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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 20:58:55 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 20:58:55 -0800 |
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diff --git a/40641-0.txt b/40641-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3dd4f2d --- /dev/null +++ b/40641-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18662 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40641 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE KIU-KIANG FU: "Unfortunately, however, it stands above + instead of below the outlet of the Po-yang lake, and this has + proved to be a decided drawback to its success as a commercial + port." ''commercial'' amended from ''commerical''. + + ARTICLE KLONDIKE: "Gold is practically the only economic product of + the Klondike, though small amounts of tin ore occur, and lignite + coal has been mined lower down on the Yukon." ''practically'' + amended from ''practially''. + + ARTICLE KNARESBOROUGH: "In 1317 John de Lilleburn, who was holding + the castle of Knaresborough for Thomas duke of Lancaster against + the king, surrendered under conditions to William de Ros of Hamelak + ..." ''Knaresborough'' amended from ''Knaresburgh''. + + ARTICLE KNUTSFORD: "... on the Cheshire Lines and London & + North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 5172." + ''Cheshire'' amended from ''Chesire''. + + ARTICLE KOREA: "Buddhism, a forceful civilizing element, reached + Hiaksai in A.D. 384, and from it the sutras and images of northern + Buddhism were carried to Japan, as well as Chinese letters and + ethics." ''Buddhism'' amended from ''Buddism''. + + ARTICLE KUEN-LUN: "... have the appearance of comparatively gentle + swellings of the earth's surface rather than of well-defined + mountain ranges." ''surface'' amended from ''service''. + + ARTICLE KURDISTAN: "... like another Saladin, the bey ruled in + patriarchal state, surrounded by an hereditary nobility, regarded + by his clansmen with reverence and affection, and attended by a + bodyguard of young Kurdish warriors ..." ''patriarchal'' amended + from ''partriarchal''.. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XV, SLICE VIII + + Kite-Flying to Kyshtym + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + KITE-FLYING KOSTER, LAURENS + KIT-FOX KOSTROMA (government of Russia) + KITTO, JOHN KOSTROMA (town of Russia) + KITTUR KÖSZEG + KITZINGEN KOTAH + KIU-KIANG FU KOTAS + KIUSTENDIL KOTKA + KIVU KOTRI + KIWI KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIEDRICH VON + KIZILBASHES KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON + KIZIL IRMAK KOUMISS + KIZLYAR KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS + KIZYL-KUM KOUSSO + KJERULF, HALFDAN KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE + KJERULF, THEODOR KOVNO (government of Russia) + KLADNO KOVNO (town of Russia) + KLAFSKY, KATHARINA KOVROV + KLAGENFURT KOWTOW + KLAJ, JOHANN KOZLOV + KLAMATH KRAAL + KLAPKA, GEORG KRAFFT, ADAM + KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS KRAGUYEVATS + KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH KRAKATOA + KLÉBER, JEAN BAPTISTE KRAKEN + KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD KRALYEVO + KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH VON KRANTZ, ALBERT + KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON KRASNOVODSK + KLERKSDORP KRASNOYARSK + KLESL, MELCHIOR KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS + KLINGER, FRIEDRICH VON KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH + KLINGER, MAX KRAWANG + KLIPSPRINGER KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL + KLONDIKE KREMENCHUG + KLOPP, ONNO KREMENETS + KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH KREMS + KLOSTERNEUBURG KREMSIER + KLOTZ, REINHOLD KREUTZER, KONRADIN + KNARESBOROUGH KREUTZER, RUDOLPH + KNAVE KREUZBURG + KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON KREUZNACH + KNEE KRIEGSPIEL + KNELLER, SIR GODFREY KRIEMHILD + KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN KRILOFF, IVAN ANDREEVICH + KNIFE KRISHNA + KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH KRISHNAGAR + KNIGHT, CHARLES KRISTIANSTAD + KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY KRIVOY ROG + KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON KROCHMAL, NAHMAN + KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY KRONENBERG + KNIGHT-SERVICE KRONSTADT + KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE KROONSTAD + KNIPPERDOLLINCK, BERNT KROPOTKIN, PETER ALEXEIVICH + KNITTING KROTOSCHIN + KNOBKERRIE KRÜDENER, BARBARA JULIANA + KNOLLES, RICHARD KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT + KNOLLES, SIR ROBERT KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS + KNOLLYS KRUGERSDORP + KNOT (bird) KRUMAU + KNOT (loop of rope) KRUMBACHER, CARL + KNOUT KRUMEN + KNOWLES, SIR JAMES KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF + KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN KRUPP, ALFRED + KNOW NOTHING PARTY KRUSENSTERN, ADAM IVAN + KNOX, HENRY KRUSHEVATS + KNOX, JOHN KSHATTRIYA + KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE KUBAN (river of Russia) + KNOXVILLE KUBAÑ (province of Russia) + KNUCKLE KUBELIK, JAN + KNUCKLEBONES KUBERA + KNUTSFORD KUBLAI KHAN + KOALA KUBUS + KOBDO KUCHAN + KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ KUCH BEHAR + KOCH, ROBERT KUDU + KOCH (tribe) KUENEN, ABRAHAM + KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE KUEN-LUN + KODAIKANAL KUFA + KODAMA, GENTARO KUHN, FRANZ FELIX ADALBERT + KODUNGALUR KÜHNE, WILLY + KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD KUKA + KOESFELD KU KLUX KLAN + KOHAT KUKU KHOTO + KOHAT PASS KULJA + KOHISTAN KULM + KOHL KULMBACH + KOHLHASE, HANS KULMSEE + KOKOMO KULP + KOKO-NOR KULU + KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAÍ VON KUM + KOKSTAD KUMAIT IBN ZAID + KOLA KUMAON + KOLABA KUMASI + KOLAR KUMISHAH + KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN KUMQUAT + KOLBERG KUMTA + KÖLCSEY, FERENCZ KUMYKS + KOLDING KUNAR + KOLGUEV KUNBIS + KOLHAPUR KUNDT, AUGUST ADOLPH EDUARD EBERHARD + KOLIN KUNDUZ + KOLIS KUNENE + KÖLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON KUNERSDORF + KOLLONTAJ, HUGO KUNGRAD + KOLOMEA KUNGUR + KOLOMNA KUNKEL VON LOWENSTJERN, JOHANN + KOLOZSVÁR KUNLONG + KOLPINO KUNZITE + KOLS KUOPIO (province of Finland) + KOLYVAÑ KUOPIO (city of Finland) + KOMÁROM KUPRILI + KOMATI KURAKIN, BORIS IVANOVICH + KOMOTAU KURBASH + KOMURA, JUTARO KURDISTAN (country) + KONARAK KURDISTAN (province of Persia) + KONG KURGAN + KONGSBERG KURIA MURIA ISLANDS + KONIA KURILES + KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS KURISCHES HAFF + KÖNIG, KARL RUDOLPH KURNOOL + KÖNIGGRÄTZ KUROKI, ITEI + KÖNIGINHOF KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH + KÖNIGSBERG KURO SIWO + KÖNIGSBORN KURRAM + KÖNIGSHÜTTE KURSEONG + KÖNIGSLUTTER KURSK (government of Russia) + KÖNIGSMARK, MARIA AURORA KURSK (town of Russia) + KÖNIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH KURTZ, JOHANN HEINRICH + KÖNIGSSEE KURUMAN + KÖNIGSTEIN KURUMBAS and KURUBAS + KÖNIGSWINTER KURUNEGALA + KONINCK, LAURENT GUILLAUME DE KURUNTWAD + KONINCK, PHILIP DE KURZ, HERMANN + KONITZ KUSAN + KONKAN KUSHALGARH + KONTAGORA KUSHK + KOORINGA KUSTANAISK + KÖPENICK KÜSTENLAND + KOPISCH, AUGUST KUTAIAH + KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ KUTAIS (government of Russia) + KOPRÜLÜ KUTAIS (town of Russia) + KORA KUT-EL-AMARA + KORAN KUTENAI + KORAT KUTTALAM + KORDOFAN KUTTENBERG + KOREA (country) KUTUSOV, MIKHAIL LARIONOVICH + KOREA (Indian tributary state) KUWET + KORESHAN ECCLESIA, THE KUZNETSK + KORIN, OGATA KVASS + KORKUS KWAKIUTL + KÖRMÖCZBÁNYA KWANGCHOW BAY + KÖRNER, KARL THEODOR KWANG-SI + KORNEUBURG KWANG-TUNG + KOROCHA KWANZA + KORSÖR KWEI-CHOW + KORTCHA KYAUKPYU + KORYAKS KYAUKSE + KOSCIUSCO KYD, THOMAS + KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ BONAWENTURA KYFFHÄUSER + KÖSEN KYNASTON, EDWARD + KOSHER KYNETON + KÖSLIN KYOSAI, SHO-FU + KOSSOVO KYRIE + KOSSUTH, FERENCZ LAJOS AKOS KYRLE, JOHN + KOSSUTH, LAJOS KYSHTYM + + + + +KITE-FLYING, the art of sending up into the air, by means of the wind, +light frames of varying shapes covered with paper or cloth (called +kites, after the bird--in German _Drache_, dragon), which are attached +to long cords or wires held in the hand or wound on a drum. When made in +the common diamond form, or triangular with a semicircular head, kites +usually have a pendulous tail appended for balancing purposes. The +tradition is that kites were invented by Archytas of Tarentum four +centuries before the Christian era, but they have been in use among +Asiatic peoples and savage tribes like the Maoris of New Zealand from +time immemorial. Kite-flying has always been a national pastime of the +Koreans, Chinese, Japanese, Tonkinese, Annamese, Malays and East +Indians. It is less popular among the peoples of Europe. The origin of +the sport, although obscure, is usually ascribed to religion. With the +Maoris it still retains a distinctly religious character, and the ascent +of the kite is accompanied by a chant called the kite-song. The Koreans +attribute its origin to a general, who, hundreds of years ago, +inspirited his troops by sending up a kite with a lantern attached, +which was mistaken by his army for a new star and a token of divine +succour. Another Korean general is said to have been the first to put +the kite to mechanical uses by employing one to span a stream with a +cord, which was then fastened to a cable and formed the nucleus of a +bridge. In Korea, Japan and China, and indeed throughout Eastern Asia, +even the tradespeople may be seen indulging in kite-flying while waiting +for customers. Chinese and Japanese kites are of many shapes, such as +birds, dragons, beasts and fishes. They vary in size, but are often as +much as 7 ft. in height or breadth, and are constructed of bamboo strips +covered with rice paper or very thin silk. In China the ninth day of the +ninth month is "Kites' Day," when men and boys of all classes betake +themselves to neighbouring eminences and fly their kites. Kite-fighting +is a feature of the pastime in Eastern Asia. The cord near the kite is +usually stiffened with a mixture of glue and crushed glass or porcelain. +The kite-flyer manoeuvres to get his kite to windward of that of his +adversary, then allows his cord to drift against his enemy's, and by a +sudden jerk to cut it through and bring its kite to grief. The Malays +possess a large variety of kites, mostly without tails. The Sultan of +Johor sent to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 a collection +of fifteen different kinds. Asiatic musical kites bear one or more +perforated reeds or bamboos which emit a plaintive sound that can be +heard for great distances. The ignorant, believing that these kites +frighten away evil spirits, often keep them flying all night over their +houses. + +There are various metaphorical uses of the term "kite-flying," such as +in commercial slang, when "flying a kite" means raising money on credit +(cf. "raising the wind"), or in political slang for seeing "how the wind +blows." And "flying-kites," in nautical language, are the topmost sails. + +Kite-flying for scientific purposes began in the middle of the 18th +century. In 1752 Benjamin Franklin made his memorable kite experiment, +by which he attracted electricity from the air and demonstrated the +electrical nature of lightning. A more systematic use of kites for +scientific purposes may, however, be said to date from the experiments +made in the last quarter of the 19th century. (E. B.) + +_Meteorological Use._--Many European and American meteorological +services employ kites regularly, and obtain information not only of the +temperature, but also of the humidity and velocity of the air above. The +kites used are mostly modifications of the so-called box-kites, invented +by L. Hargrave. Roughly these kites may be said to resemble an ordinary +box with the two ends removed, and also the middle part of each of the +four sides. The original Hargrave kite, the form generally used, has a +rectangular section; in Russia a semicircular section with the curved +part facing the wind is most in favour; in England the diamond-shaped +section is preferred for meteorological purposes owing to its simplicity +of construction. Stability depends on a multitude of small details of +construction, and long practice and experience are required to make a +really good kite. The sizes most in use have from 30 to 80 sq. ft. of +sail area. There is no difficulty about raising a kite to a vertical +height of one or even two miles on suitable days, but heights exceeding +three miles are seldom reached. On the 29th of November 1905 at +Lindenberg, the Prussian Aeronautical Observatory, the upper one of a +train of six kites attained an altitude of just four miles. The total +lifting surface of these six kites was nearly 300 sq. ft., and the +length of wire a little over nine miles. The kites are invariably flown +on a steel wire line, for the hindrance to obtaining great heights is +not due so much to the weight of the line as to the wind pressure upon +it, and thus it becomes of great importance to use a material that +possesses the greatest possible strength, combined with the smallest +possible size. Steel piano wire meets this requirement, for a wire of +1/32 in. diameter will weigh about 16 lb. to the mile, and stand a +strain of some 250-280 lb. before it breaks. Some stations prefer to use +one long piece of wire of the same gauge throughout without a join, +others prefer to start with a thin wire and join on thicker and thicker +wire as more kites are added. The process of kite-flying is as follows. +The first kite is started either with the self-recording instruments +secured in it, or hanging from the wire a short distance below it. Wire +is then paid out, whether quickly or slowly depends on the strength of +the wind, but the usual rate is from two to three miles per hour. The +quantity that one kite will take depends on the kite and on the wind, +but roughly speaking it may be said that each 10 sq. ft. of lifting +surface on the kite should carry 1000 ft. of 1/32 in. wire without +difficulty. When as much wire as can be carried comfortably has run out +another kite is attached to the line, and the paying out is continued; +after a time a third is added, and so on. Each kite increases the strain +upon the wire, and moreover adds to the height and makes it more +uncertain what kind of wind the upper kites will encounter; it also adds +to the time that is necessary to haul in the kites. In each way the risk +of their breaking away is increased, for the wind is very uncertain and +is liable to alter in strength. Since to attain an exceptional height +the wire must be strained nearly to its breaking point, and under such +conditions a small increase in the strength of the wind will break the +wire, it follows that great heights can only be attained by those who +are willing to risk the trouble and expense of frequently having their +wire and train of kites break away. The weather is the essential factor +in kite-flying. In the S.E. of England in winter it is possible on about +two days out of three, and in summer on about one day out of three. The +usual cause of failure is want of wind, but there are a few days when +the wind is too strong. (For meteorological results, &c., see +METEOROLOGY.) (W. H. Di.) + +_Military Use._--A kite forms so extremely simple a method of lifting +anything to a height in the air that it has naturally been suggested as +being suitable for various military purposes, such as signalling to a +long distance, carrying up flags, or lamps, or semaphores. Kites have +been used both in the army and in the navy for floating torpedoes on +hostile positions. As much as two miles of line have been paid out. For +purposes of photography a small kite carrying a camera to a considerable +height may be caused to float over a fort or other place of which a +bird's-eye view is required, the shutter being operated by electric +wire, or slow match, or clockwork. Many successful photographs have been +thus obtained in England and America. + +The problem of lifting a man by means of kites instead of by a captive +balloon is a still more important one. The chief military advantages to +be gained are: (1) less transport is required; (2) they can be used in a +strong wind; (3) they are not so liable to damage, either from the +enemy's fire or from trees, &c., and are easier to mend; (4) they can be +brought into use more quickly; (5) they are very much cheaper, both in +construction and in maintenance, not requiring any costly gas. + +Captain B. F. S. Baden-Powell, of the Scots Guards, in June 1894 +constructed, at Pirbright Camp, a huge kite 36 ft. high, with which he +successfully lifted a man on different occasions. He afterwards improved +the contrivance, using five or six smaller kites attached together in +preference to one large one. With this arrangement he frequently +ascended as high as 100 ft. The kites were hexagonal, being 12 ft. high +and 12 ft. across. The apparatus, which could be packed in a few minutes +into a simple roll, weighed in all about 1 cwt. This appliance was +proved to be capable of raising a man even during a dead calm, the +retaining line being fixed to a wagon and towed along. Lieut. H. D. Wise +made some trials in America in 1897 with some large kites of the +Hargrave pattern (Hargrave having previously himself ascended in +Australia), and succeeded in lifting a man 40 ft. above the ground. In +the Russian army a military kite apparatus has also been tried, and was +in evidence at the manoeuvres in 1898. Experiments have also been +carried out by most of the European powers. (B. F. S. B.-P.) + + + + +KIT-FOX (_Canis [Vulpes] velox_), a small fox, from north-western +America, measuring less than a yard in length, with a tail of nearly a +third this length. There is a good deal of variation in the colour of +the fur, the prevailing tint being grey. A specimen in the Zoological +Gardens of London had the back and tail dark grey, the tail tipped with +black, and a rufous wash on the cheeks, shoulders, flanks and outer +surface of the limbs, with the under surface white. The specific name +was given on account of the extraordinary swiftness of the animal. (See +CARNIVORA.) + + + + +KITTO, JOHN (1804-1854), English biblical scholar, was the son of a +mason at Plymouth, where he was born on the 4th of December 1804. An +accident brought on deafness, and in November 1819 he was sent to the +workhouse, where he was employed in making list shoes. In 1823 a fund +was raised on his behalf, and he was sent to board with the clerk of the +guardians, having his time at his own disposal, and the privilege of +making use of a public library. After preparing a small volume of +miscellanies, which was published by subscription, he studied dentistry +with Anthony Norris Groves in Exeter. In 1825 he obtained congenial +employment in the printing office of the Church Missionary Society at +Islington, and in 1827 was transferred to the same society's +establishment at Malta. There he remained for eighteen months, but +shortly after his return to England he accompanied Groves and other +friends on a private missionary enterprise to Bagdad, where he obtained +personal knowledge of Oriental life and habits which he afterwards +applied with tact and skill in the illustration of biblical scenes and +incidents. Plague broke out, the missionary establishment was broken up, +and in 1832 Kitto returned to England. On arriving in London he was +engaged in the preparation of various serial publications of the Society +for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, the most important of which were +the _Pictorial History of Palestine_ and the _Pictorial Bible_. The +_Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature_, edited under his superintendence, +appeared in two volumes in 1843-1845 and passed through three editions. +His _Daily Bible Illustrations_ (8 vols. 1849-1853) received an +appreciation which is not yet extinct. In 1850 he received an annuity of +£100 from the civil list. In August 1854 he went to Germany for the +waters of Cannstatt on the Neckar, where on the 25th of November he +died. + + See Kitto's own work, _The Lost Senses_ (1845); J. E. Ryland's + _Memoirs of Kitto_ (1856); and John Eadie's _Life of Kitto_ (1857). + + + + +KITTUR, a village of British India, in the Belgaum district of Bombay; +pop. (1901), 4922. It contains a ruined fort, formerly the residence of +a Mahratta chief. In connexion with a disputed succession to this +chiefship in 1824, St John Thackeray, an uncle of the novelist, was +killed when approaching the fort under a flag of truce; and a nephew of +Sir Thomas Munro, governor of Madras, fell subsequently when the fort +was stormed. + + + + +KITZINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria on the Main, 95 +m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Main by rail, at the junction of the main-lines +to Passau, Würzburg and Schweinfurt. Pop. (1900), 8489. A bridge, 300 +yards long, connects it with its suburb Etwashausen on the left bank of +the river. A railway bridge also spans the Main at this point. Kitzingen +is still surrounded by its old walls and towers, and has an Evangelical +and two Roman Catholic churches, two municipal museums, a town-hall, a +grammar school, a richly endowed hospital and two old convents. Its +chief industries are brewing, cask-making and the manufacture of cement +and colours. Considerable trade in wine, fruit, grain and timber is +carried on by boats on the Main. Kitzingen possessed a Benedictine abbey +in the 8th century, and later belonged to the bishopric of Würzburg. + + See F. Bernbeck, _Kitzinger Chronik 745-1565_ (Kitzingen, 1899). + + + + +KIU-KIANG FU, a prefecture and prefectural city in the province of +Kiang-si, China. The city, which is situated on the south bank of the +Yangtsze-kiang, 15 m. above the point where the Kan Kiang flows into +that river from the Po-yang lake, stands in 29° 42´ N. and 116° 8´ E. +The north face of the city is separated from the river by only the width +of a roadway, and two large lakes lie on its west and south fronts. The +walls are from 5 to 6 m. in circumference, and are more than usually +strong and broad. As is generally the case with old cities in China, +Kiu-Kiang has repeatedly changed its name. Under the Tsin dynasty (A.D. +265-420), it was known as Sin-Yang, under the Liang dynasty (502-557) as +Kiang Chow, under the Suy dynasty (589-618) as Kiu-Kiang, under the Sung +dynasty (960-1127) as Ting-Kiang, and under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) +it assumed the name it at present bears. Kiu-Kiang has played its part +in the history of the empire, and has been repeatedly besieged and +sometimes taken, the last time being in February 1853, when the +T'ai-p'ing rebels gained possession of the city. After their manner they +looted and utterly destroyed it, leaving only the remains of a single +street to represent the once flourishing town. The position of Kiu-Kiang +on the Yangtsze-kiang and its proximity to the channels of internal +communication through the Po-yang lake, more especially to those leading +to the green-tea-producing districts of the provinces of Kiang-si and +Ngan-hui, induced Lord Elgin to choose it as one of the treaty ports to +be opened under the terms of his treaty (1861). Unfortunately, however, +it stands above instead of below the outlet of the Po-yang lake, and +this has proved to be a decided drawback to its success as a commercial +port. The immediate effect of opening the town to foreign trade was to +raise the population in one year from 10,000 to 40,000. The population +in 1908, exclusive of foreigners, was officially estimated at 36,000. +The foreign settlement extends westward from the city, along the bank of +the Yangtsze-kiang, and is bounded on its extreme west by the P'un +river, which there runs into the Yangtsze. The bund, which is 500 yards +long, was erected by the foreign community. The climate is good, and +though hot in the summer months is invariably cold and bracing in the +winter. According to the customs returns the value of the trade of the +port amounted in 1902 to £2,854,704, and in 1904 to £3,489,816, of which +£1,726,506 were imports and £1,763,310 exports. In 1904 322,266 lb. of +opium were imported. + + + + +KIUSTENDIL, the chief town of a department in Bulgaria, situated in a +mountainous country, on a small affluent of the Struma, 43 m. S.W. of +Sofia by rail. Pop. (1906), 12,353. The streets are narrow and uneven, +and the majority of the houses are of clay or wood. The town is chiefly +notable for its hot mineral springs, in connexion with which there are +nine bathing establishments. Small quantities of gold and silver are +obtained from mines near Kiustendil, and vines, tobacco and fruit are +largely cultivated. Some remains survive of the Roman period, when the +town was known as Pautalia, Ulpia Pautalia, and Pautalia Aurelii. In the +10th century it became the seat of a bishopric, being then and during +the later middle ages known by the Slavonic name of Velbuzhd. After the +overthrow of the Servian kingdom it came into the possession of +Constantine, brother of the despot Yovan Dragash, who ruled over +northern Macedonia. Constantine was expelled and killed by the Turks in +1394. In the 15th century Kiustendil was known as Velbushka Banya, and +more commonly as Konstantinova Banya (Constantine's Bath), from which +has developed the Turkish name Kiustendil. + + + + +KIVU, a considerable lake lying in the Central African (or Albertine) +rift-valley, about 60 m. N. of Tanganyika, into which it discharges its +waters by the Rusizi River. On the north it is separated from the basin +of the Nile by a line of volcanic peaks. The length of the lake is about +55 m., and its greatest breadth over 30, giving an area, including +islands, of about 1100 sq. m. It is about 4830 ft. above sea-level and +is roughly triangular in outline, the longest side lying to the west. +The coast-line is much broken, especially on the south-east, where the +indentations present a fjord-like character. The lake is deep, and the +shores are everywhere high, rising in places in bold precipitous cliffs +of volcanic rock. A large island, Kwijwi or Kwichwi, oblong in shape and +traversed by a hilly ridge, runs in the direction of the major axis of +the lake, south-west of the centre, and there are many smaller islands. +The lake has many fish, but no crocodiles or hippopotami. South of Kivu +the rift-valley is blocked by huge ridges, through which the Rusizi now +breaks its way in a succession of steep gorges, emerging from the lake +in a foaming torrent, and descending 2000 ft. to the lacustrine plain at +the head of Tanganyika. The lake fauna is a typically fresh-water one, +presenting no affinities with the marine or "halolimnic" fauna of +Tanganyika and other Central African lakes, but is similar to that shown +by fossils to have once existed in the more northern parts of the +rift-valley. The former outlet or extension in this direction seems to +have been blocked in recent geological times by the elevation of the +volcanic peaks which dammed back the water, causing it finally to +overflow to the south. This volcanic region is of great interest and has +various names, that most used being Mfumbiro (q.v.), though this name is +sometimes restricted to a single peak. Kivu and Mfumbiro were first +heard of by J. H. Speke in 1861, but not visited by a European until +1894, when Count von Götzen passed through the country on his journey +across the continent. The lake and its vicinity were subsequently +explored by Dr R. Kandt, Captain Bethe, E. S. Grogan, J. E. S. Moore, +and Major St Hill Gibbons. The ownership of Kivu and its neighbourhood +was claimed by the Congo Free State and by Germany, the dispute being +settled in 1910, after Belgium had taken over the Congo State. The +frontier agreed upon was the west bank of the Rusizi, and the west shore +of the lake. The island of Kwijwi also fell to Belgium. + + See R. Kandt, _Caput Nili_ (Berlin, 1904), and _Karte des Kivusees_, + 1: 285,000, with text by A. v. Bockelmann (Berlin, 1902); E. S. Grogan + and A. H. Sharpe, _From the Cape to Cairo_ (London, 1900); J. E. S. + Moore, _To the Mountains of the Moon_ (London, 1901); A. St H. + Gibbons, _Africa from South to North_, ii. (London, 1904). + + + + +KIWI, or KIWI-KIWI, the Maori name--first apparently introduced to +zoological literature by Lesson in 1828 (_Man. d'Ornithologie_, ii. +210, or _Voy. de la "Coquille," zoologie_, p. 418), and now very +generally adopted in English--of one of the most characteristic forms of +New Zealand birds, the _Apteryx_ of scientific writers. This remarkable +bird was unknown till George Shaw described and figured it in 1813 +(_Nat. Miscellany_, pls. 1057, 1058) from a specimen brought to him from +the southern coast of that country by Captain Barcley of the ship +"Providence." At Shaw's death, in the same year, it passed into the +possession of Lord Stanley, afterwards 13th earl of Derby, and president +of the Zoological Society, and it is now with the rest of his collection +in the Liverpool Museum. Considering the state of systematic ornithology +at the time, Shaw's assignment of a position to this new and strange +bird, of which he had but the skin, does him great credit, for he said +it seemed "to approach more nearly to the Struthious and Gallinaceous +tribes than to any other." And his credit is still greater when we find +the venerable John Latham, who is said to have examined the specimen +with Shaw, placing it some years later among the penguins (_Gen. Hist. +Birds_, x. 394), being apparently led to that conclusion through its +functionless wings and the backward situation of its legs. In this false +allocation, James Francis Stephens also in 1826 acquiesced (_Gen. +Zoology_, xiii. 70). Meanwhile in 1820 K. J. Temminck, who had never +seen a specimen, had assorted it with the dodo in an order to which he +applied the name of _Inertes_ (_Man. d'Ornithologie_, i. cxiv.). In 1831 +R. P. Lesson, who had previously (_loc. cit._) made some blunders about +it, placed it (_Traité d'Ornithologie_, p. 12), though only, as he says, +"par analogie et _a priori_," in his first division of birds, "Oiseaux +Anomaux," which is equivalent to what we now call _Ratitae_, making of +it a separate family "Nullipennes." At that time no second example was +known, and some doubt was felt, especially on the Continent, as to the +very existence of such a bird [1]--though Lesson had himself when in the +Bay of Islands in April 1824 (_Voy. "Coquille," ut supra_) heard of it; +and a few years later J. S. C. Dumont d'Urville had seen its skin, which +the naturalists of his expedition procured, worn as a tippet by a Maori +chief at Tolaga Bay (Houa-houa),[2] and in 1830 gave what proves to be +on the whole very accurate information concerning it (_Voy. +"Astrolabe,"_ ii. 107). To put all suspicion at rest, Lord Derby sent +his unique specimen for exhibition at a meeting of the Zoological +Society, on the 12th of February 1833 (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1833, p. +24), and a few months later (_tom. cit._, p. 80) William Yarrell +communicated to that body a complete description of it, which was +afterwards published in full with an excellent portrait (_Trans. Zool. +Society_, vol. i. p. 71, pl. 10). Herein the systematic place of the +species, as akin to the Struthious birds, was placed beyond cavil, and +the author called upon all interested in zoology to aid in further +research as to this singular form. In consequence of this appeal a +legless skin was within two years sent to the society (_Proceedings_, +1835, p. 61) obtained by W. Yate of Waimate, who said it was the second +he had seen, and that he had kept the bird alive for nearly a fortnight, +while in less than another couple of years additional information (_op. +cit._, 1837, p. 24) came from T. K. Short to the effect that he had seen +two living, and that all Yarrell had said was substantially correct, +except underrating its progressive powers. Not long afterwards Lord +Derby received and in March 1838 transmitted to the same society the +trunk and viscera of an _Apteryx_, which, being entrusted to Sir R. +Owen, furnished that eminent anatomist, in conjunction with other +specimens of the same kind received from Drs Lyon and George Bennett, +with the materials of the masterly monograph laid before the society in +instalments, and ultimately printed in its _Transactions_ (ii. 257; iii. +277). From this time the whole structure of the kiwi has certainly been +far better known than that of nearly any other bird, and by degrees +other examples found their way to England, some of which were +distributed to the various museums of the Continent and of America.