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diff --git a/40630-8.txt b/40630-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b9a38e1..0000000 --- a/40630-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5795 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of British Castles, by Charles H. Ashdown - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: British Castles - -Author: Charles H. Ashdown - -Release Date: August 31, 2012 [EBook #40630] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BRITISH CASTLES *** - - - - -Produced by Darleen Dove, Sue Fleming and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - BRITISH CASTLES - - - - -[Illustration: BODIAM CASTLE, SUSSEX.] - - - - - BRITISH - CASTLES - - BY - - CHARLES H. ASHDOWN - - CONTAINING 32 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR - AND A NUMBER OF PLANS AND DIAGRAMS IN THE TEXT - -[Illustration: A TREBUCHET] - - - LONDON - ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK - 1911 - - - AGENTS - - AMERICA THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - 64 & 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK - - AUSTRALASIA THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS - 205 FLINDERS LANE, MELBOURNE - - CANADA THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA, LTD. - ST. MARTIN'S HOUSE, 70 BOND STREET, TORONTO - - INDIA MACMILLAN & COMPANY, LTD. - MACMILLAN BUILDING, BOMBAY - 309 BOW BAZAAR STREET, CALCUTTA - - GERMANY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,} - RUSSIA, } BROCKHAUS AND PEHRSSON - SCANDINAVIA, AND } 16 QUERSTRASSE, LEIPZIG - GERMAN SWITZERLAND } - - - - - PREFACE - - -Considering the richness and variety of both technical and popular -literature upon Castles generally, it may appear superfluous to send -forth another book upon the same subject, and, if investigation had been -at a standstill or barren in results during the past decade, criticism -would be justified. But much has come to light upon this interesting -subject which undoubtedly revolutionises pre-existing ideas, both as to -primitive forms of castellation and of those in historic periods. The -allocation of the former to approximately definite epochs, and also of -two great and important phases of the latter to well-defined periods, -are the salient features of late investigations. Unfortunately the -ordinary reader is debarred from becoming intimate with these changes of -thought, inasmuch as newly acquired discoveries are generally to be -found only in the transactions of learned Societies or in disconnected -brochures not readily available. To bring these ideas to a focus and -present them in such a form that the Man in the Street--undoubtedly a -member of the preponderating majority--may readily comprehend them is -one of the aims of the writer, while another is to suggest to the -ordinary observer that the earthworks in our islands entitle primitive -man to be considered with much more respect and consideration than has -hitherto been afforded him. - -The monumental work of Mr. T. G. Clark, _Mediæval Military -Architecture_, has had no formidable rival since its appearance, but -unfortunately it must now be read with care since much of the matter is -obsolete. The distinction between the Saxon _burh_ and the primitive -type of castle thrown up by the early Norman invaders was not apparent -at the time the work appeared, and consequently many scores of -castellated works are assigned to incorrect periods. This had the effect -of making the chronology of the Rectangular Keep incorrect. Unhappily -_The History of the Art of War_ by Oman followed Clark's lead and with, -of course, the same result. Mr. J. H. Round in his _Geoffrey de -Mandeville_ appears to have been one of the first, if not the first, to -differentiate between the _turris_ and the _castellum_ (_i.e._ the Keep -and the Ward) of medieval writers, who were proverbially loose with -respect to their employment of technical terms. Excellent work also in -this respect has been carried out by Mrs. E. Armitage, who, by the -process of practically investigating in detail some of the defences -mentioned in Domesday Book, has been able to definitely assign the Motte -and Bailey type to the early Norman Period. In the recently issued -_Victoria History of the Counties of England_ the effect of these -discoveries is discernible in those parts relating to castellation, -which very carefully correct the errors prevailing in former standard -and in local topographical works. With regard to Earthworks, the -invaluable investigations carried out by "The Committee upon Ancient -Earthworks and Fortified Enclosures," acting in co-operation with the -Society of Antiquaries, has resulted in a flood of light being thrown -upon these interesting remains, so that the old allocation to British, -Roman, and Danish influence, so arbitrarily insisted upon in former -times according to the contour of the earthwork in question, no longer -subsists, or only as far as circumstances justify the nomenclature. No -generally available work is to hand dealing with these subjects in a -non-technical manner, and it may be hoped that this endeavour will help -to fill the interregnum between the work of Clark and a future equally -monumental tome. - -The thanks of the Author are herewith gratefully tendered to the -Congress of Archæological Societies of 1903 for permission to make use -of the plans of Earthworks issued in their "Scheme for Recording Ancient -Defensive Earthworks and Fortified Enclosures," and also to Mr. Cecil C. -Brewer for the plans of various floors in Hedingham Keep. - - CHARLES H. ASHDOWN. - - ST. ALBANS. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I - PAGE - NATURAL FORTRESSES STRENGTHENED 1 - - CHAPTER II - - FORTIFIED HILL-TOPS 13 - - CHAPTER III - - SIMPLE ARTIFICIAL ENCLOSURES 33 - - CHAPTER IV - - THE MOTTE AND BAILEY CASTLE 48 - - CHAPTER V - - THE SHELL KEEP 64 - - CHAPTER VI - - THE RECTANGULAR KEEP 76 - - CHAPTER VII - - THE CYLINDRICAL KEEP 101 - - CHAPTER VIII - - THE CONCENTRIC CASTLE 110 - - CHAPTER IX - - THE CASTELLATED MANSION 147 - - CHAPTER X - - THE CASTLES OF SCOTLAND 173 - - CHAPTER XI - - THE SIEGE AND DEFENCE OF A MEDIEVAL CASTLE 188 - - INDEX 201 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - -FULL PAGE IN COLOUR - - 1. Bodiam Castle, Sussex _Frontispiece_ - - One of the most picturesque ruins in Sussex and the most - interesting of its class in the Kingdom. It was erected - by a veteran of Agincourt and is based upon the plan of - those existing in Gascony at that time. Only the - encircling walls and towers now remain, the interior - having been despoiled. The view shows the Gateway and a - portion of the defences of the Causeway across the Moat. - - FACING PAGE - - 2. Maiden Castle, Dorsetshire 9 - - This gigantic earthwork looms darkly in the distance, - with indications upon its broken outline of the enormous - mounds and fosses which render it one of the most - impressive examples of its class. As a work of Neolithic - man it commands attention, both by reason of the vastness - of its plan and the skill shown in the design. - - 3. Pevensey Castle, Sussex 16 - - Within the Roman walls encircling this ancient site a - Concentric Castle was erected during the time of Edward - I., a short portion of the existing wall being used for - the new building. It was partly surrounded by a moat, a - part of which appears in the view, while the drum tower - occupying the centre is one of those designed to protect - the approach to the Castle. - - 4. The Beauchamp Tower, Tower of London 25 - - This building affords an interesting example of the - ground floor of a tower of the thirteenth century with - massive walls and deep embrasures. It became famous as a - prison in Tudor times and later when numerous notable - persons were incarcerated; the carvings on the walls - reveal many notable names. - - 5. Corfe Castle, Dorsetshire 32 - - The scattered ruins of the great Castle of Corfe owe - their present appearance to the "slighting" by gunpowder - in 1646, after its capture by the Parliamentarians. Amid - the desolation produced the great Keep still rears a - massive front towards the sky, as if protesting against - the indignity. The Gateway to the inner Bailey is nearly - perfect, and the smooth ashlar of many of the circular - towers remains wonderfully preserved. - - 6. The Tower of London 49 - - The three lines of defence which render the Tower one of - the most effective Concentric Castles in this country are - well seen in the illustration. The outer encircling - walls, the higher curtain wall of the second defence, - with one of the many towers which bestride it, and the - innermost of all, the White Tower, the finest example of - a Norman Keep in England, may be distinctly located. - - 7. Kenilworth Castle, Warwickshire 56 - - Although deprived of the charm of the great Moat which - once surrounded the Castle, Kenilworth still forms a - beautiful object, magnificent in its decay. The halo of - romance hangs over these ruins, and speaks eloquently of - the Barons' War, and of the 'spacious days' of Queen - Elizabeth. - - 8. Arundel Castle, Sussex 73 - - This massive pile, overlooking the little river Arun at - its base, stands upon a spur of chalk which once bore a - Motte and Bailey Castle. The Motte is now crowned by a - Shell Keep, seen towards the right of the picture, while - some of the other buildings erected upon the enceinte - form an effective group in the centre. - - 9. Dover Castle, Kent 80 - - The great Keep dominates the view, with the buildings of - its fore-court at the base, while below are seen the - towers and massive defences of the formidable entrance to - the Castle. It is one of the most impressive piles to be - seen in the British Isles, and never fails to impress the - foreigner when approaching it from the coast of France. - - 10. Rochester Castle, Kent 89 - - Of Rochester Castle nothing of importance remains except - the great Keep and fragments of walls. The Norman Keep - was erected in the reign of Henry I. (1100-1135) and is - one of the finest now in existence. It has seen many - troublous times in its varied history, chiefly at the - hands of King John and Simon de Montfort. The combination - of Keep, Cathedral, and river presented in the view is - particularly pleasing. - - 11. Richmond Castle, Yorkshire 96 - - This lordly Castle occupies a commanding position in the - romantically beautiful valley of the Swale and dates back - to the Norman period. The Keep is a salient feature and - exemplifies in a remarkable degree nearly all the - characteristics inherent in buildings of this class. The - Norman hall is one of the best preserved of its type to - be found in this country. - - 12. Carnarvon Castle, Carnarvonshire 105 - - One of the most impressive features of this great Castle, - termed the finest in Europe, is the Eagle Tower with its - many historical associations. The bands and dressings of - dark sandstone are well shown in the illustration, while - upon the merlons crowning the turrets may be perceived as - little dots the statuettes of men and animals which - usually occur upon the Edwardian Castles in Wales. - - 13. Castle Rushen, Isle of Man 112 - - Castle Rushen, in Castletown, is the ancient residence of - the Kings of Man; it probably dates from the thirteenth - century and is still quite entire. The Keep-like - structure upon the right are the curtain walls and towers - surrounding the inner Bailey. - - 14. Leeds Castle, Kent 121 - - Leeds Castle is of the Concentric type and stands upon - two islands in the middle of a lake which contains about - fifteen acres of water. It has a rich history and the - remains are of considerable interest, although the - earliest work now to be seen is not older than the - twelfth century. The Gloriette or Keep is that portion - lying to the right in the picture. - - 15. Tower of London, The Middle Tower 128 - - This building might more aptly be termed 'The Barbican,' - as it lies upon the farther side of the Moat from the - Fortress. It now forms the entrance to the Tower from - Tower Hill and affords access to the outer Bailey through - the Byward Tower, whose entrance may be perceived through - the archway. In earlier times this gate, which is one of - those built by Henry III., was separated from a former - outer barbican by the waters of the Moat, hence its name, - the Middle Tower. - - 16. Chepstow Castle, Monmouthshire 137 - - Chepstow Castle is an example of an Early Norman Fortress - of the Rectangular Keep type, which was rendered - concentric by the addition of Baileys and a wall of - enceinte. A steep side towards the river is visible in - the picture upon which the domestic buildings were built. - Among the many beautiful spots to be found upon the banks - of the Wye, Chepstow Castle holds a worthy place. Perhaps - the 'beauty of decay' is in no case better exemplified in - any part of England than here. - - 17. Leeds Castle, Kent 144 - - The Gateway of the Castle is one of the most picturesque - portions of the building. A range of machicoulis is - placed over the entrance, while a small portion of an - original bretasche, a very rare survival of the medieval - period, is also preserved in the Castle. - - 18. Windsor Castle 147 - - Windsor Castle was originally of the Motte and Bailey - type, but the Motte was subsequently crowned with a - massive Shell Keep, one of the largest of its kind. It - appears in the illustration surmounted by the Royal - Standard. By later additions the Castle was rendered - concentric. In the centre is the upper portion of St. - George's Chapel, and on the right the Curfew Tower built - by Henry III. and restored by Salvin, while in the front - nestles a portion of the old town. - - 19. Skipton Castle, Yorkshire 150 - - Skipton Castle possesses a history reaching back to the - Norman Conquest, and has been in the possession of the - great Clifford family since the reign of Edward II. The - portion here shown is the Tudor Courtyard, erected by the - first Earl of Cumberland in the reign of Henry VIII. - - 20. Ightham Mote, Kent 155 - - Ightham Mote boasts of a Hall erected early in the - fourteenth century and one of the best of its kind. The - tower is of Perpendicular architecture, and most of the - other portions Elizabethan. The half-timber work - exhibited in this building is a beautiful example, and - the whole structure harmonizes in the happiest manner - with the uncommon beauty of the surroundings. - - 21. Wressle Castle, Yorkshire 158 - - Wressle Castle has a history which is indissolubly linked - up with the great house of the Percies, who periodically - maintained their court in it for centuries. Only the - south façade is now standing, as the Parliamentarians - destroyed the remaining three sides about 1650. It was - surrounded by a moat and a deep dry ditch. The famous - Household Book of Henry Percy, written soon after the - country settled down after the Wars of the Roses, reveals - elaborate details of the life in this Castle. The - illustration shows how a castle built on level ground is - able to look over a very extended area from its - battlements. - - 22. Hever Castle, Kent 161 - - Hever Castle dates from the time of Edward III., and a - romantic interest is attached to it in connection with - the ill-fated Anne Boleyn, whose family resided there. - The Gatehouse, not shown in the illustration, is - undoubtedly one of the most effective portions of the - building. - - 23. Maxstoke Castle, Warwickshire 163 - - This Castle is practically entire, having escaped the - destructive hands of the Parliamentarians. It was raised - in the early part of the reign of Edward III. and the - Gatehouse forms an excellent example of castellation of - that period. Strange to say, some of the original - domestic apartments are still in a good state of - preservation. - - 24. Herstmonceaux Castle, Sussex 166 - - This Castle is one of the later type, and erected in - brick. It is contemporary with Tattershall in - Lincolnshire, also built of brick, and undoubtedly forms - one of the finest examples of the Castellated Mansion to - be found in England. - - 25. Penshurst Place, Kent 168 - - The manor-house of the Sydneys first came into existence - in the reign of Edward II., and gradually expanded into a - happy mixture of the manorial mansion and the Castle. The - Hall, seen in the centre of the picture, dates from the - middle of the fourteenth century and is one of the - earliest parts of the building. - - 26. Bothwell Castle, Lanarkshire 179 - - Bothwell Castle stands in all the majesty of ruin upon - the banks of the Clyde, and is without doubt the grandest - example in Scotland of the simple enclosure castle of the - thirteenth century. A deep and wide moat protects it upon - the land side, and its Donjon is also strengthened by its - own ditch. - - 27. Neidpath Castle, Peeblesshire 182 - - Is a typical Lowland Keep or Peel overlooking the Tweed, - and although it probably does not date back earlier than - the fourteenth century in its present form, an older - structure existed in the time of David I. (1124-1153), - who dated charters there. The Castle was held by the - Frasers until the fourteenth century, and John, Lord - Yester, afterwards the Earl of Tweeddale, defended the - place against Cromwell in 1646 but was obliged to - surrender. - - 28. Edinburgh Castle from the Terrace of Heriot's Hospital 185 - - Edinburgh Castle is the centre of the national history of - Scotland. It stands upon the ancient Burgh of Edwin, King - of Northumbria, and although sadly altered and disfigured - in comparatively modern times by the addition of many - unpicturesque buildings, it still possesses interesting - features of the past, and an imposing aspect when viewed - from the city. - - 29. Dunnottar Castle, Kincardineshire 187 - - Dunnottar Castle is undoubtedly one of the most majestic - ruins of the fourteenth century in Scotland, with a rich - store of interesting history casting a halo of romance - around the massive pile. The sea surrounds it on three - sides, while a deep ravine upon the fourth severs it from - the mainland. The tide of war has often ebbed and flowed - before its hoary walls. The Keep was built by Sir William - Keith in 1392, and in the Great Civil War the regalia of - Scotland, which had been sent here for safety, was sent - out of the Castle before its surrender to the English. - - 30. Tantallon Castle, Haddingtonshire 190 - - Tantallon Castle stands upon a bold spur of rock south of - the Firth of Forth. It is a magnificent example of a - Quadrangular Castle, surrounded upon three sides by the - waters of the North Sea, and defended upon the remaining - side by gigantic walls flanked by the Keep, and also a - deep ditch. - - 31. Stirling Castle, Stirlingshire 192 - - Stirling Castle occupies a precipitous site upon the - river Forth and is connected with the history of Scotland - from a very early period. Of sieges and battles it has - seen its full share, and although modern fortifications - and barracks somewhat detract from its appearance, it - still possesses a number of medieval structures of great - beauty and interest. - - 32. Raising the Portcullis 196 - - The method for raising and lowering the Portcullis of a - medieval castle is shown here, the example being taken - from the Tower of London. This effective defence could be - entirely detached if required and dropped at a critical - moment when, perhaps, a few assailants had gained - admission, and were in that manner cut off from their - comrades. - - - LINE DRAWINGS IN THE TEXT - - PAGE - - 1. A Trebuchet Title-page - - 2. Comb Moss, Derbyshire 11 - - 3. Maiden Castle, West Entrance 16 - - 4. Maiden Castle, East Entrance 17 - - 5. Stockade of Stone and Rubble, with Palisade of Wood 19 - - 6. Simple Stockade of Stone and Earth, retained by - Wooden Stakes 20 - - 7. Stone Stockade, with Inner Core of Masonry 20 - - 8. Wooden Palisade of Tree-Trunks, strengthened with - Earth 21 - - 9. Badbury Rings, Dorset 23 - - 10. The Berm of Cadbury Castle 24 - - 11. Ravensburgh Castle, Hexton, Herts 26 - - 12. Mam Tor, Derbyshire 28 - - 13. Hunsbury, Northamptonshire 30 - - 14. Yarnbury, Wilts 31 - - 15. Melandra, Derbyshire 35 - - 16. Section of the City Defences of Verulamium (near - St. Albans) 37 - - 17. Battlemented Parapet shown in Caedmon's Paraphrase 41 - - 18. Battlements shown in Harl. MS. 603 41 - - 19. The Danish Burh at Gannock's Castle, near Tempsford 44 - - 20. Pevensey Castle 46 - - 21. Clifford's Castle, Northants 51 - - 22. Forebuilding of the Keep, Berkeley 79 - - 23. Dover Castle 81 - - 24. Clun Castle, Salop 89 - - 25. Bamborough Castle 95 - - 26. Plans of the Keep of Hedingham Castle 100 - - 27. Ground Plan of Conisborough Keep 107 - - 28. Conisborough 108 - - 29. The Ideal Concentric Castle 115 - - 30. Machicoulis supporting an Alur 117 - - 31. Merlon pierced with Oillet 124 - - 32. Caerphilly Castle 127 - - 33. Kidwelly Castle, Carmarthenshire 129 - - 34. Chepstow Castle 141 - - 35. Leeds Castle, Kent 143 - - 36. Bartizan 178 - - 37. Diagram illustrating the Principle of Construction in - Classical Engines 192 - - - - - BRITISH CASTLES - - - - - CHAPTER I - - NATURAL FORTRESSES STRENGTHENED - - -Man is essentially a pugilistic animal and experiences a keen sense of -delight in hunting all objects of the chase, ferocious or otherwise, but -the keenest undoubtedly when upon the track of the grandest of all -game--man. But at the same time though willing to inflict injury he -invariably does so at the minimum of risk to himself, deeming the -preservation of his own life, the greatest of the gifts that Nature has -bestowed upon him, of the first importance. Thus it is conceivable that -after the selection of a stone or the fabrication of a club by primitive -man he naturally proceeded to make a protection for himself to -counteract the effect of those weapons when wielded by others, and the -shield would follow as a logical sequence. The shield was to all intents -and purposes a movable castle, since it afforded him the means of -causing the greatest amount of annoyance to his enemy, while at the same -time furnishing the maximum means of protection to himself; a definition -which is appropriate to the first and latest type of feudal castle. As a -non-movable protection he would soon recognise the advantages afforded -by a tree, a rock, a fold in the ground; and the efficacy of these -natural defences would suggest artificial examples where they were -non-existent. - -Hence the earthwork and the parapet of rock, singly or combined, may be -regarded as the first of all castellation, with an origin so remote as -to be practically coeval with man's first appearance upon earth. These -simple means of defence are found in every country occupied by primitive -races; in America they are numerous and undoubtedly point to a high -antiquity, and the same holds good in many parts of Asia and Europe. In -the British Isles we have a richer collection probably than can be found -in any other portion of the globe, for in the habitable districts hardly -a square mile exists without some indication of disturbance of the soil -due in the majority of cases to some work of a defensive character. - -Earthworks are of such a varied nature, with so many differences of -contrast alike as regards shape, elevation and area, that to the -ordinary observer any classification seems impossible, and practically -it is only when descriptions and plans of the whole are aggregated for -selection that they fall under different headings by presenting -essential features common to a class. Hence in late years a system of -differentiation has been evolved, and the allocation of an earthwork to -a definite class is now possible. To the antiquary this is a source of -keen satisfaction, and it is hoped that to the ordinary observer it may -prove one of equal interest. - -It should be borne in mind that earthworks of great antiquity are found -only in those districts and localities where man could delve with his -primitive appliances, and thus a classification presents itself at once -in a contradistinction between the Western and Central parts of England -compared with the Southern and Eastern. It is obvious that no primitive -race, with their crude appliances, could dig into Cambrian, Silurian, or -Carboniferous rock in order to entrench themselves, and that in those -localities the breastwork would necessarily be paramount; and that -entrenching would only be possible where an accumulation of detritus or -alluvium existed, that is to say, in the valleys. So that, broadly -speaking, the parapet prevails in Wales and the Midland counties and the -ditch in the remaining portions. Those districts, reaching approximately -from Dorsetshire to Yorkshire and belonging to the Cretaceous formation, -would therefore roughly divide the country into two portions--the fosse -prevailing to the east of it, and the breastwork to the west. - -Another fact is apparent when dealing with this subject: the earthwork -is much more durable than any other form of castrametation, in fact it -is almost indestructible so far as meteoric agencies are concerned, -whereas the parapet suffers not only from disintegration by the -weathering influences of rain, frost, wind, and heat, but also from the -tendency to lose its original shape through having no natural or -artificial coherence between the separate parts. Thus undoubted examples -of prehistoric ramparts are comparatively rare when compared with the -wealth of existent earthworks. - -It must be borne in mind that the study of the earthwork is the alphabet -to that of castellation, and that the evolution of the latter cannot be -efficiently comprehended without an intelligent appreciation of the -former. So far as classification of earthworks has been made to the -present time, the following table represents the general mode of -procedure, and under one or other of its separate headings the whole of -the earthworks, so far as our knowledge extends at the time of writing, -may be allocated. - - - CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHWORKS - -1. _Natural Fortresses strengthened._ This refers to fortresses partly -inaccessible by reason of precipices, cliffs, or water, additionally -defended by artificial banks or walls. - -2. _Fortified Hill-Tops strengthened._ This includes fortresses situated -on hill-tops, with artificial defences adapted to the natural -configuration of the ground, or to those which are less dependent on the -natural slopes. - -3. _Simple Artificial Enclosures_, including rectangular or other forms, -and all the fortifications and towns of the Romano-British period. - -4. _The Mount and Fosse._ - -5. _The Mount and Bailey_, consisting of natural or artificial mounds -with one or more courts attached. - -6. _Homestead Moats._ - -7. _Homestead Moats developed_, referring to enclosures similar to No. 6 -but augmented by supplementary defences. - -8. _Protected Village Sites._ - - - _Class I.--Natural Fortresses strengthened._ - -This division may very readily be subdivided into three parts dealing -with natural fortresses according to the topographical characteristics -as follows: - - (_a_) Promontory forts, or cliff castles both upon the coasts - and inland. - - (_b_) Those depending upon rivers, woods, marshes, etc. for - efficiency. - - (_c_) Plateau forts. - -(_a_) _Promontory Forts._--This type of fort is prehistoric as a rule -and not characterised by an excess of variation. No distinctive -uniformity can be traced, it is true, but special features may be -discovered in almost every example of the class. It is only natural that -primitive man should seize upon any spot which promised the minimum of -labour to adapt it for his purpose of protection, hence distinguishing -features may be discerned in almost every case, depending upon the -presence of a precipice, slope, bog, wood, chasm, marsh, etc. The -description of a few of these fortresses will sufficiently illustrate -the point. - -_Trevalgue Head_, one mile north-east of New Quay, is practically an -island, being cut off from the mainland by a chasm through which the -tide flows, thus presenting a formidable obstacle 20 feet wide in -places. In order to strengthen this natural obstruction many lines of -entrenchments have been thrown up, both upon the island and the -mainland. The presence of quantities of flint chippings sufficiently -proves that this fort was the residence of Neolithic man, probably the -descendant of local Palæolithic ancestors. - -As the terms "Stone Age," "Bronze Age," "Iron Age" do not convey any -idea of date to the great majority of people, it may be advisable to -mention that the Stone Age approximately terminated about 3000 B.C. upon -the Continent, and 1500 B.C. in the British Isles, when the Bronze Age -is supposed to have commenced. These dates are of course entirely -conjectural. The Iron Age commenced in Britain about 400 B.C. - -The general idea of a cliff castle may be gathered from the foregoing -description of Trevalgue; there are many examples to be found in our -Islands, and similar ones occur in Brittany. That they are of ancient -British origin is suggested by the fact that they invariably occur in a -district where cromlechs, stone circles, menhirs, and other Celtic -remains are to be found. - -_Treryn Castle_, about three miles from St. Buryan, contains the famous -Logan stone. The fort is a gigantic mass of granite, nearly 250 feet in -height, separated from the mainland by a triple row of formidable -entrenchments, still 4 or 5 yards in height. This fort is probably the -finest to be found in Cornwall. - -At _St. David's Head_ is a cliff castle called _Clawll y Milwyr_, where -a small peninsula has been converted into a formidable fortress by the -erection of a great stone wall about 12 feet in thickness and still some -15 or more feet in height. The only method of approaching the enclosed -space is by a narrow entrance at the end of the wall. A fosse is -associated with the defence in question, and several other subsidiary -walls and fosses are found. Excavation has proved that the formation of -the castle occurred in the early Iron Age. - -[Illustration: MAIDEN CASTLE, DORSETSHIRE.] - -_Old Castle Head_, Manorbier, in Pembrokeshire, may be cited as a good -example of a cliff castle, and - -_Dinas_, four miles from Fishguard, affords another, where a natural -crevasse has been carefully scarped in order to separate a headland from -the mainland. The examples given have been taken from South Wales and -the Cornish peninsula, where for obvious reasons less probability of -disturbance during later periods has occurred. Ideal spots like Portland -are to be found in the British Isles, but the operations of man in -quarrying, building, etc. have probably destroyed all traces of defences -erected by the primitive inhabitants. - -_Clifton Camps_, three in number, lying on either side of the Avon, -afford us examples of cliff castles remote from the sea. The projecting -land jutting out into the loops of the winding river has in each case -been protected by lines of trenches. - -It can hardly be supposed that cliff castles generally were continuously -occupied, because as a rule the area is limited, and could not afford -sustenance for flocks and herds. Neither do they boast the possession of -the indispensable well or spring in the majority of cases. Simplicity -in plan is their chief feature, and generally the fosse defending them -is single, rarely double, and practically never treble. They probably -afforded the last resort when hard pressed by the enemy; abandoning -flocks and herds and thinking only of life and limb, the refugees could -make a last stand within them, and, if fortune still proved adverse, -could lower themselves down the steep faces of the cliffs, and trust to -the mercy of the waters. - -(_b_) Another class of fortresses falling under the same heading are -those which depended upon woods, marshes, rivers, and similar natural -defences for their efficiency. - -The _Dyke Hills_ at Dorchester, in Oxfordshire, undoubtedly formed at -one time a safe haven of refuge, being almost surrounded by swamps -forming a most effective defence. At the present time, however, these -have disappeared owing to the general lowering of the water-level -throughout England, by drainage, locks, weirs, etc., and they -consequently give no indication of former efficiency. Two great fosses -may be traced reaching from the Thame to the Thames, thus cutting off a -piece of land and entirely defending it by means of water. - -The _Isle of Avalon_, near Glastonbury, is essentially a peninsula, -rising from the midst of a marsh with a series of aggers and -accompanying dykes carried across the isthmus. - -[Illustration: COMB MOSS, DERBYSHIRE.] - -(_c_) _Plateau Forts._--_Comb Moss._ One of the finest examples of this -division is Comb Moss, which is situated near Chapel-en-le-Frith in the -vicinity of Derby, and at about 1600 feet above the level of the sea. -Its mission is so obvious that the name of "The Castle" is applied to -it locally. It is roughly triangular in shape, and upon two sides -precipitous slopes occur, which descend for nearly 500 feet and offer -magnificent protection. The third side leads out upon a fairly level -plateau, and here a double rampart and fosse has been made, completely -closing the entrance with the exception of a narrow portion at the -north-east side upon the very edge of the precipice, forming a most -dangerous entry and consequently could be easily defended by a small -number. There is an opening in the centre of the ramparts which is -probably of later date, conjecturally Roman. An ancient plan shows a -spring in the open space, but it does not appear at the present time. A -rough wall was constructed round the edges of the precipices to confine -sheep, but the original fortress was doubtless defended by a thick and -massive rampart, there being no lack of material for such a protection, -while the usual timber and stone breastwork would crown it. