+(_a_) _Promontory Forts._--This type of fort is prehistoric as a rule
+and not characterised by an excess of variation. No distinctive
+uniformity can be traced, it is true, but special features may be
+discovered in almost every example of the class. It is only natural that
+primitive man should seize upon any spot which promised the minimum of
+labour to adapt it for his purpose of protection, hence distinguishing
+features may be discerned in almost every case, depending upon the
+presence of a precipice, slope, bog, wood, chasm, marsh, etc. The
+description of a few of these fortresses will sufficiently illustrate
+the point.
+
+_Trevalgue Head_, one mile north-east of New Quay, is practically an
+island, being cut off from the mainland by a chasm through which the
+tide flows, thus presenting a formidable obstacle 20 feet wide in
+places. In order to strengthen this natural obstruction many lines of
+entrenchments have been thrown up, both upon the island and the
+mainland. The presence of quantities of flint chippings sufficiently
+proves that this fort was the residence of Neolithic man, probably the
+descendant of local Palæolithic ancestors.
+
+As the terms "Stone Age," "Bronze Age," "Iron Age" do not convey any
+idea of date to the great majority of people, it may be advisable to
+mention that the Stone Age approximately terminated about 3000 B.C. upon
+the Continent, and 1500 B.C. in the British Isles, when the Bronze Age
+is supposed to have commenced. These dates are of course entirely
+conjectural. The Iron Age commenced in Britain about 400 B.C.
+
+The general idea of a cliff castle may be gathered from the foregoing
+description of Trevalgue; there are many examples to be found in our
+Islands, and similar ones occur in Brittany. That they are of ancient
+British origin is suggested by the fact that they invariably occur in a
+district where cromlechs, stone circles, menhirs, and other Celtic
+remains are to be found.
+
+_Treryn Castle_, about three miles from St. Buryan, contains the famous
+Logan stone. The fort is a gigantic mass of granite, nearly 250 feet in
+height, separated from the mainland by a triple row of formidable
+entrenchments, still 4 or 5 yards in height. This fort is probably the
+finest to be found in Cornwall.
+
+At _St. David's Head_ is a cliff castle called _Clawll y Milwyr_, where
+a small peninsula has been converted into a formidable fortress by the
+erection of a great stone wall about 12 feet in thickness and still some
+15 or more feet in height. The only method of approaching the enclosed
+space is by a narrow entrance at the end of the wall. A fosse is
+associated with the defence in question, and several other subsidiary
+walls and fosses are found. Excavation has proved that the formation of
+the castle occurred in the early Iron Age.
+
+[Illustration: MAIDEN CASTLE, DORSETSHIRE.]
+
+_Old Castle Head_, Manorbier, in Pembrokeshire, may be cited as a good
+example of a cliff castle, and
+
+_Dinas_, four miles from Fishguard, affords another, where a natural
+crevasse has been carefully scarped in order to separate a headland from
+the mainland. The examples given have been taken from South Wales and
+the Cornish peninsula, where for obvious reasons less probability of
+disturbance during later periods has occurred. Ideal spots like Portland
+are to be found in the British Isles, but the operations of man in
+quarrying, building, etc. have probably destroyed all traces of defences
+erected by the primitive inhabitants.
+
+_Clifton Camps_, three in number, lying on either side of the Avon,
+afford us examples of cliff castles remote from the sea. The projecting
+land jutting out into the loops of the winding river has in each case
+been protected by lines of trenches.
+
+It can hardly be supposed that cliff castles generally were continuously
+occupied, because as a rule the area is limited, and could not afford
+sustenance for flocks and herds. Neither do they boast the possession of
+the indispensable well or spring in the majority of cases. Simplicity
+in plan is their chief feature, and generally the fosse defending them
+is single, rarely double, and practically never treble. They probably
+afforded the last resort when hard pressed by the enemy; abandoning
+flocks and herds and thinking only of life and limb, the refugees could
+make a last stand within them, and, if fortune still proved adverse,
+could lower themselves down the steep faces of the cliffs, and trust to
+the mercy of the waters.
+
+(_b_) Another class of fortresses falling under the same heading are
+those which depended upon woods, marshes, rivers, and similar natural
+defences for their efficiency.
+
+The _Dyke Hills_ at Dorchester, in Oxfordshire, undoubtedly formed at
+one time a safe haven of refuge, being almost surrounded by swamps
+forming a most effective defence. At the present time, however, these
+have disappeared owing to the general lowering of the water-level
+throughout England, by drainage, locks, weirs, etc., and they
+consequently give no indication of former efficiency. Two great fosses
+may be traced reaching from the Thame to the Thames, thus cutting off a
+piece of land and entirely defending it by means of water.
+
+The _Isle of Avalon_, near Glastonbury, is essentially a peninsula,
+rising from the midst of a marsh with a series of aggers and
+accompanying dykes carried across the isthmus.
+
+[Illustration: COMB MOSS, DERBYSHIRE.]
+
+(_c_) _Plateau Forts._--_Comb Moss._ One of the finest examples of this
+division is Comb Moss, which is situated near Chapel-en-le-Frith in the
+vicinity of Derby, and at about 1600 feet above the level of the sea.
+Its mission is so obvious that the name of "The Castle" is applied to
+it locally. It is roughly triangular in shape, and upon two sides
+precipitous slopes occur, which descend for nearly 500 feet and offer
+magnificent protection. The third side leads out upon a fairly level
+plateau, and here a double rampart and fosse has been made, completely
+closing the entrance with the exception of a narrow portion at the
+north-east side upon the very edge of the precipice, forming a most
+dangerous entry and consequently could be easily defended by a small
+number. There is an opening in the centre of the ramparts which is
+probably of later date, conjecturally Roman. An ancient plan shows a
+spring in the open space, but it does not appear at the present time. A
+rough wall was constructed round the edges of the precipices to confine
+sheep, but the original fortress was doubtless defended by a thick and
+massive rampart, there being no lack of material for such a protection,
+while the usual timber and stone breastwork would crown it.
+
+
+
+
+                                 CHAPTER II
+
+                             FORTIFIED HILL-TOPS
+
+
+This class of fortress is illustrated by numerous examples in the
+British Isles, many of which possess a very high order of merit. Class
+I. is generally found associated with coast line or rivers with
+precipitous banks; Class II. deals almost entirely with inland
+elevations which, while having some natural advantages in the way of
+steep ground or other defences of an inaccessible character, rely
+chiefly upon the artificial additions which have been made to the
+natural ones. With such a wealth of illustration it is somewhat
+difficult to select examples, but those described may perhaps be typical
+of every variety to be found in the kingdom. These camps of the plateau
+type were the commonest prevailing before the Norman Conquest, and for
+every great fortress like Cissbury, Maiden Castle, Dolebury, or
+Bradbury there were hundreds of smaller examples.
+
+These latter were, as a rule, much more liable to destruction by the
+plough, being slightly constructed and generally at no great elevation
+above the mean level of the land; the farmer, ever in search of good
+rich earth, turned with avidity to the great banks of loose soil placed
+ready to hand, and hence the destruction of small camps has been
+excessive. The great fortresses, with their steep scarps, have defied
+the ploughman, and to this we may ascribe the excellent preservation
+they generally present.
+
+These contour forts are undoubtedly an advance upon the earlier
+promontory type and show an adaptation to the requirements of advancing
+civilisation, pointing to coalescence and centralisation of
+hitherto-divided communities, the protection of a settled area, and the
+guarding of trade-routes. Hence they indicate the presence of larger
+numbers and the possession of greater wealth.
+
+_Hembury Fort, Honiton._--This is by far the most wonderful example of
+the class to be found in Devonshire. It stands at a height of nearly 900
+feet above sea-level and encloses a space of approximately 8 acres in
+extent. Double valla, and their accompanying fosses, surround the whole
+camp, the crest of the inner vallum averaging from 50 to 60 feet above
+the bed of its fosse. To these formidable defences a third vallum has
+been added, surrounding it upon every side except the east where it was
+deemed unnecessary. It is prehistoric and probably British, but up to
+the present time has not been excavated.
+
+_Ham Hill_ in the south-east part of Somersetshire is a high mass of
+rock standing detached from the neighbouring hills. The wonderful
+trenches, too numerous to mention in detail, show a very high order of
+military skill in fortification, and this is the more remarkable when we
+discover that Neolithic man was probably answerable for their
+construction, although the fort has been subsequently occupied by men of
+the Bronze Age, and also by the Romans.
+
+_South Cadbury_ lies five miles north of Sherborne. It is a huge and
+extremely formidable fortress standing at a height of over 500 feet
+above sea-level, and possessing no less than four lines of massive
+ramparts, steeply scarped, some of them even penetrating into the hard
+oolitic rock. There are two entrances into the large space enclosed by
+the ramparts, and in each case protective mounds have been erected
+defending them.
+
+[Illustration: MAIDEN CASTLE, WEST ENTRANCE.]
+
+_Maiden Castle_, about two miles from Dorchester (Dorset), easily holds
+the premier place among the fortified camps of Great Britain, not only
+on account of its vast extent and the cyclopean character of its works,
+but also by reason of the marvellous military ingenuity displayed in its
+construction. Our general conception of the intellectual calibre of
+primitive man forcibly undergoes an alteration when contemplating the
+colossal schemes which his brain was capable of producing and his hand
+had the power of carrying into effect.
+
+[Illustration: PEVENSEY CASTLE, SUSSEX.]
+
+[Illustration: MAIDEN CASTLE, EAST ENTRANCE.]
+
+The area enclosed is no less than 45 acres, while the whole fort
+occupies a space of 115 acres. The circumference of this vast work
+measures one and a half miles, and three enormous valla and fosses
+stretch this distance; in many places the crest of a vallum above the
+fosse beneath it amounts to 60 feet. But perhaps our chief admiration is
+evoked by the complex arrangement, by means of which the two entrances
+into the fort are protected. A glance at the plans illustrating these
+will at once show that fortified mounds and bastions of the most
+complicated forms are placed so as to impede the progress of stormers,
+and there can be no doubt that every means of protection known at the
+time were interposed between them and the besieged.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.
+STOCKADE OF STONE AND RUBBLE, WITH PALISADE OF WOOD.]
+
+And here perhaps we may mention that the defences of an ancient
+earthwork can hardly be judged adequately at the present time without
+imagining the subsidiary structures which once crowned the works. These
+auxiliary aids cannot with certainty be described, because of the
+perishable character which generally signalised them, and the very
+meagre references which occur in the most ancient of our writers. It is
+generally accepted by authorities upon the subject that some stockade or
+other defence was invariably added to the summit of a rampart, and that
+this depended in character upon the nature of the country. In districts
+where stone was abundant, uncemented walls of large blocks were erected,
+generally with battering surfaces, the hollow portion between the two
+faces being filled up with earth or rubble as in Fig. 1. More primitive
+still would be the single wall with a bank of retaining earth behind it
+for support (Fig. 2), while more complicated would be one strengthened
+by a central core of masonry (Fig. 3). Remains of these walls have been
+found in various places still _in situ_. It is quite possible that a
+palisade of sharpened stakes or of wattle surmounted these stone walls,
+thus still further adding to their efficiency. In a "soft" country,
+where only earth or chalk is available, timber would naturally take the
+place of stone. The Gallic defences of this nature, which gave so much
+trouble to Caesar's legions, appear to have been made of tree-trunks
+lying side by side upon the ground with the second course of trunks
+superposed at right angles, the whole of the interstices being filled
+with stones and earth tightly rammed (Fig. 4). It will readily be
+perceived that a rampart constructed of alternate courses similar to
+this, and approximately 10 feet in thickness and of considerable height,
+would be quite impervious to the missile weapons of the period, and
+indestructible by fire, even if the assailants succeeded in filling up
+the deep vallum below the base of the wall with combustible materials.
+Whether this method of the utilisation of timber for barricades was
+ever introduced into the British Isles for strengthening valla we have
+no means of ascertaining, owing to the perishable nature of the defence,
+but considering that the ancient Britons were of undoubted Celtic
+origin, we are perhaps justified in assuming it. On the other hand, a
+row of thick vertical planks driven deeply into the soil and placed
+closely together upon the summit of a rampart would prove a very
+formidable obstacle after surmounting 60 feet of steep escarpment under
+a hail of missiles. The small mounds so often placed as defences near
+the entrances of fortified hill-tops were clearly intended for a ring of
+palisades upon their summits, and isolated bastions similarly placed
+were doubtless treated in the same manner.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.
+SIMPLE STOCKADE OF STONE AND EARTH, RETAINED BY WOODEN STAKES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.
+STONE STOCKADE, WITH INNER CORE OF MASONRY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.
+WOODEN PALISADE OF TREE-TRUNKS, STRENGTHENED WITH EARTH.]
+
+There are no less than five lines of defence upon the south and
+south-east of Maiden Castle, and a feature of the work is the large
+amount of room provided upon the summits of the valla to afford
+accommodation for great bodies of defenders to stand and use their
+weapons.
+
+_Badbury Rings_, four miles N.W. of Wimborne.--This may be classed among
+the greater hill fortresses inasmuch as it encloses a space of 18 acres
+and is furnished with three valla and their accompanying ditches. The
+scarps are in places very steep and 40 feet above the fosses. The
+eastern entrance is reminiscent of Maiden Castle, a bastion-like
+obstruction being thrown forward to obstruct ingress, while the great
+area of standing-room provided for the defenders may be looked upon as
+characteristic of west country forts as it is repeated in a number of
+others--Cadbury Castle, near Tiverton, and Shoulsbury on Exmoor, for
+examples. In the outer area a mound occurs, and ponds also have been
+formed within the fort. Investigations have brought Celtic antiquities
+to light and also proved its occupation by the Romans. It affords a
+magnificent prospect from the summit. In historic times it has been
+utilised, as in A.D. 901 Æthelwald the Ætheling mustered his men there
+after Alfred's death, upon the occasion of a popular rising.
+
+[Illustration: BADBURY RINGS, DORSET.]
+
+_Cadbury Castle._--This is a good example of a contour fort crowning an
+isolated hill 800 feet in height. Upon three sides are formidable
+natural precipices, and the ramparts enclose an oval inner space, which
+is approximately level. The valla are continuous except upon the south,
+where a scarped drop occurs of about 30 feet to the level of a wide
+berm, on the outside of which a gigantic rampart rises to the height of
+more than 20 feet above the berm.
+
+[Illustration: THE BERM OF CADBURY CASTLE.]
+
+_Cissbury_, north of Worthing.--This great fortress was constructed by
+men of the Flint Age, and indubitable proofs of its occupancy by a
+permanent population engaged in a staple trade are afforded by the
+immense remains of flint chippings within its area, the product of many
+generations of flint-knappers. The deep and wide pits within it were dug
+for the purpose of obtaining flints, the raw material of their industry,
+and these excavations were subsequently utilised for dwelling-places.
+The fort is advantageously situated upon the trading route between the
+inhabitants of the Great Forest of Anderida, covering the Weald of
+Sussex, and the maritime population of the southern littoral; and this
+fact appealed not only to Neolithic man but also the men of the
+Bronze and Iron Ages, who occupied it in succession. It is a camp of the
+plateau type with an inner vallum rising nearly 50 feet above the fosse
+and 20 above the inner area. General Pitt Rivers estimated that 5000 men
+would be required to man the ramparts effectually.
+
+[Illustration: THE BEAUCHAMP TOWER, TOWER OF LONDON.]
+
+_Ravensburgh Castle, Hexton, Herts._--The northern escarpment of the
+Chiltern Hills is marked by numerous deep ravines leading down with
+winding courses to the lowlands. This has the effect of leaving bold
+bluffs of chalk standing up between them, and upon one of these this
+remarkably fine hill fortress is placed. In addition to the two ravines
+lying at the sides it is still further isolated by a third running at
+right angles between the others. The castle occupies 16 acres of the
+western half of this plateau, and possesses double ramparts on three
+sides and triple on the north. The section AB shows the steep descent
+into the ravine upon the south side, and DE indicates the same, while
+clearly showing the three lines of defence formed by the two ditches.
+The scarps are remarkable for their clean and smooth surfaces, the chalk
+presenting the appearance of having been cut with a huge knife. The
+entrances into the defence lie at nearly 500 feet above the sea-level.
+
+[Illustration: RAVENSBURGH CASTLE, HEXTON, HERTS.]
+
+One of the most prominent examples of the class is _Mam Tor_, a great
+hill rising to a height of 1700 feet above sea-level, and dominating
+Castleton and Edale, Derbyshire. Upon the summit of this eminence is a
+remarkable earthwork enclosing about 16 acres of land, round which the
+original rampart must have been nearly three-quarters of a mile in
+length. Natural defences of a very marked character are upon two sides
+of the triangular enclosure, consisting of steep slopes which descend
+for a considerable distance. Upon the summit of these slopes two
+formidable ramparts with an accompanying fosse have been constructed,
+thus adding still further to an almost unassailable position. The
+agricultural inhabitants of the district often term it "The Shivering
+Mountain" from the many little avalanches of shale which are dislodged
+from its sides. Upon the northern part the natural defences are not so
+apparent, as the ridge of an adjoining hill approaches at that point. An
+entrance to the Fort occurs there at the present time, as shown in the
+plan, but not in its primitive condition. The only method of entering
+was by means of the narrow passage shown at the S.W., defended by a
+fortified mound at its inner mouth, which in turn was defended by a
+larger mound lying to the N.W. A small spring of water still rises
+within the enclosure and escapes through the N.W. break. The interior
+has not been levelled, and a central spine of rock traverses it from
+north to south. Undoubtedly Mam Tor furnishes us with one of the finest
+examples of a fortified hilltop to be found in England.
+
+[Illustration: MAM TOR, DERBYSHIRE.]
+
+The following are a few instances of artificial defences which, although
+they stand upon higher ground than the surrounding land, are less
+dependent upon their elevated position.
+
+_Ambresbury Banks, Essex._--These banks are situated in Epping Forest,
+at the side of the road between Epping and London. They are of British
+origin, as has been definitely proved by excavations carried out by
+General Pitt Rivers and the Essex Field Club, thus definitely disproving
+the assertion previously prevailing of their supposed Roman origin. The
+outline approaches a square form, and this probably gave rise to the
+supposition. Only a few pieces of crude pottery and some flint chippings
+came to light during the excavations. A feature, however, was disclosed
+in the fosse, the lower part of which was originally of an angular
+section; in it a depth of silt approximating to 7 feet had accumulated.
+The scarp was inclined at an angle of 45°, and the counterscarp probably
+rose at almost the same angle; the width of the fosse was over 20 feet,
+and the depth above half that measurement.
+
+[Illustration: HUNSBURY, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.]
+
+_Hunsbury, Northamptonshire._--This earthwork is about one and a half
+miles from Northampton, and may be cited as an example which falls
+naturally into this subdivision, inasmuch as the hill upon which it
+stands possesses such an easy slope that it does not tend to help to any
+marked extent the formidable defences upon the summit. These lie nearly
+200 feet above the river Nen, and 370 feet above sea-level. It is a
+small enclosure, the single fosse of which is well preserved with the
+exception of a portion upon the north, which has been quarried for
+iron-stone, much in demand in that district. The defences were
+undoubtedly of great power originally, but have been much degraded; the
+interior of the camp has been ploughed, and the earthworks planted with
+trees. The original opening is that lying to the S.E. The name upon the
+Ordnance Survey is "Danes Camp," though upon what authority is not
+apparent. Camps of a very similar nature may be found at Ring Hill in
+Essex, and Badbury in Berks, while Whelpley Hill in Buckinghamshire is
+almost an exact replica.
+
+[Illustration: YARNBURY, WILTS.]
+
+_Yarnbury_ lies about three miles to the west of Winterbourne Stoke in
+Wiltshire and is allocated to this division, being one of the largest
+and best of its kind. The area enclosed is about 20 acres, encircled by
+three valla and two or three ditches. The inner rampart rises at times
+to over 50 feet above the fosse. There are a number of entrances, but
+only those to the east and west are original, each being defended with
+outworks, the eastern gate by bastions similar to those at Maiden Castle
+and Badbury Rings.
+
+[Illustration: CORFE CASTLE, DORSETSHIRE.]
+
+
+
+
+                            CHAPTER III
+
+                   SIMPLE ARTIFICIAL ENCLOSURES
+
+        (_a_) _The Romano-British Period, 54 B.C.-A.D. 410_
+
+
+The earthworks under consideration are those which, rectangular or
+otherwise, were constructed during the historic period commencing with
+the Roman subjugation of Great Britain, and ending a few years before
+the Norman Conquest. It may be termed the Romano-British-Saxon Period.
+It was the incipient era of castellation proper in the British Isles,
+distinct from pure earthworks, inasmuch as during the Roman period
+massive defences of masonry supplanted the earlier uncemented walls and
+wooden palisading.
+
+At the first invasion of Caesar, 55 B.C., we read of no towns being
+assaulted, but in the next, 54 B.C., the great _oppidum_ of
+Cassivelaunus was taken by storm after the passage of the Thames. This
+capital, Verulamium (adjacent to the modern St. Albans), was a large
+oval enclosure defended upon three sides by a deep fosse and vallum, in
+one place doubled, and upon the other by an impassable marsh. The city
+was attacked in two places and captured. In A.D. 43 the final
+subjugation of England took place, and the vallum at Verulamium was
+crowned by the Romans with a massive wall of masonry, great portions of
+which still remain, supplanting the former wooden obstructions.
+
+That which occurred at Verulamium happened also in numerous other
+places, Silchester for example, the Romans thus adapting an efficient
+earthwork to suit their own requirements. Where, however, pre-existing
+works did not occur, the walls, ramparts, and fosses were invariably
+constructed round a rectangular area such as may be seen at Chester. The
+enclosed streets crossed each other at right angles, and this feature is
+a marked one in Verulamium, although, as stated, the defences do not
+conform to the rectangular shape. Isolated earthworks constructed during
+the Roman Period are always more or less square.
+
+[Illustration: MELANDRA, DERBYSHIRE.]
+
+_Melandra_ is a Roman earthwork in a good state of preservation near
+Glossop in Derbyshire. It is almost square, and consists of a simple
+vallum and external fosse. There are four openings caused by two main
+roads which intersected at the centre of the earthwork. It affords an
+example of the prevailing structure of Roman Camps, which are numerous
+in those parts of the British Isles which owned the sway of the
+conquerors. The many camps, for example, upon the Watling Street all
+exhibit the same general plan, based upon the formation of the Roman
+legion.
+
+_Richborough Castle_, near Sandwich in Kent, may be cited as a veritable
+example of a Roman castle built in Britain, and is almost the only one
+remaining at the present day that preserves in any marked degree its
+original salient points. It is conjectured to have been erected in the
+time of the Emperor Severus, its mission being to protect the southern
+mouth of the great waterway which then separated the island of Thanet
+from the mainland, a similar office being performed by Reculvers at the
+northern entry. Three sides of the rectangle are still protected by the
+massive masonry walls which the Romans knew so well how to build; the
+fourth, or eastern side, where flowed the river Stour, possesses no
+visible defence, as it has been undermined and overthrown by the
+river-current. The northern boundary is 440 feet long, and the western
+460. The walls, which vary in height from 12 to 30 feet, are about 12
+feet thick and batter towards the top; they are beautifully faced with
+squared stone in horizontal courses similar to those seen at Segontium,
+the Roman station at Carnarvon; the core is composed of boulders from
+the neighbouring beach, embedded in mortar with courses of the usual
+Roman bonding tiles. In the centre of the area stood a temple and other
+buildings; the foundations of some of these are still in evidence.
+Whether the external walls were strengthened by the addition of square
+or circular towers of masonry, as at Porchester and Silchester, has not
+as yet been definitely determined.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION OF THE CITY DEFENCES OF VERULAMIUM (NEAR ST.
+ALBANS).]
+
+A common device in Roman castrametation was the berm or platform outside
+the surrounding wall, but immediately beneath it; in an attack upon the
+fortifications the assailants would be exposed to a plunging fire of
+missiles from the ramparts while descending the steep counterscarp of
+the ditch, to a raking discharge when ascending the slope of the scarp,
+and be entirely devoid of cover when crossing the berm, which was
+generally about 20 feet wide. Another advantage of the berm was that it
+placed the engines of the besiegers on the remote side of the ditch at
+a greater distance from the walls, and thereby lessened the effect of
+the missiles discharged from them. To still further modify the results
+of the latter upon the wall it was customary to bank up the earth upon
+the inner face to form a ramp, and this also lessened the effects of the
+rams of the besiegers. These features are shown in the foregoing
+diagrammatic section of the walls of Verulamium.
+
+
+            (_b_) _The Saxon Period, c. 410-1066_
+
+Concerning the defensive works erected in the British Isles during the
+Saxon Period there is more indefiniteness prevailing at the time of
+writing than there is with regard to any period antecedent or consequent
+to it. This may be attributed to two causes, the first being the
+unsatisfactory use of the word _burh_ in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, and
+the second the effects produced during the past half-century by writers
+wrongly attributing the remains of early Norman castellation to the
+period preceding it, following upon a misunderstanding of the word above
+mentioned. This has had the result of rendering the major portion of
+the works produced upon the subject of castellation during the latter
+half of the nineteenth century unreliable and obsolete so far as the
+Saxon and Roman periods are concerned, while at the same time producing
+a marked hesitancy among experts to definitely attribute any work to the
+first of the periods without systematic excavation of the site.
+
+In O.E. the word _burh_ in its nominative form signifies a fort or
+stronghold and is generally translated as "borough," while in its dative
+form _byrig_ it is commonly used to indicate what its modern
+representative "bury" conveys. But Anglo-Saxon writers did not use the
+two words strictly, and thus hesitancy and confusion have been produced.