[3] + +[Illustration: Kiwi.] + +In 1847 much interest was excited by the reported discovery of another +species of the genus (_Proceedings_, 1847, p. 51); and though the story +was not confirmed, a second species was really soon after made known by +John Gould (_tom. cit._, p. 93; _Transactions_, vol. iii, p. 379, pl. +57) under the name of _Apteryx oweni_--a just tribute to the great +master who had so minutely explained the anatomy of the group. Three +years later A. D. Bartlett drew attention to the manifest difference +existing among certain examples, all of which had hitherto been regarded +as specimens of _A. australis_, and the examination of a large series +led him to conclude that under that name two distinct species were +confounded. To the second of these, the third of the genus (according to +his views), he gave the name of _A. mantelli_ (_Proceedings_, 1850, p. +274), and it soon turned out that to this new form the majority of the +specimens already obtained belonged. In 1851 the first kiwi known to +have reached England alive was presented to the Zoological Society by +Eyre, then lieutenant-governor of New Zealand. This was found to belong +to the newly described _A. mantelli_, and some careful observations on +its habits in captivity were published by John Wolley and another +(_Zoologist_, pp. 3409, 3605).[4] Subsequently the society has received +several other live examples of this form, besides one of the real _A. +australis_ (_Proceedings_, 1872, p. 861), some of _A. oweni_, and one of +a supposed fourth species, _A. haasti_, characterized in 1871 by Potts +(_Ibis_, 1872, p. 35; _Trans. N. Zeal. Institute_, iv. 204; v. 195).[5] + +The kiwis form a group of the subclass _Ratitae_ to which the rank of an +order may fitly be assigned, as they differ in many important +particulars from any of the other existing forms of Ratite birds. The +most obvious feature the _Apteryges_ afford is the presence of a back +toe, while the extremely aborted condition of the wings, the position of +the nostrils--almost at the tip of the maxilla--and the absence of an +after-shaft in the feathers, are characters nearly as manifest, and +others not less determinative, though more recondite, will be found on +examination. The kiwis are peculiar to New Zealand, and it is believed +that _A. mantelli_ is the representative in the North Island of the +southern _A. australis_, both being of a dark reddish-brown, +longitudinally striped with light yellowish-brown, while _A. oweni_, of +a light greyish-brown transversely barred with black, is said to occur +in both islands. About the size of a large domestic fowl, they are birds +of nocturnal habit, sleeping, or at least inactive, by day, feeding +mostly on earth-worms, but occasionally swallowing berries, though in +captivity they will eat flesh suitably minced. Sir Walter Buller writes +(_B. of New Zealand_, p. 362):-- + + "The kiwi is in some measure compensated for the absence of wings by + its swiftness of foot. When running it makes wide strides and carries + the body in an oblique position, with the neck stretched to its full + extent and inclined forwards. In the twilight it moves about + cautiously and as noiselessly as a rat, to which, indeed, at this time + it bears some outward resemblance. In a quiescent posture, the body + generally assumes a perfectly rotund appearance; and it sometimes, but + only rarely, supports itself by resting the point of its bill on the + ground. It often yawns when disturbed in the daytime, gaping its + mandibles in a very grotesque manner. When provoked it erects the + body, and, raising the foot to the breast, strikes downwards with + considerable force and rapidity, thus using its sharp and powerful + claws as weapons of defence.... While hunting for its food the bird + makes a continual sniffing sound through the nostrils, which are + placed at the extremity of the upper mandible. Whether it is guided as + much by touch as by smell I cannot safely say; but it appears to me + that both senses are used in the action. That the sense of touch is + highly developed seems quite certain, because the bird, although it + may not be audibly sniffing, will always first touch an object with + the point of its bill, whether in the act of feeding or of surveying + the ground; and when shut up in a cage or confined in a room it may be + heard, all through the night, tapping softly at the walls.... It is + interesting to watch the bird, in a state of freedom, foraging for + worms, which constitute its principal food: it moves about with a slow + action of the body; and the long, flexible bill is driven into the + soft ground, generally home to the very root, and is either + immediately withdrawn with a worm held at the extreme tip of the + mandibles, or it is gently moved to and fro, by an action of the head + and neck, the body of the bird being perfectly steady. It is amusing + to observe the extreme care and deliberation with which the bird draws + the worm from its hiding-place, coaxing it out as it were by degrees, + instead of pulling roughly or breaking it. On getting the worm fairly + out of the ground, it throws up its head with a jerk, and swallows it + whole." + +The foregoing extract refers to _A. mantelli_, but there is little doubt +of the remarks being equally applicable to _A. australis_, and probably +also to _A. oweni_, though the different proportion of the bill in the +last points to some diversity in the mode of feeding. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Cuvier in the second edition of his _Règne Animal_ only referred + to it in a footnote (i. 498). + + [2] Cruise in 1822 (_Journ. Residence in New Zealand_, p. 313) had + spoken of an "emeu" found in that island, which must of course have + been an _Apteryx_. + + [3] In 1842, according to Broderip (_Penny Cyclopaedia_, xxiii. 146), + two had been presented to the Zoological Society by the New Zealand + Company, and two more obtained by Lord Derby, one of which he had + given to Gould. In 1844 the British Museum possessed three, and the + sale catalogue of the Rivoli Collection, which passed in 1846 to the + Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, includes a single + specimen--probably the first taken to America. + + [4] This bird in 1859 laid an egg, and afterwards continued to lay + one or two more every year. In 1865 a male of the same species was + introduced, but though a strong disposition to breed was shown on the + part of both, and the eggs, after the custom of the _Ratitae_, were + incubated by him, no progeny was hatched (_Proceedings_, 1868, p. + 329). + + [5] A fine series of figures of all these supposed species is given + by Rowley (_Orn. Miscellany_, vol. i. pls. 1-6). Some others, as _A. + maxima_, _A. mollis_, and _A. fusca_ have also been indicated, but + proof of their validity has yet to be adduced. + + + + +KIZILBASHES (Turkish, "Red-Heads"), the nickname given by the Orthodox +Turks to the Shiitic Turkish immigrants from Persia, who are found +chiefly in the plains from Kara-Hissar along Tokat and Amasia to Angora. +During the wars with Persia the Turkish sultans settled them in these +districts. They are strictly speaking persianized Turks, and speak pure +Persian. There are many Kizilbashes in Afghanistan. Their immigration +dates only from the time of Nadir Shah (1737). They are an industrious +honest folk, chiefly engaged in trade and as physicians, scribes, and so +on. They form the bulk of the amir's cavalry. Their name seems to have +been first used in Persia of the Shiites in allusion to their red caps. + + See Ernest Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans l'Asie + occidentale_ (Lyons, 1895). + + + + +KIZIL IRMAK, i.e. "Red River" (anc. _Halys_), the largest river in Asia +Minor, rising in the Kizil Dagh at an altitude of 6500 ft., and running +south-west past Zara to Sivas. Below Sivas it flows south to the +latitude of Kaisarieh, and then curves gradually round to the north. +Finally, after a course of about 600 m., it discharges its waters into +the Black Sea between Sinope and Samsun, where it forms a large delta. +The only important tributaries are the Delije Irmak on the right and the +Geuk Irmak on the left bank. + + + + +KIZLYAR (KIZLIAR, or KIZLAR), a town of Russia, in Caucasia, in the +province of Terek, 120 m. N.E. of Vladikavkaz, in the low-lying delta of +the river Terek, about 35 m. from the Caspian. The population decreased +from 8309 in 1861 to 7353 in 1897. The town lies to the left of the main +stream between two of the larger secondary branches, and is subject to +flooding. The town proper, which spreads out round the citadel, has +Tatar, Georgian and Armenian quarters. The public buildings include the +Greek cathedral, dating from 1786; a Greek nunnery, founded by the +Georgian chief Daniel in 1736; the Armenian church of SS Peter and Paul, +remarkable for its size and wealth. The population is mainly supported +by the gardens and vineyards irrigated by canals from the river. A +government vineyard and school of viticulture are situated 3½ m. from +the town. About 1,200,000 gallons of Kizlyar wine are sold annually at +the fair of Nizhniy-Novgorod. Silk and cotton are woven. Kizlyar is +mentioned as early as 1616, but the most notable accession of +inhabitants (Armenians, Georgians and Persians) took place in 1715. Its +importance as a fortress dates from 1736, but the fortress is no longer +kept in repair. + + + + +KIZYL-KUM, a desert of Western Asia, stretching S.E. of the Aral Lake +between the river Syr-darya on the N.E. and the river Amu-darya on the +S.W. It measures some 370 by 220 m., and is in part covered with +drift-sand or dunes, many of which are advancing slowly but steadily +towards the S.W. In character they resemble those of the neighbouring +Kara-kum desert (see KARA-KUM). On the whole the Kizyl-kum slopes S.W. +towards the Aral Lake, where its altitude is only about 160 ft. as +compared with 2000 in the S.E. In the vicinity of that lake the surface +is covered with Aralo-Caspian deposits; but in the S.E., as it ascends +towards the foothills of the Tian-shan system, it is braided with deep +accumulations of fertile loess. + + + + +KJERULF, HALFDAN (1815-1868), Norwegian musical composer, the son of a +high government official, was born at Christiania on the 15th of +September 1815. His early education was at Christiania University, for a +legal career, and not till he was nearly 26--on the death of his +father--was he able to devote himself entirely to music. As a fact, he +actually started on his career as a music teacher and composer of songs +before ever having seriously studied music at all, and not for ten years +did he attract any particular notice. Then, however, his Government paid +for a year's instruction for him at Leipzig. For many years after his +return to Norway Kjerulf tried in vain to establish serial classical +concerts, while he himself was working with Björnson and other writers +at the composition of lyrical songs. His fame rests almost entirely on +his beautiful and manly national part-songs and solos; but his +pianoforte music is equally charming and simple. Kjerulf died at +Grefsen, on the 11th of August 1868. + + + + +KJERULF, THEODOR (1825-1888), Norwegian geologist, was born at +Christiania on the 30th of March 1825. He was educated in the university +at Christiania, and subsequently studied at Heidelberg, working in +Bunsen's laboratory. In 1858 he became professor of geology in the +university of his native city, and he was afterwards placed in charge of +the geological survey of the country, then established mainly through +his influence. His contributions to the geology of Norway were numerous +and important, especially in reference to the southern portion of the +country, and to the structure and relations of the Archaean and +Palaeozoic rocks, and the glacial phenomena. His principal results were +embodied in his work _Udsigt over det sydlige Norges Geologi_ (1879). He +was author also of some poetical works. He died at Christiania on the +25th of October 1888. + + + + +KLADNO, a mining town of Bohemia, Austria, 18 m. W.N.W. of Prague by +rail. Pop. (1900), 18,600, mostly Czech. It is situated in a region very +rich in iron-mines and coal-fields and possesses some of the largest +iron and steel works in Bohemia. Near it is the mining town of +Buschtehrad (pop. 3510), situated in the centre of very extensive +coal-fields. Buschtehrad was originally the name of the castle only. +This was from the 15th century to 1630 the property of the lords of +Kolovrat, and came by devious inheritance through the grand-dukes of +Tuscany, to the emperor Francis Joseph. The name Buschtehrad was first +given to the railway, and then to the town, which had been called Buckow +since its foundation in 1700. There is another castle of Buschtehrad +near Horic. Kladno, which for centuries had been a village of no +importance, was sold in 1705 by the grand-duchess Anna Maria of Tuscany +to the cloister in Brewnow, to which it still belongs. The mining +industry began in 1842. + + + + +KLAFSKY, KATHARINA (1855-1896), Hungarian operatic singer, was born at +Szt János, Wieselburg, of humble parents. Being employed at Vienna as a +nurserymaid, her fine soprano voice led to her being engaged as a chorus +singer, and she was given good lessons in music. By 1882 she became +well-known in Wagnerian rôles at the Leipzig theatre, and she increased +her reputation at other German musical centres. In 1892 she appeared in +London, and had a great success in Wagner's operas, notably as +Brünnhilde and as Isolde, her dramatic as well as vocal gifts being of +an exceptional order. She sang in America in 1895, but died of brain +disease in 1896. + + A _Life_, by L. Ordemann, was published in 1903 (Leipzig). + + + + +KLAGENFURT (Slovene, _Celovec_), the capital of the Austrian duchy of +Carinthia, 212 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 24,314. It is +picturesquely situated on the river Glan, which is in communication with +the Wörther-see by the 3 m. long Lend canal. Among the more noteworthy +buildings are the parish church of St Ægidius (1709), with a tower 298 +ft. in height; the cathedral of SS Peter and Paul (1582-1593, burnt +1723, restored 1725); the churches of the Benedictines (1613), of the +Capuchins (1646), and of the order of St Elizabeth (1710). To these must +be added the palace of the prince-bishop of Gurk, the _burg_ or castle, +existing in its present form since 1777; and the _Landhaus_ or house of +assembly, dating from the end of the 14th century, and containing a +museum of natural history, and collection of minerals, antiquities, +seals, paintings and sculptures. The most interesting public monument is +the great _Lindwurm_ or Dragon, standing in the principal square (1590). +The industrial establishments comprise white lead factories, machine and +iron foundries, and commerce is active, especially in the mineral +products of the region. + +Upon the Zollfeld to the north of the city once stood the ancient Roman +town of Virunum. During the Middle Ages Klagenfurt became the property +of the crown, but by a patent of Maximilian I. of the 24th of April +1518, it was conceded to the Carinthian estates, and has since then +taken the place of St Veit as capital of Carinthia. In 1535, 1636, 1723 +and 1796 Klagenfurt suffered from destructive fires, and in 1690 from +the effects of an earthquake. On the 29th of March 1797 the French took +the city, and upon the following day it was occupied by Napoleon as his +headquarters. + + + + +KLAJ (latinized CLAJUS), JOHANN (1616-1656), German poet, was born at +Meissen in Saxony. After studying theology at Wittenberg he went to +Nuremberg as a "candidate for holy orders," and there, in conjunction +with Georg Philipp Harsdörffer, founded in 1644 the literary society +known as the Pegnitz order. In 1647 he received an appointment as master +in the Sebaldus school in Nuremberg, and in 1650 became preacher at +Kitzingen, where he died in 1656. Klaj's poems consist of dramas, +written in stilted language and redundant with adventures, among which +are _Höllen- und Himmelfahrt Christi_ (Nuremberg, 1644), and _Herodes, +der Kindermörder_ (Nuremberg, 1645), and a poem, written jointly with +Harsdörffer, _Pegnesische Schäfergedicht_ (1644), which gives in +allegorical form the story of his settlement in Nuremberg. + + See Tittmann, _Die Nürnberger Dichterschule_ (Göttingen, 1847). + + + + +KLAMATH, a small tribe of North American Indians of Lutuamian stock. +They ranged around the Klamath river and lakes, and are now on the +Klamath reservation, southern Oregon. + + See A. S. Gatschet, "Klamath Indians of Oregon," _Contributions to + North American Ethnology_, vol. ii. (Washington, 1890). + + + + +KLAPKA, GEORG (1820-1892), Hungarian soldier, was born at Temesvár on +the 7th of April 1820, and entered the Austrian army in 1838. He was +still a subaltern when the Hungarian revolution of 1848 broke out, and +he offered his services to the patriot party. He served in important +staff appointments during the earlier part of the war which followed; +then, early in 1849, he was ordered to replace General Mészáros, who had +been defeated at Kaschau, and as general commanding an army corps he +had a conspicuous share in the victories of Kapólna, Isaszeg, Waitzen, +Nagy Sarlo and Komárom. Then, as the fortune of war turned against the +Hungarians, Klapka, after serving for a short time as minister of war, +took command at Komárom, from which fortress he conducted a number of +successful expeditions until the capitulation of Világos in August put +an end to the war in the open field. He then brilliantly defended +Komárom for two months, and finally surrendered on honourable terms. +Klapka left the country at once, and lived thenceforward for many years +in exile, at first in England and afterwards chiefly in Switzerland. He +continued by every means in his power to work for the independence of +Hungary, especially at moments of European war, such as 1854, 1859 and +1866, at which an appeal to arms seemed to him to promise success. After +the war of 1866 (in which as a Prussian major-general he organized a +Hungarian corps in Silesia) Klapka was permitted by the Austrian +government to return to his native country, and in 1867 was elected a +member of the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies, in which he belonged to the +Deák party. In 1877 he made an attempt to reorganize the Turkish army in +view of the war with Russia. General Klapka died at Budapest on the 17th +of May 1892. A memorial was erected to his memory at Komárom in 1896. + + He wrote _Memoiren_ (Leipzig, 1850); _Der Nationalkrieg in Ungarn_, + &c. (Leipzig, 1851); a history of the Crimean War, _Der Krieg im + Orient ... bis Ende Juli 1855_ (Geneva, 1855); and _Aus meinen + Erinnerungen_ (translated from the Hungarian, Zürich, 1887). + + + + +KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS (1783-1835), German Orientalist and traveller, +was born in Berlin on the 11th of October 1783, the son of the chemist +Martin Heinrich Klaproth (q.v.). He devoted his energies in quite early +life to the study of Asiatic languages, and published in 1802 his +_Asiatisches Magazin_ (Weimar, 1802-1803). He was in consequence called +to St Petersburg and given an appointment in the academy there. In 1805 +he was a member of Count Golovkin's embassy to China. On his return he +was despatched by the academy to the Caucasus on an ethnographical and +linguistic exploration (1807-1808), and was afterwards employed for +several years in connexion with the academy's Oriental publications. In +1812 he moved to Berlin; but in 1815 he settled in Paris, and in 1816 +Humboldt procured him from the king of Prussia the title and salary of +professor of Asiatic languages and literature, with permission to remain +in Paris as long as was requisite for the publication of his works. He +died in that city on the 28th of August 1835. + + The principal feature of Klaproth's erudition was the vastness of the + field which it embraced. His great work _Asia polyglotta_ (Paris, 1823 + and 1831, with _Sprachatlas_) not only served as a _résumé_ of all + that was known on the subject, but formed a new departure for the + classification of the Eastern languages, more especially those of the + Russian Empire. To a great extent, however, his work is now + superseded. The _Itinerary of a Chinese Traveller_ (1821), a series of + documents in the military archives of St Petersburg purporting to be + the travels of George Ludwig von ----, and a similar series obtained + from him in the London foreign office, are all regarded as spurious. + + Klaproth's other works include: _Reise in den Kaukasus und Georgien in + den Jahren 1807 und 1808_ (Halle, 1812-1814; French translation, + Paris, 1823); _Geographisch-historische Beschreibung des östlichen + Kaukasus_ (Weimar, 1814); _Tableaux historiques de l'Asie_ (Paris, + 1826); _Mémoires relatifs à l'Asie_ (Paris, 1824-1828); _Tableau + historique, geographique, ethnographique et politique de Caucase_ + (Paris, 1827); and _Vocabulaire et grammaire de la langue géorgienne_ + (Paris, 1827). + + + + +KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH (1743-1817), German chemist, was born at +Wernigerode on the 1st of December 1743. During a large portion of his +life he followed the profession of an apothecary. After acting as +assistant in pharmacies at Quedlinburg, Hanover, Berlin and Danzig +successively he came to Berlin on the death of Valentin Rose the elder +in 1771 as manager of his business, and in 1780 he started an +establishment on his own account in the same city, where from 1782 he +was pharmaceutical assessor of the Ober-Collegium Medicum. In 1787 he +was appointed lecturer in chemistry to the Royal Artillery, and when the +university was founded in 1810 he was selected to be the professor of +chemistry. He died in Berlin on the 1st of January 1817. Klaproth was +the leading chemist of his time in Germany. An exact and conscientious +worker, he did much to improve and systematize the processes of +analytical chemistry and mineralogy, and his appreciation of the value +of quantitative methods led him to become one of the earliest adherents +of the Lavoisierian doctrines outside France. He was the first to +discover uranium, zirconium and titanium, and to characterize them as +distinct elements, though he did not obtain any of them in the pure +metallic state; and he elucidated the composition of numerous substances +till then imperfectly known, including compounds of the then newly +recognized elements: tellurium, strontium, cerium and chromium. + + His papers, over 200 in number, were collected by himself in _Beiträge + zur chemischen Kenntniss der Mineralkörper_ (5 vols., 1795-1810) and + _Chemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts_ (1815). He also published + a _Chemisches Wörterbuch_ (1807-1810), and edited a revised edition of + F. A. C. Gren's _Handbuch der Chemie_ (1806). + + + + +KLÉBER, JEAN BAPTISTE (1753-1800), French general, was born on the 9th +of March 1753, at Strassburg, where his father was a builder. He was +trained, partly at Paris, for the profession of architect, but his +opportune assistance to two German nobles in a tavern brawl obtained for +him a nomination to the military school of Munich. Thence he obtained a +commission in the Austrian army, but resigned it in 1783 on finding his +humble birth in the way of his promotion. On returning to France he was +appointed inspector of public buildings at Belfort, where he studied +fortification and military science. In 1792 he enlisted in the Haut-Rhin +volunteers, and was from his military knowledge at once elected adjutant +and soon afterwards lieutenant-colonel. At the defence of Mainz he so +distinguished himself that though disgraced along with the rest of the +garrison and imprisoned, he was promptly reinstated, and in August 1793 +promoted general of brigade. He won considerable distinction in the +Vendéan war, and two months later was made a general of division. In +these operations began his intimacy with Marceau, with whom he defeated +the Royalists at Le Mans and Savenay. For openly expressing his opinion +that lenient measures ought to be pursued towards the Vendéans he was +recalled; but in April 1794 he was once more reinstated and sent to the +Army of the Sambre-and-Meuse. He displayed his skill and bravery in the +numerous actions around Charleroi, and especially in the crowning +victory of Fleurus, after which in the winter of 1794-95 he besieged +Mainz. In 1795 and again in 1796 he held the chief command of an army +temporarily, but declined a permanent appointment as commander-in-chief. +On the 13th of October 1795 he fought a brilliant rearguard action at +the bridge of Neuwied, and in the offensive campaign of 1796 he was +Jourdan's most active and successful lieutenant. Having, after the +retreat to the Rhine (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS), declined the chief +command, he withdrew into private life early in 1798. He accepted a +division in the expedition to Egypt under Bonaparte, but was wounded in +the head at Alexandria in the first engagement, which prevented his +taking any further part in the campaign of the Pyramids, and caused him +to be appointed governor of Alexandria. In the Syrian campaign of 1799, +however, he commanded the vanguard, took El-Arish, Gaza and Jaffa, and +won the great victory of Mount Tabor on the 15th of April 1799. When +Napoleon returned to France towards the end of 1799 he left Kléber in +command of the French forces. In this capacity, seeing no hope of +bringing his army back to France or of consolidating his conquests, he +made the convention of El-Arish. But when Lord Keith, the British +admiral, refused to ratify the terms, he attacked the Turks at +Heliopolis, though with but 10,000 men against 60,000, and utterly +defeated them on the 20th of March 1800. He then retook Cairo, which had +revolted from the French. Shortly after these victories he was +assassinated at Cairo by a fanatic on the 14th of June 1800, the same +day on which his friend and comrade Desaix fell at Marengo. Kléber was +undoubtedly one of the greatest generals of the French revolutionary +epoch. Though he distrusted his powers and declined the responsibility +of supreme command, there is nothing in his career to show that he would +have been unequal to it. As a second in command he was not excelled by +any general of his time. His conduct of affairs in Egypt at a time when +the treasury was empty and the troops were discontented for want of pay, +shows that his powers as an administrator were little--if at +all--inferior to those he possessed as a general. + + Ernouf, the grandson of Jourdan's chief of staff, published in 1867 a + valuable biography of Kléber. See also Reynaud, _Life of Merlin de + Thionville_; Ney, Memoirs; Dumas, _Souvenirs_; Las Casas, _Memorial de + Ste Hélène_; J. Charavaray, _Les Généraux morts pour la patrie_; + General Pajol, _Kléber_; lives of Marceau and Desaix; M. F. Rousseau, + _Kléber et Menou en Egypte_ (Paris, 1900). + + + + +KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD (1810-1876), German writer of Jewish origin, was +born at Miskolcz, in Hungary. He was educated at the gymnasium in Pest, +and studied medicine in Vienna and Berlin. After travelling in Italy and +Greece, he settled as a man of letters in Berlin, where he remained +until his death on the 2nd of August 1876. He was the author of many +dramatic works, among others the historical tragedies _Maria von Medici_ +(1841); _Luines_ (1842); _Zenobia_ (1847); _Moreto_ (1859); _Maria_ +(1860); _Strafford_ (1862) and _Heliodora_ (1867); and the comedies _Die +Herzogin_ (1848); _Ein Schützling_ (1850); and _Voltaire_ (1862). The +tendency of Klein as a dramatist was to become bombastic and obscure, +but many of his characters are vigorously conceived, and in nearly all +his tragedies there are passages of brilliant rhetoric. He is chiefly +known as the author of the elaborate though uncompleted _Geschichte des +Dramas_ (1865-1876), in which he undertook to record the history of the +drama from the earliest times. He died when about to enter upon the +Elizabethan period, to the treatment of which he had looked forward as +the chief part of his task. The work, which is in thirteen bulky +volumes, gives proof of immense learning, but is marred by +eccentricities of style and judgment. + + Klein's _Dramatische Werke_ were collected in 7 vols. (1871-1872). + + + + +KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH WILHELM VON (1777-1811), German poet, dramatist +and novelist, was born at Frankfort-on-Oder on the 18th of October 1777. +After a scanty education, he entered the Prussian army in 1792, served +in the Rhine campaign of 1796 and retired from the service in 1799 with +the rank of lieutenant. He next studied law and philosophy at the +university of Frankfort-on-Oder, and in 1800 received a subordinate post +in the ministry of finance at Berlin. In the following year his roving, +restless spirit got the better of him, and procuring a lengthened leave +of absence he visited Paris and then settled in Switzerland. Here he +found congenial friends in Heinrich Zschokke (q.v.) and Ludwig Friedrich +August Wieland (1777-1819), son of the poet; and to them he read his +first drama, a gloomy tragedy, _Die Familie Schroffenstein_ (1803), +originally entitled _Die Familie Ghonorez_. In the autumn of 1802 Kleist +returned to Germany; he visited Goethe, Schiller and Wieland in Weimar, +stayed for a while in Leipzig and Dresden, again proceeded to Paris, and +returning in 1804 to his post in Berlin was transferred to the +_Domänenkammer_ (department for the administration of crown lands) at +Königsberg. On a journey to Dresden in 1807 Kleist was arrested by the +French as a spy, and being sent to France was kept for six months a +close prisoner at Châlons-sur-Marne. On regaining his liberty he +proceeded to Dresden, where in conjunction with Adam Heinrich Müller +(1779-1829) he published in 1808 the journal _Phöbus_. In 1809 he went +to Prague, and ultimately settled in Berlin, where he edited (1810-1811) +the _Berliner Abendblätter_. Captivated by the intellectual and musical +accomplishments of a certain Frau Henriette Vogel, Kleist, who was +himself more disheartened and embittered than ever, agreed to do her +bidding and die with her, carrying out this resolution by first shooting +the lady and then himself on the shore of the Wannsee near Potsdam, on +the 21st of November 1811. Kleist's whole life was filled by a restless +striving after ideal and illusory happiness, and this is largely +reflected in his work. He was by far the most important North German +dramatist of the Romantic movement, and no other of the Romanticists +approaches him in the energy with which he expresses patriotic +indignation. + + His first tragedy, _Die Familie Schroffenstein_, has been already + referred to; the material for the second, _Penthesilea_ (1808), queen + of the Amazons, is taken from a Greek source and presents a picture of + wild passion. More successful than either of these was his romantic + play, _Das Käthchen von Heilbronn, oder Die Feuerprobe_ (1808), a + poetic drama full of medieval bustle and mystery, which has retained + its popularity. In comedy, Kleist made a name with _Der zerbrochene + Krug_ (1811), while _Amphitryon_ (1808), an adaptation of Molière's + comedy, is of less importance. Of Kleist's other dramas, _Die + Hermannschlacht_ (1809) is a dramatic treatment of an historical + subject and is full of references to the political conditions of his + own times. In it he gives vent to his hatred of his country's + oppressors. This, together with the drama _Prinz Friedrich von + Homburg_, the latter accounted Kleist's best work, was first published + by Ludwig Tieck in _Kleists hinterlassene Schriften_ (1821). _Robert + Guiskard_, a drama conceived on a grand plan, was left a fragment. + Kleist was also a master in the art of narrative, and of his + _Gesammelte Erzählungen_ (1810-1811), _Michael Kohlhaas_, in which the + famous Brandenburg horse dealer in Luther's day (see KOHLHASE) is + immortalized, is one of the best German stories of its time. He also + wrote some patriotic lyrics. His _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published + by Ludwig Tieck (3 vols. 1826) and by Julian Schmidt (new ed. 1874); + also by F. Muncker (4 vols. 1882); by T. Zolling (4 vols. 1885); by K. + Siegen, (4 vols. 1895); and in a critical edition by E. Schmidt (5 + vols. 1904-1905). His _Ausgewählte Dramen_ were published by K. Siegen + (Leipzig, 1877); and his letters were first published by E. von Bülow, + _Heinrich von Kleists Leben und Briefe_ (1848). + + See further A. Wilbrandt, _Heinrich von Kleist_ (1863); O. Brahm, + _Heinrich von Kleist_ (1884); R. Bonafous, _Henri de Kleist, sa vie et + ses oeuvres_ (1894); H. Conrad, _Heinrich von Kleist als Mensch und + Dichter_ (1896); G. Minde-Pouet, _Heinrich von Kleist, seine Sprache + und sein Stil_ (1897); R. Steig, _Heinrich von Kleists Berliner + Kämpfe_ (1901); F. Servaes, _Heinrich von Kleist_ (1902); S. + Wukadinowic, _Kleist-Studien_ (1904); S. Rahmer, _H. von Kleist als + Mensch und Dichter_ (1909). + + + + +KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON (1715-1759), German poet, was born at +Zeblin, near Köslin in Pomerania, on the 7th of March 1715. After +attending the Jesuit school in Deutschkrona and the gymnasium in Danzig, +he proceeded in 1731 to the university of Königsberg, where he studied +law and mathematics. On the completion of his studies, he entered the +Danish army, in which he became an officer in 1736. Recalled to Prussia +by Frederick II. in 1740, he was appointed lieutenant in a regiment +stationed at Potsdam, where he became acquainted with J. W. L. Gleim +(q.v.), who interested him in poetry. After distinguishing himself at +the battle of Mollwitz (April 10, 1741) and the siege of Neisse (1741), +he was promoted captain in 1749 and major in 1756. Quartered during the +winter of 1757-1758 in Leipzig, he found relief from his irksome +military duties in the society of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (q.v.). +Shortly afterwards in the battle of Kunersdorf, on the 12th of August +1759, he was mortally wounded while leading the attack, and died at +Frankfort-on-Oder on the 24th of August following. + +Kleist's chief work is a poem in hexameters, _Der Frühling_ (1749), for +which Thomson's _Seasons_ largely supplied ideas. In his description of +the beauties of nature Kleist shows real poetical genius, an almost +modern sentiment and fine taste. He also wrote some charming odes, +idylls and elegies, and a small epic poem _Cissides und Paches_ (1759), +the subject being two Thessalian friends who die an heroic death for +their country in a battle against the Athenians. + + Kleist published in 1756 the first collection of his _Gedichte_, which + was followed by a second in 1758. After his death his friend Karl + Wilhelm Ramler (q.v.) published an edition of _Kleists sämtliche + Werke_ in 2 vols. (1760). A critical edition was published by A. + Sauer, in 3 vols. (1880-1882). Cf. further, A. Chuquet, _De Ewaldi + Kleistii vita et scriptis_ (Paris, 1887), and H. Pröhle, _Friedrich + der Grosse und die deutsche Literatur_ (1872). + + + + +KLERKSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 118 m. S.W. of Johannesburg and 192 +m. N.E. of Kimberley by rail. Pop. (1904), 4276 of whom 2203 were +whites. The town, built on the banks of the Schoonspruit 10 m. above its +junction with the Vaal, possesses several fine public buildings. In the +neighbourhood are gold-mines, the reef appearing to form the western +boundary of the Witwatersrand basin. Diamonds (green in colour) and coal +are also found in the district. Klerksdorp was one of the villages +founded by the first Boers who crossed the Vaal, dating from 1838. The +modern town, which is on the side of the _spruit_ opposite the old +village, was founded in 1888. + + + + +KLESL (or KHLESL), MELCHIOR (1552-1630), Austrian statesman and +ecclesiastic, was the son of a Protestant baker, and was born in Vienna. +Under the influence of the Jesuits he was converted to Roman +Catholicism, and having finished his education at the universities of +Vienna and Ingolstadt, he was made chancellor of the university of +Vienna; and as official and vicar-general of the bishop of Passau he +exhibited the zeal of a convert in forwarding the progress of the +counter-reformation in Austria. He became bishop of Vienna in 1598; but +more important was his association with the archduke Matthias which +began about the same time. Both before and after 1612, when Matthias +succeeded his brother Rudolph II. as emperor, Klesl was the originator +and director of his policy, although he stoutly opposed the concessions +to the Hungarian Protestants in 1606. He assisted to secure the election +of Matthias to the imperial throne, and sought, but without success, to +strengthen the new emperor's position by making peace between the +Catholics and the Protestants. When during the short reign of Matthias +the question of the imperial succession demanded prompt attention, the +bishop, although quite as anxious as his opponents to retain the empire +in the house of Habsburg and to preserve the dominance of the Roman +Catholic Church, advised that this question should be shelved until some +arrangement with the Protestant princes had been reached. This counsel +was displeasing to the archduke Maximilian and to Ferdinand, afterwards +the emperor Ferdinand II. who believed that Klesl was hostile to the +candidature of the latter prince. It was, however, impossible to shake +his influence with the emperor; and in June 1618, a few months before +the death of Matthias, he was seized by order of the archdukes and +imprisoned at Ambras in Tirol. In 1622 Klesl, who had been a cardinal +since 1615, was transferred to Rome by order of Pope Gregory XV., and +was released from imprisonment. In 1627 Ferdinand II. allowed him to +return to his episcopal duties in Vienna, where he died on the 18th of +September 1630. + + See J. Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall, _Khlesls Leben_ (Vienna, + 1847-1851); A. Kerschbaumer, _Kardinal Klesl_ (Vienna, 1865); and + _Klesls Briefe an Rudolfs II. Obersthofmeister A. Freiherr von + Dietrichstein_, edited by V. Bibl. (Vienna, 1900). + + + + +KLINGER, FRIEDRICH MAXIMILIAN VON (1752-1831), German dramatist and +novelist, was born of humble parentage at Frankfort-on-Main, on the 17th +of February 1752. His father died when he was a child, and his early +years were a hard struggle. He was enabled, however, in 1774 to enter +the university of Giessen, where he studied law; and Goethe, with whom +he had been acquainted since childhood, helped him in many ways. In 1775 +Klinger gained with his tragedy _Die Zwillinge_ a prize offered by the +Hamburg theatre, under the auspices of the actress Sophie Charlotte +Ackermann (1714-1792) and her son the famous actor and playwright, +Friedrich Ludwig Schröder (1744-1816). In 1776 Klinger was appointed +_Theaterdichter_ to the "Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft" and held +this post for two years. In 1778 he entered the Austrian military +service and took part in the Bavarian war of succession. In 1780 he went +to St Petersburg, became an officer in the Russian army, was ennobled +and attached to the Grand Duke Paul, whom he accompanied on a journey to +Italy and France. In 1785 he was appointed director of the corps of +cadets, and having married a natural daughter of the empress Catharine, +was made praeses of the Academy of Knights in 1799. In 1803 Klinger was +nominated by the emperor Alexander curator of the university of Dorpat, +an office he held until 1817; in 1811 he became lieutenant-general. He +then gradually gave up his official posts, and after living for many +years in honourable retirement, died at Dorpat on the 25th of February +1831. + +Klinger was a man of vigorous moral character and full of fine feeling, +though the bitter experiences and deprivations of his youth are largely +reflected in his dramas. It was one of his earliest works, _Sturm und +Drang_ (1776), which gave its name to this literary epoch. In addition +to this tragedy and _Die Zwillinge_ (1776), the chief plays of his early +period of passionate fervour and restless "storm and stress" are _Die +neue Arria_ (1776), _Simsone Grisaldo_ (1776) and _Stilpo und seine +Kinder_ (1780). To a later period belongs the fine double tragedy of +_Medea in Korinth_ and _Medea auf dem Kaukasos_ (1791). In Russia he +devoted himself mainly to the writing of philosophical romances, of +which the best known are _Fausts Leben, Taten und Höllenfahrt_ (1791), +_Geschichte Giafars des Barmeciden_ (1792) and _Geschichte Raphaels de +Aquillas_ (1793). This series was closed in 1803 with _Betrachtungen und +Gedanken über verschiedene Gegenstände der Welt und der Literatur_. In +these works Klinger gives calm and dignified expression to the leading +ideas which the period of _Sturm und Drang_ had bequeathed to German +classical literature. + + Klinger's works were published in twelve volumes (1809-1815), also + 1832-1833 and 1842. The most recent edition is in eight volumes + (1878-1880); but none of these is complete. A selection will be found + in A. Sauer, _Stürmer und Dränger_, vol. i. (1883). See E. Schmidt, + _Lenz und Klinger_ (1878); M. Rieger, _Klinger in der Sturm- und + Drangperiode_ (1880); and _Klinger in seiner Reife_ (1896). + + + + +KLINGER, MAX (1857- ), German painter, etcher and sculptor, was born at +Plagwitz near Leipzig. He attended the classes at the Carlsruhe art +school in 1874, and went in the following year to Berlin, where in 1878 +he created a sensation at the Academy exhibition with two series of +pen-and-ink drawings--the "Series upon the Theme of Christ" and +"Fantasies upon the Finding of a Glove." The daring originality of these +imaginative and eccentric works caused an outburst of indignation, and +the artist was voted insane; nevertheless the "Glove" series was bought +by the Berlin National Gallery. His painting of "The Judgment of Paris" +caused a similar storm of indignant protest in 1887, owing to its +rejection of all conventional attributes and the naïve directness of the +conception. His vivid and somewhat morbid imagination, with its leaning +towards the gruesome and disagreeable, and the Goyaesque turn of his +mind, found their best expression in his "cycles" of etchings: +"Deliverances of Sacrificial Victims told in Ovid," "A Brahms Phantasy," +"Eve and the Future," "A Life," and "Of Death"; but in his use of the +needle he does not aim at the technical excellence of the great masters; +it supplies him merely with means of expressing his ideas. After 1886 +Klinger devoted himself more exclusively to painting and sculpture. In +his painting he aims neither at classic beauty nor modern truth, but at +grim impressiveness not without a touch of mysticism. His "Pietà" at the +Dresden Gallery, the frescoes at the Leipzig University, and the "Christ +in Olympus," at the Modern Gallery in Vienna, are characteristic +examples of his art. The Leipzig Museum contains his sculptured "Salome" +and "Cassandra." In sculpture he favours the use of varicoloured +materials in the manner of the Greek chryselephantine sculpture. His +"Beethoven" is a notable instance of his work in this direction. + + + + +KLIPSPRINGER, the Boer name of a small African mountain-antelope +(_Oreotragus saltator_), ranging from the Cape through East Africa to +Somaliland and Abyssinia, and characterized by its blunt rounded hoofs, +thick pithy hair and gold-spangled colouring. The klipspringer +represents a genus by itself, the various local forms not being worthy +of more than racial distinction. The activity of these antelopes is +marvellous. + + + + +KLONDIKE, a district in Yukon Territory, north-western Canada, +approximately in 64° N. and 140° W. The limits are rather indefinite, +but the district includes the country to the south of the Klondike +River, which comes into the Yukon from the east and has several +tributaries, as well as Indian River, a second branch of the Yukon, +flowing into it some distance above the Klondike. The richer +gold-bearing gravels are found along the creeks tributary to these two +rivers within an area of about 800 sq. m. The Klondike district is a +dissected peneplain with low ridges of rounded forms rising to 4250 ft. +above the sea at the Dome which forms its centre. All of the +gold-bearing creeks rise not far from the Dome and radiate in various +directions toward the Klondike and Indian rivers, the most productive +being Bonanza with its tributary Eldorado, Hunker, Dominion and Gold +Run. Of these, Eldorado, for the two or three miles in which it was +gold-bearing, was much the richest, and for its length probably +surpassed any other known placer deposit. Rich gravel was discovered on +Bonanza Creek in 1896, and a wild rush to this almost inaccessible +region followed, a population of 30,000 coming in within the next three +or four years with a rapidly increasing output of gold, reaching in 1900 +the climax of $22,000,000. Since then the production has steadily +declined, until in 1906 it fell to $5,600,000. The richest gravels were +worked out before 1910, and most of the population had left the Klondike +for Alaska and other regions; so that Dawson, which for a time was a +bustling city of more than 10,000, dwindled to about 3000 inhabitants. +As the ground was almost all frozen, the mines were worked by a thawing +process, first by setting fires, afterwards by using steam, new methods +being introduced to meet the unusual conditions. Later dredges and +hydraulic mining were resorted to with success. + +The Klondike, in spite of its isolated position, brought together miners +and adventurers from all parts of the world, and it is greatly to the +credit of the Canadian government and of the mounted police, who were +entrusted with the keeping of order, that life and property were as safe +as elsewhere and that no lawless methods were adopted by the miners as +in placer mining camps in the western United States. The region was at +first difficult of access, but can now be reached with perfect comfort +in summer, travelling by well-appointed steamers on the Pacific and the +Yukon River. Owing to its perpetually frozen soil, summer roads were +excessively bad in earlier days, but good wagon roads have since been +constructed to all the important mining centres. Dawson itself has all +the resources of a civilized city in spite of being founded on a frozen +peat-bog; and is supplied with ordinary market vegetables from farms +just across the river. During the winter, when for some time the sun +does not appear above the hills, the cold is intense, though usually +without wind, but the well-chinked log houses can be kept comfortably +warm. When winter travel is necessary dog teams and sledges are +generally made use of, except on the stage route south to White Horse, +where horses are used. A telegraph line connects Dawson with British +Columbia, but the difficulties in keeping it in order are so great over +the long intervening wilderness that communication is often broken. Gold +is practically the only economic product of the Klondike, though small +amounts of tin ore occur, and lignite coal has been mined lower down on +the Yukon. The source of the gold seems to have been small stringers of +quartz in the siliceous and sericitic schists which form the bed rock of +much of the region, and no important quartz veins have been discovered; +so that unlike most other placer regions the Klondike has not developed +lode mines to continue the production of gold when the gravels are +exhausted. + + + + +KLOPP, ONNO (1822-1903), German historian, was born at Leer on the 9th +of October 1822, and was educated at the universities of Bonn, Berlin +and Göttingen. For a few years he was a teacher at Leer and at +Osnabrück; but in 1858 he settled at Hanover, where he became intimate +with King George V., who made him his _Archivrat_. Thoroughly disliking +Prussia, he was in hearty accord with George in resisting her aggressive +policy; and after the annexation of Hanover in 1866 he accompanied the +exiled king to Hietzing. He became a Roman Catholic in 1874. He died at +Penzing, near Vienna, on the 9th of August 1903. Klopp is best known as +the author of _Der Fall des Hauses Stuart_ (Vienna, 1875-1888), the +fullest existing account of the later Stuarts. + + His _Der König Friedrich II. und seine Politik_ (Schaffhausen, 1867) + and _Geschichte Ostfrieslands_ (Hanover, 1854-1858) show his dislike + of Prussia. His other works include _Der dreissigjährige Krieg bis zum + Tode Gustav Adolfs_ (Paderborn, 1891-1896); a revised edition of his + _Tilly im dreissigjährigen Kriege_ (Stuttgart, 1861); a life of George + V., _König Georg V._ (Hanover, 1878); _Phillipp Melanchthon_ (Berlin, + 1897). He edited _Corrispondenza epistolare tra Leopoldo I. imperatore + ed il P. Marco l'Aviano capuccino_ (Gratz, 1888). Klopp also wrote + much in defence of George V. and his claim to Hanover, including the + _Offizieller Bericht über die Kriegsereignisse zwischen Hannover und + Preussen im Juni 1866_ (Vienna, 1867), and he edited the works of + Leibnitz in eleven volumes (1861-1884). + + See W. Klopp, _Onno Klopp: ein Lebenslauf_ (Wehberg, 1907). + + + + +KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH (1724-1803), German poet, was born at +Quedlinburg, on the 2nd of July 1724, the eldest son of a lawyer, a man +of sterling character and of a deeply religious mind. Both in his +birthplace and on the estate of Friedeburg on the Saale, which his father +later rented, young Klopstock passed a happy childhood; and more +attention having been given to his physical than to his mental +development he grew up a strong healthy boy and was an excellent horseman +and skater. In his thirteenth year Klopstock returned to Quedlinburg +where he attended the gymnasium, and in 1739 proceeded to the famous +classical school of Schulpforta. Here he soon became an adept in Greek +and Latin versification, and wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in +German. His original intention of making the emperor Henry I. ("The +Fowler") the hero of an epic, was, under the influence of Milton's +_Paradise Lost_, with which he became acquainted through Bodmer's +translation, abandoned in favour of the religious epic. While yet at +school, he had already drafted the plan of _Der Messias_, upon which his +fame mainly rests. On the 21st of September 1745 he delivered on quitting +school a remarkable "leaving oration" on epic poetry--_Abschiedsrede über +die epische Poesie, kultur- und literargeschichtlich erläutert_--and next +proceeded to Jena as a student of theology, where he elaborated the first +three cantos of the _Messias_ in prose. The life at this university being +uncongenial to him, he removed in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, and here +joined the circle of young men of letters who contributed to the _Bremer +Beiträge_. In this periodical the first three cantos of the _Messias_ in +hexameters were anonymously published in 1748. A new era in German +literature had commenced, and the name of the author soon became known. +In Leipzig he also wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is _An +meine Freunde_ (1747), afterwards recast as _Wingolf_ (1767). He left the +university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family of a relative +at Langensalza. Here unrequited love for a cousin (the "Fanny" of his +odes) disturbed his peace of mind. Gladly therefore he accepted in 1750 +an invitation from Jakob Bodmer (q.v.), the translator of _Paradise +Lost_, to visit him in Zürich. Here Klopstock was at first treated with +every kindness and respect and rapidly recovered his spirits. Bodmer, +however, was disappointed to find in the young poet of the _Messias_ a +man of strong worldly interests, and a coolness sprang up between the two +friends. + +At this juncture Klopstock received from Frederick V. of Denmark, on the +recommendation of his minister Count von Bernstorff (1712-1772), an +invitation to settle at Copenhagen, with an annuity of 400 talers, with +a view to the completion of the _Messias_. The offer was accepted; on +his way to the Danish capital Klopstock met at Hamburg the lady who in +1754 became his wife, Margareta (Meta) Moller, (the "Cidli" of his +odes), an enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short; +she died in 1758, leaving him almost broken-hearted. His grief at her +loss finds pathetic expression in the 15th canto of the _Messias_. The +poet subsequently published his wife's writings, _Hinterlassene Werke +von Margareta Klopstock_ (1759), which give evidence of a tender, +sensitive and deeply religious spirit. Klopstock now relapsed into +melancholy; new ideas failed him, and his poetry became more and more +vague and unintelligible. He still continued to live and work at +Copenhagen, and next, following Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg (q.v.), +turned his attention to northern mythology, which he conceived should +replace classical subjects in a new school of German poetry. In 1770, on +the dismissal by King Christian VII. of Count Bernstorff from office, he +retired with the latter to Hamburg, but retained his pension together +with the rank of councillor of legation. Here, in 1773, he issued the +last five cantos of the _Messias_. In the following year he published +his strange scheme for the regeneration of German letters, _Die +Gelehrtenrepublik_ (1774). In 1775 he travelled south, and making the +acquaintance of Goethe on the way, spent a year at the court of the +margrave of Baden at Karlsruhe. Thence, in 1776, with the title of +_Hofrat_ and a pension from the margrave, which he retained together +with that from the king of Denmark, he returned to Hamburg where he +spent the remainder of his life. His latter years he passed, as had +always been his inclination, in retirement, only occasionally relieved +by association with his most intimate friends, busied with philological +studies, and hardly interesting himself in the new developments of +German literature. The American War of Independence and the Revolution +in France aroused him, however, to enthusiasm. The French Republic sent +him the diploma of honorary citizenship; but, horrified at the terrible +scenes the Revolution had enacted in the place of liberty, he returned +it. When 67 years of age he contracted a second marriage with Johanna +Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow and a niece of his late wife, who for +many years had been one of his most intimate friends. He died at Hamburg +on the 14th of March 1803, mourned by all Germany, and was buried with +great pomp and ceremony by the side of his first wife in the churchyard +of the village of Ottensen. + + Klopstock's nature was best attuned to lyrical poetry, and in it his + deep, noble character found its truest expression. He was less suited + for epic and dramatic representation; for, wrapt up in himself, a + stranger to the outer world, without historical culture, and without + even any interest in the events of his time, he was lacking in the art + of plastic representation such as a great epic requires. Thus the + _Messias_, despite the magnificent passages which especially the + earlier cantos contain, cannot satisfy the demands such a theme must + necessarily make. The subject matter, the Redemption, presented + serious difficulties to adequate epic treatment. The Gospel story was + too scanty, and what might have been imported from without and + interwoven with it was rejected by the author as profane. He had + accordingly to resort to Christian mythology; and here again, + circumscribed by the dogmas of the Church, he was in danger of + trespassing on the fundamental truths of the Christian faith. The + personality of Christ could scarcely be treated in an individual form, + still less could angels and devils--and in the case of God Himself it + was impossible. The result was that, despite the groundwork--the + Gospels, the _Acts of the Apostles_, the _Revelation of St John_, and + the model ready to hand in Milton's _Paradise Lost_--material elements + are largely wanting and the actors in the poem, Divine and human, lack + plastic form. That the poem took twenty-five years to complete could + not but be detrimental to its unity of design; the original enthusiasm + was not sustained until the end, and the earlier cantos are far + superior to the later. Thus the intense public interest the work + aroused in its commencement had almost vanished before its completion. + It was translated into seventeen languages and led to numerous + imitations. In his odes Klopstock had more scope for his peculiar + talent. Among the best are _An Fanny_; _Der Zürchersee_; _Die tote + Klarissa_; _An Cidli_; _Die beiden Musen_; _Der Rheinwein_; _Die + frühen Gräber_; _Mein Vaterland_. His religious odes mostly take the + form of hymns, of which the most beautiful is _Die Frühlingsfeier_. + His dramas, in some of which, notably _Hermanns Schlacht_ (1769) and + _Hermann und die Fürsten_ (1784), he celebrated the deeds of the + ancient German hero Arminius, and in others, _Der Tod Adams_ (1757) + and _Salomo_ (1764), took his materials from the Old Testament, are + essentially lyrical in character and deficient in action. In addition + to _Die Gelehrtenrepublik_, he was also the author of _Fragmente über + Sprache und Dichtkunst_ (1779) and _Grammatische Gespräche_ (1794), + works in which he made important contributions to philology and to the + history of German poetry. + + Klopstock's _Werke_ first appeared in seven quarto volumes + (1798-1809). At the same time a more complete edition in twelve octavo + volumes was published (1798-1817), to which six additional volumes + were added in 1830. More recent editions were published in 1844-1845, + 1854-1855, 1879 (ed. by R. Boxberger), 1884 (ed. by R. Hamel) and 1893 + (a selection edited by F. Muncker). A critical edition of the _Odes_ + was published by F. Muncker and J. Pawel in 1889; a commentary on + these by H. Düntzer (1860; 2nd ed., 1878). For Klopstock's + correspondence see K. Schmidt, _Klopstock und seine Freunde_ (1810); + C. A. H. Clodius, _Klopstocks Nachlass_ (1821); J. M. Lappenberg, + _Briefe von und an Klopstock_ (1867). Cf. further K. F. Cramer, + _Klopstock, er und über ihn_ (1780-1792); J. G. Gruber, _Klopstocks + Leben_ (1832); R. Hamel, _Klopstock-Studien_ (1879-1880); F. Muncker, + _F. G. Klopstock_, the most authoritative biography, (1888); E. + Bailly, _Étude sur la vie et les oeuvres de Klopstock_ (Paris, 1888). + + + + +KLOSTERNEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 5-½ m. N.W. of +Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 11,595. It is situated on the right bank of +the Danube, at the foot of the Kahlenberg, and is divided by a small +stream into an upper and a lower town. As an important pioneer station +Klosterneuburg has various military buildings and stores, and among the +schools it possesses an academy of wine and fruit cultivation. + +On a hill rising directly from the banks of the Danube stand the +magnificent buildings (erected 1730-1834) of the Augustine canonry, +founded in 1106 by Margrave Leopold the Holy. This foundation is the +oldest and richest of the kind in Austria; it owns much of the land +upon which the north-western suburbs of Vienna stand. Among the points +of interest within it are the old chapel of 1318, with Leopold's tomb +and the altar of Verdun, dating from the 12th century, the treasury and +relic-chamber, the library with 30,000 volumes and many MSS., the +picture gallery, the collection of coins, the theological hall, and the +wine-cellar, containing an immense tun like that at Heidelberg. The +inhabitants of Klosterneuburg are mainly occupied in making wine, of +excellent quality. There is a large cement factory outside the town. In +Roman times the castle of Citium stood in the region of Klosterneuburg. +The town was founded by Charlemagne, and received its charter as a town +in 1298. + + + + +KLOTZ, REINHOLD (1807-1870), German classical scholar, was born near +Chemnitz in Saxony on the 13th of March 1807. In 1849 he was appointed +professor in the university of Leipzig in succession to Gottfried +Hermann, and held this post till his death on the 10th of August 1870. +Klotz was a man of unwearied industry, and devoted special attention to +Latin literature. + + He was the author of editions of several classical authors, of which + the most important were: the complete works of Cicero (2nd ed., + 1869-1874); Clement of Alexandria (1831-1834); Euripides (1841-1867), + in continuation of Pflugk's edition, but unfinished; Terence + (1838-1840), with the commentaries of Donatus and Eugraphius. Mention + should also be made of: _Handwörterbuch der lateinischen Sprache_ (5th + ed., 1874); _Römische Litteraturgeschichte_ (1847), of which only the + introductory volume appeared; an edition of the treatise _De Graecae + linguae particulis_ (1835-1842) of Matthaeus Deverius (Devares), a + learned Corfiote (c. 1500-1570), and corrector of the Greek MSS. in + the Vatican; the posthumous _Index Ciceronianus_ (1872) and _Handbuch + der lateinischen Stilistik_ (1874). From 1831-1855 Klotz was editor of + the _Neue Jahrbücher für Philologie_ (Leipzig). During the troubled + times of 1848 and the following years he showed himself a strong + conservative. + + A memoir by his son Richard will be found in the _Jahrbücher_ for + 1871, pp. 154-163. + + + + +KNARESBOROUGH, a market town in the Ripon parliamentary division of the +West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 16½ m. W. by N. from York by a branch +of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4979. Its +situation is most picturesque, on the steep left bank of the river Nidd, +which here follows a well-wooded valley, hemmed in by limestone cliffs. +The church of St John the Baptist is Early English, but has numerous +Decorated and Perpendicular additions; it is a cruciform building +containing several interesting monuments. Knaresborough Castle was +probably founded in 1070 by Serlo de Burgh. Its remains, however, are of +the 14th century, and include a massive keep rising finely from a cliff +above the Nidd. After the battle of Marston Moor it was taken by +Fairfax, and in 1648 it was ordered to be dismantled. To the south of +the castle is St Robert's chapel, an excavation in the rock constructed +into an ecclesiastical edifice in the reign of Richard I. Several of the +excavations in the limestone, which is extensively quarried, are +incorporated in dwelling-houses. A little farther down the river is St +Robert's cave, which is supposed to have been the residence of the +hermit, and in 1744 was the scene of the murder of Daniel Clarke by +Eugene Aram, whose story is told in Lytton's well-known novel. Opposite +the castle is the Dropping Well, the waters of which are impregnated +with lime and have petrifying power, this action causing the curious and +beautiful incrustations formed where the water falls over a slight +cliff. The Knaresborough free grammar school was founded in 1616. There +is a large agricultural trade, and linen and leather manufactures and +the quarries also employ a considerable number of persons. + +Knaresborough (_Canardesburg_, _Cnarreburc_, _Cknareburg_), which +belonged to the Crown before the Conquest, formed part of William the +Conqueror's grant to his follower Serlo de Burgh. Being forfeited by his +grandson Eustace FitzJohn in the reign of Stephen, Knaresborough was +granted to Robert de Stuteville, from whose descendants it passed +through marriage to Hugh de Morville, one of the murderers of Thomas +Becket, who with his three accomplices remained in hiding in the castle +for a whole year. During the 13th and 14th centuries the castle and +lordship changed hands very frequently; they were granted successively +to Hubert de Burgh, whose son forfeited them after the battle of +Evesham, to Richard, earl of Cornwall, whose son Edmund died without +issue; to Piers Gaveston, and lastly to John of Gaunt, duke of +Lancaster, and so to the Crown as parcel of the duchy of Lancaster. In +1317 John de Lilleburn, who was holding the castle of Knaresborough for +Thomas duke of Lancaster against the king, surrendered under conditions +to William de Ros of Hamelak, but before leaving the castle managed to +destroy all the records of the liberties and privileges of the town +which were kept in the castle. In 1368 an inquisition was taken to +ascertain these privileges, and the jurors found that the burgesses held +"all the soil of their borough yielding 7s. 4d. yearly and doing suit at +the king's court." In the reign of Henry VIII. Knaresborough is said by +Leland to be "no great thing and meanely builded but the market there is +quik." During the civil wars Knaresborough was held for some time by the +Royalists, but they were obliged to surrender, and the castle was among +those ordered to be destroyed by parliament in 1646. A market on +Wednesday and a fortnightly fair on the same day from the Feast of St +Mark to that of St Andrew are claimed under a charter of Charles II. +confirming earlier charters. Lead ore was found and worked on +Knaresborough Common in the 16th century. From 1555 to 1867 the town +returned two members to parliament, but in the latter year the number +was reduced to one, and in 1885 the representation was merged in that of +the West Riding. + + + + +KNAVE (O.E. _cnafa_, cognate with Ger. _Knabe_, boy), originally a male +child, a boy (Chaucer, _Canterbury Tales_: "Clerk's Tale," I. 388). Like +Lat. _puer_, the word was early used as a name for any boy or lad +employed as a servant, and so of male servants in general (Chaucer: +"Pardoner's Tale," 1. 