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - FORTIFIED HILL-TOPS - - -This class of fortress is illustrated by numerous examples in the -British Isles, many of which possess a very high order of merit. Class -I. is generally found associated with coast line or rivers with -precipitous banks; Class II. deals almost entirely with inland -elevations which, while having some natural advantages in the way of -steep ground or other defences of an inaccessible character, rely -chiefly upon the artificial additions which have been made to the -natural ones. With such a wealth of illustration it is somewhat -difficult to select examples, but those described may perhaps be typical -of every variety to be found in the kingdom. These camps of the plateau -type were the commonest prevailing before the Norman Conquest, and for -every great fortress like Cissbury, Maiden Castle, Dolebury, or -Bradbury there were hundreds of smaller examples. - -These latter were, as a rule, much more liable to destruction by the -plough, being slightly constructed and generally at no great elevation -above the mean level of the land; the farmer, ever in search of good -rich earth, turned with avidity to the great banks of loose soil placed -ready to hand, and hence the destruction of small camps has been -excessive. The great fortresses, with their steep scarps, have defied -the ploughman, and to this we may ascribe the excellent preservation -they generally present. - -These contour forts are undoubtedly an advance upon the earlier -promontory type and show an adaptation to the requirements of advancing -civilisation, pointing to coalescence and centralisation of -hitherto-divided communities, the protection of a settled area, and the -guarding of trade-routes. Hence they indicate the presence of larger -numbers and the possession of greater wealth. - -_Hembury Fort, Honiton._--This is by far the most wonderful example of -the class to be found in Devonshire. It stands at a height of nearly 900 -feet above sea-level and encloses a space of approximately 8 acres in -extent. Double valla, and their accompanying fosses, surround the whole -camp, the crest of the inner vallum averaging from 50 to 60 feet above -the bed of its fosse. To these formidable defences a third vallum has -been added, surrounding it upon every side except the east where it was -deemed unnecessary. It is prehistoric and probably British, but up to -the present time has not been excavated. - -_Ham Hill_ in the south-east part of Somersetshire is a high mass of -rock standing detached from the neighbouring hills. The wonderful -trenches, too numerous to mention in detail, show a very high order of -military skill in fortification, and this is the more remarkable when we -discover that Neolithic man was probably answerable for their -construction, although the fort has been subsequently occupied by men of -the Bronze Age, and also by the Romans. - -_South Cadbury_ lies five miles north of Sherborne. It is a huge and -extremely formidable fortress standing at a height of over 500 feet -above sea-level, and possessing no less than four lines of massive -ramparts, steeply scarped, some of them even penetrating into the hard -oolitic rock. There are two entrances into the large space enclosed by -the ramparts, and in each case protective mounds have been erected -defending them. - -[Illustration: MAIDEN CASTLE, WEST ENTRANCE.] - -_Maiden Castle_, about two miles from Dorchester (Dorset), easily holds -the premier place among the fortified camps of Great Britain, not only -on account of its vast extent and the cyclopean character of its works, -but also by reason of the marvellous military ingenuity displayed in its -construction. Our general conception of the intellectual calibre of -primitive man forcibly undergoes an alteration when contemplating the -colossal schemes which his brain was capable of producing and his hand -had the power of carrying into effect. - -[Illustration: PEVENSEY CASTLE, SUSSEX.] - -[Illustration: MAIDEN CASTLE, EAST ENTRANCE.] - -The area enclosed is no less than 45 acres, while the whole fort -occupies a space of 115 acres. The circumference of this vast work -measures one and a half miles, and three enormous valla and fosses -stretch this distance; in many places the crest of a vallum above the -fosse beneath it amounts to 60 feet. But perhaps our chief admiration is -evoked by the complex arrangement, by means of which the two entrances -into the fort are protected. A glance at the plans illustrating these -will at once show that fortified mounds and bastions of the most -complicated forms are placed so as to impede the progress of stormers, -and there can be no doubt that every means of protection known at the -time were interposed between them and the besieged. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1. -STOCKADE OF STONE AND RUBBLE, WITH PALISADE OF WOOD.] - -And here perhaps we may mention that the defences of an ancient -earthwork can hardly be judged adequately at the present time without -imagining the subsidiary structures which once crowned the works. These -auxiliary aids cannot with certainty be described, because of the -perishable character which generally signalised them, and the very -meagre references which occur in the most ancient of our writers. It is -generally accepted by authorities upon the subject that some stockade or -other defence was invariably added to the summit of a rampart, and that -this depended in character upon the nature of the country. In districts -where stone was abundant, uncemented walls of large blocks were erected, -generally with battering surfaces, the hollow portion between the two -faces being filled up with earth or rubble as in Fig. 1. More primitive -still would be the single wall with a bank of retaining earth behind it -for support (Fig. 2), while more complicated would be one strengthened -by a central core of masonry (Fig. 3). Remains of these walls have been -found in various places still _in situ_. It is quite possible that a -palisade of sharpened stakes or of wattle surmounted these stone walls, -thus still further adding to their efficiency. In a "soft" country, -where only earth or chalk is available, timber would naturally take the -place of stone. The Gallic defences of this nature, which gave so much -trouble to Caesar's legions, appear to have been made of tree-trunks -lying side by side upon the ground with the second course of trunks -superposed at right angles, the whole of the interstices being filled -with stones and earth tightly rammed (Fig. 4). It will readily be -perceived that a rampart constructed of alternate courses similar to -this, and approximately 10 feet in thickness and of considerable height, -would be quite impervious to the missile weapons of the period, and -indestructible by fire, even if the assailants succeeded in filling up -the deep vallum below the base of the wall with combustible materials. -Whether this method of the utilisation of timber for barricades was -ever introduced into the British Isles for strengthening valla we have -no means of ascertaining, owing to the perishable nature of the defence, -but considering that the ancient Britons were of undoubted Celtic -origin, we are perhaps justified in assuming it. On the other hand, a -row of thick vertical planks driven deeply into the soil and placed -closely together upon the summit of a rampart would prove a very -formidable obstacle after surmounting 60 feet of steep escarpment under -a hail of missiles. The small mounds so often placed as defences near -the entrances of fortified hill-tops were clearly intended for a ring of -palisades upon their summits, and isolated bastions similarly placed -were doubtless treated in the same manner. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2. -SIMPLE STOCKADE OF STONE AND EARTH, RETAINED BY WOODEN STAKES.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3. -STONE STOCKADE, WITH INNER CORE OF MASONRY.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4. -WOODEN PALISADE OF TREE-TRUNKS, STRENGTHENED WITH EARTH.] - -There are no less than five lines of defence upon the south and -south-east of Maiden Castle, and a feature of the work is the large -amount of room provided upon the summits of the valla to afford -accommodation for great bodies of defenders to stand and use their -weapons. - -_Badbury Rings_, four miles N.W. of Wimborne.--This may be classed among -the greater hill fortresses inasmuch as it encloses a space of 18 acres -and is furnished with three valla and their accompanying ditches. The -scarps are in places very steep and 40 feet above the fosses. The -eastern entrance is reminiscent of Maiden Castle, a bastion-like -obstruction being thrown forward to obstruct ingress, while the great -area of standing-room provided for the defenders may be looked upon as -characteristic of west country forts as it is repeated in a number of -others--Cadbury Castle, near Tiverton, and Shoulsbury on Exmoor, for -examples. In the outer area a mound occurs, and ponds also have been -formed within the fort. Investigations have brought Celtic antiquities -to light and also proved its occupation by the Romans. It affords a -magnificent prospect from the summit. In historic times it has been -utilised, as in A.D. 901 Æthelwald the Ætheling mustered his men there -after Alfred's death, upon the occasion of a popular rising. - -[Illustration: BADBURY RINGS, DORSET.] - -_Cadbury Castle._--This is a good example of a contour fort crowning an -isolated hill 800 feet in height. Upon three sides are formidable -natural precipices, and the ramparts enclose an oval inner space, which -is approximately level. The valla are continuous except upon the south, -where a scarped drop occurs of about 30 feet to the level of a wide -berm, on the outside of which a gigantic rampart rises to the height of -more than 20 feet above the berm. - -[Illustration: THE BERM OF CADBURY CASTLE.] - -_Cissbury_, north of Worthing.--This great fortress was constructed by -men of the Flint Age, and indubitable proofs of its occupancy by a -permanent population engaged in a staple trade are afforded by the -immense remains of flint chippings within its area, the product of many -generations of flint-knappers. The deep and wide pits within it were dug -for the purpose of obtaining flints, the raw material of their industry, -and these excavations were subsequently utilised for dwelling-places. -The fort is advantageously situated upon the trading route between the -inhabitants of the Great Forest of Anderida, covering the Weald of -Sussex, and the maritime population of the southern littoral; and this -fact appealed not only to Neolithic man but also the men of the -Bronze and Iron Ages, who occupied it in succession. It is a camp of the -plateau type with an inner vallum rising nearly 50 feet above the fosse -and 20 above the inner area. General Pitt Rivers estimated that 5000 men -would be required to man the ramparts effectually. - -[Illustration: THE BEAUCHAMP TOWER, TOWER OF LONDON.] - -_Ravensburgh Castle, Hexton, Herts._--The northern escarpment of the -Chiltern Hills is marked by numerous deep ravines leading down with -winding courses to the lowlands. This has the effect of leaving bold -bluffs of chalk standing up between them, and upon one of these this -remarkably fine hill fortress is placed. In addition to the two ravines -lying at the sides it is still further isolated by a third running at -right angles between the others. The castle occupies 16 acres of the -western half of this plateau, and possesses double ramparts on three -sides and triple on the north. The section AB shows the steep descent -into the ravine upon the south side, and DE indicates the same, while -clearly showing the three lines of defence formed by the two ditches. -The scarps are remarkable for their clean and smooth surfaces, the chalk -presenting the appearance of having been cut with a huge knife. The -entrances into the defence lie at nearly 500 feet above the sea-level. - -[Illustration: RAVENSBURGH CASTLE, HEXTON, HERTS.] - -One of the most prominent examples of the class is _Mam Tor_, a great -hill rising to a height of 1700 feet above sea-level, and dominating -Castleton and Edale, Derbyshire. Upon the summit of this eminence is a -remarkable earthwork enclosing about 16 acres of land, round which the -original rampart must have been nearly three-quarters of a mile in -length. Natural defences of a very marked character are upon two sides -of the triangular enclosure, consisting of steep slopes which descend -for a considerable distance. Upon the summit of these slopes two -formidable ramparts with an accompanying fosse have been constructed, -thus adding still further to an almost unassailable position. The -agricultural inhabitants of the district often term it "The Shivering -Mountain" from the many little avalanches of shale which are dislodged -from its sides. Upon the northern part the natural defences are not so -apparent, as the ridge of an adjoining hill approaches at that point. An -entrance to the Fort occurs there at the present time, as shown in the -plan, but not in its primitive condition. The only method of entering -was by means of the narrow passage shown at the S.W., defended by a -fortified mound at its inner mouth, which in turn was defended by a -larger mound lying to the N.W. A small spring of water still rises -within the enclosure and escapes through the N.W. break. The interior -has not been levelled, and a central spine of rock traverses it from -north to south. Undoubtedly Mam Tor furnishes us with one of the finest -examples of a fortified hilltop to be found in England. - -[Illustration: MAM TOR, DERBYSHIRE.] - -The following are a few instances of artificial defences which, although -they stand upon higher ground than the surrounding land, are less -dependent upon their elevated position. - -_Ambresbury Banks, Essex._--These banks are situated in Epping Forest, -at the side of the road between Epping and London. They are of British -origin, as has been definitely proved by excavations carried out by -General Pitt Rivers and the Essex Field Club, thus definitely disproving -the assertion previously prevailing of their supposed Roman origin. The -outline approaches a square form, and this probably gave rise to the -supposition. Only a few pieces of crude pottery and some flint chippings -came to light during the excavations. A feature, however, was disclosed -in the fosse, the lower part of which was originally of an angular -section; in it a depth of silt approximating to 7 feet had accumulated. -The scarp was inclined at an angle of 45°, and the counterscarp probably -rose at almost the same angle; the width of the fosse was over 20 feet, -and the depth above half that measurement. - -[Illustration: HUNSBURY, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.] - -_Hunsbury, Northamptonshire._--This earthwork is about one and a half -miles from Northampton, and may be cited as an example which falls -naturally into this subdivision, inasmuch as the hill upon which it -stands possesses such an easy slope that it does not tend to help to any -marked extent the formidable defences upon the summit. These lie nearly -200 feet above the river Nen, and 370 feet above sea-level. It is a -small enclosure, the single fosse of which is well preserved with the -exception of a portion upon the north, which has been quarried for -iron-stone, much in demand in that district. The defences were -undoubtedly of great power originally, but have been much degraded; the -interior of the camp has been ploughed, and the earthworks planted with -trees. The original opening is that lying to the S.E. The name upon the -Ordnance Survey is "Danes Camp," though upon what authority is not -apparent. Camps of a very similar nature may be found at Ring Hill in -Essex, and Badbury in Berks, while Whelpley Hill in Buckinghamshire is -almost an exact replica. - -[Illustration: YARNBURY, WILTS.] - -_Yarnbury_ lies about three miles to the west of Winterbourne Stoke in -Wiltshire and is allocated to this division, being one of the largest -and best of its kind. The area enclosed is about 20 acres, encircled by -three valla and two or three ditches. The inner rampart rises at times -to over 50 feet above the fosse. There are a number of entrances, but -only those to the east and west are original, each being defended with -outworks, the eastern gate by bastions similar to those at Maiden Castle -and Badbury Rings. - -[Illustration: CORFE CASTLE, DORSETSHIRE.] - - - - - CHAPTER III - - SIMPLE ARTIFICIAL ENCLOSURES - - (_a_) _The Romano-British Period, 54 B.C.-A.D. 410_ - - -The earthworks under consideration are those which, rectangular or -otherwise, were constructed during the historic period commencing with -the Roman subjugation of Great Britain, and ending a few years before -the Norman Conquest. It may be termed the Romano-British-Saxon Period. -It was the incipient era of castellation proper in the British Isles, -distinct from pure earthworks, inasmuch as during the Roman period -massive defences of masonry supplanted the earlier uncemented walls and -wooden palisading. - -At the first invasion of Caesar, 55 B.C., we read of no towns being -assaulted, but in the next, 54 B.C., the great _oppidum_ of -Cassivelaunus was taken by storm after the passage of the Thames. This -capital, Verulamium (adjacent to the modern St. Albans), was a large -oval enclosure defended upon three sides by a deep fosse and vallum, in -one place doubled, and upon the other by an impassable marsh. The city -was attacked in two places and captured. In A.D. 43 the final -subjugation of England took place, and the vallum at Verulamium was -crowned by the Romans with a massive wall of masonry, great portions of -which still remain, supplanting the former wooden obstructions. - -That which occurred at Verulamium happened also in numerous other -places, Silchester for example, the Romans thus adapting an efficient -earthwork to suit their own requirements. Where, however, pre-existing -works did not occur, the walls, ramparts, and fosses were invariably -constructed round a rectangular area such as may be seen at Chester. The -enclosed streets crossed each other at right angles, and this feature is -a marked one in Verulamium, although, as stated, the defences do not -conform to the rectangular shape. Isolated earthworks constructed during -the Roman Period are always more or less square. - -[Illustration: MELANDRA, DERBYSHIRE.] - -_Melandra_ is a Roman earthwork in a good state of preservation near -Glossop in Derbyshire. It is almost square, and consists of a simple -vallum and external fosse. There are four openings caused by two main -roads which intersected at the centre of the earthwork. It affords an -example of the prevailing structure of Roman Camps, which are numerous -in those parts of the British Isles which owned the sway of the -conquerors. The many camps, for example, upon the Watling Street all -exhibit the same general plan, based upon the formation of the Roman -legion. - -_Richborough Castle_, near Sandwich in Kent, may be cited as a veritable -example of a Roman castle built in Britain, and is almost the only one -remaining at the present day that preserves in any marked degree its -original salient points. It is conjectured to have been erected in the -time of the Emperor Severus, its mission being to protect the southern -mouth of the great waterway which then separated the island of Thanet -from the mainland, a similar office being performed by Reculvers at the -northern entry. Three sides of the rectangle are still protected by the -massive masonry walls which the Romans knew so well how to build; the -fourth, or eastern side, where flowed the river Stour, possesses no -visible defence, as it has been undermined and overthrown by the -river-current. The northern boundary is 440 feet long, and the western -460. The walls, which vary in height from 12 to 30 feet, are about 12 -feet thick and batter towards the top; they are beautifully faced with -squared stone in horizontal courses similar to those seen at Segontium, -the Roman station at Carnarvon; the core is composed of boulders from -the neighbouring beach, embedded in mortar with courses of the usual -Roman bonding tiles. In the centre of the area stood a temple and other -buildings; the foundations of some of these are still in evidence. -Whether the external walls were strengthened by the addition of square -or circular towers of masonry, as at Porchester and Silchester, has not -as yet been definitely determined. - -[Illustration: SECTION OF THE CITY DEFENCES OF VERULAMIUM (NEAR ST. -ALBANS).] - -A common device in Roman castrametation was the berm or platform outside -the surrounding wall, but immediately beneath it; in an attack upon the -fortifications the assailants would be exposed to a plunging fire of -missiles from the ramparts while descending the steep counterscarp of -the ditch, to a raking discharge when ascending the slope of the scarp, -and be entirely devoid of cover when crossing the berm, which was -generally about 20 feet wide. Another advantage of the berm was that it -placed the engines of the besiegers on the remote side of the ditch at -a greater distance from the walls, and thereby lessened the effect of -the missiles discharged from them. To still further modify the results -of the latter upon the wall it was customary to bank up the earth upon -the inner face to form a ramp, and this also lessened the effects of the -rams of the besiegers. These features are shown in the foregoing -diagrammatic section of the walls of Verulamium. - - - (_b_) _The Saxon Period, c. 410-1066_ - -Concerning the defensive works erected in the British Isles during the -Saxon Period there is more indefiniteness prevailing at the time of -writing than there is with regard to any period antecedent or consequent -to it. This may be attributed to two causes, the first being the -unsatisfactory use of the word _burh_ in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, and -the second the effects produced during the past half-century by writers -wrongly attributing the remains of early Norman castellation to the -period preceding it, following upon a misunderstanding of the word above -mentioned. This has had the result of rendering the major portion of -the works produced upon the subject of castellation during the latter -half of the nineteenth century unreliable and obsolete so far as the -Saxon and Roman periods are concerned, while at the same time producing -a marked hesitancy among experts to definitely attribute any work to the -first of the periods without systematic excavation of the site. - -In O.E. the word _burh_ in its nominative form signifies a fort or -stronghold and is generally translated as "borough," while in its dative -form _byrig_ it is commonly used to indicate what its modern -representative "bury" conveys. But Anglo-Saxon writers did not use the -two words strictly, and thus hesitancy and confusion have been produced. -It is now being generally accepted that the usual form of burh or -borough was that of a rectangular enclosure surrounded by a rampart and -an external ditch, the area being of any dimensions up to 20 or 30 acres -or more. This arrangement is probably exemplified in the earthworks at -Wallingford. - -It is obvious that the inherent weakness in this very elementary system -of defence lies in the inability to adequately man all the ramparts at -once because of their great extent; the defenders probably relied upon -the promptness with which they could meet a threatened attack at any -particular point. The Anglo-Saxons at a very early period recognised the -advisability of forming fortified positions in the island, and carried -out the system so entirely that practically every isolated house, farm, -or group of buildings was enclosed by its rampart and ditch. Even at the -present day we become aware of this fact from the scores of "burys" and -"boroughs" with which the surface of our land abounds. The burh was thus -a comparatively slight affair when compared with earthworks which had -preceded it. - -But undoubtedly the great centres of defensive strength lay in those -towns which the Romans had formerly fortified, and the inclusion of -their masonry walls in the borough boundary immensely augmented their -efficiency, as is exemplified at York, Lincoln, and Chester. Around -villages and farmsteads the defences probably consisted of a ditch, a -vallum surmounted by a turf wall, a palisading of thick stakes, or even -a hedge. That the latter was a mode of defence in the earlier part of -the Saxon Period is proved by an insertion in the Old English Chronicle -under the year 547--where Ida of Northumbria is said to have built -_Bebban burh_, _i.e._ Bamborough,--that it was first enclosed with a -hedge, and subsequently with a stone wall. Illuminations in Saxon MSS. -representing fortified towns invariably depict stone walls with -battlements; but, again, it may be that these are Roman, and crenellated -walls are extremely ancient, being represented upon the Nineveh marbles. -In the illustration from the Caedmon MS. given here true battlements are -depicted by the Saxon artist, while a similar attempt has also been made -in Harl. MS. 603--a battlemented parapet being evidently intended. - -[Illustration: BATTLEMENTED PARAPET SHOWN IN CAEDMON'S PARAPHRASE; MS. -IN BODLEIAN LIBRARY.] - -[Illustration: BATTLEMENTS SHOWN IN HARL. MS. 603. (An Anglo-Saxon MS. -of the Psalms.)] - -Ida "wrought a burh" at Taunton (before 721), and Alfred built many -burhs against the Danes. His son, Edward the Elder, and Ethelfleda, the -Lady of the Mercians, were yet more energetic in raising these defences. -To Edward the burh at Witham, now unfortunately in process of -demolition, and also that at Maldon are attributed, while Ethelfleda was -responsible for those at Stafford and Tamworth in 913, and at Warwick in -914. In the absence of rebutting evidence we are undoubtedly justified -in assuming that these burhs were simply replicas of the conjectured -method of fortification pursued by the Saxons; the belief is -strengthened by the remains at Maldon and Witham, where wide rectangular -enclosures are found surrounded by earthen ramparts and external fosses. - -A difficulty, however, arises when we consider the two burhs erected at -Nottingham. No rectangular enclosures have been discovered there, and it -seems probable that the word simply signifies that two forts were -erected to protect the bridge which passed over the Trent at this point, -similar perhaps to the mounds of earth at Bakewell and Towcester, which -are supposed to date from the same period. - -The genius of the Saxons appears to have been adapted to field warfare -rather than to the construction or maintenance of strong military -stations, for we find that when defeated they took refuge in natural -fastnesses rather than in fortresses; the woods and marshes of Somerset, -for example, protected Alfred from the pursuit by the Danes, and the -last stand of these people against the Normans occurred in the fens and -marshes about Ely. There is no account extant of a protracted resistance -afforded by a Saxon fortress; that of London against the Danes may be -attributed to the massive Roman walls there. - -It is unsatisfactory to be compelled to wander thus in the realms of -conjecture, but it is probable that the kinds of defence varied in -different places, since at Worcester Edward surrounded an ancient -borough with a wall of stone. An oblique light, however, is thrown upon -the subject by the presence in England of a few undoubted examples of -fortifications erected at definite dates by another northern race, -_i.e._ the Danes, who might be expected to fortify themselves somewhat -similarly to the Saxons. - -[Illustration: THE DANISH BURH AT GANNOCK'S CASTLE, NEAR TEMPSFORD.] - -These marauders built burhs at Reading, Quatford on the Severn, and -Benfleet, but by far the best now remaining are those at Willington and -Tempsford on the river Ouse. At Willington the Danes proposed to -establish their winter quarters in 921, and an extensive burh was thrown -up for the purpose. It consisted of a large enclosure with inner and -outer wards, high ramparts, and three wide ditches filled with water -from the river. The most striking features, perhaps, were the two large -harbours within the fortifications, designed to protect the Danish -galleys. The Saxon king Edward, however, carried the place by assault -and burnt the fleet. The discomfited Danes, much lessened in numbers, -retreated up the river, and near the junction of the Ivel with the main -stream threw up a smaller burh which now bears the name of Gannock's -Castle, near Tempsford. The fort is an oblong area enclosed within a -single fosse, and, what is very significant in face of later -developments, a mound of earth stands within it near a corner, where the -only entrance to the fort is found. Probably this mound was protected by -palisades the same as the rampart, but Edward, flushed by his former -success, stormed the burh and captured it with terrible loss to the -routed garrison. - -[Illustration: PEVENSEY CASTLE.] - -_Pevensey._--Pevensey Castle is associated with the earliest history of -Britain. Upon its site stood the Roman Camp of Anderida, oval in shape, -and obviously adapted to surface configuration. It is the reputed site -of the landing of Caesar. The British occupied it when the Romans left, -and here occurred the great massacre by the South Saxons under Ella in -477. In 1066 William I. landed at Pevensey and erected one of his -portable wooden castles, probably within the Roman Camp. The Castle -came to his half-brother Robert, Earl of Mortaign, who considerably -strengthened the existing remains. The supposition that he erected a -Motte and Bailey castle seems to be negatived by recent investigations. -The Castle was held by Bishop Odo against the forces of Rufus for six -weeks in 1088, but was surrendered, Odo promising to give up Rochester, -which promise he subsequently violated. King Stephen besieged it in -person in the war with the Empress Maud, when it was defended by -Gilbert, Earl of Clare, and only surrendered through famine. It came to -the Crown during the thirteenth century, and John of Gaunt appointed the -Pelham family to be castellans. In 1399, Sir John of that name, an -adherent of Bolingbroke, was absent when the Castle was besieged by the -king's forces, but his wife, the Lady Jane, conducted an historical -defence with such gallantry that the assailants retired. Pevensey -appears to have been used as a State prison, and within it many notable -persons have been incarcerated, including Edward Duke of York, James I. -of Scotland, and Joan of Navarre, second queen of Henry IV. - -A large proportion of the Roman wall surrounding the oval site is still -in excellent preservation; it is strengthened by fifteen drum towers of -great solidity. The height ranges between 20 and 30 feet, and upon the -summits may still be perceived some of the strengthening Norman masonry. -The inner castle is a remarkable feature of the enclosure; it is -supposed to have been erected at the end of the thirteenth century, and -one of the towers dates from the time of Edward II. It forms an -irregular pentagon, each angle being strengthened by a massive drum -tower; two semicircular towers flank the entrance, of which one only -remains in good condition. The masonry of the drawbridge is still to be -seen, and the entrance passage with portcullis grooves and meurtrière -openings are in good condition. The great Roman wall has been utilised -to form portions of the eastern and southern sides, but this suffered in -the time of Elizabeth, when a part of it was blown up by gunpowder. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - THE MOTTE AND BAILEY CASTLE, _c._ 1066-_c._ 1100 - - -As is well known to students of English history the Norman influence -began to prevail in this country some time anterior to 1066. The court -of Edward the Confessor owned a fairly large proportion of Normans, the -sympathies of that monarch being strongly in their favour. They obtained -from him grants of estates in return for feudal duties, and, the Welsh -being at that time a source of annoyance, some of the land so allocated -was situated on the borderland. - -[Illustration: THE TOWER OF LONDON.] - -So far as is known, the earliest castle to be erected by a Norman in -that locality was built by Richard Fitz-Scrob, _c._ 1050. _Richard's -Castle_, as it is termed, stands in the northern part of Herefordshire; -a second example was thrown up at Hereford, and a third at the southern -entrance to the Golden Valley. If we may trust contemporary documents -a similar work was erected about the same time at Clavering Castle in -Essex by a Saxon native of the county, Swegen the Sheriff, and also, -probably, the castle at Dover, which appears to have been in existence -prior to the Battle of Hastings. Of this little group of pre-Conquest -castles the strongest was conjecturally that at Hereford, erected in -1055 by Harold, Earl of the West Saxons, consisting of a Motte and -Bailey similar to the rest, but only a small portion of the bailey -remains at the present time, as the mound has been removed and the ditch -filled up. - -As regards the construction of a castle of the Motte and Bailey type, it -was commenced by the excavation of a deep ditch enclosing, as a rule, a -circular space. There are a few exceptions which approximate to the -oval, and the oblong form is not unknown. The whole of the ballast -excavated was thrown up inside the ring until a high mound, flattened at -the top, and with sides as steep as the "angle of repose" of the -excavated material would allow, had been formed. The last portions of -the superincumbent earth thrown up were consolidated by ramming. Around -the edge of the area upon the summit of the mound a breastwork of -timber was placed, either of thick vertical planks driven deeply into -the soil and firmly strengthened behind, or of timber and stone as -previously described in connection with fortified hill-tops (Chap. II.). - -Upon the summit and occupying the centre, as a rule, a wooden castle was -erected known as the "bretasche," and varying in size and accommodation -according to the available space. We may safely infer that the height of -the bretasche was not less than two stories, and this, added to the -elevation of the mound which occasionally reached to 60 feet, would -afford a coign of vantage for a view over the whole area below. Upon the -outer edge of the fosse a vallum occurs in many examples, thus still -further adding to the depth of the defence and giving increased height -to the counterscarp; it also afforded a means for erecting a palisading -of stakes if advisable. To afford ingress and egress to the fort a -narrow flying bridge of wood was erected reaching from the top of the -mound to the outer edge of the fosse. - -[Illustration: CLIFFORD'S CASTLE, NORTHANTS.] - -Such was the method of construction of the simplest form of this type, -of which Bures Mount in Essex, The Mount, Caerleon, and Clifford's -Castle, Northamptonshire, are examples; but it is extremely questionable -even if these cited cases were made without an accompanying bailey, -although no traces can now be discerned. The accommodation would be so -extremely limited, and the danger of starvation to the garrison so -imminent, seeing that no room could be afforded for any cattle or sheep -upon the motte, that, unless intended to be of a temporary nature or -hastily raised in an emergency, we are justified in assuming that these -forts, of which not very many occur, are in an incomplete condition. - -_Clifford's Castle_, at Little Houghton, three miles east of -Northampton, is an example of the Motte and Fosse; it is one of those -defending the valley of the river Nen--Earl's Barton and Wollaston being -similar companion defences. The hill is of large circumference, -presenting imposing proportions, and may be compared with important -works like those at Ongar and Pleshey in Essex, or with Thetford in -Norfolk. It rises to a height of over 50 feet above its surroundings, -and lies upon part of a small natural ridge. A ditch surrounds the base, -the ballast from which was taken to the top of the hill in order to -increase the height; the summit there, however, is level. In order to -increase the efficiency of the fosse it was converted into a moat, water -being admitted from the adjacent river. At the present time no traces -whatever of a bailey are discernible, nor of any enclosure with masonry -walls. This does not prove that these additions have never existed; the -natural place for them would be upon the eastern side where high ground -is situated, and if they have been built at any period they would -present features similar to those at Thurnham in Kent. The summit of the -mound would in that case be reached by a flying bridge of wood. - -The Bailey, or base court, was an enclosed piece of land lying at the -foot of the motte; a ditch surrounded it, the ballast from which was -thrown up inside the area so as to make a rampart for palisading. The -two ends of the ditch joined the fosse encircling the motte, generally -upon opposite sides of the latter. In the bailey the buildings for the -garrison, stables, offices and domestic buildings were erected, while -the bretasche afforded accommodation for the lord of the castle, his -family, and immediate attendants. In those cases where a second bailey -occurs it is generally extended beyond the first on the face remote from -the motte, as at Ongar Castle, Essex; but sometimes, though more rarely, -both baileys will abut upon the mound, as at Newton in Montgomeryshire, -while in a limited group of castles, including Windsor and Arundel, the -motte occupies the centre of the whole defence. - -It is not difficult to understand the almost universal rule that the -mound is placed upon the outer edge of the enceinte; it was without -doubt the strongest part of the position, and the refuge to which the -besieged retreated when the bailey, or baileys, had been lost, and in -the last extremity it afforded a means for escaping to the open country. -This disposition of the mound with regard to the bailey should be borne -in mind when dealing with those castles which have been erected in later -times upon a pre-existing Motte and Bailey fortress, the mound, as a -rule, with its accompanying enclosures serving as a nucleus around which -masonry defences could be grouped. - -Through the agency of the plough, and aerial forces of degradation of -various kinds, baileys present but scanty traces at the present day in -many instances, and this may be taken as proof, if any were needed, that -earth and wood were the only kinds of material employed during the early -Norman period in the construction of forts. No traces of stone have been -discovered which can be assigned to that period with absolute -certainty, and not only does this well-established fact corroborate the -assertion, but documentary evidence points in the same direction. - -It is quite possible that other Motte and Bailey castles besides the few -enumerated may eventually be ascribed to the fifteen or twenty years -preceding the Norman invasion, for there was nothing to prevent a -wealthy Thegn from erecting one of this type which he may have observed -on the Continent where many scores were in existence. The Bayeaux -tapestry shows Dinant as being defended by a Motte and Bailey castle; -the usual wooden tower is seen upon the top of the mound, and the -enclosed bailey is stockaded. It also shows the construction of such a -castle at Hastings, besides four similar examples in Brittany and -Normandy. - -Certain it is that almost immediately after 1066 a rapid construction of -these fortified posts occurred in many parts of England and Wales, not -necessarily equally distributed, but more thickly dotted in those places -which the military instinct of the great Conqueror led him to deem -desirable. Thus the Welsh borderland is remarkably rich in examples, -Herefordshire alone containing thirty-two, as compared with -Leicestershire four, Nottinghamshire five, and Hertfordshire four. It is -remarkable, however, that many highly developed examples of this class -are to be found in the eastern counties where no borderland existed, and -we can only account for this anomaly by supposing that a Norman lord, to -whom a grant of land had been assigned in recognition of his military -services, hastened to consolidate his occupancy by the erection of a -castle, and that such building might possibly not have any reference to -the defence of the kingdom as a whole. - -Thus the castle became the accredited centre of a feudal barony, and a -Motte and Bailey in almost every case is connected with places mentioned -in the Domesday Book as being the residence of a Norman landowner. For -example, Berkhampstead, owned by Robert Count of Mortaign, boasts one of -the most perfect specimens to be found in the country; the manors of -Nigel de Albini at Cainhoe in Bedfordshire, Robert de Malet at Eye in -Suffolk, William Fitz-Ansculf at Dudley in Staffordshire, Geoffrey -Alselin at Laxton in Nottinghamshire, William de Mohun at Dunster in -Somersetshire, Robert le Marmion at Tamworth in Staffordshire, Robert -Todenei at Belvoir in Leicestershire, Henry de Ferrers at Tutbury in -Staffordshire, Roger de Busli of Tickhill in the West Riding, and Ilbert -de Lacy at Pontefract in Yorkshire, all exhibit the same feature. - -These castles in many cases became the centre around which sprang up the -dwellings of traders and agriculturists which subsequently developed -into boroughs, while in not a few instances ecclesiastical settlements -occurred which finally expanded into stately monasteries. - -Again, many barons threw up castles in the centre of, or adjacent to, -pre-existing towns, the subsequent fortifications of which became an -integral part of the whole scheme of defence, as at Warwick, Nottingham, -and Leicester. Wherever a castle was built for the double purpose of -overawing a town and defending it against a common enemy, it is -generally found placed upon the city defences or immediately adjacent -thereto; and as the settlement had invariably originally sprung up in -the vicinity of, or upon the banks of, a river, the fort is usually -found placed at the junction where the borough and the river defences -meet. A fortress situated in this position would be able to afford -material help to a relieving army, while at the same time in the event -of the town being captured and given to the flames it would occupy the -best possible position, short of being entirely outside the walls, for -the garrison to escape the effects of the conflagration. This position -of the castle with respect to the town walls and other defences will be -recognised in the cases of Warwick, Hereford, Stamford, Cambridge, -Bedford, Chester, Shrewsbury, etc. - -[Illustration: KENILWORTH CASTLE, WARWICKSHIRE.] - -The Motte and Bailey castle was, as a general rule, placed upon the -banks of a river, which thus ensured immunity from attack upon one side, -while at the same time supplying the water for the ditches defending the -other three sides. In many examples, however, the defence depended upon -dry ditches. The proximity of high land apparently had no bearing upon -the choice of position, unless of course it was dangerously near; it was -only upon the introduction of gunpowder that the presence of commanding -spots in the neighbourhood became of importance in the selection of a -site. We find, however, that the positions usually chosen enabled the -garrison to command a view over the surrounding country, and this -feature is a prominent one at Richard's Castle, which affords a wide -extent over the northern part of Herefordshire. This is also the case at -Belvoir, which occupies a similar position with respect to the great -plain of Nottinghamshire. There were naturally a number of points which -had to be taken into consideration in the selection of a site, but those -enumerated were among the most important; one fact is forcibly borne in -upon the mind when viewing the positions of these ancient fortresses, -namely, that the builders had a keen eye for the recognition of salient -points in the ichnography of a district. - -In an invasion of the British Isles at the present day the unwelcome -intruder would probably hasten to entrench himself and render his -position safe by pits, earthworks, and an elaborate entanglement of -barbed wire; and in the same manner as these could be rapidly prepared, -so we find that the Conqueror, directly after Hastings, threw up the -defence which would be the most expeditious in the making and the -cheapest in construction. The Motte and Bailey castle fulfilled both -conditions inasmuch as it was only necessary to obtain, by fair means -or otherwise, an adequate number of Saxon labourers to ensure the rapid -erection of the mound, while simultaneously the local trees were being -felled and roughly hewn into shape by native carpenters for the -palisades and bretasche. To give an idea of the speed with which these -fortresses could be made, we find that in a brief campaign of less than -two months, in 1068, the king founded eight of considerable importance, -including those at Nottingham, Warwick, Lincoln, Huntingdon, and York; -in the following year the erection of a second castle at York only -occupied eight days, and Baile Hill, the mount of the defence in -question, sufficiently testifies to the magnitude of the work. One great -advantage of the system should not be forgotten, namely, the possibility -of adequate defence by a small garrison because of the narrow front -exposed to an attack, and the immunity from harm of the besieged while -the defences stood intact. - -_Windsor._--The Royal Castle of Windsor originated in one of the Motte -and Bailey type erected by the Conqueror upon the striking eminence near -the Thames. It was one of those that were hastily thrown up in order to -consolidate his power, as it is mentioned as early as 1070, and in -Domesday Book in 1086. It is one of a small and exclusive type by reason -of the dominating motte occupying the centre of the enclosure instead of -the usual position at the side or end; this peculiarity is shared by -Arundel, Nottingham, and one or two others. It is quite reasonable to -infer, however, that one, or even both, of the baileys were added at -some time subsequent to the throwing up of the mound. It was -sufficiently advanced in strength in 1095 to be the prison of de -Mowbray, Earl of Northumberland, and the extensive additions made by -Henry I. enabled the Court to be held there in 1110. John seized on -Windsor during the absence of his brother, but was besieged in it by the -loyal barons, and forced to surrender. Windsor has been stated as the -place of imprisonment of the de Braose family in 1210, who were -deliberately starved to death by the inhuman John. In the reign of Henry -III. very extensive building operations occurred, and a number of -towers, including the Barbican, were added, but probably Edward III. -left a greater mark upon the castle than any monarch preceding him, -possibly by reason of a natural affection for his birthplace. - -Upon the great motte which his Norman ancestors had reared he built that -magnificent Shell Keep which forms such a fitting centre for the grand -range of buildings encircling it. The works commenced about 1348 and -lasted for twenty years, the celebrated William of Wykeham, subsequently -Bishop of Winchester, being the architect. They included the whole of -the walls of the enceinte, the great Hall, various lodgings for -officials, and St. George's Chapel. - -In 1347 two notable prisoners were confined here, David Bruce and John, -king of France. In the reign of Richard II. St. George's Chapel was -found to be in an insecure condition, and Geoffrey Chaucer was appointed -Clerk of the Works. Windsor was the scene of the imprisonment of the -Scottish king James I. under Henry IV. and V. - -Edward IV. commenced the re-building of St. George's Chapel, which was -not completed until the reign of Henry VIII., while to the latter -monarch is due the great gateway which bears his name. The Castle -suffered but little structurally during the Civil War, but all the plate -and many of the priceless relics were the objects of plunder. Charles -II., William III., and Anne probably did more to destroy this gorgeous -monument of antiquity than any preceding monarchs; with the idea of -adapting it to modern requirements buildings were dismantled, old -landmarks were removed, and trashy innovations of an unworthy age -substituted in their place. There are but few marks of commendation -attached to the name of George IV., but among them the restoration of -the Castle upon the ancient lines, when £700,000 were expended, must be -placed to his credit. In spite of the vandalism of recent centuries -there still remain many interesting examples of medieval masonry. - - - - - CHAPTER V - - THE SHELL KEEP, _c._ 1100-1200 - - -The Shell Keep represents the second development of the Norman Castle, -and consists of a circular or polygonal ring of stone walling erected -upon the motte in the position formerly occupied by the wooden -palisading. The substitution of masonry for perishable material was a -natural and logical sequence, but in the hurried rush of events -immediately following upon the Conquest there was no time for erecting -such a defence. A hastily thrown-up mound also would not bear the -weight, and it was necessary to allow the earth to consolidate before -imposing it. As the country became more settled, and economic and other -upheavals less frequent, the Norman barons found time and means to -devote to the strengthening of their feudal homes. - -Of the precise date of the first Shell Keep erected in these islands we -have no definite record; it is very doubtful if any saw the light during -the reign of William the Conqueror or Rufus, although many examples -could be found at that time upon the Continent. We know that certain -Castles, such as Carisbrooke, Lincoln, and Totnes, had developed Shell -Keeps prior to the termination of the reign of Stephen, and that -Windsor, Berkeley, Arundel, and a number of others were furnished with -the same not very long after, so that the age of the Shell Keep may -roughly be ascribed to the twelfth century. One must not infer, however, -that every example of a Shell Keep dates inexorably from that age, -because, having proved its efficiency, it became a recognised method of -defence, and Lewes and Durham were endowed with Shells as late as the -reign of Edward III. - -The Shell Keep is always placed upon a mound, either natural, structural -at the time of erection, or a pre-existing motte, but by far the greater -number of mounds are artificial. The configuration of the earthwork -suggested the shape of the Shell, being either circular, oval, or, as in -the case of York and probably Warwick, that of a quatrefoil. The -majority are polygonal, the sides not necessarily of equal length, and -few of them exceeding the duodecagon in number. The diameter varied from -100 feet to 30, seldom more or less; the thickness of the wall was from -10 feet to 12 feet, and the foundations were carried from 4 feet to 6 -feet into the soil. This wall was not built upon the extreme edge of the -plateau, but generally a few feet from it and carried upwards to a -height of between 20 feet and 30 feet, steps of wood or stone upon the -interior face giving access to the rampart. - -Being essentially in one compact mass, without vertical breaks of any -great extent, and homogeneous in construction, the Shell Keep was -specially adapted to crown the summit of an artificial mound. The -interior area was occupied by buildings, generally abutting upon the -Keep walls; in early examples these were constructed of wood, but -subsequently almost entirely of stone to lessen the danger of -conflagration. - -The substitution of masonry for palisading upon the mound suggested a -similar course for the defence of the bailey, and the twelfth century -witnessed the erection of many of those gigantic walls surrounding them -which excite our admiration at the present day by their massiveness and -strength. They followed the scarp of the original mounds, and in many -examples the water of the external fosse lapped their bases. The -addition of a barbican or ravelin to defend the chief entrance to the -castle, which invariably opened into the bailey, was now adopted, while -the former wooden ladders or bridges giving from the motte to the bailey -were superseded by causeways of stone, defended on either side by a -continuation of the bailey enceinte up the slope of the mound. Stone -steps instead of wood led from the inner surface of the curtain walls to -the ramparts above; stone buildings were erected for the domestic -offices, barracks, etc., while the wooden planks and ladders by which -the moats had formerly been crossed gave place to masonry arches. - -These improvements in the majority of examples did not occur at the same -time, hence the presence of a twelfth-century Shell Keep is no guarantee -that the curtain walls are of the same age. The introduction of flanking -towers, generally semicircular, into the curtain wall, and of -rectangular towers, astride it, as a rule, occurred in this century. -There are examples in our island, however, which prove that only partial -adoption of these improvements took place in many castles, and that, for -example, the baron and his family were quite content to dwell within the -wooden bretasche upon the motte, at the same time strengthening the -weaker bailey defences by the erection of a substantial curtain wall. - -_Alnwick._--The magnificent Castle of Alnwick is an excellent example of -a Shell Keep fortress; it stands upon elevated ground on the south bank -of the Aln river and about 5 miles from the sea. At the Conquest the -site, which probably had an earlier defence upon it, was granted to Ivo -de Vescy, whose daughter married Eustace Fitz-John. The constant inroads -of the Scots necessitated a stronger fortress at this point, and, about -1140, Fitz-John began the building of which some splendid remains are -still visible, chiefly in the innermost gateway and the outer curtain -wall. His son, who took his mother's name of de Vescy, placed the Castle -in the custody of the Empress Maud's uncle, King David of Scotland. In -1174, William the Lion invaded England and besieged the Castle, but a -coalition of the northern barons captured the king and took him to -Richmond, thus raising the siege. The de Vescy family died out in 1297, -and after a temporary occupation by Anthony Bek, Bishop of Durham, was -purchased by Sir Henry de Percy, a name which is associated with -everything that is brave, chivalrous, and martial in the county of -Northumberland. The Percy who fought through the wars of Edward III. and -was present at Halidon Hill and Neville's Cross was considered as second -only to the king in importance, while the marriage of his son to Mary -Plantagenet, daughter of Henry, Earl of Lancaster, proved that it was -worthy of alliance with the blood-royal. - -In 1405 Alnwick was besieged, and yielded to Henry IV., following upon -the battle of Shrewsbury and the defection and death of Hotspur; Henry -V., however, restored the heir to his possessions, and created him Earl -of Northumberland. He was killed at the first Battle of St. Albans, -1455, while his son fell at Towton in 1461. The Castle saw much fighting -in the latter part of the fifteenth century. The long line of the -Percies came to an end in 1670; it was probably the most historic of -our great English families, and eight bearers of the title met with -violent deaths, chiefly on the battlefield. The daughter of the last -Earl married Charles Seymour, Duke of Somerset, and their daughter -married Sir William Wyndham, thus conveying to him the estates of -Petworth, Egremont, and Leconfield. In the next century a Duke of -Somerset left a daughter who inherited Alnwick and married Sir Hugh -Smithson, who was created Earl Percy and became the ancestor of the -present owner. - -The Castle is cut off from the town of Alnwick by a deep combe, which -has been much scarped; it is a matter for doubt whether the battlemented -walls of the town were ever joined to those of the Castle, the same as -at Conway and elsewhere. The Shell Keep was erected in 1140, but is so -surrounded by subsidiary towers as to almost lose the characteristic. It -lies in the centre of the great enclosure, and dual defences run east -and west to the enceinte, thus making two wards, or baileys. The knoll -upon which the Shell rests may either be a natural feature or the -artificial motte of a previous castle. The great gateway and the -barbican present excellent examples of military architecture of the -fourteenth century. In the middle of the eighteenth century repairs and -restorations took place in the execrable taste then prevalent, some of -which remain to the present time to mar the aspect of an otherwise -superb relic of the past. - -_Arundel._--The Manor of Arundel is one of the most ancient in the -kingdom, being specifically mentioned in the time of Alfred the Great, -while, respecting the Castle standing there, it is unique in being the -only one mentioned in Domesday as being in existence before the -accession of William I. That king granted it to the great Montgomery -family, who were succeeded in its possession by King Henry I., through -the rebellion of Robert de Belesme. It afterwards passed in succession -through the families of D'Albini, Fitz-Alan, and Howard for seven -centuries to its present owner, the Duke of Norfolk. - -Many important events have linked this great military structure -indissolubly to the history of England. Here the Empress Maud was -received with her brother, the Earl of Gloucester, in 1139, which -precipitated an attack by King Stephen, but the most famous event -connected with it was the siege of 1643, when Sir William Waller, first -overcoming the defences of the Town, placed his guns on the top of the -Church Tower and proceeded to batter the Castle. It capitulated after -seventeen days' siege, and the domestic buildings were levelled to the -ground. - -The Castle is constructed upon the end of a ridge of Chalk extending -from the South Downs, with a natural escarpment upon the east and south. -It is an excellent example of masonry superseding earthwork defences -without obliterating their original lines. The position is such as to -suggest a prehistoric camp of the promontory type. The chief original -defence was the great moated mount, which is over 200 feet in diameter; -on the south side the height from the summit to the bottom of the ditch -is 70 feet, being altogether but a little smaller than Windsor. Like the -latter it possesses two baileys, occupying over 5 acres in extent, and -together forming an oblong enclosure. The mount stands near the centre -of the western side upon the enceinte, the ditch forming part of the -outer ditch of the Castle in one place. This outer fosse has been much -strengthened by artificial means, but is in many places natural. - -[Illustration: ARUNDEL CASTLE, SUSSEX.] - -Upon the motte a Shell Keep was erected in the late Norman Period; it -is about 20 feet high, with walls nearly 10 feet thick, and is almost 70 -feet in diameter. The walls are faced with Caen stone covering a core of -Sussex stone and Chalk. The barbican, called the Bevis Tower, and a -portion of the great gatehouse, were built in 1295 by Richard Fitz-Alan, -who also erected four towers at equal distances round the enceinte. -After the last siege the place remained a heap of ruins for many years, -but about 1786 the tenth Duke of Norfolk began to rebuild it, and -expended vast sums upon the fabric. The result was the practical -re-erection of the present magnificent structure, a typical example of -the stately homes of England, and an appropriate dwelling-place for our -premier Duke, who has in comparatively recent years erected a sumptuous -Cathedral as a fitting companion to the ancient baronial Castle. - -_Carisbrooke._--Carisbrooke stands upon a site which was undoubtedly a -fortress occupied by the Jutes, who conquered the island; William -Fitz-Osborne, Earl of Hereford, obtained possession from the Conqueror -and reared a motte and bailey castle there. His son, who was imprisoned -for life, forfeited the estates, which came into possession of Richard -de Redvers, whose heir became Earl of Devon. Piers Gaveston held the -Castle in the fourteenth century, and also the Earl of Rutland, son of -Edmund of Langley; it was in the occupation of a number of persons -subsequently but fell to the Crown in the fifteenth century. It is -intimately associated with the unfortunate Charles I., who made three -distinct attempts to escape from its confinement. - -The mound of the Norman Castle was enclosed by a Shell Keep by Richard -de Redvers; it is an irregular polygon of eleven faces and sixty feet in -diameter, the walls being of enormous strength and thickness. Entrance -is gained by a long flight of steps leading to a passage defended by a -portcullis and double gates. The Keep encloses one of the two Castle -wells. - -Very extensive additions were made by Anthony, Lord Scales, who was Lord -of the Castle in 1474. The majestic gateway dates from his time; it is a -fine and impressive entrance, flanked by two lofty cylindrical towers -with a good example of machicolation between the towers, added late in -the fifteenth century. The ruins of the apartments occupied by the -royal prisoner lie to the north of the enclosure. In the reign of Queen -Elizabeth an elaborate system of fortification was carried out by an -Italian engineer, in view of the advent of the Spanish Armada, but was -never put to use. After the Restoration many regrettable alterations and -additions were made by Lord Cutts, with a view to modernising it, but -some of these have been modified recently by the Crown. The -picturesqueness of the ruins and their surroundings are an acknowledged -feature of the island, and few visit the latter without seeing this -venerable relic of the past. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - THE RECTANGULAR KEEP, _c._ 1100-1200 - - -We have seen that the Shell Keep was a logical sequence in the -development of a castle which had been originally erected upon the Motte -and Bailey plan, and the question will naturally suggest itself as to -the nature of Castles which the Normans built in the twelfth century -upon a site not previously occupied. This was the Rectangular Keep with -its fortified enclosure, answering approximately to the Shell Keep and -the bailey. - -Rectangular Keeps had been prominent in French fortifications for at -least thirty years before the Norman Conquest, but the introduction of -the defence into England was slow and protracted. Only two examples are -extant which preceded the death of William I., namely, the White Tower -of London, and the Keep at Colchester. This type of castle has come to -be associated with the Normans, to the practical exclusion of the much -greater number of Motte and Bailey and Shell Keep fortalices which are -equally connected with their occupation; probably the dignified -appearance of the massive Keep, with its impressive adjuncts and -surroundings, are responsible for the popular belief. - -The Keep itself was essentially a new feature in the art of -fortification, a medieval method of resisting the special form of attack -prevailing at that period. The enclosure was directly derived from the -rectangular _castra_ of Roman times, descended through the Anglo-Saxon -burh and the Norman bailey. Probably of all the military structures -which the world has seen, the Rectangular Keep is the grandest in -impressive appearance and dimensions, combined as it is with simplicity -of outline; it is also the most durable in workmanship by its adamantine -strength and structural proportions. The walls are generally from 8 to -14 feet thick, and, at the base, sometimes even 20 feet, while a few -still standing are reputed to have the ground floor solid. The enormous -thickness of walls in medieval buildings must not always be taken as an -indication of strength; in a large number of cases they consist of two -walls at some distance apart, with the intermediate space filled in with -rubble and a certain amount of mortar, generally inferior in quality, so -that at times when the outer casing is pierced, the interior core pours -out through the opening like grain from a sack. They afforded, however, -facilities for the construction of passages in the wall itself, and also -for small chambers, while the exterior portion of the wall was -invariably strengthened by flat pilaster buttresses. The entrances to -these Keeps were usually on the first floor, access being gained by -means of a ladder or wooden gangway, the doorway being of small -dimensions. A series of narrow vertical slits in the walls, splayed out -into embrasures inside, served the purpose of windows, and also as -oillets or arbalesteria, for the discharge of arrows and bolts. - -Later examples of the Keep are furnished with forebuildings adapted to -protect the vulnerable portion, the entrance. These forebuildings were -especially designed to present unusual difficulties of penetration; -drawbridges, meurtriers, oubliettes, and other devices being opposed to -intruders, while passages leading to every spot except those desired -were constructed in the walls to mislead and divert attacks from -inrushing assailants. One of the best examples is that at -Newcastle-upon-Tyne, built _c._ 1172; it has two towers and contains a -chapel, the entrance to the Keep itself being from the roof which forms -an open platform. - -[Illustration: FOREBUILDING OF THE KEEP, BERKELEY.] - -But by far the best example of a forebuilding is to be found at Dover, -standing against the eastern face of the great Keep. It is so designed -that three separate protections are afforded to the stairway leading -into the Keep, the base, centre, and landing stage having each a -separate tower for its defence. The entrance upon the first floor is -barred by a door of formidable thickness and great strength; upon the -first floor occurs the Chapel, and a view into it is obtained from the -stairway, while a small chapel or oratory is placed overhead upon the -second floor. A well, now disused, formerly had its opening in the -third floor. The actual entrance to the Keep occurs upon the second -floor, although an ancient one, now blocked up, opened to it from the -first floor. - -_Dover Castle_, from its commanding position at the narrowest part of -the English Channel, has for many centuries occupied one of the most -prominent positions among the fortresses of England. It stands upon a -chalk knoll to the east of the town, and by nature and art is -practically severed from the adjacent land, whether high or low. From -traces, which are now almost entirely obliterated, it is concluded that -a Celtic defence primarily existed upon the summit; this was followed -after A.D. 42 by a Roman station, the chief remains of which are to-day -embodied in the well-known Pharos, a companion probably to that erected -in A.D. 40 by Caligula upon the Gallic shore. Traces of the Roman -occupation, apart from the lighthouse, are very scanty, and are -overshadowed by the Saxon work, although it is open to doubt whether the -development of the latter was carried out to any elaborate extent. - -[Illustration: DOVER CASTLE, KENT.] - -It is with the Norman period that the history proper of the Castle -commences. It surrendered without opposition to the Conqueror, who -added to the defences, and it was able to resist a sharp attack upon it -in 1074 when the men of Kent rose against William. Shortly after this -the town was surrounded by walls. - -[Illustration: DOVER CASTLE.] - -Although Dover was rightly considered as the key of England, the -fortress is not connected with many of the great events which have gone -to make the history of England. It has always been in the possession of -the Crown and governed by a Constable. Hubert de Burgh defended it -against the Dauphin in the time of King John, and, although Louis built -many trebuchets and imported minor petraries from France, these, -combined with beffrois, sows, and rams, failed to shake his determined -defence. Dover appears to have played but little part in subsequent -history, probably through its falling into ruin by neglect during the -"Wars of the Roses" and of the great Rebellion. - -The Keep is a fine example, dating from 1182, and essentially Norman; it -is nearly 100 feet square, and rises to a height of 95 feet. It presents -a commanding feature from the sea as the summit is nearly 500 feet above -high water. The usual Norman pilaster buttresses are apparent at the -angles and in the centres of three of the faces. The Keep walls are of -most unusual thickness, in parts exceeding 20 feet, but these are -honeycombed by a number of small chambers and passages. Only loopholes -admit light to the lower stage, the more important rooms being upon the -second floor. The Keep is provided with two wells, not contained, as -usual, in the great transverse wall which divides the building into two -distinct portions, but in the thickness of the eastern wall. - -Subsequent defences have taken the form of massive curtains defending -the enceinte, which encloses an area of 35 acres, a special feature -being the large number of towers, round-fronted or square, which are -liberally scattered along it. The general shape now developed may claim -to be that of the Concentric Fortress, although it is classified among -the Rectangular Keeps. Its adaptation to up-to-date requirements has in -many cases led to the obliteration of many ancient features formerly -distinguishing it; these, although undoubtedly justifiable, are to be -regretted from the antiquarian point of view. - -In order to convey an idea of the internal economy of a Keep and the -disposition of the various apartments the diagram appearing on p. 100 -may be of use. It shows the five successive floors of Hedingham Keep, -Essex, which dates from about 1140. Upon the ground floor plan the great -thickness of the walls, about 12 feet, is plainly apparent with the -narrow embrasures giving light. At the base the walls batter slightly -for a few feet, not shown on plan. The well-stair commences in the -basement and extends to all the floors. The first floor or entrance -story has a small round-headed doorway, the arch of which is ornamented -with zigzag moulding; steps now lead up the face of the wall to it, but -formerly it opened from a forebuilding of which traces still remain. -Here the honeycombing of the walls commences which is so marked a -feature in Keeps. The embrasures have very narrow openings externally -but wider than on the ground floor. The central dividing wall here is -pierced by an arch and hence shown dotted in plan. On the second floor -is the great Hall of Audience; across the centre is built a remarkably -fine arch carried upon Norman shafts with scollop capitals and moulded -bases. The fireplace and also the window openings have zigzag mouldings -around the circular heads. The upper part of this room has a gallery -running round it shown as the third floor plan; the windows are doubled -by a dividing pier and openings admit of a view into the Audience -Chamber. Above is the fourth floor low in height, with zigzag moulding -round the external window heads. Over this story is the flat roof and -the turrets at the corners, two of which still remain. The floors and -the roof were all supported upon wooden beams. - -Hedingham Castle was the residence of the de Vere family for about six -centuries. King John besieged and captured it in 1216, but it underwent -no subsequent siege. The outer fortifications were demolished in the -reign of Elizabeth and only the Keep remains at the present time. - -The ramparts upon the summit of a Rectangular Keep were carried upon the -walls themselves, the latter, as a rule, being sufficiently thick for -the purpose without corbelling outwards. The parapet was either -continuous or embattled. A roof, at times covered with lead, was carried -over the central opening, and the uppermost floors were invariably borne -upon massive wooden joists. The lowest floor was generally free from -timber, being constructed of masonry carried upon the arches of a crypt, -but in those cases where the whole structure was borne upon a solid -foundation of masonry spread upon the entire area of the site, this -might be dispensed with. Some existing crypts are not coeval with the -building, but were added at a later date, that at Richmond, for example, -dates from the Decorated period. As a general rule the Keep contained a -well which was sunk through the foundations and carried upwards in the -central dividing wall to the various floors, but examples occur where it -is placed in the enclosure. Most Keeps were furnished with an oratory or -private chapel, one of the most famous being that in the Tower of -London, while those at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Colchester, and Guildford -are well known. In the later type of Keep this feature is absent, the -tendency being to erect all buildings used during times of peace within -the enclosure. - -The reduction of such a Keep as we have outlined was almost impossible -in the Medieval age except by famine; the outer minor defences, however, -were not proof against the missiles of the trebuchet, onager, and other -petraries, and would invariably succumb. But with regard to the massive -structure of the Keep, the largest stones could be hurled with but small -results; and the few narrow openings in its walls presented but meagre -opportunities for a successful admission of the falarica, quarrel, or -arrow. To carry it by direct assault would be at all times a forlorn -hope. - -We thus see that the Rectangular Keep was essentially a structure for -passive defence; and during the time that provisions lasted it was -practically impregnable. Built upon the living rock, as they generally -were, it was an impossibility to mine them; even if attempted, mine -could be met with counter-mine, and the ram and sow might in vain essay -to make any impression upon such solid masonry. At the same time the -garrison was to a certain extent incapable of inflicting much damage -upon the besiegers except in case of assault; the steep shingle roof -afforded no place for a military engine, and but scanty facilities for -storage of rocks, stones, beams, and other weighty missiles for dropping -upon assailants. The narrow entrance into the Keep prevented an -effective sortie, and, if attempted, was a source of danger in retreat. -During the three months spent by King John, in 1215, before the Keep at -Rochester, his military engines produced practically no result upon it, -but an effective mine succeeded in bringing down the masonry of one of -the lower angles, and eventually part of the tower itself. - -The great advantages perceivable in a solid Keep were so apparent that -the addition of this feature to many castles of the Motte and Bailey -pattern was deemed advisable, but only in a few places did the Keep -stand upon the mound; Nottingham is an exception, but in nearly all -other examples they occupied new sites, the tremendous weight of the -structure rendering it inadvisable to trust it in that position. The -superiority of the Keep over the Motte and Bailey Castle was well -exemplified in 1102, when Robert of Bellesme, Earl of Shrewsbury, broke -into rebellion against King Henry I. He possessed a fortress of the -Motte and Bailey type at Quatford on the Severn, but this "Devil of -Bellesme," as he was termed, had no confidence in his father's fortress, -and transferred the stones higher up the river where, in the short -period of twelve months, he built the imposing Keep whose massive -remains, although sadly shattered at the time of the Commonwealth, still -excite our admiration. It is erected upon a rocky site, protected by -ravines upon three sides, and overhanging the river Severn upon the -fourth. When besieged by the King it withstood all the efforts of the -formidable petraries brought to bear upon it, and appears to have been -practically uninjured when, at the expiration of a month, a portion of -the garrison became disaffected by reason of the threatening nature of -the royal messages, and managed to secure its surrender. - -[Illustration: ROCHESTER CASTLE, KENT.] - -When a Keep was added to a castle of the Motte and Bailey type there -does not appear to have been any regular rule as to its position. At -Guildford it was erected upon the motte (though a little way down the -slope), and also at Nottingham, Pickering, and York; at Clun in -Shropshire the Keep was built partly on the motte, occupying the eastern -slope, the mound apparently bearing a defence of the Shell Keep pattern -at the same time. Gloucester Castle has been entirely destroyed in -order to make room for a modern prison, but from existing records we -learn that the Keep was an addition, occupying the centre of the former -bailey, while the building at Newcastle also stood distinct from the -mound. The Keep at Oxford stands upon the enceinte at some distance from -the Shell Keep, while at Rochester and Canterbury the new additions were -erected outside the original castle. - -[Illustration: CLUN CASTLE, SALOP.] - -In the reign of the Conqueror and his immediate descendants, the rapid -building of castles for overawing the defeated Saxons was a matter of -Crown policy, but with the settlement of the Kingdom, and the rise into -power of Norman nobles waxing rich and powerful upon their estates, -restrictions became imperative if the royal prerogatives were not to be -set at nought. Consequently, special licences to build and crenellate -had to be obtained before erecting, or adding to the existing defences -of, a castle, and the rigorous insistence upon this law was readily -recognised and maintained by all strong rulers of the kingdom. When, -however, a weak monarch came to the throne, or internal dissensions -occurred, the Norman barons invariably seized the opportunity thus -afforded, and a large increase of these fortalices sprang into -existence. The most remarkable example was during the eighteen years of -strife wherein King Stephen was struggling for his crown with the forces -of Queen Maud. In order to propitiate the nobles and secure their -services, the King gave licences with a reckless indifference to -consequences, and many scores of castles were erected under these -permissions, but a still greater number with no licence at all. These -latter became known as "adulterine" or spurious castles; the total -number built during this period of anarchy is said to have been more -than one thousand, but more modern computation places the number at -about seven hundred. Stephen, when too late, perceived the mischief -attending the multiplication of these citadels, and attempted to reduce -the evil by destroying those belonging to the clergy. The essay proved -to be a mistake, and during the disorder that ensued, the land became a -prey to anarchy of the most violent kind, each baron or leader of -mercenaries doing that which was right in his own eyes, and retreating -to the safe precincts of his castle when in difficulties. - -Of the nature of these unlicensed strongholds there is considerable -doubt, but a great probability exists that they were of very rapid -construction and, therefore, not of the Rectangular Keep type, but of -the Motte and Bailey, or of the Shell Keep pattern. That a large amount -of time had been spent in their erection seems to be negatived by the -fact that upon the accession of Henry II. the great majority of -"adulterine" castles were destroyed in the course of a few months. This -would have been impossible if solid masonry erections were in question, -but hastily improvised defences built by forced, and therefore, -probably, unskilled labour, would not present great difficulties. In all -likelihood a great number of the earthworks which occur in England, and -have not been assigned to any particular date, may owe their origin to -this disturbed period, especially those of the Motte and Bailey type. -Upon the whole, we can hardly look upon the reign of King Stephen as a -period distinguished by an advance in the art of castle-building, but -rather as one of temporary retrogression to elementary types. - -With the advent of the second half of the twelfth century the Castle -began to show in many details the influence of the Early English style -of architecture, though ornamentation is singularly rare in early -castellation compared with the lavish wealth bestowed at the same time -upon ecclesiastical buildings. The Norman style was still adhered to in -the main outlines, but the external pilasters developed to such an -extent that they became buttresses, as at Clun and Dover, the masonry -workmanship improved, local stone came more into use, and internal -decorations, such as ribs to the vaulting, began to be introduced. It is -not uncommon to find the dog-tooth ornament employed in conjunction -with contemporary work in the Norman style, but so long as the -Rectangular Keep remained, the internal arrangements became, as it were, -stereotyped, and were strictly adhered to. The latest styles of -Rectangular Keeps carried but few, if any, suggestions of Norman -architecture as they trended upon the Early English periods; thus Fonmon -Castle in Glamorganshire, and Penhow in Monmouthshire, exhibited no -traces of pilaster buttresses, and other features so strongly marked in -earlier examples. - -_Bamborough Castle_, grim, grey, and imposing, by its vastness and -massive proportions, stands upon a rocky height of igneous formation on -the coast of Northumberland. It is by nature a promontory fortress, and -as such was seized by Ida and his Angles in 547, and who thence extended -his sway over what subsequently became the kingdom of Bernicia. The -castle is mentioned in 774, and was twice taken by the Danes. In 1095 -the dramatic siege occurred with which Bamborough will be for ever -associated. William Rufus besieged it with a formidable army, but such -was the reputation of its impregnability that he would not venture upon -storming it. He, therefore, had recourse to a siege, and one great -beffroi he raised was so formidable that it is mentioned by name, -_malvoisin_; this he advanced to the walls, and so closely that -conversation could easily be exchanged between the rival combatants. The -rebel baron, de Mowbray, left the Castle in charge of his wife, with the -intention of procuring assistance, but was captured in an attempt upon -Newcastle. By the King's orders he was brought to Bamborough and exposed -to the gaze of the garrison: upon a royal threat to put out the eyes of -his captive unless the Castle surrendered at once, the heroic Matilda de -l'Aigle, who had continued the defence with the utmost success, admitted -the King's forces. De Mowbray was imprisoned, but in his old age was -permitted to enter the monastery of St. Alban, where he died. - -Rufus appointed Eustace Fitz-John of Alnwick as castellan, and the -Castle, in the time of Stephen, successfully resisted an inroad of -David, King of Scotland. In 1164 the great Keep was erected by Henry -II., and from that period the Constableship of Bamborough became a royal -appointment. - -[Illustration: BAMBOROUGH CASTLE.] - -During the Wars of the Roses, Bamborough played an important part. First -in Yorkist possession it was captured by Queen Margaret, who placed a -garrison of three hundred men there under the Duke of Somerset. Edward -IV. with ten thousand men besieged Alnwick, Bamborough, and -Dunstanburgh, the Kingmaker in person conducting the operations. The -Castle was surrendered, and Sir Ralph Grey was left in charge, but -betrayed his trust and admitted Margaret in 1463. In 1464 he was -surrounded by Warwick's army, and a fierce bombardment was maintained -which did enormous damage, Grey being injured by one of the falling -towers; he recovered, however, but was subsequently executed at -Doncaster. In the sixteenth century the Castle fell into disrepair, but -in 1757 a partial restoration occurred, and subsequently portions of it -were turned into a school for girls; afterwards, however, it was -purchased by the late Lord Armstrong. - -There are three wards within the enceinte of the Castle which encloses -about 5 acres of land, the middle ward and that to the east being at one -time covered by the buildings of the ancient town. The great Keep is -similar to those at Dover and London, but originally possessed only two -stories. It is erected upon a solid mass of masonry, and the entrance -leads by a passage in the thickness of the wall into the second story. -There is no forebuilding as the Keep is of a date anterior to their -introduction. The lower part of the walls is about 11 feet thick, and in -the basement occurs the well over which appears a great vaulted hall. - -_Rochester Castle._--The two great Royal Castles in Kent were those at -Canterbury and Rochester, and of these Rochester was the more important -and boasts of a richer history. The Keeps are practically all that -remain of each, and Rochester again asserts the pre-eminence in respect -to the importance of present remains. The site had been previously -occupied by the Romans and the Saxons when, immediately subsequent to -the Conquest, a Motte and Bailey Castle was reared by the Normans, -followed shortly afterwards by a massive encircling wall, enclosing an -area measuring about 160 yards long by 130 yards broad. A portion of -this wall was erected close to the river, and a deep ditch protected the -remaining three sides. - -[Illustration: RICHMOND CASTLE, YORKSHIRE.] - -It was thus, at the demise of the Conqueror, a very strong fortress, and -that much-hated half-brother of the late King, Bishop Odo of Bayeux, -seized it, but was besieged and captured by Rufus after a resistance of -six weeks. He was sent to Tonbridge Castle and subsequently liberated. -In 1126 Henry I. granted the Constableship of the Castle to Walter de -Corbeuil, Archbishop of Canterbury, and permitted him to erect a tower, -probably the existing Keep. - -In 1215, when in the possession of William d'Albini, who was acting for -the Barons, King John sat down before the Castle with a formidable array -of trebuchets, and battered it for three long months. Apparently he had -greater success by undermining than by missile-throwing, the tower at -the south-east angle being partially brought down by a mine, together -with other parts of the chief defences. This extensive damage probably -helped it to fall into the hands of the Dauphin the next year. In 1264 -it resisted a vigorous assault from the forces of Simon de Montfort, and -during the Wat Tyler rebellion was besieged and partially captured. - -Edward IV. repaired it, but subsequently it fell into a state of -neglect, and has not seen any military operations since. It is now in -the possession of the Corporation of Rochester, and used as a place of -public recreation. - -The great Keep is naturally the chief object of interest; it is 113 feet -in height, and about 70 feet square. The thickness of its walls varies -from 12 feet at the base to 10 feet at the top, where the angle turrets -rise over a dozen feet above the main battlements. It is divided, like -the Tower of London, into two portions by a transverse wall rising to -the total height, and carrying in its centre the main shaft of the -Castle well, which was arranged to deliver water at every floor. The -usual flat pilasters appear upon the external walls, and the two lower -stories are pierced by loopholes only. A forebuilding with the usual -complicated contrivances protects the main entrance. The aspect of the -venerable Keep, conjoined to the tower and turrets of the adjacent -Cathedral, form a delightful combination of the military and -ecclesiastical architecture of former ages. - -_Richmond Castle._--The Castle of Richmond is beautifully situated upon -high ground overlooking the river Swale, in Yorkshire, but, although -the fortunes of the Castle extend to the time of the Conquest, and many -noble families are connected with its history, it has played no -important part whatever in the making of history, either in its own -country or that of England. It has never seen an arrow launched in -anger, or received a ball from opposing ordnance. It was erected by Alan -Fergeant, who in 1071 commenced operations and encircled the triangular -site with a curtain wall. The Keep was erected by his brother about the -year 1100; it is approximately 50 feet square and 100 feet high, with -the usual Norman pilasters, but deeper than formerly, strengthening the -fronts and angles, while each of the latter bears a turret of two stages -upon the summit. The only entrance is by a door on the south face, from -which a narrow stairway leads to the floor above. The ground floor was -vaulted in the reign of Edward I., the same as that at Newcastle. A -chapel was built, about 1278, adjacent to it, by John, Earl of -Richmond, who was killed at Lyons in 1304, and various other domestic -buildings occur near it. A circular barbican protects the main entrance -to the Castle, while in the south-east angle of the enceinte wall an -imposing rectangular tower has been built, containing the remains of an -ancient postern. - -[Illustration: PLANS OF THE KEEP OF HEDINGHAM CASTLE. _Reproduced by -permission of the Architectural Association from the Sketch Book of -Hedingham Castle._] - - - - - CHAPTER VII - - THE CYLINDRICAL KEEP, _c._ 1170-1250 - - -The latter part of the twelfth century and the earlier portion of the -thirteenth was marked by the introduction of the Cylindrical Keep, -forming a transition or connecting link between the Shell and the -Rectangular Keeps of the previous period, and the remarkable development -of castellation which occurred in the thirteenth century. The latter, -however, must not be considered in the light of a sudden revolutionary -change, inasmuch as many indications occur in the castles of the twelfth -century which exhibit a tendency to break through the conventionalism -then prevailing, and to produce works of a more complex character, -suited to the progress in military methods of attack. The introduction -of the Cylindrical Keep was one of these innovations; although it did -not remedy the great fault inherent in Keeps generally, viz. that of -impotence with regard to driving off the besiegers, yet it furnished a -method which enabled the builder to effect a considerable economy in -material and labour, while at the same time affording that strenuous -passive resistance to assault which characterised the former styles. It -is probable that King Henry II. was chiefly responsible for the -introduction of the Cylindrical Keep, as by reason of his French birth -he was acquainted with a number of foreign castles having citadels built -upon this plan. These Cylindrical Keeps were likewise known as Donjons -and Juliets, and attained to a degree of perfection upon the Continent -which was never reached in the British Isles. The example at Coucy is -probably the finest abroad. - -The advantages which may be claimed for the Cylindrical Keep, apart from -its lessened cost of construction, are the increased solidity, and the -great difficulty in breaching it, or bringing it down by a mine. By -vaulting