1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
1001
1002
1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
1032
1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
1045
1046
1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
1053
1054
1055
1056
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
1062
1063
1064
1065
1066
1067
1068
1069
1070
1071
1072
1073
1074
1075
1076
1077
1078
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1084
1085
1086
1087
1088
1089
1090
1091
1092
1093
1094
1095
1096
1097
1098
1099
1100
1101
1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1111
1112
1113
1114
1115
1116
1117
1118
1119
1120
1121
1122
1123
1124
1125
1126
1127
1128
1129
1130
1131
1132
1133
1134
1135
1136
1137
1138
1139
1140
1141
1142
1143
1144
1145
1146
1147
1148
1149
1150
1151
1152
1153
1154
1155
1156
1157
1158
1159
1160
1161
1162
1163
1164
1165
1166
1167
1168
1169
1170
1171
1172
1173
1174
1175
1176
1177
1178
1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184
1185
1186
1187
1188
1189
1190
1191
1192
1193
1194
1195
1196
1197
1198
1199
1200
1201
1202
1203
1204
1205
1206
1207
1208
1209
1210
1211
1212
1213
1214
1215
1216
1217
1218
1219
1220
1221
1222
1223
1224
1225
1226
1227
1228
1229
1230
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235
1236
1237
1238
1239
1240
1241
1242
1243
1244
1245
1246
1247
1248
1249
1250
1251
1252
1253
1254
1255
1256
1257
1258
1259
1260
1261
1262
1263
1264
1265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270
1271
1272
1273
1274
1275
1276
1277
1278
1279
1280
1281
1282
1283
1284
1285
1286
1287
1288
1289
1290
1291
1292
1293
1294
1295
1296
1297
1298
1299
1300
1301
1302
1303
1304
1305
1306
1307
1308
1309
1310
1311
1312
1313
1314
1315
1316
1317
1318
1319
1320
1321
1322
1323
1324
1325
1326
1327
1328
1329
1330
1331
1332
1333
1334
1335
1336
1337
1338
1339
1340
1341
1342
1343
1344
1345
1346
1347
1348
1349
1350
1351
1352
1353
1354
1355
1356
1357
1358
1359
1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369
1370
1371
1372
1373
1374
1375
1376
1377
1378
1379
1380
1381
1382
1383
1384
1385
1386
1387
1388
1389
1390
1391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
1400
1401
1402
1403
1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409
1410
1411
1412
1413
1414
1415
1416
1417
1418
1419
1420
1421
1422
1423
1424
1425
1426
1427
1428
1429
1430
1431
1432
1433
1434
1435
1436
1437
1438
1439
1440
1441
1442
1443
1444
1445
1446
1447
1448
1449
1450
1451
1452
1453
1454
1455
1456
1457
1458
1459
1460
1461
1462
1463
1464
1465
1466
1467
1468
1469
1470
1471
1472
1473
1474
1475
1476
1477
1478
1479
1480
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
1486
1487
1488
1489
1490
1491
1492
1493
1494
1495
1496
1497
1498
1499
1500
1501
1502
1503
1504
1505
1506
1507
1508
1509
1510
1511
1512
1513
1514
1515
1516
1517
1518
1519
1520
1521
1522
1523
1524
1525
1526
1527
1528
1529
1530
1531
1532
1533
1534
1535
1536
1537
1538
1539
1540
1541
1542
1543
1544
1545
1546
1547
1548
1549
1550
1551
1552
1553
1554
1555
1556
1557
1558
1559
1560
1561
1562
1563
1564
1565
1566
1567
1568
1569
1570
1571
1572
1573
1574
1575
1576
1577
1578
1579
1580
1581
1582
1583
1584
1585
1586
1587
1588
1589
1590
1591
1592
1593
1594
1595
1596
1597
1598
1599
1600
1601
1602
1603
1604
1605
1606
1607
1608
1609
1610
1611
1612
1613
1614
1615
1616
1617
1618
1619
1620
1621
1622
1623
1624
1625
1626
1627
1628
1629
1630
1631
1632
1633
1634
1635
1636
1637
1638
1639
1640
1641
1642
1643
1644
1645
1646
1647
1648
1649
1650
1651
1652
1653
1654
1655
1656
1657
1658
1659
1660
1661
1662
1663
1664
1665
1666
1667
1668
1669
1670
1671
1672
1673
1674
1675
1676
1677
1678
1679
1680
1681
1682
1683
1684
1685
1686
1687
1688
1689
1690
1691
1692
1693
1694
1695
1696
1697
1698
1699
1700
1701
1702
1703
1704
1705
1706
1707
1708
1709
1710
1711
1712
1713
1714
1715
1716
1717
1718
1719
1720
1721
1722
1723
1724
1725
1726
1727
1728
1729
1730
1731
1732
1733
1734
1735
1736
1737
1738
1739
1740
1741
1742
1743
1744
1745
1746
1747
1748
1749
1750
1751
1752
1753
1754
1755
1756
1757
1758
1759
1760
1761
1762
1763
1764
1765
1766
1767
1768
1769
1770
1771
1772
1773
1774
1775
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780
1781
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786
1787
1788
1789
1790
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
2043
2044
2045
2046
2047
2048
2049
2050
2051
2052
2053
2054
2055
2056
2057
2058
2059
2060
2061
2062
2063
2064
2065
2066
2067
2068
2069
2070
2071
2072
2073
2074
2075
2076
2077
2078
2079
2080
2081
2082
2083
2084
2085
2086
2087
2088
2089
2090
2091
2092
2093
2094
2095
2096
2097
2098
2099
2100
2101
2102
2103
2104
2105
2106
2107
2108
2109
2110
2111
2112
2113
2114
2115
2116
2117
2118
2119
2120
2121
2122
2123
2124
2125
2126
2127
2128
2129
2130
2131
2132
2133
2134
2135
2136
2137
2138
2139
2140
2141
2142
2143
2144
2145
2146
2147
2148
2149
2150
2151
2152
2153
2154
2155
2156
2157
2158
2159
2160
2161
2162
2163
2164
2165
2166
2167
2168
2169
2170
2171
2172
2173
2174
2175
2176
2177
2178
2179
2180
2181
2182
2183
2184
2185
2186
2187
2188
2189
2190
2191
2192
2193
2194
2195
2196
2197
2198
2199
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2205
2206
2207
2208
2209
2210
2211
2212
2213
2214
2215
2216
2217
2218
2219
2220
2221
2222
2223
2224
2225
2226
2227
2228
2229
2230
2231
2232
2233
2234
2235
2236
2237
2238
2239
2240
2241
2242
2243
2244
2245
2246
2247
2248
2249
2250
2251
2252
2253
2254
2255
2256
2257
2258
2259
2260
2261
2262
2263
2264
2265
2266
2267
2268
2269
2270
2271
2272
2273
2274
2275
2276
2277
2278
2279
2280
2281
2282
2283
2284
2285
2286
2287
2288
2289
2290
2291
2292
2293
2294
2295
2296
2297
2298
2299
2300
2301
2302
2303
2304
2305
2306
2307
2308
2309
2310
2311
2312
2313
2314
2315
2316
2317
2318
2319
2320
2321
2322
2323
2324
2325
2326
2327
2328
2329
2330
2331
2332
2333
2334
2335
2336
2337
2338
2339
2340
2341
2342
2343
2344
2345
2346
2347
2348
2349
2350
2351
2352
2353
2354
2355
2356
2357
2358
2359
2360
2361
2362
2363
2364
2365
2366
2367
2368
2369
2370
2371
2372
2373
2374
2375
2376
2377
2378
2379
2380
2381
2382
2383
2384
2385
2386
2387
2388
2389
2390
2391
2392
2393
2394
2395
2396
2397
2398
2399
2400
2401
2402
2403
2404
2405
2406
2407
2408
2409
2410
2411
2412
2413
2414
2415
2416
2417
2418
2419
2420
2421
2422
2423
2424
2425
2426
2427
2428
2429
2430
2431
2432
2433
2434
2435
2436
2437
2438
2439
2440
2441
2442
2443
2444
2445
2446
2447
2448
2449
2450
2451
2452
2453
2454
2455
2456
2457
2458
2459
2460
2461
2462
2463
2464
2465
2466
2467
2468
2469
2470
2471
2472
2473
2474
2475
2476
2477
2478
2479
2480
2481
2482
2483
2484
2485
2486
2487
2488
2489
2490
2491
2492
2493
2494
2495
2496
2497
2498
2499
2500
2501
2502
2503
2504
2505
2506
2507
2508
2509
2510
2511
2512
2513
2514
2515
2516
2517
2518
2519
2520
2521
2522
2523
2524
2525
2526
2527
2528
2529
2530
2531
2532
2533
2534
2535
2536
2537
2538
2539
2540
2541
2542
2543
2544
2545
2546
2547
2548
2549
2550
2551
2552
2553
2554
2555
2556
2557
2558
2559
2560
2561
2562
2563
2564
2565
2566
2567
2568
2569
2570
2571
2572
2573
2574
2575
2576
2577
2578
2579
2580
2581
2582
2583
2584
2585
2586
2587
2588
2589
2590
2591
2592
2593
2594
2595
2596
2597
2598
2599
2600
2601
2602
2603
2604
2605
2606
2607
2608
2609
2610
2611
2612
2613
2614
2615
2616
2617
2618
2619
2620
2621
2622
2623
2624
2625
2626
2627
2628
2629
2630
2631
2632
2633
2634
2635
2636
2637
2638
2639
2640
2641
2642
2643
2644
2645
2646
2647
2648
2649
2650
2651
2652
2653
2654
2655
2656
2657
2658
2659
2660
2661
2662
2663
2664
2665
2666
2667
2668
2669
2670
2671
2672
2673
2674
2675
2676
2677
2678
2679
2680
2681
2682
2683
2684
2685
2686
2687
2688
2689
2690
2691
2692
2693
2694
2695
2696
2697
2698
2699
2700
2701
2702
2703
2704
2705
2706
2707
2708
2709
2710
2711
2712
2713
2714
2715
2716
2717
2718
2719
2720
2721
2722
2723
2724
2725
2726
2727
2728
2729
2730
2731
2732
2733
2734
2735
2736
2737
2738
2739
2740
2741
2742
2743
2744
2745
2746
2747
2748
2749
2750
2751
2752
2753
2754
2755
2756
2757
2758
2759
2760
2761
2762
2763
2764
2765
2766
2767
2768
2769
2770
2771
2772
2773
2774
2775
2776
2777
2778
2779
2780
2781
2782
2783
2784
2785
2786
2787
2788
2789
2790
2791
2792
2793
2794
2795
2796
2797
2798
2799
2800
2801
2802
2803
2804
2805
2806
2807
2808
2809
2810
2811
2812
2813
2814
2815
2816
2817
2818
2819
2820
2821
2822
2823
2824
2825
2826
2827
2828
2829
2830
2831
2832
2833
2834
2835
2836
2837
2838
2839
2840
2841
2842
2843
2844
2845
2846
2847
2848
2849
2850
2851
2852
2853
2854
2855
2856
2857
2858
2859
2860
2861
2862
2863
2864
2865
2866
2867
2868
2869
2870
2871
2872
2873
2874
2875
2876
2877
2878
2879
2880
2881
2882
2883
2884
2885
2886
2887
2888
2889
2890
2891
2892
2893
2894
2895
2896
2897
2898
2899
2900
2901
2902
2903
2904
2905
2906
2907
2908
2909
2910
2911
2912
2913
2914
2915
2916
2917
2918
2919
2920
2921
2922
2923
2924
2925
2926
2927
2928
2929
2930
2931
2932
2933
2934
2935
2936
2937
2938
2939
2940
2941
2942
2943
2944
2945
2946
2947
2948
2949
2950
2951
2952
2953
2954
2955
2956
2957
2958
2959
2960
2961
2962
2963
2964
2965
2966
2967
2968
2969
2970
2971
2972
2973
2974
2975
2976
2977
2978
2979
2980
2981
2982
2983
2984
2985
2986
2987
2988
2989
2990
2991
2992
2993
2994
2995
2996
2997
2998
2999
3000
3001
3002
3003
3004
3005
3006
3007
3008
3009
3010
3011
3012
3013
3014
3015
3016
3017
3018
3019
3020
3021
3022
3023
3024
3025
3026
3027
3028
3029
3030
3031
3032
3033
3034
3035
3036
3037
3038
3039
3040
3041
3042
3043
3044
3045
3046
3047
3048
3049
3050
3051
3052
3053
3054
3055
3056
3057
3058
3059
3060
3061
3062
3063
3064
3065
3066
3067
3068
3069
3070
3071
3072
3073
3074
3075
3076
3077
3078
3079
3080
3081
3082
3083
3084
3085
3086
3087
3088
3089
3090
3091
3092
3093
3094
3095
3096
3097
3098
3099
3100
3101
3102
3103
3104
3105
3106
3107
3108
3109
3110
3111
3112
3113
3114
3115
3116
3117
3118
3119
3120
3121
3122
3123
3124
3125
3126
3127
3128
3129
3130
3131
3132
3133
3134
3135
3136
3137
3138
3139
3140
3141
3142
3143
3144
3145
3146
3147
3148
3149
3150
3151
3152
3153
3154
3155
3156
3157
3158
3159
3160
3161
3162
3163
3164
3165
3166
3167
3168
3169
3170
3171
3172
3173
3174
3175
3176
3177
3178
3179
3180
3181
3182
3183
3184
3185
3186
3187
3188
3189
3190
3191
3192
3193
3194
3195
3196
3197
3198
3199
3200
3201
3202
3203
3204
3205
3206
3207
3208
3209
3210
3211
3212
3213
3214
3215
3216
3217
3218
3219
3220
3221
3222
3223
3224
3225
3226
3227
3228
3229
3230
3231
3232
3233
3234
3235
3236
3237
3238
3239
3240
3241
3242
3243
3244
3245
3246
3247
3248
3249
3250
3251
3252
3253
3254
3255
3256
3257
3258
3259
3260
3261
3262
3263
3264
3265
3266
3267
3268
3269
3270
3271
3272
3273
3274
3275
3276
3277
3278
3279
3280
3281
3282
3283
3284
3285
3286
3287
3288
3289
3290
3291
3292
3293
3294
3295
3296
3297
3298
3299
3300
3301
3302
3303
3304
3305
3306
3307
3308
3309
3310
3311
3312
3313
3314
3315
3316
3317
3318
3319
3320
3321
3322
3323
3324
3325
3326
3327
3328
3329
3330
3331
3332
3333
3334
3335
3336
3337
3338
3339
3340
3341
3342
3343
3344
3345
3346
3347
3348
3349
3350
3351
3352
3353
3354
3355
3356
3357
3358
3359
3360
3361
3362
3363
3364
3365
3366
3367
3368
3369
3370
3371
3372
3373
3374
3375
3376
3377
3378
3379
3380
3381
3382
3383
3384
3385
3386
3387
3388
3389
3390
3391
3392
3393
3394
3395
3396
3397
3398
3399
3400
3401
3402
3403
3404
3405
3406
3407
3408
3409
3410
3411
3412
3413
3414
3415
3416
3417
3418
3419
3420
3421
3422
3423
3424
3425
3426
3427
3428
3429
3430
3431
3432
3433
3434
3435
3436
3437
3438
3439
3440
3441
3442
3443
3444
3445
3446
3447
3448
3449
3450
3451
3452
3453
3454
3455
3456
3457
3458
3459
3460
3461
3462
3463
3464
3465
3466
3467
3468
3469
3470
3471
3472
3473
3474
3475
3476
3477
3478
3479
3480
3481
3482
3483
3484
3485
3486
3487
3488
3489
3490
3491
3492
3493
3494
3495
3496
3497
3498
3499
3500
3501
3502
3503
3504
3505
3506
3507
3508
3509
3510
3511
3512
3513
3514
3515
3516
3517
3518
3519
3520
3521
3522
3523
3524
3525
3526
3527
3528
3529
3530
3531
3532
3533
3534
3535
3536
3537
3538
3539
3540
3541
3542
3543
3544
3545
3546
3547
3548
3549
3550
3551
3552
3553
3554
3555
3556
3557
3558
3559
3560
3561
3562
3563
3564
3565
3566
3567
3568
3569
3570
3571
3572
3573
3574
3575
3576
3577
3578
3579
3580
3581
3582
3583
3584
3585
3586
3587
3588
3589
3590
3591
3592
3593
3594
3595
3596
3597
3598
3599
3600
3601
3602
3603
3604
3605
3606
3607
3608
3609
3610
3611
3612
3613
3614
3615
3616
3617
3618
3619
3620
3621
3622
3623
3624
3625
3626
3627
3628
3629
3630
3631
3632
3633
3634
3635
3636
3637
3638
3639
3640
3641
3642
3643
3644
3645
3646
3647
3648
3649
3650
3651
3652
3653
3654
3655
3656
3657
3658
3659
3660
3661
3662
3663
3664
3665
3666
3667
3668
3669
3670
3671
3672
3673
3674
3675
3676
3677
3678
3679
3680
3681
3682
3683
3684
3685
3686
3687
3688
3689
3690
3691
3692
3693
3694
3695
3696
3697
3698
3699
3700
3701
3702
3703
3704
3705
3706
3707
3708
3709
3710
3711
3712
3713
3714
3715
3716
3717
3718
3719
3720
3721
3722
3723
3724
3725
3726
3727
3728
3729
3730
3731
3732
3733
3734
3735
3736
3737
3738
3739
3740
3741
3742
3743
3744
3745
3746
3747
3748
3749
3750
3751
3752
3753
3754
3755
3756
3757
3758
3759
3760
3761
3762
3763
3764
3765
3766
3767
3768
3769
3770
3771
3772
3773
3774
3775
3776
3777
3778
3779
3780
3781
3782
3783
3784
3785
3786
3787
3788
3789
3790
3791
3792
3793
3794
3795
3796
3797
3798
3799
3800
3801
3802
3803
3804
3805
3806
3807
3808
3809
3810
3811
3812
3813
3814
3815
3816
3817
3818
3819
3820
3821
3822
3823
3824
3825
3826
3827
3828
3829
3830
3831
3832
3833
3834
3835
3836
3837
3838
3839
3840
3841
3842
3843
3844
3845
3846
3847
3848
3849
3850
3851
3852
3853
3854
3855
3856
3857
3858
3859
3860
3861
3862
3863
3864
3865
3866
3867
3868
3869
3870
3871
3872
3873
3874
3875
3876
3877
3878
3879
3880
3881
3882
3883
3884
3885
3886
3887
3888
3889
3890
3891
3892
3893
3894
3895
3896
3897
3898
3899
3900
3901
3902
3903
3904
3905
3906
3907
3908
3909
3910
3911
3912
3913
3914
3915
3916
3917
3918
3919
3920
3921
3922
3923
3924
3925
3926
3927
3928
3929
3930
3931
3932
3933
3934
3935
3936
3937
3938
3939
3940
3941
3942
3943
3944
3945
3946
3947
3948
3949
3950
3951
3952
3953
3954
3955
3956
3957
3958
3959
3960
3961
3962
3963
3964
3965
3966
3967
3968
3969
3970
3971
3972
3973
3974
3975
3976
3977
3978
3979
3980
3981
3982
3983
3984
3985
3986
3987
3988
3989
3990
3991
3992
3993
3994
3995
3996
3997
3998
3999
4000
4001
4002
4003
4004
4005
4006
4007
4008
4009
4010
4011
4012
4013
4014
4015
4016
4017
4018
4019
4020
4021
4022
4023
4024
4025
4026
4027
4028
4029
4030
4031
4032
4033
4034
4035
4036
4037
4038
4039
4040
4041
4042
4043
4044
4045
4046
4047
4048
4049
4050
4051
4052
4053
4054
4055
4056
4057
4058
4059
4060
4061
4062
4063
4064
4065
4066
4067
4068
4069
4070
4071
4072
4073
4074
4075
4076
4077
4078
4079
4080
4081
4082
4083
4084
4085
4086
4087
4088
4089
4090
4091
4092
4093
4094
4095
4096
4097
4098
4099
4100
4101
4102
4103
4104
4105
4106
4107
4108
4109
4110
4111
4112
4113
4114
4115
4116
4117
4118
4119
4120
4121
4122
4123
4124
4125
4126
4127
4128
4129
4130
4131
4132
4133
4134
4135
4136
4137
4138
4139
4140
4141
4142
4143
4144
4145
4146
4147
4148
4149
4150
4151
4152
4153
4154
4155
4156
4157
4158
4159
4160
4161
4162
4163
4164
4165
4166
4167
4168
4169
4170
4171
4172
4173
4174
4175
4176
4177
4178
4179
4180
4181
4182
4183
4184
4185
4186
4187
4188
4189
4190
4191
4192
4193
4194
4195
4196
4197
4198
4199
4200
4201
4202
4203
4204
4205
4206
4207
4208
4209
4210
4211
4212
4213
4214
4215
4216
4217
4218
4219
4220
4221
4222
4223
4224
4225
4226
4227
4228
4229
4230
4231
4232
4233
4234
4235
4236
4237
4238
4239
4240
4241
4242
4243
4244
4245
4246
4247
4248
4249
4250
4251
4252
4253
4254
4255
4256
4257
4258
4259
4260
4261
4262
4263
4264
4265
4266
4267
4268
4269
4270
4271
4272
4273
4274
4275
4276
4277
4278
4279
4280
4281
4282
4283
4284
4285
4286
4287
4288
4289
4290
4291
4292
4293
4294
4295
4296
4297
4298
4299
4300
4301
4302
4303
4304
4305
4306
4307
4308
4309
4310
4311
4312
4313
4314
4315
4316
4317
4318
4319
4320
4321
4322
4323
4324
4325
4326
4327
4328
4329
4330
4331
4332
4333
4334
4335
4336
4337
4338
4339
4340
4341
4342
4343
4344
4345
4346
4347
4348
4349
4350
4351
4352
4353
4354
4355
4356
4357
4358
4359
4360
4361
4362
4363
4364
4365
4366
4367
4368
4369
4370
4371
4372
4373
4374
4375
4376
4377
4378
4379
4380
4381
4382
4383
4384
4385
4386
4387
4388
4389
4390
4391
4392
4393
4394
4395
4396
4397
4398
4399
4400
4401
4402
4403
4404
4405
4406
4407
4408
4409
4410
4411
4412
4413
4414
4415
4416
4417
4418
4419
4420
4421
4422
4423
4424
4425
4426
4427
4428
4429
4430
4431
4432
4433
4434
4435
4436
4437
4438
4439
4440
4441
4442
4443
4444
4445
4446
4447
4448
4449
4450
4451
4452
4453
4454
4455
4456
4457
4458
4459
4460
4461
4462
4463
4464
4465
4466
4467
4468
4469
4470
4471
4472
4473
4474
4475
4476
4477
4478
4479
4480
4481
4482
4483
4484
4485
4486
4487
4488
4489
4490
4491
4492
4493
4494
4495
4496
4497
4498
4499
4500
4501
4502
4503
4504
4505
4506
4507
4508
4509
4510
4511
4512
4513
4514
4515
4516
4517
4518
4519
4520
4521
4522
4523
4524
4525
4526
4527
4528
4529
4530
4531
4532
4533
4534
4535
4536
4537
4538
4539
4540
4541
4542
4543
4544
4545
4546
4547
4548
4549
4550
4551
4552
4553
4554
4555
4556
4557
4558
4559
4560
4561
4562
4563
4564
4565
4566
4567
4568
4569
4570
4571
4572
4573
4574
4575
4576
4577
4578
4579
4580
4581
4582
4583
4584
4585
4586
4587
4588
4589
4590
4591
4592
4593
4594
4595
4596
4597
4598
4599
4600
4601
4602
4603
4604
4605
4606
4607
4608
4609
4610
4611
4612
4613
4614
4615
4616
4617
4618
4619
4620
4621
4622
4623
4624
4625
4626
4627
4628
4629
4630
4631
4632
4633
4634
4635
4636
4637
4638
4639
4640
4641
4642
4643
4644
4645
4646
4647
4648
4649
4650
4651
4652
4653
4654
4655
4656
4657
4658
4659
4660
4661
4662
4663
4664
4665
4666
4667
4668
4669
4670
4671
4672
4673
4674
4675
4676
4677
4678
4679
4680
4681
4682
4683
4684
4685
4686
4687
4688
4689
4690
4691
4692
4693
4694
4695
4696
4697
4698
4699
4700
4701
4702
4703
4704
4705
4706
4707
4708
4709
4710
4711
4712
4713
4714
4715
4716
4717
4718
4719
4720
4721
4722
4723
4724
4725
4726
4727
4728
4729
4730
4731
4732
4733
4734
4735
4736
4737
4738
4739
4740
4741
4742
4743
4744
4745
4746
4747
4748
4749
4750
4751
4752
4753
4754
4755
4756
4757
4758
4759
4760
4761
4762
4763
4764
4765
4766
4767
4768
4769
4770
4771
4772
4773
4774
4775
4776
4777
4778
4779
4780
4781
4782
4783
4784
4785
4786
4787
4788
4789
4790
4791
4792
4793
4794
4795
4796
4797
4798
4799
4800
4801
4802
4803
4804
4805
4806
4807
4808
4809
4810
4811
4812
4813
4814
4815
4816
4817
4818
4819
4820
4821
4822
4823
4824
4825
4826
4827
4828
4829
4830
4831
4832
4833
4834
4835
4836
4837
4838
4839
4840
4841
4842
4843
4844
4845
4846
4847
4848
4849
4850
4851
4852
4853
4854
4855
4856
4857
4858
4859
4860
4861
4862
4863
4864
4865
4866
4867
4868
4869
4870
4871
4872
4873
4874
4875
4876
4877
4878
4879
4880
4881
4882
4883
4884
4885
4886
4887
4888
4889
4890
4891
4892
4893
4894
4895
4896
4897
4898
4899
4900
4901
4902
4903
4904
4905
4906
4907
4908
4909
4910
4911
4912
4913
4914
4915
4916
4917
4918
4919
4920
4921
4922
4923
4924
4925
4926
4927
4928
4929
4930
4931
4932
4933
4934
4935
4936
4937
4938
4939
4940
4941
4942
4943
4944
4945
4946
4947
4948
4949
4950
4951
4952
4953
4954
4955
4956
4957
4958
4959
4960
4961
4962
4963
4964
4965
4966
4967
4968
4969
4970
4971
4972
4973
4974
4975
4976
4977
4978
4979
4980
4981
4982
4983
4984
4985
4986
4987
4988
4989
4990
4991
4992
4993
4994
4995
4996
4997
4998
4999
5000
5001
5002
5003
5004
5005
5006
5007
5008
5009
5010
5011
5012
5013
5014
5015
5016
5017
5018
5019
5020
5021
5022
5023
5024
5025
5026
5027
5028
5029
5030
5031
5032
5033
5034
5035
5036
5037
5038
5039
5040
5041
5042
5043
5044
5045
5046
5047
5048
5049
5050
5051
5052
5053
5054
5055
5056
5057
5058
5059
5060
5061
5062
5063
5064
5065
5066
5067
5068
5069
5070
5071
5072
5073
5074
5075
5076
5077
5078
5079
5080
5081
5082
5083
5084
5085
5086
5087
5088
5089
5090
5091
5092
5093
5094
5095
5096
5097
5098
5099
5100
5101
5102
5103
5104
5105
5106
5107
5108
5109
5110
5111
5112
5113
5114
5115
5116
5117
5118
5119
5120
5121
5122
5123
5124
5125
5126
5127
5128
5129
5130
5131
5132
5133
5134
5135
5136
5137
5138
5139
5140
5141
5142
5143
5144
5145
5146
5147
5148
5149
5150
5151
5152
5153
5154
5155
5156
5157
5158
5159
5160
5161
5162
5163
5164
5165
5166
5167
5168
5169
5170
5171
5172
5173
5174
5175
5176
5177
5178
5179
5180
5181
5182
5183
5184
5185
5186
5187
5188
5189
5190
5191
5192
5193
5194
5195
5196
5197
5198
5199
5200
5201
5202
5203
5204
5205
5206
5207
5208
5209
5210
5211
5212
5213
5214
5215
5216
5217
5218
5219
5220
5221
5222
5223
5224
5225
5226
5227
5228
5229
5230
5231
5232
5233
5234
5235
5236
5237
5238
5239
5240
5241
5242
5243
5244
5245
5246
5247
5248
5249
5250
5251
5252
5253
5254
5255
5256
5257
5258
5259
5260
5261
5262
5263
5264
5265
5266
5267
5268
5269
5270
5271
5272
5273
5274
5275
5276
5277
5278
5279
5280
5281
5282
5283
5284
5285
5286
5287
5288
5289
5290
5291
5292
5293
5294
5295
5296
5297
5298
5299
5300
5301
5302
5303
5304
5305
5306
5307
5308
5309
5310
5311
5312
5313
5314
5315
5316
5317
5318
5319
5320
5321
5322
5323
5324
5325
5326
5327
5328
5329
5330
5331
5332
5333
5334
5335
5336
5337
5338
5339
5340
5341
5342
5343
5344
5345
5346
5347
5348
5349
5350
5351
5352
5353
5354
5355
5356
5357
5358
5359
5360
5361
5362
5363
5364
5365
5366
5367
5368
5369
5370
5371
5372
5373
5374
5375
5376
5377
5378
5379
5380
5381
5382
5383
5384
5385
5386
5387
5388
5389
5390
5391
5392
5393
5394
5395
5396
5397
5398
5399
5400
5401
5402
5403
5404
5405
5406
5407
5408
5409
5410
5411
5412
5413
5414
5415
5416
5417
5418
5419
5420
5421
5422
5423
5424
5425
5426
5427
5428
5429
5430
5431
5432
5433
5434
5435
5436
5437
5438
5439
5440
5441
5442
5443
5444
5445
5446
5447
5448
5449
5450
5451
5452
5453
5454
5455
5456
5457
5458
5459
5460
5461
5462
5463
5464
5465
5466
5467
5468
5469
5470
5471
5472
5473
5474
5475
5476
5477
5478
5479
5480
5481
5482
5483
5484
5485
5486
5487
5488
5489
5490
5491
5492
5493
5494
5495
5496
5497
5498
5499
5500
5501
5502
5503
5504
5505
5506
5507
5508
5509
5510
5511
5512
5513
5514
5515
5516
5517
5518
5519
5520
5521
5522
5523
5524
5525
5526
5527
5528
5529
5530
5531
5532
5533
5534
5535
5536
5537
5538
5539
5540
5541
5542
5543
5544
5545
5546
5547
5548
5549
5550
5551
5552
5553
5554
5555
5556
5557
5558
5559
5560
5561
5562
5563
5564
5565
5566
5567
5568
5569
5570
5571
5572
5573
5574
5575
5576
5577
5578
5579
5580
5581
5582
5583
5584
5585
5586
5587
5588
5589
5590
5591
5592
5593
5594
5595
5596
5597
5598
5599
5600
5601
5602
5603
5604
5605
5606
5607
5608
5609
5610
5611
5612
5613
5614
5615
5616
5617
5618
5619
5620
5621
5622
5623
5624
5625
5626
5627
5628
5629
5630
5631
5632
5633
5634
5635
5636
5637
5638
5639
5640
5641
5642
5643
5644
5645
5646
5647
5648
5649
5650
5651
5652
5653
5654
5655
5656
5657
5658
5659
5660
5661
5662
5663
5664
5665
5666
5667
5668
5669
5670
5671
5672
5673
5674
5675
5676
5677
5678
5679
5680
5681
5682
5683
5684
5685
5686
5687
5688
5689
5690
5691
5692
5693
5694
5695
5696
5697
5698
5699
5700
5701
5702
5703
5704
5705
5706
5707
5708
5709
5710
5711
5712
5713
5714
5715
5716
5717
5718
5719
5720
5721
5722
5723
5724
5725
5726
5727
5728
5729
5730
5731
5732
5733
5734
5735
5736
5737
5738
5739
5740
5741
5742
5743
5744
5745
5746
5747
5748
5749
5750
5751
5752
5753
5754
5755
5756
5757
5758
5759
5760
5761
5762
5763
5764
5765
5766
5767
5768
5769
5770
5771
5772
5773
5774
5775
5776
5777
5778
5779
5780
5781
5782
5783
5784
5785
5786
5787
5788
5789
5790
5791
5792
5793
5794
5795
5796
5797
5798
5799
5800
5801
5802
5803
5804
5805
5806
5807
5808
5809
5810
5811
5812
5813
5814
5815
5816
5817
5818
5819
5820
5821
5822
5823
5824
5825
5826
5827
5828
5829
5830
5831
5832
5833
5834
5835
5836
5837
5838
5839
5840
5841
5842
5843
5844
5845
5846
5847
5848
5849
5850
5851
5852
5853
5854
5855
5856
5857
5858
5859
5860
5861
5862
5863
5864
5865
5866
5867
5868
5869
5870
5871
5872
5873
5874
5875
5876
5877
5878
5879
5880
5881
5882
5883
5884
5885
5886
5887
5888
5889
5890
5891
5892
5893
5894
5895
5896
5897
5898
5899
5900
5901
5902
5903
5904
5905
5906
5907
5908
5909
5910
5911
5912
5913
5914
5915
5916
5917
5918
5919
5920
5921
5922
5923
5924
5925
5926
5927
5928
5929
5930
5931
5932
5933
5934
5935
5936
5937
5938
|
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
<title>
The Project Gutenberg eBook of British Castles, by Charles H. Ashdown.