+It is now being generally accepted that the usual form of burh or
+borough was that of a rectangular enclosure surrounded by a rampart and
+an external ditch, the area being of any dimensions up to 20 or 30 acres
+or more. This arrangement is probably exemplified in the earthworks at
+Wallingford.
+
+It is obvious that the inherent weakness in this very elementary system
+of defence lies in the inability to adequately man all the ramparts at
+once because of their great extent; the defenders probably relied upon
+the promptness with which they could meet a threatened attack at any
+particular point. The Anglo-Saxons at a very early period recognised the
+advisability of forming fortified positions in the island, and carried
+out the system so entirely that practically every isolated house, farm,
+or group of buildings was enclosed by its rampart and ditch. Even at the
+present day we become aware of this fact from the scores of "burys" and
+"boroughs" with which the surface of our land abounds. The burh was thus
+a comparatively slight affair when compared with earthworks which had
+preceded it.
+
+But undoubtedly the great centres of defensive strength lay in those
+towns which the Romans had formerly fortified, and the inclusion of
+their masonry walls in the borough boundary immensely augmented their
+efficiency, as is exemplified at York, Lincoln, and Chester. Around
+villages and farmsteads the defences probably consisted of a ditch, a
+vallum surmounted by a turf wall, a palisading of thick stakes, or even
+a hedge. That the latter was a mode of defence in the earlier part of
+the Saxon Period is proved by an insertion in the Old English Chronicle
+under the year 547--where Ida of Northumbria is said to have built
+_Bebban burh_, _i.e._ Bamborough,--that it was first enclosed with a
+hedge, and subsequently with a stone wall. Illuminations in Saxon MSS.
+representing fortified towns invariably depict stone walls with
+battlements; but, again, it may be that these are Roman, and crenellated
+walls are extremely ancient, being represented upon the Nineveh marbles.
+In the illustration from the Caedmon MS. given here true battlements are
+depicted by the Saxon artist, while a similar attempt has also been made
+in Harl. MS. 603--a battlemented parapet being evidently intended.
+
+[Illustration: BATTLEMENTED PARAPET SHOWN IN CAEDMON'S PARAPHRASE; MS.
+IN BODLEIAN LIBRARY.]
+
+[Illustration: BATTLEMENTS SHOWN IN HARL. MS. 603. (An Anglo-Saxon MS.
+of the Psalms.)]
+
+Ida "wrought a burh" at Taunton (before 721), and Alfred built many
+burhs against the Danes. His son, Edward the Elder, and Ethelfleda, the
+Lady of the Mercians, were yet more energetic in raising these defences.
+To Edward the burh at Witham, now unfortunately in process of
+demolition, and also that at Maldon are attributed, while Ethelfleda was
+responsible for those at Stafford and Tamworth in 913, and at Warwick in
+914. In the absence of rebutting evidence we are undoubtedly justified
+in assuming that these burhs were simply replicas of the conjectured
+method of fortification pursued by the Saxons; the belief is
+strengthened by the remains at Maldon and Witham, where wide rectangular
+enclosures are found surrounded by earthen ramparts and external fosses.
+
+A difficulty, however, arises when we consider the two burhs erected at
+Nottingham. No rectangular enclosures have been discovered there, and it
+seems probable that the word simply signifies that two forts were
+erected to protect the bridge which passed over the Trent at this point,
+similar perhaps to the mounds of earth at Bakewell and Towcester, which
+are supposed to date from the same period.
+
+The genius of the Saxons appears to have been adapted to field warfare
+rather than to the construction or maintenance of strong military
+stations, for we find that when defeated they took refuge in natural
+fastnesses rather than in fortresses; the woods and marshes of Somerset,
+for example, protected Alfred from the pursuit by the Danes, and the
+last stand of these people against the Normans occurred in the fens and
+marshes about Ely. There is no account extant of a protracted resistance
+afforded by a Saxon fortress; that of London against the Danes may be
+attributed to the massive Roman walls there.
+
+It is unsatisfactory to be compelled to wander thus in the realms of
+conjecture, but it is probable that the kinds of defence varied in
+different places, since at Worcester Edward surrounded an ancient
+borough with a wall of stone. An oblique light, however, is thrown upon
+the subject by the presence in England of a few undoubted examples of
+fortifications erected at definite dates by another northern race,
+_i.e._ the Danes, who might be expected to fortify themselves somewhat
+similarly to the Saxons.
+
+[Illustration: THE DANISH BURH AT GANNOCK'S CASTLE, NEAR TEMPSFORD.]
+
+These marauders built burhs at Reading, Quatford on the Severn, and
+Benfleet, but by far the best now remaining are those at Willington and
+Tempsford on the river Ouse. At Willington the Danes proposed to
+establish their winter quarters in 921, and an extensive burh was thrown
+up for the purpose. It consisted of a large enclosure with inner and
+outer wards, high ramparts, and three wide ditches filled with water
+from the river. The most striking features, perhaps, were the two large
+harbours within the fortifications, designed to protect the Danish
+galleys. The Saxon king Edward, however, carried the place by assault
+and burnt the fleet. The discomfited Danes, much lessened in numbers,
+retreated up the river, and near the junction of the Ivel with the main
+stream threw up a smaller burh which now bears the name of Gannock's
+Castle, near Tempsford. The fort is an oblong area enclosed within a
+single fosse, and, what is very significant in face of later
+developments, a mound of earth stands within it near a corner, where the
+only entrance to the fort is found. Probably this mound was protected by
+palisades the same as the rampart, but Edward, flushed by his former
+success, stormed the burh and captured it with terrible loss to the
+routed garrison.
+
+[Illustration: PEVENSEY CASTLE.]
+
+_Pevensey._--Pevensey Castle is associated with the earliest history of
+Britain. Upon its site stood the Roman Camp of Anderida, oval in shape,
+and obviously adapted to surface configuration. It is the reputed site
+of the landing of Caesar. The British occupied it when the Romans left,
+and here occurred the great massacre by the South Saxons under Ella in
+477. In 1066 William I. landed at Pevensey and erected one of his
+portable wooden castles, probably within the Roman Camp. The Castle
+came to his half-brother Robert, Earl of Mortaign, who considerably
+strengthened the existing remains. The supposition that he erected a
+Motte and Bailey castle seems to be negatived by recent investigations.
+The Castle was held by Bishop Odo against the forces of Rufus for six
+weeks in 1088, but was surrendered, Odo promising to give up Rochester,
+which promise he subsequently violated. King Stephen besieged it in
+person in the war with the Empress Maud, when it was defended by
+Gilbert, Earl of Clare, and only surrendered through famine. It came to
+the Crown during the thirteenth century, and John of Gaunt appointed the
+Pelham family to be castellans. In 1399, Sir John of that name, an
+adherent of Bolingbroke, was absent when the Castle was besieged by the
+king's forces, but his wife, the Lady Jane, conducted an historical
+defence with such gallantry that the assailants retired. Pevensey
+appears to have been used as a State prison, and within it many notable
+persons have been incarcerated, including Edward Duke of York, James I.
+of Scotland, and Joan of Navarre, second queen of Henry IV.
+
+A large proportion of the Roman wall surrounding the oval site is still
+in excellent preservation; it is strengthened by fifteen drum towers of
+great solidity. The height ranges between 20 and 30 feet, and upon the
+summits may still be perceived some of the strengthening Norman masonry.
+The inner castle is a remarkable feature of the enclosure; it is
+supposed to have been erected at the end of the thirteenth century, and
+one of the towers dates from the time of Edward II. It forms an
+irregular pentagon, each angle being strengthened by a massive drum
+tower; two semicircular towers flank the entrance, of which one only
+remains in good condition. The masonry of the drawbridge is still to be
+seen, and the entrance passage with portcullis grooves and meurtrière
+openings are in good condition. The great Roman wall has been utilised
+to form portions of the eastern and southern sides, but this suffered in
+the time of Elizabeth, when a part of it was blown up by gunpowder.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER IV
+
+          THE MOTTE AND BAILEY CASTLE, _c._ 1066-_c._ 1100
+
+
+As is well known to students of English history the Norman influence
+began to prevail in this country some time anterior to 1066. The court
+of Edward the Confessor owned a fairly large proportion of Normans, the
+sympathies of that monarch being strongly in their favour. They obtained
+from him grants of estates in return for feudal duties, and, the Welsh
+being at that time a source of annoyance, some of the land so allocated
+was situated on the borderland.
+
+[Illustration: THE TOWER OF LONDON.]
+
+So far as is known, the earliest castle to be erected by a Norman in
+that locality was built by Richard Fitz-Scrob, _c._ 1050. _Richard's
+Castle_, as it is termed, stands in the northern part of Herefordshire;
+a second example was thrown up at Hereford, and a third at the southern
+entrance to the Golden Valley. If we may trust contemporary documents
+a similar work was erected about the same time at Clavering Castle in
+Essex by a Saxon native of the county, Swegen the Sheriff, and also,
+probably, the castle at Dover, which appears to have been in existence
+prior to the Battle of Hastings. Of this little group of pre-Conquest
+castles the strongest was conjecturally that at Hereford, erected in
+1055 by Harold, Earl of the West Saxons, consisting of a Motte and
+Bailey similar to the rest, but only a small portion of the bailey
+remains at the present time, as the mound has been removed and the ditch
+filled up.
+
+As regards the construction of a castle of the Motte and Bailey type, it
+was commenced by the excavation of a deep ditch enclosing, as a rule, a
+circular space. There are a few exceptions which approximate to the
+oval, and the oblong form is not unknown. The whole of the ballast
+excavated was thrown up inside the ring until a high mound, flattened at
+the top, and with sides as steep as the "angle of repose" of the
+excavated material would allow, had been formed. The last portions of
+the superincumbent earth thrown up were consolidated by ramming. Around
+the edge of the area upon the summit of the mound a breastwork of
+timber was placed, either of thick vertical planks driven deeply into
+the soil and firmly strengthened behind, or of timber and stone as
+previously described in connection with fortified hill-tops (Chap. II.).
+
+Upon the summit and occupying the centre, as a rule, a wooden castle was
+erected known as the "bretasche," and varying in size and accommodation
+according to the available space. We may safely infer that the height of
+the bretasche was not less than two stories, and this, added to the
+elevation of the mound which occasionally reached to 60 feet, would
+afford a coign of vantage for a view over the whole area below. Upon the
+outer edge of the fosse a vallum occurs in many examples, thus still
+further adding to the depth of the defence and giving increased height
+to the counterscarp; it also afforded a means for erecting a palisading
+of stakes if advisable. To afford ingress and egress to the fort a
+narrow flying bridge of wood was erected reaching from the top of the
+mound to the outer edge of the fosse.
+
+[Illustration: CLIFFORD'S CASTLE, NORTHANTS.]
+
+Such was the method of construction of the simplest form of this type,
+of which Bures Mount in Essex, The Mount, Caerleon, and Clifford's
+Castle, Northamptonshire, are examples; but it is extremely questionable
+even if these cited cases were made without an accompanying bailey,
+although no traces can now be discerned. The accommodation would be so
+extremely limited, and the danger of starvation to the garrison so
+imminent, seeing that no room could be afforded for any cattle or sheep
+upon the motte, that, unless intended to be of a temporary nature or
+hastily raised in an emergency, we are justified in assuming that these
+forts, of which not very many occur, are in an incomplete condition.
+
+_Clifford's Castle_, at Little Houghton, three miles east of
+Northampton, is an example of the Motte and Fosse; it is one of those
+defending the valley of the river Nen--Earl's Barton and Wollaston being
+similar companion defences. The hill is of large circumference,
+presenting imposing proportions, and may be compared with important
+works like those at Ongar and Pleshey in Essex, or with Thetford in
+Norfolk. It rises to a height of over 50 feet above its surroundings,
+and lies upon part of a small natural ridge. A ditch surrounds the base,
+the ballast from which was taken to the top of the hill in order to
+increase the height; the summit there, however, is level. In order to
+increase the efficiency of the fosse it was converted into a moat, water
+being admitted from the adjacent river. At the present time no traces
+whatever of a bailey are discernible, nor of any enclosure with masonry
+walls. This does not prove that these additions have never existed; the
+natural place for them would be upon the eastern side where high ground
+is situated, and if they have been built at any period they would
+present features similar to those at Thurnham in Kent. The summit of the
+mound would in that case be reached by a flying bridge of wood.
+
+The Bailey, or base court, was an enclosed piece of land lying at the
+foot of the motte; a ditch surrounded it, the ballast from which was
+thrown up inside the area so as to make a rampart for palisading. The
+two ends of the ditch joined the fosse encircling the motte, generally
+upon opposite sides of the latter. In the bailey the buildings for the
+garrison, stables, offices and domestic buildings were erected, while
+the bretasche afforded accommodation for the lord of the castle, his
+family, and immediate attendants. In those cases where a second bailey
+occurs it is generally extended beyond the first on the face remote from
+the motte, as at Ongar Castle, Essex; but sometimes, though more rarely,
+both baileys will abut upon the mound, as at Newton in Montgomeryshire,
+while in a limited group of castles, including Windsor and Arundel, the
+motte occupies the centre of the whole defence.
+
+It is not difficult to understand the almost universal rule that the
+mound is placed upon the outer edge of the enceinte; it was without
+doubt the strongest part of the position, and the refuge to which the
+besieged retreated when the bailey, or baileys, had been lost, and in
+the last extremity it afforded a means for escaping to the open country.
+This disposition of the mound with regard to the bailey should be borne
+in mind when dealing with those castles which have been erected in later
+times upon a pre-existing Motte and Bailey fortress, the mound, as a
+rule, with its accompanying enclosures serving as a nucleus around which
+masonry defences could be grouped.
+
+Through the agency of the plough, and aerial forces of degradation of
+various kinds, baileys present but scanty traces at the present day in
+many instances, and this may be taken as proof, if any were needed, that
+earth and wood were the only kinds of material employed during the early
+Norman period in the construction of forts. No traces of stone have been
+discovered which can be assigned to that period with absolute
+certainty, and not only does this well-established fact corroborate the
+assertion, but documentary evidence points in the same direction.
+
+It is quite possible that other Motte and Bailey castles besides the few
+enumerated may eventually be ascribed to the fifteen or twenty years
+preceding the Norman invasion, for there was nothing to prevent a
+wealthy Thegn from erecting one of this type which he may have observed
+on the Continent where many scores were in existence. The Bayeaux
+tapestry shows Dinant as being defended by a Motte and Bailey castle;
+the usual wooden tower is seen upon the top of the mound, and the
+enclosed bailey is stockaded. It also shows the construction of such a
+castle at Hastings, besides four similar examples in Brittany and
+Normandy.
+
+Certain it is that almost immediately after 1066 a rapid construction of
+these fortified posts occurred in many parts of England and Wales, not
+necessarily equally distributed, but more thickly dotted in those places
+which the military instinct of the great Conqueror led him to deem
+desirable. Thus the Welsh borderland is remarkably rich in examples,
+Herefordshire alone containing thirty-two, as compared with
+Leicestershire four, Nottinghamshire five, and Hertfordshire four. It is
+remarkable, however, that many highly developed examples of this class
+are to be found in the eastern counties where no borderland existed, and
+we can only account for this anomaly by supposing that a Norman lord, to
+whom a grant of land had been assigned in recognition of his military
+services, hastened to consolidate his occupancy by the erection of a
+castle, and that such building might possibly not have any reference to
+the defence of the kingdom as a whole.
+
+Thus the castle became the accredited centre of a feudal barony, and a
+Motte and Bailey in almost every case is connected with places mentioned
+in the Domesday Book as being the residence of a Norman landowner. For
+example, Berkhampstead, owned by Robert Count of Mortaign, boasts one of
+the most perfect specimens to be found in the country; the manors of
+Nigel de Albini at Cainhoe in Bedfordshire, Robert de Malet at Eye in
+Suffolk, William Fitz-Ansculf at Dudley in Staffordshire, Geoffrey
+Alselin at Laxton in Nottinghamshire, William de Mohun at Dunster in
+Somersetshire, Robert le Marmion at Tamworth in Staffordshire, Robert
+Todenei at Belvoir in Leicestershire, Henry de Ferrers at Tutbury in
+Staffordshire, Roger de Busli of Tickhill in the West Riding, and Ilbert
+de Lacy at Pontefract in Yorkshire, all exhibit the same feature.
+
+These castles in many cases became the centre around which sprang up the
+dwellings of traders and agriculturists which subsequently developed
+into boroughs, while in not a few instances ecclesiastical settlements
+occurred which finally expanded into stately monasteries.
+
+Again, many barons threw up castles in the centre of, or adjacent to,
+pre-existing towns, the subsequent fortifications of which became an
+integral part of the whole scheme of defence, as at Warwick, Nottingham,
+and Leicester. Wherever a castle was built for the double purpose of
+overawing a town and defending it against a common enemy, it is
+generally found placed upon the city defences or immediately adjacent
+thereto; and as the settlement had invariably originally sprung up in
+the vicinity of, or upon the banks of, a river, the fort is usually
+found placed at the junction where the borough and the river defences
+meet. A fortress situated in this position would be able to afford
+material help to a relieving army, while at the same time in the event
+of the town being captured and given to the flames it would occupy the
+best possible position, short of being entirely outside the walls, for
+the garrison to escape the effects of the conflagration. This position
+of the castle with respect to the town walls and other defences will be
+recognised in the cases of Warwick, Hereford, Stamford, Cambridge,
+Bedford, Chester, Shrewsbury, etc.
+
+[Illustration: KENILWORTH CASTLE, WARWICKSHIRE.]
+
+The Motte and Bailey castle was, as a general rule, placed upon the
+banks of a river, which thus ensured immunity from attack upon one side,
+while at the same time supplying the water for the ditches defending the
+other three sides. In many examples, however, the defence depended upon
+dry ditches. The proximity of high land apparently had no bearing upon
+the choice of position, unless of course it was dangerously near; it was
+only upon the introduction of gunpowder that the presence of commanding
+spots in the neighbourhood became of importance in the selection of a
+site. We find, however, that the positions usually chosen enabled the
+garrison to command a view over the surrounding country, and this
+feature is a prominent one at Richard's Castle, which affords a wide
+extent over the northern part of Herefordshire. This is also the case at
+Belvoir, which occupies a similar position with respect to the great
+plain of Nottinghamshire. There were naturally a number of points which
+had to be taken into consideration in the selection of a site, but those
+enumerated were among the most important; one fact is forcibly borne in
+upon the mind when viewing the positions of these ancient fortresses,
+namely, that the builders had a keen eye for the recognition of salient
+points in the ichnography of a district.
+
+In an invasion of the British Isles at the present day the unwelcome
+intruder would probably hasten to entrench himself and render his
+position safe by pits, earthworks, and an elaborate entanglement of
+barbed wire; and in the same manner as these could be rapidly prepared,
+so we find that the Conqueror, directly after Hastings, threw up the
+defence which would be the most expeditious in the making and the
+cheapest in construction. The Motte and Bailey castle fulfilled both
+conditions inasmuch as it was only necessary to obtain, by fair means
+or otherwise, an adequate number of Saxon labourers to ensure the rapid
+erection of the mound, while simultaneously the local trees were being
+felled and roughly hewn into shape by native carpenters for the
+palisades and bretasche. To give an idea of the speed with which these
+fortresses could be made, we find that in a brief campaign of less than
+two months, in 1068, the king founded eight of considerable importance,
+including those at Nottingham, Warwick, Lincoln, Huntingdon, and York;
+in the following year the erection of a second castle at York only
+occupied eight days, and Baile Hill, the mount of the defence in
+question, sufficiently testifies to the magnitude of the work. One great
+advantage of the system should not be forgotten, namely, the possibility
+of adequate defence by a small garrison because of the narrow front
+exposed to an attack, and the immunity from harm of the besieged while
+the defences stood intact.
+
+_Windsor._--The Royal Castle of Windsor originated in one of the Motte
+and Bailey type erected by the Conqueror upon the striking eminence near
+the Thames. It was one of those that were hastily thrown up in order to
+consolidate his power, as it is mentioned as early as 1070, and in
+Domesday Book in 1086. It is one of a small and exclusive type by reason
+of the dominating motte occupying the centre of the enclosure instead of
+the usual position at the side or end; this peculiarity is shared by
+Arundel, Nottingham, and one or two others. It is quite reasonable to
+infer, however, that one, or even both, of the baileys were added at
+some time subsequent to the throwing up of the mound. It was
+sufficiently advanced in strength in 1095 to be the prison of de
+Mowbray, Earl of Northumberland, and the extensive additions made by
+Henry I. enabled the Court to be held there in 1110. John seized on
+Windsor during the absence of his brother, but was besieged in it by the
+loyal barons, and forced to surrender. Windsor has been stated as the
+place of imprisonment of the de Braose family in 1210, who were
+deliberately starved to death by the inhuman John. In the reign of Henry
+III. very extensive building operations occurred, and a number of
+towers, including the Barbican, were added, but probably Edward III.
+left a greater mark upon the castle than any monarch preceding him,
+possibly by reason of a natural affection for his birthplace.
+
+Upon the great motte which his Norman ancestors had reared he built that
+magnificent Shell Keep which forms such a fitting centre for the grand
+range of buildings encircling it. The works commenced about 1348 and
+lasted for twenty years, the celebrated William of Wykeham, subsequently
+Bishop of Winchester, being the architect. They included the whole of
+the walls of the enceinte, the great Hall, various lodgings for
+officials, and St. George's Chapel.
+
+In 1347 two notable prisoners were confined here, David Bruce and John,
+king of France. In the reign of Richard II. St. George's Chapel was
+found to be in an insecure condition, and Geoffrey Chaucer was appointed
+Clerk of the Works. Windsor was the scene of the imprisonment of the
+Scottish king James I. under Henry IV. and V.
+
+Edward IV. commenced the re-building of St. George's Chapel, which was
+not completed until the reign of Henry VIII., while to the latter
+monarch is due the great gateway which bears his name. The Castle
+suffered but little structurally during the Civil War, but all the plate
+and many of the priceless relics were the objects of plunder. Charles
+II., William III., and Anne probably did more to destroy this gorgeous
+monument of antiquity than any preceding monarchs; with the idea of
+adapting it to modern requirements buildings were dismantled, old
+landmarks were removed, and trashy innovations of an unworthy age
+substituted in their place. There are but few marks of commendation
+attached to the name of George IV., but among them the restoration of
+the Castle upon the ancient lines, when £700,000 were expended, must be
+placed to his credit. In spite of the vandalism of recent centuries
+there still remain many interesting examples of medieval masonry.
+
+
+
+
+                                 CHAPTER V
+
+                    THE SHELL KEEP, _c._ 1100-1200
+
+
+The Shell Keep represents the second development of the Norman Castle,
+and consists of a circular or polygonal ring of stone walling erected
+upon the motte in the position formerly occupied by the wooden
+palisading. The substitution of masonry for perishable material was a
+natural and logical sequence, but in the hurried rush of events
+immediately following upon the Conquest there was no time for erecting
+such a defence. A hastily thrown-up mound also would not bear the
+weight, and it was necessary to allow the earth to consolidate before
+imposing it. As the country became more settled, and economic and other
+upheavals less frequent, the Norman barons found time and means to
+devote to the strengthening of their feudal homes.
+
+Of the precise date of the first Shell Keep erected in these islands we
+have no definite record; it is very doubtful if any saw the light during
+the reign of William the Conqueror or Rufus, although many examples
+could be found at that time upon the Continent. We know that certain
+Castles, such as Carisbrooke, Lincoln, and Totnes, had developed Shell
+Keeps prior to the termination of the reign of Stephen, and that
+Windsor, Berkeley, Arundel, and a number of others were furnished with
+the same not very long after, so that the age of the Shell Keep may
+roughly be ascribed to the twelfth century. One must not infer, however,
+that every example of a Shell Keep dates inexorably from that age,
+because, having proved its efficiency, it became a recognised method of
+defence, and Lewes and Durham were endowed with Shells as late as the
+reign of Edward III.
+
+The Shell Keep is always placed upon a mound, either natural, structural
+at the time of erection, or a pre-existing motte, but by far the greater
+number of mounds are artificial. The configuration of the earthwork
+suggested the shape of the Shell, being either circular, oval, or, as in
+the case of York and probably Warwick, that of a quatrefoil. The
+majority are polygonal, the sides not necessarily of equal length, and
+few of them exceeding the duodecagon in number. The diameter varied from
+100 feet to 30, seldom more or less; the thickness of the wall was from
+10 feet to 12 feet, and the foundations were carried from 4 feet to 6
+feet into the soil. This wall was not built upon the extreme edge of the
+plateau, but generally a few feet from it and carried upwards to a
+height of between 20 feet and 30 feet, steps of wood or stone upon the
+interior face giving access to the rampart.
+
+Being essentially in one compact mass, without vertical breaks of any
+great extent, and homogeneous in construction, the Shell Keep was
+specially adapted to crown the summit of an artificial mound. The
+interior area was occupied by buildings, generally abutting upon the
+Keep walls; in early examples these were constructed of wood, but
+subsequently almost entirely of stone to lessen the danger of
+conflagration.