each floor the resistance of the structure was increased; by -enclosing the upper part in a similar manner also, the danger of fire -from incendiary missiles launched upon the roof was practically -nullified. A disadvantage, however, lay in the fact that the besieged -could not concentrate a discharge of missiles against assailants at one -part of the base without exposing themselves to the enemy's archery. -This was to a great extent rectified by the bretasche, which, though in -use previously, became established as a regular defence at this period. - -These were timber galleries encircling the outer part of the tower at -its summit, supported in position by strong beams of wood inserted in -holes made for the purpose, and strengthened by struts resting upon -corbels. Upon this foundation a wooden gallery was built, covered in by -a sloping roof resting against the walls, and generally enclosing the -summit of the wall. In suitable places the gallery was loopholed for -archers and cross-bowmen, while through openings in the floor stones and -other missiles could be dropped upon assailants at the foot of the Keep. -It could be entered from the battlements behind, where stores of -ammunition were placed. - -At times two bretasches were in use, one above the other; the upper -projected a greater distance from the walls so as to avoid injury to -the lower. The unfinished appearance of the tops of many towers can be -explained by their having been covered with a bretasche in former times, -although this defence was not kept in position permanently but usually -built upon the approach of danger. The machicoulis and alurs of a later -date were imitations in stone of the wooden bretasche. At Coucy these -defences were placed about 180 feet from the ground, and the nerve -displayed by the defenders working at such a giddy height excites -admiration. - -The introduction of machicolation proper into England occurred in the -latter part of the thirteenth century and became a prominent feature at -that period. The faults inherent in the bretasche were the feeble -resistance which it offered to missiles launched from the mangonels of -the besiegers; the destruction of one part by a well-aimed stone would -naturally expose the remaining defenders to archery, besides seriously -weakening the rest of the structure, which depended to a great extent -upon its continuity for safety. - -Another weakness was the perishable nature of the material, which -required constant renovation and addition, and to this circumstance -may be attributed the fact that examples of the true medieval bretasche -are extremely rare at the present day. A fragment remains over one of -the gates at Coucy, while the position of the main beam may be seen upon -the outer gate of Leeds Castle. At Norham Castle a small doorway appears -in the upper part of the square Keep, the conjectured use for which is -that it gave access to the bretasche. In many castles of the twelfth -century still remaining a line of small openings in the outer wall at -the top is visible; they indicate the position of the former bretasche, -and are caused by the removal of stones for the insertion of the -projecting beams. Notwithstanding the advantages inherent in the -Cylindrical Keep, which prompted their erection in many parts of France -and other parts of the Continent, we do not find one example forming an -integral part in a British Castle of the first class. - -[Illustration: CARNARVON CASTLE. CARNARVONSHIRE.] - -Cylindrical Keeps were not always of a stereotyped form, and among the -comparatively few erected in England there is marked diversity in -detail. Launceston, for example, really consists of a triple defence; -two outermost rings of walling, one of which is a dozen feet thick and -nearly 30 feet in height, effectually prevent any attempt at mining the -Keep proper, which stands a few feet within the second ring. It is now -only a shell, but timber flooring once divided it into three stories. -The walls are nearly 50 feet in height, about 10 feet thick at the base, -and stand in a ring whose diameter is nearly 20 feet. The open spaces -around the Keep were formerly covered by roofing. - -Richard, King of the Romans and brother of Henry III., is generally -credited with raising the Launceston Keep and also the companion one at -Restormel. The Keep at Barnard Castle is remarkable for the huge -projecting triangular spur, which, springing from the soil, rises to -within a few feet of the parapet. The floors were vaulted. This circular -Keep is about 50 feet in height and 40 feet wide. Pembroke Keep, on the -other hand, rises without buttress or spur or concentric walling -straight from a battering base at the ground-level to a height of about -70 feet to the spring of the vaulted roof. It trusted apparently to the -enormous thickness of its walls, 20 feet at the base, to defy any -attempts at mining. - -_Conisborough Castle_ possesses the most remarkable Keep of the -cylindrical type in the British Isles, both by reason of its -extraordinary plan and rare contour. It is a gigantic cylinder nearly 70 -feet in diameter, and tapering upwards to a height of over 90 feet. Upon -the exterior six enormous buttresses are arranged symmetrically round -the face, projecting 9 feet from the surface and being 16 feet wide -where they support the cylinder. They diminish in width, however, as -they recede from it. These buttresses are carried up the whole height of -the Keep, and thus, combined as they are with a massive base of masonry -upon which the tower stands, and forming an integral portion of the wall -which is about 12 feet thick, we have what is probably the most -efficient protection against the deadly mine ever devised as a -protection to a British Castle. It may be compared to six enormous -spurs, the blowing up of one or even two but little affecting the -stability of the remainder. - -[Illustration: GROUND PLAN OF CONISBOROUGH KEEP.] - -[Illustration: CONISBOROUGH.] - -The entrance to the Keep is only a small square aperture placed in the -first floor and approached by a long flight of steps in which at one -time a drawbridge occurred. The ground floor contains the well and is -entered by means of a trap-door in the vaulted ceiling. The buttresses -are excavated in places to form chambers, and in one is situated the -oratory described by Scott in _Ivanhoe_. It is beautifully vaulted in -the Early English style, with carved capitals and bases to the -supporting shafts. This grand relic of the feudal period was probably -built in the reign of Richard I. by Hamelin Plantagenet, the natural -brother of King Henry II., who had married into the de Warrenne family, -the rich Earls of Surrey. - -Another variety of the Cylindrical Keep was that at Orford, in Suffolk, -which possessed a cylindrical shaft similar to that at Conisborough, and -was supported by three minor towers symmetrically arranged and carried -above the battlements. This Keep was protected at the base by a massive -wall with a ditch between the wall and the Castle base, and probably -suggested the Conisborough Keep and also that at Warkworth, while those -at Wallingford, York and Pontefract approximated to the same ideal. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - -THE CONCENTRIC CASTLE, _c._ 1250, TO THE CASTELLATED MANSION PERIOD - - -The inception of the concentric idea in castellation must not be -ascribed to the English builders of the second half of the thirteenth -century, inasmuch as the plan is essentially oriental and appeared in -the Levant before 1200. Thus Château Gaillard, built by Richard I. in -1196 upon the banks of the Seine near Les Andelys, is based essentially -upon the concentric type, though it does not absolutely conform to that -ideal owing to the configuration of the ground. That crusading monarch -was among the first to recognise the possibilities of the Saracenic form -and based this castle upon it. Upon the only side where it could be -attacked it offered first an outer triangular-shaped ward, with an -encircling wall, having five towers upon its enceinte. Between this and -the second ward was a formidable ditch, 30 feet in depth, the wall -standing upon the brink of the scarp; this second ward was of large -dimensions with five towers upon its walls, which were practically built -upon the edge of precipices. It was roughly hexagonal in shape and -contained the inner ward, partially circular in outline and surrounded -by a ditch. The walls of this ward were lofty and faced with bastions -segmental in plan, thus embodying the prevailing belief that angles and -corners were more vulnerable than curved surfaces. Inside this ward -stood the Keep, forming the fourth successive line of defence to be -overcome. The Keep or Donjon is splayed outwards at the base, a device -often adopted for projecting missiles among the assailants when dropped -from above, and also for greater strength. Probably the earliest -examples of machicoulis are found upon this Keep. This formidable -fortress fell by a combination of mining, filling up of the great ditch, -battering the Keep, and escalading the inner ward, after pounding the -curtain walls with perriers. - -The thousands of warriors returning from the many crusades were well -acquainted with the Concentric Castle, having in many cases been -detained before the walls of an eastern city built upon a similar -design. The difficulty and danger in attacking such a place were well -known to them, and we can only ascribe the question of cost as the chief -reason for the non-adoption of the idea at an earlier period. - -At Constantinople the crusading hosts before the city found themselves -confronted by a comparatively low fortified wall, bristling with -impediments; within it, at the distance of some hundreds of feet, arose -another and taller wall, while beyond that again a third wall, the -highest of all, appeared. These walls extended for more than three miles -upon the western side, with one hundred towers; all were embattled, and -they offered a stupendous scene to the wondering eyes of the Crusaders -as they vanished in grand perspective into the distance. There is no -castle in England which presents more than three hundred yards of -continual front. The capture of the first defence of the eastern capital -by no means imperilled the integrity of the second, while the -prospective losses of the assailants when confined in the narrow space -between the first and second lines was appalling to con template. The -same difficulty would occur with regard to the second and third lines of -defence, and it is small wonder that the leaders paused in a projected -attack upon so formidable an obstacle. - -[Illustration: CASTLE RUSHEN, ISLE OF MAN.] - -The essential principles underlying the construction of a castle erected -upon the concentric plan were:-- - - 1. That the natural features of the selected site should be adapted -and made part of the defences, and that no rigid plan of the ground -occupied, based upon former principles of castellation, should be -strictly followed. - - 2. That a series of defences independent and complete in themselves -should be presented in turn to an assault, the capture of one by no -means entailing that of another. - -The castle-builders of the second half of the thirteenth century rigidly -adhered to the principles embodied in the first clause given above; they -did not produce a structure of the Motte and Bailey, or the Keep and -Base-court types, with little regard to the situation and configuration -of the ground, but made their plans with the utmost care, embracing -every advantage which the site presented. As a necessary sequence the -ground plan of one Concentric Castle differs from every other, and it is -only by a general summary of the ideas prevailing that any comparison -can be made. - -The second clause naturally suggested a concentric plan whereby each -defence was placed within the other, the strongest of all naturally -being in the centre. But as most of the English castles were rendered -concentric by means of additions to buildings previously existing, the -pure concentric ideal is seldom reached except in those structures -reared entirely at that period, the others attained it more or less by -developing conditions already obtaining. - -[Illustration: THE IDEAL CONCENTRIC CASTLE.] - -The ideal concentric outline may be gleaned from the accompanying plan, -where the three entrances are a special feature, each being placed as -far as possible from the one adjacent. By this device the assailants who -had managed to capture the outer enceinte would be compelled to pass -under one half of the second line of towers and curtain walls before -reaching the entrance pierced through them, being all the time subjected -to a plunging fire of deadly missiles. The same would occur if the -second line were captured. The gates were in all cases flanked by -defensive towers, and generally reached by a drawbridge which could be -raised before the entrance archway; this was narrow and defended by one -or more portcullises, while a strong gate, usually sheathed with iron, -was placed at the entrance immediately behind the raised drawbridge. If -these formidable obstacles were overcome and the first part of the -passage captured the inner portcullis or portcullises had to be forced, -but the assailants would in the meantime be subjected to a galling -discharge of arrows and bolts from the narrow loopholes on either side, -which were pierced in the walls of rooms whose only entrances were from -the inner courtyard or from the ramparts. In the vaulted roof of the -passage also circular openings were built, termed "meurtriers," or -murderers, through which melted lead, hot water or oil, and other -liquids could be poured upon the struggling mass of assailants below. -From the formidable nature of the defence it may readily be understood -that direct assaults of castles built upon the concentric ideal were -limited, the besiegers contenting themselves with waiting until famine -had done its work, or treachery within the walls allowed them to enter. -The project of capturing three strong castles, one within the other, was -a prospect sufficient to daunt any ordinary commander, and so long as -the besieged could count upon a friendly army in the field outside, the -loyalty of the garrison, and a plentiful supply of provisions, the -fortress might be relied upon to maintain its integrity. - -[Illustration: MACHICOULIS SUPPORTING AN ALUR.] - -It was during this period that machicoulis and alurs reached their -highest efficiency and development, and in every castle built after 1250 -they may be found wherever extra strengthening of the defence was -desirable. In some illustrated medieval romances of the second part of -the thirteenth century the castle is depicted with these additions, -although at times the perspective indulged in by the artist is somewhat -disconcerting. Where machicolation was not adopted, probably by reason -of the expense, the walls were generally corbelled outwards at the upper -parts of towers and walls, thus giving a more effective control over the -bases of these structures where mining or battering might be attempted. -Battlementing was almost universal, and the system of piercing the -merlons with arbalestraria may be assigned to this early date, although -not reaching the full development it subsequently met with in the -Edwardian Castles of Wales. It may be seen in illustrated manuscripts in -the form of simple circular openings in the merlons. The protection of -loopholes and windows by a hanging shield is likewise illustrated; it -prevented the admission of arrows and bolts discharged with a high -trajectory. - -The maximum development of the art of castle-building in the British -Isles occurred in the reign of Edward I. and is exhibited in its best -form in those magnificent buildings which he erected in Wales to -consolidate the conquest of that country. With the great Snowdonian -range as the centre he placed a ring of fortresses at those strategic -points, chosen with remarkable military perspicacity, where they would -be of the utmost advantage in commanding the widest stretch of country. -Criccieth and Harlech, standing upon the sites of previous strongholds, -and Conway and Carnarvon upon entirely new ground, are the most -prominent and famous of this encircling ring. The term "Edwardian," -however, for a Concentric Castle so frequently used, is a misnomer, -because some of the grandest examples of the style date from the time of -Henry III.; the outer ward of the Tower of London, for example, rendered -it concentric in 1240 to 1258. - -The _Castle of Harlech_ approaches the concentric form so far as its -position will permit, but the bold rocky promontory upon which it stands -was too irregular for the complete ideal, and consequently the Castle -was adapted to the site. It is practically an oblong with massive -circular buttress towers at the four angles; two others defend the -gateway and two smaller ones are on either side of the barbican -entrance. Small watch-towers, corbelled at the summits upon false -machicolations, are adjacent to the larger. The barbican lies upon the -eastern side of the fortress, and was only accessible by a steep and -narrow entrance after a dry ditch had been crossed. Harlech and Kidwelly -are similar in not being purely concentric; each have short fronts of -wall and the defences of two of the baileys are united, thus only two -lines of resistance are interposed. Neither possess a donjon, the two -inner wards being the last resort of the garrison. - -The inaccessibility of this massive pile, perched 200 feet above the -adjacent sea and producing a strangely impressive effect by reason of -its grim vastness, has been repeatedly tested since its walls were first -raised. Owen Glendower beat in vain against its impregnable strength and -lost Mortimer, his son-in-law, before its walls. In the Wars of the -Roses, when the soul-stirring "March of the Men of Harlech" was penned, -the Castle was summoned to surrender by the Yorkists, but the Constable -of the time, a doughty Welshman, held out for the Lancastrian cause and -made a most protracted resistance in the campaign of 1474, Harlech being -the last fortress to surrender in that great struggle. In the Civil War -it maintained its reputation, but was finally delivered up to Cromwell's -brother-in-law. - -_Conway Castle_, one of the most impressive and majestic of medieval -fortresses in Britain, is situated in a romantic and picturesque spot at -the mouth of the river Conway. It presents a perfect ideal of a fortress -and a fortified town, the massive accompanying walls of the latter -forming an integral portion of the defence as a whole. The town walls -are over a mile in length and are in a singularly good state of -preservation; there are twenty-one towers, arranged at regular intervals -along this enceinte, and four gates, over one of which is a row of -machicoulis, twelve in number, projecting from the upper part of the -wall. It was also protected by a dry ditch and with drawbridges placed -before the gateways. - -[Illustration: LEEDS CASTLE, KENT.] - -The Castle occupies an irregular oblong area divided into a larger and -smaller ward by a transverse wall, which is carried across at one of the -narrowest parts; thus where breadth is unobtainable, as at Conway and -Carnarvon, ward is set behind ward. Eight lofty circular towers are -arranged at intervals around the massive curtain wall, four of them -being provided with small look-out turrets upon their summits. In the -larger bailey the banqueting hall and domestic apartments were placed. - -The Castle and also the town fortifications were erected by King Edward -I., with Henry de Elfreton as the architect; they were completed in -1284, and occupied by the King and Court in 1290, upon the occasion of a -Welsh rising. The monarch, however, was nearly starved out in his -fortress through an unusual flood whereby provisions were unable to be -sent across the river. Previously, however, he had passed a Christmas -there and the assertion that Conway was really a combination of a -castle, a palace, and a pleasant residence is perfectly legitimate. -Richard II. assembled his forces at Conway to resist the invasion of -Bolingbroke, but was induced to leave it, and his betrayal and lodgment -in Flint Castle followed. The edifice suffered but little during the -Wars of the Roses; Henry VII. repaired it where decay had taken place, -and it practically remained intact until the Great Rebellion, when it -suffered from two sieges, and shortly afterwards, in 1665, was despoiled -of its timber, lead, and iron, and reduced to its present condition. The -excellence of the masonry which characterises the Edwardian castles in -Wales is perhaps in no way better exemplified than at Conway, where a -portion of the base of a tower on the south side fell out bodily in -recent times through being undermined, and gave much trouble before it -could be broken up. It has since been restored. The protection of the -Castle is now in the hands of the town authorities of Conway. - -_Beaumaris Castle_ was erected by King Edward I. about 1295, and -approximates more to the concentric ideal than perhaps any other castle -in Britain. The outer enceinte is an almost regular octagon, -strengthened by towers at each of the angles and in the centre of each -curtain, excepting the one in which the entrance gateway is placed. The -inner enceinte is square in shape and of very great height, thus -commanding the ramparts of the outer; it has the usual towers, of -immense strength, and is finished with a grand array of battlements. Its -position probably detracts from impressiveness, for it was designed to -have the moat surrounding it filled with water at every tide from the -Menai Strait, and this necessitated the selection of low ground for a -site. By the arrangement of the walls two baileys are formed, the inner -and outer, and the Castle affords an example of a fortress built upon -the concentric ideal where the ground does not modify the detail in any -way. - -_Carnarvon Castle_ may be confidently claimed as the finest example of -its type in Europe. It stands upon a site previously unoccupied and was -commenced by King Edward I., who raised the walls sufficiently high to -cover the garrison, and completed by his son, Edward II., who carried -the walls and towers to their present altitude. It is built of limestone -blocks with string-course bands of dark-brown sandstone, the mouldings, -doorways, and other ornamental portions also being of the same material. -The plan of the Castle approaches that of a kidney form, the whole of -the space enclosed forming one ward in contradistinction to that at -Conway, which is subdivided; as the ancient town of Carnarvon was -surrounded by massive walls, large portions of which still remain, the -area so enclosed may be looked upon as the outer bailey. - -[Illustration: MERLON PIERCED WITH OILLET.] - -Although the enceinte of the Castle is plentifully supplied with towers -which undoubtedly form the chief feature of its picturesque appearance, -yet it is to be questioned if the latter added very materially to its -powers of resistance when compared with the walls, which are in places -over 15 feet in thickness, and of very great height, often over 100 -feet. These walls contain, at the points most vulnerable to an attack, a -double line of galleries traversing the thickness and leading easily -into each other for mutual support. The outer walls of these passages -are plentifully supplied with loopholes, and as the merlons upon the -battlements are also pierced with oillets, a triple discharge of -quarrels and arrows could be brought to bear upon assailants by a -garrison securely protected from injury. Against such a hail of missiles -any attack would probably prove futile. - -The moat is of great width and depth and formed no inconsiderable -portion of the original defences. The main idea of the architect when -planning Carnarvon Castle appears to have been to render attacks upon -the general line of the enceinte impossible of success, by reason of the -galleries and the thickly-set mural towers, and thus to lead the -assailants to concentrate upon the chief entrance. This, however, was -protected primarily by the town walls, then by a formidable moat, two -massive towers, a narrow entrance furnished with no less than four -portcullises, with two inner obstructions of a similar nature to be -overcome ere the entrance was forced. Such an elaborate concentration of -effective resistance is seldom encountered in medieval fortresses, and -the fact that Carnarvon Castle has never been taken by assault, but only -subdued by starvation, is amply accounted for. - -This magnificent structure has always been a Crown possession, and at -the present time is preserved with a care deserving of all praise. It -narrowly escaped demolition at that period which proved so fatal to all -castles in Britain, but, although the order was issued, the carrying out -was delayed, and the accession of Charles II. in 1660 nullified it. The -chief architectural beauty is perhaps the Eagle Tower, crowned with its -three graceful turrets and boasting of the birth within its walls of the -first Prince of Wales, but the traditional apartment is still -problematical. - -Although as we have seen the Concentric Castle is usually associated -with the reign of Edward I., and the formidable strongholds in North -Wales are generally cited as the perfection of the type, yet earlier -attempts at the ideal had been made in Britain, and in no greater -perfection than at the well-known Castle of Caerphilly in -Glamorganshire, completed a year before the King came to the throne. -From a military point of view it is the grandest example of the -concentric ideal in our islands, and it is perhaps to be deplored that -this embodiment of a medieval fortress has never been subjected to the -stern arbitrament of war, and that no great military renown is -associated with its history. It was only assailed once, in 1648, when -the Parliamentarians wreaked their traditional destructive tendencies -upon it. - -[Illustration: CAERPHILLY CASTLE. -(_From an old print._)] - -It was erected and completed in 1271 by Gilbert de Clare, Earl of -Gloucester, and stands upon a mound of gravel in the middle of an -artificial lake, produced by damming up two water-courses and turning -the contents of a marsh into the catchment basin thus formed. The -curtain of the middle ward is of no great height, that of the inner ward -being thus able to dominate it. The outer ward is essentially divided -into two, each forming a _tête-du-pont_. - -The eastern portion, and the smaller, has a curtain 15 feet in height -and a moat of its own, the island thus formed being approached through -two gatehouses from the land side, and joined to the inner ward by -drawbridges. The western and outer ward is much more important than the -eastern. It acts as a _tête-du-pont_ the same as its companion, but -contains also the chief approach to the Castle, two conspicuous towers -standing on either side of a narrow entrance, thus forming a strong -gatehouse. From it curtain walls of great height branch off on either -side, washed by the waters of the lake, and sundry half-drum towers, and -other buildings have been built abutting upon the defensive wall. Thus -any assailants would have most formidable obstacles to encounter on -attacking either the eastern or western faces, two moats and three -successive lines of walling being opposed to their efforts. - -The immediate object of its erection was to overawe the Welsh Marches, -but these had been reduced to order almost at the same time it was -built; subsequently it but served to consolidate the peace thus secured. - -[Illustration: TOWER OF LONDON: THE MIDDLE TOWER] - -A still earlier example, though not perhaps embodying all the conditions -of the type, is to be found in the neighbouring county of Carmarthen. -Kidwelly Castle occupies a commanding position upon Carmarthen Bay near -the estuary of the river Gwendraeth. The stream here is of considerable -width and the eastern side of the castle is built upon the edge of the -steep slope leading down to it; consequently no fear of an assault was -to be apprehended from that quarter, and a curtain wall of no great -height was deemed sufficient for the defence. This wall formed the -string of a bow as it were, and the semicircular portion defending the -land side had to rely upon other obstacles, such as a deep moat and a -curtain set with towers. The entrance gateway is at the southern -termination of the wall and consists of two towers with a building -between containing the passage; it affords rooms for soldiers on duty -with two stories above, all the masonry being of the most solid -description. This entrance gave upon the outer ward. The inner ward -consisted of a square enclosure abutting upon the centre of the river -line: it is protected by high curtains strengthened by the usual towers. -It will be perceived that the deviation from the concentric consists in -the coincidence of the east wall of the inner bailey with a portion of -that of the outer. Its foundation dates from 1250, when Payn de Chaworth -reared it. - -[Illustration: KIDWELLY CASTLE, CARMARTHENSHIRE.] - -Not far from Llandeilo, a village near Carmarthen, stand the remains of -a Concentric Castle around which local tradition has woven a web of -romance, asserting that all history is lost in remote antiquity and -leading the imagination to run riot in conjuring up the identity of its -former inmates. Upon the south side the walls stand upon a precipice -with a sheer drop of probably 500 feet, while a climb of over 200 feet -is necessary to reach the northern face. It is called Carreg Cennen and -occupies the summit of a height springing up from a ring of encircling -hills. It stands upon an acre of ground and is of the rectangular shape; -within the outer curtain stands a small inner bailey with one side -coincident with that of the outer curtain overlooking the precipice, -and as such is comparable to Kidwelly. There is one round tower, but the -others are angular like those of Carnarvon. It was built by Rhys of -Wales in the thirteenth century. - -It must not be imagined that the castle-building energies of Edward I. -were entirely expended upon the grand examples of his work found in -North Wales, on the contrary there are many buildings to be discovered -where his handiwork, or that of contemporary barons, is a prominent -feature. A tendency appears to have manifested itself at that period to -alter existing castles of a previous type so that they conformed in some -way to the concentric ideal, and Pevensey, Chepstow, and Corfe are cases -in point. In addition to Caerphilly in Glamorganshire there are many -other structures in South Wales showing a very high ideal of -castellation, indeed that portion of the Principality has been termed -the "Land of Castles," and the appellation is by no means undeserved. -There is hardly a prominent position upon the coast, or a suitable site -inland, but what has been seized upon at some period to erect a position -of defence. - -_Pembroke Castle_, with the town walls supporting it, is perhaps the -most important pile to be found in this district; it embodies additions -of varying dates in its massive walls and towers. The great gatehouse -and circular Norman Keep are