</title>
<style type="text/css">
body {
margin-left: 10%;
margin-right: 10%;}
h1,h2 {
text-align: center;
clear: both;}
p.title {text-align:center; text-indent:0;
font-weight:bold; font-variant:small-caps;
line-height:1.4; margin-bottom:3em;}
p {
margin-top: .51em;
text-align: justify;
margin-bottom: .49em;}
table {
margin-left: auto;
margin-right: auto;}
table {border-collapse: collapse;}
.pagenum {
position: absolute;
left: 92%;
font-size: smaller;
text-align: right;}
.center {text-align: center;}
.indent {padding-left: 3em;}
.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;}
.big {font-size: 140%; text-align: center;}
.right {margin-right: 30%;
text-align: right;}
.small {font-size: 80%; text-align: center;}
.outerbox { width: 55%;
margin-left: auto;
margin-right: auto;
border:1px solid black;
padding: 1em;
text-align: center;}
hr.tb {width: 50%;}
hr.chap {width: 65%;}
.caption {font-weight: bold;}
.figcenter {
margin: auto;
text-align: center;}
.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
.footnote.label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
.fnanchor {
vertical-align: super;
font-size: .8em;
text-decoration:
none;}
.notebox {border: solid 2px; padding: 1em; margin-left: 15%;
margin-right: 15%; background: #FDEDF2;
color: black;
font-size:smaller;
padding:0.5em;
margin-bottom:5em;
font-family:sans-serif, serif;}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40630 ***</div>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 443px;">
<img src="images/coverpage.jpg" id="coverpage" width="443" height="600" alt="" />
<span class="caption">BRITISH <a name="CASTLES" id="CASTLES"></a>CASTLES</span></div>
<hr class="tb" />
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 556px;"><a name="illo1" id="illo1"></a>
<img src="images/illus-fpc.jpg" width="556" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="BODIAM_CASTLE" id="BODIAM_CASTLE"></a>BODIAM CASTLE, SUSSEX.</span></div>
<hr class="tb" />
<h1>BRITISH CASTLES</h1>
<p class="small">BY</p>
<p class="big">CHARLES H. ASHDOWN</p>
<p class="small">CONTAINING 32 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR</p>
<p class="small">AND A NUMBER OF PLANS AND DIAGRAMS IN THE TEXT</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="illo2" id="illo2"></a>
<img src="images/illus-title.png" width="500" height="296" alt="" />
<span class="caption">A TREBUCHET</span></div>
<p class="center">LONDON</p>
<p class="center">ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK</p>
<p class="center">1911</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p class="big">AGENTS</p>
<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">America</span> <span class="smcap">The Macmillan Company</span></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 20em;"><span class="smcap">64 & 66 Fifth Avenue, New York</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Australasia</span> <span class="smcap">The Oxford University Press</span></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 20em;"><span class="smcap">205 Flinders Lane, Melbourne</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Canada</span> <span class="smcap">The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd.</span></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 20em;"><span class="smcap">St. Martin's House, 70 Bond Street, Toronto</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">India</span> <span class="smcap">Macmillan & Company, Ltd.</span></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 20em;"><span class="smcap">Macmillan Building, Bombay</span></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 20em;"><span class="smcap">309 Bow Bazaar Street, Calcutta</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Germany, Austria-Hungary</span>,}</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Russia</span>,}<span style="margin-left: 14em;"><span class="smcap">Brockhaus and Pehrsson</span></span><br /></span>
<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Scandinavia, and</span>,}<span style="margin-left: 9em;"><span class="smcap">16 Querstrasse, Leipzig</span></span></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">German Switzerland</span>,}<br /></span></p>
<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a></h2><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
<p>Considering the richness and variety of both technical and popular
literature upon Castles generally, it may appear superfluous to send
forth another book upon the same subject, and, if investigation had been
at a standstill or barren in results during the past decade, criticism
would be justified. But much has come to light upon this interesting
subject which undoubtedly revolutionises pre-existing ideas, both as to
primitive forms of castellation and of those in historic periods. The
allocation of the former to approximately definite epochs, and also of
two great and important phases of the latter to well-defined periods,
are the salient features of late investigations. Unfortunately the
ordinary reader is debarred from becoming intimate with these changes of
thought, inasmuch as newly acquired discoveries are generally to be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>
found only in the transactions of learned Societies or in disconnected
brochures not readily available. To bring these ideas to a focus and
present them in such a form that the Man in the Street—undoubtedly a
member of the preponderating majority—may readily comprehend them is
one of the aims of the writer, while another is to suggest to the
ordinary observer that the earthworks in our islands entitle primitive
man to be considered with much more respect and consideration than has
hitherto been afforded him.</p>
<p>The monumental work of Mr. T. G. Clark, <i>Mediæval Military
Architecture</i>, has had no formidable rival since its appearance, but
unfortunately it must now be read with care since much of the matter is
obsolete. The distinction between the Saxon <i>burh</i> and the primitive
type of castle thrown up by the early Norman invaders was not apparent
at the time the work appeared, and consequently many scores of
castellated works are assigned to incorrect periods. This had the effect
of making the chronology of the Rectangular Keep incorrect. Unhappily <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span>
<i>The History of the Art of War</i> by Oman followed Clark's lead and with,
of course, the same result. Mr. J. H. Round in his <i>Geoffrey de
Mandeville</i> appears to have been one of the first, if not the first, to
differentiate between the <i>turris</i> and the <i>castellum</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the Keep
and the Ward) of medieval writers, who were proverbially loose with
respect to their employment of technical terms. Excellent work also in
this respect has been carried out by Mrs. E. Armitage, who, by the
process of practically investigating in detail some of the defences
mentioned in Domesday Book, has been able to definitely assign the Motte
and Bailey type to the early Norman Period. In the recently issued
<i>Victoria History of the Counties of England</i> the effect of these
discoveries is discernible in those parts relating to castellation,
which very carefully correct the errors prevailing in former standard
and in local topographical works. With regard to Earthworks, the
invaluable investigations carried out by "The Committee upon Ancient
Earthworks and Fortified Enclosures," acting in co-operation with the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span>
Society of Antiquaries, has resulted in a flood of light being thrown
upon these interesting remains, so that the old allocation to British,
Roman, and Danish influence, so arbitrarily insisted upon in former
times according to the contour of the earthwork in question, no longer
subsists, or only as far as circumstances justify the nomenclature. No
generally available work is to hand dealing with these subjects in a
non-technical manner, and it may be hoped that this endeavour will help
to fill the interregnum between the work of Clark and a future equally
monumental tome.</p>
<p>The thanks of the Author are herewith gratefully tendered to the
Congress of Archæological Societies of 1903 for permission to make use
of the plans of Earthworks issued in their "Scheme for Recording Ancient
Defensive Earthworks and Fortified Enclosures," and also to Mr. Cecil C.
Brewer for the plans of various floors in Hedingham Keep.</p>
<p class="right">CHARLES H. ASHDOWN.<br /></p>
<p class="indent"><span class="smcap">St. Albans.</span><br /></p>
<hr class="chap" />
<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="max-width:32em;" summary="Table of Contents">
<tr>
<td align="right"><small>CHAPTER</small></td>
<td> </td>
<td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td>
<td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><span class="smcap">Natural Fortresses Strengthened</span></a></td>
<td align="right">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td>
<td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><span class="smcap">Fortified Hill-Tops</span></a></td>
<td align="right">13</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td>
<td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><span class="smcap">Simple Artificial Enclosures</span></a></td>
<td align="right">33</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td>
<td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><span class="smcap">The Motte and Bailey Castle</span></a></td>
<td align="right">48</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td>
<td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><span class="smcap">The Shell Keep</span></a></td>
<td align="right">64</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td>
<td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><span class="smcap">The Rectangular Keep</span></a></td>
<td align="right">76</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td>
<td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><span class="smcap">The Cylindrical Keep</span></a></td>
<td align="right">101</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td>
<td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><span class="smcap">The Concentric Castle</span></a></td>
<td align="right">110</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></td>
<td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><span class="smcap">The Castellated Mansion</span></a></td>
<td align="right">147</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.</a></td>
<td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><span class="smcap">The Castles of Scotland</span></a></td>
<td align="right">173</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a></td>
<td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><span class="smcap">The Siege and Defence of a Medieval Castle</span></a></td>
<td align="right">188</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"> </td>
<td align="left"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td>
<td align="right">201</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><br />
<br /></p>
<hr class="chap" />
<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
<p class="center">FULL PAGE IN COLOUR</p>
<div class="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="max-width:32em;" summary="Table of Illustrations">
<tr>
<td align="right">1.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo1">Bodiam Castle, Sussex</a></td>
<td align="right"><i>Frontispiece</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">One of the most picturesque ruins in Sussex and the most
interesting of its class in the Kingdom. It was erected by a
veteran of Agincourt and is based upon the plan of those existing
in Gascony at that time. Only the encircling walls and towers now
remain, the interior having been despoiled. The view shows the
Gateway and a portion of the defences of the Causeway across the
Moat.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">2.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo3">Maiden Castle, Dorsetshire</a></td>
<td align="right">9</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">This gigantic earthwork looms darkly in the distance, with
indications upon its broken outline of the enormous mounds and
fosses which render it one of the most impressive examples of its
class. As a work of Neolithic man it commands attention, both by
reason of the vastness of its plan and the skill shown in the
design.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">3.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo6">Pevensey Castle, Sussex</a></td>
<td align="right">16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Within the Roman walls encircling this ancient site a
Concentric Castle was erected during the time of Edward I.,
a short portion of the existing wall being used for the new
building. It was partly surrounded by a moat, a part of
which appears in the view, while the drum tower occupying
the centre is one of those designed to protect the approach
to the Castle.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">4.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo14"> The Beauchamp Tower, Tower of London</a></td>
<td align="right">25</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">This building affords an interesting example of the
ground floor of a tower of the thirteenth century with
massive walls and deep embrasures. It became famous as a
prison in Tudor times and later when numerous notable
persons were incarcerated; the carvings on the walls reveal
many notable names.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">5.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo19">Corfe Castle, Dorsetshire</a></td>
<td align="right">32</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">The scattered ruins of the great Castle of Corfe owe their
present appearance to the "slighting" by gunpowder in
1646, after its capture by the Parliamentarians. Amid the
desolation produced the great Keep still rears a massive
front towards the sky, as if protesting against the indignity.
The Gateway to the inner Bailey is nearly perfect, and
the smooth ashlar of many of the circular towers remains
wonderfully preserved.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">6.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo26">The Tower of London</a></td>
<td align="right">49</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">The three lines of defence which render the Tower one of
the most effective Concentric Castles in this country are well
seen in the illustration. The outer encircling walls, the
higher curtain wall of the second defence, with one of the
many towers which bestride it, and the innermost of all, the
White Tower, the finest example of a Norman Keep in
England, may be distinctly located.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">7.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo28">Kenilworth Castle, Warwickshire</a></td>
<td align="right">56</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Although deprived of the charm of the great Moat which
once surrounded the Castle, Kenilworth still forms a
beautiful object, magnificent in its decay. The halo of
romance hangs over these ruins, and speaks eloquently
of the Barons' War, and of the 'spacious days' of Queen
Elizabeth.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">8.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo29">Arundel Castle, Sussex</a></td>
<td align="right">73</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">This massive pile, overlooking the little river Arun at its
base, stands upon a spur of chalk which once bore a Motte
and Bailey Castle. The Motte is now crowned by a Shell
Keep, seen towards the right of the picture, while some of
the other buildings erected upon the enceinte form an
effective group in the centre.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">9.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo31">Dover Castle, Kent</a></td>
<td align="right">80</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">The great Keep dominates the view, with the buildings
of its fore-court at the base, while below are seen the towers
and massive defences of the formidable entrance to the
Castle. It is one of the most impressive piles to be seen in
the British Isles, and never fails to impress the foreigner
when approaching it from the coast of France.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">10.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo34">Rochester Castle, Kent</a></td>
<td align="right">89</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Of Rochester Castle nothing of importance remains except
the great Keep and fragments of walls. The Norman Keep
was erected in the reign of Henry I. (1100-1135) and is one
of the finest now in existence. It has seen many troublous
times in its varied history, chiefly at the hands of King
John and Simon de Montfort. The combination of Keep,
Cathedral, and river presented in the view is particularly
pleasing.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">11.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo37">Richmond Castle, Yorkshire</a></td>
<td align="right">89</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">This lordly Castle occupies a commanding position in the
romantically beautiful valley of the Swale and dates back
to the Norman period. The Keep is a salient feature and
exemplifies in a remarkable degree nearly all the characteristics
inherent in buildings of this class. The Norman hall
is one of the best preserved of its type to be found in this
country.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">12.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo39">Carnarvon Castle, Carnarvonshire</a></td>
<td align="right">105</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">One of the most impressive features of this great Castle,
termed the finest in Europe, is the Eagle Tower with its
many historical associations. The bands and dressings of
dark sandstone are well shown in the illustration, while
upon the merlons crowning the turrets may be perceived as
little dots the statuettes of men and animals which usually
occur upon the Edwardian Castles in Wales.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">13.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo42">Castle Rushen, Isle of Man</a></td>
<td align="right">112</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Castle Rushen, in Castletown, is the ancient residence of
the Kings of Man; it probably dates from the thirteenth
century and is still quite entire. The Keep-like structure
upon the right are the curtain walls and towers surrounding
the inner Bailey.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">14.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo45">Leeds Castle, Kent</a></td>
<td align="right">121</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Leeds Castle is of the Concentric type and stands upon
two islands in the middle of a lake which contains about
fifteen acres of water. It has a rich history and the remains
are of considerable interest, although the earliest work now
to be seen is not older than the twelfth century. The
Gloriette or Keep is that portion lying to the right in the
picture.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">15.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo48">Tower of London, The Middle Tower</a></td>
<td align="right">128</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">This building might more aptly be termed 'The Barbican,'
as it lies upon the farther side of the Moat from the Fortress.
It now forms the entrance to the Tower from Tower Hill
and affords access to the outer Bailey through the Byward
Tower, whose entrance may be perceived through the
archway. In earlier times this gate, which is one of those
built by Henry III., was separated from a former outer
barbican by the waters of the Moat, hence its name, the
Middle Tower.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">16.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo50">Chepstow Castle, Monmouthshire</a></td>
<td align="right">137</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">This building might more aptly be termed 'The Barbican,'
as it lies upon the farther side of the Moat from the Fortress.
It now forms the entrance to the Tower from Tower Hill
and affords access to the outer Bailey through the Byward
Tower, whose entrance may be perceived through the
archway. In earlier times this gate, which is one of those
built by Henry III., was separated from a former outer
barbican by the waters of the Moat, hence its name, the
Middle Tower.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">17.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo53">Leeds Castle, Kent</a></td>
<td align="right">144</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">The Gateway of the Castle is one of the most picturesque
portions of the building. A range of machicoulis is placed
over the entrance, while a small portion of an original
bretasche, a very rare survival of the medieval period, is
also preserved in the Castle.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">18.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo54">Windsor Castle</a></td>
<td align="right">147</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Windsor Castle was originally of the Motte and Bailey
type, but the Motte was subsequently crowned with a massive
Shell Keep, one of the largest of its kind. It appears in the
illustration surmounted by the Royal Standard. By later
additions the Castle was rendered concentric. In the centre
is the upper portion of St. George's Chapel, and on the right
the Curfew Tower built by Henry III. and restored by
Salvin, while in the front nestles a portion of the old town.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">19.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo55">Skipton Castle, Yorkshire</a></td>
<td align="right">150</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Skipton Castle possesses a history reaching back to the
Norman Conquest, and has been in the possession of the
great Clifford family since the reign of Edward II. The
portion here shown is the Tudor Courtyard, erected by the
first Earl of Cumberland in the reign of Henry VIII.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">20.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo56">Ightham Mote, Kent</a></td>
<td align="right">155</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Ightham Mote boasts of a Hall erected early in the
fourteenth century and one of the best of its kind. The
tower is of Perpendicular architecture, and most of the other
portions Elizabethan. The half-timber work exhibited in
this building is a beautiful example, and the whole structure
harmonizes in the happiest manner with the uncommon
beauty of the surroundings.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">21.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo57">Wressle Castle, Yorkshire</a></td>
<td align="right">158</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Wressle Castle has a history which is indissolubly linked
up with the great house of the Percies, who periodically
maintained their court in it for centuries. Only the south
façade is now standing, as the Parliamentarians destroyed
the remaining three sides about 1650. It was surrounded
by a moat and a deep dry ditch. The famous Household
Book of Henry Percy, written soon after the country settled
down after the Wars of the Roses, reveals elaborate details
of the life in this Castle. The illustration shows how a
castle built on level ground is able to look over a very
extended area from its battlements.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">22.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo58">Hever Castle, Kent</a></td>
<td align="right">161</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Hever Castle dates from the time of Edward III., and a
romantic interest is attached to it in connection with the
ill-fated Anne Boleyn, whose family resided there. The
Gatehouse, not shown in the illustration, is undoubtedly
one of the most effective portions of the building.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">23.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo59">Maxstoke Castle, Warwickshire</a></td>
<td align="right">163</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">This Castle is practically entire, having escaped the
destructive hands of the Parliamentarians. It was raised in
the early part of the reign of Edward III. and the Gatehouse
forms an excellent example of castellation of that period.
Strange to say, some of the original domestic apartments are
still in a good state of preservation.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">24.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo60">Herstmonceaux Castle, Sussex</a></td>
<td align="right">166</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">This Castle is one of the later type, and erected in brick.
It is contemporary with Tattershall in Lincolnshire, also
built of brick, and undoubtedly forms one of the finest
examples of the Castellated Mansion to be found in England.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">25.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo61">Penshurst Place, Kent</a></td>
<td align="right">160</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">The manor-house of the Sydneys first came into existence
in the reign of Edward II., and gradually expanded into a
happy mixture of the manorial mansion and the Castle.
The Hall, seen in the centre of the picture, dates from the
middle of the fourteenth century and is one of the earliest
parts of the building.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">26.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo63">Bothwell Castle, Lanarkshire</a></td>
<td align="right">179</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Bothwell Castle stands in all the majesty of ruin upon
the banks of the Clyde, and is without doubt the grandest
example in Scotland of the simple enclosure castle of the
thirteenth century. A deep and wide moat protects it upon
the land side, and its Donjon is also strengthened by its
own ditch.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">27.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo64">Neidpath Castle, Peeblesshire</a></td>
<td align="right">182</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Is a typical Lowland Keep or Peel overlooking the Tweed,
and although it probably does not date back earlier than the
fourteenth century in its present form, an older structure
existed in the time of David I. (1124-1153), who dated
charters there. The Castle was held by the Frasers until
the fourteenth century, and John, Lord Yester, afterwards
the Earl of Tweeddale, defended the place against Cromwell
in 1646 but was obliged to surrender.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">28.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo65">Edinburgh Castle from the Terrace of Heriot's Hospital</a></td>
<td align="right">185</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Edinburgh Castle is the centre of the national history of
Scotland. It stands upon the ancient Burgh of Edwin,
King of Northumbria, and although sadly altered and
disfigured in comparatively modern times by the addition of
many unpicturesque buildings, it still possesses interesting
features of the past, and an imposing aspect when viewed
from the city.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">29.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo66">Dunnottar Castle, Kincardineshire</a></td>
<td align="right">187</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Dunnottar Castle is undoubtedly one of the most majestic
ruins of the fourteenth century in Scotland, with a rich
store of interesting history casting a halo of romance around
the massive pile. The sea surrounds it on three sides, while
a deep ravine upon the fourth severs it from the mainland.
The tide of war has often ebbed and flowed before its hoary
walls. The Keep was built by Sir William Keith in 1392,
and in the Great Civil War the regalia of Scotland, which
had been sent here for safety, was sent out of the Castle
before its surrender to the English.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">30.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo67">Tantallon Castle, Haddingtonshire</a></td>
<td align="right">190</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Tantallon Castle stands upon a bold spur of rock south
of the Firth of Forth. It is a magnificent example of a
Quadrangular Castle, surrounded upon three sides by the
waters of the North Sea, and defended upon the remaining
side by gigantic walls flanked by the Keep, and also a deep
ditch.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">31.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo69">Stirling Castle, Stirlingshire</a></td>
<td align="right">192</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">Stirling Castle occupies a precipitous site upon the river
Forth and is connected with the history of Scotland from a
very early period. Of sieges and battles it has seen its full
share, and although modern fortifications and barracks
somewhat detract from its appearance, it still possesses a
number of medieval structures of great beauty and interest.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">32.</td>
<td align="left"><a href="#illo70">Raising the Portcullis</a></td>
<td align="right">196</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left">The method for raising and lowering the Portcullis of a
medieval castle is shown here, the example being taken
from the Tower of London. This effective defence could
be entirely detached if required and dropped at a critical
moment when, perhaps, a few assailants had gained
admission, and were in that manner cut off from their
comrades.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
</tr></table>
<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="LINE_DRAWINGS_IN_THE_TEXT" id="LINE_DRAWINGS_IN_THE_TEXT">LINE DRAWINGS IN THE TEXT</a></h2>
<div class="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="max-width:32em;" summary="Castles">
<tr><td align="left"> <a href='#illo2'>1. A Trebuchet</a></td><td align="right" style="width:6em;">Title-page</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"> <a href='#illo4'>2. Comb Moss, Derbyshire</a> </td><td align="right">11</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"> <a href='#illo5'>3. Maiden Castle, West Entrance</a> </td><td align="right">16</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"> <a href='#illo7'>4. Maiden Castle, East Entrance</a> </td><td align="right">17</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"> <a href='#illo8'>5. Stockade of Stone and Rubble, with Palisade of Wood</a> </td><td align="right">19</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"> <a href='#illo9'>6. Simple Stockade of Stone and Earth, retained by Wooden Stakes</a> </td><td align="right">20</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"> <a href='#illo10'>7. Stone Stockade, with Inner Core of Masonry</a> </td><td align="right">20</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"> <a href='#illo11'>8. Wooden Palisade of Tree-Trunks, strengthened with Earth</a> </td><td align="right">21</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"> <a href='#illo12'>9. Badbury Rings, Dorset</a> </td><td align="right">23</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo13'>10. The Berm of Cadbury Castle</a> </td><td align="right">24</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo15'>11. Ravensburgh Castle, Hexton, Herts</a> </td><td align="right">26</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo16'>12. Mam Tor, Derbyshire</a> </td><td align="right">28</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo17'>13. Hunsbury, Northamptonshire</a> </td><td align="right">30</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo18'>14. Yarnbury, Wilts</a> </td><td align="right">31</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo20'>15. Melandra, Derbyshire</a> </td><td align="right">35</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo21'>16. Section of the City Defences of Verulamium (near St. Albans)</a> </td><td align="right">37</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo22'>17. Battlemented Parapet shown in Caedmon's Paraphrase</a> </td><td align="right">41</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo23'>18. Battlements shown in Harl. MS. 603</a> </td><td align="right">41</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo24'>19. The Danish Burh at Gannock's Castle, near Tempsford</a></td><td align="right">44</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo25'>20. Pevensey Castle</a> </td><td align="right">46</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo27'>21. Clifford's Castle, Northants</a> </td><td align="right">51</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo30'>22. Forebuilding of the Keep, Berkeley</a> </td><td align="right">79</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo33'>23. Dover Castle</a> </td><td align="right">81</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo35'>24. Clun Castle, Salop</a> </td><td align="right">89</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo36'>25. Bamborough Castle</a> </td><td align="right">95</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo38'>26. Plans of the Keep of Hedingham Castle</a> </td><td align="right">100</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo40'>27. Ground Plan of Conisborough Keep</a> </td><td align="right">107</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo41'>28. Conisborough</a> </td><td align="right">108</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo43'>29. The Ideal Concentric Castle</a> </td><td align="right">115</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo44'>30. Machicoulis supporting an Alur</a> </td><td align="right">117</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo46'>31. Merlon pierced with Oillet</a> </td><td align="right">124</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo47'>32. Caerphilly Castle</a> </td><td align="right">127</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo49'>33. Kidwelly Castle, Carmarthenshire</a> </td><td align="right">129</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo51'>34. Chepstow Castle</a> </td><td align="right">141</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo52'>35. Leeds Castle, Kent</a> </td><td align="right">143</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo62'>36. Bartizan</a></td><td align="right">178</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><a href='#illo68'>37. Diagram illustrating the Principle of Construction in Classical Engines</a>; </td><td align="right">192</td></tr>
</table></div></div>
<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
<h1>BRITISH CASTLES</h1>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a></h2>
<p class="title">NATURAL FORTRESSES STRENGTHENED</p>
<p>Man is essentially a pugilistic animal and experiences a keen sense of
delight in hunting all objects of the chase, ferocious or otherwise, but
the keenest undoubtedly when upon the track of the grandest of all
game—man. But at the same time though willing to inflict injury he
invariably does so at the minimum of risk to himself, deeming the
preservation of his own life, the greatest of the gifts that Nature has
bestowed upon him, of the first importance. Thus it is conceivable that
after the selection of a stone or the fabrication of a club by primitive
man he naturally proceeded to make a protection for himself to
counteract the effect of those weapons when wielded by others, and the
shield would follow as a logical sequence. The shield was to all intents
and purposes a movable castle, since <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> it afforded him the means of
causing the greatest amount of annoyance to his enemy, while at the same
time furnishing the maximum means of protection to himself; a definition
which is appropriate to the first and latest type of feudal castle. As a
non-movable protection he would soon recognise the advantages afforded
by a tree, a rock, a fold in the ground; and the efficacy of these
natural defences would suggest artificial examples where they were
non-existent.</p>
<p>Hence the earthwork and the parapet of rock, singly or combined, may be
regarded as the first of all castellation, with an origin so remote as
to be practically coeval with man's first appearance upon earth. These
simple means of defence are found in every country occupied by primitive
races; in America they are numerous and undoubtedly point to a high
antiquity, and the same holds good in many parts of Asia and Europe. In
the British Isles we have a richer collection probably than can be found
in any other portion of the globe, for in the habitable districts hardly
a square mile exists without some indication of disturbance of the soil
due in the majority of cases to some work of a defensive character.</p>
<p>Earthworks are of such a varied nature, with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> so many differences of
contrast alike as regards shape, elevation and area, that to the
ordinary observer any classification seems impossible, and practically
it is only when descriptions and plans of the whole are aggregated for
selection that they fall under different headings by presenting
essential features common to a class. Hence in late years a system of
differentiation has been evolved, and the allocation of an earthwork to
a definite class is now possible. To the antiquary this is a source of
keen satisfaction, and it is hoped that to the ordinary observer it may
prove one of equal interest.</p>
<p>It should be borne in mind that earthworks of great antiquity are found
only in those districts and localities where man could delve with his
primitive appliances, and thus a classification presents itself at once
in a contradistinction between the Western and Central parts of England
compared with the Southern and Eastern. It is obvious that no primitive
race, with their crude appliances, could dig into Cambrian, Silurian, or
Carboniferous rock in order to entrench themselves, and that in those
localities the breastwork would necessarily be paramount; and that
entrenching would only be possible where an <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> accumulation of detritus or
alluvium existed, that is to say, in the valleys. So that, broadly
speaking, the parapet prevails in Wales and the Midland counties and the
ditch in the remaining portions. Those districts, reaching approximately
from Dorsetshire to Yorkshire and belonging to the Cretaceous formation,
would therefore roughly divide the country into two portions—the fosse
prevailing to the east of it, and the breastwork to the west.</p>
<p>Another fact is apparent when dealing with this subject: the earthwork
is much more durable than any other form of castrametation, in fact it
is almost indestructible so far as meteoric agencies are concerned,
whereas the parapet suffers not only from disintegration by the
weathering influences of rain, frost, wind, and heat, but also from the
tendency to lose its original shape through having no natural or
artificial coherence between the separate parts. Thus undoubted examples
of prehistoric ramparts are comparatively rare when compared with the
wealth of existent earthworks.</p>
<p>It must be borne in mind that the study of the earthwork is the alphabet
to that of castellation, and that the evolution of the latter cannot be
efficiently comprehended without an intelligent <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> appreciation of the
former. So far as classification of earthworks has been made to the
present time, the following table represents the general mode of
procedure, and under one or other of its separate headings the whole of
the earthworks, so far as our knowledge extends at the time of writing,
may be allocated.</p>
<p><span class="smcap">Classification of Earthworks</span></p>
<p>1. <i>Natural Fortresses strengthened.</i> This refers to fortresses partly
inaccessible by reason of precipices, cliffs, or water, additionally
defended by artificial banks or walls.</p>
<p>2. <i>Fortified Hill-Tops strengthened.</i> This includes fortresses situated
on hill-tops, with artificial defences adapted to the natural
configuration of the ground, or to those which are less dependent on the
natural slopes.</p>
<p>3. <i>Simple Artificial Enclosures</i>, including rectangular or other forms,
and all the fortifications and towns of the Romano-British period.</p>
<p>4. <i>The Mount and Fosse.</i></p>
<p>5. <i>The Mount and Bailey</i>, consisting of natural or artificial mounds
with one or more courts attached.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>
<p>6. <i>Homestead Moats.</i></p>
<p>7. <i>Homestead Moats developed</i>, referring to enclosures similar to No. 6
but augmented by supplementary defences.</p>
<p>8. <i>Protected Village Sites.</i></p>
<p><span style="margin-left: 5.5em;"><i>Class I.—Natural Fortresses strengthened.</i></span><br /></p>
<p>This division may very readily be subdivided into three parts dealing
with natural fortresses according to the topographical characteristics
as follows:</p>
<blockquote><p>(<i>a</i>) Promontory forts, or cliff castles both upon the coasts
and inland.</p>
<p>(<i>b</i>) Those depending upon rivers, woods, marshes, etc. for
efficiency.</p>
<p>(<i>c</i>) Plateau forts.</p></blockquote>
<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Promontory Forts.</i>—This type of fort is prehistoric as a rule
and not characterised by an excess of variation. No distinctive
uniformity can be traced, it is true, but special features may be
discovered in almost every example of the class. It is only natural that
primitive man should seize upon any spot which promised the minimum of
labour to adapt it for his purpose of protection, hence distinguishing
features may be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> discerned in almost every case, depending upon the
presence of a precipice, slope, bog, wood, chasm, marsh, etc. The
description of a few of these fortresses will sufficiently illustrate
the point.</p>
<p><i>Trevalgue Head</i>, one mile north-east of New Quay, is practically an
island, being cut off from the mainland by a chasm through which the
tide flows, thus presenting a formidable obstacle 20 feet wide in
places. In order to strengthen this natural obstruction many lines of
entrenchments have been thrown up, both upon the island and the
mainland. The presence of quantities of flint chippings sufficiently
proves that this fort was the residence of Neolithic man, probably the
descendant of local Palæolithic ancestors.</p>
<p>As the terms "Stone Age," "Bronze Age," "Iron Age" do not convey any
idea of date to the great majority of people, it may be advisable to
mention that the Stone Age approximately terminated about 3000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> upon
the Continent, and 1500 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> in the British Isles, when the Bronze Age
is supposed to have commenced. These dates are of course entirely
conjectural. The Iron Age commenced in Britain about 400 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span></p>
<p>The general idea of a cliff castle may be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> gathered from the foregoing
description of Trevalgue; there are many examples to be found in our
Islands, and similar ones occur in Brittany. That they are of ancient
British origin is suggested by the fact that they invariably occur in a
district where cromlechs, stone circles, menhirs, and other Celtic
remains are to be found.</p>
<p><i>Treryn Castle</i>, about three miles from St. Buryan, contains the famous
Logan stone. The fort is a gigantic mass of granite, nearly 250 feet in
height, separated from the mainland by a triple row of formidable
entrenchments, still 4 or 5 yards in height. This fort is probably the
finest to be found in Cornwall.</p>
<p>At <i>St. David's Head</i> is a cliff castle called <i>Clawll y Milwyr</i>, where
a small peninsula has been converted into a formidable fortress by the
erection of a great stone wall about 12 feet in thickness and still some
15 or more feet in height. The only method of approaching the enclosed
space is by a narrow entrance at the end of the wall. A fosse is
associated with the defence in question, and several other subsidiary
walls and fosses are found. Excavation has proved that the formation of
the castle occurred in the early <a name="Iron_Age" id="Iron_Age"></a>Iron Age.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 576px;"><a name="illo3" id="illo3"></a>
<img src="images/illus-009.jpg" width="576" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">MAIDEN CASTLE, DORSETSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p><p><i>Old Castle Head</i>, Manorbier, in Pembrokeshire, may be cited as a good
example of a cliff castle, and</p>
<p><i>Dinas</i>, four miles from Fishguard, affords another, where a natural
crevasse has been carefully scarped in order to separate a headland from
the mainland. The examples given have been taken from South Wales and
the Cornish peninsula, where for obvious reasons less probability of
disturbance during later periods has occurred. Ideal spots like Portland
are to be found in the British Isles, but the operations of man in
quarrying, building, etc. have probably destroyed all traces of defences
erected by the primitive inhabitants.</p>
<p><i>Clifton Camps</i>, three in number, lying on either side of the Avon,
afford us examples of cliff castles remote from the sea. The projecting
land jutting out into the loops of the winding river has in each case
been protected by lines of trenches.</p>
<p>It can hardly be supposed that cliff castles generally were continuously
occupied, because as a rule the area is limited, and could not afford
sustenance for flocks and herds. Neither do they boast the possession of
the indispensable well or spring in the majority of cases. Simplicity
in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> plan is their chief feature, and generally the fosse defending them
is single, rarely double, and practically never treble. They probably
afforded the last resort when hard pressed by the enemy; abandoning
flocks and herds and thinking only of life and limb, the refugees could
make a last stand within them, and, if fortune still proved adverse,
could lower themselves down the steep faces of the cliffs, and trust to
the mercy of the waters.</p>
<p>(<i>b</i>) Another class of fortresses falling under the same heading are
those which depended upon woods, marshes, rivers, and similar natural
defences for their efficiency.</p>
<p>The <i>Dyke Hills</i> at Dorchester, in Oxfordshire, undoubtedly formed at
one time a safe haven of refuge, being almost surrounded by swamps
forming a most effective defence. At the present time, however, these
have disappeared owing to the general lowering of the water-level
throughout England, by drainage, locks, weirs, etc., and they
consequently give no indication of former efficiency. Two great fosses
may be traced reaching from the Thame to the Thames, thus cutting off a
piece of land and entirely defending it by means of water.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p><p>The <i>Isle of Avalon</i>, near Glastonbury, is essentially a peninsula,
rising from the midst of a marsh with a series of aggers and
accompanying dykes carried across the isthmus.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 517px;"><a name="illo4" id="illo4"></a>
<img src="images/illus-011.png" width="517" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">COMB MOSS, DERBYSHIRE.</span></div>
<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Plateau Forts.</i>—<i>Comb Moss.</i> One of the finest examples of this
division is Comb Moss, which is situated near Chapel-en-le-Frith in the
vicinity of Derby, and at about 1600 feet above the level of the sea.