+
+The substitution of masonry for palisading upon the mound suggested a
+similar course for the defence of the bailey, and the twelfth century
+witnessed the erection of many of those gigantic walls surrounding them
+which excite our admiration at the present day by their massiveness and
+strength. They followed the scarp of the original mounds, and in many
+examples the water of the external fosse lapped their bases. The
+addition of a barbican or ravelin to defend the chief entrance to the
+castle, which invariably opened into the bailey, was now adopted, while
+the former wooden ladders or bridges giving from the motte to the bailey
+were superseded by causeways of stone, defended on either side by a
+continuation of the bailey enceinte up the slope of the mound. Stone
+steps instead of wood led from the inner surface of the curtain walls to
+the ramparts above; stone buildings were erected for the domestic
+offices, barracks, etc., while the wooden planks and ladders by which
+the moats had formerly been crossed gave place to masonry arches.
+
+These improvements in the majority of examples did not occur at the same
+time, hence the presence of a twelfth-century Shell Keep is no guarantee
+that the curtain walls are of the same age. The introduction of flanking
+towers, generally semicircular, into the curtain wall, and of
+rectangular towers, astride it, as a rule, occurred in this century.
+There are examples in our island, however, which prove that only partial
+adoption of these improvements took place in many castles, and that, for
+example, the baron and his family were quite content to dwell within the
+wooden bretasche upon the motte, at the same time strengthening the
+weaker bailey defences by the erection of a substantial curtain wall.
+
+_Alnwick._--The magnificent Castle of Alnwick is an excellent example of
+a Shell Keep fortress; it stands upon elevated ground on the south bank
+of the Aln river and about 5 miles from the sea. At the Conquest the
+site, which probably had an earlier defence upon it, was granted to Ivo
+de Vescy, whose daughter married Eustace Fitz-John. The constant inroads
+of the Scots necessitated a stronger fortress at this point, and, about
+1140, Fitz-John began the building of which some splendid remains are
+still visible, chiefly in the innermost gateway and the outer curtain
+wall. His son, who took his mother's name of de Vescy, placed the Castle
+in the custody of the Empress Maud's uncle, King David of Scotland. In
+1174, William the Lion invaded England and besieged the Castle, but a
+coalition of the northern barons captured the king and took him to
+Richmond, thus raising the siege. The de Vescy family died out in 1297,
+and after a temporary occupation by Anthony Bek, Bishop of Durham, was
+purchased by Sir Henry de Percy, a name which is associated with
+everything that is brave, chivalrous, and martial in the county of
+Northumberland. The Percy who fought through the wars of Edward III. and
+was present at Halidon Hill and Neville's Cross was considered as second
+only to the king in importance, while the marriage of his son to Mary
+Plantagenet, daughter of Henry, Earl of Lancaster, proved that it was
+worthy of alliance with the blood-royal.
+
+In 1405 Alnwick was besieged, and yielded to Henry IV., following upon
+the battle of Shrewsbury and the defection and death of Hotspur; Henry
+V., however, restored the heir to his possessions, and created him Earl
+of Northumberland. He was killed at the first Battle of St. Albans,
+1455, while his son fell at Towton in 1461. The Castle saw much fighting
+in the latter part of the fifteenth century. The long line of the
+Percies came to an end in 1670; it was probably the most historic of
+our great English families, and eight bearers of the title met with
+violent deaths, chiefly on the battlefield. The daughter of the last
+Earl married Charles Seymour, Duke of Somerset, and their daughter
+married Sir William Wyndham, thus conveying to him the estates of
+Petworth, Egremont, and Leconfield. In the next century a Duke of
+Somerset left a daughter who inherited Alnwick and married Sir Hugh
+Smithson, who was created Earl Percy and became the ancestor of the
+present owner.
+
+The Castle is cut off from the town of Alnwick by a deep combe, which
+has been much scarped; it is a matter for doubt whether the battlemented
+walls of the town were ever joined to those of the Castle, the same as
+at Conway and elsewhere. The Shell Keep was erected in 1140, but is so
+surrounded by subsidiary towers as to almost lose the characteristic. It
+lies in the centre of the great enclosure, and dual defences run east
+and west to the enceinte, thus making two wards, or baileys. The knoll
+upon which the Shell rests may either be a natural feature or the
+artificial motte of a previous castle. The great gateway and the
+barbican present excellent examples of military architecture of the
+fourteenth century. In the middle of the eighteenth century repairs and
+restorations took place in the execrable taste then prevalent, some of
+which remain to the present time to mar the aspect of an otherwise
+superb relic of the past.
+
+_Arundel._--The Manor of Arundel is one of the most ancient in the
+kingdom, being specifically mentioned in the time of Alfred the Great,
+while, respecting the Castle standing there, it is unique in being the
+only one mentioned in Domesday as being in existence before the
+accession of William I. That king granted it to the great Montgomery
+family, who were succeeded in its possession by King Henry I., through
+the rebellion of Robert de Belesme. It afterwards passed in succession
+through the families of D'Albini, Fitz-Alan, and Howard for seven
+centuries to its present owner, the Duke of Norfolk.
+
+Many important events have linked this great military structure
+indissolubly to the history of England. Here the Empress Maud was
+received with her brother, the Earl of Gloucester, in 1139, which
+precipitated an attack by King Stephen, but the most famous event
+connected with it was the siege of 1643, when Sir William Waller, first
+overcoming the defences of the Town, placed his guns on the top of the
+Church Tower and proceeded to batter the Castle. It capitulated after
+seventeen days' siege, and the domestic buildings were levelled to the
+ground.
+
+The Castle is constructed upon the end of a ridge of Chalk extending
+from the South Downs, with a natural escarpment upon the east and south.
+It is an excellent example of masonry superseding earthwork defences
+without obliterating their original lines. The position is such as to
+suggest a prehistoric camp of the promontory type. The chief original
+defence was the great moated mount, which is over 200 feet in diameter;
+on the south side the height from the summit to the bottom of the ditch
+is 70 feet, being altogether but a little smaller than Windsor. Like the
+latter it possesses two baileys, occupying over 5 acres in extent, and
+together forming an oblong enclosure. The mount stands near the centre
+of the western side upon the enceinte, the ditch forming part of the
+outer ditch of the Castle in one place. This outer fosse has been much
+strengthened by artificial means, but is in many places natural.
+
+[Illustration: ARUNDEL CASTLE, SUSSEX.]
+
+Upon the motte a Shell Keep was erected in the late Norman Period; it
+is about 20 feet high, with walls nearly 10 feet thick, and is almost 70
+feet in diameter. The walls are faced with Caen stone covering a core of
+Sussex stone and Chalk. The barbican, called the Bevis Tower, and a
+portion of the great gatehouse, were built in 1295 by Richard Fitz-Alan,
+who also erected four towers at equal distances round the enceinte.
+After the last siege the place remained a heap of ruins for many years,
+but about 1786 the tenth Duke of Norfolk began to rebuild it, and
+expended vast sums upon the fabric. The result was the practical
+re-erection of the present magnificent structure, a typical example of
+the stately homes of England, and an appropriate dwelling-place for our
+premier Duke, who has in comparatively recent years erected a sumptuous
+Cathedral as a fitting companion to the ancient baronial Castle.
+
+_Carisbrooke._--Carisbrooke stands upon a site which was undoubtedly a
+fortress occupied by the Jutes, who conquered the island; William
+Fitz-Osborne, Earl of Hereford, obtained possession from the Conqueror
+and reared a motte and bailey castle there. His son, who was imprisoned
+for life, forfeited the estates, which came into possession of Richard
+de Redvers, whose heir became Earl of Devon. Piers Gaveston held the
+Castle in the fourteenth century, and also the Earl of Rutland, son of
+Edmund of Langley; it was in the occupation of a number of persons
+subsequently but fell to the Crown in the fifteenth century. It is
+intimately associated with the unfortunate Charles I., who made three
+distinct attempts to escape from its confinement.
+
+The mound of the Norman Castle was enclosed by a Shell Keep by Richard
+de Redvers; it is an irregular polygon of eleven faces and sixty feet in
+diameter, the walls being of enormous strength and thickness. Entrance
+is gained by a long flight of steps leading to a passage defended by a
+portcullis and double gates. The Keep encloses one of the two Castle
+wells.
+
+Very extensive additions were made by Anthony, Lord Scales, who was Lord
+of the Castle in 1474. The majestic gateway dates from his time; it is a
+fine and impressive entrance, flanked by two lofty cylindrical towers
+with a good example of machicolation between the towers, added late in
+the fifteenth century. The ruins of the apartments occupied by the
+royal prisoner lie to the north of the enclosure. In the reign of Queen
+Elizabeth an elaborate system of fortification was carried out by an
+Italian engineer, in view of the advent of the Spanish Armada, but was
+never put to use. After the Restoration many regrettable alterations and
+additions were made by Lord Cutts, with a view to modernising it, but
+some of these have been modified recently by the Crown. The
+picturesqueness of the ruins and their surroundings are an acknowledged
+feature of the island, and few visit the latter without seeing this
+venerable relic of the past.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER VI
+
+                  THE RECTANGULAR KEEP, _c._ 1100-1200
+
+
+We have seen that the Shell Keep was a logical sequence in the
+development of a castle which had been originally erected upon the Motte
+and Bailey plan, and the question will naturally suggest itself as to
+the nature of Castles which the Normans built in the twelfth century
+upon a site not previously occupied. This was the Rectangular Keep with
+its fortified enclosure, answering approximately to the Shell Keep and
+the bailey.
+
+Rectangular Keeps had been prominent in French fortifications for at
+least thirty years before the Norman Conquest, but the introduction of
+the defence into England was slow and protracted. Only two examples are
+extant which preceded the death of William I., namely, the White Tower
+of London, and the Keep at Colchester. This type of castle has come to
+be associated with the Normans, to the practical exclusion of the much
+greater number of Motte and Bailey and Shell Keep fortalices which are
+equally connected with their occupation; probably the dignified
+appearance of the massive Keep, with its impressive adjuncts and
+surroundings, are responsible for the popular belief.
+
+The Keep itself was essentially a new feature in the art of
+fortification, a medieval method of resisting the special form of attack
+prevailing at that period. The enclosure was directly derived from the
+rectangular _castra_ of Roman times, descended through the Anglo-Saxon
+burh and the Norman bailey. Probably of all the military structures
+which the world has seen, the Rectangular Keep is the grandest in
+impressive appearance and dimensions, combined as it is with simplicity
+of outline; it is also the most durable in workmanship by its adamantine
+strength and structural proportions. The walls are generally from 8 to
+14 feet thick, and, at the base, sometimes even 20 feet, while a few
+still standing are reputed to have the ground floor solid. The enormous
+thickness of walls in medieval buildings must not always be taken as an
+indication of strength; in a large number of cases they consist of two
+walls at some distance apart, with the intermediate space filled in with
+rubble and a certain amount of mortar, generally inferior in quality, so
+that at times when the outer casing is pierced, the interior core pours
+out through the opening like grain from a sack. They afforded, however,
+facilities for the construction of passages in the wall itself, and also
+for small chambers, while the exterior portion of the wall was
+invariably strengthened by flat pilaster buttresses. The entrances to
+these Keeps were usually on the first floor, access being gained by
+means of a ladder or wooden gangway, the doorway being of small
+dimensions. A series of narrow vertical slits in the walls, splayed out
+into embrasures inside, served the purpose of windows, and also as
+oillets or arbalesteria, for the discharge of arrows and bolts.
+
+Later examples of the Keep are furnished with forebuildings adapted to
+protect the vulnerable portion, the entrance. These forebuildings were
+especially designed to present unusual difficulties of penetration;
+drawbridges, meurtriers, oubliettes, and other devices being opposed to
+intruders, while passages leading to every spot except those desired
+were constructed in the walls to mislead and divert attacks from
+inrushing assailants. One of the best examples is that at
+Newcastle-upon-Tyne, built _c._ 1172; it has two towers and contains a
+chapel, the entrance to the Keep itself being from the roof which forms
+an open platform.
+
+[Illustration: FOREBUILDING OF THE KEEP, BERKELEY.]
+
+But by far the best example of a forebuilding is to be found at Dover,
+standing against the eastern face of the great Keep. It is so designed
+that three separate protections are afforded to the stairway leading
+into the Keep, the base, centre, and landing stage having each a
+separate tower for its defence. The entrance upon the first floor is
+barred by a door of formidable thickness and great strength; upon the
+first floor occurs the Chapel, and a view into it is obtained from the
+stairway, while a small chapel or oratory is placed overhead upon the
+second floor. A well, now disused, formerly had its opening in the
+third floor. The actual entrance to the Keep occurs upon the second
+floor, although an ancient one, now blocked up, opened to it from the
+first floor.
+
+_Dover Castle_, from its commanding position at the narrowest part of
+the English Channel, has for many centuries occupied one of the most
+prominent positions among the fortresses of England. It stands upon a
+chalk knoll to the east of the town, and by nature and art is
+practically severed from the adjacent land, whether high or low. From
+traces, which are now almost entirely obliterated, it is concluded that
+a Celtic defence primarily existed upon the summit; this was followed
+after A.D. 42 by a Roman station, the chief remains of which are to-day
+embodied in the well-known Pharos, a companion probably to that erected
+in A.D. 40 by Caligula upon the Gallic shore. Traces of the Roman
+occupation, apart from the lighthouse, are very scanty, and are
+overshadowed by the Saxon work, although it is open to doubt whether the
+development of the latter was carried out to any elaborate extent.
+
+[Illustration: DOVER CASTLE, KENT.]
+
+It is with the Norman period that the history proper of the Castle
+commences. It surrendered without opposition to the Conqueror, who
+added to the defences, and it was able to resist a sharp attack upon it
+in 1074 when the men of Kent rose against William. Shortly after this
+the town was surrounded by walls.
+
+[Illustration: DOVER CASTLE.]
+
+Although Dover was rightly considered as the key of England, the
+fortress is not connected with many of the great events which have gone
+to make the history of England. It has always been in the possession of
+the Crown and governed by a Constable. Hubert de Burgh defended it
+against the Dauphin in the time of King John, and, although Louis built
+many trebuchets and imported minor petraries from France, these,
+combined with beffrois, sows, and rams, failed to shake his determined
+defence. Dover appears to have played but little part in subsequent
+history, probably through its falling into ruin by neglect during the
+"Wars of the Roses" and of the great Rebellion.
+
+The Keep is a fine example, dating from 1182, and essentially Norman; it
+is nearly 100 feet square, and rises to a height of 95 feet. It presents
+a commanding feature from the sea as the summit is nearly 500 feet above
+high water. The usual Norman pilaster buttresses are apparent at the
+angles and in the centres of three of the faces. The Keep walls are of
+most unusual thickness, in parts exceeding 20 feet, but these are
+honeycombed by a number of small chambers and passages. Only loopholes
+admit light to the lower stage, the more important rooms being upon the
+second floor. The Keep is provided with two wells, not contained, as
+usual, in the great transverse wall which divides the building into two
+distinct portions, but in the thickness of the eastern wall.
+
+Subsequent defences have taken the form of massive curtains defending
+the enceinte, which encloses an area of 35 acres, a special feature
+being the large number of towers, round-fronted or square, which are
+liberally scattered along it. The general shape now developed may claim
+to be that of the Concentric Fortress, although it is classified among
+the Rectangular Keeps. Its adaptation to up-to-date requirements has in
+many cases led to the obliteration of many ancient features formerly
+distinguishing it; these, although undoubtedly justifiable, are to be
+regretted from the antiquarian point of view.
+
+In order to convey an idea of the internal economy of a Keep and the
+disposition of the various apartments the diagram appearing on p. 100
+may be of use. It shows the five successive floors of Hedingham Keep,
+Essex, which dates from about 1140. Upon the ground floor plan the great
+thickness of the walls, about 12 feet, is plainly apparent with the
+narrow embrasures giving light. At the base the walls batter slightly
+for a few feet, not shown on plan. The well-stair commences in the
+basement and extends to all the floors. The first floor or entrance
+story has a small round-headed doorway, the arch of which is ornamented
+with zigzag moulding; steps now lead up the face of the wall to it, but
+formerly it opened from a forebuilding of which traces still remain.
+Here the honeycombing of the walls commences which is so marked a
+feature in Keeps. The embrasures have very narrow openings externally
+but wider than on the ground floor. The central dividing wall here is
+pierced by an arch and hence shown dotted in plan. On the second floor
+is the great Hall of Audience; across the centre is built a remarkably
+fine arch carried upon Norman shafts with scollop capitals and moulded
+bases. The fireplace and also the window openings have zigzag mouldings
+around the circular heads. The upper part of this room has a gallery
+running round it shown as the third floor plan; the windows are doubled
+by a dividing pier and openings admit of a view into the Audience
+Chamber. Above is the fourth floor low in height, with zigzag moulding
+round the external window heads. Over this story is the flat roof and
+the turrets at the corners, two of which still remain. The floors and
+the roof were all supported upon wooden beams.
+
+Hedingham Castle was the residence of the de Vere family for about six
+centuries. King John besieged and captured it in 1216, but it underwent
+no subsequent siege. The outer fortifications were demolished in the
+reign of Elizabeth and only the Keep remains at the present time.
+
+The ramparts upon the summit of a Rectangular Keep were carried upon the
+walls themselves, the latter, as a rule, being sufficiently thick for
+the purpose without corbelling outwards. The parapet was either
+continuous or embattled. A roof, at times covered with lead, was carried
+over the central opening, and the uppermost floors were invariably borne
+upon massive wooden joists. The lowest floor was generally free from
+timber, being constructed of masonry carried upon the arches of a crypt,
+but in those cases where the whole structure was borne upon a solid
+foundation of masonry spread upon the entire area of the site, this
+might be dispensed with. Some existing crypts are not coeval with the
+building, but were added at a later date, that at Richmond, for example,
+dates from the Decorated period. As a general rule the Keep contained a
+well which was sunk through the foundations and carried upwards in the
+central dividing wall to the various floors, but examples occur where it
+is placed in the enclosure. Most Keeps were furnished with an oratory or
+private chapel, one of the most famous being that in the Tower of
+London, while those at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Colchester, and Guildford
+are well known. In the later type of Keep this feature is absent, the
+tendency being to erect all buildings used during times of peace within
+the enclosure.
+
+The reduction of such a Keep as we have outlined was almost impossible
+in the Medieval age except by famine; the outer minor defences, however,
+were not proof against the missiles of the trebuchet, onager, and other
+petraries, and would invariably succumb. But with regard to the massive
+structure of the Keep, the largest stones could be hurled with but small
+results; and the few narrow openings in its walls presented but meagre
+opportunities for a successful admission of the falarica, quarrel, or
+arrow. To carry it by direct assault would be at all times a forlorn
+hope.
+
+We thus see that the Rectangular Keep was essentially a structure for
+passive defence; and during the time that provisions lasted it was
+practically impregnable. Built upon the living rock, as they generally
+were, it was an impossibility to mine them; even if attempted, mine
+could be met with counter-mine, and the ram and sow might in vain essay
+to make any impression upon such solid masonry. At the same time the
+garrison was to a certain extent incapable of inflicting much damage
+upon the besiegers except in case of assault; the steep shingle roof
+afforded no place for a military engine, and but scanty facilities for
+storage of rocks, stones, beams, and other weighty missiles for dropping
+upon assailants. The narrow entrance into the Keep prevented an
+effective sortie, and, if attempted, was a source of danger in retreat.
+During the three months spent by King John, in 1215, before the Keep at
+Rochester, his military engines produced practically no result upon it,
+but an effective mine succeeded in bringing down the masonry of one of
+the lower angles, and eventually part of the tower itself.
+
+The great advantages perceivable in a solid Keep were so apparent that
+the addition of this feature to many castles of the Motte and Bailey
+pattern was deemed advisable, but only in a few places did the Keep
+stand upon the mound; Nottingham is an exception, but in nearly all
+other examples they occupied new sites, the tremendous weight of the
+structure rendering it inadvisable to trust it in that position. The
+superiority of the Keep over the Motte and Bailey Castle was well
+exemplified in 1102, when Robert of Bellesme, Earl of Shrewsbury, broke
+into rebellion against King Henry I. He possessed a fortress of the
+Motte and Bailey type at Quatford on the Severn, but this "Devil of
+Bellesme," as he was termed, had no confidence in his father's fortress,
+and transferred the stones higher up the river where, in the short
+period of twelve months, he built the imposing Keep whose massive
+remains, although sadly shattered at the time of the Commonwealth, still
+excite our admiration. It is erected upon a rocky site, protected by
+ravines upon three sides, and overhanging the river Severn upon the
+fourth. When besieged by the King it withstood all the efforts of the
+formidable petraries brought to bear upon it, and appears to have been
+practically uninjured when, at the expiration of a month, a portion of
+the garrison became disaffected by reason of the threatening nature of
+the royal messages, and managed to secure its surrender.
+
+[Illustration: ROCHESTER CASTLE, KENT.]
+
+When a Keep was added to a castle of the Motte and Bailey type there
+does not appear to have been any regular rule as to its position. At
+Guildford it was erected upon the motte (though a little way down the
+slope), and also at Nottingham, Pickering, and York; at Clun in
+Shropshire the Keep was built partly on the motte, occupying the eastern
+slope, the mound apparently bearing a defence of the Shell Keep pattern
+at the same time. Gloucester Castle has been entirely destroyed in
+order to make room for a modern prison, but from existing records we
+learn that the Keep was an addition, occupying the centre of the former
+bailey, while the building at Newcastle also stood distinct from the
+mound. The Keep at Oxford stands upon the enceinte at some distance from
+the Shell Keep, while at Rochester and Canterbury the new additions were
+erected outside the original castle.
+
+[Illustration: CLUN CASTLE, SALOP.]
+
+In the reign of the Conqueror and his immediate descendants, the rapid
+building of castles for overawing the defeated Saxons was a matter of
+Crown policy, but with the settlement of the Kingdom, and the rise into
+power of Norman nobles waxing rich and powerful upon their estates,
+restrictions became imperative if the royal prerogatives were not to be
+set at nought. Consequently, special licences to build and crenellate
+had to be obtained before erecting, or adding to the existing defences
+of, a castle, and the rigorous insistence upon this law was readily
+recognised and maintained by all strong rulers of the kingdom. When,
+however, a weak monarch came to the throne, or internal dissensions
+occurred, the Norman barons invariably seized the opportunity thus
+afforded, and a large increase of these fortalices sprang into
+existence. The most remarkable example was during the eighteen years of
+strife wherein King Stephen was struggling for his crown with the forces
+of Queen Maud. In order to propitiate the nobles and secure their
+services, the King gave licences with a reckless indifference to
+consequences, and many scores of castles were erected under these
+permissions, but a still greater number with no licence at all. These
+latter became known as "adulterine" or spurious castles; the total
+number built during this period of anarchy is said to have been more
+than one thousand, but more modern computation places the number at
+about seven hundred. Stephen, when too late, perceived the mischief
+attending the multiplication of these citadels, and attempted to reduce
+the evil by destroying those belonging to the clergy. The essay proved
+to be a mistake, and during the disorder that ensued, the land became a
+prey to anarchy of the most violent kind, each baron or leader of
+mercenaries doing that which was right in his own eyes, and retreating
+to the safe precincts of his castle when in difficulties.
+
+Of the nature of these unlicensed strongholds there is considerable
+doubt, but a great probability exists that they were of very rapid
+construction and, therefore, not of the Rectangular Keep type, but of
+the Motte and Bailey, or of the Shell Keep pattern. That a large amount
+of time had been spent in their erection seems to be negatived by the
+fact that upon the accession of Henry II. the great majority of
+"adulterine" castles were destroyed in the course of a few months. This
+would have been impossible if solid masonry erections were in question,
+but hastily improvised defences built by forced, and therefore,
+probably, unskilled labour, would not present great difficulties. In all
+likelihood a great number of the earthworks which occur in England, and
+have not been assigned to any particular date, may owe their origin to
+this disturbed period, especially those of the Motte and Bailey type.
+Upon the whole, we can hardly look upon the reign of King Stephen as a
+period distinguished by an advance in the art of castle-building, but
+rather as one of temporary retrogression to elementary types.
+
+With the advent of the second half of the twelfth century the Castle
+began to show in many details the influence of the Early English style
+of architecture, though ornamentation is singularly rare in early
+castellation compared with the lavish wealth bestowed at the same time
+upon ecclesiastical buildings. The Norman style was still adhered to in
+the main outlines, but the external pilasters developed to such an
+extent that they became buttresses, as at Clun and Dover, the masonry
+workmanship improved, local stone came more into use, and internal
+decorations, such as ribs to the vaulting, began to be introduced. It is
+not uncommon to find the dog-tooth ornament employed in conjunction
+with contemporary work in the Norman style, but so long as the
+Rectangular Keep remained, the internal arrangements became, as it were,
+stereotyped, and were strictly adhered to. The latest styles of
+Rectangular Keeps carried but few, if any, suggestions of Norman
+architecture as they trended upon the Early English periods; thus Fonmon
+Castle in Glamorganshire, and Penhow in Monmouthshire, exhibited no
+traces of pilaster buttresses, and other features so strongly marked in
+earlier examples.