204). The current use of the word for a man who is +dishonest and crafty, a rogue, was however an early usage, and is found +in Layamon (c. 1205). In playing-cards the lowest court card of each +suit, the "jack," representing a medieval servant, is called the +"knave." (See also VALET.) + + + + +KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON (1744-1834), German poet and translator, was +born at the castle of Wallerstein in Franconia on the 30th of November +1744. After having studied law for a short while at Halle, he entered +the regiment of the crown prince of Prussia in Potsdam and was attached +to it as officer for ten years. Disappointed in his military career, +owing to the slowness of promotion, he retired in 1774, and accepting +the post of tutor to Prince Konstantin of Weimar, accompanied him and +his elder brother, the hereditary prince, on a tour to Paris. On this +journey he visited Goethe in Frankfort-on-Main, and introduced him to +the hereditary prince, Charles Augustus. This meeting is memorable as +being the immediate cause of Goethe's later intimate connexion with the +Weimar court. After Knebel's return and the premature death of his pupil +he was pensioned, receiving the rank of major. In 1798 he married the +singer Luise von Rudorf, and retired to Ilmenau; but in 1805 he removed +to Jena, where he lived until his death on the 23rd of February 1834. +Knebel's _Sammlung kleiner Gedichte_ (1815), issued anonymously, and +_Distichen_ (1827) contain many graceful sonnets, but it is as a +translator that he is best known. His translation of the elegies of +Propertius, _Elegien des Properz_ (1798), and that of Lucretius' _De +rerum natura_ (2 vols., 1831) are deservedly praised. Since their first +acquaintance Knebel and Goethe were intimate friends, and not the least +interesting of Knebel's writings is his correspondence with the eminent +poet, _Briefwechsel mit Goethe_ (ed. G. E. Guhrauer, 2 vols., 1851). + + Knebel's _Literarischer Nachlass und Briefwechsel_ was edited by K. A. + Varnhagen von Ense and T. Mundt in 3 vols. (1835; 2nd ed., 1840). See + Hugo von Knebel-Döberitz, _Karl Ludwig von Knebel_ (1890). + + + + +KNEE (O.E. _cnéow_, a word common to Indo-European languages, cf. Ger. +_Knie_, Fr. _genou_, Span, _hinojo_, Lat. _genu_, Gr. [Greek: gonu], +Sansk. _janu_), in human anatomy, the articulation of the upper and +lower parts of the leg, the joint between the femur and the tibia (see +JOINTS). The word is also used of articulation resembling the knee-joint +in shape or position in other animals; it thus is applied to the carpal +articulation of the fore leg of a horse, answering to the ankle in man, +or to the tarsal articulation or heel of a bird's foot. + + + + +KNELLER, SIR GODFREY (1648-1723), a portrait painter whose celebrity +belongs chiefly to England, was born in Lübeck in the duchy of Holstein, +of an ancient family, on the 8th of August 1648. He was at first +intended for the army, and was sent to Leyden to learn mathematics and +fortification. Showing, however, a marked preference for the fine arts, +he studied in the school of Rembrandt, and under Ferdinand Bol in +Amsterdam. In 1672 he removed to Italy, directing his chief attention to +Titian and the Caracci; Carlo Maratta gave him some guidance and +encouragement. In Rome, and more especially in Venice, Kneller earned +considerable reputation by historical paintings as well as portraits. He +next went to Hamburg, painting with still increasing success. In 1674 he +came to England at the invitation of the duke of Monmouth, was +introduced to Charles II., and painted that sovereign, much to his +satisfaction, several times. Charles also sent him to Paris, to take the +portrait of Louis XIV. When Sir Peter Lely died in 1680, Kneller, who +produced in England little or nothing in the historical department, +remained without a rival in the ranks of portrait painting; there was no +native-born competition worth speaking of. Charles appointed him court +painter; and he continued to hold the same post into the days of George +I. Under William III. (1692) he was made a knight, under George I. +(1715) a baronet, and by order of the emperor Leopold I. a knight of the +Roman Empire. Not only his court favour but his general fame likewise +was large: he was lauded by Dryden, Addison, Steele, Prior, Tickell and +Pope. Kneller's gains also were very considerable; aided by habits of +frugality which approached stinginess, he left property yielding an +annual income of £2000. His industry was maintained till the last. His +studio had at first been in Covent Garden, but in his closing years he +lived in Kneller Hall, Twickenham. He died of fever, the date being +generally given as the 7th of November 1723, though some accounts say +1726. He was buried in Twickenham church, and has a monument in +Westminster Abbey. An elder brother, John Zachary Kneller, an ornamental +painter, had accompanied Godfrey to England, and had died in 1702. The +style of Sir Godfrey Kneller as a portrait painter represented the +decline of that art as practised by Vandyck; Lely marks the first grade +of descent, and Kneller the second. His works have much freedom, and are +well drawn and coloured; but they are mostly slight in manner, and to a +great extent monotonous, this arising partly from the habit which he had +of lengthening the oval of all his heads. The colouring may be called +brilliant rather than true. He indulged much in the common-places of +allegory; and, though he had a quality of dignified elegance not +unallied with simplicity, genuine simple nature is seldom to be traced +in his works. His fame has greatly declined, and could not but do so +after the advent of Reynolds. Among Kneller's principal paintings are +the "Forty-three Celebrities of the Kit-Cat Club," and the "Ten Beauties +of the Court of William III.," now at Hampton Court; these were painted +by order of the queen; they match, but match unequally, the "Beauties of +the Court of Charles II.," painted by Lely. He executed altogether the +likenesses of ten sovereigns, and fourteen of his works appear in the +National Portrait Gallery. It is said that Kneller's own favourite +performance was the portrait of the "Converted Chinese" in Windsor +Castle. His later works are confined almost entirely to England, not +more than two or three specimens having gone abroad after he had settled +here. (W. M. R.) + + + + +KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN (c. 1650-c. 1720), Dutch colonist of New +Netherland (New York), was a native of Wyhe (Wie), Overyssel, Holland. +Before 1683 he settled near what is now Albany, New York, and there in +1704 he bought through Harme Gansevoort one-fourth of the land in +Dutchess county near Red Hook, which had been patented in 1688 to Peter +Schuyler, who in 1722 deeded seven (of thirteen) lots in the upper +fourth of his patent to the seven children of Knickerbocker. The eldest +of these children, Johannes Harmensen, received from the common council +of the city of Albany a grant of 50 acres of meadow and 10 acres of +upland on the south side of Schaghticoke Creek. This Schaghticoke estate +was held by Johannes Harmensen's son Johannes (1723-1802), a colonel in +the Continental Army in the War of Independence, and by his son Harmen +(1779-1855), a lawyer, a federalist representative in Congress in +1809-1811, a member of the New York Assembly in 1816, and a famous +gentleman of the old school, who for his courtly hospitality in his +manor was called "the prince of Schaghticoke" and whose name was +borrowed by Washington Irving for use in his (Diedrich) _Knickerbocker's +History of New York_ (1809). Largely owing to this book, the name +"Knickerbockers" has passed into current use as a designation of the +early Dutch settlers in New York and their descendants. The son of +Johannes, David Buel Knickerbacker (1833-1894), who returned to the +earlier spelling of the family name, graduated at Trinity College in +1853 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1856, was a rector for +many years at Minneapolis, Minnesota, and in 1883 was consecrated +Protestant Episcopal bishop of Indiana. + + See the series of articles by W. B. Van Alstyne on "The Knickerbocker + Family," beginning in vol. xxix., No. 1 (Jan. 1908) of the _New York + Genealogical and Biographical Record_. + + + + +KNIFE (O.E. _cníf_, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic +languages, cf. Du. _knijf_, Ger. _Kneif_, a shoemaker's knife, Swed. +_knif_; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the +root of "nip," formerly "knip"; Fr. _canif_ is also of Teutonic origin), +a small cutting instrument, with the blade either fixed to the handle or +fastened with a hinge so as to clasp into the handle (see CUTLERY). For +the knives chipped from flint by prehistoric man see ARCHAEOLOGY and +FLINT IMPLEMENTS. + + + + +KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR VON (1752-1796), German author, +was born on the family estate of Bredenbeck near Hanover on the 16th of +October 1752. After studying law at Göttingen he was attached +successively to the courts of Hesse-Cassel and Weimar as +gentleman-in-waiting. Retiring from court service in 1777, he lived a +private life with his family in Frankfort-on-Main, Hanau, Heidelberg and +Hanover until 1791, when he was appointed _Oberhauptmann_ (civil +administrator) in Bremen, where he died on the 6th of May 1796. Knigge, +under the name "Philo," was one of the most active members of the +_Illuminati_, a mutual moral and intellectual improvement society +founded by Adam Weishaupt (1748-1830) at Ingolstadt, and which later +became affiliated to the Freemasons. Knigge is known as the author of +several novels, among which _Der Roman meines Lebens_ (1781-1787; new +ed., 1805) and _Die Reise nach Braunschweig_ (1792), the latter a rather +coarsely comic story, are best remembered. His chief literary +achievement was, however, _Über den Umgang mit Menschen_ (1788), in +which he lays down rules to be observed for a peaceful, happy and useful +life; it has been often reprinted. + + Knigge's _Schriften_ were published in 12 volumes (1804-1806). See K. + Goedeke, _Adolf, Freiherr von Knigge_ (1844); and H. Klencke, _Aus + einer alten Kiste_ (_Briefe, Handschriften und Dokumente aus dem + Nachlasse Knigges_) (1853). + + + + +KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873), English publisher and author, the son of a +bookseller and printer at Windsor, was born on the 15th of March 1791. +He was apprenticed to his father, but on the completion of his +indentures he took up journalism and interested himself in several +newspaper speculations. In 1823, in conjunction with friends he had made +as publisher (1820-1821) of _The Etonian_, he started _Knight's +Quarterly Magazine_, to which W. M. Praed, Derwent Coleridge and +Macaulay contributed. The venture was brought to a close with its sixth +number, but it initiated for Knight a career as publisher and author +which extended over forty years. In 1827 Knight was compelled to give up +his publishing business, and became the superintendent of the +publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, for +which he projected and edited _The British Almanack and Companion_, +begun in 1828. In 1829 he resumed business on his own account with the +publication of _The Library of Entertaining Knowledge_, writing several +volumes of the series himself. In 1832 and 1833 he started _The Penny +Magazine_ and _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, both of which had a large +circulation. _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, however, on account of the heavy +excise duty, was only completed in 1844 at a great pecuniary sacrifice. +Besides many illustrated editions of standard works, including in 1842 +_The Pictorial Shakespeare_, which had appeared in parts (1838-1841), +Knight published a variety of illustrated works, such as _Old England_ +and _The Land we Live in_. He also undertook the series known as _Weekly +Volumes_. He himself contributed the first volume, a biography of +William Caxton. Many famous books, Miss Martineau's _Tales_, Mrs +Jameson's _Early Italian Painters_ and G. H. Lewes's _Biographical +History of Philosophy_, appeared for the first time in this series. In +1853 he became editor of _The English Cyclopaedia_, which was +practically only a revision of _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, and at about the +same time he began his _Popular History of England_ (8 vols., +1856-1862). In 1864 he withdrew from the business of publisher, but he +continued to write nearly to the close of his long life, publishing _The +Shadows of the Old Booksellers_ (1865), an autobiography under the title +_Passages of a Working Life during Half a Century_ (2 vols., 1864-1865), +and an historical novel, _Begg'd at Court_ (1867). He died at +Addlestone, Surrey, on the 9th of March 1873. + + See A. A. Clowes, _Knight, a Sketch_ (1892); and F. Espinasse, in _The + Critic_ (May 1860). + + + + +KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845- ), American artist, was born at +Philadelphia, Penn., in 1845. He was a pupil at the École des +Beaux-Arts, Paris, under Gleyre, and later worked in the private studio +of Meissonier. After 1872 he lived in France, having a house and studio +at Poissy on the Seine. He painted peasant women out of doors with great +popular success. He was awarded the silver medal and cross of the Legion +of Honour, Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889, and was made a knight of +the Royal Order of St Michael of Bavaria, Munich, 1893, receiving the +gold medal of honour from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, +Philadelphia, 1893. His son, Ashton Knight, is also known as a landscape +painter. + + + + +KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843-1908), English landscape painter, was born at +Sevenoaks, Kent; he started as a schoolmaster, but painting was his +hobby, and he subsequently devoted himself to it. In 1861 he had his +first picture hung at the Academy. He was essentially an open-air +painter, constantly going on sketching tours in the most picturesque +spots of England, and all his pictures were painted out of doors. He +died at Dover on the 2nd of January 1908. The Chantrey trustees bought +his "December's Bareness Everywhere" for the nation in the following +month. Most of his best pictures had passed into the collection of Mr +Iceton of Putney (including "White Walls of Old England" and "Hereford +Cathedral"), Mr Walter Briggs of Burley in Wharfedale (especially +"Pinner"), and Mr S. M. Phillips of Wrotham (especially two +water-colours of Richmond Bridge). + + + + +KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY. These two words, which are nearly but not quite +synonymous, designate a single subject of inquiry, which presents itself +under three different although connected and in a measure intermingled +aspects. It may be regarded in the first place as a mode or variety of +feudal tenure, in the second place as a personal attribute or dignity, +and in the third place as a scheme of manners or social arrangements. +The first of these aspects is discussed under the headings FEUDALISM and +KNIGHT SERVICE: we are concerned here only with the second and third. +For the more important religious as distinguished from the military +orders of knighthood or chivalry the reader is referred to the headings +ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF; TEUTONIC KNIGHTS; and TEMPLARS. + +"The growth of knighthood" (writes Stubbs) "is a subject on which the +greatest obscurity prevails": and, though J. H. Round has done much to +explain the introduction of the system into England,[1] its actual +origin on the continent of Europe is still obscure in many of its most +important details. + +The words _knight_ and _knighthood_ are merely the modern forms of the +Anglo-Saxon or Old English _cniht_ and _cnihthád_. Of these the primary +signification of the first was a boy or youth, and of the second that +period of life which intervenes between childhood and manhood. But some +time before the middle of the 12th century they had acquired the meaning +they still retain of the French _chevalier_ and _chevalerie_. In a +secondary sense _cniht_ meant a servant or attendant answering to the +German _Knecht_, and in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels a disciple is described +as a _leorning cniht_. In a tertiary sense the word appears to have been +occasionally employed as equivalent to the Latin _miles_--usually +translated by _thegn_--which in the earlier middle ages was used as the +designation of the domestic as well as of the martial officers or +retainers of sovereigns and princes or great personages.[2] Sharon +Turner suggests that _cniht_ from meaning an attendant simply may have +come to mean more especially a military attendant, and that in this +sense it may have gradually superseded the word thegn.[3] But the word +thegn itself, that is, when it was used as the description of an +attendant of the king, appears to have meant more especially a military +attendant. As Stubbs says "the thegn seems to be primarily the warrior +gesith"--the gesithas forming the chosen band of companions (_comites_) +of the German chiefs (_principes_) noticed by Tacitus--"he is probably +the gesith who had a particular military duty in his master's service"; +and he adds that from the reign of Athelstan "the gesith is lost sight +of except very occasionally, the more important class having become +thegns, and the lesser sort sinking into the rank of mere servants of +the king."[4] It is pretty clear, therefore, that the word cniht could +never have superseded the word thegn in the sense of a military +attendant, at all events of the king. But besides the king, the +ealdormen, bishops and king's thegns themselves had their thegns, and to +these it is more than probable that the name of _cniht_ was applied. + +Around the Anglo-Saxon magnates were collected a crowd of retainers and +dependants of all ranks and conditions; and there is evidence enough to +show that among them were some called _cnihtas_ who were not always the +humblest or least considerable of their number.[5] The testimony of +Domesday also establishes the existence in the reign of Edward the +Confessor of what Stubbs describes as a "large class" of landholders who +had commended themselves to some lord, and he regards it as doubtful +whether their tenure had not already assumed a really feudal character. +But in any event it is manifest that their condition was in many +respects similar to that of a vast number of unquestionably feudal and +military tenants who made their appearance after the Norman Conquest. If +consequently the former were called _cnihtas_ under the Anglo-Saxon +régime, it seems sufficiently probable that the appellation should have +been continued to the latter--practically their successors--under the +Anglo-Norman régime. And if the designation of knights was first applied +to the military tenants of the earls, bishops and barons--who although +they held their lands of mesne lords owed their services to the +king--the extension of that designation to the whole body of military +tenants need not have been a very violent or prolonged process. +Assuming, however, that _knight_ was originally used to describe the +military tenant of a noble person, as _cniht_ had sometimes been used to +describe the thegn of a noble person, it would, to begin with, have +defined rather his social status than the nature of his services. But +those whom the English called _knights_ the Normans called _chevaliers_, +by which term the nature of their services was defined, while their +social status was left out of consideration. And at first _chevalier_ in +its general and honorary signification seems to have been rendered not +by _knight_ but by _rider_, as may be inferred from the Anglo-Saxon +Chronicle, wherein it is recorded under the year 1085 that William the +Conqueror "dubbade his sunu Henric to ridere."[6] But, as E. A. Freeman +says, "no such title is heard of in the earlier days of England. The +thegn, the ealdorman, the king himself, fought on foot; the horse might +bear him to the field, but when the fighting itself came he stood on +his native earth to receive the onslaught of her enemies."[7] In this +perhaps we may behold one of the most ancient of British insular +prejudices, for on the Continent the importance of cavalry in warfare +was already abundantly understood. It was by means of their horsemen +that the Austrasian Franks established their superiority over their +neighbours, and in time created the Western Empire anew, while from the +word _caballarius_, which occurs in the _Capitularies_ in the reign of +Charlemagne, came the words for knight in all the Romance languages.[8] +In Germany the chevalier was called _Ritter_, but neither _rider_ nor +_chevalier_ prevailed against _knight_ in England. And it was long after +_knighthood_ had acquired its present meaning with us that _chivalry_ +was incorporated into our language. It may be remarked too in passing +that in official Latin, not only in England but all over Europe, the +word _miles_ held its own against both _eques_ and _caballarius_. + + + Origin of Medieval Knighthood. + +Concerning the origin of knighthood or chivalry as it existed in the +middle ages--implying as it did a formal assumption of and initiation +into the profession of arms--nothing beyond more or less probable +conjecture is possible. The medieval knights had nothing to do in the +way of derivation with the "equites" of Rome, the knights of King +Arthur's Round Table, or the Paladins of Charlemagne. But there are +grounds for believing that some of the rudiments of chivalry are to be +detected in early Teutonic customs, and that they may have made some +advance among the Franks of Gaul. We know from Tacitus that the German +tribes in his day were wont to celebrate the admission of their young +men into the ranks of their warriors with much circumstance and +ceremony. The people of the district to which the candidate belonged +were called together; his qualifications for the privileges about to be +conferred upon him were inquired into; and, if he were deemed fitted and +worthy to receive them, his chief, his father, or one of his near +kinsmen presented him with a shield and a lance. Again, among the Franks +we find Charlemagne girding his son Louis the Pious, and Louis the Pious +girding his son Charles the Bald with the sword, when they arrived at +manhood.[9] It seems certain here that some ceremony was observed which +was deemed worthy of record not for its novelty, but as a thing of +recognized importance. It does not follow that a similar ceremony +extended to personages less exalted than the sons of kings and emperors. +But if it did we must naturally suppose that it applied in the first +instance to the mounted warriors who formed the most formidable portion +of the warlike array of the Franks. It was among the Franks indeed, and +possibly through their experiences in war with the Saracens, that +cavalry first acquired the pre-eminent place which it long maintained in +every European country. In early society, where the army is not a paid +force but the armed nation, the cavalry must necessarily consist of the +noble and wealthy, and cavalry and chivalry, as Freeman observes,[10] +will be the same. Since then we discover in the _Capitularies_ of +Charlemagne actual mention of "caballarii" as a class of warriors, it +may reasonably be concluded that formal investiture with arms applied to +the "caballarii" if it was a usage extending beyond the sovereign and +his heir-apparent. "But," as Hallam says, "he who fought on horseback +and had been invested with peculiar arms in a solemn manner wanted +nothing more to render him a knight;" and so he concludes, in view of +the verbal identity of "chevalier" and "caballarius," that "we may refer +chivalry in a general sense to the age of Charlemagne."[11] Yet, if the +"caballarii" of the _Capitularies_ are really the precursors of the +later knights, it remains a difficulty that the Latin name for a knight +is "miles," although "caballarius" became in various forms the +vernacular designation. + + + Knighthood in England. + +Before it was known that the chronicle ascribed to Ingulf of Croyland is +really a fiction of the 13th or 14th century, the knighting of Heward or +Hereward by Brand, abbot of Burgh (now Peterborough), was accepted from +Selden to Hallam as an historical fact, and knighthood was supposed, not +only to have been known among the Anglo-Saxons, but to have had a +distinctively religious character which was contemned by the Norman +invaders. The genuine evidence at our command altogether fails to +support this view. When William of Malmesbury describes the knighting of +Athelstan by his grandfather Alfred the Great, that is, his investiture +"with a purple garment set with gems and a Saxon sword with a golden +sheath," there is no hint of any religious observance. In spite of the +silence of our records, Dr Stubbs thinks that kings so well acquainted +with foreign usages as Ethelred, Canute and Edward the Confessor could +hardly have failed to introduce into England the institution of chivalry +then springing up in every country of Europe; and he is supported in +this opinion by the circumstance that it is nowhere mentioned as a +Norman innovation. Yet the fact that Harold received knighthood from +William of Normandy makes it clear either that Harold was not yet a +knight, which in the case of so tried a warrior would imply that +"dubbing to knighthood" was not yet known in England even under Edward +the Confessor, or, as Freeman thinks, that in the middle of the 11th +century the custom had grown in Normandy into "something of a more +special meaning" than it bore in England. + +Regarded as a method of military organization, the feudal system of +tenures was always far better adapted to the purposes of defensive than +of offensive warfare. Against invasion it furnished a permanent +provision both in men-at-arms and strongholds; nor was it unsuited for +the campaigns of neighbouring counts and barons which lasted for only a +few weeks, and extended over only a few leagues. But when kings and +kingdoms were in conflict, and distant and prolonged expeditions became +necessary, it was speedily discovered that the unassisted resources of +feudalism were altogether inadequate. It became therefore the manifest +interest of both parties that personal services should be commuted into +pecuniary payments. Then there grew up all over Europe a system of +fining the knights who failed to respond to the sovereign's call or to +stay their full time in the field; and in England this fine developed, +from the reign of Henry II. to that of Edward II., into a regular +war-tax called _escuage_ or _scutage_ (q.v.). In this way funds for war +were placed at the free disposal of sovereigns, and, although the +feudatories and their retainers still formed the most considerable +portion of their armies, the conditions under which they served were +altogether changed. Their military service was now far more the result +of special agreement. In the reign of Edward I., whose warlike +enterprises after he was king were confined within the four seas, this +alteration does not seem to have proceeded very far, and Scotland and +Wales were subjugated by what was in the main, if not exclusively, a +feudal militia raised as of old by writ to the earls and barons and the +sheriffs.[12] But the armies of Edward III., Henry V. and Henry VI. +during the century of intermittent warfare between England and France +were recruited and sustained to a very great extent on the principle of +contract.[13] On the Continent the systematic employment of mercenaries +was both an early and a common practice. + + + The Crusades. + +Besides consideration for the mutual convenience of sovereigns and their +feudatories, there were other causes which materially contributed +towards bringing about those changes in the military system of Europe +which were finally accomplished in the 13th and 14th centuries. During +the Crusades vast armies were set on foot in which feudal rights and +obligations had no place, and it was seen that the volunteers who +flocked to the standards of the various commanders were not less but +even more efficient in the field than the vassals they had hitherto been +accustomed to lead. It was thus established that pay, the love of +enterprise and the prospect of plunder--if we leave zeal for the sacred +cause which they had espoused for the moment out of sight--were quite as +useful for the purpose of enlisting troops and keeping them together as +the tenure of land and the solemnities of homage and fealty. Moreover, +the crusaders who survived the difficulties and dangers of an expedition +to Palestine were seasoned and experienced although frequently +impoverished and landless soldiers, ready to hire themselves to the +highest bidder, and well worth the wages they received. Again, it was +owing to the crusades that the church took the profession of arms under +her peculiar protection, and thenceforward the ceremonies of initiation +into it assumed a religious as well as a martial character. + + + Knighthood independent of Feudalism. + +To distinguished soldiers of the cross the honours and benefits of +knighthood could hardly be refused on the ground that they did not +possess a sufficient property qualification--of which perhaps they had +denuded themselves in order to their equipment for the Holy War. And +thus the conception of knighthood as of something distinct from +feudalism both as a social condition and a personal dignity arose and +rapidly gained ground. It was then that the analogy was first detected +between the order of knighthood and the order of priesthood, and that an +actual union of monachism and chivalry was effected by the establishment +of the religious orders of which the Knights Templars and the Knights +Hospitallers were the most eminent examples. As comprehensive in their +polity as the Benedictines or Franciscans, they gathered their members +from, and soon scattered their possessions over, every country in +Europe. And in their indifference to the distinctions of race and +nationality they merely accommodated themselves to the spirit which had +become characteristic of chivalry itself, already recognized, like the +church, as a universal institution which knit together the whole warrior +caste of Christendom into one great fraternity irrespective alike of +feudal subordination and territorial boundaries. Somewhat later the +adoption of hereditary surnames and armorial bearings marked the +existence of a large and noble class who either from the subdivision of +fiefs or from the effects of the custom of primogeniture were very +insufficiently provided for. To them only two callings were generally +open, that of the churchman and that of the soldier, and the latter as a +rule offered greater attractions than the former in an era of much +licence and little learning. Hence the favourite expedient for men of +birth, although not of fortune, was to attach themselves to some prince +or magnate in whose military service they were sure of an adequate +maintenance and might hope for even a rich reward in the shape of booty +or of ransom.[14] It is probably to this period and these circumstances +that we must look for at all events the rudimentary beginnings of the +military as well as the religious orders of chivalry. Of the existence +of any regularly constituted companionships of the first kind there is +no trustworthy evidence until between two and three centuries after +fraternities of the second kind had been organized. Soon after the +greater crusading societies had been formed similar orders, such as +those of St James of Compostella, Calatrava and Alcantara, were +established to fight the Moors in Spain instead of the Saracens in the +Holy Land. But the members of these orders were not less monks than +knights, their statutes embodied the rules of the cloister, and they +were bound by the ecclesiastical vows of celibacy, poverty and +obedience. From a very early stage in the development of chivalry, +however, we meet with the singular institution of brotherhood in arms; +and from it the ultimate origin if not of the religious fraternities at +any rate of the military companionships is usually derived.[15] By this +institution a relation was created between two or more monks by +voluntary agreement, which was regarded as of far more intimacy and +stringency than any which the mere accident of consanguinity implied. +Brothers in arms were supposed to be partners in all things save the +affections of their "lady-loves." They shared in every danger and in +every success, and each was expected to vindicate the honour of another +as promptly and zealously as his own. The plot of the medieval romance +of _Amis and Amiles_ is built entirely on such a brotherhood. Their +engagements usually lasted through life, but sometimes only for a +specified period or during the continuance of specified circumstances, +and they were always ratified by oath, occasionally reduced to writing +in the shape of a solemn bond and often sanctified by their reception of +the Eucharist together. Romance and tradition speak of strange +rites--the mingling and even the drinking of blood--as having in remote +and rude ages marked the inception of these martial and fraternal +associations.[16] But in later and less barbarous times they were +generally evidenced and celebrated by a formal and reciprocal exchange +of weapons and armour. In warfare it was customary for knights who were +thus allied to appear similarly accoutred and bearing the same badges or +cognisances, to the end that their enemies might not know with which of +them they were in conflict, and that their friends might be unable to +accord more applause to one than to the other for his prowess in the +field. It seems likely enough therefore that there should grow up bodies +of knights banded together by engagements of fidelity, although free +from monastic obligations; wearing a uniform or livery, and naming +themselves after some special symbol or some patron saint of their +adoption. And such bodies placed under the command of a sovereign or +grand master, regulated by statutes, and enriched by ecclesiastical +endowments would have been precisely what in after times such orders as +the Garter in England, the Golden Fleece in Burgundy, the Annunziata in +Savoy and the St Michael and Holy Ghost in France actually were.[17] + + + Grades of Knighthood. + +During the 14th and 15th centuries, as well as somewhat earlier and +later, the general arrangements of a European army were always and +everywhere pretty much the same.