Its mission is so obvious that the name of "The Castle" is applied to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
it locally. It is roughly triangular in shape, and upon two sides
precipitous slopes occur, which descend for nearly 500 feet and offer
magnificent protection. The third side leads out upon a fairly level
plateau, and here a double rampart and fosse has been made, completely
closing the entrance with the exception of a narrow portion at the
north-east side upon the very edge of the precipice, forming a most
dangerous entry and consequently could be easily defended by a small
number. There is an opening in the centre of the ramparts which is
probably of later date, conjecturally Roman. An ancient plan shows a
spring in the open space, but it does not appear at the present time. A
rough wall was constructed round the edges of the precipices to confine
sheep, but the original fortress was doubtless defended by a thick and
massive rampart, there being no lack of material for such a protection,
while the usual timber and stone breastwork would crown it.</p>
<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></h2>
<p class="title">FORTIFIED HILL-TOPS</p>
<p>This class of fortress is illustrated by numerous examples in the
British Isles, many of which possess a very high order of merit. Class
I. is generally found associated with coast line or rivers with
precipitous banks; Class II. deals almost entirely with inland
elevations which, while having some natural advantages in the way of
steep ground or other defences of an inaccessible character, rely
chiefly upon the artificial additions which have been made to the
natural ones. With such a wealth of illustration it is somewhat
difficult to select examples, but those described may perhaps be typical
of every variety to be found in the kingdom. These camps of the plateau
type were the commonest prevailing before the Norman Conquest, and for
every great fortress like Cissbury, Maiden Castle,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> Dolebury, or
Bradbury there were hundreds of smaller examples.</p>
<p>These latter were, as a rule, much more liable to destruction by the
plough, being slightly constructed and generally at no great elevation
above the mean level of the land; the farmer, ever in search of good
rich earth, turned with avidity to the great banks of loose soil placed
ready to hand, and hence the destruction of small camps has been
excessive. The great fortresses, with their steep scarps, have defied
the ploughman, and to this we may ascribe the excellent preservation
they generally present.</p>
<p>These contour forts are undoubtedly an advance upon the earlier
promontory type and show an adaptation to the requirements of advancing
civilisation, pointing to coalescence and centralisation of
hitherto-divided communities, the protection of a settled area, and the
guarding of trade-routes. Hence they indicate the presence of larger
numbers and the possession of greater wealth.</p>
<p><i>Hembury Fort, Honiton.</i>—This is by far the most wonderful example of
the class to be found in Devonshire. It stands at a height of nearly 900
feet above sea-level and encloses a space of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> approximately 8 acres in
extent. Double valla, and their accompanying fosses, surround the whole
camp, the crest of the inner vallum averaging from 50 to 60 feet above
the bed of its fosse. To these formidable defences a third vallum has
been added, surrounding it upon every side except the east where it was
deemed unnecessary. It is prehistoric and probably British, but up to
the present time has not been excavated.</p>
<p><i>Ham Hill</i> in the south-east part of Somersetshire is a high mass of
rock standing detached from the neighbouring hills. The wonderful
trenches, too numerous to mention in detail, show a very high order of
military skill in fortification, and this is the more remarkable when we
discover that Neolithic man was probably answerable for their
construction, although the fort has been subsequently occupied by men of
the Bronze Age, and also by the Romans.</p>
<p><i>South Cadbury</i> lies five miles north of Sherborne. It is a huge and
extremely formidable fortress standing at a height of over 500 feet
above sea-level, and possessing no less than four lines of massive
ramparts, steeply scarped, some of them even penetrating into the hard
oolitic <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> rock. There are two entrances into the large space enclosed by
the ramparts, and in each case protective mounds have been erected
defending them.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illo5" id="illo5"></a>
<img src="images/illus-016.png" width="400" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">MAIDEN CASTLE, WEST ENTRANCE.</span>
</div>
<p><i>Maiden Castle</i>, about two miles from Dorchester (Dorset), easily holds
the premier place among the fortified camps of Great Britain, not only
on account of its vast extent and the cyclopean character of its works,
but also by reason of the marvellous military ingenuity displayed in its
construction. Our general conception of the intellectual calibre of</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 572px;"><a name="illo6" id="illo6"></a>
<img src="images/illus-016.jpg" width="572" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">PEVENSEY CASTLE, SUSSEX.</span>
</div>
<p>primitive man forcibly undergoes an alteration when contemplating the
colossal schemes which his brain was capable of producing and his hand
had the power of carrying <a name="into_effect" id="into_effect"></a>into effect.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 227px;"><a name="illo7" id="illo7"></a>
<img src="images/illus-017.png" width="227" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">MAIDEN CASTLE, EAST ENTRANCE.</span>
</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span><br /></p>
<p>The area enclosed is no less than 45 acres, while the whole fort
occupies a space of 115 acres. The circumference of this vast work
measures one and a half miles, and three enormous valla and fosses
stretch this distance; in many places the crest of a vallum above the
fosse beneath it amounts to 60 feet. But perhaps our chief admiration is
evoked by the complex arrangement, by means of which the two entrances
into the fort are protected. A glance at the plans illustrating these
will at once show that fortified mounds and bastions of the most
complicated forms are placed so as to impede the progress of stormers,
and there can be no doubt that every means of protection known at the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
time were interposed between them and the besieged.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 544px;"><a name="illo8" id="illo8"></a>
<img src="images/illus-019.png" width="544" height="343" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>
STOCKADE OF STONE AND RUBBLE, WITH PALISADE OF WOOD.</span></div>
<p>And here perhaps we may mention that the defences of an ancient
earthwork can hardly be judged adequately at the present time without
imagining the subsidiary structures which once crowned the works. These
auxiliary aids cannot with certainty be described, because of the
perishable character which generally signalised them, and the very
meagre references which occur in the most ancient of our writers. It is
generally accepted by authorities upon the subject that some stockade or
other defence was invariably added to the summit of a rampart, and that
this depended in character upon the nature of the country. In districts
where stone was abundant, uncemented walls of large blocks were erected,
generally with battering surfaces, the hollow portion between the two
faces being filled up with earth or rubble as in Fig. 1. More primitive
still would be the single wall with a bank of retaining earth behind it
for support (Fig. 2), while more complicated would be one strengthened
by a central core of masonry (Fig. 3). Remains of these walls have been
found in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> various places still <i>in situ</i>. It is quite possible that a
palisade of sharpened stakes or of wattle surmounted these stone walls,
thus still further adding to their efficiency. In a "soft" country,
where only earth or chalk is available, timber would naturally take the
place of stone. The Gallic defences of this nature, which gave so much
trouble to Caesar's legions, appear to have been made of tree-trunks
lying side by side upon the ground with the second course of trunks
superposed at right angles, the whole of the interstices being filled
with stones and earth tightly rammed (Fig. 4). It will readily be
perceived that a rampart constructed of alternate courses similar to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
this, and approximately 10 feet in thickness and of considerable height,
would be quite impervious to the missile weapons of the period, and
indestructible by fire, even if the assailants succeeded in filling up
the deep vallum below the base of the wall with combustible materials.
Whether this method of the utilisation of timber for barricades was
ever introduced into the British Isles for strengthening valla we have
no means of ascertaining, owing to the perishable nature of the defence,
but considering that the ancient Britons were of undoubted Celtic
origin, we are perhaps justified in assuming it. On the other hand, a
row of thick vertical planks driven deeply into the soil and placed
closely together upon the summit of a rampart would prove a very
formidable obstacle after surmounting 60 feet of steep escarpment under
a hail of missiles. The small mounds so often placed as defences near
the entrances of fortified hill-tops were clearly intended for a ring of
palisades upon their summits, and isolated bastions similarly placed
were doubtless treated in the same manner.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 684px;"><a name="illo9" id="illo9"></a>
<img src="images/illus-020a.png" width="684" height="315" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>
SIMPLE STOCKADE OF STONE AND EARTH, RETAINED BY WOODEN STAKES.</span>
</div>
<p><br /></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 481px;"><a name="illo10" id="illo10"></a>
<img src="images/illus-020b.png" width="481" height="203" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>
STONE STOCKADE, WITH INNER CORE OF MASONRY.</span></div>
<p><br /></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 397px;"><a name="illo11" id="illo11"></a>
<img src="images/illus-021.png" width="397" height="349" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>
WOODEN PALISADE OF TREE-TRUNKS, STRENGTHENED WITH EARTH.</span>
</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
<p>There are no less than five lines of defence upon the south and
south-east of Maiden Castle, and a feature of the work is the large
amount of room provided upon the summits of the valla to afford
accommodation for great bodies of defenders to stand and use their
weapons.</p>
<p><i>Badbury Rings</i>, four miles N.W. of Wimborne.—This may be classed among
the greater hill fortresses inasmuch as it encloses a space of 18 acres
and is furnished with three valla and their accompanying ditches. The
scarps are in places very steep and 40 feet above the fosses. The
eastern entrance is reminiscent of Maiden Castle, a bastion-like
obstruction being thrown forward to obstruct ingress, while the great
area of standing-room provided for the defenders may be looked upon as
characteristic of west country forts as it is repeated in a number of
others—Cadbury Castle, near Tiverton, and Shoulsbury on Exmoor, for
examples. In the outer area a mound occurs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> and ponds also have been
formed within the fort. Investigations have brought Celtic antiquities
to light and also proved its occupation by the Romans. It affords a
magnificent prospect from the summit. In historic times it has been
utilised, as in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 901 Æthelwald the Ætheling mustered his men there
after Alfred's death, upon the occasion of a popular rising.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 458px;"><a name="illo12" id="illo12"></a>
<img src="images/illus-023.png" width="458" height="303" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="BADBURY_RINGS_DORSET" id="BADBURY_RINGS_DORSET"></a>BADBURY RINGS, DORSET.</span>
</div>
<p><i>Cadbury Castle.</i>—This is a good example of a contour fort crowning an
isolated hill 800 feet in height. Upon three sides are formidable
natural precipices, and the ramparts enclose an oval <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> inner space, which
is approximately level. The valla are continuous except upon the south,
where a scarped drop occurs of about 30 feet to the level of a wide
berm, on the outside of which a gigantic rampart rises to the height of
more than 20 feet above the berm.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 459px;"><a name="illo13" id="illo13"></a>
<img src="images/illus-024.png" width="459" height="86" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="THE_BERM_OF_CADBURY_CASTLE" id="THE_BERM_OF_CADBURY_CASTLE"></a>THE BERM OF CADBURY CASTLE.</span>
</div>
<p><i>Cissbury</i>, north of Worthing.—This great fortress was constructed by
men of the Flint Age, and indubitable proofs of its occupancy by a
permanent population engaged in a staple trade are afforded by the
immense remains of flint chippings within its area, the product of many
generations of flint-knappers. The deep and wide pits within it were dug
for the purpose of obtaining flints, the raw material of their industry,
and these excavations were subsequently utilised for dwelling-places.
The fort is advantageously situated upon the trading route between the
inhabitants of the Great Forest of Anderida, covering the Weald of
Sussex, and the maritime population of the southern littoral; and this
fact appealed not only to Neolithic man but also the men of the
Bronze and Iron Ages, who occupied it in succession. It is a camp of the
plateau type with an inner vallum rising nearly 50 feet above the fosse
and 20 above the inner area. General Pitt Rivers estimated that 5000 men
would be required to man the <a name="ramparts" id="ramparts"></a>ramparts effectually.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span><br /></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 533px;"><a name="illo14" id="illo14"></a>
<img src="images/illus-025.jpg" width="533" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">THE BEAUCHAMP TOWER, TOWER OF LONDON.</span>
</div>
<p><i>Ravensburgh Castle, Hexton, Herts.</i>—The northern escarpment of the
Chiltern Hills is marked by numerous deep ravines leading down with
winding courses to the lowlands. This has the effect of leaving bold
bluffs of chalk standing up between them, and upon one of these this
remarkably fine hill fortress is placed. In addition to the two ravines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
lying at the sides it is still further isolated by a third running at
right angles between the others. The castle occupies 16 acres of the
western half of this plateau, and possesses double ramparts on three
sides and triple on the north. The section AB shows the steep descent
into the ravine upon the south side, and DE indicates the same, while
clearly showing the three lines of defence formed by the two ditches.
The scarps are remarkable for their clean and smooth surfaces, the chalk
presenting the appearance of having been cut with a huge <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>knife. The
entrances into the defence lie at nearly 500 feet above the sea-level.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 265px;"><a name="illo15" id="illo15"></a>
<img src="images/illus-026.png" width="265" height="207" alt="" />
<span class="caption">RAVENSBURGH CASTLE, HEXTON, HERTS.</span>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p><p>One of the most prominent examples of the class is <i>Mam Tor</i>, a great
hill rising to a height of 1700 feet above sea-level, and dominating
Castleton and Edale, Derbyshire. Upon the summit of this eminence is a
remarkable earthwork enclosing about 16 acres of land, round which the
original rampart must have been nearly three-quarters of a mile in
length. Natural defences of a very marked character are upon two sides
of the triangular enclosure, consisting of steep slopes which descend
for a considerable distance. Upon the summit of these slopes two
formidable ramparts with an accompanying fosse have been constructed,
thus adding still further to an almost unassailable position. The
agricultural inhabitants of the district often term it "The Shivering
Mountain" from the many little avalanches of shale which are dislodged
from its sides. Upon the northern part the natural defences are not so
apparent, as the ridge of an adjoining hill approaches at that point. An
entrance to the Fort occurs there at the present time, as shown in the
plan, but not in its primitive condition. The only method of entering
was by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>means of the narrow passage shown at the S.W., defended by a
fortified mound at its inner mouth, which in turn was defended by a
larger mound lying to the N.W. A small spring of water still rises
within the enclosure and escapes through the N.W. break. The interior
has not been levelled, and a central spine of rock traverses it from
north to south. Undoubtedly Mam Tor furnishes us with one of the finest
examples of a fortified hilltop to be found in England.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"><a name="illo16" id="illo16"></a>
<img src="images/illus-028.png" width="275" height="362" alt="" />
<span class="caption">MAM TOR, DERBYSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p>The following are a few instances of artificial defences which, although
they stand upon higher ground than the surrounding land, are less
dependent upon their elevated position.</p>
<p><i>Ambresbury Banks, Essex.</i>—These banks are situated in Epping Forest,
at the side of the road between Epping and London. They are of British
origin, as has been definitely proved by excavations carried out by
General Pitt Rivers and the Essex Field Club, thus definitely disproving
the assertion previously prevailing of their supposed Roman origin. The
outline approaches a square form, and this probably gave rise to the
supposition. Only a few pieces of crude pottery and some flint chippings
came to light during the excavations. A feature,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> however, was disclosed
in the fosse, the lower part of which was originally of an angular
section; in it a depth of silt approximating to 7 feet had accumulated.
The scarp was inclined at an angle of 45°, and the counterscarp probably
rose at almost the same angle; the width of the fosse was over 20 feet,
and the depth above half that measurement.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 285px;"><a name="illo17" id="illo17"></a>
<img src="images/illus-030.png" width="285" height="352" alt="" />
<span class="caption">HUNSBURY, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p><i>Hunsbury, Northamptonshire.</i>—This earthwork is about one and a half
miles from Northampton, and may be cited as an example which falls
naturally into this subdivision, inasmuch as the hill upon which it
stands possesses such an easy slope that it does not tend to help to any
marked extent the formidable defences upon the summit. These lie nearly
200 feet above the river Nen, and 370 feet above sea-level. It is a
small enclosure, the single fosse of which is well preserved with the
exception of a portion upon the north, which has been quarried for
iron-stone,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> much in demand in that district. The defences were
undoubtedly of great power originally, but have been much degraded; the
interior of the camp has been ploughed, and the earthworks planted with
trees. The original opening is that lying to the S.E. The name upon the
Ordnance Survey is "Danes Camp," though upon what authority is not
apparent. Camps of a very similar nature may be found at Ring Hill in
Essex, and Badbury in Berks, while Whelpley <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> Hill in Buckinghamshire is
almost an exact replica.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="illo18" id="illo18"></a>
<img src="images/illus-031.png" width="450" height="339" alt="" />
<span class="caption">YARNBURY, WILTS.</span>
</div>
<p><i>Yarnbury</i> lies about three miles to the west of Winterbourne Stoke in
Wiltshire and is allocated to this division, being one of the largest
and best of its kind. The area enclosed is about 20 acres, encircled by
three valla and two or three ditches. The inner rampart rises at times
to over 50 feet above the fosse. There are a number of entrances, but
only those to the east and west are original, each being defended with
outworks, the eastern gate by bastions similar to those at Maiden Castle
and <a name="Badbury_Rings" id="Badbury_Rings"></a>Badbury Rings.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 538px;"><a name="illo19" id="illo19"></a>
<img src="images/illus-032.jpg" width="538" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">CORFE CASTLE, DORSETSHIRE.</span></div>
<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></h2>
<p class="title">SIMPLE ARTIFICIAL ENCLOSURES</p>
<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>The Romano-British Period, 54 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>-<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 410</i></p>
<p>The earthworks under consideration are those which, rectangular or
otherwise, were constructed during the historic period commencing with
the Roman subjugation of Great Britain, and ending a few years before
the Norman Conquest. It may be termed the Romano-British-Saxon Period.
It was the incipient era of castellation proper in the British Isles,
distinct from pure earthworks, inasmuch as during the Roman period
massive defences of masonry supplanted the earlier uncemented walls and
wooden palisading.</p>
<p>At the first invasion of Caesar, 55 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, we read of no towns being
assaulted, but in the next, 54 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, the great <i>oppidum</i> of
Cassivelaunus was taken by storm after the passage of the Thames.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> This
capital, Verulamium (adjacent to the modern St. Albans), was a large
oval enclosure defended upon three sides by a deep fosse and vallum, in
one place doubled, and upon the other by an impassable marsh. The city
was attacked in two places and captured. In A.D. 43 the final
subjugation of England took place, and the vallum at Verulamium was
crowned by the Romans with a massive wall of masonry, great portions of
which still remain, supplanting the former wooden obstructions.</p>
<p>That which occurred at Verulamium happened also in numerous other
places, Silchester for example, the Romans thus adapting an efficient
earthwork to suit their own requirements. Where, however, pre-existing
works did not occur, the walls, ramparts, and fosses were invariably
constructed round a rectangular area such as may be seen at Chester. The
enclosed streets crossed each other at right angles, and this feature is
a marked one in Verulamium, although, as stated, the defences do not
conform to the rectangular shape. Isolated earthworks constructed during
the Roman Period are always more or less square.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 284px;"><a name="illo20" id="illo20"></a>
<img src="images/illus-035.png" width="284" height="363" alt="" />
<span class="caption">MELANDRA, DERBYSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p><i>Melandra</i> is a Roman earthwork in a good <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> state of preservation near
Glossop in Derbyshire. It is almost square, and consists of a simple
vallum and external fosse. There are four openings caused by two main
roads which intersected at the centre of the earthwork. It affords an
example of the prevailing structure of Roman Camps, which are numerous
in those parts of the British Isles which owned the sway of the
conquerors. The many camps, for example, upon the Watling Street all
exhibit the same <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> general plan, based upon the formation of the Roman
legion.</p>
<p><i>Richborough Castle</i>, near Sandwich in Kent, may be cited as a veritable
example of a Roman castle built in Britain, and is almost the only one
remaining at the present day that preserves in any marked degree its
original salient points. It is conjectured to have been erected in the
time of the Emperor Severus, its mission being to protect the southern
mouth of the great waterway which then separated the island of Thanet
from the mainland, a similar office being performed by Reculvers at the
northern entry. Three sides of the rectangle are still protected by the
massive masonry walls which the Romans knew so well how to build; the
fourth, or eastern side, where flowed the river Stour, possesses no
visible defence, as it has been undermined and overthrown by the
river-current. The northern boundary is 440 feet long, and the western
460. The walls, which vary in height from 12 to 30 feet, are about 12
feet thick and batter towards the top; they are beautifully faced with
squared stone in horizontal courses similar to those seen at Segontium,
the Roman station at Carnarvon; the core is composed of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> boulders from
the neighbouring beach, embedded in mortar with courses of the usual
Roman bonding tiles. In the centre of the area stood a temple and other
buildings; the foundations of some of these are still in evidence.
Whether the external walls were strengthened by the addition of square
or circular towers of masonry, as at Porchester and Silchester, has not
as yet been definitely determined.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 457px;"><a name="illo21" id="illo21"></a>
<img src="images/illus-037.png" width="457" height="122" alt="" />
<span class="caption">SECTION OF THE CITY DEFENCES OF VERULAMIUM (NEAR ST.
ALBANS).</span>
</div>
<p>A common device in Roman castrametation was the berm or platform outside
the surrounding wall, but immediately beneath it; in an attack upon the
fortifications the assailants would be exposed to a plunging fire of
missiles from the ramparts while descending the steep counterscarp of
the ditch, to a raking discharge when ascending the slope of the scarp,
and be entirely devoid of cover when crossing the berm, which was
generally about 20 feet wide. Another advantage of the berm was that it
placed the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> engines of the besiegers on the remote side of the ditch at
a greater distance from the walls, and thereby lessened the effect of
the missiles discharged from them. To still further modify the results
of the latter upon the wall it was customary to bank up the earth upon
the inner face to form a ramp, and this also lessened the effects of the
rams of the besiegers. These features are shown in the foregoing
diagrammatic section of the walls of Verulamium.</p>
<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>The Saxon Period, c. 410-1066</i></p>
<p>Concerning the defensive works erected in the British Isles during the
Saxon Period there is more indefiniteness prevailing at the time of
writing than there is with regard to any period antecedent or consequent
to it. This may be attributed to two causes, the first being the
unsatisfactory use of the word <i>burh</i> in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, and
the second the effects produced during the past half-century by writers
wrongly attributing the remains of early Norman castellation to the
period preceding it, following upon a misunderstanding of the word above
mentioned. This has had the result of rendering the major portion of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
the works produced upon the subject of castellation during the latter
half of the nineteenth century unreliable and obsolete so far as the
Saxon and Roman periods are concerned, while at the same time producing
a marked hesitancy among experts to definitely attribute any work to the
first of the periods without systematic excavation of the site.</p>
<p>In O.E. the word <i>burh</i> in its nominative form signifies a fort or
stronghold and is generally translated as "borough," while in its dative
form <i>byrig</i> it is commonly used to indicate what its modern
representative "bury" conveys. But Anglo-Saxon writers did not use the
two words strictly, and thus hesitancy and confusion have been produced.
It is now being generally accepted that the usual form of burh or
borough was that of a rectangular enclosure surrounded by a rampart and
an external ditch, the area being of any dimensions up to 20 or 30 acres
or more. This arrangement is probably exemplified in the earthworks at
Wallingford.</p>
<p>It is obvious that the inherent weakness in this very elementary system
of defence lies in the inability to adequately man all the ramparts at
once because of their great extent; the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> defenders probably relied upon
the promptness with which they could meet a threatened attack at any
particular point. The Anglo-Saxons at a very early period recognised the
advisability of forming fortified positions in the island, and carried
out the system so entirely that practically every isolated house, farm,
or group of buildings was enclosed by its rampart and ditch. Even at the
present day we become aware of this fact from the scores of "burys" and
"boroughs" with which the surface of our land abounds. The burh was thus
a comparatively slight affair when compared with earthworks which had
preceded it.</p>
<p>But undoubtedly the great centres of defensive strength lay in those
towns which the Romans had formerly fortified, and the inclusion of
their masonry walls in the borough boundary immensely augmented their
efficiency, as is exemplified at York, Lincoln, and Chester. Around
villages and farmsteads the defences probably consisted of a ditch, a
vallum surmounted by a turf wall, a palisading of thick stakes, or even
a hedge. That the latter was a mode of defence in the earlier part of
the Saxon Period is proved by an insertion in the Old English Chronicle
under the year 547—where Ida of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> Northumbria is said to have built
<i>Bebban burh</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Bamborough,—that it was first enclosed with a
hedge, and subsequently with a stone wall. Illuminations in Saxon MSS.
representing fortified towns invariably depict stone walls with
battlements; but, again, it may be that these are Roman, and crenellated
walls are extremely ancient, being represented upon the Nineveh marbles.
In the illustration from the Caedmon MS. given here true battlements are
depicted by the Saxon artist, while a similar attempt has also been made
in Harl. MS. 603—a battlemented parapet being evidently intended.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 302px;"><a name="illo22" id="illo22"></a>
<img src="images/illus-041a.png" width="302" height="313" alt="" />
<span class="caption">BATTLEMENTED PARAPET SHOWN IN CAEDMON'S PARAPHRASE; MS.
IN BODLEIAN LIBRARY.</span>
</div>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 443px;"><a name="illo23" id="illo23"></a>
<img src="images/illus-041b.png" width="443" height="301" alt="" />
<span class="caption">BATTLEMENTS SHOWN IN HARL. MS. 603. (An Anglo-Saxon MS.
of the Psalms.)</span>
</div>
<p>Ida "wrought a burh" at Taunton (before 721), and Alfred built many
burhs against the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> Danes. His son, Edward the Elder, and Ethelfleda, the
Lady of the Mercians, were yet more energetic in raising these defences.
To Edward the burh at Witham, now unfortunately in process of
demolition, and also that at Maldon are attributed, while Ethelfleda was
responsible for those at Stafford and Tamworth in 913, and at Warwick in
914. In the absence of rebutting evidence we are undoubtedly justified
in assuming that these burhs were simply replicas of the conjectured
method of fortification pursued by the Saxons; the belief is
strengthened by the remains at Maldon and Witham, where wide rectangular
enclosures are found surrounded by earthen ramparts and external fosses.</p>
<p>A difficulty, however, arises when we consider the two burhs erected at
Nottingham. No rectangular enclosures have been discovered there, and it
seems probable that the word simply signifies that two forts were
erected to protect the bridge which passed over the Trent at this point,
similar perhaps to the mounds of earth at Bakewell and Towcester, which
are supposed to date from the same period.</p>
<p>The genius of the Saxons appears to have been adapted to field warfare
rather than to the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> construction or maintenance of strong military
stations, for we find that when defeated they took refuge in natural
fastnesses rather than in fortresses; the woods and marshes of Somerset,
for example, protected Alfred from the pursuit by the Danes, and the
last stand of these people against the Normans occurred in the fens and
marshes about Ely. There is no account extant of a protracted resistance
afforded by a Saxon fortress; that of London against the Danes may be
attributed to the massive Roman walls there.</p>
<p>It is unsatisfactory to be compelled to wander thus in the realms of
conjecture, but it is probable that the kinds of defence varied in
different places, since at Worcester Edward surrounded an ancient
borough with a wall of stone. An oblique light, however, is thrown upon
the subject by the presence in England of a few undoubted examples of
fortifications erected at definite dates by another northern race,
<i>i.e.</i> the Danes, who might be expected to fortify themselves somewhat
similarly to the Saxons.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 265px;"><a name="illo24" id="illo24"></a>
<img src="images/illus-044.png" width="265" height="353" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="THE_DANISH_BURH_AT_GANNOCKS_CASTLE_NEAR_TEMPSFORD" id="THE_DANISH_BURH_AT_GANNOCKS_CASTLE_NEAR_TEMPSFORD"></a>THE DANISH BURH AT GANNOCK'S CASTLE, NEAR TEMPSFORD.</span>
</div>
<p>These marauders built burhs at Reading, Quatford on the Severn, and
Benfleet, but by far the best now remaining are those at Willington and
Tempsford on the river Ouse. At Willington <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> the Danes proposed to
establish their winter quarters in 921, and an extensive burh was thrown
up for the purpose. It consisted of a large enclosure with inner and
outer wards, high ramparts, and three wide ditches filled with water
from the river. The most striking features, perhaps, were the two large
harbours within the fortifications, designed to protect the Danish <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
galleys. The Saxon king Edward, however, carried the place by assault
and burnt the fleet. The discomfited Danes, much lessened in numbers,
retreated up the river, and near the junction of the Ivel with the main
stream threw up a smaller burh which now bears the name of Gannock's
Castle, near Tempsford. The fort is an oblong area enclosed within a
single fosse, and, what is very significant in face of later
developments, a mound of earth stands within it near a corner, where the
only entrance to the fort is found. Probably this mound was protected by
palisades the same as the rampart, but Edward, flushed by his former
success, stormed the burh and captured it with terrible loss to the
routed garrison.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 460px;"><a name="illo25" id="illo25"></a>
<img src="images/illus-046.png" width="460" height="339" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="PEVENSEY_CASTLE" id="PEVENSEY_CASTLE"></a>PEVENSEY CASTLE.</span>
</div>
<p><i>Pevensey.</i>—Pevensey Castle is associated with the earliest history of
Britain. Upon its site stood the Roman Camp of Anderida, oval in shape,
and obviously adapted to surface configuration. It is the reputed site
of the landing of Caesar. The British occupied it when the Romans left,
and here occurred the great massacre by the South Saxons under Ella in
477. In 1066 William I. landed at Pevensey and erected one of his
portable wooden castles, probably <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> within the Roman Camp. The Castle
came to his half-brother Robert, Earl of Mortaign, who considerably
strengthened the existing remains. The supposition that he erected a
Motte and Bailey castle seems to be negatived by recent investigations.
The Castle was held by Bishop Odo against the forces of Rufus for six
weeks in 1088, but was surrendered, Odo promising to give up Rochester,
which promise he subsequently violated. King Stephen besieged it in
person in the war with the Empress Maud, when it was defended by
Gilbert, Earl of Clare, and only surrendered through famine. It came to
the Crown during the thirteenth century, and John of Gaunt appointed the
Pelham family to be castellans. In 1399, Sir John of that name, an
adherent of Bolingbroke, was absent when the Castle was besieged by the
king's forces, but his wife, the Lady Jane, conducted an historical
defence with such gallantry that the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> assailants retired. Pevensey
appears to have been used as a State prison, and within it many notable
persons have been incarcerated, including Edward Duke of York, James I.
of Scotland, and Joan of Navarre, second queen of Henry IV.</p>
<p>A large proportion of the Roman wall surrounding the oval site is still
in excellent preservation; it is strengthened by fifteen drum towers of
great solidity. The height ranges between 20 and 30 feet, and upon the
summits may still be perceived some of the strengthening Norman masonry.