+
+_Bamborough Castle_, grim, grey, and imposing, by its vastness and
+massive proportions, stands upon a rocky height of igneous formation on
+the coast of Northumberland. It is by nature a promontory fortress, and
+as such was seized by Ida and his Angles in 547, and who thence extended
+his sway over what subsequently became the kingdom of Bernicia. The
+castle is mentioned in 774, and was twice taken by the Danes. In 1095
+the dramatic siege occurred with which Bamborough will be for ever
+associated. William Rufus besieged it with a formidable army, but such
+was the reputation of its impregnability that he would not venture upon
+storming it. He, therefore, had recourse to a siege, and one great
+beffroi he raised was so formidable that it is mentioned by name,
+_malvoisin_; this he advanced to the walls, and so closely that
+conversation could easily be exchanged between the rival combatants. The
+rebel baron, de Mowbray, left the Castle in charge of his wife, with the
+intention of procuring assistance, but was captured in an attempt upon
+Newcastle. By the King's orders he was brought to Bamborough and exposed
+to the gaze of the garrison: upon a royal threat to put out the eyes of
+his captive unless the Castle surrendered at once, the heroic Matilda de
+l'Aigle, who had continued the defence with the utmost success, admitted
+the King's forces. De Mowbray was imprisoned, but in his old age was
+permitted to enter the monastery of St. Alban, where he died.
+
+Rufus appointed Eustace Fitz-John of Alnwick as castellan, and the
+Castle, in the time of Stephen, successfully resisted an inroad of
+David, King of Scotland. In 1164 the great Keep was erected by Henry
+II., and from that period the Constableship of Bamborough became a royal
+appointment.
+
+[Illustration: BAMBOROUGH CASTLE.]
+
+During the Wars of the Roses, Bamborough played an important part. First
+in Yorkist possession it was captured by Queen Margaret, who placed a
+garrison of three hundred men there under the Duke of Somerset. Edward
+IV. with ten thousand men besieged Alnwick, Bamborough, and
+Dunstanburgh, the Kingmaker in person conducting the operations. The
+Castle was surrendered, and Sir Ralph Grey was left in charge, but
+betrayed his trust and admitted Margaret in 1463. In 1464 he was
+surrounded by Warwick's army, and a fierce bombardment was maintained
+which did enormous damage, Grey being injured by one of the falling
+towers; he recovered, however, but was subsequently executed at
+Doncaster. In the sixteenth century the Castle fell into disrepair, but
+in 1757 a partial restoration occurred, and subsequently portions of it
+were turned into a school for girls; afterwards, however, it was
+purchased by the late Lord Armstrong.
+
+There are three wards within the enceinte of the Castle which encloses
+about 5 acres of land, the middle ward and that to the east being at one
+time covered by the buildings of the ancient town. The great Keep is
+similar to those at Dover and London, but originally possessed only two
+stories. It is erected upon a solid mass of masonry, and the entrance
+leads by a passage in the thickness of the wall into the second story.
+There is no forebuilding as the Keep is of a date anterior to their
+introduction. The lower part of the walls is about 11 feet thick, and in
+the basement occurs the well over which appears a great vaulted hall.
+
+_Rochester Castle._--The two great Royal Castles in Kent were those at
+Canterbury and Rochester, and of these Rochester was the more important
+and boasts of a richer history. The Keeps are practically all that
+remain of each, and Rochester again asserts the pre-eminence in respect
+to the importance of present remains. The site had been previously
+occupied by the Romans and the Saxons when, immediately subsequent to
+the Conquest, a Motte and Bailey Castle was reared by the Normans,
+followed shortly afterwards by a massive encircling wall, enclosing an
+area measuring about 160 yards long by 130 yards broad. A portion of
+this wall was erected close to the river, and a deep ditch protected the
+remaining three sides.
+
+[Illustration: RICHMOND CASTLE, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+It was thus, at the demise of the Conqueror, a very strong fortress, and
+that much-hated half-brother of the late King, Bishop Odo of Bayeux,
+seized it, but was besieged and captured by Rufus after a resistance of
+six weeks. He was sent to Tonbridge Castle and subsequently liberated.
+In 1126 Henry I. granted the Constableship of the Castle to Walter de
+Corbeuil, Archbishop of Canterbury, and permitted him to erect a tower,
+probably the existing Keep.
+
+In 1215, when in the possession of William d'Albini, who was acting for
+the Barons, King John sat down before the Castle with a formidable array
+of trebuchets, and battered it for three long months. Apparently he had
+greater success by undermining than by missile-throwing, the tower at
+the south-east angle being partially brought down by a mine, together
+with other parts of the chief defences. This extensive damage probably
+helped it to fall into the hands of the Dauphin the next year. In 1264
+it resisted a vigorous assault from the forces of Simon de Montfort, and
+during the Wat Tyler rebellion was besieged and partially captured.
+
+Edward IV. repaired it, but subsequently it fell into a state of
+neglect, and has not seen any military operations since. It is now in
+the possession of the Corporation of Rochester, and used as a place of
+public recreation.
+
+The great Keep is naturally the chief object of interest; it is 113 feet
+in height, and about 70 feet square. The thickness of its walls varies
+from 12 feet at the base to 10 feet at the top, where the angle turrets
+rise over a dozen feet above the main battlements. It is divided, like
+the Tower of London, into two portions by a transverse wall rising to
+the total height, and carrying in its centre the main shaft of the
+Castle well, which was arranged to deliver water at every floor. The
+usual flat pilasters appear upon the external walls, and the two lower
+stories are pierced by loopholes only. A forebuilding with the usual
+complicated contrivances protects the main entrance. The aspect of the
+venerable Keep, conjoined to the tower and turrets of the adjacent
+Cathedral, form a delightful combination of the military and
+ecclesiastical architecture of former ages.
+
+_Richmond Castle._--The Castle of Richmond is beautifully situated upon
+high ground overlooking the river Swale, in Yorkshire, but, although
+the fortunes of the Castle extend to the time of the Conquest, and many
+noble families are connected with its history, it has played no
+important part whatever in the making of history, either in its own
+country or that of England. It has never seen an arrow launched in
+anger, or received a ball from opposing ordnance. It was erected by Alan
+Fergeant, who in 1071 commenced operations and encircled the triangular
+site with a curtain wall. The Keep was erected by his brother about the
+year 1100; it is approximately 50 feet square and 100 feet high, with
+the usual Norman pilasters, but deeper than formerly, strengthening the
+fronts and angles, while each of the latter bears a turret of two stages
+upon the summit. The only entrance is by a door on the south face, from
+which a narrow stairway leads to the floor above. The ground floor was
+vaulted in the reign of Edward I., the same as that at Newcastle. A
+chapel was built, about 1278, adjacent to it, by John, Earl of
+Richmond, who was killed at Lyons in 1304, and various other domestic
+buildings occur near it. A circular barbican protects the main entrance
+to the Castle, while in the south-east angle of the enceinte wall an
+imposing rectangular tower has been built, containing the remains of an
+ancient postern.
+
+[Illustration: PLANS OF THE KEEP OF HEDINGHAM CASTLE. _Reproduced by
+permission of the Architectural Association from the Sketch Book of
+Hedingham Castle._]
+
+
+
+
+                                 CHAPTER VII
+
+                  THE CYLINDRICAL KEEP, _c._ 1170-1250
+
+
+The latter part of the twelfth century and the earlier portion of the
+thirteenth was marked by the introduction of the Cylindrical Keep,
+forming a transition or connecting link between the Shell and the
+Rectangular Keeps of the previous period, and the remarkable development
+of castellation which occurred in the thirteenth century. The latter,
+however, must not be considered in the light of a sudden revolutionary
+change, inasmuch as many indications occur in the castles of the twelfth
+century which exhibit a tendency to break through the conventionalism
+then prevailing, and to produce works of a more complex character,
+suited to the progress in military methods of attack. The introduction
+of the Cylindrical Keep was one of these innovations; although it did
+not remedy the great fault inherent in Keeps generally, viz. that of
+impotence with regard to driving off the besiegers, yet it furnished a
+method which enabled the builder to effect a considerable economy in
+material and labour, while at the same time affording that strenuous
+passive resistance to assault which characterised the former styles. It
+is probable that King Henry II. was chiefly responsible for the
+introduction of the Cylindrical Keep, as by reason of his French birth
+he was acquainted with a number of foreign castles having citadels built
+upon this plan. These Cylindrical Keeps were likewise known as Donjons
+and Juliets, and attained to a degree of perfection upon the Continent
+which was never reached in the British Isles. The example at Coucy is
+probably the finest abroad.
+
+The advantages which may be claimed for the Cylindrical Keep, apart from
+its lessened cost of construction, are the increased solidity, and the
+great difficulty in breaching it, or bringing it down by a mine. By
+vaulting each floor the resistance of the structure was increased; by
+enclosing the upper part in a similar manner also, the danger of fire
+from incendiary missiles launched upon the roof was practically
+nullified. A disadvantage, however, lay in the fact that the besieged
+could not concentrate a discharge of missiles against assailants at one
+part of the base without exposing themselves to the enemy's archery.
+This was to a great extent rectified by the bretasche, which, though in
+use previously, became established as a regular defence at this period.
+
+These were timber galleries encircling the outer part of the tower at
+its summit, supported in position by strong beams of wood inserted in
+holes made for the purpose, and strengthened by struts resting upon
+corbels. Upon this foundation a wooden gallery was built, covered in by
+a sloping roof resting against the walls, and generally enclosing the
+summit of the wall. In suitable places the gallery was loopholed for
+archers and cross-bowmen, while through openings in the floor stones and
+other missiles could be dropped upon assailants at the foot of the Keep.
+It could be entered from the battlements behind, where stores of
+ammunition were placed.
+
+At times two bretasches were in use, one above the other; the upper
+projected a greater distance from the walls so as to avoid injury to
+the lower. The unfinished appearance of the tops of many towers can be
+explained by their having been covered with a bretasche in former times,
+although this defence was not kept in position permanently but usually
+built upon the approach of danger. The machicoulis and alurs of a later
+date were imitations in stone of the wooden bretasche. At Coucy these
+defences were placed about 180 feet from the ground, and the nerve
+displayed by the defenders working at such a giddy height excites
+admiration.
+
+The introduction of machicolation proper into England occurred in the
+latter part of the thirteenth century and became a prominent feature at
+that period. The faults inherent in the bretasche were the feeble
+resistance which it offered to missiles launched from the mangonels of
+the besiegers; the destruction of one part by a well-aimed stone would
+naturally expose the remaining defenders to archery, besides seriously
+weakening the rest of the structure, which depended to a great extent
+upon its continuity for safety.
+
+Another weakness was the perishable nature of the material, which
+required constant renovation and addition, and to this circumstance
+may be attributed the fact that examples of the true medieval bretasche
+are extremely rare at the present day. A fragment remains over one of
+the gates at Coucy, while the position of the main beam may be seen upon
+the outer gate of Leeds Castle. At Norham Castle a small doorway appears
+in the upper part of the square Keep, the conjectured use for which is
+that it gave access to the bretasche. In many castles of the twelfth
+century still remaining a line of small openings in the outer wall at
+the top is visible; they indicate the position of the former bretasche,
+and are caused by the removal of stones for the insertion of the
+projecting beams. Notwithstanding the advantages inherent in the
+Cylindrical Keep, which prompted their erection in many parts of France
+and other parts of the Continent, we do not find one example forming an
+integral part in a British Castle of the first class.
+
+[Illustration: CARNARVON CASTLE. CARNARVONSHIRE.]
+
+Cylindrical Keeps were not always of a stereotyped form, and among the
+comparatively few erected in England there is marked diversity in
+detail. Launceston, for example, really consists of a triple defence;
+two outermost rings of walling, one of which is a dozen feet thick and
+nearly 30 feet in height, effectually prevent any attempt at mining the
+Keep proper, which stands a few feet within the second ring. It is now
+only a shell, but timber flooring once divided it into three stories.
+The walls are nearly 50 feet in height, about 10 feet thick at the base,
+and stand in a ring whose diameter is nearly 20 feet. The open spaces
+around the Keep were formerly covered by roofing.
+
+Richard, King of the Romans and brother of Henry III., is generally
+credited with raising the Launceston Keep and also the companion one at
+Restormel. The Keep at Barnard Castle is remarkable for the huge
+projecting triangular spur, which, springing from the soil, rises to
+within a few feet of the parapet. The floors were vaulted. This circular
+Keep is about 50 feet in height and 40 feet wide. Pembroke Keep, on the
+other hand, rises without buttress or spur or concentric walling
+straight from a battering base at the ground-level to a height of about
+70 feet to the spring of the vaulted roof. It trusted apparently to the
+enormous thickness of its walls, 20 feet at the base, to defy any
+attempts at mining.
+
+_Conisborough Castle_ possesses the most remarkable Keep of the
+cylindrical type in the British Isles, both by reason of its
+extraordinary plan and rare contour. It is a gigantic cylinder nearly 70
+feet in diameter, and tapering upwards to a height of over 90 feet. Upon
+the exterior six enormous buttresses are arranged symmetrically round
+the face, projecting 9 feet from the surface and being 16 feet wide
+where they support the cylinder. They diminish in width, however, as
+they recede from it. These buttresses are carried up the whole height of
+the Keep, and thus, combined as they are with a massive base of masonry
+upon which the tower stands, and forming an integral portion of the wall
+which is about 12 feet thick, we have what is probably the most
+efficient protection against the deadly mine ever devised as a
+protection to a British Castle. It may be compared to six enormous
+spurs, the blowing up of one or even two but little affecting the
+stability of the remainder.
+
+[Illustration: GROUND PLAN OF CONISBOROUGH KEEP.]
+
+[Illustration: CONISBOROUGH.]
+
+The entrance to the Keep is only a small square aperture placed in the
+first floor and approached by a long flight of steps in which at one
+time a drawbridge occurred. The ground floor contains the well and is
+entered by means of a trap-door in the vaulted ceiling. The buttresses
+are excavated in places to form chambers, and in one is situated the
+oratory described by Scott in _Ivanhoe_. It is beautifully vaulted in
+the Early English style, with carved capitals and bases to the
+supporting shafts. This grand relic of the feudal period was probably
+built in the reign of Richard I. by Hamelin Plantagenet, the natural
+brother of King Henry II., who had married into the de Warrenne family,
+the rich Earls of Surrey.
+
+Another variety of the Cylindrical Keep was that at Orford, in Suffolk,
+which possessed a cylindrical shaft similar to that at Conisborough, and
+was supported by three minor towers symmetrically arranged and carried
+above the battlements. This Keep was protected at the base by a massive
+wall with a ditch between the wall and the Castle base, and probably
+suggested the Conisborough Keep and also that at Warkworth, while those
+at Wallingford, York and Pontefract approximated to the same ideal.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE CONCENTRIC CASTLE, _c._ 1250, TO THE CASTELLATED MANSION PERIOD
+
+
+The inception of the concentric idea in castellation must not be
+ascribed to the English builders of the second half of the thirteenth
+century, inasmuch as the plan is essentially oriental and appeared in
+the Levant before 1200. Thus Château Gaillard, built by Richard I. in
+1196 upon the banks of the Seine near Les Andelys, is based essentially
+upon the concentric type, though it does not absolutely conform to that
+ideal owing to the configuration of the ground. That crusading monarch
+was among the first to recognise the possibilities of the Saracenic form
+and based this castle upon it. Upon the only side where it could be
+attacked it offered first an outer triangular-shaped ward, with an
+encircling wall, having five towers upon its enceinte. Between this and
+the second ward was a formidable ditch, 30 feet in depth, the wall
+standing upon the brink of the scarp; this second ward was of large
+dimensions with five towers upon its walls, which were practically built
+upon the edge of precipices. It was roughly hexagonal in shape and
+contained the inner ward, partially circular in outline and surrounded
+by a ditch. The walls of this ward were lofty and faced with bastions
+segmental in plan, thus embodying the prevailing belief that angles and
+corners were more vulnerable than curved surfaces. Inside this ward
+stood the Keep, forming the fourth successive line of defence to be
+overcome. The Keep or Donjon is splayed outwards at the base, a device
+often adopted for projecting missiles among the assailants when dropped
+from above, and also for greater strength. Probably the earliest
+examples of machicoulis are found upon this Keep. This formidable
+fortress fell by a combination of mining, filling up of the great ditch,
+battering the Keep, and escalading the inner ward, after pounding the
+curtain walls with perriers.
+
+The thousands of warriors returning from the many crusades were well
+acquainted with the Concentric Castle, having in many cases been
+detained before the walls of an eastern city built upon a similar
+design. The difficulty and danger in attacking such a place were well
+known to them, and we can only ascribe the question of cost as the chief
+reason for the non-adoption of the idea at an earlier period.
+
+At Constantinople the crusading hosts before the city found themselves
+confronted by a comparatively low fortified wall, bristling with
+impediments; within it, at the distance of some hundreds of feet, arose
+another and taller wall, while beyond that again a third wall, the
+highest of all, appeared. These walls extended for more than three miles
+upon the western side, with one hundred towers; all were embattled, and
+they offered a stupendous scene to the wondering eyes of the Crusaders
+as they vanished in grand perspective into the distance. There is no
+castle in England which presents more than three hundred yards of
+continual front. The capture of the first defence of the eastern capital
+by no means imperilled the integrity of the second, while the
+prospective losses of the assailants when confined in the narrow space
+between the first and second lines was appalling to con template. The
+same difficulty would occur with regard to the second and third lines of
+defence, and it is small wonder that the leaders paused in a projected
+attack upon so formidable an obstacle.
+
+[Illustration: CASTLE RUSHEN, ISLE OF MAN.]
+
+The essential principles underlying the construction of a castle erected
+upon the concentric plan were:--
+
+  1. That the natural features of the selected site should be adapted
+and made part of the defences, and that no rigid plan of the ground
+occupied, based upon former principles of castellation, should be
+strictly followed.
+
+  2. That a series of defences independent and complete in themselves
+should be presented in turn to an assault, the capture of one by no
+means entailing that of another.
+
+The castle-builders of the second half of the thirteenth century rigidly
+adhered to the principles embodied in the first clause given above; they
+did not produce a structure of the Motte and Bailey, or the Keep and
+Base-court types, with little regard to the situation and configuration
+of the ground, but made their plans with the utmost care, embracing
+every advantage which the site presented. As a necessary sequence the
+ground plan of one Concentric Castle differs from every other, and it is
+only by a general summary of the ideas prevailing that any comparison
+can be made.
+
+The second clause naturally suggested a concentric plan whereby each
+defence was placed within the other, the strongest of all naturally
+being in the centre. But as most of the English castles were rendered
+concentric by means of additions to buildings previously existing, the
+pure concentric ideal is seldom reached except in those structures
+reared entirely at that period, the others attained it more or less by
+developing conditions already obtaining.
+
+[Illustration: THE IDEAL CONCENTRIC CASTLE.]
+
+The ideal concentric outline may be gleaned from the accompanying plan,
+where the three entrances are a special feature, each being placed as
+far as possible from the one adjacent. By this device the assailants who
+had managed to capture the outer enceinte would be compelled to pass
+under one half of the second line of towers and curtain walls before
+reaching the entrance pierced through them, being all the time subjected
+to a plunging fire of deadly missiles. The same would occur if the
+second line were captured. The gates were in all cases flanked by
+defensive towers, and generally reached by a drawbridge which could be
+raised before the entrance archway; this was narrow and defended by one
+or more portcullises, while a strong gate, usually sheathed with iron,
+was placed at the entrance immediately behind the raised drawbridge. If
+these formidable obstacles were overcome and the first part of the
+passage captured the inner portcullis or portcullises had to be forced,
+but the assailants would in the meantime be subjected to a galling
+discharge of arrows and bolts from the narrow loopholes on either side,
+which were pierced in the walls of rooms whose only entrances were from
+the inner courtyard or from the ramparts. In the vaulted roof of the
+passage also circular openings were built, termed "meurtriers," or
+murderers, through which melted lead, hot water or oil, and other
+liquids could be poured upon the struggling mass of assailants below.
+From the formidable nature of the defence it may readily be understood
+that direct assaults of castles built upon the concentric ideal were
+limited, the besiegers contenting themselves with waiting until famine
+had done its work, or treachery within the walls allowed them to enter.
+The project of capturing three strong castles, one within the other, was
+a prospect sufficient to daunt any ordinary commander, and so long as
+the besieged could count upon a friendly army in the field outside, the
+loyalty of the garrison, and a plentiful supply of provisions, the
+fortress might be relied upon to maintain its integrity.
+
+[Illustration: MACHICOULIS SUPPORTING AN ALUR.]
+
+It was during this period that machicoulis and alurs reached their
+highest efficiency and development, and in every castle built after 1250
+they may be found wherever extra strengthening of the defence was
+desirable. In some illustrated medieval romances of the second part of
+the thirteenth century the castle is depicted with these additions,
+although at times the perspective indulged in by the artist is somewhat
+disconcerting. Where machicolation was not adopted, probably by reason
+of the expense, the walls were generally corbelled outwards at the upper
+parts of towers and walls, thus giving a more effective control over the
+bases of these structures where mining or battering might be attempted.
+Battlementing was almost universal, and the system of piercing the
+merlons with arbalestraria may be assigned to this early date, although
+not reaching the full development it subsequently met with in the
+Edwardian Castles of Wales. It may be seen in illustrated manuscripts in
+the form of simple circular openings in the merlons. The protection of
+loopholes and windows by a hanging shield is likewise illustrated; it
+prevented the admission of arrows and bolts discharged with a high
+trajectory.
+
+The maximum development of the art of castle-building in the British
+Isles occurred in the reign of Edward I. and is exhibited in its best
+form in those magnificent buildings which he erected in Wales to
+consolidate the conquest of that country. With the great Snowdonian
+range as the centre he placed a ring of fortresses at those strategic
+points, chosen with remarkable military perspicacity, where they would
+be of the utmost advantage in commanding the widest stretch of country.
+Criccieth and Harlech, standing upon the sites of previous strongholds,
+and Conway and Carnarvon upon entirely new ground, are the most
+prominent and famous of this encircling ring. The term "Edwardian,"
+however, for a Concentric Castle so frequently used, is a misnomer,
+because some of the grandest examples of the style date from the time of
+Henry III.; the outer ward of the Tower of London, for example, rendered
+it concentric in 1240 to 1258.
+
+The _Castle of Harlech_ approaches the concentric form so far as its
+position will permit, but the bold rocky promontory upon which it stands
+was too irregular for the complete ideal, and consequently the Castle
+was adapted to the site. It is practically an oblong with massive
+circular buttress towers at the four angles; two others defend the
+gateway and two smaller ones are on either side of the barbican
+entrance. Small watch-towers, corbelled at the summits upon false
+machicolations, are adjacent to the larger. The barbican lies upon the
+eastern side of the fortress, and was only accessible by a steep and
+narrow entrance after a dry ditch had been crossed. Harlech and Kidwelly
+are similar in not being purely concentric; each have short fronts of
+wall and the defences of two of the baileys are united, thus only two
+lines of resistance are interposed. Neither possess a donjon, the two
+inner wards being the last resort of the garrison.
+
+The inaccessibility of this massive pile, perched 200 feet above the
+adjacent sea and producing a strangely impressive effect by reason of
+its grim vastness, has been repeatedly tested since its walls were first
+raised. Owen Glendower beat in vain against its impregnable strength and
+lost Mortimer, his son-in-law, before its walls. In the Wars of the
+Roses, when the soul-stirring "March of the Men of Harlech" was penned,
+the Castle was summoned to surrender by the Yorkists, but the Constable
+of the time, a doughty Welshman, held out for the Lancastrian cause and
+made a most protracted resistance in the campaign of 1474, Harlech being
+the last fortress to surrender in that great struggle. In the Civil War
+it maintained its reputation, but was finally delivered up to Cromwell's
+brother-in-law.
+
+_Conway Castle_, one of the most impressive and majestic of medieval
+fortresses in Britain, is situated in a romantic and picturesque spot at
+the mouth of the river Conway. It presents a perfect ideal of a fortress
+and a fortified town, the massive accompanying walls of the latter
+forming an integral portion of the defence as a whole. The town walls
+are over a mile in length and are in a singularly good state of
+preservation; there are twenty-one towers, arranged at regular intervals
+along this enceinte, and four gates, over one of which is a row of
+machicoulis, twelve in number, projecting from the upper part of the
+wall. It was also protected by a dry ditch and with drawbridges placed
+before the gateways.
+
+[Illustration: LEEDS CASTLE, KENT.]
+
+The Castle occupies an irregular oblong area divided into a larger and
+smaller ward by a transverse wall, which is carried across at one of the
+narrowest parts; thus where breadth is unobtainable, as at Conway and
+Carnarvon, ward is set behind ward. Eight lofty circular towers are
+arranged at intervals around the massive curtain wall, four of them
+being provided with small look-out turrets upon their summits. In the
+larger bailey the banqueting hall and domestic apartments were placed.
+
+The Castle and also the town fortifications were erected by King Edward
+I., with Henry de Elfreton as the architect; they were completed in
+1284, and occupied by the King and Court in 1290, upon the occasion of a
+Welsh rising. The monarch, however, was nearly starved out in his
+fortress through an unusual flood whereby provisions were unable to be
+sent across the river. Previously, however, he had passed a Christmas
+there and the assertion that Conway was really a combination of a
+castle, a palace, and a pleasant residence is perfectly legitimate.
+Richard II. assembled his forces at Conway to resist the invasion of
+Bolingbroke, but was induced to leave it, and his betrayal and lodgment
+in Flint Castle followed. The edifice suffered but little during the
+Wars of the Roses; Henry VII. repaired it where decay had taken place,
+and it practically remained intact until the Great Rebellion, when it
+suffered from two sieges, and shortly afterwards, in 1665, was despoiled
+of its timber, lead, and iron, and reduced to its present condition. The
+excellence of the masonry which characterises the Edwardian castles in
+Wales is perhaps in no way better exemplified than at Conway, where a
+portion of the base of a tower on the south side fell out bodily in
+recent times through being undermined, and gave much trouble before it
+could be broken up. It has since been restored. The protection of the
+Castle is now in the hands of the town authorities of Conway.