undoubtedly its chief attractions at the -present day when, although shattered by powder after Cromwell's capture -by means of starvation, and much subsequent spoliation, it presents one -of the most imposing aspects to be found in the kingdom. - -_Carew Castle_ is deservedly celebrated for picturesqueness and affords -an illustration of the use of the angle-spur at the foot of drum towers -as a preventive against mining. - -_Cilgerran Castle_ occupies a position which is probably unparalleled in -South Wales. It approaches very closely to the Edwardian type, but the -area chosen has not entirely dominated the plan; it once possessed an -inner and outer bailey with a great portcullised gatehouse and massive -cylindrical towers, two of which still stand. Pembrokeshire is -essentially the centre of the castle-land of Wales, for besides those -mentioned there are Manorbier, Lamphey, Narberth, Haverfordwest, -Llawhaddon, Roche and many others, most of them exhibiting traces of -Edwardian influence based upon Norman work. - -In the upper valley of the Wye the efficiency of castles was of great -importance, inasmuch as they guarded one of the great lines of incursion -from the heart of Wales into the Marches; here Edwardian additions may -be seen at Builth where a donjon was placed upon a motte which had -already been encircled by a Shell Keep, while a circular rampart -surrounding the whole bailey made a very presentable representation of -the concentric ideal. At Bronllys, farther to the south, a cylindrical -tower was the chief addition, while at Tretower, still farther south -near Crickhowell, a Shell Keep appears to have been inserted within the -remains of a previous Rectangular Keep defending the motte. - -_The Tower of London._--This great fortress, palace, and prison, unique -among the castles of England, dates from the time of William the -Conqueror. The site occupied a position upon the river Thames -immediately to the east of Roman London; the latter was surrounded by -massive walls with mural towers which had subsequently been repaired by -Alfred the Great. A portion of this walling undoubtedly furnished part -of the western defence of the Norman citadel, inasmuch as remains have -been found adjacent to the present Wakefield Tower. The wall thus -adapted extended between two bastions, and possibly the first enclosure -was merely stockaded. - -It was, however, necessary to erect a more substantial fortress in order -to overawe as well as protect London, and in 1078, William entrusted -Gundulf, the architect-bishop of Rochester, with the commission. The -great Keeps at Rochester and West Malling were also designed by him, and -possibly he had much to do with those at Norwich, Colchester, and other -places in England. To this period may also be ascribed some of the -towers and part of the massive curtain wall lying to the west of the -inner ward or ballium which at that period contained the royal palace, -apartments for the court, and dwellings for the garrison. Possibly a -narrow ditch encircled the walls on the inner line of the present -spacious moat. - -In 1155, the buildings were repaired by Thomas à Becket; but to Richard -I. must be ascribed the carrying out of works which materially added to -the general strength. Henry III. caused additions to be made, chiefly -upon the river front, which give it the characteristic appearance it -presents at the present day. The well-known Traitors' Gate dates from -this period, and is one of the finest examples of medieval masonry in -existence. About the year 1270 the Tower began to acquire those features -which subsequently rendered it an excellent example of the concentric -fortress; an outer wall of circumvallation was carried completely round, -with a deep and broad moat washing its face. The outer ward was formed -lying between the two lines of walls, thus producing three lines of -defence, the innermost being the great Keep. A small barbican, which has -now disappeared, stood upon the outer edge of the moat. In the early -part of the reign of Edward III. some towers were added, the chief being -the Beauchamp and Bowyer. Since the period of the Commonwealth the Tower -has ceased to be inhabited by royalty, the removal of the palace, which -stood against the south-eastern corner of the inner ward, being probably -responsible for it. As the Tower of London has been inextricably -involved in the major portion of events forming the history of England, -it is obviously impossible to deal even in a cursory manner with them -within the confines of this work. A few facts, however, relating to the -Keep may be of interest, as it is undoubtedly the most ancient portion -of the structure. It is rectangular in shape, 118 feet long by 107 feet -broad; it rises to a height of 90 feet at the battlements and contains -three stories. The usual Norman pilaster buttresses occur, those at the -angles being continued upwards into three of the square turrets, while -the remaining corner supports a large projecting circular turret -containing the main staircase. The walls are of enormous thickness, -ranging from 12 to 15 feet, and as usual the building is divided into -two portions by a wall 10 feet thick, rising to the maximum height of -the building. - -[Illustration: CHEPSTOW CASTLE, MONMOUTHSHIRE.] - -The floors were originally of wood, but when Sir Christopher Wren -destroyed the ancient interior features of the Keep, great brick vaults -were built in the lower portion. St. John's Chapel is a magnificent gem -of Early Norman ecclesiastical architecture; it stands upon the -second floor, and its apsidal termination projects boldly beyond the -walls of the Keep. The third floor contains the state apartments with -the great Council Chamber, the walls of the chapel rising through it to -the roof, and containing a mural passage and a triforium. The roof is -flat and was adapted during the Tudor period for mounting artillery. The -position of the original entrance to the Keep is now unknown, the -present one being evidently a construction of later date. No traces of -the forebuilding defending it have come to light. The internal -arrangements for defence against surprise are marvellously intricate, -the principal apartments being approached by mural passages so narrow -that only one person could pass at a time. This was, of course, -eminently desirable from a military standpoint, but inconvenient and -awkward when occupied by the court. - -_Corfe Castle._--Seated upon an isolated chalk hill in the island of -Purbeck, with a natural escarpment upon three sides where two rivers -bifurcate on their way to Poole Harbour, and with a gentle slope upon -the fourth side, the great castle of Corfe reared its massive front -through many centuries of dramatic history, marked more than once with -touches of the tragic. The remains of its cyclopean walls and towers now -lie in mighty masses over its slopes, and tell eloquently of a day when -destruction only seemed to occupy the minds of men, and all that was -great and beautiful from the foregoing ages was marked out for -desolation and ruin. Perhaps no castle in England has suffered so much -as that of Corfe. - -Its site is connected by history with the Saxon dynasty, for King Edgar -is said to have founded it; and here the tragic deed was perpetrated by -which it is popularly known, when his son Edward the Martyr, King of the -West Saxons, was treacherously murdered by Elfrida his step-mother. Such -an unholy deed was a sinister incident in the birth of a castle, and -appears to have thrown a gloom over its subsequent history. - -Four miles to the southward rises the bold coast-line of the Dorset -littoral, while northward is the great depression occupied by the waters -of Poole Harbour. - -It appears to have been successively a Saxon Palace, then a Norman, and -afterwards an Edwardian fortress. King Stephen besieged it in 1139, -Earl Baldwin de Redvers having seized it for the Empress Maud. King John -used it as an arsenal for military engines and stores, and here his foul -crime of starving twenty-two knights and nobles to death, whom he had -captured at Mireteau in 1203, was committed. The wretched ex-King Edward -II. lived here for a time before his removal to Berkeley, and it appears -to have been possessed by several important historical personages before -it reverted to the Crown in 1552, when it was granted to Sir Christopher -Hatton. That family sold it in 1635 to Sir John Bankes, the ancestor of -the present owners. The notable defence of the castle for three years by -Lady Bankes against the Commonwealth forces is one of those feats which -stand out bravely against the somewhat sordid history of that period. - -The Castle occupies an area of about three acres. The Norman work -consists chiefly of a square Keep occupying the most elevated part of -the hill, where possibly the Saxon Palace had been situated, and, with -its enceinte, formed the innermost ward of the Castle. It is about 60 -feet square, and 80 feet high, with the usual flat pilasters; the -masonry is remarkably good, formed of large squared stones obtained -from some hard beds in the vicinity. The floors and apparently the roof -were of wood, and have now disappeared, while the battlements also are -missing. - -On the east side of the Keep are the remains of the Queen's hall of -Early English work, and other buildings within the inner ward appear to -be of the same date. The gateway of the middle ward was overthrown by -undermining, part of it has sunk and moved out of the perpendicular. The -great curtain wall reaching between this gateway and the Keep is -comparatively intact, and forms one of the finest defences of that -description now remaining in Britain. The entrance to the outer ward has -been sadly wrecked; the two drum towers have been blown forwards by the -explosive force of gunpowder, the vaulting is rent, and the adjacent -wall to the west overthrown. More than half of the tower called the -Buttavant Tower has been blown clean away, while the minor bastions and -the encircling wall generally have either disappeared or been thrown out -of the perpendicular. - -The order to "slight" the Castle, _i.e._ to dismantle it, was issued by -the Parliament in 1646, and perhaps no fortress exists in Britain where -the decree was so thoroughly carried into effect. Unnecessarily large -charges of gunpowder appear to have been used, not only dislodging the -masonry but shattering it; while in many places the effect was obtained -by undermining and propping up with wood, which when subsequently -burnt brought down the superincumbent mass, similarly to the -proceedings at the Keep of Raglan Castle. - -[Illustration: CHEPSTOW CASTLE.] - -_Chepstow._--The noble ruins of Chepstow Castle form one of the -attractive features of the celebrated Wye valley. They stand in a grand -position surmounting a vertical escarpment springing from the river and -protected on the three remaining sides by ditches of formidable width -and depth. The ground plan is that of an elongated parallelogram, one of -the longer faces being that overlooking the river. This is subdivided -into four courts or wards, while the whole area enclosed is about three -acres. The principal living-rooms overhung the river, where the great -Hall, kitchens, ladies' apartments, etc., were placed. This was a point -of a quite inaccessible character, and consequently permitted of a -certain amount of embellishment, such as large windows, etc.; in the -remainder of the enceinte, oillets and balistraria form the chief -openings. - -The main entrance to the Castle is on the eastern side, under a fine -Norman arch flanked by two massive circular towers; the passage was -guarded by a portcullis, and two meurtrières in the groining. Not far -from this entrance the lesser Hall is placed. The Clare family, Earls of -Pembroke, were the earliest Norman owners of Chepstow, after William -Fitz-Osborne the founder, the last of whom, Richard Strongbow, is well -known in connection with the Conquest of Ireland in 1172. His daughter -Isabel married one of the Bigot family, and subsequently it passed to -Sir Charles Somerset, Earl of Worcester, from whom it has descended to -the present owner, the Duke of Beaufort. Chepstow saw much of the Civil -War, being held at first by the Royalists, but it was assailed by -Colonel Morgan in 1645 and surrendered after a siege of four days. It -was again attacked in 1648, when the governor, Sir Nicholas Kemyss, and -forty of the garrison were killed. - -[Illustration: LEEDS CASTLE, KENT.] - -_Leeds._--This castle is undoubtedly one of the most picturesque in the -British Isles, and its beautiful natural surroundings are enhanced by a -rich history extending back to the Saxon Period. Here Ethelbert of Kent -raised a fortification which was given to Bishop Odo at the Conquest -and, at his fall, came into the Crévecoeur family, who began the -Norman building. It remained in their hands until the Barons' War when -it reverted to the Crown, with whom it remained for about 300 years. -Edward VI. gave it to Sir Anthony St. Leger about 1550, and his -descendants sold it to Sir Richard Smith. It subsequently came into the -possession of the Colepeper family, from whom are descended the Martins, -the present owners. - -Among the many historical associations connected with the Castle is that -of the frail Queen Isabella, wife of Edward II. She appeared one evening -before the gateway with a large force of attendants and demanded -admission; under the circumstances then obtaining the Governor, Sir -Thomas Colepeper, thought fit to refuse, being without the king's -orders, and, upon a display of force, saluted the visitors with a shower -of arrows. She repaired to the king and so influenced him that the -Castle was besieged and captured; the Castellan was hanged over the -drawbridge with eleven others. At Leeds Henry V. received the Emperor -Sigismund and imprisoned his step-mother Joan for practising witchcraft; -subsequently, Eleanor, the wife of good Duke Humphrey of Gloucester, was -tried here for the same offence in 1431. - -[Illustration: LEEDS CASTLE, KENT.] - -The position of this castle was an exceedingly suitable one in those -days when water was deemed the chief method of defence. It occupies two -natural rocky islands, one in the centre of a lake, and one in an -artificial one on the mainland made by sluices and ditches upon which -was placed the Barbicans. The Keep, or Gloriette, as it is here termed, -may have been modelled out of a late Norman Shell Keep, but has been -much altered by additions and restorations. It contains a chapel built -in 1380; the walls rise from the water to a considerable height and are -arranged round a small middle court. In it are the dining-hall, the -Queen's bed-chamber, and other domestic buildings, chiefly of the time -of Henry VIII. - -From this island drawbridges permit of passage to the larger central -island, around which a curtain wall of great strength has been built at -the edge of the water with drum towers at the principal angles. Inside -this was a second and concentric wall, thus forming an Inner and Outer -Bailey, but only the southern gate of this has been preserved. It is -probably of late Norman work. The domestic buildings occupied the -northern end of the inner area, now superseded by a splendid mansion -standing upon Norman foundations. Another drawbridge gives upon the -artificial island upon the mainland previously mentioned, where the -Inner Barbican stood, and beyond this again was a strong and massive -Outer Barbican. - -[Illustration: WINDSOR CASTLE.] - - - - - CHAPTER IX - - THE CASTELLATED MANSION AND MANOR-HOUSE - - -The reason for the disuse of castles is popularly attributed to the -invention of gunpowder, but the introduction of cannon can hardly be -accepted as entirely responsible for the decline, and we must therefore -seek for other reasons which, added to the first, eventually succeeded -in effecting their destruction and abandonment. The use of gunpowder was -introduced into England in the first half of the fourteenth century, the -first authentic date being 1327, when Edward III. employed it in his -campaign against the Scots. The first reference by Froissart is in 1339, -cannon being specifically mentioned, while at Cressy in 1346 there were -a number of those weapons in use. These early pieces were, however, of -small calibre and were provided with such indifferent powder that -against the walls of a castle they were practically innocuous, and it -was not until the invention of trunnions for cannon, and of bombards -capable of throwing heavy spherical shot in the fifteenth century, that -fortified places had anything to fear. - -But long before 1327 the English castle had begun to show signs of -falling into abeyance, in fact but very few new structures of that class -were erected after the close of the thirteenth century, and those that -did spring into existence no longer exhibited the overwhelming strength -and powers of resistance which stamped the erections of the preceding -century. When prosecuting his war with France, Edward III., in 1337, -endeavoured to leave the Kingdom in as defensible a condition as -possible during his absence, and with that object in view ordered the -keepers of the Royal castles to put their respective charges into -first-class order. In spite of this a report upon their efficiency a few -years later revealed the fact that several were utterly unfit to -withstand a siege. In 1322, when the incensed Edward II. raised forces -to avenge the insult to his queen by Bartholomew de Badlesmere at Leeds -Castle, and quickly captured that place, Tickhill, Warwick, Tutbury, and -others, the ease with which they fell into his hands indubitably proves -that they were no longer in a thoroughly defensive condition. And this, -be it remembered, was before the introduction of gunpowder. - -The economic conditions prevailing in the fourteenth century were also -in antagonism to the persistence and growth of castles in the land. -Military feudalism was in its death-throes, and the laws passed in the -reign of Edward I.--notably the statute of Quia Emptores--were -undoubtedly responsible for it. The barons no longer held the same -position as formerly when they dictated terms to their own sovereign, -and although a recrudescence of the power of the military nobility -occurred during the time of the Wars of the Roses, that struggle was in -reality but duels upon a large scale between a number of nobles who had -been successful in maintaining a semblance of their former power. The -Statute of Winchester gave almost unlimited rights to the King, whereby -he could summon the commons to arms if a baron proved recalcitrant. The -baronial castle necessarily became an anachronism to a large extent, -since its owner no longer had the power to fill it with numerous -retainers, and also because the King, by his overwhelming numbers, -could easily capture it. - -The art of war had also changed consequent chiefly upon the -extraordinary efficiency displayed by the English archer, whereby he -became supreme upon the field of battle: the development of this superb -infantry was under the entire management of the Crown and, consequently, -the King became immeasurably superior in striking strength to any -individual baron. The advantage began to rest with him who could put the -most efficient battalions in the field, and not as formerly with the one -who owned the greatest number of castles. Combined with these conditions -there was the indubitable fact that a castle had acquired the reputation -of being connected with oppression of the people, resistance to lawful -power, and a refuge from justice for the wrongdoer. This was entirely -incompatible with the great reforms insisted upon by Edward I., and -passed into law by parliament; law and order became the rule and not the -exception, and the position of the castle grew anomalous. - -[Illustration: SKIPTON CASTLE, YORKSHIRE.] - -With the ascendancy of an efficient administration of justice came the -desire for comfort and a display of luxury, and probably no one who -has become acquainted with the internal disposition of an early castle -will qualify the assertion that the acme of discomfort and inconvenience -must have prevailed within them. - -Consequent upon this alteration in the economic conditions of the -nation, the need for the impregnable stronghold of the past ages ceased -to exist, and in many parts of England, but more especially in the south -and east, the existing structures were largely altered or added to in -order to afford conditions suitable to the changed amenities of social -life. These alterations in nearly every case were made at the sacrifice -of efficiency, and many castles which had played a notable part in the -history of the nation became merely the residences of their lords, who -made no attempt to put them to their original uses in time of war. -Arundel, the great midland castles of Warwick, Kenilworth, and many -others, fall under this category. - -So far as gunpowder is concerned the part which it played in causing the -abandonment of the feudal castle is strangely varied and dependent upon -local circumstances. A well-found castle with an efficient and adequate -garrison, supported by an army in active operation in the field, had no -more to fear from an attack in the fifteenth century than it had in the -thirteenth, perhaps not so much. Very few bombards of the period -mentioned could throw stone shot weighing over 150 lbs., whereas the -medieval trebuchet could hurl a missile of twice that weight, or even -more, and to almost as great a distance. The effect of low-trajectory -cannon upon castle walls in the fifteenth century under ordinary -conditions may almost be left out of consideration, so small was the -calibre. It is true that Sir Ralph Grey, when besieged in Bamborough -Castle in 1464, was forced to surrender in a short space of time by the -army of the Kingmaker, who used his basilisks, aspiks, serpentines, -dragons, syrens, and sakers with excellent effect; but we may justly -claim that this was an exception, the configuration of the ground -enabling Warwick to place his pieces close up to the walls, while Grey -could look for no effective relief from a sympathetic army outside. Ten -years afterwards the Castle of Harlech, under the able governance of -Davydd ap Ifan, held out against all the force that Edward IV. could -bring to bear upon it, and was the last of the castles garrisoned by -Lancastrians to render up its keys. - -But perhaps the greatest argument against the belief that the "venomous -saltpetre" was the chief cause of the decline in castellation is that of -the gallant resistance made by many of these old strongholds in the -Great Civil War. At that time the newest of the castles was, perhaps, -about two hundred years old and had not been constructed entirely for -defence; the older structures were in many cases devoid of woodwork -which had perished through age and neglect. Yet these ancient buildings, -now once more called upon to play their part in deadly strife, in many -cases showed a resistance to attack which was simply marvellous, -sometimes, as in the case of Pembroke, defying the ordnance brought to -bear upon them. If a Royalist army of respectable proportions happened -to be in the vicinity of a beleaguered fortress, the Parliamentarians -appeared to regard its reduction as an impossibility, and in the first -place devoted their entire attention to the dispersal of the field -force. It is true that the condition of the unmetalled trackways, which -were dignified by the name of roads, at that time, presented almost -insuperable obstacles to the passage of heavy ordnance, and the advance -of a cumbrous baggage train was at times an impossibility. - -But even if cannon of respectable proportions could be brought against a -castle in the Great Civil War, the effects produced were in many cases -out of all proportion to the enormous trouble involved. Thus at the -first siege of Pontefract Castle in 1644 a cannon throwing a 42-lb. shot -was used in conjunction with another of 36 lbs. and two of 24 lbs., the -least being 9 lbs., and yet the siege failed chiefly by reason of the -small effect produced by the 1400 projectiles which were fired into it. -Again although Scarborough Castle was quite ruinous in 1644 when its -siege commenced, and in addition was ill-supplied with ammunition or -food, yet it gallantly sustained a siege lasting for twelve months. - -It may therefore be conceded from the foregoing that the assertion -respecting gunpowder causing the disuse of the castle in the British -Isles must be taken with a large degree of reservation, since many other -causes have to be considered, and even those who maintain the assertion -must admit that the reason assigned took an unconscionably long time -in effecting its object. - -[Illustration: IGHTHAM MOTE, KENT.] - -In the very few castles which saw their origin during the fourteenth and -fifteenth centuries in Britain, domestic comforts and attempts at -effective defensive works appear to have run side by side, often to the -almost total exclusion of the latter. The substitution of brick for -stone masonry in many of these was in itself a startling change, but -when combined with this, large and lofty apartments were introduced, -many with magnificent carved and moulded wooden ceilings, windows of -large dimensions filled with beautiful tracery characteristic of -Perpendicular architecture, walls hung with rich tapestry and decorated -with gorgeous heraldic devices and trophies of arms, costly furniture -and other fittings betokening an advanced education in domestic -requirements,--the feeling was borne in upon the minds of the nation -that the feudal castle, as such, had seen its day, and that the age of -the baronial residence and the manorial dwelling-house had superseded -it. - -In these later castellated residences the kitchens, larders, cellars, -dining halls, residential rooms and general offices became matters of -supreme moment, the defensive works of secondary importance, but -designed nevertheless with a view to impressiveness and an assumption of -strength which they rarely possessed. Within these lordly halls the -noble owners held high revel, while troops of servitors, henchmen, and -servants of every degree swarmed in the passages and halls in marked -contradistinction to the old time grim men-at-arms, bearded archers, and -steel-clad retainers of the feudal fortress. - -There was naturally a period of transition during which the -characteristics of the Castle predominated over the domestic influences, -and those which sprang into existence during the reigns of Henry IV. and -V. very ably show this feature. To this intermediate period we may -ascribe those structures which were chiefly reared by the spoils -acquired upon the Continent by soldiers of fortune who "followed the -wars," and returning to their native land built palatial residences for -themselves, out of their lawful, or it may be, ill-acquired, gains. Many -of these were based upon designs which the adventurers had seen abroad, -thus our first example, Bodiam, is a replica of many castles which were -to be found at the time of its erection in Gascony. _Bodiam Castle_ is -one of the finest in Sussex, and certainly one of the most picturesque -in England; it is situated upon the Rother, which here forms the -boundary between Sussex and Kent. The building owes its origin to Sir -Edward Dalyngrugge, who had served in France and Spain under the Black -Prince with singular credit to himself and marked advantage to his -worldly estate. A portion of this superfluous wealth was expended in -erecting Bodiam Castle, which, while affording every comfort as a -residence, possessed most of the essential qualities for effective -defence. - -It presents a singularly beautiful and romantic spectacle at the present -time, the towers and enceinte being entire, while a wealth of foliage -and the wide waters of the surrounding moat afford a _coup d'oeil_ -seldom equalled and probably not excelled in England. The licence to -crenellate dates from 1386; the building was erected in the middle of a -lake connected with the river, thus forming a broad and deep moat. A -causeway, defended by an ingenious system of bridges and small gateways, -leads across the latter, and terminates in a small barbican, now partly -dismantled; the entrance is between two tall square towers which -present beautiful examples of machicolation upon their summits. Upon the -opposite, or south face, is the postern leading to the moat and defended -by a massive square tower, being one of nine in all surrounding the -enclosure. The interior is now simply an empty shell, all the domestic -buildings having been destroyed by Sir William Waller in 1643, after the -siege of Arundel, although the Chapel and the chief apartments are -capable of being located. We have therefore simply the outer walls -remaining of a particularly fine castle of the Perpendicular period. - -The entrance consists of a vaulted passage with many openings for the -discharge of missiles upon assailants while they were endeavouring to -overcome the three portcullises and the massive wooden gate defending -it. In addition to ordinary loopholes there are round holes for the -discharge of harquebuses. The castle underwent a siege by the Earl of -Surrey in the reign of Richard III. in consequence of a descendant of -Sir Thomas Lewkenor, into whose hands it had passed, proving obnoxious -to the King. - -_Shirburn Castle_ is also of the same type and very similar to Bodiam; -it dates from the year 1377 and was erected by Warine de Lisle who -had gained wealth and distinction under Edward III. It stands in the -Chiltern Hills near Stokenchurch and is a large square pile surrounded -by a broad moat. - -[Illustration: WRESSLE CASTLE, YORKSHIRE.] - -_Wressle Castle, Yorkshire._--The Castle of Wressle lies to the -south-east of York, near the junction of the Derwent with the Ouse, the -navigation of which it was probably designed to protect. Sir Thomas -Percy, the brother of the first Earl of Northumberland, is reputed to -have been the founder. It fell to the Crown, and Henry IV. granted it to -his son John, Earl of Bedford, and after his demise to Sir Thomas Percy, -son of Henry, the second Earl of Northumberland. The Percies seem to -have maintained their Court in the Castle with a magnificence befitting -their illustrious race, and during their occupation the Castle saw the -most glorious portion of its history. - -In 1642 and 1648 it was garrisoned by the Parliamentarians and shortly -afterwards was ordered to be dismantled. Three sides of the quadrangle -were thrown down, leaving only the south façade. It was in the -possession of the Seymour family from 1682 to 1750, when it again -passed into the hands of descendants of the Percy family, and now is -owned by Lord Leconfield. - -The building originally possessed five towers, one at each corner and -another over the entrance on the south side, which still remains, -together with the curtain wall and flanking towers. These present a very -imposing appearance, but the general effect of the ruins suggests the -castellated mansion of the Perpendicular period more than the grim -sternness of a medieval castle. The square corner towers appear -singularly inadequate for an effective flanking fire, and no doubt the -building relied for defence chiefly upon the