The inner castle is a remarkable feature of the enclosure; it is
supposed to have been erected at the end of the thirteenth century, and
one of the towers dates from the time of Edward II. It forms an
irregular pentagon, each angle being strengthened by a massive drum
tower; two semicircular towers flank the entrance, of which one only
remains in good condition. The masonry of the drawbridge is still to be
seen, and the entrance passage with portcullis grooves and meurtrière
openings are in good condition. The great Roman wall has been utilised
to form portions of the eastern and southern sides, but this suffered in
the time of Elizabeth, when a part of it was blown up by gunpowder.</p>
<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></h2>
<p class="title">THE MOTTE AND BAILEY CASTLE, <i>c.</i> 1066-<i>c.</i> 1100</p>
<p>As is well known to students of English history the Norman influence
began to prevail in this country some time anterior to 1066. The court
of Edward the Confessor owned a fairly large proportion of Normans, the
sympathies of that monarch being strongly in their favour. They obtained
from him grants of estates in return for feudal duties, and, the Welsh
being at that time a source of annoyance, some of the land so allocated
was situated on the <a name="borderland" id="borderland"></a>borderland.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 329px;"><a name="illo26" id="illo26"></a>
<img src="images/illus-049.jpg" width="329" height="450" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON" id="THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON"></a>THE TOWER OF LONDON.</span>
</div>
<p>So far as is known, the earliest castle to be erected by a Norman in
that locality was built by Richard Fitz-Scrob, <i>c.</i> 1050. <i>Richard's
Castle</i>, as it is termed, stands in the northern part of Herefordshire;
a second example was thrown up at Hereford, and a third at the southern
entrance to the Golden Valley. If we may trust contemporary <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> documents
a similar work was erected about the same time at Clavering Castle in
Essex by a Saxon native of the county, Swegen the Sheriff, and also,
probably, the castle at Dover, which appears to have been in existence
prior to the Battle of Hastings. Of this little group of pre-Conquest
castles the strongest was conjecturally that at Hereford, erected in
1055 by Harold, Earl of the West Saxons, consisting of a Motte and
Bailey similar to the rest, but only a small portion of the bailey
remains at the present time, as the mound has been removed and the ditch
filled up.</p>
<p>As regards the construction of a castle of the Motte and Bailey type, it
was commenced by the excavation of a deep ditch enclosing, as a rule, a
circular space. There are a few exceptions which approximate to the
oval, and the oblong form is not unknown. The whole of the ballast
excavated was thrown up inside the ring until a high mound, flattened at
the top, and with sides as steep as the "angle of repose" of the
excavated material would allow, had been formed. The last portions of
the superincumbent earth thrown up were consolidated by ramming. Around
the edge of the area upon the summit of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> the mound a breastwork of
timber was placed, either of thick vertical planks driven deeply into
the soil and firmly strengthened behind, or of timber and stone as
previously described in connection with fortified hill-tops (Chap. II.).</p>
<p>Upon the summit and occupying the centre, as a rule, a wooden castle was
erected known as the "bretasche," and varying in size and accommodation
according to the available space. We may safely infer that the height of
the bretasche was not less than two stories, and this, added to the
elevation of the mound which occasionally reached to 60 feet, would
afford a coign of vantage for a view over the whole area below. Upon the
outer edge of the fosse a vallum occurs in many examples, thus still
further adding to the depth of the defence and giving increased height
to the counterscarp; it also afforded a means for erecting a palisading
of stakes if advisable. To afford ingress and egress to the fort a
narrow flying bridge of wood was erected reaching from the top of the
mound to the outer edge of the fosse.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;"><a name="illo27" id="illo27"></a>
<img src="images/illus-051.png" width="319" height="368" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="CLIFFORDS_CASTLE_NORTHANTS" id="CLIFFORDS_CASTLE_NORTHANTS"></a>CLIFFORD"S CASTLE, NORTHANTS.</span>
</div>
<p>Such was the method of construction of the simplest form of this type,
of which Bures Mount in Essex, The Mount, Caerleon, and Clifford's <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
Castle, Northamptonshire, are examples; but it is extremely questionable
even if these cited cases were made without an accompanying bailey,
although no traces can now be discerned. The accommodation would be so
extremely limited, and the danger of starvation to the garrison so <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
imminent, seeing that no room could be afforded for any cattle or sheep
upon the motte, that, unless intended to be of a temporary nature or
hastily raised in an emergency, we are justified in assuming that these
forts, of which not very many occur, are in an incomplete condition.</p>
<p><i>Clifford's Castle</i>, at Little Houghton, three miles east of
Northampton, is an example of the Motte and Fosse; it is one of those
defending the valley of the river Nen—Earl's Barton and Wollaston being
similar companion defences. The hill is of large circumference,
presenting imposing proportions, and may be compared with important
works like those at Ongar and Pleshey in Essex, or with Thetford in
Norfolk. It rises to a height of over 50 feet above its surroundings,
and lies upon part of a small natural ridge. A ditch surrounds the base,
the ballast from which was taken to the top of the hill in order to
increase the height; the summit there, however, is level. In order to
increase the efficiency of the fosse it was converted into a moat, water
being admitted from the adjacent river. At the present time no traces
whatever of a bailey are discernible, nor of any enclosure with masonry
walls. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> does not prove that these additions have never existed; the
natural place for them would be upon the eastern side where high ground
is situated, and if they have been built at any period they would
present features similar to those at Thurnham in Kent. The summit of the
mound would in that case be reached by a flying bridge of wood.</p>
<p>The Bailey, or base court, was an enclosed piece of land lying at the
foot of the motte; a ditch surrounded it, the ballast from which was
thrown up inside the area so as to make a rampart for palisading. The
two ends of the ditch joined the fosse encircling the motte, generally
upon opposite sides of the latter. In the bailey the buildings for the
garrison, stables, offices and domestic buildings were erected, while
the bretasche afforded accommodation for the lord of the castle, his
family, and immediate attendants. In those cases where a second bailey
occurs it is generally extended beyond the first on the face remote from
the motte, as at Ongar Castle, Essex; but sometimes, though more rarely,
both baileys will abut upon the mound, as at Newton in Montgomeryshire,
while in a limited group of castles, including Windsor and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> Arundel, the
motte occupies the centre of the whole defence.</p>
<p>It is not difficult to understand the almost universal rule that the
mound is placed upon the outer edge of the enceinte; it was without
doubt the strongest part of the position, and the refuge to which the
besieged retreated when the bailey, or baileys, had been lost, and in
the last extremity it afforded a means for escaping to the open country.
This disposition of the mound with regard to the bailey should be borne
in mind when dealing with those castles which have been erected in later
times upon a pre-existing Motte and Bailey fortress, the mound, as a
rule, with its accompanying enclosures serving as a nucleus around which
masonry defences could be grouped.</p>
<p>Through the agency of the plough, and aerial forces of degradation of
various kinds, baileys present but scanty traces at the present day in
many instances, and this may be taken as proof, if any were needed, that
earth and wood were the only kinds of material employed during the early
Norman period in the construction of forts. No traces of stone have been
discovered which can be assigned to that period with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> absolute
certainty, and not only does this well-established fact corroborate the
assertion, but documentary evidence points in the same direction.</p>
<p>It is quite possible that other Motte and Bailey castles besides the few
enumerated may eventually be ascribed to the fifteen or twenty years
preceding the Norman invasion, for there was nothing to prevent a
wealthy Thegn from erecting one of this type which he may have observed
on the Continent where many scores were in existence. The Bayeaux
tapestry shows Dinant as being defended by a Motte and Bailey castle;
the usual wooden tower is seen upon the top of the mound, and the
enclosed bailey is stockaded. It also shows the construction of such a
castle at Hastings, besides four similar examples in Brittany and
Normandy.</p>
<p>Certain it is that almost immediately after 1066 a rapid construction of
these fortified posts occurred in many parts of England and Wales, not
necessarily equally distributed, but more thickly dotted in those places
which the military instinct of the great Conqueror led him to deem
desirable. Thus the Welsh borderland is remarkably rich in examples,
Herefordshire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> alone containing thirty-two, as compared with
Leicestershire four, Nottinghamshire five, and Hertfordshire four. It is
remarkable, however, that many highly developed examples of this class
are to be found in the eastern counties where no borderland existed, and
we can only account for this anomaly by supposing that a Norman lord, to
whom a grant of land had been assigned in recognition of his military
services, hastened to consolidate his occupancy by the erection of a
castle, and that such building might possibly not have any reference to
the defence of the kingdom as a whole.</p>
<p>Thus the castle became the accredited centre of a feudal barony, and a
Motte and Bailey in almost every case is connected with places mentioned
in the Domesday Book as being the residence of a Norman landowner. For
example, Berkhampstead, owned by Robert Count of Mortaign, boasts one of
the most perfect specimens to be found in the country; the manors of
Nigel de Albini at Cainhoe in Bedfordshire, Robert de Malet at Eye in
Suffolk, William Fitz-Ansculf at Dudley in Staffordshire, Geoffrey
Alselin at Laxton in Nottinghamshire, William de Mohun at Dunster in
Somersetshire, Robert le Marmion at Tamworth in Staffordshire, Robert
Todenei at Belvoir in Leicestershire, Henry de Ferrers at Tutbury in
Staffordshire, Roger de Busli of Tickhill in the West Riding, and Ilbert
de Lacy at Pontefract in Yorkshire, all exhibit the same feature.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span><br /></p>
<p>These castles in many cases became the centre around which sprang up the
dwellings of traders and agriculturists which subsequently developed
into boroughs, while in not a few instances ecclesiastical settlements
occurred which finally expanded into stately monasteries.</p>
<p>Again, many barons threw up castles in the centre of, or adjacent to,
pre-existing towns, the subsequent fortifications of which became an
integral part of the whole scheme of defence, as at Warwick, Nottingham,
and Leicester. Wherever a castle was built for the double purpose of
overawing a town and defending it against a common enemy, it is
generally found placed upon the city defences or immediately adjacent
thereto; and as the settlement had invariably originally sprung up in
the vicinity of, or upon the banks of, a river, the fort is usually
found placed at the junction where the borough and the river defences
meet. A fortress situated in this position would be able to afford <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
material help to a relieving army, while at the same time in the event
of the town being captured and given to the flames it would occupy the
best possible position, short of being entirely outside the walls, for
the garrison to escape the effects of the conflagration. This position
of the castle with respect to the town walls and other defences will be
recognised in the cases of Warwick, Hereford, Stamford, Cambridge,
Bedford, Chester, <a name="Shrewsbury_etc" id="Shrewsbury_etc"></a>Shrewsbury, etc.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 544px;"><a name="illo28" id="illo28"></a>
<img src="images/illus-056.jpg" width="544" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="KENILWORTH_CASTLE" id="KENILWORTH_CASTLE"></a>KENILWORTH CASTLE, WARWICKSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p>The Motte and Bailey castle was, as a general rule, placed upon the
banks of a river, which thus ensured immunity from attack upon one side,
while at the same time supplying the water for the ditches defending the
other three sides. In many examples, however, the defence depended upon
dry ditches. The proximity of high land apparently had no bearing upon
the choice of position, unless of course it was dangerously near; it was
only upon the introduction of gunpowder that the presence of commanding
spots in the neighbourhood became of importance in the selection of a
site. We find, however, that the positions usually chosen enabled the
garrison to command a view over the surrounding <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> country, and this
feature is a prominent one at Richard's Castle, which affords a wide
extent over the northern part of Herefordshire. This is also the case at
Belvoir, which occupies a similar position with respect to the great
plain of Nottinghamshire. There were naturally a number of points which
had to be taken into consideration in the selection of a site, but those
enumerated were among the most important; one fact is forcibly borne in
upon the mind when viewing the positions of these ancient fortresses,
namely, that the builders had a keen eye for the recognition of salient
points in the ichnography of a district.</p>
<p>In an invasion of the British Isles at the present day the unwelcome
intruder would probably hasten to entrench himself and render his
position safe by pits, earthworks, and an elaborate entanglement of
barbed wire; and in the same manner as these could be rapidly prepared,
so we find that the Conqueror, directly after Hastings, threw up the
defence which would be the most expeditious in the making and the
cheapest in construction. The Motte and Bailey castle fulfilled both
conditions inasmuch as it was only necessary to obtain, by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> fair means
or otherwise, an adequate number of Saxon labourers to ensure the rapid
erection of the mound, while simultaneously the local trees were being
felled and roughly hewn into shape by native carpenters for the
palisades and bretasche. To give an idea of the speed with which these
fortresses could be made, we find that in a brief campaign of less than
two months, in 1068, the king founded eight of considerable importance,
including those at Nottingham, Warwick, Lincoln, Huntingdon, and York;
in the following year the erection of a second castle at York only
occupied eight days, and Baile Hill, the mount of the defence in
question, sufficiently testifies to the magnitude of the work. One great
advantage of the system should not be forgotten, namely, the possibility
of adequate defence by a small garrison because of the narrow front
exposed to an attack, and the immunity from harm of the besieged while
the defences stood intact.</p>
<p><i>Windsor.</i>—The Royal Castle of Windsor originated in one of the Motte
and Bailey type erected by the Conqueror upon the striking eminence near
the Thames. It was one of those <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> that were hastily thrown up in order to
consolidate his power, as it is mentioned as early as 1070, and in
Domesday Book in 1086. It is one of a small and exclusive type by reason
of the dominating motte occupying the centre of the enclosure instead of
the usual position at the side or end; this peculiarity is shared by
Arundel, Nottingham, and one or two others. It is quite reasonable to
infer, however, that one, or even both, of the baileys were added at
some time subsequent to the throwing up of the mound. It was
sufficiently advanced in strength in 1095 to be the prison of de
Mowbray, Earl of Northumberland, and the extensive additions made by
Henry I. enabled the Court to be held there in 1110. John seized on
Windsor during the absence of his brother, but was besieged in it by the
loyal barons, and forced to surrender. Windsor has been stated as the
place of imprisonment of the de Braose family in 1210, who were
deliberately starved to death by the inhuman John. In the reign of Henry
III. very extensive building operations occurred, and a number of
towers, including the Barbican, were added, but probably Edward III.
left a greater mark upon the castle than any monarch preceding <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> him,
possibly by reason of a natural affection for his birthplace.</p>
<p>Upon the great motte which his Norman ancestors had reared he built that
magnificent Shell Keep which forms such a fitting centre for the grand
range of buildings encircling it. The works commenced about 1348 and
lasted for twenty years, the celebrated William of Wykeham, subsequently
Bishop of Winchester, being the architect. They included the whole of
the walls of the enceinte, the great Hall, various lodgings for
officials, and St. George's Chapel.</p>
<p>In 1347 two notable prisoners were confined here, David Bruce and John,
king of France. In the reign of Richard II. St. George's Chapel was
found to be in an insecure condition, and Geoffrey Chaucer was appointed
Clerk of the Works. Windsor was the scene of the imprisonment of the
Scottish king James I. under Henry IV. and V.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p><p>Edward IV. commenced the re-building of St. George's Chapel, which was
not completed until the reign of Henry VIII., while to the latter
monarch is due the great gateway which bears his name. The Castle
suffered but little structurally during the Civil War, but all the plate
and many of the priceless relics were the objects of plunder. Charles
II., William III., and Anne probably did more to destroy this gorgeous
monument of antiquity than any preceding monarchs; with the idea of
adapting it to modern requirements buildings were dismantled, old
landmarks were removed, and trashy innovations of an unworthy age
substituted in their place. There are but few marks of commendation
attached to the name of George IV., but among them the restoration of
the Castle upon the ancient lines, when £700,000 were expended, must be
placed to his credit. In spite of the vandalism of recent centuries
there still remain many interesting examples of medieval masonry.</p>
<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></h2>
<p class="title">THE SHELL KEEP, <i>c.</i> 1100-1200</p>
<p>The Shell Keep represents the second development of the Norman Castle,
and consists of a circular or polygonal ring of stone walling erected
upon the motte in the position formerly occupied by the wooden
palisading. The substitution of masonry for perishable material was a
natural and logical sequence, but in the hurried rush of events
immediately following upon the Conquest there was no time for erecting
such a defence. A hastily thrown-up mound also would not bear the
weight, and it was necessary to allow the earth to consolidate before
imposing it. As the country became more settled, and economic and other
upheavals less frequent, the Norman barons found time and means to
devote to the strengthening of their feudal homes.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>Of the precise date of the first Shell Keep erected in these islands we
have no definite record; it is very doubtful if any saw the light during
the reign of William the Conqueror or Rufus, although many examples
could be found at that time upon the Continent. We know that certain
Castles, such as Carisbrooke, Lincoln, and Totnes, had developed Shell
Keeps prior to the termination of the reign of Stephen, and that
Windsor, Berkeley, Arundel, and a number of others were furnished with
the same not very long after, so that the age of the Shell Keep may
roughly be ascribed to the twelfth century. One must not infer, however,
that every example of a Shell Keep dates inexorably from that age,
because, having proved its efficiency, it became a recognised method of
defence, and Lewes and Durham were endowed with Shells as late as the
reign of Edward III.</p>
<p>The Shell Keep is always placed upon a mound, either natural, structural
at the time of erection, or a pre-existing motte, but by far the greater
number of mounds are artificial. The configuration of the earthwork
suggested the shape of the Shell, being either circular, oval, or, as in
the case of York and probably <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> Warwick, that of a quatrefoil. The
majority are polygonal, the sides not necessarily of equal length, and
few of them exceeding the duodecagon in number. The diameter varied from
100 feet to 30, seldom more or less; the thickness of the wall was from
10 feet to 12 feet, and the foundations were carried from 4 feet to 6
feet into the soil. This wall was not built upon the extreme edge of the
plateau, but generally a few feet from it and carried upwards to a
height of between 20 feet and 30 feet, steps of wood or stone upon the
interior face giving access to the rampart.</p>
<p>Being essentially in one compact mass, without vertical breaks of any
great extent, and homogeneous in construction, the Shell Keep was
specially adapted to crown the summit of an artificial mound. The
interior area was occupied by buildings, generally abutting upon the
Keep walls; in early examples these were constructed of wood, but
subsequently almost entirely of stone to lessen the danger of
conflagration.</p>
<p>The substitution of masonry for palisading upon the mound suggested a
similar course for the defence of the bailey, and the twelfth century <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
witnessed the erection of many of those gigantic walls surrounding them
which excite our admiration at the present day by their massiveness and
strength. They followed the scarp of the original mounds, and in many
examples the water of the external fosse lapped their bases. The
addition of a barbican or ravelin to defend the chief entrance to the
castle, which invariably opened into the bailey, was now adopted, while
the former wooden ladders or bridges giving from the motte to the bailey
were superseded by causeways of stone, defended on either side by a
continuation of the bailey enceinte up the slope of the mound. Stone
steps instead of wood led from the inner surface of the curtain walls to
the ramparts above; stone buildings were erected for the domestic
offices, barracks, etc., while the wooden planks and ladders by which
the moats had formerly been crossed gave place to masonry arches.</p>
<p>These improvements in the majority of examples did not occur at the same
time, hence the presence of a twelfth-century Shell Keep is no guarantee
that the curtain walls are of the same age. The introduction of flanking
towers, generally semicircular, into the curtain wall, and of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
rectangular towers, astride it, as a rule, occurred in this century.
There are examples in our island, however, which prove that only partial
adoption of these improvements took place in many castles, and that, for
example, the baron and his family were quite content to dwell within the
wooden bretasche upon the motte, at the same time strengthening the
weaker bailey defences by the erection of a substantial curtain wall.</p>
<p><i>Alnwick.</i>—The magnificent Castle of Alnwick is an excellent example of
a Shell Keep fortress; it stands upon elevated ground on the south bank
of the Aln river and about 5 miles from the sea. At the Conquest the
site, which probably had an earlier defence upon it, was granted to Ivo
de Vescy, whose daughter married Eustace Fitz-John. The constant inroads
of the Scots necessitated a stronger fortress at this point, and, about
1140, Fitz-John began the building of which some splendid remains are
still visible, chiefly in the innermost gateway and the outer curtain
wall. His son, who took his mother's name of de Vescy, placed the Castle
in the custody of the Empress Maud's uncle, King David of Scotland. In
1174, William the Lion invaded England and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> besieged the Castle, but a
coalition of the northern barons captured the king and took him to
Richmond, thus raising the siege. The de Vescy family died out in 1297,
and after a temporary occupation by Anthony Bek, Bishop of Durham, was
purchased by Sir Henry de Percy, a name which is associated with
everything that is brave, chivalrous, and martial in the county of
Northumberland. The Percy who fought through the wars of Edward III. and
was present at Halidon Hill and Neville's Cross was considered as second
only to the king in importance, while the marriage of his son to Mary
Plantagenet, daughter of Henry, Earl of Lancaster, proved that it was
worthy of alliance with the blood-royal.</p>
<p>In 1405 Alnwick was besieged, and yielded to Henry IV., following upon
the battle of Shrewsbury and the defection and death of Hotspur; Henry
V., however, restored the heir to his possessions, and created him Earl
of Northumberland. He was killed at the first Battle of St. Albans,
1455, while his son fell at Towton in 1461. The Castle saw much fighting
in the latter part of the fifteenth century. The long line of the
Percies came to an end in 1670; it <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> was probably the most historic of
our great English families, and eight bearers of the title met with
violent deaths, chiefly on the battlefield. The daughter of the last
Earl married Charles Seymour, Duke of Somerset, and their daughter
married Sir William Wyndham, thus conveying to him the estates of
Petworth, Egremont, and Leconfield. In the next century a Duke of
Somerset left a daughter who inherited Alnwick and married Sir Hugh
Smithson, who was created Earl Percy and became the ancestor of the
present owner.</p>
<p>The Castle is cut off from the town of Alnwick by a deep combe, which
has been much scarped; it is a matter for doubt whether the battlemented
walls of the town were ever joined to those of the Castle, the same as
at Conway and elsewhere. The Shell Keep was erected in 1140, but is so
surrounded by subsidiary towers as to almost lose the characteristic. It
lies in the centre of the great enclosure, and dual defences run east
and west to the enceinte, thus making two wards, or baileys. The knoll
upon which the Shell rests may either be a natural feature or the
artificial motte of a previous castle. The great gateway and the
barbican present excellent examples of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> military architecture of the
fourteenth century. In the middle of the eighteenth century repairs and
restorations took place in the execrable taste then prevalent, some of
which remain to the present time to mar the aspect of an otherwise
superb relic of the past.</p>
<p><i>Arundel.</i>—The Manor of Arundel is one of the most ancient in the
kingdom, being specifically mentioned in the time of Alfred the Great,
while, respecting the Castle standing there, it is unique in being the
only one mentioned in Domesday as being in existence before the
accession of William I. That king granted it to the great Montgomery
family, who were succeeded in its possession by King Henry I., through
the rebellion of Robert de Belesme. It afterwards passed in succession
through the families of D'Albini, Fitz-Alan, and Howard for seven
centuries to its present owner, the Duke of Norfolk.</p>
<p>Many important events have linked this great military structure
indissolubly to the history of England. Here the Empress Maud was
received with her brother, the Earl of Gloucester, in 1139, which
precipitated an attack by King Stephen, but the most famous event
connected with it was the siege of 1643, when Sir William Waller,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> first
overcoming the defences of the Town, placed his guns on the top of the
Church Tower and proceeded to batter the Castle. It capitulated after
seventeen days' siege, and the domestic buildings were levelled to the
ground.</p>
<p>The Castle is constructed upon the end of a ridge of Chalk extending
from the South Downs, with a natural escarpment upon the east and south.
It is an excellent example of masonry superseding earthwork defences
without obliterating their original lines. The position is such as to
suggest a prehistoric camp of the promontory type. The chief original
defence was the great moated mount, which is over 200 feet in diameter;
on the south side the height from the summit to the bottom of the ditch
is 70 feet, being altogether but a little smaller than Windsor. Like the
latter it possesses two baileys, occupying over 5 acres in extent, and
together forming an oblong enclosure. The mount stands near the centre
of the western side upon the enceinte, the ditch forming part of the
outer ditch of the Castle in one place. This outer fosse has been much
strengthened by <a name="artificial" id="artificial"></a>artificial means, but is in many places natural.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 620px;"><a name="illo29" id="illo29"></a>
<img src="images/illus-073.jpg" width="620" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">ARUNDEL CASTLE, SUSSEX.</span>
</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span><br /></p>
<p>Upon the motte a Shell Keep was erected in the late Norman Period; it
is about 20 feet high, with walls nearly 10 feet thick, and is almost 70
feet in diameter. The walls are faced with Caen stone covering a core of
Sussex stone and Chalk. The barbican, called the Bevis Tower, and a
portion of the great gatehouse, were built in 1295 by Richard Fitz-Alan,
who also erected four towers at equal distances round the enceinte.
After the last siege the place remained a heap of ruins for many years,
but about 1786 the tenth Duke of Norfolk began to rebuild it, and
expended vast sums upon the fabric. The result was the practical
re-erection of the present magnificent structure, a typical example of
the stately homes of England, and an appropriate dwelling-place for our
premier Duke, who has in comparatively recent years erected a sumptuous
Cathedral as a fitting companion to the ancient baronial Castle.</p>
<p><i>Carisbrooke.</i>—Carisbrooke stands upon a site which was undoubtedly a
fortress occupied by the Jutes, who conquered the island; William
Fitz-Osborne, Earl of Hereford, obtained possession from the Conqueror
and reared a motte and bailey castle there. His son, who was imprisoned
for life, forfeited the estates, which came into possession of Richard <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
de Redvers, whose heir became Earl of Devon. Piers Gaveston held the
Castle in the fourteenth century, and also the Earl of Rutland, son of
Edmund of Langley; it was in the occupation of a number of persons
subsequently but fell to the Crown in the fifteenth century. It is
intimately associated with the unfortunate Charles I., who made three
distinct attempts to escape from its confinement.</p>
<p>The mound of the Norman Castle was enclosed by a Shell Keep by Richard
de Redvers; it is an irregular polygon of eleven faces and sixty feet in
diameter, the walls being of enormous strength and thickness. Entrance
is gained by a long flight of steps leading to a passage defended by a
portcullis and double gates. The Keep encloses one of the two Castle
wells.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p><p>Very extensive additions were made by Anthony, Lord Scales, who was Lord
of the Castle in 1474. The majestic gateway dates from his time; it is a
fine and impressive entrance, flanked by two lofty cylindrical towers
with a good example of machicolation between the towers, added late in
the fifteenth century. The ruins of the apartments occupied by the
royal prisoner lie to the north of the enclosure. In the reign of Queen
Elizabeth an elaborate system of fortification was carried out by an
Italian engineer, in view of the advent of the Spanish Armada, but was
never put to use. After the Restoration many regrettable alterations and
additions were made by Lord Cutts, with a view to modernising it, but
some of these have been modified recently by the Crown. The
picturesqueness of the ruins and their surroundings are an acknowledged
feature of the island, and few visit the latter without seeing this
venerable relic of the past.</p>
<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></h2>
<p class="title">THE RECTANGULAR KEEP, <i>c.</i> 1100-1200</p>
<p>We have seen that the Shell Keep was a logical sequence in the
development of a castle which had been originally erected upon the Motte
and Bailey plan, and the question will naturally suggest itself as to
the nature of Castles which the Normans built in the twelfth century
upon a site not previously occupied. This was the Rectangular Keep with
its fortified enclosure, answering approximately to the Shell Keep and
the bailey.</p>
<p>Rectangular Keeps had been prominent in French fortifications for at
least thirty years before the Norman Conquest, but the introduction of
the defence into England was slow and protracted. Only two examples are
extant which preceded the death of William I., namely, the White Tower
of London, and the Keep at <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> Colchester. This type of castle has come to
be associated with the Normans, to the practical exclusion of the much
greater number of Motte and Bailey and Shell Keep fortalices which are
equally connected with their occupation; probably the dignified
appearance of the massive Keep, with its impressive adjuncts and
surroundings, are responsible for the popular belief.</p>
<p>The Keep itself was essentially a new feature in the art of
fortification, a medieval method of resisting the special form of attack
prevailing at that period. The enclosure was directly derived from the
rectangular <i>castra</i> of Roman times, descended through the Anglo-Saxon
burh and the Norman bailey. Probably of all the military structures
which the world has seen, the Rectangular Keep is the grandest in
impressive appearance and dimensions, combined as it is with simplicity
of outline; it is also the most durable in workmanship by its adamantine
strength and structural proportions. The walls are generally from 8 to
14 feet thick, and, at the base, sometimes even 20 feet, while a few
still standing are reputed to have the ground floor solid. The enormous
thickness of walls in medieval buildings must not always be taken as <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> an
indication of strength; in a large number of cases they consist of two
walls at some distance apart, with the intermediate space filled in with
rubble and a certain amount of mortar, generally inferior in quality, so
that at times when the outer casing is pierced, the interior core pours
out through the opening like grain from a sack. They afforded, however,
facilities for the construction of passages in the wall itself, and also
for small chambers, while the exterior portion of the wall was
invariably strengthened by flat pilaster buttresses. The entrances to
these Keeps were usually on the first floor, access being gained by
means of a ladder or wooden gangway, the doorway being of small
dimensions. A series of narrow vertical slits in the walls, splayed out
into embrasures inside, served the purpose of windows, and also as
oillets or arbalesteria, for the discharge of arrows and bolts.</p>
<p>Later examples of the Keep are furnished with fore buildings adapted to
protect the vulnerable portion, the entrance. These fore buildings were
especially designed to present unusual difficulties of penetration;
drawbridges, meurtriers, oubliettes, and other devices being opposed to
intruders, while passages leading to every <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> spot except those desired
were constructed in the walls to mislead and divert attacks from
inrushing assailants. One of the best examples is that at
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, built <i>c.</i> 1172; it has two towers and contains a
chapel, the entrance to the Keep itself being from the roof which forms
an open platform.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 293px;"><a name="illo30" id="illo30"></a>
<img src="images/illus-079.png" width="293" height="318" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="FOREBUILDING_OF_THE_KEEP_BERKELEY" id="FOREBUILDING_OF_THE_KEEP_BERKELEY"></a>FOREBUILDING OF THE KEEP, BERKELEY.</span>
</div>
<p>But by far the best example of a forebuilding is to be found at Dover,
standing against the eastern face of the great Keep. It is so designed
that three separate protections are afforded to the stairway leading
into the Keep, the base, centre, and landing stage having each a
separate tower for its defence. The entrance upon the first floor is
barred by a door of formidable thickness and great strength; upon the
first floor occurs the Chapel, and a view into it is obtained from the
stairway, while a small chapel or oratory is placed overhead upon the
second floor. A well, now disused, formerly had its <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> opening in the
third floor. The actual entrance to the Keep occurs upon the second
floor, although an ancient one, now blocked up, opened to it from the
first floor.</p>
<p><i>Dover Castle</i>, from its commanding position at the narrowest part of
the English Channel, has for many centuries occupied one of the most
prominent positions among the fortresses of England. It stands upon a
chalk knoll to the east of the town, and by nature and art is
practically severed from the adjacent land, whether high or low. From
traces, which are now almost entirely obliterated, it is concluded that
a Celtic defence primarily existed upon the summit; this was followed
after <span class="smcap">A.D</span>. 42 by a Roman station, the chief remains of which are to-day
embodied in the well-known Pharos, a companion probably to that erected
in <span class="smcap">A.D</span>. 40 by Caligula upon the Gallic shore. Traces of the Roman
occupation, apart from the lighthouse, are very scanty, and are
overshadowed by the Saxon work, although it is open to doubt whether the
development of the latter was <a name="carried_out" id="carried_out"></a>carried out to any elaborate extent.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 540px;"><a name="illo31" id="illo31"></a>
<img src="images/illus-080.jpg" width="540" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">DOVER CASTLE, KENT</span>.</span>
</div>
<p>It is with the Norman period that the history proper of the Castle
commences. It surrendered <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>without opposition to the Conqueror, who
added to the defences, and it was able to resist a sharp attack upon it
in 1074 when the men of Kent rose against William. Shortly after this
the town was surrounded by walls.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;"><a name="illo33" id="illo33"></a>
<img src="images/illus-081.png" width="414" height="225" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="DOVER_CASTLE2" id="DOVER_CASTLE2"></a>DOVER CASTLE.</span>
</div>
<p>Although Dover was rightly considered as the key of England, the
fortress is not connected with many of the great events which have gone
to make the history of England. It has always been in the possession of
the Crown and governed by a Constable. Hubert de Burgh defended it
against the Dauphin in the time of King John, and, although Louis built
many trebuchets and imported minor petraries from France, these,
combined with beffrois, sows, and rams, failed to shake his determined
defence. Dover appears to have played but little part in subsequent
history,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> probably through its falling into ruin by neglect during the
"Wars of the Roses" and of the great Rebellion.</p>
<p>The Keep is a fine example, dating from 1182, and essentially Norman; it
is nearly 100 feet square, and rises to a height of 95 feet. It presents
a commanding feature from the sea as the summit is nearly 500 feet above
high water. The usual Norman pilaster buttresses are apparent at the
angles and in the centres of three of the faces. The Keep walls are of
most unusual thickness, in parts exceeding 20 feet, but these are
honeycombed by a number of small chambers and passages. Only loopholes
admit light to the lower stage, the more important rooms being upon the
second floor. The Keep is provided with two wells, not contained, as
usual, in the great transverse wall which divides the building into two
distinct portions, but in the thickness of the eastern wall.</p>
<p>Subsequent defences have taken the form of massive curtains defending
the enceinte, which encloses an area of 35 acres, a special feature
being the large number of towers, round-fronted or square, which are
liberally scattered along it. The general shape now developed may claim <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
to be that of the Concentric Fortress, although it is classified among
the Rectangular Keeps. Its adaptation to up-to-date requirements has in
many cases led to the obliteration of many ancient features formerly
distinguishing it; these, although undoubtedly justifiable, are to be
regretted from the antiquarian point of view.</p>
<p>In order to convey an idea of the internal economy of a Keep and the
disposition of the various apartments the diagram appearing on p. 100
may be of use. It shows the five successive floors of Hedingham Keep,
Essex, which dates from about 1140. Upon the ground floor plan the great
thickness of the walls, about 12 feet, is plainly apparent with the
narrow embrasures giving light. At the base the walls batter slightly
for a few feet, not shown on plan. The well-stair commences in the
basement and extends to all the floors. The first floor or entrance
story has a small round-headed doorway, the arch of which is ornamented
with zigzag moulding; steps now lead up the face of the wall to it, but
formerly it opened from a forebuilding of which traces still remain.