+
+_Beaumaris Castle_ was erected by King Edward I. about 1295, and
+approximates more to the concentric ideal than perhaps any other castle
+in Britain. The outer enceinte is an almost regular octagon,
+strengthened by towers at each of the angles and in the centre of each
+curtain, excepting the one in which the entrance gateway is placed. The
+inner enceinte is square in shape and of very great height, thus
+commanding the ramparts of the outer; it has the usual towers, of
+immense strength, and is finished with a grand array of battlements. Its
+position probably detracts from impressiveness, for it was designed to
+have the moat surrounding it filled with water at every tide from the
+Menai Strait, and this necessitated the selection of low ground for a
+site. By the arrangement of the walls two baileys are formed, the inner
+and outer, and the Castle affords an example of a fortress built upon
+the concentric ideal where the ground does not modify the detail in any
+way.
+
+_Carnarvon Castle_ may be confidently claimed as the finest example of
+its type in Europe. It stands upon a site previously unoccupied and was
+commenced by King Edward I., who raised the walls sufficiently high to
+cover the garrison, and completed by his son, Edward II., who carried
+the walls and towers to their present altitude. It is built of limestone
+blocks with string-course bands of dark-brown sandstone, the mouldings,
+doorways, and other ornamental portions also being of the same material.
+The plan of the Castle approaches that of a kidney form, the whole of
+the space enclosed forming one ward in contradistinction to that at
+Conway, which is subdivided; as the ancient town of Carnarvon was
+surrounded by massive walls, large portions of which still remain, the
+area so enclosed may be looked upon as the outer bailey.
+
+[Illustration: MERLON PIERCED WITH OILLET.]
+
+Although the enceinte of the Castle is plentifully supplied with towers
+which undoubtedly form the chief feature of its picturesque appearance,
+yet it is to be questioned if the latter added very materially to its
+powers of resistance when compared with the walls, which are in places
+over 15 feet in thickness, and of very great height, often over 100
+feet. These walls contain, at the points most vulnerable to an attack, a
+double line of galleries traversing the thickness and leading easily
+into each other for mutual support. The outer walls of these passages
+are plentifully supplied with loopholes, and as the merlons upon the
+battlements are also pierced with oillets, a triple discharge of
+quarrels and arrows could be brought to bear upon assailants by a
+garrison securely protected from injury. Against such a hail of missiles
+any attack would probably prove futile.
+
+The moat is of great width and depth and formed no inconsiderable
+portion of the original defences. The main idea of the architect when
+planning Carnarvon Castle appears to have been to render attacks upon
+the general line of the enceinte impossible of success, by reason of the
+galleries and the thickly-set mural towers, and thus to lead the
+assailants to concentrate upon the chief entrance. This, however, was
+protected primarily by the town walls, then by a formidable moat, two
+massive towers, a narrow entrance furnished with no less than four
+portcullises, with two inner obstructions of a similar nature to be
+overcome ere the entrance was forced. Such an elaborate concentration of
+effective resistance is seldom encountered in medieval fortresses, and
+the fact that Carnarvon Castle has never been taken by assault, but only
+subdued by starvation, is amply accounted for.
+
+This magnificent structure has always been a Crown possession, and at
+the present time is preserved with a care deserving of all praise. It
+narrowly escaped demolition at that period which proved so fatal to all
+castles in Britain, but, although the order was issued, the carrying out
+was delayed, and the accession of Charles II. in 1660 nullified it. The
+chief architectural beauty is perhaps the Eagle Tower, crowned with its
+three graceful turrets and boasting of the birth within its walls of the
+first Prince of Wales, but the traditional apartment is still
+problematical.
+
+Although as we have seen the Concentric Castle is usually associated
+with the reign of Edward I., and the formidable strongholds in North
+Wales are generally cited as the perfection of the type, yet earlier
+attempts at the ideal had been made in Britain, and in no greater
+perfection than at the well-known Castle of Caerphilly in
+Glamorganshire, completed a year before the King came to the throne.
+From a military point of view it is the grandest example of the
+concentric ideal in our islands, and it is perhaps to be deplored that
+this embodiment of a medieval fortress has never been subjected to the
+stern arbitrament of war, and that no great military renown is
+associated with its history. It was only assailed once, in 1648, when
+the Parliamentarians wreaked their traditional destructive tendencies
+upon it.
+
+[Illustration: CAERPHILLY CASTLE.
+(_From an old print._)]
+
+It was erected and completed in 1271 by Gilbert de Clare, Earl of
+Gloucester, and stands upon a mound of gravel in the middle of an
+artificial lake, produced by damming up two water-courses and turning
+the contents of a marsh into the catchment basin thus formed. The
+curtain of the middle ward is of no great height, that of the inner ward
+being thus able to dominate it. The outer ward is essentially divided
+into two, each forming a _tête-du-pont_.
+
+The eastern portion, and the smaller, has a curtain 15 feet in height
+and a moat of its own, the island thus formed being approached through
+two gatehouses from the land side, and joined to the inner ward by
+drawbridges. The western and outer ward is much more important than the
+eastern. It acts as a _tête-du-pont_ the same as its companion, but
+contains also the chief approach to the Castle, two conspicuous towers
+standing on either side of a narrow entrance, thus forming a strong
+gatehouse. From it curtain walls of great height branch off on either
+side, washed by the waters of the lake, and sundry half-drum towers, and
+other buildings have been built abutting upon the defensive wall. Thus
+any assailants would have most formidable obstacles to encounter on
+attacking either the eastern or western faces, two moats and three
+successive lines of walling being opposed to their efforts.
+
+The immediate object of its erection was to overawe the Welsh Marches,
+but these had been reduced to order almost at the same time it was
+built; subsequently it but served to consolidate the peace thus secured.
+
+[Illustration: TOWER OF LONDON: THE MIDDLE TOWER]
+
+A still earlier example, though not perhaps embodying all the conditions
+of the type, is to be found in the neighbouring county of Carmarthen.
+Kidwelly Castle occupies a commanding position upon Carmarthen Bay near
+the estuary of the river Gwendraeth. The stream here is of considerable
+width and the eastern side of the castle is built upon the edge of the
+steep slope leading down to it; consequently no fear of an assault was
+to be apprehended from that quarter, and a curtain wall of no great
+height was deemed sufficient for the defence. This wall formed the
+string of a bow as it were, and the semicircular portion defending the
+land side had to rely upon other obstacles, such as a deep moat and a
+curtain set with towers. The entrance gateway is at the southern
+termination of the wall and consists of two towers with a building
+between containing the passage; it affords rooms for soldiers on duty
+with two stories above, all the masonry being of the most solid
+description. This entrance gave upon the outer ward. The inner ward
+consisted of a square enclosure abutting upon the centre of the river
+line: it is protected by high curtains strengthened by the usual towers.
+It will be perceived that the deviation from the concentric consists in
+the coincidence of the east wall of the inner bailey with a portion of
+that of the outer. Its foundation dates from 1250, when Payn de Chaworth
+reared it.
+
+[Illustration: KIDWELLY CASTLE, CARMARTHENSHIRE.]
+
+Not far from Llandeilo, a village near Carmarthen, stand the remains of
+a Concentric Castle around which local tradition has woven a web of
+romance, asserting that all history is lost in remote antiquity and
+leading the imagination to run riot in conjuring up the identity of its
+former inmates. Upon the south side the walls stand upon a precipice
+with a sheer drop of probably 500 feet, while a climb of over 200 feet
+is necessary to reach the northern face. It is called Carreg Cennen and
+occupies the summit of a height springing up from a ring of encircling
+hills. It stands upon an acre of ground and is of the rectangular shape;
+within the outer curtain stands a small inner bailey with one side
+coincident with that of the outer curtain overlooking the precipice,
+and as such is comparable to Kidwelly. There is one round tower, but the
+others are angular like those of Carnarvon. It was built by Rhys of
+Wales in the thirteenth century.
+
+It must not be imagined that the castle-building energies of Edward I.
+were entirely expended upon the grand examples of his work found in
+North Wales, on the contrary there are many buildings to be discovered
+where his handiwork, or that of contemporary barons, is a prominent
+feature. A tendency appears to have manifested itself at that period to
+alter existing castles of a previous type so that they conformed in some
+way to the concentric ideal, and Pevensey, Chepstow, and Corfe are cases
+in point. In addition to Caerphilly in Glamorganshire there are many
+other structures in South Wales showing a very high ideal of
+castellation, indeed that portion of the Principality has been termed
+the "Land of Castles," and the appellation is by no means undeserved.
+There is hardly a prominent position upon the coast, or a suitable site
+inland, but what has been seized upon at some period to erect a position
+of defence.
+
+_Pembroke Castle_, with the town walls supporting it, is perhaps the
+most important pile to be found in this district; it embodies additions
+of varying dates in its massive walls and towers. The great gatehouse
+and circular Norman Keep are undoubtedly its chief attractions at the
+present day when, although shattered by powder after Cromwell's capture
+by means of starvation, and much subsequent spoliation, it presents one
+of the most imposing aspects to be found in the kingdom.
+
+_Carew Castle_ is deservedly celebrated for picturesqueness and affords
+an illustration of the use of the angle-spur at the foot of drum towers
+as a preventive against mining.
+
+_Cilgerran Castle_ occupies a position which is probably unparalleled in
+South Wales. It approaches very closely to the Edwardian type, but the
+area chosen has not entirely dominated the plan; it once possessed an
+inner and outer bailey with a great portcullised gatehouse and massive
+cylindrical towers, two of which still stand. Pembrokeshire is
+essentially the centre of the castle-land of Wales, for besides those
+mentioned there are Manorbier, Lamphey, Narberth, Haverfordwest,
+Llawhaddon, Roche and many others, most of them exhibiting traces of
+Edwardian influence based upon Norman work.
+
+In the upper valley of the Wye the efficiency of castles was of great
+importance, inasmuch as they guarded one of the great lines of incursion
+from the heart of Wales into the Marches; here Edwardian additions may
+be seen at Builth where a donjon was placed upon a motte which had
+already been encircled by a Shell Keep, while a circular rampart
+surrounding the whole bailey made a very presentable representation of
+the concentric ideal. At Bronllys, farther to the south, a cylindrical
+tower was the chief addition, while at Tretower, still farther south
+near Crickhowell, a Shell Keep appears to have been inserted within the
+remains of a previous Rectangular Keep defending the motte.
+
+_The Tower of London._--This great fortress, palace, and prison, unique
+among the castles of England, dates from the time of William the
+Conqueror. The site occupied a position upon the river Thames
+immediately to the east of Roman London; the latter was surrounded by
+massive walls with mural towers which had subsequently been repaired by
+Alfred the Great. A portion of this walling undoubtedly furnished part
+of the western defence of the Norman citadel, inasmuch as remains have
+been found adjacent to the present Wakefield Tower. The wall thus
+adapted extended between two bastions, and possibly the first enclosure
+was merely stockaded.
+
+It was, however, necessary to erect a more substantial fortress in order
+to overawe as well as protect London, and in 1078, William entrusted
+Gundulf, the architect-bishop of Rochester, with the commission. The
+great Keeps at Rochester and West Malling were also designed by him, and
+possibly he had much to do with those at Norwich, Colchester, and other
+places in England. To this period may also be ascribed some of the
+towers and part of the massive curtain wall lying to the west of the
+inner ward or ballium which at that period contained the royal palace,
+apartments for the court, and dwellings for the garrison. Possibly a
+narrow ditch encircled the walls on the inner line of the present
+spacious moat.
+
+In 1155, the buildings were repaired by Thomas à Becket; but to Richard
+I. must be ascribed the carrying out of works which materially added to
+the general strength. Henry III. caused additions to be made, chiefly
+upon the river front, which give it the characteristic appearance it
+presents at the present day. The well-known Traitors' Gate dates from
+this period, and is one of the finest examples of medieval masonry in
+existence. About the year 1270 the Tower began to acquire those features
+which subsequently rendered it an excellent example of the concentric
+fortress; an outer wall of circumvallation was carried completely round,
+with a deep and broad moat washing its face. The outer ward was formed
+lying between the two lines of walls, thus producing three lines of
+defence, the innermost being the great Keep. A small barbican, which has
+now disappeared, stood upon the outer edge of the moat. In the early
+part of the reign of Edward III. some towers were added, the chief being
+the Beauchamp and Bowyer. Since the period of the Commonwealth the Tower
+has ceased to be inhabited by royalty, the removal of the palace, which
+stood against the south-eastern corner of the inner ward, being probably
+responsible for it. As the Tower of London has been inextricably
+involved in the major portion of events forming the history of England,
+it is obviously impossible to deal even in a cursory manner with them
+within the confines of this work. A few facts, however, relating to the
+Keep may be of interest, as it is undoubtedly the most ancient portion
+of the structure. It is rectangular in shape, 118 feet long by 107 feet
+broad; it rises to a height of 90 feet at the battlements and contains
+three stories. The usual Norman pilaster buttresses occur, those at the
+angles being continued upwards into three of the square turrets, while
+the remaining corner supports a large projecting circular turret
+containing the main staircase. The walls are of enormous thickness,
+ranging from 12 to 15 feet, and as usual the building is divided into
+two portions by a wall 10 feet thick, rising to the maximum height of
+the building.
+
+[Illustration: CHEPSTOW CASTLE, MONMOUTHSHIRE.]
+
+The floors were originally of wood, but when Sir Christopher Wren
+destroyed the ancient interior features of the Keep, great brick vaults
+were built in the lower portion. St. John's Chapel is a magnificent gem
+of Early Norman ecclesiastical architecture; it stands upon the
+second floor, and its apsidal termination projects boldly beyond the
+walls of the Keep. The third floor contains the state apartments with
+the great Council Chamber, the walls of the chapel rising through it to
+the roof, and containing a mural passage and a triforium. The roof is
+flat and was adapted during the Tudor period for mounting artillery. The
+position of the original entrance to the Keep is now unknown, the
+present one being evidently a construction of later date. No traces of
+the forebuilding defending it have come to light. The internal
+arrangements for defence against surprise are marvellously intricate,
+the principal apartments being approached by mural passages so narrow
+that only one person could pass at a time. This was, of course,
+eminently desirable from a military standpoint, but inconvenient and
+awkward when occupied by the court.
+
+_Corfe Castle._--Seated upon an isolated chalk hill in the island of
+Purbeck, with a natural escarpment upon three sides where two rivers
+bifurcate on their way to Poole Harbour, and with a gentle slope upon
+the fourth side, the great castle of Corfe reared its massive front
+through many centuries of dramatic history, marked more than once with
+touches of the tragic. The remains of its cyclopean walls and towers now
+lie in mighty masses over its slopes, and tell eloquently of a day when
+destruction only seemed to occupy the minds of men, and all that was
+great and beautiful from the foregoing ages was marked out for
+desolation and ruin. Perhaps no castle in England has suffered so much
+as that of Corfe.
+
+Its site is connected by history with the Saxon dynasty, for King Edgar
+is said to have founded it; and here the tragic deed was perpetrated by
+which it is popularly known, when his son Edward the Martyr, King of the
+West Saxons, was treacherously murdered by Elfrida his step-mother. Such
+an unholy deed was a sinister incident in the birth of a castle, and
+appears to have thrown a gloom over its subsequent history.
+
+Four miles to the southward rises the bold coast-line of the Dorset
+littoral, while northward is the great depression occupied by the waters
+of Poole Harbour.
+
+It appears to have been successively a Saxon Palace, then a Norman, and
+afterwards an Edwardian fortress. King Stephen besieged it in 1139,
+Earl Baldwin de Redvers having seized it for the Empress Maud. King John
+used it as an arsenal for military engines and stores, and here his foul
+crime of starving twenty-two knights and nobles to death, whom he had
+captured at Mireteau in 1203, was committed. The wretched ex-King Edward
+II. lived here for a time before his removal to Berkeley, and it appears
+to have been possessed by several important historical personages before
+it reverted to the Crown in 1552, when it was granted to Sir Christopher
+Hatton. That family sold it in 1635 to Sir John Bankes, the ancestor of
+the present owners. The notable defence of the castle for three years by
+Lady Bankes against the Commonwealth forces is one of those feats which
+stand out bravely against the somewhat sordid history of that period.
+
+The Castle occupies an area of about three acres. The Norman work
+consists chiefly of a square Keep occupying the most elevated part of
+the hill, where possibly the Saxon Palace had been situated, and, with
+its enceinte, formed the innermost ward of the Castle. It is about 60
+feet square, and 80 feet high, with the usual flat pilasters; the
+masonry is remarkably good, formed of large squared stones obtained
+from some hard beds in the vicinity. The floors and apparently the roof
+were of wood, and have now disappeared, while the battlements also are
+missing.
+
+On the east side of the Keep are the remains of the Queen's hall of
+Early English work, and other buildings within the inner ward appear to
+be of the same date. The gateway of the middle ward was overthrown by
+undermining, part of it has sunk and moved out of the perpendicular. The
+great curtain wall reaching between this gateway and the Keep is
+comparatively intact, and forms one of the finest defences of that
+description now remaining in Britain. The entrance to the outer ward has
+been sadly wrecked; the two drum towers have been blown forwards by the
+explosive force of gunpowder, the vaulting is rent, and the adjacent
+wall to the west overthrown. More than half of the tower called the
+Buttavant Tower has been blown clean away, while the minor bastions and
+the encircling wall generally have either disappeared or been thrown out
+of the perpendicular.
+
+The order to "slight" the Castle, _i.e._ to dismantle it, was issued by
+the Parliament in 1646, and perhaps no fortress exists in Britain where
+the decree was so thoroughly carried into effect. Unnecessarily large
+charges of gunpowder appear to have been used, not only dislodging the
+masonry but shattering it; while in many places the effect was obtained
+by undermining and propping up with wood, which when subsequently
+burnt brought down the superincumbent mass, similarly to the
+proceedings at the Keep of Raglan Castle.
+
+[Illustration: CHEPSTOW CASTLE.]
+
+_Chepstow._--The noble ruins of Chepstow Castle form one of the
+attractive features of the celebrated Wye valley. They stand in a grand
+position surmounting a vertical escarpment springing from the river and
+protected on the three remaining sides by ditches of formidable width
+and depth. The ground plan is that of an elongated parallelogram, one of
+the longer faces being that overlooking the river. This is subdivided
+into four courts or wards, while the whole area enclosed is about three
+acres. The principal living-rooms overhung the river, where the great
+Hall, kitchens, ladies' apartments, etc., were placed. This was a point
+of a quite inaccessible character, and consequently permitted of a
+certain amount of embellishment, such as large windows, etc.; in the
+remainder of the enceinte, oillets and balistraria form the chief
+openings.
+
+The main entrance to the Castle is on the eastern side, under a fine
+Norman arch flanked by two massive circular towers; the passage was
+guarded by a portcullis, and two meurtrières in the groining. Not far
+from this entrance the lesser Hall is placed. The Clare family, Earls of
+Pembroke, were the earliest Norman owners of Chepstow, after William
+Fitz-Osborne the founder, the last of whom, Richard Strongbow, is well
+known in connection with the Conquest of Ireland in 1172. His daughter
+Isabel married one of the Bigot family, and subsequently it passed to
+Sir Charles Somerset, Earl of Worcester, from whom it has descended to
+the present owner, the Duke of Beaufort. Chepstow saw much of the Civil
+War, being held at first by the Royalists, but it was assailed by
+Colonel Morgan in 1645 and surrendered after a siege of four days. It
+was again attacked in 1648, when the governor, Sir Nicholas Kemyss, and
+forty of the garrison were killed.
+
+[Illustration: LEEDS CASTLE, KENT.]
+
+_Leeds._--This castle is undoubtedly one of the most picturesque in the
+British Isles, and its beautiful natural surroundings are enhanced by a
+rich history extending back to the Saxon Period. Here Ethelbert of Kent
+raised a fortification which was given to Bishop Odo at the Conquest
+and, at his fall, came into the Crévecoeur family, who began the
+Norman building. It remained in their hands until the Barons' War when
+it reverted to the Crown, with whom it remained for about 300 years.
+Edward VI. gave it to Sir Anthony St. Leger about 1550, and his
+descendants sold it to Sir Richard Smith. It subsequently came into the
+possession of the Colepeper family, from whom are descended the Martins,
+the present owners.
+
+Among the many historical associations connected with the Castle is that
+of the frail Queen Isabella, wife of Edward II. She appeared one evening
+before the gateway with a large force of attendants and demanded
+admission; under the circumstances then obtaining the Governor, Sir
+Thomas Colepeper, thought fit to refuse, being without the king's
+orders, and, upon a display of force, saluted the visitors with a shower
+of arrows. She repaired to the king and so influenced him that the
+Castle was besieged and captured; the Castellan was hanged over the
+drawbridge with eleven others. At Leeds Henry V. received the Emperor
+Sigismund and imprisoned his step-mother Joan for practising witchcraft;
+subsequently, Eleanor, the wife of good Duke Humphrey of Gloucester, was
+tried here for the same offence in 1431.
+
+[Illustration: LEEDS CASTLE, KENT.]
+
+The position of this castle was an exceedingly suitable one in those
+days when water was deemed the chief method of defence. It occupies two
+natural rocky islands, one in the centre of a lake, and one in an
+artificial one on the mainland made by sluices and ditches upon which
+was placed the Barbicans. The Keep, or Gloriette, as it is here termed,
+may have been modelled out of a late Norman Shell Keep, but has been
+much altered by additions and restorations. It contains a chapel built
+in 1380; the walls rise from the water to a considerable height and are
+arranged round a small middle court. In it are the dining-hall, the
+Queen's bed-chamber, and other domestic buildings, chiefly of the time
+of Henry VIII.
+
+From this island drawbridges permit of passage to the larger central
+island, around which a curtain wall of great strength has been built at
+the edge of the water with drum towers at the principal angles. Inside
+this was a second and concentric wall, thus forming an Inner and Outer
+Bailey, but only the southern gate of this has been preserved. It is
+probably of late Norman work. The domestic buildings occupied the
+northern end of the inner area, now superseded by a splendid mansion
+standing upon Norman foundations. Another drawbridge gives upon the
+artificial island upon the mainland previously mentioned, where the
+Inner Barbican stood, and beyond this again was a strong and massive
+Outer Barbican.
+
+[Illustration: WINDSOR CASTLE.]
+
+
+
+
+                                 CHAPTER IX
+
+                    THE CASTELLATED MANSION AND MANOR-HOUSE
+
+
+The reason for the disuse of castles is popularly attributed to the
+invention of gunpowder, but the introduction of cannon can hardly be
+accepted as entirely responsible for the decline, and we must therefore
+seek for other reasons which, added to the first, eventually succeeded
+in effecting their destruction and abandonment. The use of gunpowder was
+introduced into England in the first half of the fourteenth century, the
+first authentic date being 1327, when Edward III. employed it in his
+campaign against the Scots. The first reference by Froissart is in 1339,
+cannon being specifically mentioned, while at Cressy in 1346 there were
+a number of those weapons in use. These early pieces were, however, of
+small calibre and were provided with such indifferent powder that
+against the walls of a castle they were practically innocuous, and it
+was not until the invention of trunnions for cannon, and of bombards
+capable of throwing heavy spherical shot in the fifteenth century, that
+fortified places had anything to fear.
+
+But long before 1327 the English castle had begun to show signs of
+falling into abeyance, in fact but very few new structures of that class
+were erected after the close of the thirteenth century, and those that
+did spring into existence no longer exhibited the overwhelming strength
+and powers of resistance which stamped the erections of the preceding
+century. When prosecuting his war with France, Edward III., in 1337,
+endeavoured to leave the Kingdom in as defensible a condition as
+possible during his absence, and with that object in view ordered the
+keepers of the Royal castles to put their respective charges into
+first-class order. In spite of this a report upon their efficiency a few
+years later revealed the fact that several were utterly unfit to
+withstand a siege. In 1322, when the incensed Edward II. raised forces
+to avenge the insult to his queen by Bartholomew de Badlesmere at Leeds
+Castle, and quickly captured that place, Tickhill, Warwick, Tutbury, and
+others, the ease with which they fell into his hands indubitably proves
+that they were no longer in a thoroughly defensive condition. And this,
+be it remembered, was before the introduction of gunpowder.
+
+The economic conditions prevailing in the fourteenth century were also
+in antagonism to the persistence and growth of castles in the land.
+Military feudalism was in its death-throes, and the laws passed in the
+reign of Edward I.--notably the statute of Quia Emptores--were
+undoubtedly responsible for it. The barons no longer held the same
+position as formerly when they dictated terms to their own sovereign,
+and although a recrudescence of the power of the military nobility
+occurred during the time of the Wars of the Roses, that struggle was in
+reality but duels upon a large scale between a number of nobles who had
+been successful in maintaining a semblance of their former power. The
+Statute of Winchester gave almost unlimited rights to the King, whereby
+he could summon the commons to arms if a baron proved recalcitrant. The
+baronial castle necessarily became an anachronism to a large extent,
+since its owner no longer had the power to fill it with numerous
+retainers, and also because the King, by his overwhelming numbers,
+could easily capture it.
+
+The art of war had also changed consequent chiefly upon the
+extraordinary efficiency displayed by the English archer, whereby he
+became supreme upon the field of battle: the development of this superb
+infantry was under the entire management of the Crown and, consequently,
+the King became immeasurably superior in striking strength to any
+individual baron. The advantage began to rest with him who could put the
+most efficient battalions in the field, and not as formerly with the one
+who owned the greatest number of castles. Combined with these conditions
+there was the indubitable fact that a castle had acquired the reputation
+of being connected with oppression of the people, resistance to lawful
+power, and a refuge from justice for the wrongdoer. This was entirely
+incompatible with the great reforms insisted upon by Edward I., and
+passed into law by parliament; law and order became the rule and not the
+exception, and the position of the castle grew anomalous.