broad moat which -encompassed it upon three sides and the deep dry ditch defending the -approach. - -_Hever_ undoubtedly owes its fame partly to its magnificent gatehouse, -which forms by far the most impressive part of the structure, and partly -to the rich store of human interest imparted by its intimate connection -with the ill-fated Anne Boleyn. It was built in the reign of Edward III. -by Sir William de Hever, whose daughter brought it to her husband, Lord -Cobham. In the time of Henry VI., Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, Lord Mayor of -London, an opulent mercer, purchased it, and added greatly to the -existing buildings, the work being subsequently finished by his -grandson, Sir Thomas, the father of Anne. - -[Illustration: HEVER CASTLE, KENT.] - -The latter was born in 1501, and brought up at Hever under a French -governess. After she attracted the notice of the King, her father was -created Viscount Rochford, and Earl of Wiltshire and Ormond, while Anne -was made Marchioness of Pembroke. It was in the garden at Hever that -Henry first saw her, and subsequently his wooing of that unfortunate -queen occurred there. After the execution of Anne and her brother, the -castle went to the Crown and was settled on Anne of Cleves. In 1557 Sir -Edward Waldegrave purchased it, and it passed to Sir William Humfreys -and subsequently to Sir T. Waldo, whose descendant is the present owner. - -The Castle is surrounded by a double moat, fed by the river Eden; it is -a small castellated house of the fifteenth century, the chief feature -being the superb entrance, battlemented and machicoulied, and containing -three portcullis grooves in the main passage. The buildings completing -the rectangle are chiefly of the Elizabethan period, but have been very -extensively restored by the present owner. - -_Maxstoke_ is one of the very few castles which have come down to us -without the expression "dismantled by order of Parliament" being applied -to it. It affords us an idea of the beauty the face of England would -present, so far as magnificent castles are concerned, if the forces of -destruction and revolution had never been let loose upon our fair isle. -It dates from 1346, when William de Clynton, Earl of Huntingdon, -obtained licence to crenellate. The Duke of Buckingham owned and -occupied it in 1444; he was killed at Northampton in 1460, and his son -Humphrey, Earl of Stafford, having died of wounds received at the First -Battle of St. Albans in 1455, his grandson Henry succeeded him but -was beheaded without trial at Salisbury in 1483. Edward Stafford, -however, succeeded to the estates in the reign of Henry VII.; his death -by beheading occurred on Tower Hill in 1521. Maxstoke came to the Crown -but was given by Henry VIII. to Sir William Compton, from whose -descendants it was purchased by the family of Dilke in whose possession -it still remains. - -[Illustration: MAXTOKE CASTLE, WARWICKSHIRE.] - -The gatehouse is in excellent preservation, the entrance being -flanked by hexagonal towers, while the archway contains the grooves for -the portcullis, and also the old gates themselves, plated with iron and -bearing the arms of the Stafford family. A fine groined roof is inside -the gatehouse, while the battlements have an alur behind them. The walls -of the enceinte and the four towers at the corners are in good -preservation, and show marks of the wooden buildings formerly erected -against them for accommodating the soldiers. The Chapel and a number of -the domestic apartments are original, dating from the time of Edward -III. - -_Raglan_, one of the most imposing ruins in the British Isles, was -erected shortly after 1415 by Sir William ap Thomas, who had returned -rich in honours and also in worldly wealth from many a stricken field, -the last being that of Agincourt. He married the daughter of Sir David -Gam, and commenced the erection of the magnificent building which -combines in such an excellent manner the characteristics of a mansion -and a fortress. If either predominates it is undoubtedly the warlike -portion since, presumably, the builder could not at once forget his -bellicose proclivities. His son was made a baron by Edward IV. and -afterwards Earl of Pembroke, and was beheaded at Northampton, 1469. The -Castle came into the possession of the Somersets in 1503, the ancestors -of the present Duke of Beaufort. The fifth earl carried out extensive -work upon the pile, but shortly afterwards the demolition of the Castle -was ordered by the parliament. Probably the most striking feature of the -Castle is the detached Keep lying to the left of the main entrance, and -called the Yellow Tower. It is surrounded by a wide and deep moat, and -was undoubtedly a formidable obstacle before being slighted. It -underwent a vigorous siege in 1646, when Sir Thomas Fairfax assailed it -with a large force. The garrison ran short of ammunition, and, the north -wall being breached, a capitulation ensued. - -_Herstmonceaux Castle._--One of the finest examples of the later castles -is Herstmonceaux, in Sussex, dating from the year 1440. It has been -described as "the most perfect example of the mansion of a feudal lord -in the south of England," and, when visited by Walpole in 1752, was in a -perfect state of preservation; Grose, writing a few decades later, gives -a vivid description of all the principal apartments, which seem to have -suffered but little at that time. Now, however, when there is some -rumour prevailing of an intended restoration, the building is in -ruins,--roofless, ivy-grown, and in many parts dismantled by the -falling-in of roofs and floors. It is built of the small bricks then in -use, two inches or less in thickness; they were brought to England from -Belgium, strange to say the art of brick-making having apparently been -lost since the departure of the Romans. Belgian workmen were also -brought over to erect it. - -Sir Roger Fiennes, an Agincourt veteran, was the founder, and probably -the site had borne a previous fortalice. Like Bodiam, erected some -half-century previously, the plan is quadrilateral, almost square, with -four octagonal towers at the corners and three of pentagonal plan -strengthening the curtain walls. The gateway is one of the finest and -most impressive in existence; the towers which flank it rise over 80 -feet in height, cylindrical at the upper parts and superposed upon 50 -feet of octagonal bases, with smaller turrets rising still higher above -them. A magnificent range of machicoulis with crenellation above -protects the towers and the curtain between, the merlons being pierced -with oillets. A moat, long since dry, encircles the building, a bridge -spanning it at the principal entrance. There are three tiers of cross -loopholes, and below occur openings for matchlocks to defend the -bridge. With the exception of the grand towers of the south gateway and -the shells of some adjoining buildings, there are only broken arches and -shattered walls, piers, and buttresses now to be seen, and it is only by -the description left by Grose and Walpole that the ichnography of the -interior can be traced. Wyatt the architect is responsible for the -vandalism committed, as he dismantled the Castle to furnish material for -the owner's new residence adjacent. - -[Illustration: HERSTMONCEAUX CASTLE, SUSSEX.] - -Although Herstmonceaux has never undergone any struggles in the "fell -arbitrament of war," yet painful memories cling to the ruins. Thomas -Fiennes, the ninth Lord Dacre, succeeded to the estate at the age of -seventeen. The youth had already laid the foundation of a brilliant -career at Court when an escapade, planned by himself and some madcap -companions, whereby they essayed to play the rôle of poachers upon a -neighbouring estate, led to the death of a keeper whom they encountered. -His three companions were arrested and hanged for murder near -Deptford; Dacre was also tried and condemned, and the sentence was duly -executed at Tyburn in 1541, the young man being twenty-five years old at -the time. - -_Tattershall Castle_, on the Witham in Lincolnshire, is contemporary -with Herstmonceaux, and constructed likewise of Flemish brick bonded -with exquisite workmanship. The tower still standing contains four -stories with a total altitude of 112 feet; large Gothic-headed windows -occur filled with Perpendicular tracery, and these windows are repeated -on a smaller scale in the four octagonal towers which clamp the angles -of the building. Massive timber balks once supported the various floors, -and a number of carved chimney-pieces are to be found. The walls are -about 14 feet thick at the base, and many passages and apartments have -been made in their thickness. The well in the base is covered by a -massive arched crypt, upon which the Castle has been erected. But -perhaps the most notable feature in this beautiful relic of the past is -the grand and markedly-perfect system of machicolation combined with the -bretasche, which is exemplified in the cornice surmounting the tops of -the curtain walls. Upon massive stone corbels is built a substantial -stone wall pierced with square apertures for an all-round fire with -various arms; in the floor of the alur are the openings for dropping -missiles upon assailants at the base of the walls; above this again are -the merlons and embrasures giving upon the battlement walk. - -The Castle was erected by Ralph, Lord Cromwell, treasurer to King Henry -V., whose vast wealth sought for an opening in which to display itself, -and probably could not have done so more effectively than in the rearing -of a magnificent pile of buildings of which but a small portion, the -tower described, now remains. In its later years it suffered a partial -dismantling during the Commonwealth period, followed by a rifling in the -eighteenth century similar to that which overtook the sister castle of -Herstmonceaux. - -After the middle of the fifteenth century castles were no longer built, -and we have to look to the fortified manor-house such as was designed by -the Lord Cromwell above mentioned at Wingfield, Derbyshire, or that at -Exburgh in Norfolk; these when surrounded by moats were capable of being -placed in a good state of defence, and many a thrilling tale is told -of the sieges they underwent during the Civil War when the stout -resistance they made was nearly or quite equal to the defence of the -massive ramparts and cyclopean bastions of the earlier castle-builder. - -[Illustration: PENSHURST PLACE. KENT.] - -_Penshurst Place._--This was originally an embattled mansion of the -fourteenth century, and gradually expanded by constant additions into an -excellent example of a combined castle and a manorial dwelling-house. -The licence to crenellate is dated the fifteenth year of Edward III., -and stands in the name of Sir John de Pulteneye. This opulent knight -erected a stately mansion in the form of an irregular square as to plan. -It reverted to the Crown in the reign of Henry VI. and was held by the -Duke of Bedford, Regent for a time, and then by his brother, Humphrey, -Duke of Gloucester. The Staffords held it afterwards, but at the decease -of the Duke of Buckingham Edward VI. gave it to Ralph Fane and then to -Sir William Sydney, one of the heroes of Flodden Field. Its associations -with Sir Philip Sydney form one of its chief claims upon the public. The -spacious Hall measures 60 feet in length by the same in height; it is 40 -feet wide, and is a grand example of fourteenth-century architecture. -The beautiful windows reach from the floor to a considerable height, the -roof is open, there is a minstrels' gallery, and an elaborate -arrangement for the fire in the middle of the Hall. Adjacent is a range -of buildings much altered in the Elizabethan period, containing state -rooms, the Queen's drawing-room, etc. Portions of the wall of enceinte -are to be found upon the south and east. - -_Ightham Mote._--This building is undoubtedly one of the most perfect -examples of the combination of domestic convenience with an efficient -system of defence to be found in England. It stands about two miles from -Ightham village in Kent in a deep hollow, through which runs a rivulet -flowing into the moat surrounding the House, from which the latter takes -its name. Ivo de Haut possessed the Mote in the reign of Henry II.; it -reverted to the Crown for a time in the reign of Richard III., but was -restored to the family, and subsequently passed through the hands of -many owners. - -The House appears to be of three distinct periods, Edward II., Henry -VII., and Elizabeth. The Hall is of the first period; it has a slender -stone arch to carry the roof and contains many ancient features; some -of the original shingles, for example, are still in existence, though a -modern roof covers them. Other objects are a Chapel, original, and the -Gateway Tower with the gateway itself and the doors. - -There are many examples in England of the simple manorial hall of purely -domestic type whose owners found it expedient, at some critical period, -to fortify in some manner, and these additions are of the greatest -interest to the antiquarian. Perhaps the best example to be found is -that of Stokesay, near Ludlow, which is a unique specimen of a small -mansion of the thirteenth century subsequently fortified. The licence is -dated 1291, and a stone wall is mentioned; only a few yards remain of -this. - -A wide ditch surrounds the area, and a high tower, similar to two towers -joined together, affords the required defence. It is embattled, the -merlons being pierced, while the embrasures have the ancient shutters -still depending. It dates from the end of the thirteenth century. The -Hall stands adjacent and vies with that at Winchester in being the most -perfect example of a thirteenth-century hall remaining to us. It is -about 50 feet long by 30 wide and over 30 feet in height. The windows -are in the E.E. style, and the corbels carrying the roof are of the same -period. The lord's apartment overlooked the Hall. It has been occupied -by the de Says, the Verduns, and ten generations of the Ludlows, the -first of whom built the crenellated parts. The prompt surrender of the -Cavalier garrison to the Parliamentarian army is no doubt responsible -for the fact that no destruction of the House occurred at that critical -time. - -The examples given of the Castellated Mansion and fortified Manor-House -are necessarily meagre in number, and many more, such as Broughton -Castle in Oxfordshire, Sudley in Gloucestershire, Wingfield Manor, -Derbyshire; Hilton, Durham; Hampton Court, Hereford; Whitton, Durham, -etc., call for remark if the exigencies of space permitted. - - - - - CHAPTER X - - THE CASTLES OF SCOTLAND - - -_Prehistoric and other Earthworks._--The numerous remains of strongholds -and defensive works of a prehistoric character readily fall as a rule -under one of the divisions used in describing the English examples. They -are usually of a circular or oval formation, and where irregular the -shape has been determined by the site. - -The Hill-forts, known as Vitrified Forts, are, however, not represented -in England, and, although found in a few places upon the Continent, -appear to have been chiefly developed in Scotland. By some means, not -definitely determined as yet, the walls of these strongholds have been -subjected to intense heat, whereby the stones have become plastic, and -amalgamated when cool into one coherent mass. It is unnecessary to -dilate upon the obvious advantages which a homogeneous defence of this -nature would possess. These forts chiefly lie in a broad band between -the Moray Firth and Argyle and Wigtown, and are generally constructed of -igneous rocks; when provided with a suitable flux of alkali in the form -of wood-ashes or seaweed a comparatively moderate heat would be -sufficient to cause fusion. The walls of Vitrified Forts are of about -half the thickness of unvitrified, and appear to belong to the Late -Celtic Age. - -_Brochs_ are also peculiar to Scotland. They are massive, tower-like -buildings, chiefly occurring in the northern counties and upon the -islands; they are remarkably similar in outline and construction, and -they have been ascribed chronologically to the period immediately before -or after the Roman occupation of Britain, and as being essentially -Celtic. The Broch of Mousa is generally believed to be the most perfect -example extant; it is in Shetland, and consists of a wall 15 feet thick -enclosing a court 20 feet in diameter. The wall is about 45 feet in -height and contains a solitary entrance, narrow and low. In the -thickness of the wall, and approached by three internal openings, are -chambers, while a spiral staircase leads upwards to where passages -constructed in the walls are served by the stairway. Other Brochs which -have been examined appear to possess a similarity of plan, but some have -subsidiary defences in the shape of external walls, ramparts, and -fosses; thus the example at Clickamin, Lerwick, was surrounded by a -stone wall. That found upon Cockburn Law, and known as Odin's, or Edin's -Hold, is of note by reason of the double rampart of earth surrounding -it. It is one of the largest as yet discovered, the wall being 17 feet -thick and the area 56 feet wide. Probably the many hut circles which -surround this Broch are of later date and were formed from its ruins. -The great thickness of the wall is exceeded, however, by the Broch at -Torwoodlee, Selkirkshire, by 6 inches. - -With the advent of the historical period firmer ground is reached, and -there are numerous evidences that the Motte and Bailey Castle was -introduced at an early period into Scotland. During the second half of -the eleventh century this was the prevailing type as in England. - -It has been found possible to divide the era of castellation proper in -the northern kingdom into four distinct periods: - -_First Period_, 1100-1300.--The roving spirit and warlike disposition of -the Normans prompted their adventurers to penetrate into the -fastnesses of the North, where the innovations they introduced made -them acceptable in the main to the inhabitants. They taught the latter -how to raise towers of a design based upon the Rectangular Keep, with -thick cemented walls, and many of the great fortresses, such as -Edinburgh, Stirling, and Dumbarton, originated at this time. The early -type of Keep was quadrangular in plan with towers at the angles, which -were sometimes detached from the main building and placed upon short -curtain walls; but some were naturally modified or specially adapted to -the site like those of Home and Loch Doon. The use of water as a defence -was recognised at an early stage; some towers were placed on islands in -lakes, and most of them were furnished with moats and ditches. At this -period castles were seldom placed upon high promontories. The -workmanship was as a rule poor, rough, and crude, but some exceptions -occur like Kildrummie and Dirleton. - -_Second Period_, 1300-1400.--The years of this century were marked in -Scotland by anarchy, war, and bloodshed, which devastated the kingdom -and placed the arts of peace in complete abeyance, while poverty was -universal. The period was consequently unfavourable for the erection of -Scottish castles upon a large scale, but many scores of small Keeps -sprang into existence. Bruce was antagonistic to the building of large -and roomy castles, arguing that their capture by an invader would give -him a standing in the country which otherwise he would not possess. - -The towers erected were based upon the Norman Keep; they were of stone -throughout, so that their destruction by fire was impossible. Their -walls were so thick and massive that restoration after a siege was easy. -The basement was always vaulted, and was intended for storage purposes -and the herding of cattle in an emergency. As a general rule it had no -interior communication with the upper floors, but trap-doors are not -unknown. The entrance to the building was on the first storey through a -narrow door reached by a ladder; it gave upon the Hall, the chief -apartment, where all dined in common, and the household slept, a -subsidiary half floor being constructed above for this purpose. - -[Illustration: BARTIZAN.] - -The second floor was the private apartment of the chieftain and his -family, and was also provided with a wooden gallery for sleeping -purposes. The roof was a pointed arch resting solidly upon the walls and -covered with stone slabs. At the angles of the building bartizans were -usually built, although rounded corners like those at Neidpath and Drum -sometimes occur. In the massive walls spiral staircases, small rooms, -cupboards, and other conveniences were arranged. Round the Tower a wall -was generally erected, within which the stables, offices, and kitchens -were built. In the wall of the Tower itself, and sometimes below the -level of the ground, the universal "pit" or prison was built, ventilated -by a shaft carried upwards in the thickness of the wall. At times the -battlements were provided with parapets resting upon corbels but -executed in a crude manner. - -[Illustration: BOTHWELL CASTLE, LANARKSHIRE.] - -The century in question saw numerous castles of this type come into -existence, all based upon the same plan, that of the king differing only -in size from that of the small chieftain. The largest are from 40 to 60 -feet square, but the majority are much smaller. These Keeps formed -nuclei for subsequent additions as at Loch Leven, Craigmillar, Campbell, -and Aros, and many of them served as ordinary residences down to the -seventeenth century, long after the tide of war had passed. - -_Third Period_, 1400-1550.--With the coming of peace and a period of -commercial and industrial prosperity, the nobles of Scotland were able -to observe the progress of castellation around them in England and -France, and began to adopt the styles which they found in those -countries. A type of castle appeared based like that of Bodium upon a -French ideal,--the building of a high embattled wall strengthened with -towers around a quadrangular space. This plan, derived from the -Concentric ideal, was adopted for the largest castles, such as Stirling, -which is the most perfect example of a courtyard plan, and Tantallon. - -In the smaller castles the Hall is placed in the centre with the -kitchen, pantry, and buttery adjoining it, and the lord's solar and -private apartments at the daïs end. The wine-vaults and cellars are -built beneath, while the bedrooms occur above. In contrast to the -English buildings of the period, the question of defence was the -dominating idea in spite of the altered conditions of better living and -increased luxury. Many plain and simple Keeps were also built during -this period. - -_Fourth Period, after_ 1550.--The development of artillery led to -alterations being made in castellation, while the progress of the -Reformation gradually introduced the fortified mansion and Manor-House. -Many small Keeps, or Peel Towers, were built, however, chiefly on the -Border. Ornamentation up to this period had been conspicuously absent, -but now it assumed a very high importance. Corbelling became almost a -mania,--floors, windows, parapets, chimneys, and other details -projecting to an excessive distance in order to enhance the effect. The -bartizans were covered with high conical roofs, and turrets similarly -ornamented became a prominent style. The accommodation in the upper -floors was greatly increased when compared with the basement, through -the excess of corbelling. Gables were furnished with crow-steps, while -machicolation became at times almost fantastic. Gargoyles shaped like -cannon in stone are a marked feature of the period. - - -_Bothwell Castle, Lanarkshire (1st Period)_ - -Bothwell Castle is generally termed the grandest ruin of a -thirteenth-century castle in Scotland. It belonged in the thirteenth -century to the Murray family; was captured by Edward I. and given to -Aymer de Valence, Earl of Pembroke. The English had possession until the -year 1337 when, after capturing it, the Scots dismantled it. From the -Douglas family it passed by marriage to the Earls of Home. It is placed -upon a rocky promontory above the Clyde, and consists of an oblong -courtyard with high curtain walls and strengthening towers, round or -square, while a large circular donjon lies at the west end. The latter -bestrides the enceinte and is separated from the bailey by a moat; it is -of noble proportions, 60 feet in diameter and 90 feet high, with walls -15 feet thick. The Tower forcibly suggests that at Coucy in many -particulars. The Hall and various other apartments occupy the eastern -portion of the Bailey. - - -_Neidpath Castle_ (_2nd Period_) - -Neidpath Castle is situated upon elevated land overlooking a winding of -the Tweed. It was built upon the =L= plan, probably in the fourteenth -century, being a main central tower of the Keep type with a square -projection of considerable size attached to one side. The walls are 11 -feet in thickness and the original door was on the basement floor facing -the river, a departure from the general rule. A spiral stair gave access -to the upper storeys. The Tower was originally of enormous strength, -being really two immense vaults superposed upon each other, but other, -wooden, floors have been inserted between. The parapet and corners are -rounded similar to those at Drum Castle. It was greatly altered and -added to in the seventeenth century. No particular history attaches to -the building, which belonged to the Hays of Yester for centuries; it has -only undergone one siege, that by Cromwell, when it surrendered after a -short defence. - -[Illustration: NEIDPATH CASTLE, PEEBLES.] - - -_Edinburgh Castle (3rd Period)_ - -The site of Edinburgh Castle has undoubtedly been occupied by some -description of fortress from the most remote antiquity. The Romans -occupied it and subsequently Malcolm Canmore fortified it as an aid -towards keeping the English out of Scotland. In 1291 Edward I. besieged -and took it in fifteen days; he recaptured it again in 1294. In 1313 it -fell into the hands of Bruce by a daring escalade, and was stripped of -its defences. Edward III. rebuilt it, and placed a strong garrison -there, but the Scots took it four years later. David II. refortified it -and rendered it so strong that neither Richard II. nor Henry IV. had any -success in their attempts to take it. Since that period it has undergone -a number of sieges. - -It is built upon the courtyard plan, and is one of the survivors of the -four chief fortresses in the country, the others being Stirling, -Roxburgh, and Berwick. - -The moat at the entrance is now dry and filled up, and the Gateway there -is modern. The Argyle Tower (sometimes called the St. David's Tower) is -a portion of the old castle, as are also the ruins of the Wellhouse -Tower, while St. Margaret's Chapel is the oldest building and also the -oldest church in Scotland, containing Early Norman work and probably -also Saxon. The general aspect of the Castle suffers much from a -picturesque point of view by the addition of the great demi-lune battery -and ranges of modern buildings. - - -_Stirling Castle (3rd Period)_ - -The commanding rock upon which Stirling Castle is placed was originally -an old hill fort, but in the twelfth century was one of the four chief -castles. Thus in 1304 it held out for three months against Edward I. and -a powerful army. So important was it considered that Edward II. -attempted to relieve it, and thus led to Bannockburn. Baliol occupied -it, and King David only captured it after a long and obstinate siege. At -the Stuart period it became a Royal Castle and the favourite residence -of the Scottish kings. The present walls are undoubtedly raised upon the -old foundations, but, so far as antiquity is concerned, the oldest part -of the Castle remaining is the Parliament Hall opening from the Inner -Ward which is of late Perpendicular architecture. The Palace is of the -Renaissance, and dates from 1594. - -[Illustration: EDINBURGH CASTLE, FROM THE TERRACE OF HERIOT'S HOSPITAL.] - - -_Dunnottar Castle, Kincardineshire (3rd Period)_ - -One mile south of Stonehaven stands Dunnottar Castle, upon a flat -platform of rock with the North Sea washing three of the precipitous -sides. A small isthmus, not much above the level of the sea, connects it -to the mainland. - -The oldest parts of the Castle date from c. 1382. The entrance is at the -base of the rock upon the land side, where an outwork of remarkable -strength is placed. After ascending a steep incline a tunnel 26 feet -long is reached, also defended, and a second similar defence occurs -beyond, thus the approach was of an extremely formidable character. - -The Keep stands at the south-west corner, and is of the =L= shape four -stories in height, and built early in the fifteenth century. The stables -and domestic buildings are of a later date, and arranged round part of -an irregular courtyard. The Castle, although credited with being one of -the most impregnable in Scotland, and to which the Scottish regalia was -entrusted for safe keeping during the Commonwealth, was captured by Sir -William Wallace in 1297, whose troops scaled the precipices and put the -English garrison of 4000 men to the sword. In 1336 Edward III. -refortified it, but the Scots took it as soon as he had left the -kingdom. General Lambert blockaded the Castle in 1652, and eventually -captured it. - - -_Tantallon Castle (3rd Period)_ - -Tantallon Castle is of the courtyard type, similar to Caerlaverock and -Doune, and was erected about the end of the fourteenth century. Situated -upon a rocky precipitous site, with three sides washed by the North Sea, -it was only imperative to construct defences upon the fourth or west -side. A deep ditch cut in the rock, curtain walls 12 feet thick and 50 -feet high, battlemented, with a level court in front, beyond which was -another deep ditch,--these were the defences deemed all-sufficient to -baffle intruders. The Keep also acted as a flanking defence to the -curtain walls, and contained the only entrance, which passed -completely through it. Many traces exist of the work carried out in -the early part of the sixteenth century in the endeavour to make it -impregnable to artillery. The buildings now occupy only two sides of the -interior quadrangle, the rest having been dismantled. - -[Illustration: DUNNOTTAR CASTLE, KINCARDINESHIRE.] - -In the rich history of the Castle we find that in 1528 James V. invested -it with 20,000 men and a formidable battering train, the structure -itself being supplied with large artillery. The siege lasted twenty days -and proved unavailing, the great thickness of the walls resisting the -efforts of the gunners. It underwent another siege in 1639 when the Earl -of Angus made a stand in it against the Covenanters. General Monk -invested it and found after two days that his mortars had no effect; he -then tried heavy siege guns which breached the wall, but the garrisons -retreated into the central tower where they were safe, and were allowed -to capitulate upon good terms. The fortress fell into ruin in the -beginning of the eighteenth century. - - - - - CHAPTER XI - - THE SIEGE AND DEFENCE OF A MEDIEVAL CASTLE - - -A work upon castellation would undoubtedly be incomplete if it omitted -to deal with the interesting subject of the means by which the medieval -knight defended his castle, and of the methods he employed