Here the honeycombing of the walls commences which is so marked a
feature in Keeps. The embrasures have very narrow openings externally <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
but wider than on the ground floor. The central dividing wall here is
pierced by an arch and hence shown dotted in plan. On the second floor
is the great Hall of Audience; across the centre is built a remarkably
fine arch carried upon Norman shafts with scollop capitals and moulded
bases. The fireplace and also the window openings have zigzag mouldings
around the circular heads. The upper part of this room has a gallery
running round it shown as the third floor plan; the windows are doubled
by a dividing pier and openings admit of a view into the Audience
Chamber. Above is the fourth floor low in height, with zigzag moulding
round the external window heads. Over this story is the flat roof and
the turrets at the corners, two of which still remain. The floors and
the roof were all supported upon wooden beams.</p>
<p>Hedingham Castle was the residence of the de Vere family for about six
centuries. King John besieged and captured it in 1216, but it underwent
no subsequent siege. The outer fortifications were demolished in the
reign of Elizabeth and only the Keep remains at the present time.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p><p>The ramparts upon the summit of a Rectangular Keep were carried upon the
walls themselves, the latter, as a rule, being sufficiently thick for
the purpose without corbelling outwards. The parapet was either
continuous or embattled. A roof, at times covered with lead, was carried
over the central opening, and the uppermost floors were invariably borne
upon massive wooden joists. The lowest floor was generally free from
timber, being constructed of masonry carried upon the arches of a crypt,
but in those cases where the whole structure was borne upon a solid
foundation of masonry spread upon the entire area of the site, this
might be dispensed with. Some existing crypts are not coeval with the
building, but were added at a later date, that at Richmond, for example,
dates from the Decorated period. As a general rule the Keep contained a
well which was sunk through the foundations and carried upwards in the
central dividing wall to the various floors, but examples occur where it
is placed in the enclosure. Most Keeps were furnished with an oratory or
private chapel, one of the most famous being that in the Tower of
London, while those at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Colchester, and Guildford
are well known. In the later type of Keep this feature is absent, the
tendency being to erect all buildings used during times of peace within
the enclosure.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>The reduction of such a Keep as we have outlined was almost impossible
in the Medieval age except by famine; the outer minor defences, however,
were not proof against the missiles of the trebuchet, onager, and other
petraries, and would invariably succumb. But with regard to the massive
structure of the Keep, the largest stones could be hurled with but small
results; and the few narrow openings in its walls presented but meagre
opportunities for a successful admission of the falarica, quarrel, or
arrow. To carry it by direct assault would be at all times a forlorn
hope.</p>
<p>We thus see that the Rectangular Keep was essentially a structure for
passive defence; and during the time that provisions lasted it was
practically impregnable. Built upon the living rock, as they generally
were, it was an impossibility to mine them; even if attempted, mine
could be met with counter-mine, and the ram and sow might in vain essay
to make any impression upon such solid masonry. At the same time the
garrison was to a certain extent incapable of inflicting much damage
upon the besiegers except in case of assault; the steep shingle roof
afforded no place for a military <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> engine, and but scanty facilities for
storage of rocks, stones, beams, and other weighty missiles for dropping
upon assailants. The narrow entrance into the Keep prevented an
effective sortie, and, if attempted, was a source of danger in retreat.
During the three months spent by King John, in 1215, before the Keep at
Rochester, his military engines produced practically no result upon it,
but an effective mine succeeded in bringing down the masonry of one of
the lower angles, and eventually part of the tower itself.</p>
<p>The great advantages perceivable in a solid Keep were so apparent that
the addition of this feature to many castles of the Motte and Bailey
pattern was deemed advisable, but only in a few places did the Keep
stand upon the mound; Nottingham is an exception, but in nearly all
other examples they occupied new sites, the tremendous weight of the
structure rendering it inadvisable to trust it in that position. The
superiority of the Keep over the Motte and Bailey Castle was well
exemplified in 1102, when Robert of Bellesme, Earl of Shrewsbury, broke
into rebellion against King Henry I. He possessed a fortress of the
Motte and Bailey type at Quatford on the Severn, but this "Devil <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> of
Bellesme," as he was termed, had no confidence in his father's fortress,
and transferred the stones higher up the river where, in the short
period of twelve months, he built the imposing Keep whose massive
remains, although sadly shattered at the time of the Commonwealth, still
excite our admiration. It is erected upon a rocky site, protected by
ravines upon three sides, and overhanging the river Severn upon the
fourth. When besieged by the King it withstood all the efforts of the
formidable petraries brought to bear upon it, and appears to have been
practically uninjured when, at the expiration of a month, a portion of
the garrison became disaffected by reason of the threatening nature of
the royal messages, <a name="and_managed_to" id="and_managed_to"></a>and managed to secure its surrender.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 541px;"><a name="illo34" id="illo34"></a>
<img src="images/illus-089.jpg" width="541" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">ROCHESTER CASTLE, KENT.</span>
</div>
<p>When a Keep was added to a castle of the Motte and Bailey type there
does not appear to have been any regular rule as to its position. At
Guildford it was erected upon the motte (though a little way down the
slope), and also at Nottingham, Pickering, and York; at Clun in
Shropshire the Keep was built partly on the motte, occupying the eastern
slope, the mound apparently bearing a defence of the Shell Keep pattern
at the same time. Gloucester Castle has <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>been entirely destroyed in
order to make room for a modern prison, but from existing records we
learn that the Keep was an addition, occupying the centre of the former
bailey, while the building at Newcastle also stood distinct from the
mound. The Keep at Oxford stands upon the enceinte at some distance from
the Shell Keep, while at Rochester and Canterbury the new additions were
erected outside the original castle.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;"><a name="illo35" id="illo35"></a>
<img src="images/illus-089a.png" width="430" height="368" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="CLUN_CASTLE_SALOP" id="CLUN_CASTLE_SALOP"></a>CLUN CASTLE, SALOP.</span>
</div>
<p>In the reign of the Conqueror and his immediate descendants, the rapid
building of castles for overawing the defeated Saxons was a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> matter of
Crown policy, but with the settlement of the Kingdom, and the rise into
power of Norman nobles waxing rich and powerful upon their estates,
restrictions became imperative if the royal prerogatives were not to be
set at nought. Consequently, special licences to build and crenellate
had to be obtained before erecting, or adding to the existing defences
of, a castle, and the rigorous insistence upon this law was readily
recognised and maintained by all strong rulers of the kingdom. When,
however, a weak monarch came to the throne, or internal dissensions
occurred, the Norman barons invariably seized the opportunity thus
afforded, and a large increase of these fortalices sprang into
existence. The most remarkable example was during the eighteen years of
strife wherein King Stephen was struggling for his crown with the forces
of Queen Maud. In order to propitiate the nobles and secure their
services, the King gave licences with a reckless indifference to
consequences, and many scores of castles were erected under these
permissions, but a still greater number with no licence at all. These
latter became known as "adulterine" or spurious castles; the total
number built during this <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> period of anarchy is said to have been more
than one thousand, but more modern computation places the number at
about seven hundred. Stephen, when too late, perceived the mischief
attending the multiplication of these citadels, and attempted to reduce
the evil by destroying those belonging to the clergy. The essay proved
to be a mistake, and during the disorder that ensued, the land became a
prey to anarchy of the most violent kind, each baron or leader of
mercenaries doing that which was right in his own eyes, and retreating
to the safe precincts of his castle when in difficulties.</p>
<p>Of the nature of these unlicensed strongholds there is considerable
doubt, but a great probability exists that they were of very rapid
construction and, therefore, not of the Rectangular Keep type, but of
the Motte and Bailey, or of the Shell Keep pattern. That a large amount
of time had been spent in their erection seems to be negatived by the
fact that upon the accession of Henry II. the great majority of
"adulterine" castles were destroyed in the course of a few months. This
would have been impossible if solid masonry erections were in question,
but hastily improvised defences built by forced, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> therefore,
probably, unskilled labour, would not present great difficulties. In all
likelihood a great number of the earthworks which occur in England, and
have not been assigned to any particular date, may owe their origin to
this disturbed period, especially those of the Motte and Bailey type.
Upon the whole, we can hardly look upon the reign of King Stephen as a
period distinguished by an advance in the art of castle-building, but
rather as one of temporary retrogression to elementary types.</p>
<p>With the advent of the second half of the twelfth century the Castle
began to show in many details the influence of the Early English style
of architecture, though ornamentation is singularly rare in early
castellation compared with the lavish wealth bestowed at the same time
upon ecclesiastical buildings. The Norman style was still adhered to in
the main outlines, but the external pilasters developed to such an
extent that they became buttresses, as at Clun and Dover, the masonry
workmanship improved, local stone came more into use, and internal
decorations, such as ribs to the vaulting, began to be introduced. It is
not uncommon to find the dog-tooth ornament employed in conjunction <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
with contemporary work in the Norman style, but so long as the
Rectangular Keep remained, the internal arrangements became, as it were,
stereotyped, and were strictly adhered to. The latest styles of
Rectangular Keeps carried but few, if any, suggestions of Norman
architecture as they trended upon the Early English periods; thus Fonmon
Castle in Glamorganshire, and Penhow in Monmouthshire, exhibited no
traces of pilaster buttresses, and other features so strongly marked in
earlier examples.</p>
<p><i>Bamborough Castle</i>, grim, grey, and imposing, by its vastness and
massive proportions, stands upon a rocky height of igneous formation on
the coast of Northumberland. It is by nature a promontory fortress, and
as such was seized by Ida and his Angles in 547, and who thence extended
his sway over what subsequently became the kingdom of Bernicia. The
castle is mentioned in 774, and was twice taken by the Danes. In 1095
the dramatic siege occurred with which Bamborough will be for ever
associated. William Rufus besieged it with a formidable army, but such
was the reputation of its impregnability that he would not venture upon
storming it. He, therefore, had recourse <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> to a siege, and one great
beffroi he raised was so formidable that it is mentioned by name,
<i>malvoisin</i>; this he advanced to the walls, and so closely that
conversation could easily be exchanged between the rival combatants. The
rebel baron, de Mowbray, left the Castle in charge of his wife, with the
intention of procuring assistance, but was captured in an attempt upon
Newcastle. By the King's orders he was brought to Bamborough and exposed
to the gaze of the garrison: upon a royal threat to put out the eyes of
his captive unless the Castle surrendered at once, the heroic Matilda de
l'Aigle, who had continued the defence with the utmost success, admitted
the King's forces. De Mowbray was imprisoned, but in his old age was
permitted to enter the monastery of St. Alban, where he died.</p>
<p>Rufus appointed Eustace Fitz-John of Alnwick as castellan, and the
Castle, in the time of Stephen, successfully resisted an inroad of
David, King of Scotland. In 1164 the great Keep was erected by Henry
II., and from that period the Constableship of Bamborough became a royal
appointment.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 454px;"><a name="illo36" id="illo36"></a>
<img src="images/illus-095.png" width="454" height="194" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="BAMBOROUGH_CASTLE" id="BAMBOROUGH_CASTLE"></a>BAMBOROUGH CASTLE.</span>
</div>
<p>During the Wars of the Roses, Bamborough played an important part. First
in Yorkist <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> possession it was captured by Queen Margaret, who placed a
garrison of three hundred men there under the Duke of Somerset. Edward
IV. with ten thousand men besieged Alnwick, Bamborough, and
Dunstanburgh, the Kingmaker in person conducting the operations. The
Castle was surrendered, and Sir Ralph Grey was left in charge, but
betrayed his trust and admitted Margaret in 1463. In 1464 he was
surrounded by Warwick's army, and a fierce bombardment was maintained
which did enormous damage, Grey being injured by one of the falling
towers; he recovered, however, but was subsequently executed at
Doncaster. In the sixteenth century the Castle fell into disrepair, but
in 1757 a partial restoration occurred, and subsequently portions of it
were turned into a school for girls;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> afterwards, however, it was
purchased by the late Lord Armstrong.</p>
<p>There are three wards within the enceinte of the Castle which encloses
about 5 acres of land, the middle ward and that to the east being at one
time covered by the buildings of the ancient town. The great Keep is
similar to those at Dover and London, but originally possessed only two
stories. It is erected upon a solid mass of masonry, and the entrance
leads by a passage in the thickness of the wall into the second story.
There is no forebuilding as the Keep is of a date anterior to their
introduction. The lower part of the walls is about 11 feet thick, and in
the basement occurs the well over which appears a great vaulted hall.</p>
<p><i>Rochester Castle.</i>—The two great Royal Castles in Kent were those at
Canterbury and Rochester, and of these Rochester was the more important
and boasts of a richer history. The Keeps are practically all that
remain of each, and Rochester again asserts the pre-eminence in respect
to the importance of present remains. The site had been previously
occupied by the Romans and the Saxons when, immediately subsequent to
the Conquest, a Motte and Bailey Castle was reared <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>by the Normans,
followed shortly afterwards by a massive encircling wall, enclosing an
area measuring about 160 yards long by 130 yards broad. A portion of
this wall was erected close <a name="to_the_river" id="to_the_river"></a>to the river, and a deep ditch protected the
remaining three sides.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;"><a name="illo37" id="illo37"></a>
<img src="images/illus-096.jpg" width="317" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">RICHMOND CASTLE, YORKSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p>It was thus, at the demise of the Conqueror, a very strong fortress, and
that much-hated half-brother of the late King, Bishop Odo of Bayeux,
seized it, but was besieged and captured by Rufus after a resistance of
six weeks. He was sent to Tonbridge Castle and subsequently liberated.
In 1126 Henry I. granted the Constableship of the Castle to Walter de
Corbeuil, Archbishop of Canterbury, and permitted him to erect a tower,
probably the existing Keep.</p>
<p>In 1215, when in the possession of William d'Albini, who was acting for
the Barons, King John sat down before the Castle with a formidable array
of trebuchets, and battered it for three long months. Apparently he had
greater success by undermining than by missile-throwing, the tower at
the south-east angle being partially brought down by a mine, together
with other parts of the chief defences. This extensive damage probably
helped it to fall into the hands <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> of the Dauphin the next year. In 1264
it resisted a vigorous assault from the forces of Simon de Montfort, and
during the Wat Tyler rebellion was besieged and partially captured.</p>
<p>Edward IV. repaired it, but subsequently it fell into a state of
neglect, and has not seen any military operations since. It is now in
the possession of the Corporation of Rochester, and used as a place of
public recreation.</p>
<p>The great Keep is naturally the chief object of interest; it is 113 feet
in height, and about 70 feet square. The thickness of its walls varies
from 12 feet at the base to 10 feet at the top, where the angle turrets
rise over a dozen feet above the main battlements. It is divided, like
the Tower of London, into two portions by a transverse wall rising to
the total height, and carrying in its centre the main shaft of the
Castle well, which was arranged to deliver water at every floor. The
usual flat pilasters appear upon the external walls, and the two lower
stories are pierced by loopholes only. A forebuilding with the usual
complicated contrivances protects the main entrance. The aspect of the
venerable Keep, conjoined to the tower and turrets of the adjacent
Cathedral, form a delightful <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> combination of the military and
ecclesiastical architecture of former ages.</p>
<p><i>Richmond Castle.</i>—The Castle of Richmond is beautifully situated upon
high ground overlooking the river Swale, in Yorkshire, but, although
the fortunes of the Castle extend to the time of the Conquest, and many
noble families are connected with its history, it has played no
important part whatever in the making of history, either in its own
country or that of England. It has never seen an arrow launched in
anger, or received a ball from opposing ordnance. It was erected by Alan
Fergeant, who in 1071 commenced operations and encircled the triangular
site with a curtain wall. The Keep was erected by his brother about the
year 1100; it is approximately 50 feet square and 100 feet high, with
the usual Norman pilasters, but deeper than formerly, strengthening the
fronts and angles, while each of the latter bears a turret of two stages
upon the summit. The only entrance is by a door on the south face, from
which a narrow stairway leads to the floor above. The ground floor was
vaulted in the reign of Edward I., the same as that at Newcastle. A
chapel was built, about 1278, adjacent <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> to it, by John, Earl of
Richmond, who was killed at Lyons in 1304, and various other domestic
buildings occur near it. A circular barbican protects the main entrance
to the Castle, while in the south-east angle of the enceinte wall an
imposing rectangular tower has been built, containing the remains of an
ancient postern.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;"><a name="illo38" id="illo38"></a>
<img src="images/illus-100.png" width="266" height="342" alt="" />
<span class="caption">PLANS OF THE KEEP OF<a name="HEDINGHAM_CASTLE" id="HEDINGHAM_CASTLE"></a> HEDINGHAM CASTLE. <i>Reproduced by
permission of the Architectural Association from the Sketch Book of
Hedingham Castle.</i></span></div>
<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></h2>
<p class="title">THE CYLINDRICAL KEEP, <i>c.</i> 1170-1250</p>
<p>The latter part of the twelfth century and the earlier portion of the
thirteenth was marked by the introduction of the Cylindrical Keep,
forming a transition or connecting link between the Shell and the
Rectangular Keeps of the previous period, and the remarkable development
of castellation which occurred in the thirteenth century. The latter,
however, must not be considered in the light of a sudden revolutionary
change, inasmuch as many indications occur in the castles of the twelfth
century which exhibit a tendency to break through the conventionalism
then prevailing, and to produce works of a more complex character,
suited to the progress in military methods of attack. The introduction
of the Cylindrical Keep was one of these innovations; although it did
not remedy the great <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> fault inherent in Keeps generally, viz. that of
impotence with regard to driving off the besiegers, yet it furnished a
method which enabled the builder to effect a considerable economy in
material and labour, while at the same time affording that strenuous
passive resistance to assault which characterised the former styles. It
is probable that King Henry II. was chiefly responsible for the
introduction of the Cylindrical Keep, as by reason of his French birth
he was acquainted with a number of foreign castles having citadels built
upon this plan. These Cylindrical Keeps were likewise known as Donjons
and Juliets, and attained to a degree of perfection upon the Continent
which was never reached in the British Isles. The example at Coucy is
probably the finest abroad.</p>
<p>The advantages which may be claimed for the Cylindrical Keep, apart from
its lessened cost of construction, are the increased solidity, and the
great difficulty in breaching it, or bringing it down by a mine. By
vaulting each floor the resistance of the structure was increased; by
enclosing the upper part in a similar manner also, the danger of fire
from incendiary missiles launched upon the roof was practically
nullified.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> A disadvantage, however, lay in the fact that the besieged
could not concentrate a discharge of missiles against assailants at one
part of the base without exposing themselves to the enemy's archery.
This was to a great extent rectified by the bretasche, which, though in
use previously, became established as a regular defence at this period.</p>
<p>These were timber galleries encircling the outer part of the tower at
its summit, supported in position by strong beams of wood inserted in
holes made for the purpose, and strengthened by struts resting upon
corbels. Upon this foundation a wooden gallery was built, covered in by
a sloping roof resting against the walls, and generally enclosing the
summit of the wall. In suitable places the gallery was loopholed for
archers and cross-bowmen, while through openings in the floor stones and
other missiles could be dropped upon assailants at the foot of the Keep.
It could be entered from the battlements behind, where stores of
ammunition were placed.</p>
<p>At times two bretasches were in use, one above the other; the upper
projected a greater distance from the walls so as to avoid injury <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> to
the lower. The unfinished appearance of the tops of many towers can be
explained by their having been covered with a bretasche in former times,
although this defence was not kept in position permanently but usually
built upon the approach of danger. The machicoulis and alurs of a later
date were imitations in stone of the wooden bretasche. At Coucy these
defences were placed about 180 feet from the ground, and the nerve
displayed by the defenders working at such a giddy height excites
admiration.</p>
<p>The introduction of machicolation proper into England occurred in the
latter part of the thirteenth century and became a prominent feature at
that period. The faults inherent in the bretasche were the feeble
resistance which it offered to missiles launched from the mangonels of
the besiegers; the destruction of one part by a well-aimed stone would
naturally expose the remaining defenders to archery, besides seriously
weakening the rest of the structure, which depended to a great extent
upon its continuity for safety.</p>
<p>Another weakness was the perishable nature of the material, which
required constant renovation <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> and addition, and to this circumstance
may be attributed the fact that examples of the true medieval bretasche
are extremely rare at the present day. A fragment remains over one of
the gates at Coucy, while the position of the main beam may be seen upon
the outer gate of Leeds Castle. At Norham Castle a small doorway appears
in the upper part of the square Keep, the conjectured use for which is
that it gave access to the bretasche. In many castles of the twelfth
century still remaining a line of small openings in the outer wall at
the top is visible; they indicate the position of the former bretasche,
and are caused by the removal of stones for the insertion of the
projecting beams. Notwithstanding the advantages inherent in the
Cylindrical Keep, which prompted their erection in many parts of France
and other parts of the Continent, we do not find one example forming an
integral part in a <a name="British_Castle" id="British_Castle"></a>British Castle of the first class.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 302px;"><a name="illo39" id="illo39"></a>
<img src="images/illus-105.jpg" width="302" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">CARNARVON CASTLE. CARNARVONSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p>Cylindrical Keeps were not always of a stereotyped form, and among the
comparatively few erected in England there is marked diversity in
detail. Launceston, for example, really consists of a triple defence;
two outermost rings of walling, one of which is a dozen feet thick and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
nearly 30 feet in height, effectually prevent any attempt at mining the
Keep proper, which stands a few feet within the second ring. It is now
only a shell, but timber flooring once divided it into three stories.
The walls are nearly 50 feet in height, about 10 feet thick at the base,
and stand in a ring whose diameter is nearly 20 feet. The open spaces
around the Keep were formerly covered by roofing.</p>
<p>Richard, King of the Romans and brother of Henry III., is generally
credited with raising the Launceston Keep and also the companion one at
Restormel. The Keep at Barnard Castle is remarkable for the huge
projecting triangular spur, which, springing from the soil, rises to
within a few feet of the parapet. The floors were vaulted. This circular
Keep is about 50 feet in height and 40 feet wide. Pembroke Keep, on the
other hand, rises without buttress or spur or concentric walling
straight from a battering base at the ground-level to a height of about
70 feet to the spring of the vaulted roof. It trusted apparently to the
enormous thickness of its walls, 20 feet at the base, to defy any
attempts at mining.</p>
<p><i>Conisborough Castle</i> possesses the most remarkable <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> Keep of the
cylindrical type in the British Isles, both by reason of its
extraordinary plan and rare contour. It is a gigantic cylinder nearly 70
feet in diameter, and tapering upwards to a height of over 90 feet. Upon
the exterior six enormous buttresses are arranged symmetrically round
the face, projecting 9 feet from the surface and being 16 feet wide
where they support the cylinder. They diminish in width, however, as
they recede from it. These buttresses are carried up the whole height of
the Keep, and thus, combined as they are with a massive base of masonry
upon which the tower stands, and forming an integral portion of the wall
which is about 12 feet thick, we have what is probably the most
efficient protection against the deadly mine ever devised as a
protection to a British Castle. It may be compared to six enormous
spurs, the blowing up of one or even two but little affecting the
stability of the remainder.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 436px;"><a name="illo40" id="illo40"></a>
<img src="images/illus-107.png" width="436" height="308" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="GROUND_PLAN_OF_CONISBOROUGH" id="GROUND_PLAN_OF_CONISBOROUGH"></a>GROUND PLAN OF CONISBOROUGH KEEP.</span>
</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 438px;"><a name="illo41" id="illo41"></a>
<img src="images/illus-108.png" width="438" height="319" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="CONISBOROUGH" id="CONISBOROUGH"></a>CONISBOROUGH.</span>
</div>
<p>The entrance to the Keep is only a small square aperture placed in the
first floor and approached by a long flight of steps in which at one
time a drawbridge occurred. The ground floor contains the well and is
entered by means of a trap-door in the vaulted ceiling. The buttresses
are excavated in places to form chambers, and in one is situated the
oratory described by Scott in <i>Ivanhoe</i>. It is beautifully vaulted in
the Early English style, with carved capitals and bases to the
supporting shafts. This grand relic of the feudal period was probably
built in the reign of Richard I.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> by Hamelin Plantagenet, the natural
brother of King Henry II., who had married into the de Warrenne family,
the rich Earls of Surrey.</p>
<p>Another variety of the Cylindrical Keep was that at Orford, in Suffolk,
which possessed a cylindrical shaft similar to that at Conisborough, and
was supported by three minor towers symmetrically arranged and carried
above the battlements. This Keep was protected at the base by a massive
wall with a ditch between the wall and the Castle base, and probably
suggested the Conisborough Keep and also that at Warkworth, while those
at Wallingford, York and Pontefract approximated to the same ideal.</p>
<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></h2>
<p class="title">THE CONCENTRIC CASTLE, <i>c.</i> 1250, TO THE CASTELLATED MANSION PERIOD</p>
<p>The inception of the concentric idea in castellation must not be
ascribed to the English builders of the second half of the thirteenth
century, inasmuch as the plan is essentially oriental and appeared in
the Levant before 1200. Thus Château Gaillard, built by Richard I. in
1196 upon the banks of the Seine near Les Andelys, is based essentially
upon the concentric type, though it does not absolutely conform to that
ideal owing to the configuration of the ground. That crusading monarch
was among the first to recognise the possibilities of the Saracenic form
and based this castle upon it. Upon the only side where it could be
attacked it offered first an outer triangular-shaped ward, with an
encircling wall, having five towers upon its enceinte.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> Between this and
the second ward was a formidable ditch, 30 feet in depth, the wall
standing upon the brink of the scarp; this second ward was of large
dimensions with five towers upon its walls, which were practically built
upon the edge of precipices. It was roughly hexagonal in shape and
contained the inner ward, partially circular in outline and surrounded
by a ditch. The walls of this ward were lofty and faced with bastions
segmental in plan, thus embodying the prevailing belief that angles and
corners were more vulnerable than curved surfaces. Inside this ward
stood the Keep, forming the fourth successive line of defence to be
overcome. The Keep or Donjon is splayed outwards at the base, a device
often adopted for projecting missiles among the assailants when dropped
from above, and also for greater strength. Probably the earliest
examples of machicoulis are found upon this Keep. This formidable
fortress fell by a combination of mining, filling up of the great ditch,
battering the Keep, and escalading the inner ward, after pounding the
curtain walls with perriers.</p>
<p>The thousands of warriors returning from the many crusades were well
acquainted with the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> Concentric Castle, having in many cases been
detained before the walls of an eastern city built upon a similar
design. The difficulty and danger in attacking such a place were well
known to them, and we can only ascribe the question of cost as the chief
reason for the non-adoption of the idea at an earlier period.</p>
<p>At Constantinople the crusading hosts before the city found themselves
confronted by a comparatively low fortified wall, bristling with
impediments; within it, at the distance of some hundreds of feet, arose
another and taller wall, while beyond that again a third wall, the
highest of all, appeared. These walls extended for more than three miles
upon the western side, with one hundred towers; all were embattled, and
they offered a stupendous scene to the wondering eyes of the Crusaders
as they vanished in grand perspective into the distance. There is no
castle in England which presents more than three hundred yards of
continual front. The capture of the first defence of the eastern capital
by no means imperilled the integrity of the second, while the
prospective losses of the assailants when confined in the narrow space
between the first and second lines was appalling to contemplate. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> The
same difficulty would occur with regard to the second and third lines of
defence, and it is small wonder that the leaders paused in a projected
attack upon so <a name="formidable" id="formidable"></a>formidable an obstacle.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 557px;"><a name="illo42" id="illo42"></a>
<img src="images/illus-112.jpg" width="557" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">CASTLE RUSHEN, ISLE OF MAN.</span>
</div>
<p>The essential principles underlying the construction of a castle erected
upon the concentric plan were:—</p>
<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1. That the natural features of the selected site should be adapted</span><br />
and made part of the defences, and that no rigid plan of the ground
occupied, based upon former principles of castellation, should be
strictly followed.</p>
<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">2. That a series of defences independent and complete in themselves</span><br />
should be presented in turn to an assault, the capture of one by no
means entailing that of another.</p>
<p>The castle-builders of the second half of the thirteenth century rigidly
adhered to the principles embodied in the first clause given above; they
did not produce a structure of the Motte and Bailey, or the Keep and
Base-court types, with little regard to the situation and configuration
of the ground, but made their plans with the utmost care, embracing
every advantage which the site presented. As a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> necessary sequence the
ground plan of one Concentric Castle differs from every other, and it is
only by a general summary of the ideas prevailing that any comparison
can be made.</p>
<p>The second clause naturally suggested a concentric plan whereby each
defence was placed within the other, the strongest of all naturally
being in the centre. But as most of the English castles were rendered
concentric by means of additions to buildings previously existing, the
pure concentric ideal is seldom reached except in those structures
reared entirely at that period, the others attained it more or less by
developing conditions already obtaining.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;"><a name="illo43" id="illo43"></a>
<img src="images/illus-115.png" width="381" height="374" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="THE_IDEAL_CONCENTRIC_CASTLE" id="THE_IDEAL_CONCENTRIC_CASTLE"></a>THE IDEAL CONCENTRIC CASTLE.</span>
</div>
<p>The ideal concentric outline may be gleaned from the accompanying plan,
where the three entrances are a special feature, each being placed as
far as possible from the one adjacent. By this device the assailants who
had managed to capture the outer enceinte would be compelled to pass
under one half of the second line of towers and curtain walls before
reaching the entrance pierced through them, being all the time subjected
to a plunging fire of deadly missiles. The same would occur if the
second line were captured. The gates were in all cases <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> flanked by
defensive towers, and generally reached by a drawbridge which could be
raised before the entrance archway; this was narrow and defended by one
or more portcullises, while a strong gate, usually sheathed with iron,
was placed at the entrance immediately behind the raised drawbridge. If
these formidable obstacles were overcome and the first part of the
passage <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> captured the inner portcullis or portcullises had to be forced,
but the assailants would in the meantime be subjected to a galling
discharge of arrows and bolts from the narrow loopholes on either side,
which were pierced in the walls of rooms whose only entrances were from
the inner courtyard or from the ramparts. In the vaulted roof of the
passage also circular openings were built, termed "meurtriers," or
murderers, through which melted lead, hot water or oil, and other
liquids could be poured upon the struggling mass of assailants below.
From the formidable nature of the defence it may readily be understood
that direct assaults of castles built upon the concentric ideal were
limited, the besiegers contenting themselves with waiting until famine
had done its work, or treachery within the walls allowed them to enter.
The project of capturing three strong castles, one within the other, was
a prospect sufficient to daunt any ordinary commander, and so long as
the besieged could count upon a friendly army in the field outside, the
loyalty of the garrison, and a plentiful supply of provisions, the
fortress might be relied upon to maintain its integrity.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 267px;"><a name="illo44" id="illo44"></a>
<img src="images/illus-117.png" width="267" height="314" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="MACHICOULIS" id="MACHICOULIS"></a>MACHICOULIS SUPPORTING AN ALUR.</span>
</div>
<p>It was during this period that machicoulis and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> alurs reached their
highest efficiency and development, and in every castle built after 1250
they may be found wherever extra strengthening of the defence was
desirable. In some illustrated medieval romances of the second part of
the thirteenth century the castle is depicted with these additions,
although at times the perspective indulged in by the artist is somewhat
disconcerting. Where machicolation was not adopted, probably by reason
of the expense, the walls were generally corbelled outwards at the upper
parts of towers and walls, thus giving a more effective control over the
bases of these structures where mining or battering might be attempted.
Battlementing was almost universal, and the system of piercing the
merlons with arbalestraria may be assigned to this early date, although
not reaching the full development it subsequently met with in the
Edwardian Castles of Wales. It may be seen in illustrated manuscripts in
the form of simple circular openings in the merlons. The <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> protection of
loopholes and windows by a hanging shield is likewise illustrated; it
prevented the admission of arrows and bolts discharged with a high
trajectory.</p>
<p>The maximum development of the art of castle-building in the British
Isles occurred in the reign of Edward I. and is exhibited in its best
form in those magnificent buildings which he erected in Wales to
consolidate the conquest of that country. With the great Snowdonian
range as the centre he placed a ring of fortresses at those strategic
points, chosen with remarkable military perspicacity, where they would
be of the utmost advantage in commanding the widest stretch of country.