[18] Under the sovereign the constable +and the marshal or marshals held the chief commands, their authority +being partly joint and partly several. Attendant on them were the +heralds, who were the officers of their military court, wherein offences +committed in the camp and field were tried and adjudged, and among whose +duties it was to carry orders and messages, to deliver challenges and +call truces, and to identify and number the wounded and the slain. The +main divisions of the army were distributed under the royal and other +principal standards, smaller divisions under the banners of some of the +greater nobility or of knights banneret, and smaller divisions still +under the pennons of knights or, as in distinction from knights banneret +they came to be called, knights bachelors. All knights whether bachelors +or bannerets were escorted by their squires. But the banner of the +banneret always implied a more or less extensive command, while every +knight was entitled to bear a pennon and every squire a pencel. All +three flags were of such a size as to be conveniently attached to and +carried on a lance, and were emblazoned with the arms or some portion of +the bearings of their owners. But while the banner was square the +pennon, which resembled it in other respects, was either pointed or +forked at its extremity, and the pencel, which was considerably less +than the others, always terminated in a single tail or streamer.[19] + +If indeed we look at the scale of chivalric subordination from another +point of view, it seems to be more properly divisible into four than +into three stages, of which two may be called provisional and two final. +The bachelor and the banneret were both equally knights, only the one +was of greater distinction and authority than the other. In like manner +the squire and the page were both in training for knighthood, but the +first had advanced further in the process than the second. It is true +that the squire was a combatant while the page was not, and that many +squires voluntarily served as squires all their lives owing to the +insufficiency of their fortunes to support the costs and charges of +knighthood. But in the ordinary course of a chivalrous education the +successive conditions of page and squire were passed through in boyhood +and youth, and the condition of knighthood was reached in early manhood. +Every feudal court and castle was in fact a school of chivalry, and +although princes and great personages were rarely actually pages or +squires, the moral and physical discipline through which they passed was +not in any important particular different from that to which less +exalted candidates for knighthood were subjected.[20] The page, or, as +he was more anciently and more correctly called, the "valet" or +"damoiseau," commenced his service and instruction when he was between +seven and eight years old, and the initial phase continued for seven or +eight years longer. He acted as the constant personal attendant of both +his master and mistress. He waited on them in their hall and accompanied +them in the chase, served the lady in her bower and followed the lord to +the camp.[21] From the chaplain and his mistress and her damsels he +learnt the rudiments of religion, of rectitude and of love,[22] from his +master and his squires the elements of military exercise, to cast a +spear or dart, to sustain a shield, and to march with the measured tread +of a soldier; and from his master and his huntsmen and falconers the +"mysteries of the woods and rivers," or in other words the rules and +practices of hunting and hawking. When he was between fifteen and +sixteen he became a squire. But no sudden or great alteration was made +in his mode of life. He continued to wait at dinner with the pages, +although in a manner more dignified according to the notions of the age. +He not only served but carved and helped the dishes, proffered the first +or principal cup of wine to his master and his guests, and carried to +them the basin, ewer or napkin when they washed their hands before and +after meat. He assisted in clearing the hall for dancing or minstrelsy, +and laid the tables for chess or draughts, and he also shared in the +pastimes for which he had made preparation. He brought his master the +"vin de coucher" at night, and made his early refection ready for him in +the morning. But his military exercises and athletic sports occupied an +always increasing portion of the day. He accustomed himself to ride the +"great horse," to tilt at the quintain, to wield the sword and +battle-axe, to swim and climb, to run and leap, and to bear the weight +and overcome the embarrassments of armour. He inured himself to the +vicissitudes of heat and cold, and voluntarily suffered the pains or +inconveniences of hunger and thirst, fatigue and sleeplessness. It was +then too that he chose his "lady-love," whom he was expected to regard +with an adoration at once earnest, respectful, and the more meritorious +if concealed. And when it was considered that he had made sufficient +advancement in his military accomplishments, he took his sword to the +priest, who laid it on the altar, blessed it, and returned it to +him.[23] Afterwards he either remained with his early master, relegating +most of his domestic duties to his younger companions, or he entered the +service of some valiant and adventurous lord or knight of his own +selection. He now became a "squire of the body," and truly an "armiger" +or "scutifer," for he bore the shield and armour of his leader to the +field, and, what was a task of no small difficulty and hazard, cased and +secured him in his panoply of war before assisting him to mount his +courser or charger. It was his function also to display and guard in +battle the banner of the baron or banneret or the pennon of the knight +he served, to raise him from the ground if he were unhorsed, to supply +him with another or his own horse if his was disabled or killed, to +receive and keep any prisoners he might take, to fight by his side if he +was unequally matched, to rescue him if captured, to bear him to a place +of safety if wounded, and to bury him honourably when dead. And after he +had worthily and bravely, borne himself for six or seven years as a +squire, the time came when it was fitting that he should be made a +knight. This, at least, was the current theory; but it is specially +dangerous in medieval history to assume too much correspondence between +theory and fact. In many castles, and perhaps in most, the discipline +followed simply a natural and unwritten code of "fagging" and seniority, +as in public schools or on board men-of-war some hundred years or so +ago. + + + Modes of conferring Knighthood. + +Two modes of conferring knighthood appear to have prevailed from a very +early period in all countries where chivalry was known. In both of them +the essential portion seems to have been the accolade or stroke of the +sword. But while in the one the accolade constituted the whole or nearly +the whole of the ceremony, in the other it was surrounded with many +additional observances. The former and simpler of these modes was +naturally that used in war: the candidate knelt before "the chief of the +army or some valiant knight," who struck him thrice with the flat of a +sword, pronouncing a brief formula of creation and of exhortation which +varied at the creator's will.[24] + +In this form a number of knights were made before and after almost every +battle between the 11th and the 16th centuries, and its advantages on +the score of both convenience and economy gradually led to its general +adoption both in time of peace and time of war. On extraordinary +occasions indeed the more elaborate ritual continued to be observed. But +recourse was had to it so rarely that in England about the beginning of +the 15th century it came to be exclusively appropriated to a special +king of knighthood. When Segar, garter king of arms, wrote in the reign +of Queen Elizabeth, this had been accomplished with such completeness +that he does not even mention that there were two ways of creating +knights bachelors. "He that is to be made a knight," he says, "is +striken by the prince with a sword drawn upon his back or shoulder, the +prince saying, 'Soys Chevalier,' and in times past was added 'Saint +George.' And when the knight rises the prince sayeth 'Avencez.' This is +the manner of dubbing knights at this present, and that term 'dubbing' +was the old term in this point, not 'creating.' This sort of knights are +by the heralds called knights bachelors." In our days when a knight is +personally made he kneels before the sovereign, who lays a sword drawn, +ordinarily the sword of state, on either of his shoulders and says, +"Rise," calling him by his Christian name with the addition of "Sir" +before it. + +Very different were the solemnities which attended the creation of a +knight when the complete procedure was observed. "The ceremonies and +circumstances at the giving this dignity," says Selden, "in the elder +time were of two kinds especially, which we may call courtly and sacred. +The courtly were the feasts held at the creation, giving of robes, arms, +spurs and the like. The sacred were the holy devotions and what else was +used in the church at or before the receiving of the dignity."[25] But +the leading authority on the subject is an ancient tract written in +French, which will be found at length either in the original or +translated by Segar, Dugdale, Byshe and Nicolas, among other English +writers.[26] Daniel explains his reasons for transcribing it, "tant à +cause du detail que de la naïveté du stile et encore plus de la +bisarrerie des ceremonies que se faisoient pourtant alors fort +sérieusement," while he adds that these ceremonies were essentially +identical in England, France, Germany, Spain and Italy. + + The process of inauguration was commenced in the evening by the + placing of the candidate under the care of two "esquires of honour + grave and well seen in courtship and nurture and also in the feats of + chivalry," who were to be "governors in all things relating to him." + Under their direction, to begin with, a barber shaved him and cut his + hair. He was then conducted by them to his appointed chamber, where a + bath was prepared hung within and without with linen and covered with + rich cloths, into which after they had undressed him he entered. While + he was in the bath two "ancient and grave knights" attended him "to + inform, instruct and counsel him touching the order and feats of + chivalry," and when they had fulfilled their mission they poured some + of the water of the bath over his shoulders, signing the left shoulder + with the cross, and retired. He was then taken from the bath and put + into a plain bed without hangings, in which he remained until his body + was dry, when the two esquires put on him a white shirt and over that + "a robe of russet with long sleeves having a hood thereto like unto + that of an hermit." Then the "two ancient and grave knights" returned + and led him to the chapel, the esquires going before them "sporting + and dancing" with "the minstrels making melody." And when they had + been served with wines and spices they went away leaving only the + candidate, the esquires, "the priest, the chandler and the watch," who + kept the vigil of arms until sunrise, the candidate passing the night + "bestowing himself in orisons and prayers." At daybreak he confessed + to the priest, heard matins, and communicated in the mass, offering a + taper and a piece of money stuck in it as near the lighted end as + possible, the first "to the honour of God" and the second "to the + honour of the person that makes him a knight." Afterwards he was taken + back to his chamber, and remained in bed until the knights, esquires + and minstrels went to him and aroused him. The knights then dressed + him in distinctive garments, and they then mounted their horses and + rode to the hall where the candidate was to receive knighthood; his + future squire was to ride before him bareheaded bearing his sword by + the point in its scabbard with his spurs hanging from its hilt. And + when everything was prepared the prince or subject who was to knight + him came into the hall, and, the candidate's sword and spurs having + been presented to him, he delivered the right spur to the "most noble + and gentle" knight present, and directed him to fasten it on the + candidate's right heel, which he kneeling on one knee and putting the + candidate's right foot on his knee accordingly did, signing the + candidate's knee with the cross, and in like manner by another "noble + and gentle" knight the left spur was fastened to his left heel. And + then he who was to create the knight took the sword and girded him + with it, and then embracing him he lifted his right hand and smote him + on the neck or shoulder, saying, "Be thou a good knight," and kissed + him. When this was done they all went to the chapel with much music, + and the new knight laying his right hand on the altar promised to + support and defend the church, and ungirding his sword offered it on + the altar. And as he came out from the chapel the master cook awaited + him at the door and claimed his spurs as his fee, and said, "If you + do anything contrary to the order of chivalry (which God forbid), I + shall hack the spurs from your heels."[27] + +The full solemnities for conferring knighthood seem to have been so +largely and so early superseded by the practice of dubbing or giving the +accolade alone that in England it became at last restricted to such +knights as were made at coronations and some other occasions of state. +And to them the particular name of Knights of the Bath was assigned, +while knights made in the ordinary way were called in distinction from +them knights of the sword, as they were also called knights bachelors in +distinction from knights banneret.[28] It is usually supposed that the +first creation of knights of the Bath under that designation was at the +coronation of Henry IV.; and before the order of the Bath as a +companionship or capitular body was instituted the last creation of them +was at the coronation of Charles II. But all knights were also knights +of the spur or "equites aurati," because their spurs were golden or +gilt,--the spurs of squires being of silver or white metal,--and these +became their peculiar badge in popular estimation and proverbial speech. +In the form of their solemn inauguration too, as we have noticed, the +spurs together with the sword were always employed as the leading and +most characteristic ensigns of knighthood.[29] + +With regard to knights banneret, various opinions have been entertained +as to both the nature of their dignity and the qualifications they were +required to possess for receiving it at different periods and in +different countries. On the Continent the distinction which is commonly +but incorrectly made between the nobility and the gentry has never +arisen, and it was unknown here while chivalry existed and heraldry was +understood. Here, as elsewhere in the old time, a nobleman and a +gentleman meant the same thing, namely, a man who under certain +conditions of descent was entitled to armorial bearings. Hence Du Cange +divides the medieval nobility of France and Spain into three classes: +first, barons or ricos hombres; secondly, chevaliers or caballeros; and +thirdly, écuyers or infanzons; and to the first, who with their several +special titles constituted the greater nobility of either country, he +limits the designation of banneret and the right of leading their +followers to war under a banner, otherwise a "drapeau quarré" or square +flag.[30] Selden shows especially from the parliament rolls that the +term banneret has been occasionally employed in England as equivalent to +baron.[31] In Scotland, even as late as the reign of James VI., lords of +parliament were always created bannerets as well as barons at their +investiture, "part of the ceremony consisting in the display of a +banner, and such 'barones majores' were thereby entitled to the +privilege of having one borne by a retainer before them to the field of +a quadrilateral form."[32] In Scotland, too, lords of parliament and +bannerets were also called bannerents, banrents or baronets, and in +England banneret was often corrupted to baronet. "Even in a patent +passed to Sir Ralph Fane, knight under Edward VI., he is called +'baronettus' for 'bannerettus.'"[33] In this manner it is not improbable +that the title of baronet may have been suggested to the advisers of +James I. when the order of Baronets was originally created by him, for +it was a question whether the recipients of the new dignity should be +designated by that or some other name.[34] But there is no doubt that as +previously used it was merely a corrupt synonym for banneret, and not +the name of any separate dignity. On the Continent, however, there are +several recorded examples of bannerets who had an hereditary claim to +that honour and its attendant privileges on the ground of the nature of +their feudal tenure.[35] And generally, at any rate to commence with, it +seems probable that bannerets were in every country merely the more +important class of feudatories, the "ricos hombres" in contrast to the +knights bachelors, who in France in the time of St Louis were known as +"pauvres hommes." In England all the barons or greater nobility were +entitled to bear banners, and therefore Du Cange's observations would +apply to them as well as to the barons or greater nobility of France and +Spain. But it is clear that from a comparatively early period bannerets +whose claims were founded on personal distinction rather than on feudal +tenure gradually came to the front, and much the same process of +substitution appears to have gone on in their case as that which we have +marked in the case of simple knights. According to the _Sallade_ and the +_Division du Monde_, as cited by Selden, bannerets were clearly in the +beginning feudal tenants of a certain magnitude and importance and +nothing more, and different forms for their creation are given in time +of peace and in time of war.[36] But in the French _Gesta Romanorum_ the +warlike form alone is given, and it is quoted by both Selden and Du +Cange. From the latter a more modern version of it is given by Daniel as +the only one generally in force. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + +INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD, DRAWN BY +GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION OF HIS LATE MAJESTY +KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND +COMMAND. + +THE ORDER OF THE GARTER. + +(i.) THE GARTER; (ii) THE COLLAR AND GEORGE; (iii.) THE LESSER GEORGE +AND RIBBON; (iv.) STAR. + +_Drawn by William Gibb._ + +_Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] + +The knight bachelor whose services and landed possessions entitled him +to promotion would apply formally to the commander in the field for the +title of banneret. If this were granted, the heralds were called to cut +publicly the tails from his pennon: or the commander, as a special +honour, might cut them off with his own hands.[37] The earliest +contemporary mention of knights banneret is in France, Daniel says, in +the reign of Philip Augustus, and in England, Selden says in the reign +of Edward I. But in neither case is reference made to them in such a +manner as to suggest that the dignity was then regarded as new or even +uncommon, and it seems pretty certain that its existence on one side +could not have long preceded its existence on the other side of the +Channel. Sir Alan Plokenet, Sir Ralph Daubeney and Sir Philip Daubeney +are entered as bannerets on the roll of the garrison of Caermarthen +Castle in 1282, and the roll of Carlaverock records the names and arms +of eighty-five bannerets who accompanied Edward I. in his expedition +into Scotland in 1300. + +What the exact contingent was which bannerets were expected to supply to +the royal host is doubtful.[38] But, however this may be, in the reign +of Edward III. and afterwards bannerets appear as the commanders of a +military force raised by themselves and marshalled under their banners: +their status and their relations both to the crown and to their +followers were mainly the consequences of voluntary contract not of +feudal tenure. It is from the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. also +that the two best descriptions we possess of the actual creation of a +banneret have been transmitted to us.[39] Sir Thomas Smith, writing +towards the end of the 16th century, says, after noticing the conditions +to be observed in the creation of bannerets, "but this order is almost +grown out of use in England";[40] and, during the controversy which +arose between the new order of baronets and the crown early in the 17th +century respecting their precedence, it was alleged without +contradiction in an argument on behalf of the baronets before the privy +council that "there are not bannerets now in being, peradventure never +shall be."[41] Sir Ralph Fane, Sir Francis Bryan and Sir Ralph Sadler +were created bannerets by the Lord Protector Somerset after the battle +of Pinkie in 1547, and the better opinion is that this was the last +occasion on which the dignity was conferred. It has been stated indeed +that Charles I. created Sir John Smith a banneret after the battle of +Edgehill in 1642 for having rescued the royal standard from the enemy. +But of this there is no sufficient proof. It was also supposed that +George III. had created several naval officers bannerets towards the end +of the last century, because he knighted them on board ship under the +royal standard displayed. This, however, is unquestionably an error.[42] + + + Existing Orders of Knighthood. + +On the continent of Europe the degree of knight bachelor disappeared +with the military system which had given rise to it. It is now therefore +peculiar to the British Empire, where, although very frequently +conferred by letters patent, it is yet the only dignity which is still +even occasionally created--as every dignity was formerly created--by +means of a ceremony in which the sovereign and the subject personally +take part. Everywhere else dubbing or the accolade seems to have become +obsolete, and no other species of knighthood, if knighthood it can be +called, is known except that which is dependent on admission to some +particular order. It is a common error to suppose that baronets are +hereditary knights. Baronets are not knights unless they are knighted +like anybody else; and, so far from being knights because they are +baronets, one of the privileges granted to them shortly after the +institution of their dignity was that they, not being knights, and their +successors and their eldest sons and heirs-apparent should, when they +attained their majority, be entitled if they desired to receive +knighthood.[43] It is a maxim of the law indeed that, as Coke says, "the +knight is by creation and not by descent," and, although we hear of such +designations as the "knight of Kerry" or the "knight of Glin," they are +no more than traditional nicknames, and do not by any means imply that +the persons to whom they are applied are knights in a legitimate sense. +Notwithstanding, however, that simple knighthood has gone out of use +abroad, there are innumerable grand crosses, commanders and companions +of a formidable assortment of orders in almost every part of the +world.[44] (See the section on "Orders of Knighthood" below.) + +The United Kingdom has eight orders of knighthood--the Garter, the +Thistle, St Patrick, the Bath, the Star of India, St Michael and St +George, the Indian Empire and the Royal Victorian Order; and, while the +first is undoubtedly the oldest as well as the most illustrious anywhere +existing, a fictitious antiquity has been claimed and is even still +frequently conceded to the second and fourth, although the third, +fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth appear to be as contentedly as they +are unquestionably recent. + + + Order of the Garter. + +It is, however, certain that the "most noble" Order of the Garter at +least was instituted in the middle of the 14th century, when English +chivalry was outwardly brightest and the court most magnificent. But in +what particular year this event occurred is and has been the subject of +much difference of opinion. All the original records of the order until +after 1416 have perished, and consequently the question depends for its +settlement not on direct testimony but on inference from circumstances. +The dates which have been selected vary from 1344 (given by Froissart, +but almost certainly mistaken) to 1351. The evidence may be examined at +length in Nicolas and Beltz; it is indisputable that in the wardrobe +account from September 1347 to January 1349, the 21st and 23rd Edward +III., the issue of certain habits with garters and the motto embroidered +on them is marked for St George's Day; that the letters patent relating +to the preparation of the royal chapel of Windsor are dated in August +1348; and that in the treasury accounts of the prince of Wales there is +an entry in November 1348 of the gift by him of "twenty-four garters to +the knights of the Society of the Garter."[45] But that the order, +although from this manifestly already fully constituted in the autumn of +1348, was not in existence before the summer of 1346 Sir Harris Nicolas +proves pretty conclusively by pointing out that nobody who was not a +knight could under its statutes have been admitted to it, and that +neither the prince of Wales nor several others of the original +companions were knighted until the middle of that year. + +Regarding the occasion there has been almost as much controversy as +regarding the date of its foundation. The "vulgar and more general +story," as Ashmole calls it, is that of the countess of Salisbury's +garter. But commentators are not at one as to which countess of +Salisbury was the heroine of the adventure, whether she was Katherine +Montacute or Joan the Fair Maid of Kent, while Heylyn rejects the legend +as "a vain and idle romance derogatory both to the founder and the +order, first published by Polydor Vergil, a stranger to the affairs of +England, and by him taken upon no better ground than fama vulgi, the +tradition of the common people, too trifling a foundation for so great a +building."[46] + +Another legend is that contained in the preface to the Register or Black +Book of the order, compiled in the reign of Henry VIII., by what +authority supported is unknown, that Richard I., while his forces were +employed against Cyprus and Acre, had been inspired through the +instrumentality of St George with renewed courage and the means of +animating his fatigued soldiers by the device of tying about the legs of +a chosen number of knights a leathern thong or garter, to the end that +being thereby reminded of the honour of their enterprise they might be +encouraged to redoubled efforts for victory. This was supposed to have +been in the mind of Edward III. when he fixed on the garter as the +emblem of the order, and it was stated so to have been by Taylor, master +of the rolls, in his address to Francis I. of France on his investiture +in 1527.[47] According to Ashmole the true account of the matter is that +"King Edward having given forth his own garter as the signal for a +battle which sped fortunately (which with Du Chesne we conceive to be +that of Crécy), the victory, we say, being happily gained, he thence +took occasion to institute this order, and gave the garter (assumed by +him for the symbol of unity and society) preeminence among the ensigns +of it." But, as Sir Harris Nicolas points out--although Ashmole is not +open to the correction--this hypothesis rests for its plausibility on +the assumption that the order was established before the invasion of +France in 1346. And he further observes that "a great variety of +devices and mottoes were used by Edward III.; they were chosen from the +most trivial causes and were of an amorous rather than of a military +character. Nothing," he adds, "is more likely than that in a crowded +assembly a lady should accidentally have dropped her garter; that the +circumstance should have caused a smile in the bystanders; and that on +its being taken up by Edward he should have reproved the levity of his +courtiers by so happy and chivalrous an exclamation, placing the garter +at the same time on his own knee, as 'Dishonoured be he who thinks ill +of it.' Such a circumstance occurring at a time of general festivity, +when devices, mottoes and conceits of all kinds were adopted as +ornaments or badges of the habits worn at jousts and tournaments, would +naturally have been commemorated as other royal expressions seem to have +been by its conversion into a device and motto for the dresses at an +approaching hastilude."[48] Moreover, Sir Harris Nicolas contends that +the order had no loftier immediate origin than a joust or tournament. It +consisted of the king and the Black Prince, and 24 knights divided into +two bands of 12 like the tilters in a hastilude----at the head of the +one being the first, and of the other the second; and to the companions +belonging to each, when the order had superseded the Round Table and had +become a permanent institution, were assigned stalls either on the +sovereign's or the prince's side of St George's Chapel. That Sir Harris +Nicolas is accurate in this conjecture seems probable from the selection +which was made of the "founder knights." As Beltz observes, the fame of +Sir Reginald Cobham, Sir Walter Manny and the earls of Northampton, +Hereford and Suffolk was already established by their warlike exploits, +and they would certainly have been among the original companions had the +order been then regarded as the reward of military merit only. But, +although these eminent warriors were subsequently elected as vacancies +occurred, their admission was postponed to that of several very young +and in actual warfare comparatively unknown knights, whose claims to the +honour may be most rationally explained on the assumption that they had +excelled in the particular feats of arms which preceded the institution +of the order. The original companionship had consisted of the sovereign +and 25 knights, and no change was made in this respect until 1786, when +the sons of George III. and his successors were made eligible +notwithstanding that the chapter might be complete. In 1805 another +alteration was effected by the provision that the lineal descendants of +George II. should be eligible in the same manner, except the Prince of +Wales for the time being, who was declared to be "a constituent part of +the original institution"; and again in 1831 it was further ordained +that the privilege accorded to the lineal descendants of George II. +should extend to the lineal descendants of George I. Although, as Sir +Harris Nicolas observes, nothing is now known of the form of admitting +ladies into the order, the description applied to them in the records +during the 14th and 15th centuries leaves no doubt that they were +regularly received into it. The queen consort, the wives and daughters +of knights, and some other women of exalted position, were designated +"Dames de la Fraternité de St George," and entries of the delivery of +robes and garters to them are found at intervals in the Wardrobe +Accounts from the 50th Edward III. (1376) to the 10th of Henry VII. +(1495), the first being Isabel, countess of Bedford, the daughter of the +one king, and the last being Margaret and Elizabeth, the daughters of +the other king. The effigies of Margaret Byron, wife of Sir Robert +Harcourt, K.G., at Stanton Harcourt, and of Alice Chaucer, wife of +William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, K.G., at Ewelme, which date from +the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV., have garters on their left arms. +(See further under "Orders of Knighthood" below.) + + + Persons empowered to confer Knighthood. + +It has been the general opinion, as expressed by Sainte Palaye and +Mills, that formerly all knights were qualified to confer +knighthood.[49] But it may be questioned whether the privilege was thus +indiscriminately enjoyed even in the earlier days of chivalry. It is +true that as much might be inferred from the testimony of the romance +writers; historical evidence, however, tends to limit the proposition, +and the sounder conclusion appears to be, as Sir Harris Nicolas says, +that the right was always restricted in operation to sovereign princes, +to those acting under their authority or sanction, and to a few other +personages of exalted rank and station.[50] In several of the writs for +distraint of knighthood from Henry III. to Edward III. a distinction is +drawn between those who are to be knighted by the king himself or by the +sheriffs of counties respectively, and bishops and abbots could make +knights in the 11th and 12th centuries.[51] At all periods the +commanders of the royal armies had the power of conferring knighthood; +as late as the reign of Elizabeth it was exercised among others by Sir +Henry Sidney in 1583, and Robert, earl of Essex, in 1595, while under +James I. an ordinance of 1622, confirmed by a proclamation of 1623, for +the registration of knights in the college of arms, is rendered +applicable to all who should receive knighthood from either the king or +any of his lieutenants.[52] Many sovereigns, too, both of England and of +France, have been knighted after their accession to the throne by their +own subjects, as, for instance, Edward III. by Henry, earl of Lancaster, +Edward VI. by the lord protector Somerset, Louis XI. by Philip, duke of +Burgundy, and Francis I. by the Chevalier Bayard. But when in 1543 Henry +VIII. appointed Sir John Wallop to be captain of Guisnes, it was +considered necessary that he should be authorized in express terms to +confer knighthood, which was also done by Edward VI. in his own case +when he received knighthood from the duke of Somerset.