+
+[Illustration: SKIPTON CASTLE, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+With the ascendancy of an efficient administration of justice came the
+desire for comfort and a display of luxury, and probably no one who
+has become acquainted with the internal disposition of an early castle
+will qualify the assertion that the acme of discomfort and inconvenience
+must have prevailed within them.
+
+Consequent upon this alteration in the economic conditions of the
+nation, the need for the impregnable stronghold of the past ages ceased
+to exist, and in many parts of England, but more especially in the south
+and east, the existing structures were largely altered or added to in
+order to afford conditions suitable to the changed amenities of social
+life. These alterations in nearly every case were made at the sacrifice
+of efficiency, and many castles which had played a notable part in the
+history of the nation became merely the residences of their lords, who
+made no attempt to put them to their original uses in time of war.
+Arundel, the great midland castles of Warwick, Kenilworth, and many
+others, fall under this category.
+
+So far as gunpowder is concerned the part which it played in causing the
+abandonment of the feudal castle is strangely varied and dependent upon
+local circumstances. A well-found castle with an efficient and adequate
+garrison, supported by an army in active operation in the field, had no
+more to fear from an attack in the fifteenth century than it had in the
+thirteenth, perhaps not so much. Very few bombards of the period
+mentioned could throw stone shot weighing over 150 lbs., whereas the
+medieval trebuchet could hurl a missile of twice that weight, or even
+more, and to almost as great a distance. The effect of low-trajectory
+cannon upon castle walls in the fifteenth century under ordinary
+conditions may almost be left out of consideration, so small was the
+calibre. It is true that Sir Ralph Grey, when besieged in Bamborough
+Castle in 1464, was forced to surrender in a short space of time by the
+army of the Kingmaker, who used his basilisks, aspiks, serpentines,
+dragons, syrens, and sakers with excellent effect; but we may justly
+claim that this was an exception, the configuration of the ground
+enabling Warwick to place his pieces close up to the walls, while Grey
+could look for no effective relief from a sympathetic army outside. Ten
+years afterwards the Castle of Harlech, under the able governance of
+Davydd ap Ifan, held out against all the force that Edward IV. could
+bring to bear upon it, and was the last of the castles garrisoned by
+Lancastrians to render up its keys.
+
+But perhaps the greatest argument against the belief that the "venomous
+saltpetre" was the chief cause of the decline in castellation is that of
+the gallant resistance made by many of these old strongholds in the
+Great Civil War. At that time the newest of the castles was, perhaps,
+about two hundred years old and had not been constructed entirely for
+defence; the older structures were in many cases devoid of woodwork
+which had perished through age and neglect. Yet these ancient buildings,
+now once more called upon to play their part in deadly strife, in many
+cases showed a resistance to attack which was simply marvellous,
+sometimes, as in the case of Pembroke, defying the ordnance brought to
+bear upon them. If a Royalist army of respectable proportions happened
+to be in the vicinity of a beleaguered fortress, the Parliamentarians
+appeared to regard its reduction as an impossibility, and in the first
+place devoted their entire attention to the dispersal of the field
+force. It is true that the condition of the unmetalled trackways, which
+were dignified by the name of roads, at that time, presented almost
+insuperable obstacles to the passage of heavy ordnance, and the advance
+of a cumbrous baggage train was at times an impossibility.
+
+But even if cannon of respectable proportions could be brought against a
+castle in the Great Civil War, the effects produced were in many cases
+out of all proportion to the enormous trouble involved. Thus at the
+first siege of Pontefract Castle in 1644 a cannon throwing a 42-lb. shot
+was used in conjunction with another of 36 lbs. and two of 24 lbs., the
+least being 9 lbs., and yet the siege failed chiefly by reason of the
+small effect produced by the 1400 projectiles which were fired into it.
+Again although Scarborough Castle was quite ruinous in 1644 when its
+siege commenced, and in addition was ill-supplied with ammunition or
+food, yet it gallantly sustained a siege lasting for twelve months.
+
+It may therefore be conceded from the foregoing that the assertion
+respecting gunpowder causing the disuse of the castle in the British
+Isles must be taken with a large degree of reservation, since many other
+causes have to be considered, and even those who maintain the assertion
+must admit that the reason assigned took an unconscionably long time
+in effecting its object.
+
+[Illustration: IGHTHAM MOTE, KENT.]
+
+In the very few castles which saw their origin during the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries in Britain, domestic comforts and attempts at
+effective defensive works appear to have run side by side, often to the
+almost total exclusion of the latter. The substitution of brick for
+stone masonry in many of these was in itself a startling change, but
+when combined with this, large and lofty apartments were introduced,
+many with magnificent carved and moulded wooden ceilings, windows of
+large dimensions filled with beautiful tracery characteristic of
+Perpendicular architecture, walls hung with rich tapestry and decorated
+with gorgeous heraldic devices and trophies of arms, costly furniture
+and other fittings betokening an advanced education in domestic
+requirements,--the feeling was borne in upon the minds of the nation
+that the feudal castle, as such, had seen its day, and that the age of
+the baronial residence and the manorial dwelling-house had superseded
+it.
+
+In these later castellated residences the kitchens, larders, cellars,
+dining halls, residential rooms and general offices became matters of
+supreme moment, the defensive works of secondary importance, but
+designed nevertheless with a view to impressiveness and an assumption of
+strength which they rarely possessed. Within these lordly halls the
+noble owners held high revel, while troops of servitors, henchmen, and
+servants of every degree swarmed in the passages and halls in marked
+contradistinction to the old time grim men-at-arms, bearded archers, and
+steel-clad retainers of the feudal fortress.
+
+There was naturally a period of transition during which the
+characteristics of the Castle predominated over the domestic influences,
+and those which sprang into existence during the reigns of Henry IV. and
+V. very ably show this feature. To this intermediate period we may
+ascribe those structures which were chiefly reared by the spoils
+acquired upon the Continent by soldiers of fortune who "followed the
+wars," and returning to their native land built palatial residences for
+themselves, out of their lawful, or it may be, ill-acquired, gains. Many
+of these were based upon designs which the adventurers had seen abroad,
+thus our first example, Bodiam, is a replica of many castles which were
+to be found at the time of its erection in Gascony. _Bodiam Castle_ is
+one of the finest in Sussex, and certainly one of the most picturesque
+in England; it is situated upon the Rother, which here forms the
+boundary between Sussex and Kent. The building owes its origin to Sir
+Edward Dalyngrugge, who had served in France and Spain under the Black
+Prince with singular credit to himself and marked advantage to his
+worldly estate. A portion of this superfluous wealth was expended in
+erecting Bodiam Castle, which, while affording every comfort as a
+residence, possessed most of the essential qualities for effective
+defence.
+
+It presents a singularly beautiful and romantic spectacle at the present
+time, the towers and enceinte being entire, while a wealth of foliage
+and the wide waters of the surrounding moat afford a _coup d'oeil_
+seldom equalled and probably not excelled in England. The licence to
+crenellate dates from 1386; the building was erected in the middle of a
+lake connected with the river, thus forming a broad and deep moat. A
+causeway, defended by an ingenious system of bridges and small gateways,
+leads across the latter, and terminates in a small barbican, now partly
+dismantled; the entrance is between two tall square towers which
+present beautiful examples of machicolation upon their summits. Upon the
+opposite, or south face, is the postern leading to the moat and defended
+by a massive square tower, being one of nine in all surrounding the
+enclosure. The interior is now simply an empty shell, all the domestic
+buildings having been destroyed by Sir William Waller in 1643, after the
+siege of Arundel, although the Chapel and the chief apartments are
+capable of being located. We have therefore simply the outer walls
+remaining of a particularly fine castle of the Perpendicular period.
+
+The entrance consists of a vaulted passage with many openings for the
+discharge of missiles upon assailants while they were endeavouring to
+overcome the three portcullises and the massive wooden gate defending
+it. In addition to ordinary loopholes there are round holes for the
+discharge of harquebuses. The castle underwent a siege by the Earl of
+Surrey in the reign of Richard III. in consequence of a descendant of
+Sir Thomas Lewkenor, into whose hands it had passed, proving obnoxious
+to the King.
+
+_Shirburn Castle_ is also of the same type and very similar to Bodiam;
+it dates from the year 1377 and was erected by Warine de Lisle who
+had gained wealth and distinction under Edward III. It stands in the
+Chiltern Hills near Stokenchurch and is a large square pile surrounded
+by a broad moat.
+
+[Illustration: WRESSLE CASTLE, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+_Wressle Castle, Yorkshire._--The Castle of Wressle lies to the
+south-east of York, near the junction of the Derwent with the Ouse, the
+navigation of which it was probably designed to protect. Sir Thomas
+Percy, the brother of the first Earl of Northumberland, is reputed to
+have been the founder. It fell to the Crown, and Henry IV. granted it to
+his son John, Earl of Bedford, and after his demise to Sir Thomas Percy,
+son of Henry, the second Earl of Northumberland. The Percies seem to
+have maintained their Court in the Castle with a magnificence befitting
+their illustrious race, and during their occupation the Castle saw the
+most glorious portion of its history.
+
+In 1642 and 1648 it was garrisoned by the Parliamentarians and shortly
+afterwards was ordered to be dismantled. Three sides of the quadrangle
+were thrown down, leaving only the south façade. It was in the
+possession of the Seymour family from 1682 to 1750, when it again
+passed into the hands of descendants of the Percy family, and now is
+owned by Lord Leconfield.
+
+The building originally possessed five towers, one at each corner and
+another over the entrance on the south side, which still remains,
+together with the curtain wall and flanking towers. These present a very
+imposing appearance, but the general effect of the ruins suggests the
+castellated mansion of the Perpendicular period more than the grim
+sternness of a medieval castle. The square corner towers appear
+singularly inadequate for an effective flanking fire, and no doubt the
+building relied for defence chiefly upon the broad moat which
+encompassed it upon three sides and the deep dry ditch defending the
+approach.
+
+_Hever_ undoubtedly owes its fame partly to its magnificent gatehouse,
+which forms by far the most impressive part of the structure, and partly
+to the rich store of human interest imparted by its intimate connection
+with the ill-fated Anne Boleyn. It was built in the reign of Edward III.
+by Sir William de Hever, whose daughter brought it to her husband, Lord
+Cobham. In the time of Henry VI., Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, Lord Mayor of
+London, an opulent mercer, purchased it, and added greatly to the
+existing buildings, the work being subsequently finished by his
+grandson, Sir Thomas, the father of Anne.
+
+[Illustration: HEVER CASTLE, KENT.]
+
+The latter was born in 1501, and brought up at Hever under a French
+governess. After she attracted the notice of the King, her father was
+created Viscount Rochford, and Earl of Wiltshire and Ormond, while Anne
+was made Marchioness of Pembroke. It was in the garden at Hever that
+Henry first saw her, and subsequently his wooing of that unfortunate
+queen occurred there. After the execution of Anne and her brother, the
+castle went to the Crown and was settled on Anne of Cleves. In 1557 Sir
+Edward Waldegrave purchased it, and it passed to Sir William Humfreys
+and subsequently to Sir T. Waldo, whose descendant is the present owner.
+
+The Castle is surrounded by a double moat, fed by the river Eden; it is
+a small castellated house of the fifteenth century, the chief feature
+being the superb entrance, battlemented and machicoulied, and containing
+three portcullis grooves in the main passage. The buildings completing
+the rectangle are chiefly of the Elizabethan period, but have been very
+extensively restored by the present owner.
+
+_Maxstoke_ is one of the very few castles which have come down to us
+without the expression "dismantled by order of Parliament" being applied
+to it. It affords us an idea of the beauty the face of England would
+present, so far as magnificent castles are concerned, if the forces of
+destruction and revolution had never been let loose upon our fair isle.
+It dates from 1346, when William de Clynton, Earl of Huntingdon,
+obtained licence to crenellate. The Duke of Buckingham owned and
+occupied it in 1444; he was killed at Northampton in 1460, and his son
+Humphrey, Earl of Stafford, having died of wounds received at the First
+Battle of St. Albans in 1455, his grandson Henry succeeded him but
+was beheaded without trial at Salisbury in 1483. Edward Stafford,
+however, succeeded to the estates in the reign of Henry VII.; his death
+by beheading occurred on Tower Hill in 1521. Maxstoke came to the Crown
+but was given by Henry VIII. to Sir William Compton, from whose
+descendants it was purchased by the family of Dilke in whose possession
+it still remains.
+
+[Illustration: MAXTOKE CASTLE, WARWICKSHIRE.]
+
+The gatehouse is in excellent preservation, the entrance being
+flanked by hexagonal towers, while the archway contains the grooves for
+the portcullis, and also the old gates themselves, plated with iron and
+bearing the arms of the Stafford family. A fine groined roof is inside
+the gatehouse, while the battlements have an alur behind them. The walls
+of the enceinte and the four towers at the corners are in good
+preservation, and show marks of the wooden buildings formerly erected
+against them for accommodating the soldiers. The Chapel and a number of
+the domestic apartments are original, dating from the time of Edward
+III.
+
+_Raglan_, one of the most imposing ruins in the British Isles, was
+erected shortly after 1415 by Sir William ap Thomas, who had returned
+rich in honours and also in worldly wealth from many a stricken field,
+the last being that of Agincourt. He married the daughter of Sir David
+Gam, and commenced the erection of the magnificent building which
+combines in such an excellent manner the characteristics of a mansion
+and a fortress. If either predominates it is undoubtedly the warlike
+portion since, presumably, the builder could not at once forget his
+bellicose proclivities. His son was made a baron by Edward IV. and
+afterwards Earl of Pembroke, and was beheaded at Northampton, 1469. The
+Castle came into the possession of the Somersets in 1503, the ancestors
+of the present Duke of Beaufort. The fifth earl carried out extensive
+work upon the pile, but shortly afterwards the demolition of the Castle
+was ordered by the parliament. Probably the most striking feature of the
+Castle is the detached Keep lying to the left of the main entrance, and
+called the Yellow Tower. It is surrounded by a wide and deep moat, and
+was undoubtedly a formidable obstacle before being slighted. It
+underwent a vigorous siege in 1646, when Sir Thomas Fairfax assailed it
+with a large force. The garrison ran short of ammunition, and, the north
+wall being breached, a capitulation ensued.
+
+_Herstmonceaux Castle._--One of the finest examples of the later castles
+is Herstmonceaux, in Sussex, dating from the year 1440. It has been
+described as "the most perfect example of the mansion of a feudal lord
+in the south of England," and, when visited by Walpole in 1752, was in a
+perfect state of preservation; Grose, writing a few decades later, gives
+a vivid description of all the principal apartments, which seem to have
+suffered but little at that time. Now, however, when there is some
+rumour prevailing of an intended restoration, the building is in
+ruins,--roofless, ivy-grown, and in many parts dismantled by the
+falling-in of roofs and floors. It is built of the small bricks then in
+use, two inches or less in thickness; they were brought to England from
+Belgium, strange to say the art of brick-making having apparently been
+lost since the departure of the Romans. Belgian workmen were also
+brought over to erect it.
+
+Sir Roger Fiennes, an Agincourt veteran, was the founder, and probably
+the site had borne a previous fortalice. Like Bodiam, erected some
+half-century previously, the plan is quadrilateral, almost square, with
+four octagonal towers at the corners and three of pentagonal plan
+strengthening the curtain walls. The gateway is one of the finest and
+most impressive in existence; the towers which flank it rise over 80
+feet in height, cylindrical at the upper parts and superposed upon 50
+feet of octagonal bases, with smaller turrets rising still higher above
+them. A magnificent range of machicoulis with crenellation above
+protects the towers and the curtain between, the merlons being pierced
+with oillets. A moat, long since dry, encircles the building, a bridge
+spanning it at the principal entrance. There are three tiers of cross
+loopholes, and below occur openings for matchlocks to defend the
+bridge. With the exception of the grand towers of the south gateway and
+the shells of some adjoining buildings, there are only broken arches and
+shattered walls, piers, and buttresses now to be seen, and it is only by
+the description left by Grose and Walpole that the ichnography of the
+interior can be traced. Wyatt the architect is responsible for the
+vandalism committed, as he dismantled the Castle to furnish material for
+the owner's new residence adjacent.
+
+[Illustration: HERSTMONCEAUX CASTLE, SUSSEX.]
+
+Although Herstmonceaux has never undergone any struggles in the "fell
+arbitrament of war," yet painful memories cling to the ruins. Thomas
+Fiennes, the ninth Lord Dacre, succeeded to the estate at the age of
+seventeen. The youth had already laid the foundation of a brilliant
+career at Court when an escapade, planned by himself and some madcap
+companions, whereby they essayed to play the rôle of poachers upon a
+neighbouring estate, led to the death of a keeper whom they encountered.
+His three companions were arrested and hanged for murder near
+Deptford; Dacre was also tried and condemned, and the sentence was duly
+executed at Tyburn in 1541, the young man being twenty-five years old at
+the time.
+
+_Tattershall Castle_, on the Witham in Lincolnshire, is contemporary
+with Herstmonceaux, and constructed likewise of Flemish brick bonded
+with exquisite workmanship. The tower still standing contains four
+stories with a total altitude of 112 feet; large Gothic-headed windows
+occur filled with Perpendicular tracery, and these windows are repeated
+on a smaller scale in the four octagonal towers which clamp the angles
+of the building. Massive timber balks once supported the various floors,
+and a number of carved chimney-pieces are to be found. The walls are
+about 14 feet thick at the base, and many passages and apartments have
+been made in their thickness. The well in the base is covered by a
+massive arched crypt, upon which the Castle has been erected. But
+perhaps the most notable feature in this beautiful relic of the past is
+the grand and markedly-perfect system of machicolation combined with the
+bretasche, which is exemplified in the cornice surmounting the tops of
+the curtain walls. Upon massive stone corbels is built a substantial
+stone wall pierced with square apertures for an all-round fire with
+various arms; in the floor of the alur are the openings for dropping
+missiles upon assailants at the base of the walls; above this again are
+the merlons and embrasures giving upon the battlement walk.
+
+The Castle was erected by Ralph, Lord Cromwell, treasurer to King Henry
+V., whose vast wealth sought for an opening in which to display itself,
+and probably could not have done so more effectively than in the rearing
+of a magnificent pile of buildings of which but a small portion, the
+tower described, now remains. In its later years it suffered a partial
+dismantling during the Commonwealth period, followed by a rifling in the
+eighteenth century similar to that which overtook the sister castle of
+Herstmonceaux.
+
+After the middle of the fifteenth century castles were no longer built,
+and we have to look to the fortified manor-house such as was designed by
+the Lord Cromwell above mentioned at Wingfield, Derbyshire, or that at
+Exburgh in Norfolk; these when surrounded by moats were capable of being
+placed in a good state of defence, and many a thrilling tale is told
+of the sieges they underwent during the Civil War when the stout
+resistance they made was nearly or quite equal to the defence of the
+massive ramparts and cyclopean bastions of the earlier castle-builder.
+
+[Illustration: PENSHURST PLACE. KENT.]
+
+_Penshurst Place._--This was originally an embattled mansion of the
+fourteenth century, and gradually expanded by constant additions into an
+excellent example of a combined castle and a manorial dwelling-house.
+The licence to crenellate is dated the fifteenth year of Edward III.,
+and stands in the name of Sir John de Pulteneye. This opulent knight
+erected a stately mansion in the form of an irregular square as to plan.
+It reverted to the Crown in the reign of Henry VI. and was held by the
+Duke of Bedford, Regent for a time, and then by his brother, Humphrey,
+Duke of Gloucester. The Staffords held it afterwards, but at the decease
+of the Duke of Buckingham Edward VI. gave it to Ralph Fane and then to
+Sir William Sydney, one of the heroes of Flodden Field. Its associations
+with Sir Philip Sydney form one of its chief claims upon the public. The
+spacious Hall measures 60 feet in length by the same in height; it is 40
+feet wide, and is a grand example of fourteenth-century architecture.
+The beautiful windows reach from the floor to a considerable height, the
+roof is open, there is a minstrels' gallery, and an elaborate
+arrangement for the fire in the middle of the Hall. Adjacent is a range
+of buildings much altered in the Elizabethan period, containing state
+rooms, the Queen's drawing-room, etc. Portions of the wall of enceinte
+are to be found upon the south and east.
+
+_Ightham Mote._--This building is undoubtedly one of the most perfect
+examples of the combination of domestic convenience with an efficient
+system of defence to be found in England. It stands about two miles from
+Ightham village in Kent in a deep hollow, through which runs a rivulet
+flowing into the moat surrounding the House, from which the latter takes
+its name. Ivo de Haut possessed the Mote in the reign of Henry II.; it
+reverted to the Crown for a time in the reign of Richard III., but was
+restored to the family, and subsequently passed through the hands of
+many owners.
+
+The House appears to be of three distinct periods, Edward II., Henry
+VII., and Elizabeth. The Hall is of the first period; it has a slender
+stone arch to carry the roof and contains many ancient features; some
+of the original shingles, for example, are still in existence, though a
+modern roof covers them. Other objects are a Chapel, original, and the
+Gateway Tower with the gateway itself and the doors.
+
+There are many examples in England of the simple manorial hall of purely
+domestic type whose owners found it expedient, at some critical period,
+to fortify in some manner, and these additions are of the greatest
+interest to the antiquarian. Perhaps the best example to be found is
+that of Stokesay, near Ludlow, which is a unique specimen of a small
+mansion of the thirteenth century subsequently fortified. The licence is
+dated 1291, and a stone wall is mentioned; only a few yards remain of
+this.
+
+A wide ditch surrounds the area, and a high tower, similar to two towers
+joined together, affords the required defence. It is embattled, the
+merlons being pierced, while the embrasures have the ancient shutters
+still depending. It dates from the end of the thirteenth century. The
+Hall stands adjacent and vies with that at Winchester in being the most
+perfect example of a thirteenth-century hall remaining to us. It is
+about 50 feet long by 30 wide and over 30 feet in height. The windows
+are in the E.E. style, and the corbels carrying the roof are of the same
+period. The lord's apartment overlooked the Hall. It has been occupied
+by the de Says, the Verduns, and ten generations of the Ludlows, the
+first of whom built the crenellated parts. The prompt surrender of the
+Cavalier garrison to the Parliamentarian army is no doubt responsible
+for the fact that no destruction of the House occurred at that critical
+time.
+
+The examples given of the Castellated Mansion and fortified Manor-House
+are necessarily meagre in number, and many more, such as Broughton
+Castle in Oxfordshire, Sudley in Gloucestershire, Wingfield Manor,
+Derbyshire; Hilton, Durham; Hampton Court, Hereford; Whitton, Durham,
+etc., call for remark if the exigencies of space permitted.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER X
+
+                         THE CASTLES OF SCOTLAND
+
+
+_Prehistoric and other Earthworks._--The numerous remains of strongholds
+and defensive works of a prehistoric character readily fall as a rule
+under one of the divisions used in describing the English examples. They
+are usually of a circular or oval formation, and where irregular the
+shape has been determined by the site.
+
+The Hill-forts, known as Vitrified Forts, are, however, not represented
+in England, and, although found in a few places upon the Continent,
+appear to have been chiefly developed in Scotland. By some means, not
+definitely determined as yet, the walls of these strongholds have been
+subjected to intense heat, whereby the stones have become plastic, and
+amalgamated when cool into one coherent mass. It is unnecessary to
+dilate upon the obvious advantages which a homogeneous defence of this
+nature would possess. These forts chiefly lie in a broad band between
+the Moray Firth and Argyle and Wigtown, and are generally constructed of
+igneous rocks; when provided with a suitable flux of alkali in the form
+of wood-ashes or seaweed a comparatively moderate heat would be
+sufficient to cause fusion. The walls of Vitrified Forts are of about
+half the thickness of unvitrified, and appear to belong to the Late
+Celtic Age.
+
+_Brochs_ are also peculiar to Scotland. They are massive, tower-like
+buildings, chiefly occurring in the northern counties and upon the
+islands; they are remarkably similar in outline and construction, and
+they have been ascribed chronologically to the period immediately before
+or after the Roman occupation of Britain, and as being essentially
+Celtic. The Broch of Mousa is generally believed to be the most perfect
+example extant; it is in Shetland, and consists of a wall 15 feet thick
+enclosing a court 20 feet in diameter. The wall is about 45 feet in
+height and contains a solitary entrance, narrow and low. In the
+thickness of the wall, and approached by three internal openings, are
+chambers, while a spiral staircase leads upwards to where passages
+constructed in the walls are served by the stairway. Other Brochs which
+have been examined appear to possess a similarity of plan, but some have
+subsidiary defences in the shape of external walls, ramparts, and
+fosses; thus the example at Clickamin, Lerwick, was surrounded by a
+stone wall. That found upon Cockburn Law, and known as Odin's, or Edin's
+Hold, is of note by reason of the double rampart of earth surrounding
+it. It is one of the largest as yet discovered, the wall being 17 feet
+thick and the area 56 feet wide. Probably the many hut circles which
+surround this Broch are of later date and were formed from its ruins.
+The great thickness of the wall is exceeded, however, by the Broch at
+Torwoodlee, Selkirkshire, by 6 inches.
+
+With the advent of the historical period firmer ground is reached, and
+there are numerous evidences that the Motte and Bailey Castle was
+introduced at an early period into Scotland. During the second half of
+the eleventh century this was the prevailing type as in England.