Criccieth and Harlech, standing upon the sites of previous strongholds,
and Conway and Carnarvon upon entirely new ground, are the most
prominent and famous of this encircling ring. The term "Edwardian,"
however, for a Concentric Castle so frequently used, is a misnomer,
because some of the grandest examples of the style date from the time of
Henry III.; the outer ward of the Tower of London, for example, rendered
it concentric in 1240 to 1258.</p>
<p>The <i>Castle of Harlech</i> approaches the concentric <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> form so far as its
position will permit, but the bold rocky promontory upon which it stands
was too irregular for the complete ideal, and consequently the Castle
was adapted to the site. It is practically an oblong with massive
circular buttress towers at the four angles; two others defend the
gateway and two smaller ones are on either side of the barbican
entrance. Small watch-towers, corbelled at the summits upon false
machicolations, are adjacent to the larger. The barbican lies upon the
eastern side of the fortress, and was only accessible by a steep and
narrow entrance after a dry ditch had been crossed. Harlech and Kidwelly
are similar in not being purely concentric; each have short fronts of
wall and the defences of two of the baileys are united, thus only two
lines of resistance are interposed. Neither possess a donjon, the two
inner wards being the last resort of the garrison.</p>
<p>The inaccessibility of this massive pile, perched 200 feet above the
adjacent sea and producing a strangely impressive effect by reason of
its grim vastness, has been repeatedly tested since its walls were first
raised. Owen Glendower beat in vain against its impregnable strength and
lost Mortimer, his son-in-law, before its walls. In the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> Wars of the
Roses, when the soul-stirring "March of the Men of Harlech" was penned,
the Castle was summoned to surrender by the Yorkists, but the Constable
of the time, a doughty Welshman, held out for the Lancastrian cause and
made a most protracted resistance in the campaign of 1474, Harlech being
the last fortress to surrender in that great struggle. In the Civil War
it maintained its reputation, but was finally delivered up to Cromwell's
brother-in-law.</p>
<p><i>Conway Castle</i>, one of the most impressive and majestic of medieval
fortresses in Britain, is situated in a romantic and picturesque spot at
the mouth of the river Conway. It presents a perfect ideal of a fortress
and a fortified town, the massive accompanying walls of the latter
forming an integral portion of the defence as a whole. The town walls
are over a mile in length and are in a singularly good state of
preservation; there are twenty-one towers, arranged at regular intervals
along this enceinte, and four gates, over one of which is a row of
machicoulis, twelve in number, projecting from the upper part of the
wall. It was also protected by a dry ditch and with drawbridges placed
before <a name="the_gateways" id="the_gateways"></a>the gateways.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 558px;"><a name="illo45" id="illo45"></a>
<img src="images/illus-121.jpg" width="558" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">LEEDS CASTLE, KENT.</span>
</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
<p>The Castle occupies an irregular oblong area divided into a larger and
smaller ward by a transverse wall, which is carried across at one of the
narrowest parts; thus where breadth is unobtainable, as at Conway and
Carnarvon, ward is set behind ward. Eight lofty circular towers are
arranged at intervals around the massive curtain wall, four of them
being provided with small look-out turrets upon their summits. In the
larger bailey the banqueting hall and domestic apartments were placed.</p>
<p>The Castle and also the town fortifications were erected by King Edward
I., with Henry de Elfreton as the architect; they were completed in
1284, and occupied by the King and Court in 1290, upon the occasion of a
Welsh rising. The monarch, however, was nearly starved out in his
fortress through an unusual flood whereby provisions were unable to be
sent across the river. Previously, however, he had passed a Christmas
there and the assertion that Conway was really a combination of a
castle, a palace, and a pleasant residence is perfectly legitimate.
Richard II. assembled his forces at Conway to resist the invasion of
Bolingbroke, but was induced to leave it, and his betrayal and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> lodgment
in Flint Castle followed. The edifice suffered but little during the
Wars of the Roses; Henry VII. repaired it where decay had taken place,
and it practically remained intact until the Great Rebellion, when it
suffered from two sieges, and shortly afterwards, in 1665, was despoiled
of its timber, lead, and iron, and reduced to its present condition. The
excellence of the masonry which characterises the Edwardian castles in
Wales is perhaps in no way better exemplified than at Conway, where a
portion of the base of a tower on the south side fell out bodily in
recent times through being undermined, and gave much trouble before it
could be broken up. It has since been restored. The protection of the
Castle is now in the hands of the town authorities of Conway.</p>
<p><i>Beaumaris Castle</i> was erected by King Edward I. about 1295, and
approximates more to the concentric ideal than perhaps any other castle
in Britain. The outer enceinte is an almost regular octagon,
strengthened by towers at each of the angles and in the centre of each
curtain, excepting the one in which the entrance gateway is placed. The
inner enceinte is square in shape and of very great height, thus
commanding <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> the ramparts of the outer; it has the usual towers, of
immense strength, and is finished with a grand array of battlements. Its
position probably detracts from impressiveness, for it was designed to
have the moat surrounding it filled with water at every tide from the
Menai Strait, and this necessitated the selection of low ground for a
site. By the arrangement of the walls two baileys are formed, the inner
and outer, and the Castle affords an example of a fortress built upon
the concentric ideal where the ground does not modify the detail in any
way.</p>
<p><i>Carnarvon Castle</i> may be confidently claimed as the finest example of
its type in Europe. It stands upon a site previously unoccupied and was
commenced by King Edward I., who raised the walls sufficiently high to
cover the garrison, and completed by his son, Edward II., who carried
the walls and towers to their present altitude. It is built of limestone
blocks with string-course bands of dark-brown sandstone, the mouldings,
doorways, and other ornamental portions also being of the same material.
The plan of the Castle approaches that of a kidney form, the whole of
the space enclosed forming <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> one ward in contradistinction to that at
Conway, which is subdivided; as the ancient town of Carnarvon was
surrounded by massive walls, large portions of which still remain, the
area so enclosed may be looked upon as the outer bailey.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 376px;"><a name="illo46" id="illo46"></a>
<img src="images/illus-124.png" width="376" height="240" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="MERLON" id="MERLON"></a>MERLON PIERCED WITH OILLET.</span>
</div>
<p>Although the enceinte of the Castle is plentifully supplied with towers
which undoubtedly form the chief feature of its picturesque appearance,
yet it is to be questioned if the latter added very materially to its
powers of resistance when compared with the walls, which are in places
over 15 feet in thickness, and of very great height, often over 100
feet. These walls contain, at the points most vulnerable to an attack, a
double line of galleries traversing the thickness and leading easily
into each other for mutual support. The outer walls of these passages
are plentifully supplied with loopholes, and as the merlons upon the
battlements are also pierced with oillets, a triple discharge of
quarrels <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> and arrows could be brought to bear upon assailants by a
garrison securely protected from injury. Against such a hail of missiles
any attack would probably prove futile.</p>
<p>The moat is of great width and depth and formed no inconsiderable
portion of the original defences. The main idea of the architect when
planning Carnarvon Castle appears to have been to render attacks upon
the general line of the enceinte impossible of success, by reason of the
galleries and the thickly-set mural towers, and thus to lead the
assailants to concentrate upon the chief entrance. This, however, was
protected primarily by the town walls, then by a formidable moat, two
massive towers, a narrow entrance furnished with no less than four
portcullises, with two inner obstructions of a similar nature to be
overcome ere the entrance was forced. Such an elaborate concentration of
effective resistance is seldom encountered in medieval fortresses, and
the fact that Carnarvon Castle has never been taken by assault, but only
subdued by starvation, is amply accounted for.</p>
<p>This magnificent structure has always been a Crown possession, and at
the present time is preserved with a care deserving of all praise.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> It
narrowly escaped demolition at that period which proved so fatal to all
castles in Britain, but, although the order was issued, the carrying out
was delayed, and the accession of Charles II. in 1660 nullified it. The
chief architectural beauty is perhaps the Eagle Tower, crowned with its
three graceful turrets and boasting of the birth within its walls of the
first Prince of Wales, but the traditional apartment is still
problematical.</p>
<p>Although as we have seen the Concentric Castle is usually associated
with the reign of Edward I., and the formidable strongholds in North
Wales are generally cited as the perfection of the type, yet earlier
attempts at the ideal had been made in Britain, and in no greater
perfection than at the well-known Castle of Caerphilly in
Glamorganshire, completed a year before the King came to the throne.
From a military point of view it is the grandest example of the
concentric ideal in our islands, and it is perhaps to be deplored that
this embodiment of a medieval fortress has never been subjected to the
stern arbitrament of war, and that no great military renown is
associated with its history. It was only assailed once, in 1648, when
the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> Parliamentarians wreaked their traditional destructive tendencies
upon it.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;"><a name="illo47" id="illo47"></a>
<img src="images/illus-127.png" width="402" height="254" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="CAERPHILLY_CASTLE" id="CAERPHILLY_CASTLE"></a>CAERPHILLY CASTLE.
(<i>From an old print.</i>)</span>
</div>
<p>It was erected and completed in 1271 by Gilbert de Clare, Earl of
Gloucester, and stands upon a mound of gravel in the middle of an
artificial lake, produced by damming up two water-courses and turning
the contents of a marsh into the catchment basin thus formed. The
curtain of the middle ward is of no great height, that of the inner ward
being thus able to dominate it. The outer ward is essentially divided
into two, each forming a <i>tête-du-pont</i>.</p>
<p>The eastern portion, and the smaller, has a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> curtain 15 feet in height
and a moat of its own, the island thus formed being approached through
two gatehouses from the land side, and joined to the inner ward by
drawbridges. The western and outer ward is much more important than the
eastern. It acts as a <i>tête-du-pont</i> the same as its companion, but
contains also the chief approach to the Castle, two conspicuous towers
standing on either side of a narrow entrance, thus forming a strong
gatehouse. From it curtain walls of great height branch off on either
side, washed by the waters of the lake, and sundry half-drum towers, and
other buildings have been built abutting upon the defensive wall. Thus
any assailants would have most formidable obstacles to encounter on
attacking either the eastern or western faces, two moats and three
successive lines of walling being opposed to their efforts.</p>
<p>The immediate object of its erection was to overawe the Welsh Marches,
but these had been reduced to order almost at the same time it was
built; subsequently it <a name="but_served_to" id="but_served_to"></a>but served to consolidate the peace thus secured.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 536px;"><a name="illo48" id="illo48"></a>
<img src="images/illus-128.jpg" width="536" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">TOWER OF LONDON: THE MIDDLE TOWER</span>
</div>
<p>A still earlier example, though not perhaps embodying all the conditions
of the type, is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>to be found in the neighbouring county of Carmarthen.
Kidwelly Castle occupies a commanding position upon Carmarthen Bay near
the estuary of the river Gwendraeth. The stream here is of considerable
width and the eastern side of the castle is built upon the edge of the
steep slope leading down to it; consequently no fear of an assault was
to be apprehended from that quarter, and a curtain wall of no great
height was deemed sufficient for the defence. This wall formed the
string of a bow as it were, and the semicircular portion defending the
land side had to rely upon other obstacles, such as a deep moat and a
curtain set with towers. The <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> entrance gateway is at the southern
termination of the wall and consists of two towers with a building
between containing the passage; it affords rooms for soldiers on duty
with two stories above, all the masonry being of the most solid
description. This entrance gave upon the outer ward. The inner ward
consisted of a square enclosure abutting upon the centre of the river
line: it is protected by high curtains strengthened by the usual towers.
It will be perceived that the deviation from the concentric consists in
the coincidence of the east wall of the inner bailey with a portion of
that of the outer. Its foundation dates from 1250, when Payn de Chaworth
reared it.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 384px;"><a name="illo49" id="illo49"></a>
<img src="images/illus-129.png" width="384" height="263" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="KIDWELLY_CASTLE" id="KIDWELLY_CASTLE"></a>KIDWELLY CASTLE, CARMARTHENSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p>Not far from Llandeilo, a village near Carmarthen, stand the remains of
a Concentric Castle around which local tradition has woven a web of
romance, asserting that all history is lost in remote antiquity and
leading the imagination to run riot in conjuring up the identity of its
former inmates. Upon the south side the walls stand upon a precipice
with a sheer drop of probably 500 feet, while a climb of over 200 feet
is necessary to reach the northern face. It is called Carreg Cennen and
occupies the summit <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> of a height springing up from a ring of encircling
hills. It stands upon an acre of ground and is of the rectangular shape;
within the outer curtain stands a small inner bailey with one side
coincident with that of the outer curtain overlooking the precipice,
and as such is comparable to Kidwelly. There is one round tower, but the
others are angular like those of Carnarvon. It was built by Rhys of
Wales in the thirteenth century.</p>
<p>It must not be imagined that the castle-building energies of Edward I.
were entirely expended upon the grand examples of his work found in
North Wales, on the contrary there are many buildings to be discovered
where his handiwork, or that of contemporary barons, is a prominent
feature. A tendency appears to have manifested itself at that period to
alter existing castles of a previous type so that they conformed in some
way to the concentric ideal, and Pevensey, Chepstow, and Corfe are cases
in point. In addition to Caerphilly in Glamorganshire there are many
other structures in South Wales showing a very high ideal of
castellation, indeed that portion of the Principality has been termed
the "Land of Castles," and the appellation is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> by no means undeserved.
There is hardly a prominent position upon the coast, or a suitable site
inland, but what has been seized upon at some period to erect a position
of defence.</p>
<p><i>Pembroke Castle</i>, with the town walls supporting it, is perhaps the
most important pile to be found in this district; it embodies additions
of varying dates in its massive walls and towers. The great gatehouse
and circular Norman Keep are undoubtedly its chief attractions at the
present day when, although shattered by powder after Cromwell's capture
by means of starvation, and much subsequent spoliation, it presents one
of the most imposing aspects to be found in the kingdom.</p>
<p><i>Carew Castle</i> is deservedly celebrated for picturesqueness and affords
an illustration of the use of the angle-spur at the foot of drum towers
as a preventive against mining.</p>
<p><i>Cilgerran Castle</i> occupies a position which is probably unparalleled in
South Wales. It approaches very closely to the Edwardian type, but the
area chosen has not entirely dominated the plan; it once possessed an
inner and outer bailey with a great portcullised gatehouse and massive
cylindrical towers, two of which still <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> stand. Pembrokeshire is
essentially the centre of the castle-land of Wales, for besides those
mentioned there are Manorbier, Lamphey, Narberth, Haverfordwest,
Llawhaddon, Roche and many others, most of them exhibiting traces of
Edwardian influence based upon Norman work.</p>
<p>In the upper valley of the Wye the efficiency of castles was of great
importance, inasmuch as they guarded one of the great lines of incursion
from the heart of Wales into the Marches; here Edwardian additions may
be seen at Builth where a donjon was placed upon a motte which had
already been encircled by a Shell Keep, while a circular rampart
surrounding the whole bailey made a very presentable representation of
the concentric ideal. At Bronllys, farther to the south, a cylindrical
tower was the chief addition, while at Tretower, still farther south
near Crickhowell, a Shell Keep appears to have been inserted within the
remains of a previous Rectangular Keep defending the motte.</p>
<p><i>The Tower of London.</i>—This great fortress, palace, and prison, unique
among the castles of England, dates from the time of William the
Conqueror. The site occupied a position upon the river Thames
immediately to the east of Roman <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> London; the latter was surrounded by
massive walls with mural towers which had subsequently been repaired by
Alfred the Great. A portion of this walling undoubtedly furnished part
of the western defence of the Norman citadel, inasmuch as remains have
been found adjacent to the present Wakefield Tower. The wall thus
adapted extended between two bastions, and possibly the first enclosure
was merely stockaded.</p>
<p>It was, however, necessary to erect a more substantial fortress in order
to overawe as well as protect London, and in 1078, William entrusted
Gundulf, the architect-bishop of Rochester, with the commission. The
great Keeps at Rochester and West Malling were also designed by him, and
possibly he had much to do with those at Norwich, Colchester, and other
places in England. To this period may also be ascribed some of the
towers and part of the massive curtain wall lying to the west of the
inner ward or ballium which at that period contained the royal palace,
apartments for the court, and dwellings for the garrison. Possibly a
narrow ditch encircled the walls on the inner line of the present
spacious moat.</p>
<p>In 1155, the buildings were repaired by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> Thomas à Becket; but to Richard
I. must be ascribed the carrying out of works which materially added to
the general strength. Henry III. caused additions to be made, chiefly
upon the river front, which give it the characteristic appearance it
presents at the present day. The well-known Traitors' Gate dates from
this period, and is one of the finest examples of medieval masonry in
existence. About the year 1270 the Tower began to acquire those features
which subsequently rendered it an excellent example of the concentric
fortress; an outer wall of circumvallation was carried completely round,
with a deep and broad moat washing its face. The outer ward was formed
lying between the two lines of walls, thus producing three lines of
defence, the innermost being the great Keep. A small barbican, which has
now disappeared, stood upon the outer edge of the moat. In the early
part of the reign of Edward III. some towers were added, the chief being
the Beauchamp and Bowyer. Since the period of the Commonwealth the Tower
has ceased to be inhabited by royalty, the removal of the palace, which
stood against the south-eastern corner of the inner ward, being probably
responsible for it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> As the Tower of London has been inextricably
involved in the major portion of events forming the history of England,
it is obviously impossible to deal even in a cursory manner with them
within the confines of this work. A few facts, however, relating to the
Keep may be of interest, as it is undoubtedly the most ancient portion
of the structure. It is rectangular in shape, 118 feet long by 107 feet
broad; it rises to a height of 90 feet at the battlements and contains
three stories. The usual Norman pilaster buttresses occur, those at the
angles being continued upwards into three of the square turrets, while
the remaining corner supports a large projecting circular turret
containing the main staircase. The walls are of enormous thickness,
ranging from 12 to 15 feet, and as usual the building is divided into
two portions by a wall <a name="feet_thick" id="feet_thick"></a>10 feet thick, rising to the maximum height of
the building.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 533px;"><a name="illo50" id="illo50"></a>
<img src="images/illus-137.jpg" width="533" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">CHEPSTOW CASTLE, MONMOUTHSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>The floors were originally of wood, but when Sir Christopher Wren
destroyed the ancient interior features of the Keep, great brick vaults
were built in the lower portion. St. John's Chapel is a magnificent gem
of Early Norman ecclesiastical architecture; it stands upon the
second floor, and its apsidal termination projects boldly beyond the
walls of the Keep. The third floor contains the state apartments with
the great Council Chamber, the walls of the chapel rising through it to
the roof, and containing a mural passage and a triforium. The roof is
flat and was adapted during the Tudor period for mounting artillery. The
position of the original entrance to the Keep is now unknown, the
present one being evidently a construction of later date. No traces of
the forebuilding defending it have come to light. The internal
arrangements for defence against surprise are marvellously intricate,
the principal apartments being approached by mural passages so narrow
that only one person could pass at a time. This was, of course,
eminently desirable from a military standpoint, but inconvenient and
awkward when occupied by the court.</p>
<p><i>Corfe Castle.</i>—Seated upon an isolated chalk hill in the island of
Purbeck, with a natural escarpment upon three sides where two rivers
bifurcate on their way to Poole Harbour, and with a gentle slope upon
the fourth side, the great castle of Corfe reared its massive front
through many centuries of dramatic history, marked more than once with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
touches of the tragic. The remains of its cyclopean walls and towers now
lie in mighty masses over its slopes, and tell eloquently of a day when
destruction only seemed to occupy the minds of men, and all that was
great and beautiful from the foregoing ages was marked out for
desolation and ruin. Perhaps no castle in England has suffered so much
as that of Corfe.</p>
<p>Its site is connected by history with the Saxon dynasty, for King Edgar
is said to have founded it; and here the tragic deed was perpetrated by
which it is popularly known, when his son Edward the Martyr, King of the
West Saxons, was treacherously murdered by Elfrida his step-mother. Such
an unholy deed was a sinister incident in the birth of a castle, and
appears to have thrown a gloom over its subsequent history.</p>
<p>Four miles to the southward rises the bold coast-line of the Dorset
littoral, while northward is the great depression occupied by the waters
of Poole Harbour.</p>
<p>It appears to have been successively a Saxon Palace, then a Norman, and
afterwards an Edwardian fortress. King Stephen besieged it in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> 1139,
Earl Baldwin de Redvers having seized it for the Empress Maud. King John
used it as an arsenal for military engines and stores, and here his foul
crime of starving twenty-two knights and nobles to death, whom he had
captured at Mireteau in 1203, was committed. The wretched ex-King Edward
II. lived here for a time before his removal to Berkeley, and it appears
to have been possessed by several important historical personages before
it reverted to the Crown in 1552, when it was granted to Sir Christopher
Hatton. That family sold it in 1635 to Sir John Bankes, the ancestor of
the present owners. The notable defence of the castle for three years by
Lady Bankes against the Commonwealth forces is one of those feats which
stand out bravely against the somewhat sordid history of that period.</p>
<p>The Castle occupies an area of about three acres. The Norman work
consists chiefly of a square Keep occupying the most elevated part of
the hill, where possibly the Saxon Palace had been situated, and, with
its enceinte, formed the innermost ward of the Castle. It is about 60
feet square, and 80 feet high, with the usual flat pilasters; the
masonry is remarkably good,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> formed of large squared stones obtained
from some hard beds in the vicinity. The floors and apparently the roof
were of wood, and have now disappeared, while the battlements also are
missing.</p>
<p>On the east side of the Keep are the remains of the Queen's hall of
Early English work, and other buildings within the inner ward appear to
be of the same date. The gateway of the middle ward was overthrown by
undermining, part of it has sunk and moved out of the perpendicular. The
great curtain wall reaching between this gateway and the Keep is
comparatively intact, and forms one of the finest defences of that
description now remaining in Britain. The entrance to the outer ward has
been sadly wrecked; the two drum towers have been blown forwards by the
explosive force of gunpowder, the vaulting is rent, and the adjacent
wall to the west overthrown. More than half of the tower called the
Buttavant Tower has been blown clean away, while the minor bastions and
the encircling wall generally have either disappeared or been thrown out
of the perpendicular.</p>
<p>The order to "slight" the Castle, <i>i.e.</i> to dismantle it, was issued by
the Parliament in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> 1646, and perhaps no fortress exists in Britain where
the decree was so thoroughly carried into effect. Unnecessarily large
charges of gunpowder appear to have been used, not only dislodging the
masonry but shattering it; while in many places the effect was obtained
by undermining and propping up with wood, which when subsequently
burnt brought down the superincumbent mass, similarly to the
proceedings at the Keep of Raglan Castle.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 552px;"><a name="illo51" id="illo51"></a>
<img src="images/illus-141.png" width="552" height="183" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="CHEPSTOW_CASTLE2" id="CHEPSTOW_CASTLE2"></a>CHEPSTOW CASTLE.</span>
</div>
<p><i>Chepstow.</i>—The noble ruins of Chepstow Castle form one of the
attractive features of the celebrated Wye valley. They stand in a grand
position surmounting a vertical escarpment springing from the river and
protected on the three remaining sides by ditches of formidable width
and depth. The ground plan is that of an elongated parallelogram, one of
the longer faces being that overlooking the river. This is subdivided <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
into four courts or wards, while the whole area enclosed is about three
acres. The principal living-rooms overhung the river, where the great
Hall, kitchens, ladies' apartments, etc., were placed. This was a point
of a quite inaccessible character, and consequently permitted of a
certain amount of embellishment, such as large windows, etc.; in the
remainder of the enceinte, oillets and balistraria form the chief
openings.</p>
<p>The main entrance to the Castle is on the eastern side, under a fine
Norman arch flanked by two massive circular towers; the passage was
guarded by a portcullis, and two meurtrières in the groining. Not far
from this entrance the lesser Hall is placed. The Clare family, Earls of
Pembroke, were the earliest Norman owners of Chepstow, after William
Fitz-Osborne the founder, the last of whom, Richard Strongbow, is well
known in connection with the Conquest of Ireland in 1172. His daughter
Isabel married one of the Bigot family, and subsequently it passed to
Sir Charles Somerset, Earl of Worcester, from whom it has descended to
the present owner, the Duke of Beaufort. Chepstow saw much of the Civil
War, being held at first by the Royalists, but it was assailed by
Colonel Morgan <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> in 1645 and surrendered after a siege of four days. It
was again attacked in 1648, when the governor, Sir Nicholas Kemyss, and
forty of the garrison <a name="were_killed" id="were_killed"></a>were killed.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 554px;"><a name="illo52" id="illo52"></a>
<img src="images/illus-143.png" width="554" height="318" alt="" />
<span class="caption">LEEDS CASTLE, KENT.</span>
</div>
<p><i>Leeds.</i>—This castle is undoubtedly one of the most picturesque in the
British Isles, and its beautiful natural surroundings are enhanced by a
rich history extending back to the Saxon Period. Here Ethelbert of Kent
raised a fortification which was given to Bishop Odo at the Conquest
and, at his fall, came into the Crévecœur family, who began the
Norman building. It remained in their hands until the Barons' War when
it reverted to the Crown, with whom it <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> remained for about 300 years.
Edward VI. gave it to Sir Anthony St. Leger about 1550, and his
descendants sold it to Sir Richard Smith. It subsequently came into the
possession of the Colepeper family, from whom are descended the Martins,
the present owners.</p>
<p>Among the many historical associations connected with the Castle is that
of the frail Queen Isabella, wife of Edward II. She appeared one evening
before the gateway with a large force of attendants and demanded
admission; under the circumstances then obtaining the Governor, Sir
Thomas Colepeper, thought fit to refuse, being without the king's
orders, and, upon a display of force, saluted the visitors with a shower
of arrows. She repaired to the king and so influenced him that the
Castle was besieged and captured; the Castellan was hanged over the
drawbridge with eleven others. At Leeds Henry V. received the Emperor
Sigismund and imprisoned his step-mother Joan for practising witchcraft;
subsequently, Eleanor, the wife of good Duke Humphrey of Gloucester, was
tried here for the same offence in 1431.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"><a name="illo53" id="illo53"></a>
<img src="images/illus-144.jpg" width="560" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="LEEDS_CASTLE_KENT3" id="LEEDS_CASTLE_KENT3"></a>LEEDS CASTLE, KENT.</span>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>The position of this castle was an exceedingly suitable one in those
days when water was deemed the chief method of defence. It occupies two
natural rocky islands, one in the centre of a lake, and one in an
artificial one on the mainland made by sluices and ditches upon which
was placed the Barbicans. The Keep, or Gloriette, as it is here termed,
may have been modelled out of a late Norman Shell Keep, but has been
much altered by additions and restorations. It contains a chapel built
in 1380; the walls rise from the water to a considerable height and are
arranged round a small middle court. In it are the dining-hall, the
Queen's bed-chamber, and other domestic buildings, chiefly of the time
of Henry VIII.</p>
<p>From this island drawbridges permit of passage to the larger central
island, around which a curtain wall of great strength has been built at
the edge of the water with drum towers at the principal angles. Inside
this was a second and concentric wall, thus forming an Inner and Outer
Bailey, but only the southern gate of this has been preserved. It is
probably of late Norman work. The domestic buildings occupied the
northern end of the inner area, now superseded by a splendid mansion
standing upon Norman foundations. Another drawbridge gives upon the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
artificial island upon the mainland previously mentioned, where the
Inner <a name="Barbican_stood" id="Barbican_stood"></a>Barbican stood, and beyond this again was a strong and massive
Outer Barbican.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 519px;"><a name="illo54" id="illo54"></a>
<img src="images/illus-147.jpg" width="519" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">WINDSOR CASTLE.</span></div>
<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></h2>
<p class="title">THE CASTELLATED MANSION AND MANOR-HOUSE</p>
<p>The reason for the disuse of castles is popularly attributed to the
invention of gunpowder, but the introduction of cannon can hardly be
accepted as entirely responsible for the decline, and we must therefore
seek for other reasons which, added to the first, eventually succeeded
in effecting their destruction and abandonment. The use of gunpowder was
introduced into England in the first half of the fourteenth century, the
first authentic date being 1327, when Edward III. employed it in his
campaign against the Scots. The first reference by Froissart is in 1339,
cannon being specifically mentioned, while at Cressy in 1346 there were
a number of those weapons in use. These early pieces were, however, of
small calibre and were provided with such indifferent powder that
against the walls of a castle they <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> were practically innocuous, and it
was not until the invention of trunnions for cannon, and of bombards
capable of throwing heavy spherical shot in the fifteenth century, that
fortified places had anything to fear.</p>
<p>But long before 1327 the English castle had begun to show signs of
falling into abeyance, in fact but very few new structures of that class
were erected after the close of the thirteenth century, and those that
did spring into existence no longer exhibited the overwhelming strength
and powers of resistance which stamped the erections of the preceding
century. When prosecuting his war with France, Edward III., in 1337,
endeavoured to leave the Kingdom in as defensible a condition as
possible during his absence, and with that object in view ordered the
keepers of the Royal castles to put their respective charges into
first-class order. In spite of this a report upon their efficiency a few
years later revealed the fact that several were utterly unfit to
withstand a siege. In 1322, when the incensed Edward II. raised forces
to avenge the insult to his queen by Bartholomew de Badlesmere at Leeds
Castle, and quickly captured that place, Tickhill, Warwick, Tutbury, and
others, the ease <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> with which they fell into his hands indubitably proves
that they were no longer in a thoroughly defensive condition. And this,
be it remembered, was before the introduction of gunpowder.</p>
<p>The economic conditions prevailing in the fourteenth century were also
in antagonism to the persistence and growth of castles in the land.
Military feudalism was in its death-throes, and the laws passed in the
reign of Edward I.—notably the statute of Quia Emptores—were
undoubtedly responsible for it. The barons no longer held the same
position as formerly when they dictated terms to their own sovereign,
and although a recrudescence of the power of the military nobility
occurred during the time of the Wars of the Roses, that struggle was in
reality but duels upon a large scale between a number of nobles who had
been successful in maintaining a semblance of their former power. The
Statute of Winchester gave almost unlimited rights to the King, whereby
he could summon the commons to arms if a baron proved recalcitrant. The
baronial castle necessarily became an anachronism to a large extent,
since its owner no longer had the power to fill it with numerous
retainers, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> also because the King, by his overwhelming numbers,
could easily capture it.</p>
<p>The art of war had also changed consequent chiefly upon the
extraordinary efficiency displayed by the English archer, whereby he
became supreme upon the field of battle: the development of this superb
infantry was under the entire management of the Crown and, consequently,
the King became immeasurably superior in striking strength to any
individual baron. The advantage began to rest with him who could put the
most efficient battalions in the field, and not as formerly with the one
who owned the greatest number of castles. Combined with these conditions
there was the indubitable fact that a castle had acquired the reputation
of being connected with oppression of the people, resistance to lawful
power, and a refuge from justice for the wrongdoer. This was entirely
incompatible with the great reforms insisted upon by Edward I., and
passed into law by parliament; law and order became the rule and not the
exception, and the position of <a name="the_castle_grew" id="the_castle_grew"></a>the castle grew anomalous.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 293px;"><a name="illo55" id="illo55"></a>
<img src="images/illus-150.jpg" width="293" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">SKIPTON CASTLE, YORKSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p>With the ascendancy of an efficient administration of justice came the
desire for comfort <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> and a display of luxury, and probably no one who
has become acquainted with the internal disposition of an early castle
will qualify the assertion that the acme of discomfort and inconvenience
must have prevailed within them.</p>
<p>Consequent upon this alteration in the economic conditions of the
nation, the need for the impregnable stronghold of the past ages ceased
to exist, and in many parts of England, but more especially in the south
and east, the existing structures were largely altered or added to in
order to afford conditions suitable to the changed amenities of social
life. These alterations in nearly every case were made at the sacrifice
of efficiency, and many castles which had played a notable part in the
history of the nation became merely the residences of their lords, who
made no attempt to put them to their original uses in time of war.