[53] But at +present the only subject to whom the right of conferring knighthood +belongs is the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and to him it belongs merely +by long usage and established custom. But, by whomsoever conferred, +knighthood at one time endowed the recipient with the same status and +attributes in every country wherein chivalry was recognized. In the +middle ages it was a common practice for sovereigns and princes to dub +each other knights much as they were afterwards, and are now, in the +habit of exchanging the stars and ribbons of their orders. Henry II. was +knighted by his great-uncle David I. of Scotland, Alexander III. of +Scotland by Henry III., Edward I. when he was prince by Alphonso X. of +Castile, and Ferdinand of Portugal by Edmund of Langley, earl of +Cambridge.[54] And, long after the military importance of knighthood had +practically disappeared, what may be called its cosmopolitan character +was maintained: a knight's title was recognized in all European +countries, and not only in that country in which he had received it. In +modern times, however, by certain regulations, made in 1823, and +repeated and enlarged in 1855, not only is it provided that the +sovereign's permission by royal warrant shall be necessary for the +reception by a British subject of any foreign order of knighthood, but +further that such permission shall not authorize "the assumption of any +style, appellation, rank, precedence, or privilege appertaining to a +knight bachelor of the United Kingdom."[55] + + + Degradation. + +Since knighthood was accorded either by actual investiture or its +equivalent, a counter process of degradation was regarded as necessary +for the purpose of depriving anybody who had once received it of the +rank and condition it implied.[56] The cases in which a knight has been +formally degraded in England are exceedingly few, so few indeed that two +only are mentioned by Segar, writing in 1602, and Dallaway says that +only three were on record in the College of Arms when he wrote in 1793. +The last case was that of Sir Francis Michell in 1621, whose spurs were +hacked from his heels, his sword-belt cut, and his sword broken over his +head by the heralds in Westminster Hall.[57] + +Roughly speaking, the age of chivalry properly so called may be said to +have extended from the beginning of the crusades to the end of the Wars +of the Roses. Even in the way of pageantry and martial exercise it did +not long survive the middle ages. In England tilts and tourneys, in +which her father had so much excelled, were patronized to the last by +Queen Elizabeth, and were even occasionally held until after the death +of Henry, prince of Wales. But on the Continent they were discredited by +the fatal accident which befell Henry II. of France in 1559. The golden +age of chivalry has been variously located. Most writers would place it +in the early 13th century, but Gautier would remove it two or three +generations further back. It may be true that, in the comparative +scarcity of historical evidence, 12th-century romances present a more +favourable picture of chivalry at that earlier time; but even such +historical evidence as we possess, when carefully scrutinized, is enough +to dispel the illusion that there was any period of the middle ages in +which the unselfish championship of "God and the ladies" was anything +but a rare exception. + +It is difficult to describe the true spirit and moral influence of +knighthood, if only because the ages in which it flourished differed so +widely from our own. At its very best, it was always hampered by the +limitations of medieval society. Moreover, many of the noblest precepts +of the knightly code were a legacy from earlier ages, and have survived +the decay of knighthood just as they will survive all transitory human +institutions, forming part of the eternal heritage of the race. Indeed, +the most important of these precepts did not even attain to their +highest development in the middle ages. As a conscious effort to bring +religion into daily life, chivalry was less successful than later +puritanism; while the educated classes of our own day far surpass the +average medieval knight in discipline, self-control and outward or +inward refinement. Freeman's estimate comes far nearer to the historical +facts than Burke's: "The chivalrous spirit is above all things a class +spirit. The good knight is bound to endless fantastic courtesies towards +men and still more towards women of a certain rank; he may treat all +below that rank with any decree of scorn and cruelty. The spirit of +chivalry implies the arbitrary choice of one or two virtues to be +practised in such an exaggerated degree as to become vices, while the +ordinary laws of right and wrong are forgotten. The false code of honour +supplants the laws of the commonwealth, the law of God and the eternal +principles of right. Chivalry again in its military aspect not only +encourages the love of war for its own sake without regard to the cause +for which war is waged, it encourages also an extravagant regard for a +fantastic show of personal daring which cannot in any way advance the +objects of the siege or campaign which is going on. Chivalry in short is +in morals very much what feudalism is in law: each substitutes purely +personal obligations devised in the interests of an exclusive class, for +the more homely duties of an honest man and a good citizen" (_Norman +Conquest_, v. 482). The chivalry from which Burke drew his ideas was, so +far as it existed at all, the product of a far later age. In its own +age, chivalry rested practically, like the highest civilization of +ancient Greece and Rome, on slave labour;[58] and if many of its most +brilliant outward attractions have now faded for ever, this is only +because modern civilization tends so strongly to remove social barriers. +The knightly ages will always enjoy the glory of having formulated a +code of honour which aimed at rendering the upper classes worthy of +their exceptional privileges; yet we must judge chivalry not only by its +formal code but also by its practical fruits. The ideal is well summed +up by F. W. Cornish: "Chivalry taught the world the duty of noble +service willingly rendered. It upheld courage and enterprise in +obedience to rule, it consecrated military prowess to the service of the +Church, glorified the virtues of liberality, good faith, unselfishness +and courtesy, and above all, courtesy to women. Against these may be set +the vices of pride, ostentation, love of bloodshed, contempt of +inferiors, and loose manners. Chivalry was an imperfect discipline, but +it was a discipline, and one fit for the times. It may have existed in +the world too long: it did not come into existence too early; and with +all its shortcomings it exercised a great and wholesome influence in +raising the medieval world from barbarism to civilization" (p. 27). This +was the ideal, but to give the reader a clear view of the actual +features of knightly society in their contrast with that of our own day, +it is necessary to bring out one or two very significant shadows. + +Far too much has been made of the extent to which the knightly code, and +the reverence paid to the Virgin Mary, raised the position of women +(e.g. Gautier, p. 360). As Gautier himself admits, the feudal system +made it difficult to separate the woman's person from her fief: instead +of the freedom of Christian marriage on which the Church in theory +insisted, lands and women were handed over together, as a business +bargain, by parents or guardians. In theory, the knight was the defender +of widows and orphans; but in practice wardships and marriages were +bought and sold as a matter of everyday routine like stocks and shares +in the modern market. Lord Thomas de Berkeley (1245-1321) counted on +this as a regular and considerable source of income (Smyth, _Lives_, i. +157). Late in the 15th century, in spite of the somewhat greater liberty +of that age, we find Stephen Scrope writing nakedly to a familiar +correspondent "for very need [of poverty], I was fain to sell a little +daughter I have for much less than I should have done by possibility," +i.e. than the fair market price (Gairdner, _Paston Letters_, +Introduction, p. clxxvi; cf. ccclxxi). Startling as such words are, it +is perhaps still more startling to find how frequently and naturally, in +the highest society, ladies were degraded by personal violence. The +proofs of this which Schultz and Gautier adduce from the _Chansons de +Geste_ might be multiplied indefinitely. The Knight of La Tour-Landry +(1372) relates, by way of warning to his daughters, a tale of a lady who +so irritated her husband by scolding him in company, that he struck her +to the earth with his fist and kicked her in the face, breaking her +nose. Upon this the good knight moralizes: "And this she had for her +euelle and gret langage, that she was wont to saie to her husbonde. And +therfor the wiff aught to suffre and lete her husbonde haue the wordes, +and to be maister, for that is her worshippe; for it is shame to here +striff betwene hem, and in especial before folke. But y saie not but +whanne thei be allone, but she may tolle hym with goodly wordes, and +counsaile hym to amende yef he do amys" (La Tour, chap. xviii.; cf. +xvii. and xix.). The right of wife-beating was formally recognized by +more than one code of laws, and it was already a forward step when, in +the 13th century, the _Coutumes du Beauvoisis_ provided "que le mari ne +doit battre sa femme que _raisonnablement_" (Gautier, p. 349). This was +a natural consequence not only of the want of self-control which we see +everywhere in the middle ages, but also of the custom of contracting +child-marriages for unsentimental considerations. Between 1288 and 1500 +five marriages are recorded in the direct line of the Berkeley family in +which the ten contracting parties averaged less than eleven years of +age: the marriage contract of another Lord Berkeley was drawn up before +he was six years old. Moreover, the same business considerations which +dictated those early marriages clashed equally with the strict theory of +knighthood. In the same Berkeley family, the lord Maurice IV. was +knighted in 1338 at the age of seven to avoid the possible evils of +wardship, and Thomas V. for the same reason in 1476 at the age of five. +Smyth's record of this great family shows that, from the middle of the +13th century onwards, the lords were not only statesmen and warriors, +but still more distinguished as gentlemen-farmers on a great scale, even +selling fruit from the castle gardens, while their ladies would go round +on tours of inspection from dairy to dairy. The lord Thomas III. +(1326-1361), who was noted as a special lover of tournaments, spent in +two years only £90, or an average of about £15 per tournament; yet he +was then laying money by at the rate of £450 a year, and, a few years +later, at the rate of £1150, or nearly half his income! Indeed, economic +causes contributed much to the decay of romantic chivalry. The old +families had lost heavily from generation to generation, partly by +personal extravagances, but also by gradual alienations of land to the +Church and by the enormous expenses of the crusades. Already, in the +13th century, they were hard pressed by the growing wealth of the +burghers, and even the greatest nobles could scarcely keep up their +state without careful business management. It is not surprising +therefore, to find that at least as early as the middle of the 13th +century the commercial side of knighthood became very prominent. +Although by the code of chivalry no candidate could be knighted before +the age of twenty-one, we have seen how great nobles like the Berkeleys +obtained that honour for their infant heirs in order to avoid possible +pecuniary loss; and French writers of the 14th century complained of +this knighting of infants as a common and serious abuse.[59] Moreover, +after the knight's liability to personal service in war had been +modified in the 12th century by the scutage system, it became necessary +in the first quarter of the 13th to compel landowners to take up the +knighthood which in theory they should have coveted as an honour--a +compulsion which was soon systematically enforced (_Distraint of +Knighthood_, 1278), and became a recognized source of royal income. An +indirect effect of this system[60] was to break down another rule of the +chivalrous code--that none could be dubbed who was not of gentle +birth.[61] This rule, however, had often been broken before; even the +romances of chivalry speak not infrequently of the knighting of serfs or +_jongleurs_;[62] and other causes besides distraint of knighthood tended +to level the old distinctions. While knighthood was avoided by poor +nobles, it was coveted by rich citizens. It is recorded in 1298 as "an +immemorial custom" in Provence that rich burghers enjoyed the honour of +knighthood; and less than a century later we find Sacchetti complaining +that the dignity is open to any rich upstart, however disreputable his +antecedents.[63] Similar causes contributed to the decay of knightly +ideas in warfare. Even in the 12th century, when war was still rather +the pastime of kings and knights than a national effort, the strict +code of chivalry was more honoured in the breach than in the +observance.[64] But when the Hundred Years' War brought a real national +conflict between England and France, when archery became of supreme +importance, and a large proportion even of the cavalry were mercenary +soldiers, then the exigencies of serious warfare swept away much of that +outward display and those class-conventions on which chivalry had always +rested. Siméon Luce (chap. vi.) has shown how much the English successes +in this war were due to strict business methods. Several of the best +commanders (e.g. Sir Robert Knolles and Sir Thomas Dagworth) were of +obscure birth, while on the French side even Du Guesclin had to wait +long for his knighthood because he belonged only to the lesser nobility. +The tournament again, which for two centuries had been under the ban of +the Church, was often almost as definitely discouraged by Edward III. as +it was encouraged by John of France; and while John's father opened the +Crécy campaign by sending Edward a challenge in due form of chivalry, +Edward took advantage of this formal delay to amuse the French king with +negotiations while he withdrew his army by a rapid march from an almost +hopeless position. A couple of quotations from Froissart will illustrate +the extent to which war had now become a mere business. Much as he +admired the French chivalry, he recognized their impotence at Crécy. +"The sharp arrows ran into the men of arms and into their horses, and +many fell, horse and men.... And also among the Englishmen there were +certain rascals that went afoot with great knives, and they went in +among the men of arms, and slew and murdered many as they lay on the +ground, both earls, barons, knights and squires, whereof the king of +England was after displeased, for he had rather they had been taken +prisoners." How far Edward's solicitude was disinterested may be gauged +from Froissart's parallel remark about the battle of Aljubarrota, where, +as at Agincourt, the handful of victors were obliged by a sudden panic +to slay their prisoners. "Lo, behold the great evil adventure that fell +that Saturday. For they slew as many good prisoners as would well have +been worth, one with another, four hundred thousand franks." In 1402 +Lord Thomas de Berkeley bought, as a speculation, 24 Scottish prisoners. +Similar practical considerations forced the nobles of other European +countries either to conform to less sentimental methods of warfare and +to growing conceptions of nationality, or to become mere Ishmaels of the +type which outlived the middle ages in Götz von Berlichingen and his +compeers. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Froissart is perhaps the source from which we may + gather most of chivalry in its double aspect, good and bad. The + brilliant side comes out most clearly in Joinville, the _Chronique de + Du Guesclin_, and the _Histoire de Bayart_; the darker side appears in + the earlier chronicles of the crusades, and is especially emphasized + by preachers and moralists like Jacques de Vitry, Étienne de Bourbon, + Nicole Bozon and John Gower. John Smyth's _Lives of the Berkeleys_ + (Bristol and Gloucs. Archaeol. Soc, 2 vols.) and the _Book of the + Knight of La Tour-Landry_ (ed. A. de Montaiglon, or in the old English + trans. published by the Early English Text Soc.) throw a very vivid + light on the inner life of noble families. Of modern books, besides + those quoted by their full titles in the notes, the best are A. + Schultz, _Höfisches Leben z. Zeit der Minnesänger_ (Leipzig, 1879); S. + Luce, _Hist. de Du Guesclin et de son Époque_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1882), + masterly but unfortunately unfinished at the author's death; Léon + Gautier, _La Chevalerie_ (Paris, 1883), written with a strong + apologetic bias, but full and correct in its references; and F. W. + Cornish, _Chivalry_ (London, 1901), too little reference to the more + prosaic historical documents, but candid and without intentional + partiality. (G. G. Co.) + + +ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD + +When orders ceased to be fraternities and became more and more marks of +favour and a means of recognizing meritorious services to the Crown and +country, the term "orders" became loosely applied to the insignia and +decorations themselves. Thus "orders," irrespective of the title or +other specific designation they confer, fall in Great Britain generally +into three main categories, according as the recipients are made +"knights grand cross," "knights commander," or "companions." In some +orders the classes are more numerous, as in the Royal Victorian, for +instance, which has five, numerous foreign orders a like number, some +six, while the Chinese "Dragon" boasts no less than eleven degrees. +Generally speaking, the insignia of the "knights grand cross" consist of +a star worn on the left breast and a badge, usually some form either of +the cross _patée_ or of the Maltese cross, worn suspended from a ribbon +over the shoulder or, in certain cases, on days of high ceremonial from +a collar. The "commanders" wear the badge from a ribbon round the neck, +and the star on the breast; the "companions" have no star and wear the +badge from a narrow ribbon at the button-hole. + +Orders may, again, be grouped according as they are (1) PRIME ORDERS OF +CHRISTENDOM, conferred upon an exclusive class only. Here belong, _inter +alia_, the well-known orders of the _Garter_ (England), _Golden Fleece_ +(Austria and Spain), _Annunziata_ (Italy), _Black Eagle_ (Prussia), _St +Andrew_ (Russia), _Elephant_ (Denmark) and _Seraphim_ (Sweden). Of these +the first three only, which are usually held to rank _inter se_ in the +order given, are historically identified with chivalry. (2) FAMILY +ORDERS, bestowed upon members of the royal or princely class, or upon +humbler individuals according to classes, in respect of "personal" +services rendered to the family. To this category belong such orders as +the Royal Victorian and the Hohenzollern (Prussia). (3) ORDERS OF MERIT, +whether military, civil or joint orders. Such have, as a rule, at least +three, oftener five classes, and here belong such as the _Order of the +Bath_ (British), _Red Eagle_ (Prussia), _Legion of Honour_ (France). +There are also certain orders, such as the recently instituted _Order of +Merit_ (British), and the _Pour le Mérite_ (Prussia), which have but one +class, all members being on an equality of rank within the order. + +Of the three great military and religious orders, branches survive of +two, the Teutonic Order (_Der hohe deutsche Ritter Orden_ or _Marianen +Orden_) and the Knights of St John of Jerusalem (_Johanniter Orden_, +_Malteser Orden_), for the history of which and the present state see +TEUTONIC ORDER and ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER OF. + +_Great Britain._--The history and constitution of the "most noble" +_Order of the Garter_ has been treated above. The officers of the order +are five--the prelate, chancellor, registrar, king of arms and +usher--the first, third and fifth having been attached to it from the +commencement, while the fourth was added by Henry V. and the second by +Edward IV. The prelate has always been the bishop of Winchester; the +chancellor was formerly the bishop of Salisbury, but is now the bishop +of Oxford; the registrarship and the deanery of Windsor have been united +since the reign of Charles I.; the king of arms, whose duties were in +the beginning discharged by Windsor herald, is Garter Principal King of +Arms; and the usher is the gentleman usher of the Black Rod. The chapel +of the order is St George's Chapel, Windsor. The insignia of the order +are illustrated on Plate I. + +The "most ancient" _Order of the Thistle_, was founded by James II. in +1687, and dedicated to St Andrew. It consisted of the sovereign and +eight knights companions, and fell into abeyance at the Revolution of +1688. In 1703 it was revived by Queen Anne, when it was ordained to +consist of the sovereign and 12 knights companions, the number being +increased to 16 by statute in 1827. The officers of the order are the +dean, the secretary, Lyon King of Arms and the gentleman usher of the +Green Rod. The chapel, in St Giles's, Edinburgh, was begun in 1909. The +star, badge and ribbon of the order are illustrated on Plate II., figs. +5 and 6. The collar is formed of thistles, alternating with sprigs of +rue, and the motto is _Nemo me impune lacessit_. + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + +THE BATH. (i) STAR; (ii.) GRAND CROSS (Mil.); (iii) STAR; (iv.) GRAND +CROSS (Civ.); THE THISTLE. (v.) STAR; (vi.) BADGE. THE ST. PATRICK. +(vii.) BADGE; (viii.) STAR. THE ST. MICHAEL AND ST. GEORGE. (ix.) STAR; +(x.) GRAND CROSS. + +_Drawn by William Gibb._ + +_Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] + +The "most illustrious" _Order of St Patrick_ was instituted by George +III. in 1788, to consist of the sovereign, the lord lieutenant of +Ireland as grand master and 15 knights companions, enlarged to 22 in +1833. The chancellor of the order is the chief secretary to the lord +lieutenant of Ireland, and the king of arms is Ulster King of Arms; +Black Rod is the usher. The chapel is in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. +The star, badge and ribbon are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 7 and 8. +The collar is formed of alternate roses with red and white leaves, and +gold harps linked by gold knots; the badge is suspended from a harp +surmounted by an imperial jewelled crown. The motto is _Quis separabit_? + +The "most honourable" _Order of the Bath_ was established by George I. +in 1725, to consist of the sovereign, a grand master and 36 knights +companions. This was a pretended revival of an order supposed to have +been created by Henry IV. at his coronation in 1399. But, as has been +shown in the preceding section, no such order existed. Knights of the +Bath, although they were allowed precedence before knights bachelors, +were merely knights bachelors who were knighted with more elaborate +ceremonies than others and on certain great occasions. In 1815 the order +was instituted, in three classes, "to commemorate the auspicious +termination of the long and arduous contest in which the Empire has been +engaged"; and in 1847 the civil knights commanders and companions were +added. Exclusive of the sovereign, royal princes and distinguished +foreigners, the order is limited to 55 military and 27 civil knights +grand cross, 145 military and 108 civil knights commanders, and 705 +military and 298 civil companions. The officers of the order are the +dean (the dean of Westminster), Bath King of Arms, the registrar, and +the usher of the Scarlet Rod. The ribbon and badges of the knights grand +cross (civil and military) and the stars are illustrated on Plate II., +figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4. + +The "most distinguished" _Order of St Michael and St George_ was founded +by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., in 1818, in commemoration +of the British protectorate of the Ionian Islands, "for natives of the +Ionian Islands and of the island of Malta and its dependencies, and for +such other subjects of his majesty as may hold high and confidential +situations in the Mediterranean." By statute of 1832 the lord high +commissioner of the Ionian Islands was to be the grand master, and the +order was directed to consist of 15 knights grand crosses, 20 knights +commanders and 25 cavaliers or companions. After the repudiation of the +British protectorate of the Ionian Islands, the order was placed on a +new basis, and by letters patent of 1868 and 1877 it was extended and +provided for such of "the natural born subjects of the Crown of the +United Kingdom as may have held or shall hold high and confidential +offices within her majesty's colonial possessions, and in reward for +services rendered to the crown in relation to the foreign affairs of the +Empire." It is now (by the enlargement of 1902) limited to 100 knights +grand cross, of whom the first or principal is grand master, exclusive +of extra and honorary members, of 300 knights commanders and 600 +companions. The officers are the prelate, chancellor, registrar, +secretary and officer of arms. The chapel of the order, in St Paul's +Cathedral, was dedicated in 1906. The badge of the knights grand cross +and the ribbon are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 9 and 10. The star of +the knights grand cross is a seven-rayed star of silver with a small ray +of gold between each, in the centre is a red St George's cross bearing a +medallion of St Michael encountering Satan, surrounded by a blue fillet +with the motto _Auspicium melioris aevi_. + +The _Order of St Michael and St George_ ranks between the "most exalted" +_Order of the Star of India_ and the "most eminent" _Order of the Indian +Empire_, of both of which the viceroy of India for the time being is _ex +officio_ grand master. Of these the first was instituted in 1861 and +enlarged in 1876, 1897 and 1903, in three classes, knights grand +commanders, knights commanders and companions, and the second was +established (for "companions" only) in 1878 and enlarged in 1887, 1892, +1897 and 1903, also in the same three classes, in commemoration of +Queen Victoria's assumption of the imperial style and title of the +Empress of India. The badges, stars and ribbons of the knights grand +commanders of the two orders are illustrated on Plate III., figs. 3, 4, +5 and 6. The collar of the _Star of India_ is composed of alternate +links of the lotus flower, red and white roses and palm branches +enamelled on gold, with an imperial crown in the centre; that of the +_Indian Empire_ is composed of elephants, peacocks and Indian roses. + +The _Royal Victorian Order_ was instituted by Queen Victoria on the 25th +of April 1896, and conferred for personal services rendered to her +majesty and her successors on the throne. It consists of the sovereign, +chancellor, secretary and five classes--knights grand commanders, +knights commanders, commanders and members of the fourth and fifth +classes, the distinction between these last divisions lying in the badge +and in the precedence enjoyed by the members. The knights of this order +rank in their respective classes immediately after those of the _Indian +Empire_, and its numbers are unlimited. The badge, star and ribbon of +the knights grand cross are illustrated on Plate III., figs. 1 and 2. + +To the class of orders without the titular appellation "knight" belongs +the _Order of Merit_, founded by King Edward VII. on the occasion of his +coronation. The order is founded on the lines of the Prussian _Ordre +pour le mérite_ (see below), yet more comprehensive, including those who +have gained distinction in the military and naval services of the +Empire, and such as have made themselves a great name in the fields of +science, art and literature. The number of British members has been +fixed at twenty-four, with the addition of such foreign persons as the +sovereign shall appoint. The names of the first recipients were: Earl +Roberts, Viscount Wolseley, Viscount Kitchener, Sir Henry Keppel, Sir +Edward Seymour, Lord Lister, Lord Rayleigh, Lord Kelvin, John Morley, W. +E. H. Lecky, G. F. Watts and Sir William Huggins. The only foreign +recipients up to 1910 were Field Marshals Yamagata and Oyama and Admiral +Togo. A lady, Miss Florence Nightingale, received the order in 1907. The +badge is a cross of red and blue enamel surmounted by an imperial crown; +the central blue medallion bears the inscription "For Merit" in gold, +and is surrounded by a wreath of laurel. The badge of the military and +naval members bears two crossed swords in the angles of the cross. The +ribbon is garter blue and crimson and is worn round the neck. + + The _Distinguished Service Order_, an order of military merit, was + founded on the 6th of September 1886 by Queen Victoria, its object + being to recognize the special services of officers in the army and + navy. Its numbers are unlimited, and its designation the letters + D.S.O. It consists of one class only, who take precedence immediately + after the 4th class of the Royal Victorian Order. The badge is a white + and gold cross with a red centre bearing the imperial crown surrounded + by a laurel wreath. The ribbon is red edged with blue. The _Imperial + Service Order_ was likewise instituted on the 26th of June 1902, and + finally revised in 1908, to commemorate King Edward's coronation, and + is specially designed as a recognition of faithful and meritorious + services rendered to the British Crown by the administrative members + of the civil service in various parts of the Empire, and is to consist + of companions only. The numbers are limited to 475, of whom 250 belong + to the home and 225 to the civil services of the colonies and + protectorates (Royal Warrant, June 1909). Women as well as men are + eligible. The members of the order have the distinction of adding the + letters I.S.O. after their names. In precedence the order ranks after + the _Distinguished Service Order_. The badge is a gold medallion + bearing the royal cipher and the words "For Faithful Service" in blue; + for men it rests on a silver star, for women it is surrounded by a + silver wreath. The ribbon is one blue between two crimson stripes. + + In addition to the above, there are two British orders confined to + ladies. The _Royal Order of Victoria and Albert_, which was instituted + in 1862, is a purely court distinction. It consists of four classes, + and it has as designation the letters V.A. The _Imperial Order of the + Crown of India_ is conferred for like purposes as the Order of the + Indian Empire. Its primary object is to recognize the services of + ladies connected with the court of India. The letters C.I. are its + designation. + + The sovereign's permission by royal warrant is necessary before a + British subject can receive a foreign order of knighthood. For other + decorations, see under MEDALS. + +_The Golden Fleece_ (_La Toison d'Or_) ranks historically and in +distinction as one of the great knightly orders of Europe. It is now +divided into two branches, of Austria and Spain. It was founded on the +10th of January, 1429/30 by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, on the +day of his marriage with Isabella of Portugal at Bruges, in her honour +and dedicated to the Virgin and St Andrew. No certain origin can be +given for the name. It seems to have been in dispute even in the early +history of the order. Four different sources have been suggested; the +classical myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts for the golden +fleece, the scriptural story of Gideon, the staple trade of Flanders in +wool, and the fleece of golden hair of Marie de Rambrugge, the duke's +mistress. Motley (_Rise of Dutch Rep._, i. 48) says: "What could be more +practical and more devout than the conception? Did not the Lamb of God, +suspended at each knight's heart, symbolize at once the woollen fabrics +to which so much of Flemish wealth and Burgundian power was owing, and +the gentle humility of Christ which was ever to characterize the order?" +At its constitution the number of the knights was limited to 24, +exclusive of the grand master, the sovereign. The members were to be +_gentilshommes de nom et d'armes et sans reproche_, not knights of any +other order, and vowed to join their sovereign in the defence of the +Catholic faith, the protection of Holy Church, and the upholding of +virtue and good morals. The sovereign undertook to consult the knights +before embarking on a war, all disputes between the knights were to be +settled by the order, at each chapter the deeds of each knight were held +in review, and punishments and admonitions were dealt out to offenders; +to this the sovereign was expressly subject. Thus we find that the +emperor Charles V. accepted humbly the criticism of the knights of the +Fleece on his over-centralization of the government and the wasteful +personal attention to details (E. A. Armstrong, _Charles V._, 1902, ii. +373). The knights could claim as of right to be tried by their fellows +on charges of