+
+It has been found possible to divide the era of castellation proper in
+the northern kingdom into four distinct periods:
+
+_First Period_, 1100-1300.--The roving spirit and warlike disposition of
+the Normans prompted their adventurers to penetrate into the
+fastnesses of the North, where the innovations they introduced made
+them acceptable in the main to the inhabitants. They taught the latter
+how to raise towers of a design based upon the Rectangular Keep, with
+thick cemented walls, and many of the great fortresses, such as
+Edinburgh, Stirling, and Dumbarton, originated at this time. The early
+type of Keep was quadrangular in plan with towers at the angles, which
+were sometimes detached from the main building and placed upon short
+curtain walls; but some were naturally modified or specially adapted to
+the site like those of Home and Loch Doon. The use of water as a defence
+was recognised at an early stage; some towers were placed on islands in
+lakes, and most of them were furnished with moats and ditches. At this
+period castles were seldom placed upon high promontories. The
+workmanship was as a rule poor, rough, and crude, but some exceptions
+occur like Kildrummie and Dirleton.
+
+_Second Period_, 1300-1400.--The years of this century were marked in
+Scotland by anarchy, war, and bloodshed, which devastated the kingdom
+and placed the arts of peace in complete abeyance, while poverty was
+universal. The period was consequently unfavourable for the erection of
+Scottish castles upon a large scale, but many scores of small Keeps
+sprang into existence. Bruce was antagonistic to the building of large
+and roomy castles, arguing that their capture by an invader would give
+him a standing in the country which otherwise he would not possess.
+
+The towers erected were based upon the Norman Keep; they were of stone
+throughout, so that their destruction by fire was impossible. Their
+walls were so thick and massive that restoration after a siege was easy.
+The basement was always vaulted, and was intended for storage purposes
+and the herding of cattle in an emergency. As a general rule it had no
+interior communication with the upper floors, but trap-doors are not
+unknown. The entrance to the building was on the first storey through a
+narrow door reached by a ladder; it gave upon the Hall, the chief
+apartment, where all dined in common, and the household slept, a
+subsidiary half floor being constructed above for this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: BARTIZAN.]
+
+The second floor was the private apartment of the chieftain and his
+family, and was also provided with a wooden gallery for sleeping
+purposes. The roof was a pointed arch resting solidly upon the walls and
+covered with stone slabs. At the angles of the building bartizans were
+usually built, although rounded corners like those at Neidpath and Drum
+sometimes occur. In the massive walls spiral staircases, small rooms,
+cupboards, and other conveniences were arranged. Round the Tower a wall
+was generally erected, within which the stables, offices, and kitchens
+were built. In the wall of the Tower itself, and sometimes below the
+level of the ground, the universal "pit" or prison was built, ventilated
+by a shaft carried upwards in the thickness of the wall. At times the
+battlements were provided with parapets resting upon corbels but
+executed in a crude manner.
+
+[Illustration: BOTHWELL CASTLE, LANARKSHIRE.]
+
+The century in question saw numerous castles of this type come into
+existence, all based upon the same plan, that of the king differing only
+in size from that of the small chieftain. The largest are from 40 to 60
+feet square, but the majority are much smaller. These Keeps formed
+nuclei for subsequent additions as at Loch Leven, Craigmillar, Campbell,
+and Aros, and many of them served as ordinary residences down to the
+seventeenth century, long after the tide of war had passed.
+
+_Third Period_, 1400-1550.--With the coming of peace and a period of
+commercial and industrial prosperity, the nobles of Scotland were able
+to observe the progress of castellation around them in England and
+France, and began to adopt the styles which they found in those
+countries. A type of castle appeared based like that of Bodium upon a
+French ideal,--the building of a high embattled wall strengthened with
+towers around a quadrangular space. This plan, derived from the
+Concentric ideal, was adopted for the largest castles, such as Stirling,
+which is the most perfect example of a courtyard plan, and Tantallon.
+
+In the smaller castles the Hall is placed in the centre with the
+kitchen, pantry, and buttery adjoining it, and the lord's solar and
+private apartments at the daïs end. The wine-vaults and cellars are
+built beneath, while the bedrooms occur above. In contrast to the
+English buildings of the period, the question of defence was the
+dominating idea in spite of the altered conditions of better living and
+increased luxury. Many plain and simple Keeps were also built during
+this period.
+
+_Fourth Period, after_ 1550.--The development of artillery led to
+alterations being made in castellation, while the progress of the
+Reformation gradually introduced the fortified mansion and Manor-House.
+Many small Keeps, or Peel Towers, were built, however, chiefly on the
+Border. Ornamentation up to this period had been conspicuously absent,
+but now it assumed a very high importance. Corbelling became almost a
+mania,--floors, windows, parapets, chimneys, and other details
+projecting to an excessive distance in order to enhance the effect. The
+bartizans were covered with high conical roofs, and turrets similarly
+ornamented became a prominent style. The accommodation in the upper
+floors was greatly increased when compared with the basement, through
+the excess of corbelling. Gables were furnished with crow-steps, while
+machicolation became at times almost fantastic. Gargoyles shaped like
+cannon in stone are a marked feature of the period.
+
+
+_Bothwell Castle, Lanarkshire (1st Period)_
+
+Bothwell Castle is generally termed the grandest ruin of a
+thirteenth-century castle in Scotland. It belonged in the thirteenth
+century to the Murray family; was captured by Edward I. and given to
+Aymer de Valence, Earl of Pembroke. The English had possession until the
+year 1337 when, after capturing it, the Scots dismantled it. From the
+Douglas family it passed by marriage to the Earls of Home. It is placed
+upon a rocky promontory above the Clyde, and consists of an oblong
+courtyard with high curtain walls and strengthening towers, round or
+square, while a large circular donjon lies at the west end. The latter
+bestrides the enceinte and is separated from the bailey by a moat; it is
+of noble proportions, 60 feet in diameter and 90 feet high, with walls
+15 feet thick. The Tower forcibly suggests that at Coucy in many
+particulars. The Hall and various other apartments occupy the eastern
+portion of the Bailey.
+
+
+_Neidpath Castle_ (_2nd Period_)
+
+Neidpath Castle is situated upon elevated land overlooking a winding of
+the Tweed. It was built upon the =L= plan, probably in the fourteenth
+century, being a main central tower of the Keep type with a square
+projection of considerable size attached to one side. The walls are 11
+feet in thickness and the original door was on the basement floor facing
+the river, a departure from the general rule. A spiral stair gave access
+to the upper storeys. The Tower was originally of enormous strength,
+being really two immense vaults superposed upon each other, but other,
+wooden, floors have been inserted between. The parapet and corners are
+rounded similar to those at Drum Castle. It was greatly altered and
+added to in the seventeenth century. No particular history attaches to
+the building, which belonged to the Hays of Yester for centuries; it has
+only undergone one siege, that by Cromwell, when it surrendered after a
+short defence.
+
+[Illustration: NEIDPATH CASTLE, PEEBLES.]
+
+
+_Edinburgh Castle (3rd Period)_
+
+The site of Edinburgh Castle has undoubtedly been occupied by some
+description of fortress from the most remote antiquity. The Romans
+occupied it and subsequently Malcolm Canmore fortified it as an aid
+towards keeping the English out of Scotland. In 1291 Edward I. besieged
+and took it in fifteen days; he recaptured it again in 1294. In 1313 it
+fell into the hands of Bruce by a daring escalade, and was stripped of
+its defences. Edward III. rebuilt it, and placed a strong garrison
+there, but the Scots took it four years later. David II. refortified it
+and rendered it so strong that neither Richard II. nor Henry IV. had any
+success in their attempts to take it. Since that period it has undergone
+a number of sieges.
+
+It is built upon the courtyard plan, and is one of the survivors of the
+four chief fortresses in the country, the others being Stirling,
+Roxburgh, and Berwick.
+
+The moat at the entrance is now dry and filled up, and the Gateway there
+is modern. The Argyle Tower (sometimes called the St. David's Tower) is
+a portion of the old castle, as are also the ruins of the Wellhouse
+Tower, while St. Margaret's Chapel is the oldest building and also the
+oldest church in Scotland, containing Early Norman work and probably
+also Saxon. The general aspect of the Castle suffers much from a
+picturesque point of view by the addition of the great demi-lune battery
+and ranges of modern buildings.
+
+
+_Stirling Castle (3rd Period)_
+
+The commanding rock upon which Stirling Castle is placed was originally
+an old hill fort, but in the twelfth century was one of the four chief
+castles. Thus in 1304 it held out for three months against Edward I. and
+a powerful army. So important was it considered that Edward II.
+attempted to relieve it, and thus led to Bannockburn. Baliol occupied
+it, and King David only captured it after a long and obstinate siege. At
+the Stuart period it became a Royal Castle and the favourite residence
+of the Scottish kings. The present walls are undoubtedly raised upon the
+old foundations, but, so far as antiquity is concerned, the oldest part
+of the Castle remaining is the Parliament Hall opening from the Inner
+Ward which is of late Perpendicular architecture. The Palace is of the
+Renaissance, and dates from 1594.
+
+[Illustration: EDINBURGH CASTLE, FROM THE TERRACE OF HERIOT'S HOSPITAL.]
+
+
+_Dunnottar Castle, Kincardineshire (3rd Period)_
+
+One mile south of Stonehaven stands Dunnottar Castle, upon a flat
+platform of rock with the North Sea washing three of the precipitous
+sides. A small isthmus, not much above the level of the sea, connects it
+to the mainland.
+
+The oldest parts of the Castle date from c. 1382. The entrance is at the
+base of the rock upon the land side, where an outwork of remarkable
+strength is placed. After ascending a steep incline a tunnel 26 feet
+long is reached, also defended, and a second similar defence occurs
+beyond, thus the approach was of an extremely formidable character.
+
+The Keep stands at the south-west corner, and is of the =L= shape four
+stories in height, and built early in the fifteenth century. The stables
+and domestic buildings are of a later date, and arranged round part of
+an irregular courtyard. The Castle, although credited with being one of
+the most impregnable in Scotland, and to which the Scottish regalia was
+entrusted for safe keeping during the Commonwealth, was captured by Sir
+William Wallace in 1297, whose troops scaled the precipices and put the
+English garrison of 4000 men to the sword. In 1336 Edward III.
+refortified it, but the Scots took it as soon as he had left the
+kingdom. General Lambert blockaded the Castle in 1652, and eventually
+captured it.
+
+
+_Tantallon Castle (3rd Period)_
+
+Tantallon Castle is of the courtyard type, similar to Caerlaverock and
+Doune, and was erected about the end of the fourteenth century. Situated
+upon a rocky precipitous site, with three sides washed by the North Sea,
+it was only imperative to construct defences upon the fourth or west
+side. A deep ditch cut in the rock, curtain walls 12 feet thick and 50
+feet high, battlemented, with a level court in front, beyond which was
+another deep ditch,--these were the defences deemed all-sufficient to
+baffle intruders. The Keep also acted as a flanking defence to the
+curtain walls, and contained the only entrance, which passed
+completely through it. Many traces exist of the work carried out in
+the early part of the sixteenth century in the endeavour to make it
+impregnable to artillery. The buildings now occupy only two sides of the
+interior quadrangle, the rest having been dismantled.
+
+[Illustration: DUNNOTTAR CASTLE, KINCARDINESHIRE.]
+
+In the rich history of the Castle we find that in 1528 James V. invested
+it with 20,000 men and a formidable battering train, the structure
+itself being supplied with large artillery. The siege lasted twenty days
+and proved unavailing, the great thickness of the walls resisting the
+efforts of the gunners. It underwent another siege in 1639 when the Earl
+of Angus made a stand in it against the Covenanters. General Monk
+invested it and found after two days that his mortars had no effect; he
+then tried heavy siege guns which breached the wall, but the garrisons
+retreated into the central tower where they were safe, and were allowed
+to capitulate upon good terms. The fortress fell into ruin in the
+beginning of the eighteenth century.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER XI
+
+                 THE SIEGE AND DEFENCE OF A MEDIEVAL CASTLE
+
+
+A work upon castellation would undoubtedly be incomplete if it omitted
+to deal with the interesting subject of the means by which the medieval
+knight defended his castle, and of the methods he employed for attacking
+his neighbour's, or an enemy's town, whether in a private feud or
+legitimate warfare.
+
+Through the almost universal habit of perusing medieval romances the
+general public has formed a mental picture of the hero and his followers
+riding round a castle and summoning it to surrender, or challenging the
+garrison to emerge from their retreat and essay mortal combat in the
+open. As the engineer and captain of the sappers and miners, the
+director of the artillery, the designer of movable towers, and the
+general head of the various artifices calculated to bring the besieged
+to their senses, the hero is less well known.
+
+The _coup de main_ method of attack has probably been the same in most
+ages, and undoubtedly was the chief means resorted to by primitive man.
+His missile weapons during the Stone, Bronze, and Early Iron Ages were
+of no use against earth ramparts crowned by thick palisading; sling,
+stones, arrows, and spears were only efficacious against the bodies of
+his enemies, and hand-to-hand combat was therefore a necessity. Hence we
+may imagine a concentration against a presumably weak point, a sudden
+rush, the plunge into the dry ditch and a rapid scramble up the scarp
+towards the palisades under a shower of arrows, stones, and other
+missiles; the mad escalade of the defences surmounting the earthwork and
+the fierce resistance of the defenders, followed by a successful entry
+or a disastrous repulse and retreat.
+
+Precisely the same course was pursued in the medieval period when a
+rapid bridging of the moat by planks and beams would be attempted,
+scaling ladders would be reared, and, protected by their shields from
+the rain of missiles, the assailants, covered by their archers' fire of
+arrows and bolts upon the ramparts, would mount their ladders and
+attempt to effect a lodgment upon the walls. And, although weapons and
+conditions have changed, the assault to-day is made upon the self-same
+methods.
+
+If, instead of the _coup de main_, a sustained siege is decided upon the
+knight will order his "gyns" to be brought up to the front, and large
+and heavy ones to be built upon the spot. From the time when Uzziah
+"made in Jerusalem engines, invented by cunning men, to be on the towers
+and upon the bulwarks, to shoot arrows and great stones withal,"[1] down
+to the invention of cannon, the ingenuity of man has been exercised in
+devising machines for hurling missiles to a distance.
+
+The Greeks, Romans, and other nations of antiquity brought them to
+perfection, and marvellous results were obtained in ancient sieges; the
+vivid account by Plutarch of the great engines used at the attack upon
+Syracuse, B.C. 214-212, reads almost like romance. Caesar frequently
+mentions this artillery, and especially the portable balistae for
+throwing arrows and casting stones; they were fitted with axles and
+wheels and manoeuvred like batteries of cannon at the present day.
+Larger engines were constructed as required like those of the medieval
+period.
+
+[Footnote 1: 2 Chron. xxvi. 15.]
+
+[Illustration: TANTALLON CASTLE, HADDINGTONSHIRE.]
+
+The ancient engines were distinct from those of a later age in depending
+for their efficacy upon the forces of tension and torsion as compared
+with that of counterpoise in the middle ages. The art of preparing the
+sinews of animals so as to preserve their elastic powers was known to
+the ancients, and great bundles so treated were utilised in different
+ways in the various engines. Experiments on sinews, ropes of hair, and
+other materials at the present day have proved that loss of elasticity
+soon occurs, whereas we learn that such was not the fact in classical
+times with their special method of preparation. By fixing an endless
+skein in a suitable frame, stretching it tightly and then twisting the
+skein in the centre by means of a beam of wood, the necessary torsion
+was obtained; if a missile were placed upon the beam when drawn back and
+the beam released, the projectile would be hurled to a distance
+proportionate to the velocity of the arm and the weight of the missile.
+
+The principle may readily be gleaned from the accompanying diagram which
+exemplifies the two vertical skeins used in a portable balista for
+throwing arrows; by being fixed in a suitable frame an action like that
+of the bow could be obtained. By using immense coils of twisted sinew
+the nations of antiquity, and especially the Greeks, threw stones
+weighing 50 lbs. or more to a distance of from 400 to 500 yards, and as
+a general rule with marvellous accuracy, while lighter missiles are
+stated to have been hurled to between 700 and 800 yards. These engines
+received the general name of "catapults," although the Greeks generally
+referred to them under the term "tormentum," in reference to the twisted
+sinews, thongs, and hair, of which the skeins were made. Broadly
+speaking, catapults shot darts, arrows, and the falarica,--a long
+iron-headed pole; balistas projected stones or similar missiles, though
+the names are often interchanged by the chroniclers. Some time after the
+fall of the Roman empire the secret of preparing the sinews was lost.
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSTRUCTION IN
+CLASSICAL ENGINES.]
+
+_The Trebuchet._--Another force was called into play for medieval
+artillery. This was the counterpoise, or gravitation, and the principle
+upon which all large engines or "gyns" were constructed during the
+middle ages. A long wooden arm was pivoted in a framework so that a
+short and a long portion projected upon either side; to the shorter part
+a great weight in a swinging cradle was fixed which necessarily raised
+the longer arm to the vertical position. If the latter were drawn
+backwards and downwards the great weight was accordingly raised, and
+upon release the long arm would sweep upwards in a curve and project any
+missile attached to it. By fixing a sling of suitable length to the arm
+the efficiency was immensely increased (_see_ Title-page). Such was the
+principle of the "trebuchet," the enormous engines which carried
+devastation and destruction to medieval castles. The French are said to
+have introduced these in the twelfth century, and by the end of the
+thirteenth they were the most formidable siege engines of the time.
+
+[Illustration: STIRLING CASTLE, STIRLINGSHIRE.]
+
+The transition period in England between the classical weapons and the
+trebuchet was the twelfth century and the early part of the thirteenth.
+The veterans from the crusades undoubtedly introduced the torsion and
+tension engines, but found that the home-made article could not compete
+in efficiency with the Oriental examples and therefore the advent of the
+trebuchet was welcomed. Roughly speaking, the original balista or
+catapults depending upon torsion, and throwing shafts rather than balls,
+were not so frequently in use as those engines which depended upon
+tension and threw heavy stones. In the early part of the thirteenth
+century the balista catapult came into vogue once more; it was of the
+cross-bow type, and at the end of the century was called the espringale
+and mounted on wheels.
+
+The counterpoises used in large trebuchets weighed sometimes between 8
+and 9 tons; the throwing arm was often 50 feet in length, and the engine
+could hurl a projectile weighing between 2 cwt. and 3 cwt. to a distance
+of about 300 yards. Dead horses were at times sent whirling over the
+battlements into a besieged town, while casks of matter of an offensive
+character and likely to breed pestilences were common missiles. But the
+chief use and purpose of the trebuchet was the smashing-up of
+bretasches; the pounding of the battlements and upper works to
+facilitate escalades; the filling up of the moat in selected places by
+throwing large quantities of earth, stones, etc., into it and against
+the walls, and, occasionally, to hurl some unfortunate envoy back again
+into a town or fortress when the messages he carried were distasteful to
+the besiegers. In a medieval MS. full directions are given for trussing
+a man intended for use as a projectile.
+
+Camden states that at the siege of Bedford Castle by King John one of
+the mangonels, _i.e._ trebuchets, threw millstones into the castle. He
+mentions seven great machines being at work at one time. Again, when
+Henry III. besieged Kenilworth, in 1266, stones of extraordinary size
+were used as missiles; some are still preserved at the Castle and two
+are at the Rotunda, Woolwich, the diameters being 18-1/2 inches and
+16-1/4 inches; the weight 256 lbs. and 165 lbs. respectively. At
+Pevensey Castle catapult stone shot of 144, 156, and 241 lbs.
+respectively have been discovered. The great trebuchet constructed by
+Edward I. for the siege of Stirling Castle cast balls weighing between
+two and three hundredweight. The several parts of this great machine
+were sent by sea, but the Castle surrendered before its efficacy could
+be tried. The King was annoyed that this, his pet device, the
+"War-Wolf," as it was termed, had not had an opportunity, and therefore
+ordered the garrison to remain within while he took a few "pot-shots" at
+their defences.
+
+Such projectiles would almost demolish a house, and were nearly as
+formidable as modern shells; their great weight would batter every
+portion of a medieval castle except the very thickest of walls. The
+platforms of earth thrown up by besiegers to sustain their great engines
+remain in many places intact to-day; thus round Berkhampstead Castle are
+eight, upon which the trebuchets of the Dauphin were erected in 1216,
+when he battered the castle into submission in about a fortnight. The
+terms mangonel, petrary, balista, onager, scorpion, perrier, catapult,
+etc., when used by historians of the middle ages, generally apply to the
+trebuchet and its varieties, large and small.
+
+_The Arblast, Espringale, and Spurgardon_ were engines based upon the
+cross-bow or tension principle; some were of considerable size and threw
+huge bolts tipped with iron. Another and a common use was to convey
+ignited incendiary matter into the enemy's quarters by their means. They
+were mounted upon towers, curtain walls, and in the baileys, while in
+the open when placed upon wheels they served the purpose of
+field-pieces.
+
+[Illustration: RAISING THE PORTCULLIS.]
+
+_The Ram_, based upon the weapon used by the ancients, was in frequent
+use. The working parts and the men manipulating it were protected by a
+pent-house called the "Snail," or "Whelk," having a roof of considerable
+thickness. In this house it was suspended by chains and pulled backwards
+and forwards by hand or mechanical appliances; when released, it smashed
+the stones in the wall to powder, so that they could be subsequently
+removed from the defences. To mitigate the effects the besieged let down
+mattresses, bags of wool, and coiled rope mats by chains from the
+ramparts.
+
+_The Terebra._--A machine based upon the classical _terebra_ was also in
+use. It consisted of a heavy beam which could be rotated; the iron head
+being furnished with a spike of square section was inserted in a joint
+into which it bored its way, breaking up the surrounding stones and
+facilitating their removal.
+
+_The Cat, or Sow_, was in constant use for mining and underpinning
+walls. It was a covered house upon wheels, with an enormously strong
+roof calculated to withstand the heavy stones, beams of wood, hot
+water, molten lead, and spiked poles which were invariably launched from
+the battlements for its destruction. Under its cover the besiegers
+tunnelled beneath the walls, which they supported with woodwork until
+their task was completed; by starting a conflagration in the chamber
+thus excavated the supports were consumed and the wall was breached. At
+other times the stones, previously shattered or loosened by the ram or
+the terebra, were removed until the wall above was incapable of bearing
+its own weight. Mining, like other operations, had to be carried out
+with discretion and was undoubtedly a precarious operation. Thus in the
+siege of Dryslwyn Castle, Carmarthenshire, in the time of Edward I.,
+Lord Stafford and other leaders lost their lives by a sudden collapse of
+the walls they were undermining. The mine was often met by a
+counter-mine of the garrison as in modern warfare.
+
+_The Beffroi, Belfry, or Movable Tower_ was a machine for facilitating
+the capture of fortified positions. It could be built upon the spot or
+carried from place to place in pieces. When mounted upon wheels it was
+pushed forward towards the walls, the object being to give the
+assailants the same advantage of height which was shared by the
+besieged. From the upper platform the archers could command the
+battlements and approaches; those in lower stages sent their missiles
+into loopholes and other openings; in the lowest stage a ram was often
+mounted. One feature of its construction was a hinged platform which
+fell outwards upon the battlements and over which the assailants
+endeavoured to enter the fortress. The besieged hindered the approach of
+this terror by digging pitfalls for the wheels, shooting incendiary
+missiles, making sallies for its destruction by fire, or concentrating
+such a body of men upon the walls that none could live under the hail of
+missiles poured into it.
+
+The methods of assailing a castle thus enumerated were, as a rule, put
+into operation at the same time and supported one another. Thus in the
+siege of Bedford Castle, defended by the followers of Faukes de Breauté,
+in 1224, the siege was carried out by King Henry III. in person. Two
+wooden Beffrois were made and advanced towards the walls,--these were
+occupied by longbow-men and arbalestiers; sappers approached the walls
+and undermined by means of a Cat; seven trebuchets cast their ponderous
+projectiles against, or into, the castle without intermission night and
+day, while lesser artillery hurled lead-covered stones, darts, bolts,
+and other missiles among the defenders upon the walls, or through the
+oillets and louvre-covered windows. The barbican was taken and then the
+outer bailey; a breach in the defending wall gave admission to the inner
+bailey, and when, by judicious sapping, one portion of the great Shell
+Keep sank and produced a wide breach, the castle was surrendered.