for attacking -his neighbour's, or an enemy's town, whether in a private feud or -legitimate warfare. - -Through the almost universal habit of perusing medieval romances the -general public has formed a mental picture of the hero and his followers -riding round a castle and summoning it to surrender, or challenging the -garrison to emerge from their retreat and essay mortal combat in the -open. As the engineer and captain of the sappers and miners, the -director of the artillery, the designer of movable towers, and the -general head of the various artifices calculated to bring the besieged -to their senses, the hero is less well known. - -The _coup de main_ method of attack has probably been the same in most -ages, and undoubtedly was the chief means resorted to by primitive man. -His missile weapons during the Stone, Bronze, and Early Iron Ages were -of no use against earth ramparts crowned by thick palisading; sling, -stones, arrows, and spears were only efficacious against the bodies of -his enemies, and hand-to-hand combat was therefore a necessity. Hence we -may imagine a concentration against a presumably weak point, a sudden -rush, the plunge into the dry ditch and a rapid scramble up the scarp -towards the palisades under a shower of arrows, stones, and other -missiles; the mad escalade of the defences surmounting the earthwork and -the fierce resistance of the defenders, followed by a successful entry -or a disastrous repulse and retreat. - -Precisely the same course was pursued in the medieval period when a -rapid bridging of the moat by planks and beams would be attempted, -scaling ladders would be reared, and, protected by their shields from -the rain of missiles, the assailants, covered by their archers' fire of -arrows and bolts upon the ramparts, would mount their ladders and -attempt to effect a lodgment upon the walls. And, although weapons and -conditions have changed, the assault to-day is made upon the self-same -methods. - -If, instead of the _coup de main_, a sustained siege is decided upon the -knight will order his "gyns" to be brought up to the front, and large -and heavy ones to be built upon the spot. From the time when Uzziah -"made in Jerusalem engines, invented by cunning men, to be on the towers -and upon the bulwarks, to shoot arrows and great stones withal,"[1] down -to the invention of cannon, the ingenuity of man has been exercised in -devising machines for hurling missiles to a distance. - -The Greeks, Romans, and other nations of antiquity brought them to -perfection, and marvellous results were obtained in ancient sieges; the -vivid account by Plutarch of the great engines used at the attack upon -Syracuse, B.C. 214-212, reads almost like romance. Caesar frequently -mentions this artillery, and especially the portable balistae for -throwing arrows and casting stones; they were fitted with axles and -wheels and manoeuvred like batteries of cannon at the present day. -Larger engines were constructed as required like those of the medieval -period. - -[Footnote 1: 2 Chron. xxvi. 15.] - -[Illustration: TANTALLON CASTLE, HADDINGTONSHIRE.] - -The ancient engines were distinct from those of a later age in depending -for their efficacy upon the forces of tension and torsion as compared -with that of counterpoise in the middle ages. The art of preparing the -sinews of animals so as to preserve their elastic powers was known to -the ancients, and great bundles so treated were utilised in different -ways in the various engines. Experiments on sinews, ropes of hair, and -other materials at the present day have proved that loss of elasticity -soon occurs, whereas we learn that such was not the fact in classical -times with their special method of preparation. By fixing an endless -skein in a suitable frame, stretching it tightly and then twisting the -skein in the centre by means of a beam of wood, the necessary torsion -was obtained; if a missile were placed upon the beam when drawn back and -the beam released, the projectile would be hurled to a distance -proportionate to the velocity of the arm and the weight of the missile. - -The principle may readily be gleaned from the accompanying diagram which -exemplifies the two vertical skeins used in a portable balista for -throwing arrows; by being fixed in a suitable frame an action like that -of the bow could be obtained. By using immense coils of twisted sinew -the nations of antiquity, and especially the Greeks, threw stones -weighing 50 lbs. or more to a distance of from 400 to 500 yards, and as -a general rule with marvellous accuracy, while lighter missiles are -stated to have been hurled to between 700 and 800 yards. These engines -received the general name of "catapults," although the Greeks generally -referred to them under the term "tormentum," in reference to the twisted -sinews, thongs, and hair, of which the skeins were made. Broadly -speaking, catapults shot darts, arrows, and the falarica,--a long -iron-headed pole; balistas projected stones or similar missiles, though -the names are often interchanged by the chroniclers. Some time after the -fall of the Roman empire the secret of preparing the sinews was lost. - -[Illustration: DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSTRUCTION IN -CLASSICAL ENGINES.] - -_The Trebuchet._--Another force was called into play for medieval -artillery. This was the counterpoise, or gravitation, and the principle -upon which all large engines or "gyns" were constructed during the -middle ages. A long wooden arm was pivoted in a framework so that a -short and a long portion projected upon either side; to the shorter part -a great weight in a swinging cradle was fixed which necessarily raised -the longer arm to the vertical position. If the latter were drawn -backwards and downwards the great weight was accordingly raised, and -upon release the long arm would sweep upwards in a curve and project any -missile attached to it. By fixing a sling of suitable length to the arm -the efficiency was immensely increased (_see_ Title-page). Such was the -principle of the "trebuchet," the enormous engines which carried -devastation and destruction to medieval castles. The French are said to -have introduced these in the twelfth century, and by the end of the -thirteenth they were the most formidable siege engines of the time. - -[Illustration: STIRLING CASTLE, STIRLINGSHIRE.] - -The transition period in England between the classical weapons and the -trebuchet was the twelfth century and the early part of the thirteenth. -The veterans from the crusades undoubtedly introduced the torsion and -tension engines, but found that the home-made article could not compete -in efficiency with the Oriental examples and therefore the advent of the -trebuchet was welcomed. Roughly speaking, the original balista or -catapults depending upon torsion, and throwing shafts rather than balls, -were not so frequently in use as those engines which depended upon -tension and threw heavy stones. In the early part of the thirteenth -century the balista catapult came into vogue once more; it was of the -cross-bow type, and at the end of the century was called the espringale -and mounted on wheels. - -The counterpoises used in large trebuchets weighed sometimes between 8 -and 9 tons; the throwing arm was often 50 feet in length, and the engine -could hurl a projectile weighing between 2 cwt. and 3 cwt. to a distance -of about 300 yards. Dead horses were at times sent whirling over the -battlements into a besieged town, while casks of matter of an offensive -character and likely to breed pestilences were common missiles. But the -chief use and purpose of the trebuchet was the smashing-up of -bretasches; the pounding of the battlements and upper works to -facilitate escalades; the filling up of the moat in selected places by -throwing large quantities of earth, stones, etc., into it and against -the walls, and, occasionally, to hurl some unfortunate envoy back again -into a town or fortress when the messages he carried were distasteful to -the besiegers. In a medieval MS. full directions are given for trussing -a man intended for use as a projectile. - -Camden states that at the siege of Bedford Castle by King John one of -the mangonels, _i.e._ trebuchets, threw millstones into the castle. He -mentions seven great machines being at work at one time. Again, when -Henry III. besieged Kenilworth, in 1266, stones of extraordinary size -were used as missiles; some are still preserved at the Castle and two -are at the Rotunda, Woolwich, the diameters being 18-1/2 inches and -16-1/4 inches; the weight 256 lbs. and 165 lbs. respectively. At -Pevensey Castle catapult stone shot of 144, 156, and 241 lbs. -respectively have been discovered. The great trebuchet constructed by -Edward I. for the siege of Stirling Castle cast balls weighing between -two and three hundredweight. The several parts of this great machine -were sent by sea, but the Castle surrendered before its efficacy could -be tried. The King was annoyed that this, his pet device, the -"War-Wolf," as it was termed, had not had an opportunity, and therefore -ordered the garrison to remain within while he took a few "pot-shots" at -their defences. - -Such projectiles would almost demolish a house, and were nearly as -formidable as modern shells; their great weight would batter every -portion of a medieval castle except the very thickest of walls. The -platforms of earth thrown up by besiegers to sustain their great engines -remain in many places intact to-day; thus round Berkhampstead Castle are -eight, upon which the trebuchets of the Dauphin were erected in 1216, -when he battered the castle into submission in about a fortnight. The -terms mangonel, petrary, balista, onager, scorpion, perrier, catapult, -etc., when used by historians of the middle ages, generally apply to the -trebuchet and its varieties, large and small. - -_The Arblast, Espringale, and Spurgardon_ were engines based upon the -cross-bow or tension principle; some were of considerable size and threw -huge bolts tipped with iron. Another and a common use was to convey -ignited incendiary matter into the enemy's quarters by their means. They -were mounted upon towers, curtain walls, and in the baileys, while in -the open when placed upon wheels they served the purpose of -field-pieces. - -[Illustration: RAISING THE PORTCULLIS.] - -_The Ram_, based upon the weapon used by the ancients, was in frequent -use. The working parts and the men manipulating it were protected by a -pent-house called the "Snail," or "Whelk," having a roof of considerable -thickness. In this house it was suspended by chains and pulled backwards -and forwards by hand or mechanical appliances; when released, it smashed -the stones in the wall to powder, so that they could be subsequently -removed from the defences. To mitigate the effects the besieged let down -mattresses, bags of wool, and coiled rope mats by chains from the -ramparts. - -_The Terebra._--A machine based upon the classical _terebra_ was also in -use. It consisted of a heavy beam which could be rotated; the iron head -being furnished with a spike of square section was inserted in a joint -into which it bored its way, breaking up the surrounding stones and -facilitating their removal. - -_The Cat, or Sow_, was in constant use for mining and underpinning -walls. It was a covered house upon wheels, with an enormously strong -roof calculated to withstand the heavy stones, beams of wood, hot -water, molten lead, and spiked poles which were invariably launched from -the battlements for its destruction. Under its cover the besiegers -tunnelled beneath the walls, which they supported with woodwork until -their task was completed; by starting a conflagration in the chamber -thus excavated the supports were consumed and the wall was breached. At -other times the stones, previously shattered or loosened by the ram or -the terebra, were removed until the wall above was incapable of bearing -its own weight. Mining, like other operations, had to be carried out -with discretion and was undoubtedly a precarious operation. Thus in the -siege of Dryslwyn Castle, Carmarthenshire, in the time of Edward I., -Lord Stafford and other leaders lost their lives by a sudden collapse of -the walls they were undermining. The mine was often met by a -counter-mine of the garrison as in modern warfare. - -_The Beffroi, Belfry, or Movable Tower_ was a machine for facilitating -the capture of fortified positions. It could be built upon the spot or -carried from place to place in pieces. When mounted upon wheels it was -pushed forward towards the walls, the object being to give the -assailants the same advantage of height which was shared by the -besieged. From the upper platform the archers could command the -battlements and approaches; those in lower stages sent their missiles -into loopholes and other openings; in the lowest stage a ram was often -mounted. One feature of its construction was a hinged platform which -fell outwards upon the battlements and over which the assailants -endeavoured to enter the fortress. The besieged hindered the approach of -this terror by digging pitfalls for the wheels, shooting incendiary -missiles, making sallies for its destruction by fire, or concentrating -such a body of men upon the walls that none could live under the hail of -missiles poured into it. - -The methods of assailing a castle thus enumerated were, as a rule, put -into operation at the same time and supported one another. Thus in the -siege of Bedford Castle, defended by the followers of Faukes de Breauté, -in 1224, the siege was carried out by King Henry III. in person. Two -wooden Beffrois were made and advanced towards the walls,--these were -occupied by longbow-men and arbalestiers; sappers approached the walls -and undermined by means of a Cat; seven trebuchets cast their ponderous -projectiles against, or into, the castle without intermission night and -day, while lesser artillery hurled lead-covered stones, darts, bolts, -and other missiles among the defenders upon the walls, or through the -oillets and louvre-covered windows. The barbican was taken and then the -outer bailey; a breach in the defending wall gave admission to the inner -bailey, and when, by judicious sapping, one portion of the great Shell -Keep sank and produced a wide breach, the castle was surrendered. - -In medieval manuscripts we meet with many illustrations of petardiers -hurling vessels containing Greek fire upon the various engines attacking -a castle or town, and perhaps this terrifying missile deserves more -notice than has hitherto been paid to it. Introduced from the East -during the time of the Crusades it was used with other incendiary -bodies, but as no great objects were specially achieved by its use in -our islands, or rather, as chroniclers do not make special mention of -such results, we are probably justified in thinking that the effects -were more of a terrifying character than of actual effectiveness in -besieging or defending a castle. - - - - -INDEX - - - Adulterine Castles, 90, 91 - - Ages--Stone, Bronze, Iron, dates of, 7 - - l'Aigle, Matilda de, 94 - - Albini, Nigel de, Cainhoe Castle, 56 - - Alnwick Castle, description of, 68 - - Alselin, Geoffrey, Laxton Castle, 56 - - Alur, 117, 168 - - Ambresbury Banks, Essex, 29 - - Anderida, 45 - - Angus, Earl of, 187 - - Arbalesteria, 78, 117 - - Arblast, 196 - - Archer, the English, 150 - - Aros Castle, 179 - - Arundel Castle, 54, 65, 151, 158 - description of, 71 - Shell Keep, 72 - siege of, 72 - - Arundel Cathedral, 73 - - Aspiks, 152 - - Avalon, Isle of, 11 - - - Badbury, Berks, 31 - - Badbury Rings, Wimborne, 22, 23, 32 - - Badlesmere, Bartholomew, 148 - - Bailey, buildings in, 53 - - Bailey or Base Court, 53 - - Bakewell, 42 - - Baliol, Robert, 184 - - Balista, 192, 194, 196 - stones, 192 - - Bamborough Castle, 41 - description of, 93 - Keep of, 94, 96 - siege of, 93 - wards of, 96 - - Banks, Sir John, and Lady, 139 - - Barbican, or ravelin, 67 - - Barnard Castle, the Keep, 106 - - Bartizans, 178, 180 - - Base Court or Bailey, 53 - - Basilisks, 152 - - Battlemented parapets, 41 - - Bayeux tapestry, 55 - - Beauchamp Tower, Tower of London, 135 - - Beaufort, Duke of, 142, 164 - - Beaumaris Castle, 122 - - _Bebban burh_ or Bamborough, 41 - - Bedford Castle, Shell Keep of, 200 - siege of, 195 - - Beffroi, 81, 94, 198, 199 - - Bek, Anthony, Bishop of Durham, 69 - - Belesme, Robert de, 71, 87 - - Belfry, 198 - - Belvoir Castle, position of, 59 - Todenei, Robert, 57 - - Berkeley Castle, 65 - - Berkhampstead Castle, 196 - Mortaign, Robert, Count of, 56 - - Berm, Cadbury Castle, 24 - Verulamium, 37 - - Berwick Castle, 183 - - Bigot family, 142 - Bodiam Castle, 165, 179 - description of, 157 - - Boleyn, Anne, 161 - Sir Geoffrey, 160 - Sir Thomas, 161 - - Bolingbroke, 121 - - Bombards, 148, 152 - - Bothwell Castle, description of, 181 - - Bowyer Tower, Tower of London, 135 - - Bradbury, 14 - - Bretasche, 167, 194 - description of, 103 - Motte and Bailey Castle, 50 - - Breauté, Faukes de, 199 - - Brick Castles, 155 - - Brick-making, art of, 165 - - British Isles, earthworks of, 2, 173 - - Broch, 174 - at Cockburn Law, 175 - of Mousa, 174 - - Bronllys Castle, 133 - - Bronze Age, 7, 189 - - Broughton Castle, 172 - - Bruce, Robert, 183 - - Buckingham, Duke of, 162 - - Builth Castle, 133 - - Bures Mount, Essex, 50 - - Burgh, Hubert de, 81 - - Burh, bury, borough, and burgh, 39, 40 - - Burhs, Nottingham, 42 - Saxon, 38, 39 - Stafford, Tarn worth and Warwick, 42 - Witham and Maldon, 42 - - Busli, Roger de, Tickhill Castle, 57 - - - Cadbury, Tiverton, 22 - Castle, 23 - Berm of, 24 - - Caerlaverock Castle, 186 - - Caerphilly Castle, 131 - description of, 126 - - Caesar, artillery of, 190 - - Cainhoe Castle, Albini, Nigel de 56 - - Campbell Castle, 179 - - Canmore, Malcolm, 183 - - Cannon, early, 147 - gargoyles, 181 - shot, weight of, 154 - - Canterbury Castle, Keep of 89 - - Carew Castle, 132 - - Carisbrooke Castle, 65 - description of, 73 - - Carnarvon Castle, 118 - description of, 123 - town walls of, 124 - - Castellated Mansion, 147, 155 - - Castellation, the first, 2 - transition period, 156 - - Castle-building Stephen's reign, 92 - - Castles, centre of boroughs, 57 - centre of feudal baronies, 56 - definition of, 1 - in Gascony, 156 - Herefordshire, 55 - Hertfordshire, 56 - Leicestershire, 56 - Nottinghamshire, 56 - of Scotland, 173 - sites of, 57 - - Cat, 197, 200 - - Catapult, 192, 194, 196 - - Chapel-en-le-Frith, 11 - - Chaworth, Payn de, 130 - - Chepstow Castle, 131 - description of, 141 - - Château Gaillard, description of, 110 - the Keep, 111 - - Chaucer, Geoffrey, 62 - - Cilgerran Castle, 132 - - Cissbury, 14, 24 - - Civil War, efficiency of Castles, 153 - - Clare, Earl of, 46 - Gilbert de, 127 - family, 142 - Classification of earthworks, 5 - - Clavering Castle, Essex, 49 - - Clawll y Milwyr, 8 - - Cleves, Anne of, 161 - - Clickamin Broch, 175 - - Cliff Castles, 7-9 - - Clifford's Castle, Northants, 50, 52 - - Clifton Camps, 9 - - Clinton, William de, 162 - - Clun Castle, Keep of, 88, 92 - - Cobham, Lord, 160 - - Colchester Castle, 134 - Chapel of, 85 - - Colepeper family, 144 - - Comb Moss, 11 - - Compton, Sir William, 162 - - Concentric Castle, 110 - essential principles of, 113 - - Conisborough Castle, description of, 106 - - Constantinople, fortifications of, 112 - - Contour forts, 14 - - Conway, town wall of, 120 - Castle, 118 - description of, 120 - - Corbelling, mania for, 180 - - Corfe Castle, 131 - Buttavant Tower, 140 - description of, 137 - Keep of, 139 - "slighting" of, 140 - - Coucy Castle, 102, 104, 105, 181 - - Counterpoise engines, 193 - - Counterpoises of trebuchets, 194 - - _Coup-de-main_ attack, 189 - - Craigmillar Castle, 179 - - Crenellated walls, 41 - - Crévecoeur family, 143 - - Criccieth Castle, description of, 118 - - Cromlechs, 8 - - Cromwell, Ralph, Lord, 168 - - Crowstep gables, 181 - - Curtain walls, 67 - - Cutts, Lord, 75 - - Cylindrical Keep, 101 - - - Dalyngrugge, Sir Edward, 157 - - Danish burhs, 43 - - Dauphin, 98 - - Definition of a castle, 1 - - "Devil of Belesme," 87 - - Differentiation of earthworks, 3 - - Dilke family, 162 - - Dinas, 9 - - Dirleton Castle, 176 - - Dog-tooth ornament, 92 - - Dolebury, 14 - - Donjon, 102, 181 - - Dorchester, Oxon, 10 - - Douglas family, 181 - - Doune Castle, 186 - - Dover Castle, 49 - description of, 80, 92 - the Keep, 82 - - Dragons, 152 - - Drum Castle, 178, 182 - - Dryslwyn Castle, 198 - - Dudley Castle, Fitz-Ansculf, William, 56 - - Dumbarton Castle, 176 - - Dunnottar Castle, description of, 185 - Keep of, 185 - - Dunster Castle, Mohun, William de, 56 - - Durability of earthworks, 4 - - Durham Castle, 65 - - Dyke Hills, 10 - - - Eagle Tower, Carnarvon Castle, 126 - - Earls Barton Castle, Northants, 52 - - Earthworks, auxiliary aids to, 18 - British Isles, 2 - classification of, 5 - destruction of, 14 - differentiation of, 3 - durability of, 4 - English, 3 - with stockades, 18 - - Edinburgh Castle, 176, 183 - Argyle Tower, 183 - - Edinburgh Castle, St. Margaret's Chapel, 184 - Wellhouse Tower, 184 - - Edin's Hold, 175 - - "Edwardian" Castle, 118 - - Edward the Martyr, 138 - - Eleanor, wife of Humphrey of Gloucester, 144 - - Elfreton, Henry de, 121 - - Ely, 43 - - Engines, ancient, 191 - - English earthworks, 3 - - Escalade, 189 - - Espringale, 194, 196 - - Ethelfleda of the Mercians, 41, 42 - - Exburgh Manor-House, 168 - - Eye Castle, Malet, Robert de, 56 - - - Fairfax, Sir Thomas, 164 - - Falarica, 86, 192 - - Fane, Ralph, 169 - - Fergeant, Alan, 99 - - Ferrers, Henry de, Tutbury Castle, 57 - - Feudal baronies, castles centre of, 56 - - Fiennes, Sir Roger, 165 - Thomas, execution of, 166 - - First castellation, 2 - - Fishguard, 9 - - Fitz-Ansculf, William, Dudley Castle, 56 - - Fitz-John, Eustace, 68, 94 - - Fitz-Osborne, William, Earl of Hereford, 73 - William, 142 - - Fitz-Scrob, Richard, 48 - - Flanking Towers, 67 - - Flint Castle, 122 - - Flying bridge, Motte and Bailey Castle, 50 - - Fonmon Castle, Glamorganshire, 93 - - Forebuildings, 78 - Rochester Castle, 98 - - Fortified Hill-Tops, classification of, 13 - strengthened, 5, 13 - - - Gam, Sir David, 163 - - Gannock's Castle, near Tempsford, 44, 45 - - Gaveston, Piers, 74 - - Glendower, Owen, 119 - - Gloucester Castle, Keep of, 89 - Humphrey, Duke of, 169 - - Golden Valley, Castle at, 48 - - Gravitation engines, 193 - - Greek fire, 200 - - Grey, Sir Ralph, 95, 152 - - Guildford Castle, Chapel of, 85 - Keep of, 88 - - Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, 134 - - Gunpowder, introduction of, 147 - - "Gyns," 190, 193 - - - Ham Hill, Somerset, 15 - - Hampton Court, Herefordshire, 172 - - Harlech Castle, 118, 152 - - Harquebuses, openings for, 158 - - Hastings Castle, 55 - - Hatton, Sir Christopher, 139 - - Haut, Ivo de, 170 - - Haverfordwest Castle, 133 - - Hedingham Keep, Essex, 83 - - Hembury Fort, Honiton, 14 - - Herefordshire, Castles in, 55 - - Hereford, Motte and Bailey Castle, 48, 49 - - Herstmonceaux Castle, 167, 168 - description of, 164 - - Hertfordshire, Castles in, 56 - - Hever Castle, 160 - Sir William de, 160 - - Hill forts, 173 - - Hilton Castle, 172 - - Home Castle, 176 - Earls of, 181 - - Homestead moats, 6 - developed, 6 - - Humfreys, Sir William, 161 - - Hunsbury, Northants, 30 - - - Ifan, Davydd ap, 152 - - Ightham Mote, 170 - - Iron Age, 7, 189 - - Isabella, Queen of Edward II., 144 - - Isle of Avalon, 11 - - - Juliets, 102 - - - Keep, Scottish, plan of, 176 - - Kemyss, Sir Nicholas, 143 - - Kenilworth Castle, 151 - siege of, 195 - - Kidwelly Castle, Carmarthenshire, 118, 129 - - Kildrummie Castle, 176 - - - Lacy, Ilbert de, Pontefract Castle, 57 - - Lambert, General, 186 - - Lamphey Castle, 133 - - "Land of Castles," 131 - - Launceston Castle, the Keep, 105 - - Laxton Castle, Alselin, Geoffrey, 56 - - Leconfield, Lord, 160 - - Leeds Castle, Kent, 105, 148 - Baileys of, 145 - Barbicans of, 146 - description of, 143 - Keep of, 145 - - Leicestershire, Castles in, 56 - - Lewes Castle, 65 - - Lewkenor, Sir Thomas, 158 - - Licences to crenellate, 90 - - Lincoln Castle, 65 - - Lisle, Warine de, 159 - - Llandilo, Castle near, 130 - - Llawhaddon Castle, 133 - - Loch Doon Castle, 176 - - Loch Leven Castle, 179 - - Logan Stone, 8 - - Ludlow, family of, 172 - - - Machicolation, 104, 116, 158, 165, 167, 181 - earliest example of, 111 - - Maiden Castle, 14, 16, 22, 32 - entrances of, 17 - - Malet, Robert de, Eye Castle, 56 - - _Malvoisin_, 94 - - Mam Tor, Derbyshire, 27 - the shivering mountain, 27 - - Mangonel, 104, 196 - - Manorbier Castle, 9, 133 - - "March of the Men of Harlech," 120 - - Marmion, Robert le, Tamworth Castle, 56 - - Maxstoke Castle, 162 - - Medieval walls, construction of, 78 - - Melandra, near Glossop, 34 - - Menhirs, 8 - - Merlons, 117, 124, 165, 168 - - Meurtriers, 78, 116, 142 - - Mining, method of, 198 - - Missile engines of the ancients, 190 - - Mohun, William de, Dunster Castle, 56 - - Monk, General, 187 - - Montfort, Simon de, 46, 98 - - Montgomery, family of, 71 - - Morgan, Colonel, 142 - - Mortaign, Robert, Count of, Berkhampstead Castle, 56 - Earl of, 46 - - Motte and Bailey Castle, 48 - advantages of, 60 - bretasche of, 50 - construction of, 49 - flying bridge of, 50 - positions of, 58, 59 - positions of mound of, 54 - rapid erection of, 60 - Scottish, 175 - - Mount and Fosse, 5 - - Mount (or Motte) and Bailey, 5 - - Mount, The, Caerleon, 50 - - Movable Tower, 198 - - Mowbray, de, 94 - - - Narberth Castle, 133 - - Natural fortresses strengthened, 5-6 - - Neidpath Castle, 178 - description of, 182 - - Newcastle-upon-Tyne Castle, - Chapel of, 85 - Forebuilding of, 79 - Keep of, 89 - - Newquay, 7 - - Newton Castle, Montgomeryshire, 53 - - Nineveh marbles, 41 - - Norham Castle, 105 - - Norwich Castle, 134 - - Nottingham Castle, 87 - Keep of, 88 - - Nottinghamshire, Castles in, 56 - - - Odin's Hold, Berwickshire, 175 - - Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, 46, 97, 143 - - Oillets, 78, 124, 166, 200 - - Old Castle Head, 9 - - Onager, 86, 196 - - Ongar Castle, Essex, 52, 53 - - _Oppidum_ of Cassivelaunus, 33 - - Orford Castle, Suffolk, 109 - - Oubliettes, 78 - - Oxford Castle, Keep of, 89 - - - Parapet, location of, 4 - - Peel Towers, 180 - - Pelham, Lady Jane, 46 - Sir John, 46 - - Pembroke Castle, 132, 153 - Keep of, 106 - - Penhow Castle, Monmouthshire, 93 - - Penshurst Place, description of, 169 - - Percy, Earl, 70 - Sir Henry de, 69 - Sir Thomas, 159 - - Perrier, 196 - - Petardier, 200 - - Petrary, 81, 86, 196 - - Pevensey Castle, 45, 131 - inner Castle of, 47 - - Pharos at Dover, 80 - - Pickering Castle, Keep of, 88 - - "Pit," or Prison, 178 - - Pitt Rivers, General, 25, 29 - - Plantagenet, Hamelin, 109 - - Plateau forts, 6, 11, 13 - - Pleshey Castle, Essex, 52 - - Pontefract Castle, 109, 154 - Lacy, Ilbert de, 57 - - Porchester Castle, 37 - - Portland, 9 - - Primitive weapons, 1 - - Projectiles, men as, 195 - millstones as, 195 - - Promontory forts, 6 - - Protected village sites, 6 - - Pulteneye, Sir John de, 169 - - - Quatford Castle, 87 - - Quia Emptores, Statute of, 149 - - - Raglan Castle, 141 - description of, 163 - Keep of, 164 - - Ram, 81, 197 - - Ravelin, or barbican, 67 - - Ravensburgh Castle, Hexton, 25 - - Rectangular Keep, 76 - Chapel of, 85 - Forebuilding of, 78 - construction of, 77 - Crypt of, 85 - impregnability of, 87 - internal arrangements of, 83 - introduction of, 76 - Ramparts of, 84 - - Reculvers, Isle of Thanet, 36 - - Redvers, Baldwin de, 139 - Richard de, 74 - - Regalia Scottish, 186 - - Richard's Castle, Herefordshire, 48, 59 - - Richborough Castle, Sandwich, 36 - Richmond Castle, Barbican of, 100 - Chapel of, 99 - Crypt of, 99 - description of, 99 - Keep of, 99 - - Ring Hill, Essex, 31 - - Roche Castle, 133 - - Rochester Castle, 134 - description of, 96 - Keep of, 89, 97, 98 - siege of, 87, 97 - - Roman fortification, 37 - - Romano-British Period, 33 - - Roman wall, Tower of London, 134 - - Roxburgh Castle, 183 - - Royal Castles in Kent, 96 - - - St. Burian, 8 - - St. David's Head, 8 - - St. John's Chapel, Tower of London, 136 - - St. Leger, Sir Anthony, 144 - - Sakers, 152 - - Saxon burh, 38, 39 - MSS., 41 - Period, 38 - - Say, de, family of, 172 - - _Segontium_ (Carnarvon), 36 - - Serpentines, 152 - - Seymour, Charles, Duke of Somerset, 70 - family of, 159 - - Scales, Lord, 74 - - Scarborough Castle, siege of, 154 - - Scorpion, 196 - - Scottish Castles, Periods of, 176-181 - Second Period, 177 - Third Period, 179 - Fourth Period, 180 - - Shell Keep, 64 - configuration of, 66 - position of, 65 - - Shirburn Castle, description of, 158 - - Shoulsbury, Exmoor, 22 - - Siege and defence of a medieval castle, 188 - - Sigismund, Emperor, 144 - - Silchester, 34, 37 - - Simple artificial enclosures, 5, 33 - - Smith, Sir Richard, 144 - - "Snail," 197 - - Solar, 180 - - Somerset, family of, 164 - Sir Charles, 142 - - South Cadbury, Sherborne, 15 - - Sow, 81, 197 - - Spurgardon, 196 - - Spurious castles, 90 - - Stafford, Edward, 162 - family of, 169 - Humphrey, Earl of, 162 - Lord, 198 - - Stockades, 18, 19 - construction of, 19, 20, 21 - Gallic, 19 - on earthworks, 18 - - Stone Age, 7, 189 - circles, 8 - - Stokesay Castle, description of, 171 - - Stirling Castle, 176, 183 - description of, 184 - Palace of, 185 - Parliament Hall, 184 - siege of, 195 - - Strongbow, Richard, 142 - - Sudley Castle, 172 - - Swegen the Sheriff, 49 - - Sydney, Sir Philip, 169 - William, 169 - - Syracuse, attack on, 190 - - Syrens, 152 - - - Tamworth Castle, Marmion, Robert le, 57 - - Tantallon Castle, 179 - description of, 186 - Keep of, 186 - sieges of, 187 - - Tattershall Castle, crypt of, 167 - description of, 167 - Taunton burh, 41 - - Terebra, 197 - - Thetford Castle, Norfolk, 52 - - Thomas, Sir William ap, 163 - - Thurnham Castle, Kent, 53 - - Tickhill Castle, 148 - Busli, Roger de, 57 - - Todenei, Robert, Belvoir Castle, 57 - - _Tormentum_, 192 - - Torsion and tension engines, 193 - - Torwoodlee Broch, 175 - - Totnes Castle, 65 - - Towcester, 42 - - Tower of London, St. John's Chapel, 85, 136 - description of, 133 - Keep of, 136 - - Traitors' Gate, 135 - - Trebuchets, 81, 86, 97, 152, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 200 - projectiles of, 194, 195, 196 - - Treryn Castle, 8 - - Tretower Castle, 133 - - Trevalgue Head, 7 - - Tutbury Castle, 148 - Ferrers, Henry de, 57 - - Tyler, Wat, 98 - - - Uzziah, 190 - - - Valence, Aymer de, 181 - - Vaulting Ribs, 92 - - Verdun, family of, 172 - - Vere, de, family of, 84 - - Verulamium, St. Albans, 34 - - Vescy, Ivo de, 68 - - Vitrified forts, 173, 174 - - - Waldegrave, Sir Edward, 161 - - Waldo, Sir T., 161 - - Wales, Rhys of, 131 - - Wallace, Sir William, 186 - - Waller, Sir William, 71, 158 - - Wallingford, 39 - Castle, 109 - - Walls, medieval, construction of, 78 - - Warkworth Castle, 109 - - Warwick Castle, 66, 148, 151 - - "War-Wolf," 196 - - Watling Street, 35 - - West Malling, 134 - - West Saxons, Harold, Earl of, 49 - - "Whelk," 197 - - Whelpley Hill, Bucks, 32 - - Whitton Castle, Durham, 172 - - Winchester, Statute of, 149 - - Windsor Castle, 53, 65 - Barbican of, 61 - description of, 60 - Motte of, 61 - St. George's Chapel, 62 - Shell Keep of, 62 - - Wingfield Manor-House, 168, 172 - - Wollaston Castle, Northants, 52 - - Wren, Sir Christopher, 136 - - Wressle Castle, 159 - - Wyatt, the architect, 166 - - Wyndham, Sir William, 70 - - - Yarnbury, Wilts, 32 - - Yester, Hays of, 182 - - York Castle, 65, 109 - Keep of, 88 - - - Zigzag moulding, 83, 84 - - - THE END - - _Printed by_ R. & R. 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