Arundel, the great midland castles of Warwick, Kenilworth, and many
others, fall under this category.</p>
<p>So far as gunpowder is concerned the part which it played in causing the
abandonment of the feudal castle is strangely varied and dependent upon
local circumstances. A well-found castle with an efficient and adequate
garrison,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> supported by an army in active operation in the field, had no
more to fear from an attack in the fifteenth century than it had in the
thirteenth, perhaps not so much. Very few bombards of the period
mentioned could throw stone shot weighing over 150 lbs., whereas the
medieval trebuchet could hurl a missile of twice that weight, or even
more, and to almost as great a distance. The effect of low-trajectory
cannon upon castle walls in the fifteenth century under ordinary
conditions may almost be left out of consideration, so small was the
calibre. It is true that Sir Ralph Grey, when besieged in Bamborough
Castle in 1464, was forced to surrender in a short space of time by the
army of the Kingmaker, who used his basilisks, aspiks, serpentines,
dragons, syrens, and sakers with excellent effect; but we may justly
claim that this was an exception, the configuration of the ground
enabling Warwick to place his pieces close up to the walls, while Grey
could look for no effective relief from a sympathetic army outside. Ten
years afterwards the Castle of Harlech, under the able governance of
Davydd ap Ifan, held out against all the force that Edward IV. could
bring to bear upon it, and was the last <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> of the castles garrisoned by
Lancastrians to render up its keys.</p>
<p>But perhaps the greatest argument against the belief that the "venomous
saltpetre" was the chief cause of the decline in castellation is that of
the gallant resistance made by many of these old strongholds in the
Great Civil War. At that time the newest of the castles was, perhaps,
about two hundred years old and had not been constructed entirely for
defence; the older structures were in many cases devoid of woodwork
which had perished through age and neglect. Yet these ancient buildings,
now once more called upon to play their part in deadly strife, in many
cases showed a resistance to attack which was simply marvellous,
sometimes, as in the case of Pembroke, defying the ordnance brought to
bear upon them. If a Royalist army of respectable proportions happened
to be in the vicinity of a beleaguered fortress, the Parliamentarians
appeared to regard its reduction as an impossibility, and in the first
place devoted their entire attention to the dispersal of the field
force. It is true that the condition of the unmetalled trackways, which
were dignified by the name of roads, at that time, presented almost <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
insuperable obstacles to the passage of heavy ordnance, and the advance
of a cumbrous baggage train was at times an impossibility.</p>
<p>But even if cannon of respectable proportions could be brought against a
castle in the Great Civil War, the effects produced were in many cases
out of all proportion to the enormous trouble involved. Thus at the
first siege of Pontefract Castle in 1644 a cannon throwing a 42-lb. shot
was used in conjunction with another of 36 lbs. and two of 24 lbs., the
least being 9 lbs., and yet the siege failed chiefly by reason of the
small effect produced by the 1400 projectiles which were fired into it.
Again although Scarborough Castle was quite ruinous in 1644 when its
siege commenced, and in addition was ill-supplied with ammunition or
food, yet it gallantly sustained a siege lasting for twelve months.</p>
<p>It may therefore be conceded from the foregoing that the assertion
respecting gunpowder causing the disuse of the castle in the British
Isles must be taken with a large degree of reservation, since many other
causes have to be considered, and even those who maintain the assertion
must admit that the reason assigned took an unconscionably long time
in <a name="effecting_its_object" id="effecting_its_object"></a>effecting its object.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 620px;"><a name="illo56" id="illo56"></a>
<img src="images/illus-155.jpg" width="620" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">IGHTHAM MOTE, KENT.</span>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>In the very few castles which saw their origin during the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries in Britain, domestic comforts and attempts at
effective defensive works appear to have run side by side, often to the
almost total exclusion of the latter. The substitution of brick for
stone masonry in many of these was in itself a startling change, but
when combined with this, large and lofty apartments were introduced,
many with magnificent carved and moulded wooden ceilings, windows of
large dimensions filled with beautiful tracery characteristic of
Perpendicular architecture, walls hung with rich tapestry and decorated
with gorgeous heraldic devices and trophies of arms, costly furniture
and other fittings betokening an advanced education in domestic
requirements,—the feeling was borne in upon the minds of the nation
that the feudal castle, as such, had seen its day, and that the age of
the baronial residence and the manorial dwelling-house had superseded
it.</p>
<p>In these later castellated residences the kitchens, larders, cellars,
dining halls, residential rooms and general offices became matters of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
supreme moment, the defensive works of secondary importance, but
designed nevertheless with a view to impressiveness and an assumption of
strength which they rarely possessed. Within these lordly halls the
noble owners held high revel, while troops of servitors, henchmen, and
servants of every degree swarmed in the passages and halls in marked
contradistinction to the old time grim men-at-arms, bearded archers, and
steel-clad retainers of the feudal fortress.</p>
<p>There was naturally a period of transition during which the
characteristics of the Castle predominated over the domestic influences,
and those which sprang into existence during the reigns of Henry IV. and
V. very ably show this feature. To this intermediate period we may
ascribe those structures which were chiefly reared by the spoils
acquired upon the Continent by soldiers of fortune who "followed the
wars," and returning to their native land built palatial residences for
themselves, out of their lawful, or it may be, ill-acquired, gains. Many
of these were based upon designs which the adventurers had seen abroad,
thus our first example, Bodiam, is a replica of many castles which were
to be found at the time of its erection in Gascony.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> <i>Bodiam Castle</i> is
one of the finest in Sussex, and certainly one of the most picturesque
in England; it is situated upon the Rother, which here forms the
boundary between Sussex and Kent. The building owes its origin to Sir
Edward Dalyngrugge, who had served in France and Spain under the Black
Prince with singular credit to himself and marked advantage to his
worldly estate. A portion of this superfluous wealth was expended in
erecting Bodiam Castle, which, while affording every comfort as a
residence, possessed most of the essential qualities for effective
defence.</p>
<p>It presents a singularly beautiful and romantic spectacle at the present
time, the towers and enceinte being entire, while a wealth of foliage
and the wide waters of the surrounding moat afford a <i>coup d'œil</i>
seldom equalled and probably not excelled in England. The licence to
crenellate dates from 1386; the building was erected in the middle of a
lake connected with the river, thus forming a broad and deep moat. A
causeway, defended by an ingenious system of bridges and small gateways,
leads across the latter, and terminates in a small barbican, now partly
dismantled; the entrance is between two tall <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> square towers which
present beautiful examples of machicolation upon their summits. Upon the
opposite, or south face, is the postern leading to the moat and defended
by a massive square tower, being one of nine in all surrounding the
enclosure. The interior is now simply an empty shell, all the domestic
buildings having been destroyed by Sir William Waller in 1643, after the
siege of Arundel, although the Chapel and the chief apartments are
capable of being located. We have therefore simply the outer walls
remaining of a particularly fine castle of the Perpendicular period.</p>
<p>The entrance consists of a vaulted passage with many openings for the
discharge of missiles upon assailants while they were endeavouring to
overcome the three portcullises and the massive wooden gate defending
it. In addition to ordinary loopholes there are round holes for the
discharge of harquebuses. The castle underwent a siege by the Earl of
Surrey in the reign of Richard III. in consequence of a descendant of
Sir Thomas Lewkenor, into whose hands it had passed, proving obnoxious
to the King.</p>
<p><i>Shirburn Castle</i> is also of the same type and very similar to Bodiam;
it dates from the year <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>1377 and was erected by Warine de Lisle who
had gained wealth and distinction under Edward III. It stands in the
Chiltern Hills near <a name="Stokenchurch" id="Stokenchurch"></a>Stokenchurch and is a large square pile surrounded
by a broad moat.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 526px;"><a name="illo57" id="illo57"></a>
<img src="images/illus-158.jpg" width="526" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">WRESSLE CASTLE, YORKSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p><i>Wressle Castle, Yorkshire.</i>—The Castle of Wressle lies to the
south-east of York, near the junction of the Derwent with the Ouse, the
navigation of which it was probably designed to protect. Sir Thomas
Percy, the brother of the first Earl of Northumberland, is reputed to
have been the founder. It fell to the Crown, and Henry IV. granted it to
his son John, Earl of Bedford, and after his demise to Sir Thomas Percy,
son of Henry, the second Earl of Northumberland. The Percies seem to
have maintained their Court in the Castle with a magnificence befitting
their illustrious race, and during their occupation the Castle saw the
most glorious portion of its history.</p>
<p>In 1642 and 1648 it was garrisoned by the Parliamentarians and shortly
afterwards was ordered to be dismantled. Three sides of the quadrangle
were thrown down, leaving only the south façade. It was in the
possession of the Seymour family from 1682 to 1750, when it again <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
passed into the hands of descendants of the Percy family, and now is
owned by Lord Leconfield.</p>
<p>The building originally possessed five towers, one at each corner and
another over the entrance on the south side, which still remains,
together with the curtain wall and flanking towers. These present a very
imposing appearance, but the general effect of the ruins suggests the
castellated mansion of the Perpendicular period more than the grim
sternness of a medieval castle. The square corner towers appear
singularly inadequate for an effective flanking fire, and no doubt the
building relied for defence chiefly upon the broad moat which
encompassed it upon three sides and the deep dry ditch defending the
approach.</p>
<p><i>Hever</i> undoubtedly owes its fame partly to its magnificent gatehouse,
which forms by far the most impressive part of the structure, and partly
to the rich store of human interest imparted by its intimate connection
with the ill-fated Anne Boleyn. It was built in the reign of Edward III.
by Sir William de Hever, whose daughter brought it to her husband, Lord
Cobham. In the time of Henry VI., Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, Lord Mayor of
London, an opulent mercer, purchased it, and added greatly to the
existing buildings, the work being subsequently finished by his
grandson, Sir Thomas, the <a name="father_of_Anne" id="father_of_Anne"></a>father of Anne.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 546px;"><a name="illo58" id="illo58"></a>
<img src="images/illus-161.jpg" width="546" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">HEVER CASTLE, KENT.</span>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>The latter was born in 1501, and brought up at Hever under a French
governess. After she attracted the notice of the King, her father was
created Viscount Rochford, and Earl of Wiltshire and Ormond, while Anne
was made Marchioness of Pembroke. It was in the garden at Hever that
Henry first saw her, and subsequently his wooing of that unfortunate
queen occurred there. After the execution of Anne and her brother, the
castle went to the Crown and was settled on Anne of Cleves. In 1557 Sir
Edward Waldegrave purchased it, and it passed to Sir William Humfreys
and subsequently to Sir T. Waldo, whose descendant is the present owner.</p>
<p>The Castle is surrounded by a double moat, fed by the river Eden; it is
a small castellated house of the fifteenth century, the chief feature
being the superb entrance, battlemented and machicoulied, and containing
three portcullis grooves in the main passage. The buildings completing
the rectangle are chiefly of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> Elizabethan period, but have been very
extensively restored by the present owner.</p>
<p><i>Maxstoke</i> is one of the very few castles which have come down to us
without the expression "dismantled by order of Parliament" being applied
to it. It affords us an idea of the beauty the face of England would
present, so far as magnificent castles are concerned, if the forces of
destruction and revolution had never been let loose upon our fair isle.
It dates from 1346, when William de Clynton, Earl of Huntingdon,
obtained licence to crenellate. The Duke of Buckingham owned and
occupied it in 1444; he was killed at Northampton in 1460, and his son
Humphrey, Earl of Stafford, having died of wounds received at the First
Battle of St. Albans in 1455, his grandson Henry succeeded him but
was beheaded without trial at Salisbury in 1483. Edward Stafford,
however, succeeded to the estates in the reign of Henry VII.; his death
by beheading occurred on Tower Hill in 1521. Maxstoke came to the Crown
but was given by Henry VIII. to Sir William Compton, from whose
descendants it was purchased by the family of Dilke in whose possession
it <a name="still_remains" id="still_remains"></a>still remains.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;"><a name="illo59" id="illo59"></a>
<img src="images/illus-163.jpg" width="317" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">MAXSTOKE CASTLE, WARWICKSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>The gatehouse is in excellent preservation, the entrance being
flanked by hexagonal towers, while the archway contains the grooves for
the portcullis, and also the old gates themselves, plated with iron and
bearing the arms of the Stafford family. A fine groined roof is inside
the gatehouse, while the battlements have an alur behind them. The walls
of the enceinte and the four towers at the corners are in good
preservation, and show marks of the wooden buildings formerly erected
against them for accommodating the soldiers. The Chapel and a number of
the domestic apartments are original, dating from the time of Edward
III.</p>
<p><i>Raglan</i>, one of the most imposing ruins in the British Isles, was
erected shortly after 1415 by Sir William ap Thomas, who had returned
rich in honours and also in worldly wealth from many a stricken field,
the last being that of Agincourt. He married the daughter of Sir David
Gam, and commenced the erection of the magnificent building which
combines in such an excellent manner the characteristics of a mansion
and a fortress. If either predominates it is undoubtedly the warlike
portion since, presumably, the builder could not at once forget his
bellicose proclivities. His son was made a baron by Edward IV. and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
afterwards Earl of Pembroke, and was beheaded at Northampton, 1469. The
Castle came into the possession of the Somersets in 1503, the ancestors
of the present Duke of Beaufort. The fifth earl carried out extensive
work upon the pile, but shortly afterwards the demolition of the Castle
was ordered by the parliament. Probably the most striking feature of the
Castle is the detached Keep lying to the left of the main entrance, and
called the Yellow Tower. It is surrounded by a wide and deep moat, and
was undoubtedly a formidable obstacle before being slighted. It
underwent a vigorous siege in 1646, when Sir Thomas Fairfax assailed it
with a large force. The garrison ran short of ammunition, and, the north
wall being breached, a capitulation ensued.</p>
<p><i>Herstmonceaux Castle.</i>—One of the finest examples of the later castles
is Herstmonceaux, in Sussex, dating from the year 1440. It has been
described as "the most perfect example of the mansion of a feudal lord
in the south of England," and, when visited by Walpole in 1752, was in a
perfect state of preservation; Grose, writing a few decades later, gives
a vivid description of all the principal apartments, which seem to have <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
suffered but little at that time. Now, however, when there is some
rumour prevailing of an intended restoration, the building is in
ruins,—roofless, ivy-grown, and in many parts dismantled by the
falling-in of roofs and floors. It is built of the small bricks then in
use, two inches or less in thickness; they were brought to England from
Belgium, strange to say the art of brick-making having apparently been
lost since the departure of the Romans. Belgian workmen were also
brought over to erect it.</p>
<p>Sir Roger Fiennes, an Agincourt veteran, was the founder, and probably
the site had borne a previous fortalice. Like Bodiam, erected some
half-century previously, the plan is quadrilateral, almost square, with
four octagonal towers at the corners and three of pentagonal plan
strengthening the curtain walls. The gateway is one of the finest and
most impressive in existence; the towers which flank it rise over 80
feet in height, cylindrical at the upper parts and superposed upon 50
feet of octagonal bases, with smaller turrets rising still higher above
them. A magnificent range of machicoulis with crenellation above
protects the towers and the curtain between, the merlons being pierced
with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> oillets. A moat, long since dry, encircles the building, a bridge
spanning it at the principal entrance. There are three tiers of cross
loopholes, and below occur openings for matchlocks to defend the
bridge. With the exception of the grand towers of the south gateway and
the shells of some adjoining buildings, there are only broken arches and
shattered walls, piers, and buttresses now to be seen, and it is only by
the description left by Grose and Walpole that the ichnography of the
interior can be traced. Wyatt the architect is responsible for the
vandalism committed, as he dismantled the Castle to furnish material for
the owner's new <a name="residence_adjacent" id="residence_adjacent"></a>residence adjacent.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 570px;"><a name="illo60" id="illo60"></a>
<img src="images/illus-166.jpg" width="570" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">HERSTMONCEAUX CASTLE, SUSSEX.</span>
</div>
<p>Although Herstmonceaux has never undergone any struggles in the "fell
arbitrament of war," yet painful memories cling to the ruins. Thomas
Fiennes, the ninth Lord Dacre, succeeded to the estate at the age of
seventeen. The youth had already laid the foundation of a brilliant
career at Court when an escapade, planned by himself and some madcap
companions, whereby they essayed to play the rôle of poachers upon a
neighbouring estate, led to the death of a keeper whom they encountered.
His three companions were arrested and hanged for murder near
Deptford; Dacre was also tried and condemned, and the sentence was duly
executed at Tyburn in 1541, the young man being twenty-five years old at
the time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p>
<p><i>Tattershall Castle</i>, on the Witham in Lincolnshire, is contemporary
with Herstmonceaux, and constructed likewise of Flemish brick bonded
with exquisite workmanship. The tower still standing contains four
stories with a total altitude of 112 feet; large Gothic-headed windows
occur filled with Perpendicular tracery, and these windows are repeated
on a smaller scale in the four octagonal towers which clamp the angles
of the building. Massive timber balks once supported the various floors,
and a number of carved chimney-pieces are to be found. The walls are
about 14 feet thick at the base, and many passages and apartments have
been made in their thickness. The well in the base is covered by a
massive arched crypt, upon which the Castle has been erected. But
perhaps the most notable feature in this beautiful relic of the past is
the grand and markedly-perfect system of machicolation combined with the
bretasche, which is exemplified in the cornice <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> surmounting the tops of
the curtain walls. Upon massive stone corbels is built a substantial
stone wall pierced with square apertures for an all-round fire with
various arms; in the floor of the alur are the openings for dropping
missiles upon assailants at the base of the walls; above this again are
the merlons and embrasures giving upon the battlement walk.</p>
<p>The Castle was erected by Ralph, Lord Cromwell, treasurer to King Henry
V., whose vast wealth sought for an opening in which to display itself,
and probably could not have done so more effectively than in the rearing
of a magnificent pile of buildings of which but a small portion, the
tower described, now remains. In its later years it suffered a partial
dismantling during the Commonwealth period, followed by a rifling in the
eighteenth century similar to that which overtook the sister castle of
Herstmonceaux.</p>
<p>After the middle of the fifteenth century castles were no longer built,
and we have to look to the fortified manor-house such as was designed by
the Lord Cromwell above mentioned at Wingfield, Derbyshire, or that at
Exburgh in Norfolk; these when surrounded by moats were capable of being
placed in a good state of defence, and many a thrilling tale is told
of the sieges they underwent during the Civil War when the stout
resistance they made was nearly or quite equal to the defence of the
massive ramparts and <a name="cyclopean_bastions" id="cyclopean_bastions"></a>cyclopean bastions of the earlier castle-builder.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 541px;"><a name="illo61" id="illo61"></a>
<img src="images/illus-168.jpg" width="541" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">PENSHURST PLACE. KENT.</span>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span><i>Penshurst Place.</i>—This was originally an embattled mansion of the
fourteenth century, and gradually expanded by constant additions into an
excellent example of a combined castle and a manorial dwelling-house.
The licence to crenellate is dated the fifteenth year of Edward III.,
and stands in the name of Sir John de Pulteneye. This opulent knight
erected a stately mansion in the form of an irregular square as to plan.
It reverted to the Crown in the reign of Henry VI. and was held by the
Duke of Bedford, Regent for a time, and then by his brother, Humphrey,
Duke of Gloucester. The Staffords held it afterwards, but at the decease
of the Duke of Buckingham Edward VI. gave it to Ralph Fane and then to
Sir William Sydney, one of the heroes of Flodden Field. Its associations
with Sir Philip Sydney form one of its chief claims upon the public. The
spacious Hall measures 60 feet in length by the same in height; it is 40
feet wide, and is a grand example of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> fourteenth-century architecture.
The beautiful windows reach from the floor to a considerable height, the
roof is open, there is a minstrels' gallery, and an elaborate
arrangement for the fire in the middle of the Hall. Adjacent is a range
of buildings much altered in the Elizabethan period, containing state
rooms, the Queen's drawing-room, etc. Portions of the wall of enceinte
are to be found upon the south and east.</p>
<p><i>Ightham Mote.</i>—This building is undoubtedly one of the most perfect
examples of the combination of domestic convenience with an efficient
system of defence to be found in England. It stands about two miles from
Ightham village in Kent in a deep hollow, through which runs a rivulet
flowing into the moat surrounding the House, from which the latter takes
its name. Ivo de Haut possessed the Mote in the reign of Henry II.; it
reverted to the Crown for a time in the reign of Richard III., but was
restored to the family, and subsequently passed through the hands of
many owners.</p>
<p>The House appears to be of three distinct periods, Edward II., Henry
VII., and Elizabeth. The Hall is of the first period; it has a slender
stone arch to carry the roof and contains many <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> ancient features; some
of the original shingles, for example, are still in existence, though a
modern roof covers them. Other objects are a Chapel, original, and the
Gateway Tower with the gateway itself and the doors.</p>
<p>There are many examples in England of the simple manorial hall of purely
domestic type whose owners found it expedient, at some critical period,
to fortify in some manner, and these additions are of the greatest
interest to the antiquarian. Perhaps the best example to be found is
that of Stokesay, near Ludlow, which is a unique specimen of a small
mansion of the thirteenth century subsequently fortified. The licence is
dated 1291, and a stone wall is mentioned; only a few yards remain of
this.</p>
<p>A wide ditch surrounds the area, and a high tower, similar to two towers
joined together, affords the required defence. It is embattled, the
merlons being pierced, while the embrasures have the ancient shutters
still depending. It dates from the end of the thirteenth century. The
Hall stands adjacent and vies with that at Winchester in being the most
perfect example of a thirteenth-century hall remaining to us. It is
about 50 feet long by 30 wide and over <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> 30 feet in height. The windows
are in the E.E. style, and the corbels carrying the roof are of the same
period. The lord's apartment overlooked the Hall. It has been occupied
by the de Says, the Verduns, and ten generations of the Ludlows, the
first of whom built the crenellated parts. The prompt surrender of the
Cavalier garrison to the Parliamentarian army is no doubt responsible
for the fact that no destruction of the House occurred at that critical
time.</p>
<p>The examples given of the Castellated Mansion and fortified Manor-House
are necessarily meagre in number, and many more, such as Broughton
Castle in Oxfordshire, Sudley in Gloucestershire, Wingfield Manor,
Derbyshire; Hilton, Durham; Hampton Court, Hereford; Whitton, Durham,
etc., call for remark if the exigencies of space permitted.</p>
<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></h2>
<p class="title">THE CASTLES OF SCOTLAND</p>
<p><i>Prehistoric and other Earthworks.</i>—The numerous remains of strongholds
and defensive works of a prehistoric character readily fall as a rule
under one of the divisions used in describing the English examples. They
are usually of a circular or oval formation, and where irregular the
shape has been determined by the site.</p>
<p>The Hill-forts, known as Vitrified Forts, are, however, not represented
in England, and, although found in a few places upon the Continent,
appear to have been chiefly developed in Scotland. By some means, not
definitely determined as yet, the walls of these strongholds have been
subjected to intense heat, whereby the stones have become plastic, and
amalgamated when cool into one coherent mass. It is unnecessary to
dilate upon the obvious advantages which <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> a homogeneous defence of this
nature would possess. These forts chiefly lie in a broad band between
the Moray Firth and Argyle and Wigtown, and are generally constructed of
igneous rocks; when provided with a suitable flux of alkali in the form
of wood-ashes or seaweed a comparatively moderate heat would be
sufficient to cause fusion. The walls of Vitrified Forts are of about
half the thickness of unvitrified, and appear to belong to the Late
Celtic Age.</p>
<p><i>Brochs</i> are also peculiar to Scotland. They are massive, tower-like
buildings, chiefly occurring in the northern counties and upon the
islands; they are remarkably similar in outline and construction, and
they have been ascribed chronologically to the period immediately before
or after the Roman occupation of Britain, and as being essentially
Celtic. The Broch of Mousa is generally believed to be the most perfect
example extant; it is in Shetland, and consists of a wall 15 feet thick
enclosing a court 20 feet in diameter. The wall is about 45 feet in
height and contains a solitary entrance, narrow and low. In the
thickness of the wall, and approached by three internal openings, are
chambers, while <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> a spiral staircase leads upwards to where passages
constructed in the walls are served by the stairway. Other Brochs which
have been examined appear to possess a similarity of plan, but some have
subsidiary defences in the shape of external walls, ramparts, and
fosses; thus the example at Clickamin, Lerwick, was surrounded by a
stone wall. That found upon Cockburn Law, and known as Odin's, or Edin's
Hold, is of note by reason of the double rampart of earth surrounding
it. It is one of the largest as yet discovered, the wall being 17 feet
thick and the area 56 feet wide. Probably the many hut circles which
surround this Broch are of later date and were formed from its ruins.
The great thickness of the wall is exceeded, however, by the Broch at
Torwoodlee, Selkirkshire, by 6 inches.</p>
<p>With the advent of the historical period firmer ground is reached, and
there are numerous evidences that the Motte and Bailey Castle was
introduced at an early period into Scotland. During the second half of
the eleventh century this was the prevailing type as in England.</p>
<p>It has been found possible to divide the era <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> of castellation proper in
the northern kingdom into four distinct periods:</p>
<p><i>First Period</i>, 1100-1300.—The roving spirit and warlike disposition of
the Normans prompted their adventurers to penetrate into the
fastnesses of the North, where the innovations they introduced made
them acceptable in the main to the inhabitants. They taught the latter
how to raise towers of a design based upon the Rectangular Keep, with
thick cemented walls, and many of the great fortresses, such as
Edinburgh, Stirling, and Dumbarton, originated at this time. The early
type of Keep was quadrangular in plan with towers at the angles, which
were sometimes detached from the main building and placed upon short
curtain walls; but some were naturally modified or specially adapted to
the site like those of Home and Loch Doon. The use of water as a defence
was recognised at an early stage; some towers were placed on islands in
lakes, and most of them were furnished with moats and ditches. At this
period castles were seldom placed upon high promontories. The
workmanship was as a rule poor, rough, and crude, but some exceptions
occur like Kildrummie and Dirleton.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p>
<p><i>Second Period</i>, 1300-1400.—The years of this century were marked
in Scotland by anarchy, war, and bloodshed, which devastated the kingdom
and placed the arts of peace in complete abeyance, while poverty was
universal. The period was consequently unfavourable for the erection of
Scottish castles upon a large scale, but many scores of small Keeps
sprang into existence. Bruce was antagonistic to the building of large
and roomy castles, arguing that their capture by an invader would give
him a standing in the country which otherwise he would not possess.</p>
<p>The towers erected were based upon the Norman Keep; they were of stone
throughout, so that their destruction by fire was impossible. Their
walls were so thick and massive that restoration after a siege was easy.
The basement was always vaulted, and was intended for storage purposes
and the herding of cattle in an emergency. As a general rule it had no
interior communication with the upper floors, but trap-doors are not
unknown. The entrance to the building was on the first storey through a
narrow door reached by a ladder; it gave upon the Hall, the chief
apartment, where all dined <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> in common, and the household slept, a
subsidiary half floor being constructed above for this purpose.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 216px;"><a name="illo62" id="illo62"></a>
<img src="images/illus-178.png" width="216" height="329" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="BARTIZAN" id="BARTIZAN"></a>BARTIZAN.</span>
</div>
<p>The second floor was the private apartment of the chieftain and his
family, and was also provided with a wooden gallery for sleeping
purposes. The roof was a pointed arch resting solidly upon the walls and
covered with stone slabs. At the angles of the building bartizans were
usually built, although rounded corners like those at Neidpath and Drum
sometimes occur. In the massive walls spiral staircases, small rooms,
cupboards, and other conveniences were arranged. Round the Tower a wall
was generally erected, within which the stables, offices, and kitchens
were built. In the wall of the Tower itself, and sometimes below the
level of the ground, the universal "pit" or prison was built, ventilated
by a shaft carried upwards in the thickness of the wall. At times the
battlements were provided with parapets resting upon corbels but
executed in a <a name="crude_manner" id="crude_manner"></a>crude manner.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 312px;"><a name="illo63" id="illo63"></a>
<img src="images/illus-179.jpg" width="312" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">BOTHWELL CASTLE, LANARKSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>The century in question saw numerous castles of this type come into
existence, all based upon the same plan, that of the king differing only
in size from that of the small chieftain. The largest are from 40 to 60
feet square, but the majority are much smaller. These Keeps formed
nuclei for subsequent additions as at Loch Leven, Craigmillar, Campbell,
and Aros, and many of them served as ordinary residences down to the
seventeenth century, long after the tide of war had passed.</p>
<p><i>Third Period</i>, 1400-1550.—With the coming of peace and a period of
commercial and industrial prosperity, the nobles of Scotland were able
to observe the progress of castellation around them in England and
France, and began to adopt the styles which they found in those
countries. A type of castle appeared based like that of Bodium upon a
French ideal,—the building of a high embattled wall strengthened with
towers around a quadrangular space. This plan, derived from the
Concentric ideal, was adopted for the largest castles, such as Stirling,
which is the most perfect example of a courtyard plan, and Tantallon.</p>
<p>In the smaller castles the Hall is placed in the centre with the
kitchen, pantry, and buttery <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> adjoining it, and the lord's solar and
private apartments at the daïs end. The wine-vaults and cellars are
built beneath, while the bedrooms occur above. In contrast to the
English buildings of the period, the question of defence was the
dominating idea in spite of the altered conditions of better living and
increased luxury. Many plain and simple Keeps were also built during
this period.</p>
<p><i>Fourth Period, after</i> 1550.—The development of artillery led to
alterations being made in castellation, while the progress of the
Reformation gradually introduced the fortified mansion and Manor-House.
Many small Keeps, or Peel Towers, were built, however, chiefly on the
Border. Ornamentation up to this period had been conspicuously absent,
but now it assumed a very high importance. Corbelling became almost a
mania,—floors, windows, parapets, chimneys, and other details
projecting to an excessive distance in order to enhance the effect. The
bartizans were covered with high conical roofs, and turrets similarly
ornamented became a prominent style. The accommodation in the upper
floors was greatly increased when compared with the basement, through
the excess <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> of corbelling. Gables were furnished with crow-steps, while
machicolation became at times almost fantastic. Gargoyles shaped like
cannon in stone are a marked feature of the period.</p>
<p><i>Bothwell Castle, Lanarkshire (1st Period)</i></p>
<p>Bothwell Castle is generally termed the grandest ruin of a
thirteenth-century castle in Scotland. It belonged in the thirteenth
century to the Murray family; was captured by Edward I. and given to
Aymer de Valence, Earl of Pembroke. The English had possession until the
year 1337 when, after capturing it, the Scots dismantled it. From the
Douglas family it passed by marriage to the Earls of Home. It is placed
upon a rocky promontory above the Clyde, and consists of an oblong
courtyard with high curtain walls and strengthening towers, round or
square, while a large circular donjon lies at the west end. The latter
bestrides the enceinte and is separated from the bailey by a moat; it is
of noble proportions, 60 feet in diameter and 90 feet high, with walls
15 feet thick. The Tower forcibly suggests that at Coucy in many
particulars. The Hall and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> various other apartments occupy the eastern
portion of the Bailey.</p>
<p><i>Neidpath Castle</i> (<i>2nd Period</i>)</p>
<p>Neidpath Castle is situated upon elevated land overlooking a winding of
the Tweed. It was built upon the <b>L</b> plan, probably in the fourteenth
century, being a main central tower of the Keep type with a square
projection of considerable size attached to one side. The walls are 11
feet in thickness and the original door was on the basement floor facing
the river, a departure from the general rule. A spiral stair gave access
to the upper storeys. The Tower was originally of enormous strength,
being really two immense vaults superposed upon each other, but other,
wooden, floors have been inserted between. The parapet and corners are
rounded similar to those at Drum Castle. It was greatly altered and
added to in the seventeenth century. No particular history attaches to
the building, which belonged to the Hays of Yester for centuries; it has
only undergone one siege, that by Cromwell, when it surrendered after a
<a name="short_defence" id="short_defence"></a>short defence.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 567px;"><a name="illo64" id="illo64"></a>
<img src="images/illus-182.jpg" width="567" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">NEIDPATH CASTLE, PEEBLES.</span>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p>
<p><i>Edinburgh Castle (3rd Period)</i></p>
<p>The site of Edinburgh Castle has undoubtedly been occupied by some
description of fortress from the most remote antiquity. The Romans
occupied it and subsequently Malcolm Canmore fortified it as an aid
towards keeping the English out of Scotland. In 1291 Edward I. besieged
and took it in fifteen days; he recaptured it again in 1294. In 1313 it
fell into the hands of Bruce by a daring escalade, and was stripped of
its defences. Edward III. rebuilt it, and placed a strong garrison
there, but the Scots took it four years later. David II. refortified it
and rendered it so strong that neither Richard II. nor Henry IV. had any
success in their attempts to take it. Since that period it has undergone
a number of sieges.</p>
<p>It is built upon the courtyard plan, and is one of the survivors of the
four chief fortresses in the country, the others being Stirling,
Roxburgh, and Berwick.</p>
<p>The moat at the entrance is now dry and filled up, and the Gateway there
is modern. The Argyle Tower (sometimes called the St. David's Tower) is
a portion of the old castle, as are also <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> the ruins of the Wellhouse
Tower, while St. Margaret's Chapel is the oldest building and also the
oldest church in Scotland, containing Early Norman work and probably
also Saxon. The general aspect of the Castle suffers much from a
picturesque point of view by the addition of the great demi-lune battery
and ranges of modern buildings.</p>
<p><i>Stirling Castle (3rd Period)</i></p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>The commanding rock upon which Stirling Castle is placed was originally
an old hill fort, but in the twelfth century was one of the four chief
castles. Thus in 1304 it held out for three months against Edward I. and
a powerful army. So important was it considered that Edward II.
attempted to relieve it, and thus led to Bannockburn. Baliol occupied
it, and King David only captured it after a long and obstinate siege. At
the Stuart period it became a Royal Castle and the favourite residence
of the Scottish kings. The present walls are undoubtedly raised upon the
old foundations, but, so far as antiquity is concerned, the oldest part
of the Castle remaining is the Parliament Hall opening from the Inner
Ward which is of late Perpendicular architecture. The Palace is of the
Renaissance, and dates <a name="from_1594" id="from_1594"></a>from 1594.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 532px;"><a name="illo65" id="illo65"></a>
<img src="images/illus-185.jpg" width="532" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">EDINBURGH CASTLE, FROM THE TERRACE OF HERIOT'S HOSPITAL.</span>
</div>
<p><i>Dunnottar Castle, Kincardineshire (3rd Period)</i></p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>One mile south of Stonehaven stands Dunnottar Castle, upon a flat
platform of rock with the North Sea washing three of the precipitous
sides. A small isthmus, not much above the level of the sea, connects it
to the mainland.</p>
<p>The oldest parts of the Castle date from c. 1382. The entrance is at the
base of the rock upon the land side, where an outwork of remarkable
strength is placed. After ascending a steep incline a tunnel 26 feet
long is reached, also defended, and a second similar defence occurs
beyond, thus the approach was of an extremely formidable character.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>The Keep stands at the south-west corner, and is of the <b>L</b> shape four
stories in height, and built early in the fifteenth century. The stables
and domestic buildings are of a later date, and arranged round part of
an irregular courtyard. The Castle, although credited with being one of
the most impregnable in Scotland, and to which the Scottish regalia was
entrusted for safe keeping during the Commonwealth, was captured by Sir
William Wallace in 1297, whose troops scaled the precipices and put the
English garrison of 4000 men to the sword. In 1336 Edward III.
refortified it, but the Scots took it as soon as he had left the
kingdom. General Lambert blockaded the Castle in 1652, and eventually
captured it.</p>
<p><i>Tantallon Castle (3rd Period)</i></p>
<p>Tantallon Castle is of the courtyard type, similar to Caerlaverock and
Doune, and was erected about the end of the fourteenth century. Situated
upon a rocky precipitous site, with three sides washed by the North Sea,
it was only imperative to construct defences upon the fourth or west
side. A deep ditch cut in the rock, curtain walls 12 feet thick and 50
feet high, battlemented, with a level court in front, beyond which was
another deep ditch,—these were the defences deemed all-sufficient to
baffle intruders. The Keep also acted as a flanking defence to the
curtain walls, and contained the only entrance, which passed
completely through it. Many traces exist of the work carried out in
the early part of the sixteenth century in the endeavour to make it
impregnable to artillery. The buildings now occupy only two sides of the
interior <a name="quadrangle" id="quadrangle"></a>quadrangle, the rest having been dismantled.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 526px;"><a name="illo66" id="illo66"></a>
<img src="images/illus-187.jpg" width="526" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">DUNNOTTAR CASTLE, KINCARDINESHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p>In the rich history of the Castle we find that in 1528 James V. invested
it with 20,000 men and a formidable battering train, the structure
itself being supplied with large artillery. The siege lasted twenty days
and proved unavailing, the great thickness of the walls resisting the
efforts of the gunners. It underwent another siege in 1639 when the Earl
of Angus made a stand in it against the Covenanters. General Monk
invested it and found after two days that his mortars had no effect; he
then tried heavy siege guns which breached the wall, but the garrisons
retreated into the central tower where they were safe, and were allowed
to capitulate upon good terms. The fortress fell into ruin in the
beginning of the eighteenth century.</p>
<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></h2>
<p class="title">THE SIEGE AND DEFENCE OF A MEDIEVAL CASTLE</p>
<p>A work upon castellation would undoubtedly be incomplete if it omitted
to deal with the interesting subject of the means by which the medieval
knight defended his castle, and of the methods he employed for attacking
his neighbour's, or an enemy's town, whether in a private feud or
legitimate warfare.</p>
<p>Through the almost universal habit of perusing medieval romances the
general public has formed a mental picture of the hero and his followers
riding round a castle and summoning it to surrender, or challenging the
garrison to emerge from their retreat and essay mortal combat in the
open. As the engineer and captain of the sappers and miners, the
director of the artillery, the designer of movable towers, and the
general head of the various artifices <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> calculated to bring the besieged
to their senses, the hero is less well known.</p>
<p>The <i>coup de main</i> method of attack has probably been the same in most
ages, and undoubtedly was the chief means resorted to by primitive man.