+
+In medieval manuscripts we meet with many illustrations of petardiers
+hurling vessels containing Greek fire upon the various engines attacking
+a castle or town, and perhaps this terrifying missile deserves more
+notice than has hitherto been paid to it. Introduced from the East
+during the time of the Crusades it was used with other incendiary
+bodies, but as no great objects were specially achieved by its use in
+our islands, or rather, as chroniclers do not make special mention of
+such results, we are probably justified in thinking that the effects
+were more of a terrifying character than of actual effectiveness in
+besieging or defending a castle.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Adulterine Castles, 90, 91
+
+  Ages--Stone, Bronze, Iron, dates of, 7
+
+  l'Aigle, Matilda de, 94
+
+  Albini, Nigel de, Cainhoe Castle, 56
+
+  Alnwick Castle, description of, 68
+
+  Alselin, Geoffrey, Laxton Castle, 56
+
+  Alur, 117, 168
+
+  Ambresbury Banks, Essex, 29
+
+  Anderida, 45
+
+  Angus, Earl of, 187
+
+  Arbalesteria, 78, 117
+
+  Arblast, 196
+
+  Archer, the English, 150
+
+  Aros Castle, 179
+
+  Arundel Castle, 54, 65, 151, 158
+    description of, 71
+    Shell Keep, 72
+    siege of, 72
+
+  Arundel Cathedral, 73
+
+  Aspiks, 152
+
+  Avalon, Isle of, 11
+
+
+  Badbury, Berks, 31
+
+  Badbury Rings, Wimborne, 22, 23, 32
+
+  Badlesmere, Bartholomew, 148
+
+  Bailey, buildings in, 53
+
+  Bailey or Base Court, 53
+
+  Bakewell, 42
+
+  Baliol, Robert, 184
+
+  Balista, 192, 194, 196
+  stones, 192
+
+  Bamborough Castle, 41
+    description of, 93
+    Keep of, 94, 96
+    siege of, 93
+    wards of, 96
+
+  Banks, Sir John, and Lady, 139
+
+  Barbican, or ravelin, 67
+
+  Barnard Castle, the Keep, 106
+
+  Bartizans, 178, 180
+
+  Base Court or Bailey, 53
+
+  Basilisks, 152
+
+  Battlemented parapets, 41
+
+  Bayeux tapestry, 55
+
+  Beauchamp Tower, Tower of London, 135
+
+  Beaufort, Duke of, 142, 164
+
+  Beaumaris Castle, 122
+
+  _Bebban burh_ or Bamborough, 41
+
+  Bedford Castle, Shell Keep of, 200
+    siege of, 195
+
+  Beffroi, 81, 94, 198, 199
+
+  Bek, Anthony, Bishop of Durham, 69
+
+  Belesme, Robert de, 71, 87
+
+  Belfry, 198
+
+  Belvoir Castle, position of, 59
+    Todenei, Robert, 57
+
+  Berkeley Castle, 65
+
+  Berkhampstead Castle, 196
+    Mortaign, Robert, Count of, 56
+
+  Berm, Cadbury Castle, 24
+    Verulamium, 37
+
+  Berwick Castle, 183
+
+  Bigot family, 142
+  Bodiam Castle, 165, 179
+    description of, 157
+
+  Boleyn, Anne, 161
+    Sir Geoffrey, 160
+    Sir Thomas, 161
+
+  Bolingbroke, 121
+
+  Bombards, 148, 152
+
+  Bothwell Castle, description of, 181
+
+  Bowyer Tower, Tower of London, 135
+
+  Bradbury, 14
+
+  Bretasche, 167, 194
+    description of, 103
+    Motte and Bailey Castle, 50
+
+  Breauté, Faukes de, 199
+
+  Brick Castles, 155
+
+  Brick-making, art of, 165
+
+  British Isles, earthworks of, 2, 173
+
+  Broch, 174
+    at Cockburn Law, 175
+    of Mousa, 174
+
+  Bronllys Castle, 133
+
+  Bronze Age, 7, 189
+
+  Broughton Castle, 172
+
+  Bruce, Robert, 183
+
+  Buckingham, Duke of, 162
+
+  Builth Castle, 133
+
+  Bures Mount, Essex, 50
+
+  Burgh, Hubert de, 81
+
+  Burh, bury, borough, and burgh, 39, 40
+
+  Burhs, Nottingham, 42
+    Saxon, 38, 39
+    Stafford, Tarn worth and Warwick, 42
+    Witham and Maldon, 42
+
+  Busli, Roger de, Tickhill Castle, 57
+
+
+  Cadbury, Tiverton, 22
+    Castle, 23
+    Berm of, 24
+
+  Caerlaverock Castle, 186
+
+  Caerphilly Castle, 131
+    description of, 126
+
+  Caesar, artillery of, 190
+
+  Cainhoe Castle, Albini, Nigel de 56
+
+  Campbell Castle, 179
+
+  Canmore, Malcolm, 183
+
+  Cannon, early, 147
+    gargoyles, 181
+    shot, weight of, 154
+
+  Canterbury Castle, Keep of 89
+
+  Carew Castle, 132
+
+  Carisbrooke Castle, 65
+    description of, 73
+
+  Carnarvon Castle, 118
+    description of, 123
+    town walls of, 124
+
+  Castellated Mansion, 147, 155
+
+  Castellation, the first, 2
+    transition period, 156
+
+  Castle-building Stephen's reign, 92
+
+  Castles, centre of boroughs, 57
+    centre of feudal baronies, 56
+    definition of, 1
+    in Gascony, 156
+    Herefordshire, 55
+    Hertfordshire, 56
+    Leicestershire, 56
+    Nottinghamshire, 56
+    of Scotland, 173
+    sites of, 57
+
+  Cat, 197, 200
+
+  Catapult, 192, 194, 196
+
+  Chapel-en-le-Frith, 11
+
+  Chaworth, Payn de, 130
+
+  Chepstow Castle, 131
+    description of, 141
+
+  Château Gaillard, description of, 110
+    the Keep, 111
+
+  Chaucer, Geoffrey, 62
+
+  Cilgerran Castle, 132
+
+  Cissbury, 14, 24
+
+  Civil War, efficiency of Castles, 153
+
+  Clare, Earl of, 46
+    Gilbert de, 127
+    family, 142
+  Classification of earthworks, 5
+
+  Clavering Castle, Essex, 49
+
+  Clawll y Milwyr, 8
+
+  Cleves, Anne of, 161
+
+  Clickamin Broch, 175
+
+  Cliff Castles, 7-9
+
+  Clifford's Castle, Northants, 50, 52
+
+  Clifton Camps, 9
+
+  Clinton, William de, 162
+
+  Clun Castle, Keep of, 88, 92
+
+  Cobham, Lord, 160
+
+  Colchester Castle, 134
+    Chapel of, 85
+
+  Colepeper family, 144
+
+  Comb Moss, 11
+
+  Compton, Sir William, 162
+
+  Concentric Castle, 110
+    essential principles of, 113
+
+  Conisborough Castle, description of, 106
+
+  Constantinople, fortifications of, 112
+
+  Contour forts, 14
+
+  Conway, town wall of, 120
+    Castle, 118
+      description of, 120
+
+  Corbelling, mania for, 180
+
+  Corfe Castle, 131
+    Buttavant Tower, 140
+    description of, 137
+    Keep of, 139
+    "slighting" of, 140
+
+  Coucy Castle, 102, 104, 105, 181
+
+  Counterpoise engines, 193
+
+  Counterpoises of trebuchets, 194
+
+  _Coup-de-main_ attack, 189
+
+  Craigmillar Castle, 179
+
+  Crenellated walls, 41
+
+  Crévecoeur family, 143
+
+  Criccieth Castle, description of, 118
+
+  Cromlechs, 8
+
+  Cromwell, Ralph, Lord, 168
+
+  Crowstep gables, 181
+
+  Curtain walls, 67
+
+  Cutts, Lord, 75
+
+  Cylindrical Keep, 101
+
+
+  Dalyngrugge, Sir Edward, 157
+
+  Danish burhs, 43
+
+  Dauphin, 98
+
+  Definition of a castle, 1
+
+  "Devil of Belesme," 87
+
+  Differentiation of earthworks, 3
+
+  Dilke family, 162
+
+  Dinas, 9
+
+  Dirleton Castle, 176
+
+  Dog-tooth ornament, 92
+
+  Dolebury, 14
+
+  Donjon, 102, 181
+
+  Dorchester, Oxon, 10
+
+  Douglas family, 181
+
+  Doune Castle, 186
+
+  Dover Castle, 49
+    description of, 80, 92
+    the Keep, 82
+
+  Dragons, 152
+
+  Drum Castle, 178, 182
+
+  Dryslwyn Castle, 198
+
+  Dudley Castle, Fitz-Ansculf, William, 56
+
+  Dumbarton Castle, 176
+
+  Dunnottar Castle, description of, 185
+    Keep of, 185
+
+  Dunster Castle, Mohun, William de, 56
+
+  Durability of earthworks, 4
+
+  Durham Castle, 65
+
+  Dyke Hills, 10
+
+
+  Eagle Tower, Carnarvon Castle, 126
+
+  Earls Barton Castle, Northants, 52
+
+  Earthworks, auxiliary aids to, 18
+    British Isles, 2
+    classification of, 5
+    destruction of, 14
+    differentiation of, 3
+    durability of, 4
+    English, 3
+    with stockades, 18
+
+  Edinburgh Castle, 176, 183
+    Argyle Tower, 183
+
+  Edinburgh Castle, St. Margaret's Chapel, 184
+    Wellhouse Tower, 184
+
+  Edin's Hold, 175
+
+  "Edwardian" Castle, 118
+
+  Edward the Martyr, 138
+
+  Eleanor, wife of Humphrey of Gloucester, 144
+
+  Elfreton, Henry de, 121
+
+  Ely, 43
+
+  Engines, ancient, 191
+
+  English earthworks, 3
+
+  Escalade, 189
+
+  Espringale, 194, 196
+
+  Ethelfleda of the Mercians, 41, 42
+
+  Exburgh Manor-House, 168
+
+  Eye Castle, Malet, Robert de, 56
+
+
+  Fairfax, Sir Thomas, 164
+
+  Falarica, 86, 192
+
+  Fane, Ralph, 169
+
+  Fergeant, Alan, 99
+
+  Ferrers, Henry de, Tutbury Castle, 57
+
+  Feudal baronies, castles centre of, 56
+
+  Fiennes, Sir Roger, 165
+    Thomas, execution of, 166
+
+  First castellation, 2
+
+  Fishguard, 9
+
+  Fitz-Ansculf, William, Dudley Castle, 56
+
+  Fitz-John, Eustace, 68, 94
+
+  Fitz-Osborne, William, Earl of Hereford, 73
+    William, 142
+
+  Fitz-Scrob, Richard, 48
+
+  Flanking Towers, 67
+
+  Flint Castle, 122
+
+  Flying bridge, Motte and Bailey Castle, 50
+
+  Fonmon Castle, Glamorganshire, 93
+
+  Forebuildings, 78
+    Rochester Castle, 98
+
+  Fortified Hill-Tops, classification of, 13
+    strengthened, 5, 13
+
+
+  Gam, Sir David, 163
+
+  Gannock's Castle, near Tempsford, 44, 45
+
+  Gaveston, Piers, 74
+
+  Glendower, Owen, 119
+
+  Gloucester Castle, Keep of, 89
+    Humphrey, Duke of, 169
+
+  Golden Valley, Castle at, 48
+
+  Gravitation engines, 193
+
+  Greek fire, 200
+
+  Grey, Sir Ralph, 95, 152
+
+  Guildford Castle, Chapel of, 85
+    Keep of, 88
+
+  Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, 134
+
+  Gunpowder, introduction of, 147
+
+  "Gyns," 190, 193
+
+
+  Ham Hill, Somerset, 15
+
+  Hampton Court, Herefordshire, 172
+
+  Harlech Castle, 118, 152
+
+  Harquebuses, openings for, 158
+
+  Hastings Castle, 55
+
+  Hatton, Sir Christopher, 139
+
+  Haut, Ivo de, 170
+
+  Haverfordwest Castle, 133
+
+  Hedingham Keep, Essex, 83
+
+  Hembury Fort, Honiton, 14
+
+  Herefordshire, Castles in, 55
+
+  Hereford, Motte and Bailey Castle, 48, 49
+
+  Herstmonceaux Castle, 167, 168
+    description of, 164
+
+  Hertfordshire, Castles in, 56
+
+  Hever Castle, 160
+    Sir William de, 160
+
+  Hill forts, 173
+
+  Hilton Castle, 172
+
+  Home Castle, 176
+    Earls of, 181
+
+  Homestead moats, 6
+    developed, 6
+
+  Humfreys, Sir William, 161
+
+  Hunsbury, Northants, 30
+
+
+  Ifan, Davydd ap, 152
+
+  Ightham Mote, 170
+
+  Iron Age, 7, 189
+
+  Isabella, Queen of Edward II., 144
+
+  Isle of Avalon, 11
+
+
+  Juliets, 102
+
+
+  Keep, Scottish, plan of, 176
+
+  Kemyss, Sir Nicholas, 143
+
+  Kenilworth Castle, 151
+    siege of, 195
+
+  Kidwelly Castle, Carmarthenshire, 118, 129
+
+  Kildrummie Castle, 176
+
+
+  Lacy, Ilbert de, Pontefract Castle, 57
+
+  Lambert, General, 186
+
+  Lamphey Castle, 133
+
+  "Land of Castles," 131
+
+  Launceston Castle, the Keep, 105
+
+  Laxton Castle, Alselin, Geoffrey, 56
+
+  Leconfield, Lord, 160
+
+  Leeds Castle, Kent, 105, 148
+    Baileys of, 145
+    Barbicans of, 146
+    description of, 143
+    Keep of, 145
+
+  Leicestershire, Castles in, 56
+
+  Lewes Castle, 65
+
+  Lewkenor, Sir Thomas, 158
+
+  Licences to crenellate, 90
+
+  Lincoln Castle, 65
+
+  Lisle, Warine de, 159
+
+  Llandilo, Castle near, 130
+
+  Llawhaddon Castle, 133
+
+  Loch Doon Castle, 176
+
+  Loch Leven Castle, 179
+
+  Logan Stone, 8
+
+  Ludlow, family of, 172
+
+
+  Machicolation, 104, 116, 158, 165, 167, 181
+    earliest example of, 111
+
+  Maiden Castle, 14, 16, 22, 32
+    entrances of, 17
+
+  Malet, Robert de, Eye Castle, 56
+
+  _Malvoisin_, 94
+
+  Mam Tor, Derbyshire, 27
+    the shivering mountain, 27
+
+  Mangonel, 104, 196
+
+  Manorbier Castle, 9, 133
+
+  "March of the Men of Harlech," 120
+
+  Marmion, Robert le, Tamworth Castle, 56
+
+  Maxstoke Castle, 162
+
+  Medieval walls, construction of, 78
+
+  Melandra, near Glossop, 34
+
+  Menhirs, 8
+
+  Merlons, 117, 124, 165, 168
+
+  Meurtriers, 78, 116, 142
+
+  Mining, method of, 198
+
+  Missile engines of the ancients, 190
+
+  Mohun, William de, Dunster Castle, 56
+
+  Monk, General, 187
+
+  Montfort, Simon de, 46, 98
+
+  Montgomery, family of, 71
+
+  Morgan, Colonel, 142
+
+  Mortaign, Robert, Count of, Berkhampstead Castle, 56
+    Earl of, 46
+
+  Motte and Bailey Castle, 48
+    advantages of, 60
+    bretasche of, 50
+    construction of, 49
+    flying bridge of, 50
+    positions of, 58, 59
+    positions of mound of, 54
+    rapid erection of, 60
+    Scottish, 175
+
+  Mount and Fosse, 5
+
+  Mount (or Motte) and Bailey, 5
+
+  Mount, The, Caerleon, 50
+
+  Movable Tower, 198
+
+  Mowbray, de, 94
+
+
+  Narberth Castle, 133
+
+  Natural fortresses strengthened, 5-6
+
+  Neidpath Castle, 178
+    description of, 182
+
+  Newcastle-upon-Tyne Castle,
+    Chapel of, 85
+    Forebuilding of, 79
+    Keep of, 89
+
+  Newquay, 7
+
+  Newton Castle, Montgomeryshire, 53
+
+  Nineveh marbles, 41
+
+  Norham Castle, 105
+
+  Norwich Castle, 134
+
+  Nottingham Castle, 87
+    Keep of, 88
+
+  Nottinghamshire, Castles in, 56
+
+
+  Odin's Hold, Berwickshire, 175
+
+  Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, 46, 97, 143
+
+  Oillets, 78, 124, 166, 200
+
+  Old Castle Head, 9
+
+  Onager, 86, 196
+
+  Ongar Castle, Essex, 52, 53
+
+  _Oppidum_ of Cassivelaunus, 33
+
+  Orford Castle, Suffolk, 109
+
+  Oubliettes, 78
+
+  Oxford Castle, Keep of, 89
+
+
+  Parapet, location of, 4
+
+  Peel Towers, 180
+
+  Pelham, Lady Jane, 46
+    Sir John, 46
+
+  Pembroke Castle, 132, 153
+    Keep of, 106
+
+  Penhow Castle, Monmouthshire, 93
+
+  Penshurst Place, description of, 169
+
+  Percy, Earl, 70
+    Sir Henry de, 69
+    Sir Thomas, 159
+
+  Perrier, 196
+
+  Petardier, 200
+
+  Petrary, 81, 86, 196
+
+  Pevensey Castle, 45, 131
+    inner Castle of, 47
+
+  Pharos at Dover, 80
+
+  Pickering Castle, Keep of, 88
+
+  "Pit," or Prison, 178
+
+  Pitt Rivers, General, 25, 29
+
+  Plantagenet, Hamelin, 109
+
+  Plateau forts, 6, 11, 13
+
+  Pleshey Castle, Essex, 52
+
+  Pontefract Castle, 109, 154
+    Lacy, Ilbert de, 57
+
+  Porchester Castle, 37
+
+  Portland, 9
+
+  Primitive weapons, 1
+
+  Projectiles, men as, 195
+    millstones as, 195
+
+  Promontory forts, 6
+
+  Protected village sites, 6
+
+  Pulteneye, Sir John de, 169
+
+
+  Quatford Castle, 87
+
+  Quia Emptores, Statute of, 149
+
+
+  Raglan Castle, 141
+    description of, 163
+    Keep of, 164
+
+  Ram, 81, 197
+
+  Ravelin, or barbican, 67
+
+  Ravensburgh Castle, Hexton, 25
+
+  Rectangular Keep, 76
+    Chapel of, 85
+    Forebuilding of, 78
+    construction of, 77
+    Crypt of, 85
+    impregnability of, 87
+    internal arrangements of, 83
+    introduction of, 76
+    Ramparts of, 84
+
+  Reculvers, Isle of Thanet, 36
+
+  Redvers, Baldwin de, 139
+    Richard de, 74
+
+  Regalia Scottish, 186
+
+  Richard's Castle, Herefordshire, 48, 59
+
+  Richborough Castle, Sandwich, 36
+  Richmond Castle, Barbican of, 100
+    Chapel of, 99
+    Crypt of, 99
+    description of, 99
+    Keep of, 99
+
+  Ring Hill, Essex, 31
+
+  Roche Castle, 133
+
+  Rochester Castle, 134
+    description of, 96
+    Keep of, 89, 97, 98
+    siege of, 87, 97
+
+  Roman fortification, 37
+
+  Romano-British Period, 33
+
+  Roman wall, Tower of London, 134
+
+  Roxburgh Castle, 183
+
+  Royal Castles in Kent, 96
+
+
+  St. Burian, 8
+
+  St. David's Head, 8
+
+  St. John's Chapel, Tower of London, 136
+
+  St. Leger, Sir Anthony, 144
+
+  Sakers, 152
+
+  Saxon burh, 38, 39
+    MSS., 41
+    Period, 38
+
+  Say, de, family of, 172
+
+  _Segontium_ (Carnarvon), 36
+
+  Serpentines, 152
+
+  Seymour, Charles, Duke of Somerset, 70
+    family of, 159
+
+  Scales, Lord, 74
+
+  Scarborough Castle, siege of, 154
+
+  Scorpion, 196
+
+  Scottish Castles, Periods of, 176-181
+    Second Period, 177
+    Third Period, 179
+    Fourth Period, 180
+
+  Shell Keep, 64
+    configuration of, 66
+    position of, 65
+
+  Shirburn Castle, description of, 158
+
+  Shoulsbury, Exmoor, 22
+
+  Siege and defence of a medieval castle, 188
+
+  Sigismund, Emperor, 144
+
+  Silchester, 34, 37
+
+  Simple artificial enclosures, 5, 33
+
+  Smith, Sir Richard, 144
+
+  "Snail," 197
+
+  Solar, 180
+
+  Somerset, family of, 164
+    Sir Charles, 142
+
+  South Cadbury, Sherborne, 15
+
+  Sow, 81, 197
+
+  Spurgardon, 196
+
+  Spurious castles, 90
+
+  Stafford, Edward, 162
+    family of, 169
+    Humphrey, Earl of, 162
+    Lord, 198
+
+  Stockades, 18, 19
+    construction of, 19, 20, 21
+    Gallic, 19
+    on earthworks, 18
+
+  Stone Age, 7, 189
+    circles, 8
+
+  Stokesay Castle, description of, 171
+
+  Stirling Castle, 176, 183
+    description of, 184
+    Palace of, 185
+    Parliament Hall, 184
+    siege of, 195
+
+  Strongbow, Richard, 142
+
+  Sudley Castle, 172
+
+  Swegen the Sheriff, 49
+
+  Sydney, Sir Philip, 169
+    William, 169
+
+  Syracuse, attack on, 190
+
+  Syrens, 152
+
+
+  Tamworth Castle, Marmion, Robert le, 57
+
+  Tantallon Castle, 179
+    description of, 186
+    Keep of, 186
+    sieges of, 187
+
+  Tattershall Castle, crypt of, 167
+    description of, 167
+  Taunton burh, 41
+
+  Terebra, 197
+
+  Thetford Castle, Norfolk, 52
+
+  Thomas, Sir William ap, 163
+
+  Thurnham Castle, Kent, 53
+
+  Tickhill Castle, 148
+    Busli, Roger de, 57
+
+  Todenei, Robert, Belvoir Castle, 57
+
+  _Tormentum_, 192
+
+  Torsion and tension engines, 193
+
+  Torwoodlee Broch, 175
+
+  Totnes Castle, 65
+
+  Towcester, 42
+
+  Tower of London, St. John's Chapel, 85, 136
+    description of, 133
+    Keep of, 136
+
+  Traitors' Gate, 135
+
+  Trebuchets, 81, 86, 97, 152, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 200
+    projectiles of, 194, 195, 196
+
+  Treryn Castle, 8
+
+  Tretower Castle, 133
+
+  Trevalgue Head, 7
+
+  Tutbury Castle, 148
+    Ferrers, Henry de, 57
+
+  Tyler, Wat, 98
+
+
+  Uzziah, 190
+
+
+  Valence, Aymer de, 181
+
+  Vaulting Ribs, 92
+
+  Verdun, family of, 172
+
+  Vere, de, family of, 84
+
+  Verulamium, St. Albans, 34
+
+  Vescy, Ivo de, 68
+
+  Vitrified forts, 173, 174
+
+
+  Waldegrave, Sir Edward, 161
+
+  Waldo, Sir T., 161
+
+  Wales, Rhys of, 131
+
+  Wallace, Sir William, 186
+
+  Waller, Sir William, 71, 158
+
+  Wallingford, 39
+    Castle, 109
+
+  Walls, medieval, construction of, 78
+
+  Warkworth Castle, 109
+
+  Warwick Castle, 66, 148, 151
+
+  "War-Wolf," 196
+
+  Watling Street, 35
+
+  West Malling, 134
+
+  West Saxons, Harold, Earl of, 49
+
+  "Whelk," 197
+
+  Whelpley Hill, Bucks, 32
+
+  Whitton Castle, Durham, 172
+
+  Winchester, Statute of, 149
+
+  Windsor Castle, 53, 65
+    Barbican of, 61
+    description of, 60
+    Motte of, 61
+    St. George's Chapel, 62
+    Shell Keep of, 62
+
+  Wingfield Manor-House, 168, 172
+
+  Wollaston Castle, Northants, 52
+
+  Wren, Sir Christopher, 136
+
+  Wressle Castle, 159
+
+  Wyatt, the architect, 166
+
+  Wyndham, Sir William, 70
+
+
+  Yarnbury, Wilts, 32
+
+  Yester, Hays of, 182
+
+  York Castle, 65, 109
+    Keep of, 88
+
+
+  Zigzag moulding, 83, 84
+
+
+                                THE END
+
+            _Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_.
+
+
+
+
+                      _UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+                            ENGLISH COSTUME
+
+                       PAINTED AND DESCRIBED BY
+
+                        DION CLAYTON CALTHROP
+
+          SQUARE DEMY 8vo (9 × 6-1/4 INCHES), CLOTH, GILT TOP
+
+           CONTAINING 72 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR
+                  FACSIMILE, AND NUMEROUS THUMB-NAIL
+                         SKETCHES IN THE TEXT
+
+                        COMPLETE IN ONE VOLUME
+
+                            Price 20s. net
+
+                         (_By Post, 20s. 6d._)
+
+  _Or obtainable in four sectional volumes, bound in cloth, gilt top_
+
+                        Price 7s. 6d. net each
+
+                         (_By post, 7s. 11d._)
+
+   Vol. I. EARLY ENGLISH.             Vol. III. TUDOR & STUART.
+    "  II. MIDDLE AGES.                "    IV. GEORGIAN.
+
+
+                         EXCERPTS FROM PREFACE
+
+There is no reason why a book dealing with antiquarian subjects should
+be written in the dry-as-dust method; that it should be clear stands to
+reason; that it should be as complete as possible is a justification of
+its being; but beyond these it is eminently necessary that it should be
+interesting.
+
+It is to every kind of historical student that this book is addressed,
+especially to those who endeavour to make the dry bones of history
+live--the author, the artist, and the actor. It is, also, for all who
+take an intelligent interest in history, and who would wish to see the
+shifting panorama of men move before their eyes in the right colours and
+clothes.
+
+                             PUBLISHED BY
+
+         ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, 4, 5, & 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note. The oe ligature is shown as the separate letters oe
+in the following words: Crévecoeur, oeil, and manoeuvred. The
+advertising material has been moved to the end of the ebook.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of British Castles, by Charles H. Ashdown
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40630 ***