rebellion, heresy and treason, and Charles V. conferred on +the order exclusive jurisdiction over all crimes committed by the +knights. The arrest of the offender had to be by warrant signed by at +least six knights, and during the process of charge and trial he +remained not in prison but _dans l'aimable compagnie du dit ordre_. It +was in defiance of this right that Alva refused the claim of Counts +Egmont and Horn to be tried by the knights of the Fleece in 1568. During +the 16th century the order frequently acted as a consultative body in +the state; thus in 1539 and 1540 Charles summons the knights with the +council of state and the privy council to decide what steps should be +taken in face of the revolt of Ghent (Armstrong, _op. cit._, i. 302), in +1562 Margaret of Parma, the regent, summons them to Brussels to debate +the dangerous condition of the provinces (Motley, i. 48), and they were +present at the abdication of Charles in the great hall at Brussels in +1555. The history of the order and its subsequent division into the two +branches of Austria and Spain may be briefly summarized. By the marriage +of Mary, only daughter of Charles the Bold of Burgundy to Maximilian, +archduke of Austria, 1477, the grand mastership of the order came to the +house of Habsburg and, with the Netherlands provinces, to Spain in 1504 +on the accession of Philip, Maximilian's son, to Castile. On the +extinction of the Habsburg dynasty in Spain by the death of Charles II. +in 1700 the grand-mastership, which had been filled by the kings of +Spain after the loss of the Netherlands, was claimed by the emperor +Charles VI., and he instituted the order in Vienna in 1713. Protests +were made at various times by Philip V., but the question has never been +finally decided by treaty, and the Austrian and Spanish branches have +continued as independent orders ever since as the principal order of +knighthood in the respective states. It may be noticed that while the +Austrian branch excludes any other than Roman Catholics from the order, +the Spanish Fleece may be granted to Protestants. The badges of the two +branches vary slightly in detail, more particularly in the attachment of +fire-stones (_fusils_ or _furisons_) and steels by which the fleece is +attached to the ribbon of the collar. The Spanish form is given on Plate +IV., fig. 2. The collar is composed of alternate links of furisons and +double steels interlaced to form the letter B for Burgundy. A +magnificent exhibition of relics, portraits of knights and other +objects connected with the order of the Golden Fleece was held at Bruges +in 1907. + + The chief history of the order is Baron de Reiffenberg's _Histoire de + l'Ordre de la Toison d'Or_ (1830); see also an article by Sir J. + Balfour Paul, Lyon King of Arms, in the _Scottish Historical Review_ + (July 1908). + + _Austria-Hungary._--The following are the principal orders other than + that of the Golden Fleece (_supra_). _The Order of St Stephen of + Hungary_, the royal Hungarian order, founded in 1764 by the empress + Maria Theresa, consists of the grand master (the sovereign), 20 + knights grand cross, 30 knights commanders and 50 knights. The badge + is a green enamelled cross with gold borders, suspended from the + Hungarian crown; the red enamelled medallion in the centre of the + cross bears a white patriarchal cross issuing from a coroneted green + mound; on either side of the cross are the letters M.T. in gold, and + the whole is surrounded by a white fillet with the legend _Publicum + Meritorum Praemium_. The ribbon is green with a crimson central + stripe. The collar, only worn by the knights grand cross, is of gold, + and consists of Hungarian crowns linked together alternately by the + monograms of St Stephen, S.S., and the foundress, M.T.; the centre of + the collar is formed by a flying lark encircled by the motto _Stringit + amore_. An illustration of the star of the grand cross is given on + Plate V. fig. 4. _The Order of Leopold_, for civil and military + service, was founded in 1808 by the emperor Francis I. in memory of + his father Leopold II. The three classes take precedence next after + the corresponding classes of the order of St Stephen. The badge is a + red enamelled cross bordered with white and gold and surmounted by the + imperial crown; the red medallion in the centre bears the letters + F.I.A., and on the encircling white fillet is the inscription + _Integritati et Merito_. When conferred for service in war the cross + rests on a green laurel wreath. The ribbon is scarlet with two white + stripes. The collar consists of imperial crowns, the initials F. and + L. and oak wreaths. _The Order of the Iron Crown_, i.e. of Lombardy, + was founded by Napoleon as king of Italy in 1809, and refounded as an + Austrian order of civil and military merit in 1816 by the emperor + Francis I.; the number of knights is limited to 100--20 grand cross, + 30 commanders, 50 knights. The badge consists of the double-headed + imperial eagle with sword and orb; below it is the jewelled iron crown + of Lombardy, and above the imperial crown; on the breast of the eagle + is a gold-bordered blue shield with the letter F. in gold. The + military decoration for war service also bears two green laurel + branches. The ribbon is yellow edged with narrow blue stripes. The + collar is formed of Lombard crowns, oak wreaths and the monogram F. P. + (_Franciscus Primus_). _The Order of Francis Joseph_, for personal + merit of every kind, was founded in 1849 by the emperor Francis Joseph + I. It is of the three usual classes and is unlimited in numbers. The + badge is a black and gold imperial eagle surmounted by the imperial + crown. The eagle bears a red cross with a white medallion, containing + the letters F. J., and to the beaks of the two heads of the eagle is + attached a chain on which is the legend _Viribus Unitis_. The ribbon + is deep red. The _Order of Maria Theresa_ was founded by the empress + Maria Theresa in 1757. It is a purely military order and is given to + officers for personal distinguished conduct in the field. There are + three classes. There were originally only two, grand cross and + knights. The emperor Joseph II. added a commanders' class in 1765. The + badge is a white cross with gold edge, in the centre a red medallion + with a white gold-edged _fesse_, surrounded by a fillet with the + inscription _Fortitudini_. The ribbon is red with a white central + stripe. The _Order of Elizabeth Theresa_, also a military order for + officers, was founded in 1750 by the will of Elizabeth Christina, + widow of the emperor Charles VI. It was renovated in 1771 by her + daughter, the empress Maria Theresa. The order is limited to 21 + knights in three divisions. The badge is an oval star with eight + points, enamelled half red and white, dependent from a gold imperial + crown. The central medallion bears the initials of the founders, with + the encircling inscription _M. Theresa parentis gratiam perennem + voluit_. The ribbon is black. The _Order of the Starry Cross_, for + high-born ladies of the Roman Catholic faith who devote themselves to + good works, spiritual and temporal, was founded in 1668 by the empress + Eleanor, widow of the emperor Ferdinand III. and mother of Leopold I., + to commemorate the recovery of a relic of the true cross from a + dangerous fire in the imperial palace at Vienna. The relic was + supposed to have been peculiarly treasured by the emperor Maximilian + I. and the emperor Frederick III. The patroness of the order must be a + princess of the imperial Austrian house. The badge is the black + double-headed eagle surrounded by a blue-enamelled ornamented border, + with the inscription _Salus et Gloria_ on a white fillet; the eagle + bears a red Greek cross with gold and blue borders. The _Order of + Elizabeth_, also for ladies, was founded in 1898. + + [Illustration: PLATE III. + + ROYAL VICTORIAN ORDER. (i.) GRAND CROSS; (ii.) STAR. ORDER OF THE + INDIAN EMPIRE. (iii.) BADGE OF KNIGHT GRAND COMMANDER; (iv.) STAR. THE + STAR OF INDIA. (v.) STAR; (vi.) BADGE OF KNIGHT GRAND COMMANDER. + + _Drawn by William Gibb._ + + _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] + + _Belgium._--The _Order of Leopold_, for civil and military merit, was + founded in 1832 by Leopold I., with four classes, a fifth being added + in 1838. The badge is a white enamelled cross, with gold borders and + balls, suspended from a royal crown and resting on a green laurel and + oak wreath. In the centre a medallion, surrounded by a red fillet with + the motto of the order, _L'union fait la force_, bears a golden + Belgian lion on a black field. The ribbon is watered red. The _Order + of the Iron Cross_, the badge of which is a black cross with gold + borders, with a gold centre bearing a lion, was instituted by Leopold + II. in 1867 as an order of civil merit. The military cross was + instituted in 1885. There are also the following orders instituted by + Leopold II. for service in the Congo State: the _Order of the African + Star_ (1888), the _Royal Order of the Lion_ (1891) and the _Congo + Star_ (1889). + + _Bulgaria._--The _Order of SS Cyril and Methodius_ was instituted in + 1909 by King Ferdinand to commemorate the elevation of the + principality to the position of an independent kingdom. It now takes + precedence of the _Order of St Alexander_, which was founded by Prince + Alexander in 1881, and reconstituted by Prince Ferdinand in 1888. + There are six classes. The plain white cross, suspended from the + Bulgarian crown, bears the name of the patron saint in old Cyrillic + letters in the centre. + + _Denmark._--The _Order of the Elephant_, one of the chief European + orders of knighthood, was, it is said, founded by Christian I. in + 1462; a still earlier origin has been assigned to it, but its regular + institution was that of Christian V. in 1693. The order, exclusive of + the sovereign and his sons, is limited to 30 knights, who must be of + the Protestant religion. The badge of the order is illustrated on + Plate IV. fig. 5. The ribbon is light watered blue, the collar of + alternate gold elephants with blue housings and towers, the star of + silver with a purple medallion bearing a silver or brilliant cross + surrounded by a silver laurel wreath. The motto is _Magnanime + pretium_. The _Order of the Dannebrog_ is, according to Danish + tradition, of miraculous origin, and was founded by Valdemar II. in + 1219 as a memorial of a victory over the Esthonians, won by the + appearance in the sky of a red banner bearing a white cross. + Historically the order dates from the foundation in 1671 by Christian + V. at the birth of his son Frederick, the statutes being published in + 1693. Originally restricted to 50 knights and granted as a family or + court decoration, it was reconstituted as an unlimited order of merit + in 1808 by Frederick VI.; alterations have been made in 1811 and 1864. + It now consists of three classes--grand cross, commander (two grades), + knight, and of one rank of ordinary members (_Dannebrogs maender_). + The badge of the order is, with variations for the different classes, + a white enamelled Danish cross with red and gold borders, bearing in + the centre the letter W (V) and on the four arms the inscription _Gud + og Kongen_ (For God and King). The ribbon is white with red edging. + +_France._--_The Legion of Honour_, the only order of France, and one +which in its higher grades ranks in estimation with the highest European +orders, was instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte on the 19th of May 1802 (29 +Floreal of the year X.) as a general military and civil order of merit. +All soldiers on whom "swords of honour" had been already conferred were +declared _legionaries ipso facto_, and all citizens after 25 years' +service were declared eligible, whatever their birth, rank or religion. +On admission all were to swear to co-operate so far as in them lay for +the assertion of the principles of liberty and equality. The +organization as laid down by Napoleon in 1804 was as follows: Napoleon +was grand master; a grand council of 7 grand officers administered the +order; the order was divided into 15 "cohorts" of 7 grand officers, 20 +commanders, 30 officers and 350 legionaries, and at the headquarters of +the cohorts, for which the territory of France was separated into 15 +divisions, were maintained hospitals for the support of the sick and +infirm legionaries. Salaries (_traitements_) varying in each rank were +attached to the order. In 1805 the rank of "Grand Eagle" (now Grand +Cross, or _Grand Cordon_) was instituted, taking precedence of the grand +officers. At the Restoration many changes were made, the old military +and religious orders were restored, and the _Legion of Honour_, now +_Ordre Royale de la Légion d'Honneur_, took the lowest rank. The +revolution of July 1830 restored the order to its unique place. The +constitution of the order now rests on the decrees of the 16th of March +and 24th of November 1852, the law of the 25th of July 1873, the decree +of the 29th of December 1892, and the laws of the 16th of April 1895 and +the 28th of January 1897, and a decree of the 26th of June 1900. The +president of the republic is the grand master of the order; the +administration is in the hands of a grand chancellor, who has a council +of the order nominated by the grand master. The chancellery is housed in +the _Palais de la Légion de l'Honneur_, which, burnt during the Commune, +was rebuilt in 1878. The order consists of the five classes of grand +cross (limited to 80), grand officer (200), commander (1000), officers +(4000), and chevalier or knight, in which the number is unlimited. These +limitations in number do not affect the foreign recipients of the order. +Salaries (_traitements_) are attached to the military and naval +recipients of the order when on the active list, viz. 3000 francs for +grand cross, 2000 francs for grand officers, 1000 francs for commanders, +250 francs for chevaliers. The numbers of the recipients of the order +_sans traitement_ are limited through all classes. In ordinary +circumstances twenty years of military, naval or civil service must have +been performed before a candidate can be eligible for the rank of +chevalier, and promotions can only be made after definite service in the +lower rank. Extraordinary service in time of war and extraordinary +services in civil life admit to any rank. Women have been decorated, +notably Rosa Bonheur, Madame Curie and Madame Bartet. The Napoleonic +form of the grand cross and ribbon is illustrated on Plate IV, fig. 6; +the cross from which the drawing was made was given to King Edward VII. +when prince of Wales in 1863. In the present order of the French +Republic the symbolical head of the Republic appears in the centre, and +a laurel wreath replaces the imperial crown; the inscription round the +medallion is _République française_. Since 1805 there has existed an +institution, _Maison d'éducation de la Legion d'Honneur_, for the +education of the daughters, granddaughters, sisters and nieces of +members of the Legion of Honour. There are three houses, at Saint Denis, +at Écouen and Les Loges (see _Dictionnaire de l'administration +française_, by M. Block and E. Magnéro, 1905, _s.v._ "Decorations"). + + Among the orders swept away at the French Revolution, restored in part + at the Restoration, and finally abolished at the revolution of July + 1830 were the following: The _Order of St Michael_ was founded by + Louis XI. in 1469 for a limited number of knights of noble birth. + Later the numbers were so much increased under Charles IX. that it + became known as _Le Collier à toutes bêtes_. In 1816 the order was + granted for services in art and science. In view of the low esteem + into which the _Order of St Michael_ had fallen, Henry III. founded in + 1578 the _Order of the Holy Ghost_ (_St Esprit_). The badge of the + order was a white Maltese cross decorated in gold, with the gold + lilies of France at the angles, in the centre a white dove with wings + outstretched, the ribbon was sky blue (_cordon bleu_). The motto of + the order was _Duce et auspice_. The _Order of St Louis_ was founded + by Louis XIV. in 1693 for military merit, and the _Order of Military + Merit_ by Louis XV. in 1759, originally for Protestant officers. + + _Germany._--i. _Anhalt._ The _Order of Albert the Bear_, a family + order or _Hausorden_, was founded in 1836 by the dukes Henry of + Anhalt-Köthen, Leopold Frederick of Anhalt-Dessau and Alexander + Charles of Anhalt-Bernburg. Changes in the constitution have been made + at various dates. It now consists of five classes, grand cross, + commander (2 classes) and knights (2 classes). The badge is a gold + oval bearing in gold a crowned and collared bear on a crenellated + wall; below the ring by which the badge is attached to the ribbon is a + shield with the arms of the house of Anhalt, on the reverse those of + the house of Ascania. Round the oval is the motto _Fürchte Gott und + folge seine Befehle_. The ribbon is green with two red stripes. The + grand master alone wears a collar. + + ii. _Baden._ The _Order of Fidelity or Loyalty_ (_Hausorden der + Treue_) was instituted by William, margrave of Baden-Durlach in 1715, + and reconstituted in 1803 by the elector Charles Frederick. There is + now only one class, for princes of the reigning house, foreign + sovereigns and eminent men of the state. The badge is a red enamelled + cross with gold borders and double C's interlaced in the angles; in + the centre a white medallion with red monogram over a green mound + surmounted by the word _Fidelitas_ in black; the cross is suspended + from a ducal crown. The ribbon is orange with silver edging. The + military _Order of Charles Frederick_ was founded in 1807. There are + three classes. The badge is a white cross resting on a green laurel + wreath, the ribbon is red with a yellow stripe bordered with white. + The order is conferred for long and meritorious military service. The + _Order of the Zähringen Lion_ was founded in 1812 in commemoration of + the descent of the reigning house of Baden from the dukes of + Zähringen. It has been reconstituted in 1840 and 1877. It now consists + of five classes. The badge is a green enamel cross with gold clasps in + the angles; in the central medallion an enamelled representation of + the ruined castle of Zähringen. The ribbon is green with two orange + stripes. Since 1896 the _Order of Berthold I._ has been a distinct + order; it was founded in 1877 as a higher class of the _Zähringen + Lion_. + + iii. _Bavaria._ The _Order of St Hubert_, one of the oldest and most + distinguished knightly orders, was founded in 1444 by duke Gerhard V. + of Jülich-Berg in honour of a victory over Count Arnold of Egmont at + Ravensberg on the 3rd of November, St Hubert's day. The knights wore a + collar of golden hunting horns, whence the order was also known as the + _Order of the Horn_. Statutes were granted in 1476, but the order fell + into abeyance at the extinction of the dynasty in 1609. It was revived + in 1708 by the elector palatine, John William of Neuberg, and its + constitution was altered at various times, its final form being given + by the elector Maximilian Joseph, first king of Bavaria, in 1808. + Exclusive of the sovereign and princes of the blood, and foreign + sovereigns and princes, it consists of twelve capitular knights of the + rank of count or _Freiherr_. The badge of the order and the ribbon are + illustrated in Plate V. fig. 3. The central medallion represents the + conversion of St Hubert. The collar is composed of gold and blue + enamel figures of the conversion linked by the Gothic monogram I.T.V., + _In Trau Vast_, the motto of the order, alternately red and green. The + _Order of St George_, said to have been founded in the 12th century as + a crusading order and revived by the emperor Maximilian I. in 1494, + dates historically from its institution in 1729 by the elector Charles + Albert, afterwards the emperor Charles VII. It was confirmed by the + elector Charles Theodore in 1778 and by the elector Maximilian Joseph + IV. as the second Bavarian order. Various new statutes have been + granted from 1827 to 1875. The order is divided into two branches, "of + German and foreign languages," and it also has a "spiritual class." + The members of the order must be Roman Catholics. The badge is a blue + enamelled cross with white and gold edging suspended from the mouth of + a gold lion's head; in the angles of the cross are blue lozenges + containing the letters V.I.B.I., _Virgini Immaculatae Bavaria + Immaculata_. The central medallion contains a figure of the Immaculate + Conception. The medallion on the reverse contains a figure of St + George and the Dragon and the corresponding initials J.U.P.F., _Justus + ut Palma Florebit_, the motto of the order. Besides the above Bavaria + possesses the _Military Order of Maximilian Joseph_, 1806, and the + _Civil Orders of Merit of St Michael_, 1693, and of the _Bavarian + Crown_, 1808, and other minor orders and decorations, civil and + military. There are also the two illustrious orders for ladies, the + _Order of Elizabeth_, founded in 1766, and the _Order of Theresa_, in + 1827. The foundations of _St Anne of Munich_ and of _St Anne of + Würzburg_ for ladies are not properly orders. + + iv. _Brunswick._ The _Order of Henry the Lion_, for military and civil + merit, was founded by Duke William in 1834. There are five classes, + and a cross of merit of two classes. The badge is a blue enamelled + cross dependent from a lion surmounted by the ducal crown; the angles + of the cross are filled by crowned W's and the centre bears the arms + of Brunswick, a crowned pillar and a white horse, between two sickles. + The ribbon is deep red bordered with yellow. + + v. _Hanover._ The _Order of St George_ (one class only) was instituted + by King Ernest Augustus I. in 1839 as the family order of the house of + Hanover; the _Royal Guelphic Order_ (three classes) by George, prince + regent, afterwards George IV. of Great Britain, in 1815; and the + _Order of Ernest Augustus_ by George V. of Hanover in 1865. These + orders have not been conferred since 1866, when Hanover ceased to be a + kingdom, and the _Royal Guelphic Order_, which from its institution + was more British than Hanoverian, not since the death of William IV. + in 1837. The last British grand cross was the late duke of Cambridge. + + vi. _Hesse._ Of the various orders founded by the houses of + Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt the following are still bestowed in + the grand duchy of Hesse. The _Order of Louis_, founded by the grand + duke Louis I. of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1807; there are five classes; the + black, red and gold bordered cross bears the initial L. in the centre, + the ribbon is black with red borders; the _Order of Philip the + Magnanimous_, founded by the grand duke Louis II. in 1840 has five + classes; the white cross of the badge bears the effigy of Philip + surrounded by the motto _Si Deus vobiscum quis contra nos_. The _Order + of the Golden Lion_ was founded in 1770 by the landgrave Frederick II. + of Hesse-Cassel, the knights are 41 in number and take precedence of + the members of the two former orders. The badge is an open oval of + gold with the Hessian lion in the centre. The ribbon is crimson. + + vii. _Mecklenburg._ The grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and + Mecklenburg-Strelitz possess jointly the _Order of the Wendish Crown_, + founded in 1864 by the grand dukes Frederick Francis II. of Schwerin + and Frederick William of Strelitz; there are four classes, with two + divisions of the grand cross, and also an affiliated cross of merit; + the grand cross can be granted to ladies. The badge is a white cross + bearing on a blue centre the Wendish crown, surrounded by the motto, + for the Schwerin knights, _Per aspera ad astra_, for the Strelitz + knights, _Avito viret honore_. The _Order of the Griffin_, founded in + 1884 by Frederick Francis III. of Schwerin, was made common to the + duchies in 1904. + + viii. _Oldenberg._ The _Order of Duke Peter Frederick Louis_, a family + order and order of merit, was founded by the grand duke Paul Frederick + Augustus in memory of his father in 1838. It has two divisions, each + of five classes, of capitular knights and honorary members. The badge + is a white gold bordered cross suspended from a crown, in the centre + the crowned monogram P.F.L. surrounded by the motto _Ein Gott, Ein + Recht, Eine Wahrheit_; the ribbon is dark blue bordered with red. + + ix. _Prussia._ The _Order of the Black Eagle_, one of the most + distinguished of European orders, was founded in 1701 by the elector + of Brandenburg, Frederick I., in memory of his coronation as king of + Prussia. The order consists of one class only and the original + statutes limited the number, exclusive of the princes of the royal + house and foreign members, to 30. But the number has been exceeded. It + is only conferred on those of royal lineage and upon high officers of + state. It confers the nobiliary particle _von_. Only those who have + received the _Order of the Red Eagle_ are eligible. An illustration of + the badge of the order with ribbon is given on Plate IV. fig. 3. The + star of silver bears the black eagle on an orange ground surrounded by + a silver fillet on which is the motto of the order _Suum Cuique_. The + collar is formed of alternate black eagles and a circular medallion + with the motto on a white centre surrounded by the initials F.R. + repeated in green, the whole in a circle of blue with four gold crowns + on the exterior rim. The _Order of the Red Eagle_, the second of the + Prussian orders, was founded originally as the _Order of Sincerity_ + (_L'Ordre de la Sincerité_) in 1705 by George William, hereditary + prince of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. The original constitution and insignia + are now entirely changed, with the exception of the red eagle which + formed the centre of the cross of the badge. The order had almost + fallen into oblivion when it was revived in 1734 by the margrave + George Frederick Charles as the _Order of the Brandenburg Red Eagle_. + It consisted of 30 nobly born knights. The numbers were increased and + a grand cross class added in 1759. On the cession of the principality + to Prussia in 1791 the order was transferred and King Frederick + William raised it to that place in Prussian orders which it has since + maintained. The order was divided into four classes in 1810 and there + are now five classes with numerous subdivisions. It is an order of + civil and military merit. The grand cross resembles the badge of the + Black Eagle, but is white and the eagles in the corners red, the + central medallion bearing the initials W.R. (those of William I.) + surrounded by a blue fillet with the motto _Sincere et Constanter_. + The numerous classes and subdivisions have exceedingly complicated + distinguishing marks, some bearing crossed swords, a crown, or an + oak-leaf surmounting the cross. The ribbon is white with two orange + stripes. + + The _Order for Merit_ (_Ordre pour le Mérite_), one of the most highly + prized of European orders of merit, has now two divisions, military + and for science and art. It was originally founded by the electoral + prince Frederick, afterwards Frederick I. of Prussia, in 1667 as the + _Order of Generosity_; it was given its present name and granted for + civil and military distinction by Frederick the Great, 1740. In 1810 + the order was made one for military merit against the enemy in the + field exclusively. In 1840 the class for distinction for science and + art, or peace class (_Friedensklasse_) was founded by Frederick + William IV., for those "who have gained an illustrious name by wide + recognition in the spheres of science and art." The number is limited + to 30 German and 30 foreign members. The _Academy of Sciences and + Arts_ on a vacancy nominates three candidates, from which one is + selected by the king. It is interesting to note that this was the only + distinction which Thomas Carlyle would accept. The badge of the + military order is a blue cross with gold uncrowned eagles in the + angles; on the topmost arm is the initial F., with a crown; on the + other arms the inscription _Pour le Mérite_. The ribbon is black with + a silver stripe at the edges. In 1866 a special grand cross was + instituted for the crown prince (afterwards Frederick III.) and Prince + Frederick Charles. It was in 1879 granted to Count von Moltke as a + special distinction. The badge of the class for science or art is a + circular medallion of white, with a gold eagle in the centre + surrounded by a blue border with the inscription _Pour le Mérite_; on + the white field the letters [reverse F]F. II. four times repeated, and + four crowns in gold projecting from the rim. The ribbon is the same as + for the military class. The _Order of the Crown_, founded by William + I. in 1861, ranks with the Red Eagle. There are four classes, with + many subdivisions. Other Prussian orders are the _Order of William_, + instituted by William II. in 1896; a Prussian branch of the knights of + St John of Jerusalem, _Johanniter Orden_, in its present form dating + from 1893; and the family _Order of the House of Hohenzollern_, + founded in 1851 by Frederick William IV. There are two divisions, + military and civil, divided into four classes. The military badge is a + white cross with black and gold edging, resting on a green oak and + laurel wreath; the central medallion bears the Prussian Eagle with the + arms of Hohenzollern, and is surrounded by a blue fillet with the + motto _Vom Fels zum Meer_; the civil badge is a black eagle, with the + head encircled with a blue fillet with the motto. There are also for + ladies the _Order of Service_, founded in 1814 by Frederick William + III., in one class, but enlarged in 1850 and in 1865. The decoration + of merit for ladies (_Verdienst-kreuz_), founded in 1870, was raised + to an order in 1907. For the famous military decoration, the _Iron + Cross_, see MEDALS. + + x. _Saxony._--The _Order of the Crown of Rue_ (_Rauten Krone_) was + founded as a family order by Frederick Augustus I. in 1807. It is of + one class only, and the sons and nephews of the sovereign are born + knights of the order. It is granted to foreign ruling princes and + subjects of high rank. The badge is a pale green enamelled cross + resting on a gold crown with eight rue leaves, the centre is white + with the crowned monogram of the founder surrounded by a green circlet + of rue; the star bears in its centre the motto _Providentiae Memor_. + The ribbon is green. Other Saxon orders are the military _Order of St + Henry_, for distinguished service in the field, founded in 1736 in one + class; since 1829 it has had four classes; the ribbon is sky blue with + two yellow stripes, the gold cross bears in the centre the effigy of + the emperor Henry II.; the _Order of Albert_, for civil and military + merit, founded in 1850 by Frederick Augustus II. in memory of Duke + Albert the Bold, the founder of the Albertine line of Saxony, has six + classes; the _Order of Civil Merit_, was founded in 1815. For ladies + there are the _Order of Sidonia_, 1870, in memory of the wife of + Albert the Bold, the mother (_Stamm-Mutter_) of the Albertine line; + and the _Maria Anna Order_, 1906. + + [Illustration: PLATE IV. + + (i.) THE ST. ANDREW (Russia). (ii.) THE GOLDEN FLEECE (Spain). (iii.) + THE BLACK EAGLE (Prussia). (iv.) THE TOWER AND SWORD (Portugal). (v.) + THE ELEPHANT (Denmark). (vi.) THE LEGION OF HONOUR + (France-Napoleonic). (vii.) THE ANNUNZIATA (Italy). + + _Drawn by William Gibb._ + + _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] + + xi. The duchies of _Saxe Altenburg_, _Saxe Coburg Gotha_ and _Saxe + Meiningen_ have in common the family _Order of Ernest_, founded in + 1833 in memory of Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe Gotha and as a revival + of the _Order of German Integrity_ (_Orden der deutschen Redlichkeit_) + founded in 1690. Saxe Coburg Gotha and Saxe Meiningen have also + separate crosses of merit in science and art. + + xii. _Saxe Weimar._--The _Order of the White Falcon_ or _of Vigilance_ + was founded in 1732 and renewed in 1815. + + xiii. _Württemberg._--The _Order of the Crown of Württemberg_ was + founded in 1818, uniting the former _Order of the Golden Eagle_ and an + order of civil merit. It has five classes. The badge is a white cross + surmounted by the royal crown, in the centre the initial F surrounded + by a crimson fillet on which is the motto _Furchtlos und Treu_; in the + angles of the cross are four golden leopards; the ribbon is crimson + with two black stripes. Besides the military _Order of Merit_ founded + in 1759, and the silver cross of merit, 1900, Württemberg has also the + _Order of Frederick_, 1830, and the _Order of Olga_, 1871, which is + granted to ladies as well as men. + + _Greece._--The _Order of the Redeemer_ was founded as such in 1833 by + King Otto, being a conversion of a decoration of honour instituted in + 1829 by the National Assembly at Argos. There are five classes, the + numbers being regulated for each. An illustration of the badge and + ribbon of the grand cross is given on Plate V. fig. 1. + + _Holland._--The _Order of William_, for military merit, was founded in + 1815 by William I.; there are four classes; the badge is a white cross + resting on a green laurel Burgundian cross, in the centre the + Burgundian