His missile weapons during the Stone, Bronze, and Early Iron Ages were
of no use against earth ramparts crowned by thick palisading; sling,
stones, arrows, and spears were only efficacious against the bodies of
his enemies, and hand-to-hand combat was therefore a necessity. Hence we
may imagine a concentration against a presumably weak point, a sudden
rush, the plunge into the dry ditch and a rapid scramble up the scarp
towards the palisades under a shower of arrows, stones, and other
missiles; the mad escalade of the defences surmounting the earthwork and
the fierce resistance of the defenders, followed by a successful entry
or a disastrous repulse and retreat.</p>
<p>Precisely the same course was pursued in the medieval period when a
rapid bridging of the moat by planks and beams would be attempted,
scaling ladders would be reared, and, protected by their shields from
the rain of missiles, the assailants, covered by their archers' fire of
arrows <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> and bolts upon the ramparts, would mount their ladders and
attempt to effect a lodgment upon the walls. And, although weapons and
conditions have changed, the assault to-day is made upon the self-same
methods.</p>
<p>If, instead of the <i>coup de main</i>, a sustained siege is decided upon the
knight will order his "gyns" to be brought up to the front, and large
and heavy ones to be built upon the spot. From the time when Uzziah
"made in Jerusalem engines, invented by cunning men, to be on the towers
and upon the bulwarks, to shoot arrows and great stones withal," <a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> down
to the invention of cannon, the ingenuity of man has been exercised in
devising machines for hurling missiles to a distance.</p>
<p>The Greeks, Romans, and other nations of antiquity brought them to
perfection, and marvellous results were obtained in ancient sieges; the
vivid account by Plutarch of the great engines used at the attack upon
Syracuse, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 214-212, reads almost like romance. Caesar frequently
mentions this artillery, and especially the portable balistae for
throwing arrows and casting stones; they were fitted with axles and
wheels and manœuvred like batteries of cannon at the present day.
Larger engines were <a name="constructed" id="constructed"></a>constructed as required like those of the medieval
period.</p>
<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> 2 Chron. xxvi. 15.</p></div>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 554px;"><a name="illo67" id="illo67"></a>
<img src="images/illus-190.jpg" width="554" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">TANTALLON CASTLE, HADDINGTONSHIRE.
</span>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>The ancient engines were distinct from those of a later age in depending
for their efficacy upon the forces of tension and torsion as compared
with that of counterpoise in the middle ages. The art of preparing the
sinews of animals so as to preserve their elastic powers was known to
the ancients, and great bundles so treated were utilised in different
ways in the various engines. Experiments on sinews, ropes of hair, and
other materials at the present day have proved that loss of elasticity
soon occurs, whereas we learn that such was not the fact in classical
times with their special method of preparation. By fixing an endless
skein in a suitable frame, stretching it tightly and then twisting the
skein in the centre by means of a beam of wood, the necessary torsion
was obtained; if a missile were placed upon the beam when drawn back and
the beam released, the projectile would be hurled to a distance
proportionate to the velocity of the arm and the weight of the missile.</p>
<p>The principle may readily be gleaned from the accompanying diagram which
exemplifies <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> the two vertical skeins used in a portable balista for
throwing arrows; by being fixed in a suitable frame an action like that
of the bow could be obtained. By using immense coils of twisted sinew
the nations of antiquity, and especially the Greeks, threw stones
weighing 50 lbs. or more to a distance of from 400 to 500 yards, and as
a general rule with marvellous accuracy, while lighter missiles are
stated to have been hurled to between 700 and 800 yards. These engines
received the general name of "catapults," although the Greeks generally
referred to them under the term "tormentum," in reference to the twisted
sinews, thongs, and hair, of which the skeins were made. Broadly
speaking, catapults shot darts, arrows, and the falarica,—a long
iron-headed pole; balistas projected stones or similar missiles, though
the names are often interchanged by the chroniclers. Some time after the
fall of the Roman empire the secret of preparing the sinews was lost.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;"><a name="illo68" id="illo68"></a>
<img src="images/illus-192a.png" width="380" height="151" alt="" />
<span class="caption"><a name="DIAGRAM_ILLUSTRATING_THE_PRINCIPLE" id="DIAGRAM_ILLUSTRATING_THE_PRINCIPLE"></a>DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSTRUCTION IN
CLASSICAL ENGINES.</span></div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span><i>The Trebuchet.</i>—Another force was called into play for medieval
artillery. This was the counterpoise, or gravitation, and the principle
upon which all large engines or "gyns" were constructed during the
middle ages. A long wooden arm was pivoted in a framework so that a
short and a long portion projected upon either side; to the shorter part
a great weight in a swinging cradle was fixed which necessarily raised
the longer arm to the vertical position. If the latter were drawn
backwards and downwards the great weight was accordingly raised, and
upon release the long arm would sweep upwards in a curve and project any
missile attached to it. By fixing a sling of suitable length to the arm
the efficiency was immensely increased (<i>see</i> Title-page). Such was the
principle of the "trebuchet," the enormous engines which carried
devastation and destruction to medieval castles. The French are said to
have introduced these in the twelfth century, and by the end of the
thirteenth they were the <a name="most_formidable" id="most_formidable"></a>most formidable siege engines of the time.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 532px;"><a name="illo69" id="illo69"></a>
<img src="images/illus-192.jpg" width="532" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">STIRLING CASTLE, STIRLINGSHIRE.</span>
</div>
<p>The transition period in England between the classical weapons and the
trebuchet was the twelfth century and the early part of the thirteenth.
The veterans from the crusades undoubtedly introduced the torsion and
tension engines, but <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> found that the home-made article could not compete
in efficiency with the Oriental examples and therefore the advent of the
trebuchet was welcomed. Roughly speaking, the original balista or
catapults depending upon torsion, and throwing shafts rather than balls,
were not so frequently in use as those engines which depended upon
tension and threw heavy stones. In the early part of the thirteenth
century the balista catapult came into vogue once more; it was of the
cross-bow type, and at the end of the century was called the espringale
and mounted on wheels.</p>
<p>The counterpoises used in large trebuchets weighed sometimes between 8
and 9 tons; the throwing arm was often 50 feet in length, and the engine
could hurl a projectile weighing between 2 cwt. and 3 cwt. to a distance
of about 300 yards. Dead horses were at times sent whirling over the
battlements into a besieged town, while casks of matter of an offensive
character and likely to breed pestilences were common missiles. But the
chief use and purpose of the trebuchet was the smashing-up of
bretasches; the pounding of the battlements and upper works to
facilitate escalades; the filling up of the moat in selected places by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
throwing large quantities of earth, stones, etc., into it and against
the walls, and, occasionally, to hurl some unfortunate envoy back again
into a town or fortress when the messages he carried were distasteful to
the besiegers. In a medieval MS. full directions are given for trussing
a man intended for use as a projectile.</p>
<p>Camden states that at the siege of Bedford Castle by King John one of
the mangonels, <i>i.e.</i> trebuchets, threw millstones into the castle. He
mentions seven great machines being at work at one time. Again, when
Henry III. besieged Kenilworth, in 1266, stones of extraordinary size
were used as missiles; some are still preserved at the Castle and two
are at the Rotunda, Woolwich, the diameters being 18-1/2 inches and
16-1/4 inches; the weight 256 lbs. and 165 lbs. respectively. At
Pevensey Castle catapult stone shot of 144, 156, and 241 lbs.
respectively have been discovered. The great trebuchet constructed by
Edward I. for the siege of Stirling Castle cast balls weighing between
two and three hundredweight. The several parts of this great machine
were sent by sea, but the Castle surrendered before its efficacy could
be tried. The King was annoyed that this, his pet device, the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
"War-Wolf," as it was termed, had not had an opportunity, and therefore
ordered the garrison to remain within while he took a few "pot-shots" at
their defences.</p>
<p>Such projectiles would almost demolish a house, and were nearly as
formidable as modern shells; their great weight would batter every
portion of a medieval castle except the very thickest of walls. The
platforms of earth thrown up by besiegers to sustain their great engines
remain in many places intact to-day; thus round Berkhampstead Castle are
eight, upon which the trebuchets of the Dauphin were erected in 1216,
when he battered the castle into submission in about a fortnight. The
terms mangonel, petrary, balista, onager, scorpion, perrier, catapult,
etc., when used by historians of the middle ages, generally apply to the
trebuchet and its varieties, large and small.</p>
<p><i>The Arblast, Espringale, and Spurgardon</i> were engines based upon the
cross-bow or tension principle; some were of considerable size and threw
huge bolts tipped with iron. Another and a common use was to convey
ignited incendiary matter into the enemy's quarters by their means. They
were mounted upon towers, curtain walls, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>and in the baileys, while in
the open when placed upon wheels they served the purpose of
<a name="field-pieces" id="field-pieces"></a>field-pieces.</p>
<div class="figcenter" style="width: 294px;"><a name="illo70" id="illo70"></a>
<img src="images/illus-196.jpg" width="294" height="400" alt="" />
<span class="caption">RAISING THE PORTCULLIS.</span>
</div>
<p><i>The Ram</i>, based upon the weapon used by the ancients, was in frequent
use. The working parts and the men manipulating it were protected by a
pent-house called the "Snail," or "Whelk," having a roof of considerable
thickness. In this house it was suspended by chains and pulled backwards
and forwards by hand or mechanical appliances; when released, it smashed
the stones in the wall to powder, so that they could be subsequently
removed from the defences. To mitigate the effects the besieged let down
mattresses, bags of wool, and coiled rope mats by chains from the
ramparts.</p>
<p><i>The Terebra.</i>—A machine based upon the classical <i>terebra</i> was also in
use. It consisted of a heavy beam which could be rotated; the iron head
being furnished with a spike of square section was inserted in a joint
into which it bored its way, breaking up the surrounding stones and
facilitating their removal.</p>
<p><i>The Cat, or Sow</i>, was in constant use for mining and underpinning
walls. It was a covered house upon wheels, with an enormously strong
roof calculated to withstand the heavy <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> stones, beams of wood, hot
water, molten lead, and spiked poles which were invariably launched from
the battlements for its destruction. Under its cover the besiegers
tunnelled beneath the walls, which they supported with woodwork until
their task was completed; by starting a conflagration in the chamber
thus excavated the supports were consumed and the wall was breached. At
other times the stones, previously shattered or loosened by the ram or
the terebra, were removed until the wall above was incapable of bearing
its own weight. Mining, like other operations, had to be carried out
with discretion and was undoubtedly a precarious operation. Thus in the
siege of Dryslwyn Castle, Carmarthenshire, in the time of Edward I.,
Lord Stafford and other leaders lost their lives by a sudden collapse of
the walls they were undermining. The mine was often met by a
counter-mine of the garrison as in modern warfare.</p>
<p><i>The Beffroi, Belfry, or Movable Tower</i> was a machine for facilitating
the capture of fortified positions. It could be built upon the spot or
carried from place to place in pieces. When mounted upon wheels it was
pushed forward towards the walls, the object being to give the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>
assailants the same advantage of height which was shared by the
besieged. From the upper platform the archers could command the
battlements and approaches; those in lower stages sent their missiles
into loopholes and other openings; in the lowest stage a ram was often
mounted. One feature of its construction was a hinged platform which
fell outwards upon the battlements and over which the assailants
endeavoured to enter the fortress. The besieged hindered the approach of
this terror by digging pitfalls for the wheels, shooting incendiary
missiles, making sallies for its destruction by fire, or concentrating
such a body of men upon the walls that none could live under the hail of
missiles poured into it.</p>
<p>The methods of assailing a castle thus enumerated were, as a rule, put
into operation at the same time and supported one another. Thus in the
siege of Bedford Castle, defended by the followers of Faukes de Breauté,
in 1224, the siege was carried out by King Henry III. in person. Two
wooden Beffrois were made and advanced towards the walls,—these were
occupied by longbow-men and arbalestiers; sappers approached the walls
and undermined by means <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> of a Cat; seven trebuchets cast their ponderous
projectiles against, or into, the castle without intermission night and
day, while lesser artillery hurled lead-covered stones, darts, bolts,
and other missiles among the defenders upon the walls, or through the
oillets and louvre-covered windows. The barbican was taken and then the
outer bailey; a breach in the defending wall gave admission to the inner
bailey, and when, by judicious sapping, one portion of the great Shell
Keep sank and produced a wide breach, the castle was surrendered.</p>
<p>In medieval manuscripts we meet with many illustrations of petardiers
hurling vessels containing Greek fire upon the various engines attacking
a castle or town, and perhaps this terrifying missile deserves more
notice than has hitherto been paid to it. Introduced from the East
during the time of the Crusades it was used with other incendiary
bodies, but as no great objects were specially achieved by its use in
our islands, or rather, as chroniclers do not make special mention of
such results, we are probably justified in thinking that the effects
were more of a terrifying character than of actual effectiveness in
besieging or defending a castle.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2>
<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adulterine Castles, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ages—Stone, Bronze, Iron, dates of, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">l'Aigle, Matilda de, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Albini, Nigel de, Cainhoe Castle, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alnwick Castle, description of, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alselin, Geoffrey, Laxton Castle, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alur, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ambresbury Banks, Essex, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anderida, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angus, Earl of, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arbalesteria, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arblast, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Archer, the English, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aros Castle, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arundel Castle, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shell Keep, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">siege of, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arundel Cathedral, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aspiks, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Avalon, Isle of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Badbury, Berks, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Badbury Rings, Wimborne, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Badlesmere, Bartholomew, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bailey, buildings in, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bailey or Base Court, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bakewell, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baliol, Robert <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Balista <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stones, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bamborough Castle, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">siege of, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">wards of, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Banks, Sir John, and Lady, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barbican, or ravelin, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barnard Castle, the Keep, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bartizans, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Base Court or Bailey, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Basilisks, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Battlemented parapets, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bayeux tapestry, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beauchamp Tower, Tower of London, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beaufort, Duke of, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beaumaris Castle, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Bebban burh</i> or Bamborough, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bedford Castle, Shell Keep of, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">siege of, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beffroi, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bek, Anthony, Bishop of Durham, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Belesme, Robert de, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Belfry, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Belvoir Castle, position of, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Todenei, Robert, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Berkeley Castle, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Berkhampstead Castle, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mortaign, Robert, Count of, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Berm, Cadbury Castle, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Verulamium, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Berwick Castle, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bigot family, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bodiam Castle, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boleyn, Anne, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sir Geoffrey, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sir Thomas, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolingbroke, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bombards, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bothwell Castle, description of, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bowyer Tower, Tower of London, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bradbury, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bretasche, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Motte and Bailey Castle, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Breauté, Faukes de, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brick Castles, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brick-making, art of, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">British Isles, earthworks of, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Broch, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">at Cockburn Law, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of Mousa, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bronllys Castle, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bronze Age, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Broughton Castle, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bruce, Robert, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buckingham, Duke of, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Builth Castle, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bures Mount, Essex, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Burgh, Hubert de, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Burh, bury, borough, and burgh, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Burhs, Nottingham, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Saxon, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stafford, Tarn worth and Warwick, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Witham and Maldon, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Busli, Roger de, Tickhill Castle, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cadbury, Tiverton, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Castle, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Berm of, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caerlaverock Castle, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caerphilly Castle, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caesar, artillery of, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cainhoe Castle, Albini, Nigel de, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Campbell Castle, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canmore, Malcolm, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cannon, early, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">gargoyles, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">shot, weight of, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canterbury Castle, Keep of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carew Castle, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carisbrooke Castle, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carnarvon Castle, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">town walls of, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Castellated Mansion, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Castellation, the first, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">transition period, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Castle-building Stephen's reign, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Castles, centre of boroughs, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">centre of feudal baronies, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">definition of, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in Gascony, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Herefordshire, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hertfordshire, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Leicestershire, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nottinghamshire, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of Scotland, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sites of, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cat, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Catapult, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chapel-en-le-Frith, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chaworth, Payn de, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chepstow Castle, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Château Gaillard, description of, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the Keep, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chaucer, Geoffrey, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cilgerran Castle, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cissbury, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil War, efficiency of Castles, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clare, Earl of, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gilbert de, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">family, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Classification of earthworks, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clavering Castle, Essex, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clawll y Milwyr, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cleves, Anne of, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clickamin Broch, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cliff Castles, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>-9</span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clifford's Castle, Northants, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clifton Camps, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clinton, William de, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clun Castle, Keep of, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cobham, Lord, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colchester Castle, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chapel of, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colepeper family, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Comb Moss, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Compton, Sir William, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Concentric Castle, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">essential principles of, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Conisborough Castle, description of, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constantinople, fortifications of, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Contour forts, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Conway, town wall of, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Castle, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 3em;">description of, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corbelling, mania for, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corfe Castle, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Buttavant Tower, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"slighting" of, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coucy Castle, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Counterpoise engines, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Counterpoises of trebuchets, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Coup-de-main</i> attack, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Craigmillar Castle, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crenellated walls, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crévecœur family, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Criccieth Castle, description of, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cromlechs, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cromwell, Ralph, Lord, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crowstep gables, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Curtain walls, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cutts, Lord, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cylindrical Keep, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dalyngrugge, Sir Edward, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Danish burhs, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dauphin, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Definition of a castle, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Devil of Belesme,"<a href='#Page_87'>87</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Differentiation of earthworks, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dilke family, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dinas, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dirleton Castle, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dog-tooth ornament, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dolebury, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Donjon, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dorchester, Oxon, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Douglas family, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Doune Castle, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dover Castle, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the Keep, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dragons, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Drum Castle, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dryslwyn Castle, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dudley Castle, Fitz-Ansculf, William, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dumbarton Castle, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dunnottar Castle, description of, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dunster Castle, Mohun, William de, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Durability of earthworks, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Durham Castle, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dyke Hills, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eagle Tower, Carnarvon Castle, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Earls Barton Castle, Northants, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Earthworks, auxiliary aids to, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">British Isles, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">classification of, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">destruction of, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">differentiation of, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">durability of, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">English, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">with stockades, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Edinburgh Castle, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Argyle Tower, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Edinburgh Castle, St. Margaret's Chapel, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wellhouse Tower, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Edin's Hold, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Edwardian" Castle, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Edward the Martyr, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eleanor, wife of Humphrey of Gloucester, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Elfreton, Henry de, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ely, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Engines, ancient, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English earthworks, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Escalade, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Espringale, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ethelfleda of the Mercians, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Exburgh Manor-House, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eye Castle, Malet, Robert de, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fairfax, Sir Thomas, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Falarica, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fane, Ralph, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fergeant, Alan, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ferrers, Henry de, Tutbury Castle, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Feudal baronies, castles centre of, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fiennes, Sir Roger, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thomas, execution of, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First castellation, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fishguard, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fitz-Ansculf, William, Dudley Castle, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fitz-John, Eustace, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fitz-Osborne, William, Earl of Hereford, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">William, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fitz-Scrob, Richard, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flanking Towers, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flint Castle, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flying bridge, Motte and Bailey Castle, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fonmon Castle, Glamorganshire, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Forebuildings, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rochester Castle, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fortified Hill-Tops, classification of, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">strengthened, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gam, Sir David, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gannock's Castle, near Tempsford, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gaveston, Piers, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Glendower, Owen, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gloucester Castle, Keep of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Humphrey, Duke of, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Golden Valley, Castle at, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gravitation engines, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek fire, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grey, Sir Ralph, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guildford Castle, Chapel of, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gunpowder, introduction of, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Gyns,"<a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ham Hill, Somerset, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hampton Court, Herefordshire, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Harlech Castle, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Harquebuses, openings for, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hastings Castle, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hatton, Sir Christopher, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haut, Ivo de, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haverfordwest Castle, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hedingham Keep, Essex, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hembury Fort, Honiton, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Herefordshire, Castles in, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hereford, Motte and Bailey Castle, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Herstmonceaux Castle, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hertfordshire, Castles in, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hever Castle, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sir William de, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hill forts, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hilton Castle, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Home Castle, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Earls of, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Homestead moats, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">developed, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Humfreys, Sir William, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hunsbury, Northants, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ifan, Davydd ap, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ightham Mote, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Iron Age, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Isabella, Queen of Edward II., <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Isle of Avalon, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Juliets, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Keep, Scottish, plan of, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kemyss, Sir Nicholas, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kenilworth Castle, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">siege of, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kidwelly Castle, Carmarthenshire, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kildrummie Castle, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lacy, Ilbert de, Pontefract Castle, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lambert, General, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lamphey Castle, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Land of Castles,"<a href='#Page_131'>131</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Launceston Castle, the Keep, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Laxton Castle, Alselin, Geoffrey, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leconfield, Lord, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leeds Castle, Kent, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Baileys of, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Barbicans of, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leicestershire, Castles in, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lewes Castle, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lewkenor, Sir Thomas, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Licences to crenellate, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lincoln Castle, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lisle, Warine de, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Llandilo, Castle near, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Llawhaddon Castle, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Loch Doon Castle, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Loch Leven Castle, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Logan Stone, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ludlow, family of, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Machicolation, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">earliest example of, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maiden Castle, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">entrances of, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malet, Robert de, Eye Castle, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Malvoisin</i>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mam Tor, Derbyshire, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the shivering mountain, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mangonel, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Manorbier Castle, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"March of the Men of Harlech,"<a href='#Page_120'>120</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marmion, Robert le, Tamworth Castle, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maxstoke Castle, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Medieval walls, construction of, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Melandra, near Glossop, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Menhirs, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Merlons, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meurtriers, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mining, method of, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Missile engines of the ancients, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mohun, William de, Dunster Castle, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Monk, General, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montfort, Simon de, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montgomery, family of, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Morgan, Colonel, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mortaign, Robert, Count of, Berkhampstead Castle, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Earl of, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Motte and Bailey Castle, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">advantages of, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">bretasche of, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">construction of, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">flying bridge of, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">positions of, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">positions of mound of, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">rapid erection of, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scottish, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mount and Fosse, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mount (or Motte) and Bailey, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mount, The, Caerleon, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Movable Tower, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mowbray, de, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Narberth Castle, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Natural fortresses strengthened, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>-6</span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Neidpath Castle, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Newcastle-upon-Tyne Castle,</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chapel of, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Forebuilding of, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Newquay, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Newton Castle, Montgomeryshire, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nineveh marbles, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Norham Castle, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Norwich Castle, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nottingham Castle, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nottinghamshire, Castles in, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Odin's Hold, Berwickshire, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oillets, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Old Castle Head, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Onager, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ongar Castle, Essex, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Oppidum</i> of Cassivelaunus, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Orford Castle, Suffolk, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oubliettes, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oxford Castle, Keep of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parapet, location of, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peel Towers, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pelham, Lady Jane, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sir John, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pembroke Castle, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Penhow Castle, Monmouthshire, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Penshurst Place, description of, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Percy, Earl, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sir Henry de, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sir Thomas, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Perrier, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Petardier, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Petrary, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pevensey Castle, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">inner Castle of, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pharos at Dover, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pickering Castle, Keep of, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Pit," or Prison, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pitt Rivers, General, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plantagenet, Hamelin, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plateau forts, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pleshey Castle, Essex, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pontefract Castle, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lacy, Ilbert de, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Porchester Castle, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portland, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Primitive weapons, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Projectiles, men as, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">millstones as, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Promontory forts, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protected village sites, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pulteneye, Sir John de, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quatford Castle, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quia Emptores, Statute of, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Raglan Castle, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ram, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ravelin, or barbican, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ravensburgh Castle, Hexton, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rectangular Keep, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chapel of, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Forebuilding of, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">construction of, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Crypt of, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">impregnability of, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">internal arrangements of, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">introduction of, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ramparts of, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Reculvers, Isle of Thanet, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Redvers, Baldwin de, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Richard de, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Regalia Scottish, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Richard's Castle, Herefordshire, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Richborough Castle, Sandwich, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Richmond Castle, Barbican of, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chapel of, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Crypt of, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ring Hill, Essex, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roche Castle, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rochester Castle, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">siege of, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman fortification, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romano-British Period, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman wall, Tower of London, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roxburgh Castle, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Royal Castles in Kent, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. Burian, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. David's Head, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. John's Chapel, Tower of London, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. Leger, Sir Anthony, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sakers, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saxon burh, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">MSS., <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Period, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Say, de, family of, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Segontium</i> (Carnarvon), <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Serpentines, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Seymour, Charles, Duke of Somerset, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">family of, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scales, Lord, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scarborough Castle, siege of, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scorpion, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scottish Castles, Periods of, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>-181</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Second Period, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Third Period, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fourth Period, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shell Keep, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">configuration of, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">position of, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shirburn Castle, description of, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shoulsbury, Exmoor, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Siege and defence of a medieval castle, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sigismund, Emperor, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Silchester, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Simple artificial enclosures, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Smith, Sir Richard, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Snail,"<a href='#Page_197'>197</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Solar, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Somerset, family of, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sir Charles, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">South Cadbury, Sherborne, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sow, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spurgardon, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spurious castles, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stafford, Edward, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">family of, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Humphrey, Earl of, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lord, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stockades, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">construction of, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gallic, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">on earthworks, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stone Age, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">circles, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stokesay Castle, description of, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stirling Castle, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Palace of, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Parliament Hall, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">siege of, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Strongbow, Richard, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sudley Castle, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Swegen the Sheriff, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sydney, Sir Philip, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">William, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Syracuse, attack on, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Syrens, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tamworth Castle, Marmion, Robert le, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tantallon Castle, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sieges of, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tattershall Castle, crypt of, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Taunton burh, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Terebra, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thetford Castle, Norfolk, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thomas, Sir William ap, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thurnham Castle, Kent, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tickhill Castle, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Busli, Roger de, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Todenei, Robert, Belvoir Castle, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Tormentum</i>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Torsion and tension engines, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Torwoodlee Broch, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Totnes Castle, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Towcester, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tower of London, St. John's Chapel, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Traitors' Gate, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trebuchets, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">projectiles of, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treryn Castle, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tretower Castle, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trevalgue Head, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tutbury Castle, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ferrers, Henry de, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tyler, Wat, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uzziah, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valence, Aymer de, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vaulting Ribs, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Verdun, family of, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vere, de, family of, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Verulamium, St. Albans, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vescy, Ivo de, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vitrified forts, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Waldegrave, Sir Edward, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Waldo, Sir T., <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wales, Rhys of, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wallace, Sir William, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Waller, Sir William, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wallingford, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Castle, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Walls, medieval, construction of, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Warkworth Castle, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Warwick Castle, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"War-Wolf,"<a href='#Page_196'>196</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Watling Street, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">West Malling, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">West Saxons, Harold, Earl of, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Whelk,"<a href='#Page_197'>197</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Whelpley Hill, Bucks, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Whitton Castle, Durham, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Winchester, Statute of, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Windsor Castle, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Barbican of, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">description of, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Motte of, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">St. George's Chapel, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shell Keep of, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wingfield Manor-House, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wollaston Castle, Northants, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wren, Sir Christopher, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wressle Castle, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wyatt, the architect, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wyndham, Sir William, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yarnbury, Wilts, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yester, Hays of, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">York Castle, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keep of, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zigzag moulding, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></span><br />
</p>
<p class="center">THE END</p>
<p class="center"><i>Printed by</i> <span class="smcap">R. & R. Clark, Limited</span>, <i>Edinburgh</i>.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p class="title"><i>UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME</i><br /></p>
<div class="outerbox">
<h1>ENGLISH COSTUME</h1>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Painted and Described by</span><br /></p>
<p class="center">DION CLAYTON CALTHROP<br /></p>
<p class="center">SQUARE DEMY 8vo (9 × 6-1/4 INCHES), CLOTH, GILT TOP<br /></p>
<p class="center">CONTAINING 72 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR<br /></p>
<p class="center">FACSIMILE, AND NUMEROUS THUMB-NAIL<br /></p>
<p class="center">SKETCHES IN THE TEXT<br /></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Complete in One Volume</span><br /></p>
<p class="center">Price 20s. net<br /></p>
<p class="center">(<i>By Post, 20s. 6d.</i>)<br /></p>
<p class="center"><i>Or obtainable in four sectional volumes, bound in cloth, gilt top</i><br /></p>
<p class="center">Price 7s. 6d. net each<br /></p>
<p class="center">(<i>By post, 7s. 11d.</i>)<br /></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents">
<tr>
<td align="left">Vol. I.</td>
<td align="left">EARLY ENGLISH.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
<td align="left">Vol. III.</td>
<td align="left">TUDOR & STUART.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Vol. II.</td>
<td align="left"> MIDDLE AGES.</td>
<td align="right"> </td>
<td align="left">Vol. IV. </td>
<td align="left">GEORGIAN.</td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr class="chap" />
<h2>EXCERPTS FROM PREFACE</h2>
<blockquote><p>There is no reason why a book dealing with antiquarian subjects should
be written in the dry-as-dust method; that it should be clear stands to
reason; that it should be as complete as possible is a justification of
its being; but beyond these it is eminently necessary that it should be
interesting.</p>
<p>It is to every kind of historical student that this book is addressed,
especially to those who endeavour to make the dry bones of history
live—the author, the artist, and the actor. It is, also, for all who
take an intelligent interest in history, and who would wish to see the
shifting panorama of men move before their eyes in the right colours and
clothes.</p></blockquote>
<p class="center">PUBLISHED BY<br /></p>
<p class="center">ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, 4, 5, & 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W.<br /></p></div>
<div class="notebox"> Transcriber's Note. The advertising material has been moved to the end
of the ebook.</div>
<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40630 ***</div>
</body>
</html>
|