flint-steel, as in the order of the Golden Fleece. The + motto _Voer Moed, Belied, Trouw_ (For Valour, Devotion, Loyalty), + appears on the arms of the cross. The cross is surmounted by a + jewelled crown; the ribbon is orange with dark blue edging. The _Order + of the Netherlands Lion_, for civil merit, was founded in 1818; there + are four classes. The family _Order of the Golden Lion of Nassau_ + passed in 1890 to the grand duchy of Luxembourg (see under LUXEMBURG). + In 1892 Queen Wilhelmina instituted the _Order of Orange-Nassau_ with + five classes. The _Teutonic Order_ (q.v.), surviving in the Ballarde + (Bailiwick) of Utrecht, was officially established in the Netherlands + by the States General in 1580. It was abolished by Napoleon in 1811 + and was restored in 1815. + + _Italy._--The _Order of the Annunziata_, the highest order of + knighthood of the Italian kingdom, was instituted in 1362 by Amadeus + VI., count of Savoy, as the Order of the Collare or Collar, from the + silver collar made up of love-knots and roses, which was its badge, in + honour of the fifteen joys of the Virgin; hence the number of the + knights was restricted to fifteen, the fifteen chaplains recited + fifteen masses each day, and the clauses of the original statute of + the order were fifteen (Amadeus VIII. added five others in 1434). + Charles III. decreed that the order should be called the Annunziata, + and made some other alterations in 1518. His son and successor, + Emmanuel Philibert, made further modifications in the statute and the + costume. The church of the order was originally the Carthusian + monastery of Pierre-châtel in the district of Bugey, but after Charles + Emmanuel I. had given Bugey and Bresse to France in 1601 the church of + the order was transferred to the Camaldolese monastery near Turin. + That religious order having been suppressed at the time of the French + Revolution, King Charles Albert decreed in 1840 that the Carthusian + church of Collegno should be the chapel of the order. The knights of + the Annunziata have the title of "cousins of the king," and enjoy + precedence over all the other officials of the state. The costume of + the order is of white satin embroidered in silk, with a purple velvet + cloak adorned with roses and gold embroidery, but it is now never + worn; in the collar the motto _Fert_ is inserted, on the meaning of + which there is great uncertainty,[65] and from it hangs a pendant + enclosing a medallion representing the Annunciation (see Plate IV. + fig. 7). An account of the order is given in Count Luigi Cibrario's + _Ordini Cavallereschi_ (Turin, 1846) with coloured plates of the + costume and badges. + + The _Order of St Maurice and St Lazarus_ (SS Maurizio e Lazzaro), is a + combination of two ancient orders. The Order of St Maurice was + originally founded by Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, in 1434, when he + retired to the hermitage of Ripaille, and consisted of a group of + half-a-dozen councillors who were to advise him on such affairs of + state as he continued to control. When he became pope as Felix V. the + order practically ceased to exist. It was re-established at the + instance of Emmanuel Philibert by Pope Pius V. in 1572 as a military + and religious order, and the following year it was united to that of + St Lazarus by Gregory XIII. The latter order had been founded as a + military and religious community at the time of the Latin kingdom of + Jerusalem with the object of assisting lepers, many of whom were among + its members. Popes, princes and nobles endowed it with estates and + privileges, including that of administering and succeeding to the + property of lepers, which eventually led to grave abuses. With the + advance of the Saracens the knights of St Lazarus, when driven from + the Holy Land and Egypt, migrated to France (1291) and Naples (1311), + where they founded leper hospitals. The order in Naples, which alone + was afterwards recognized as the legitimate descendant of the + Jerusalem community, was empowered to seize and confine anyone + suspected of leprosy, a permission which led to the establishment of a + regular inquisitorial system of blackmail. In the 15th and 16th + centuries dissensions broke out among the knights, and the order + declined in credit and wealth, until finally the grand master, + Giannotto Castiglioni, resigned his position in favour of Emmanuel + Philibert, duke of Savoy, in 1571. Two years later the orders of St + Lazarus and St Maurice were incorporated into one community, the + members of which were to devote themselves to the defence of the Holy + See and to fight its enemies as well as to continue assisting lepers. + The galleys of the order subsequently took part in various expeditions + against the Turks and the Barbary pirates. Leprosy, which had almost + disappeared in the 17th century, broke out once more in the 18th, and + in 1773 a hospital was established by the order at Aosta, made famous + by Xavier de Maistre's tale, _Le Lépreux de la cité d'Aoste_. The + statutes were published in 1816, by which date the order had lost its + military character; it was reformed first by Charles Albert (1831), + and later by Victor Emmanuel II., king of Italy (1868). The knighthood + of St Maurice and St Lazarus is now a dignity conferred by the king of + Italy (the grand master) on persons distinguished in the public + service, science, art and letters, trade, and above all in charitable + works, to which its income is devoted. There are five classes. The + badge of the combined order is composed of the white cross with + trefoil termination of St Lazarus resting on the green cross of St + Maurice; both crosses are bordered gold. The first four classes wear + the badge suspended from a royal crown. The ribbon is dark green. + + See L. Cibrario, _Descrizione storica degli Ordini Cavallereschi_, + vol. i. (Turin, 1846); _Calendario Reale_, an annual publication + issued in Rome. + + The military _Order of Savoy_ was founded in 1815 by Victor Emmanuel + of Sardinia; badge modified 1855 and 1857. It has now five classes. + The badge is a white cross, the arms of which expand and terminate in + an obtuse angle; round the cross is a green laurel and oak wreath; the + central medallion is red, bearing in gold two crossed swords, the + initials of the founder and the date 1855. The ribbon is red with a + central stripe of blue. The _Civil Order of Savoy_, founded in 1831 by + Charles Albert of Sardinia, is of one class, and in statutes of 1868 + is limited to 60 members. The badge is the plain Savoy cross in blue, + with silver medallion, the ribbon is blue with white borders. The + _Order of the Crown of Italy_ was founded in 1868 by Victor Emmanuel + II. in commemoration of the union of Italy into a kingdom. There are + five classes. + + _Luxemburg._--The _Order of the Golden Lion_ was founded as a family + order of the house of Nassau by William III. of the Netherlands and + Adolphus of Nassau jointly. On the death of William in 1890 it passed + to the grand duke of Luxemburg; it has only one class. The _Order of + Adolphus of Nassau_, for civil and military merit, in four classes, + was founded in 1858, and the _Order of the Oak Crown_ as a general + order of merit, in five classes, in 1841, modified 1858. + + _Monaco._--The _Order of St Charles_, five classes, was founded in + 1858 by Prince Charles III. and remodelled in 1863. It is a general + order of merit. + + _Montenegro._--The _Order of St Peter_, founded in 1852, is a family + order, in one class, and only given to members of the princely family; + the _Order of Danilo_, or of the _Independence of Montenegro_, is a + general order of merit, in four classes, with subdivisions, also + founded in 1852. + + _Norway._--The _Order of St Olaf_ was founded in 1847 by Oscar I. in + honour of St Olaf, the founder of Christianity in Norway, as a general + order of merit, military and civil. There are three classes, the last + two being, in 1873 and 1890, subdivided into two grades each. The + badge and ribbon is illustrated on Plate V, fig. 5. The reverse bears + the motto _Ret og Sandhed_ (Right and Truth). The _Order of the + Norwegian Lion_, founded in 1904 by Oscar II., has only one class; + foreigners on whom the order is conferred must be sovereigns or heads + of states or members of reigning houses. + + _Papal._--The arrangement and constitution of the papal orders was + remodelled by a brief of Pius X. in 1905. The _Order of Christ_, the + supreme pontifical order, is of one class only; for the history of + this ancient order see _Portugal_ (_infra_). The badge and ribbon is + the same as the older Portuguese form. The _Order of Pius_ was founded + in 1847 by Pius IX.; there are now three classes; the badge is an + eight-pointed blue star with golden flames between the rays, a white + centre bears the founder's name; the ribbon is blue with two red + stripes at each border. The _Order of St Gregory the Great_, founded + in 1831, is in two divisions, civil and military, each having three + classes. The _Order of St Sylvester_ was originally founded as the + _Order of the Golden Spur_ by Paul IV. in 1559 as a military body, + though tradition assigns it to Constantine the Great and Pope + Sylvester. It was reorganized as an order of merit by Gregory XVI. in + 1841. In 1905 the order was divided into three classes, and a separate + order, that of the _Golden Spur_ or _Golden Legion_ (_Militia Aurata_) + was established, in one class, with the numbers limited to a hundred. + The cross _Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice_, instituted by Leo XIII. in + 1888 is a decoration, not an order. There remains the venerable _Order + of the Holy Sepulchre_, of which tradition assigns the foundation to + Godfrey de Bouillon. It was, however, probably founded as a military + order for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre by Alexander VI. in + 1496. The right to nominate to the order was shared with the pope as + grand master by the guardian of the _Patres Minores_ in Jerusalem, + later by the Franciscans, and then by the Latin patriarch in + Jerusalem. In 1905 the latter was nominated grand master, but the pope + reserves the joint right of nomination. The badge of the order is a + red Jerusalem cross with red Latin crosses in the angles. + + _Portugal._--The _Order of Christ_ was founded on the abolition of the + Templars by Dionysius or Diniz of Portugal and in 1318 in conjunction + with Pope John XXII., both having the right to nominate to the order. + The papal branch survives as a distinct order. In 1522 it was formed + as a distinct Portuguese order and the grand mastership vested in the + crown of Portugal. In 1789 its original religious aspect was + abandoned, and with the exception that its members must be of the + Roman Catholic faith, it is entirely secularized. There are three + classes. The original badge of the order was a long red cross with + expanded flat ends bearing a small cross in white; the ribbon is red. + The modern badge is a blue enamelled cross resting on a green laurel + wreath; the central medallion, in white, contains the old red and + white cross. The older form is worn with the collar by the + grand-crosses. The _Order of the Tower and Sword_ was founded in 1808 + in Brazil by the regent, afterwards king John VI. of Portugal, as a + revival of the old _Order of the Sword_, said to have been founded by + Alfonso V. in 1459. It was remodelled in 1832 under its present name + and constitution as a general order of military and civil merit. There + are five classes. The badge of the order and ribbon is illustrated on + Plate IV. fig 4. The _Order of St Benedict of Aviz_ (earlier of + _Evora_), founded in 1162 as a religious military order, was + secularized in 1789 as an order of military merit, in four classes. + The badge is a green cross _fleury_; the ribbon is green. The _Order + of St James of the Sword_, or James of Compostella, is a branch of the + Spanish order of that name (see under SPAIN). It also was secularized + in 1789, and in 1862 was constituted an order of merit for science, + literature and art, in five classes. The badge is the lily-hilted + sword of St James, enamelled red with gold borders; the ribbon is + violet. In 1789 these three orders were granted a common badge uniting + the three separate crosses in a gold medallion; the joint ribbon is + red, green and violet, and to the separate crosses was added a red + sacred heart and small white cross. There are also the _Order of Our + Lady of Villa Viçosa_ (1819), for both sexes, and the _Order of St + Isabella_, 1801, for ladies. + + _Rumania._--The _Order of the Star of Rumania_ was founded in 1877, + and the _Order of the Crown of Rumania_ in 1881, both in five classes, + for civil and military merit; the ribbon of the first is red with blue + borders, of the second light blue with two silver stripes. + + _Russia._--The _Order of St Andrew_ was founded in 1698 by Peter the + Great. It is the chief order of the empire, and admission carries with + it according to the statutes of 1720 the orders of _St Anne_, + _Alexander Nevsky_, and the _White Eagle_; there is only one class. + The badge and ribbon is illustrated in Plate IV. fig 5. The collar is + composed of three members alternately, the imperial eagle bearing on a + red medallion a figure of St George slaying the Dragon, the badge of + the grand duchy of Moskow, the cipher of the emperor Paul I. in gold + on a blue ground, surmounted by the imperial crown, and surrounded by + a trophy of weapons and green and white flags, and a circular red and + gold star with a blue St Andrew's cross. The _Order of St Catherine_, + for ladies, ranks next to the St Andrew. It was founded under the name + of the _Order of Rescue_ by Peter the Great in 1714 in honour of the + empress Catherine and the part she had taken in rescuing him at the + battle of the Pruth in 1711. There are two classes. The grand cross is + only for members of the imperial house and ladies of the highest + nobility. The second class was added in 1797. The badge of the order + is a cross of diamonds bearing in a medallion the effigy of St + Catherine. The ribbon is red with the motto _For Love and Fatherland_ + in silver letters. The _Order of St Alexander Nevsky_ was founded in + 1725 by the empress Catherine I. There is only one class. The badge is + a red enamelled cross with gold eagles in the angles, bearing in a + medallion the mounted effigy of St Alexander Nevsky. The ribbon is + red. The _Order of the White Eagle_ was founded in 1713 by Augustus + II. of Poland and was adopted as a Russian order in 1831; there is one + class. The _Order of St Anne_ was founded by Charles Frederick, duke + of Holstein-Gottorp in 1735 in honour of his wife, Anna Petrovna, + daughter of Peter the Great. It was adopted as a Russian order in 1797 + by their grandson, the emperor Paul. There are four classes. Other + orders are those of _St Vladimir_, founded by Catherine II., 1782, + four classes, and of _St Stanislaus_, founded originally as a Polish + order by Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski in 1765, and adopted as a + Russian order in 1831. + + The military _Order of St George_ was founded by the empress Catherine + II. in 1769 for military service on land and sea, with four classes; a + fifth class for non-commissioned officers and men, the _St George's + Cross_, was added in 1807. The badge is a white cross with gold + borders, with a red central medallion on which is the figure of St + George slaying the dragon. The ribbon is orange with three black + stripes. + + _Servia._--The _Order of the White Eagle_, the principal order, was + founded by Milan I. in 1882, statutes 1883, in five classes; the + ribbon is blue and red; the _Order of St Sava_, founded 1883, also in + five classes, is an order of merit for science and art; the _Order of + the Star of Karageorgevitch_, four classes, was founded by Peter I. in + 1904. The orders of _Milosch the Great_, founded by Alexander I. in + 1898 and of _Takovo_, founded originally by Michael Obrenovitch in + 1863, reconstituted in 1883, are since the dynastic revolution of 1903 + no longer bestowed. The _Order of St Lazarus_ is not a general order, + the cross and collar being only worn by the king. + + _Spain._--The Spanish branch of the _Order of the Golden Fleece_ has + been treated above. The three most ancient orders of Spain--of _St + James of Compostella_, or _St James of the Sword_, of _Alcantara_ and + of _Calatrava_--still exist as orders of merit, the first in three + classes, the last two as orders of military merit in one class. They + were all originally founded as military religious orders, like the + crusading Templars and the Hospitallers, but to fight for the true + faith against the Moors in Spain. The present badges of the orders + represent the crosses that the knights wore on their mantles. That of + St James of Compostella is the red lily-hilted sword of St James; the + ribbon is also red. The other two orders wear the cross + _fleury_--_Alcantara_ red, _Calatrava_ green, with corresponding + ribbons. A short history of these orders may be here given. Tradition + gives the foundation of the _Order of Knights of St James of + Compostella_ to Ramiro II., king of Leon, in the 10th century, to + commemorate a victory over the Moors, but, historically the order + dates from the confirmation in 1175 by Pope Alexander III. It gained + great reputation in the wars against the Moors and became very + wealthy. In 1493 the grand-mastership was annexed by Ferdinand the + Catholic, and was vested permanently in the crown of Spain by Pope + Adrian VI. in 1522. + + The _Order of Knights of Alcantara_, instituted about 1156 by the + brothers Don Suarez and Don Gomez de Barrientos for protection against + the Moors. In 1177 they were confirmed as a religious order of + knighthood under Benedictine rule by Pope Alexander III. Until about + 1213 they were known as the Knights of San Julian del Pereyro; but + when the defence of Alcantara, newly wrested from the Moors by + Alphonso IX. of Castile, was entrusted to them they took their name + from that city. For a considerable time they were in some degree + subject to the grand master of the kindred order of Calatrava. + Ultimately, however, they asserted their independence by electing a + grand master of their own, the first holder of the office being Don + Diego Sanche. During the rule of thirty-seven successive grand + masters, similarly chosen, the influence and wealth of the order + gradually increased until the Knights of Alcantara were almost as + powerful as the sovereign. In 1494-1495 Juan de Zuñiga was prevailed + upon to resign the grand-mastership to Ferdinand, who thereupon vested + it in his own person as king; and this arrangement was ratified by a + bull of Pope Alexander VI., and was declared permanent by Pope Adrian + VI. in 1523. The yearly income of Zuñiga at the time of his + resignation amounted to 150,000 ducats. In 1540 Pope Paul III. + released the knights from the strictness of Benedictine rule by giving + them permission to marry, though second marriage was forbidden. The + three vows were henceforth _obedientia_, _castitas conjugalis_ and + _conversio morum_. In modern times the history of the order has been + somewhat chequered. When Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain in + 1808, he deprived the knights of their revenues, which were only + partially recovered on the restoration of Ferdinand VII. in 1814. The + order ceased to exist as a spiritual body in 1835. + + The _Order of Knights of Calatrava_ was founded in 1158 by Don Sancho + III. of Castile, who presented the town of Calatrava, newly wrested + from the Moors, to them to guard. In 1164 Pope Alexander III. granted + confirmation as a religious military order under Cistercian rule. In + 1197 Calatrava fell into the hands of the Moors and the order removed + to the castle of Salvatierra, but recovered their town in 1212. In + 1489 Ferdinand seized the grand-mastership, and it was finally vested + in the crown of Spain in 1523. The order became a military order of + merit in 1808 and was reorganized in 1874. The _Royal and Illustrious + Order of Charles III._ was founded in 1771 by Charles III., in two + classes; altered in 1804, it was abolished by Joseph Bonaparte in + 1809, together with all the Spanish orders except the Golden Fleece, + and the _Royal Order of the Knights of Spain_ was established. In 1814 + Ferdinand VII. revived the order, and in 1847 it received its present + constitution, viz. of three classes (the commanders in two divisions). + The badge of the order is a blue and white cross suspended from a + green laurel wreath, in the angles are golden lilies, and the oval + centre bears a figure of the Virgin in a golden glory. The ribbon is + blue and white. The _Order of Isabella the Catholic_ was founded in + 1815 under the patronage of St Isabella, wife of Diniz of Portugal; + originally instituted to reward loyalty in defence of the Spanish + possessions in America, it is now a general order of merit, in three + classes. The badge is a red rayed cross with gold rays in the angles, + in the centre a representation of the pillars of Hercules; the cross + is attached to the yellow and white ribbon by a green laurel wreath. + Other Spanish orders are the _Maria Louisa_, 1792, for noble ladies; + the military and naval orders of merit of _St Ferdinand_, founded by + the Cortes in 1811, five classes; of _St Ermenegild_ (_Hermenegildo_), + 1814, three classes, of _Military Merit_ and _Naval Merit_, 1866, and + of _Maria Christina_, 1890; the _Order of Beneficencia_ for civil + merit, 1856; that of _Alfonso XII._ for merit in science, literature + and art, 1902, and the _Civil Order of Alfonso XII._, 1902. + + [Illustration: PLATE V. + + (i) THE REDEEMER (Greece). (ii) THE ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS OF ST. JOHN + OF JERUSALEM (English Branch, Badge of the Sovereign and Patron). + (iii) THE ST. HUBERT (Bavaria). (iv) THE ST. STEPHEN (Hungary). (v). + THE ST. OLAF (Norway). (vi). THE SERAPHIM (Sweden). + + _Drawn by William Gibb._ + + _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] + + _Sweden._--The _Order of the Seraphim_ (the "Blue Ribbon"). Tradition + attributes the foundation of this most illustrious order of knighthood + to Magnus I. in 1280, more certainty attaches to the fact that the + order was in existence in 1336. In its modern form the order dates + from its reconstitution in 1748 by Frederick I., modified by statutes + of 1798 and 1814. Exclusive of the sovereign and the princes of the + blood, the order is limited to 23 Swedish and 8 foreign members. The + native members must be already members of the _Order of the Sword_ or + the _Pole Star_. There is a prelate of the order which is administered + by a chapter; the chapel of the knights is in the Riddar Holmskyrka at + Stockholm. The badge and ribbon of the grand cross is illustrated on + Plate V. fig. 6. The collar is formed of alternate gold seraphim and + blue enamelled patriarchal crosses. The motto is _Iesus Hominum + Salvator_. The _Order of the Sword_ (the "Yellow Ribbon"), the + principal Swedish military order, was founded, it is said, by Gustavus + I. Vasa in 1522, and was re-established by Frederick I., with the + _Seraphim_ and the _Pole Star_ in 1748; modifications have been made + in 1798, 1814 and 1889. There are five classes, with subdivisions. The + badge is a white cross, in the angles gold crowns, the points of the + cross joined by gold swords entwined with gold and blue belts, in the + blue centre an upright sword with the three crowns in gold, the whole + surmounted by the royal crown. The ribbon is yellow with blue edging. + The _Order of the Pole Star_ (_Polar Star_, _North Star_, the "Black + Ribbon"), founded in 1748 for civil merit, has since 1844 three + classes. The white cross bears a five-pointed silver star on a blue + medallion. The ribbon is black. The _Order of Vasa_ (the "Green + Ribbon"), founded by Gustavus III. in 1772 as an order of merit for + services rendered to the national industries and manufactures, has + three classes, with subdivisions. The white cross badge bears on a + blue centre the charge of the house of Vasa, a gold sheaf shaped like + a vase with two handles. The ribbon is green. The _Order of Charles + XIII._, founded in 1811, is granted to Freemasons of high degree. It + is thus quite unique. + + _Turkey._--The _Nischan-i-Imtiaz_, or _Order of Privilege_, was + founded by Abdul Hamid II. in 1879 as a general order of merit in one + class; the _Nischan-el-Iftikhar_, or _Order of Glory_, also one class, + founded 1831 by Mahmoud II.; the _Nischan-i-Mejidi_, the _Mejidieh_, + was founded as a civil and military order of merit in 1851 by Abdul + Medjid. There are five classes; the badge is a silver sun of seven + clustered rays, with crescent and star between each cluster; on a gold + centre is the sultan's name in black Turkish lettering, surrounded by + a red fillet inscribed with the words _Zeal_, _Devotion_, _Loyalty_; + it is suspended from a red crescent and star; the ribbon is red with + green borders. The khedive of Egypt has authority, delegated by the + sultan, to grant this order. The _Nischan-i-Osmanie_, the _Osmanieh_, + for civil and military merit, was founded by Abdul Aziz in 1862; it + has four classes. The badge is a gold sun with seven gold-bordered + green rays; the red centre bears the crescent, and it is also + suspended from a gold crescent and star; the ribbon is green bordered + with red. The _Nischan-i-Schefakat of Compassion or Benevolence_, was + instituted for ladies, in three classes, in 1878 by the sultan in + honour of the work done for the non-combatant victims of the + Russo-Turkish war of 1877 in connexion with the Turkish Compassionate + Fund started by the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts. She was one of the + first to receive the order. There are also the family order, for + Turkish princes, the _Hanédani-Ali-Osman_, founded in 1893, and the + _Ertogroul_, in 1903. + + _Non-European Orders._--Of the various states of Central and South + America, Nicaragua has the _American Order of San Juan_ or _Grey + Town_, founded in 1857, in three classes; and Venezuela that of the + _Bust of Bolivar_, 1854, five classes; the ribbon is yellow, blue and + red. Mexico has abolished its former orders, the _Mexican Eagle_, + 1865, and _Our Lady of Guadalupe_, 1853; as has Brazil those of the + _Southern Cross_, 1822, _Dom Pedro I._, 1826, _the Rose_, 1829, and + the Brazilian branches of the Portuguese orders of _Christ_, _St + Benedict of Aviz_ and _St James_. The republican _Order of Columbus_, + founded in 1890, was abolished in 1891. + + _China._--There are no orders for natives, and such distinctions as + are conferred by the different coloured buttons of the mandarins, the + grades indicated by the number of peacocks' feathers, the gift of the + yellow jacket and the like, are rather insignia of rank or personal + marks of honour than orders, whether of knighthood or merit, in the + European sense. For foreigners, however, the emperor in 1882 + established the sole order, that of the _Imperial Double Dragon_, in + five classes, the first three of which are further divided into three + grades each, making eleven grades in all. The recipients eligible for + the various classes are graded, from the first grade of the first + class for reigning sovereigns down to the fifth class for merchants + and manufacturers. The insignia of the order are unique in shape and + decoration. Of the three grades of the first class the badge is a + rectangular gold and yellow enamel plaque, decorated with two upright + blue dragons, with details in green and white, between the heads for + the first grade a pearl, for the second a ruby, for the third a coral, + set in green, white and gold circles. The size of the plaque varies + for the different classes. The badges of the other four classes are + round plaques, the first three with indented edges, the last plain; in + the second class the dragons are in silver on a yellow and gold + ground, the jewel is a cut coral; the grades differ in the colour, + shape, &c., of the borders and indentations; in the third class the + dragons are gold, the ground green, the jewel a sapphire; in the + fourth the silver dragons are on a blue ground, the jewel a lapis + lazuli; in the fifth green dragons on a silver ground, the jewel a + pearl. The ribbons, decorated with embroidered dragons, differ for the + various grades and classes. + + _Japan._--The Japanese orders have all been instituted by the emperor + Mutsu Hito. In design and workmanship the insignia of the orders are + beautiful examples of the art of the native enamellers. The _Order of + the Chrysanthemum_ (_Kikkwa Daijasho_), founded in 1877, has only one + class. It is but rarely conferred on others than members of the royal + house or foreign rulers or princes. The badge of the order may be + described as follows: From a centre of red enamel representing the sun + issue 32 white gold-bordered rays in four sharply projecting groups, + between the angles of which are four yellow conventional chrysanthemum + flowers with green leaves forming a circle on which the rays rest; the + whole is suspended from a larger yellow chrysanthemum. The ribbon is + deep red bordered with purple. The collar, which may be granted with + the order or later, is composed of four members repeated, two gold + chrysanthemums, one with green leaves, the other surrounded by a + wreath of palm, and two elaborate arabesque designs. The _Order of the + Paulownia Sun_ (_Tokwa Daijasho_), founded in 1888, in one class, may + be in a sense regarded as the highest class of the _Rising Sun_ + (_Kiokujitsasho_) founded in eight classes, in 1875. The badge of both + orders is essentially the same, viz. the red sun with white and gold + rays; in the former the lilac flowers of the Paulownia tree, the + flower of the Tycoon's arms, take a prominent part. The ribbon of the + first order is deep red with white edging, of the second scarlet with + white central stripe. The last two classes of the _Rising Sun_ wear a + decoration formed of the Paulownia flower and leaves. The _Order of + the Mirror_ or _Happy Sacred Treasure_ (_Zaihosho_) was founded in + 1888, with eight classes. The cross of white and gold clustered rays + bears in a blue centre a silver star-shaped mirror. The ribbon is pale + blue with orange stripes. There is also an order for ladies, that of + the _Crown_, founded in five classes in 1888. The military order of + Japan is the _Order of the Golden Kite_, founded in 1890, in seven + classes. The badge has an elaborate design; it consists of a star of + purple, red, yellow, gold and silver rays, on which are displayed old + Japanese weapons, banners and shields in various coloured enamels, the + whole surmounted by a golden kite with outstretched wings. The ribbon + is green with white stripes. + + _Persia._--The _Order of the Sun and Lion_, founded by Fath 'Ali Shah + in 1808, has five classes. There is also the _Nischan-i-Aftab_, for + ladies, founded in 1873. + + _Siam._--The _Sacred Order_, or the _Nine Precious Stones_, was + founded in 1869, in one class only, for the Buddhist princes of the + royal house. The _Order of the White Elephant_, founded in 1861, is in + five classes. This is the principal general order. The badge is a + striking example of Oriental design adapted to a European conventional + form. The circular plaque is formed of a triple circle of lotus leaves + in gold, red and green, within a blue circlet with pearls a richly + caparisoned white elephant on a gold ground, the whole surmounted by + the jewelled gold pagoda crown of Siam; the collar is formed of + alternate white elephants, red, blue and white royal monograms and + gold pagoda crowns. The ribbon is red with green borders and small + blue and white stripes. Other orders are the _Siamese Crown_ (_Mongkut + Siam_), five classes, founded 1869; the family _Order of + Chulah-Chon-Clao_, three classes, 1873; and the _Maha Charkrkri_, + 1884, only for princes and princesses of the reigning family. + (C. We.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Feudal England_, pp. 225 sqq. + + [2] Du Cange, _Gloss._, _s.v._ "Miles." + + [3] _History of England_, iii. 12. + + [4] Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, i. 156. + + [5] _Ibid._ i. 156, 366; Turner, iii. 125-129. + + [6] Ingram's edition, p. 290. + + [7] _Comparative Politics_, p. 74. + + [8] Baluze, _Capitularia Regum Francorum_, ii. 794, 1069. + + [9] Du Cange, _Gloss._, _s.v._ "Arma." + + [10] Freeman, _Comparative Politics_, p. 73. + + [11] Hallam, _Middle Ages_, iii. 392. + + [12] Stubbs, _Const. Hist._ ii. 278; also compare Grosse, _Military + Antiquities_, i. 65 seq. + + [13] There has been a general tendency to ignore the extent to which + the armies of Edward III. were raised by compulsory levies even after + the system of raising troops by free contract had begun. Luce (ch. + vi.) points out how much England relied at this time on what would + now be called conscription: and his remarks are entirely borne out by + the Norwich documents published by Mr W. Hudson (Norf, and Norwich + Archaeological Soc. xiv. 263 sqq.), by a Lynn corporation document of + 18th Edw. III. (Hist. MSS. Commission Report XI. Appendix pt. iii. p. + 189), and by Smyth's _Lives of the Berkeleys_, i. 312, 319, 320. + + [14] J. B. de Lacurne de Sainte Palaye, _Mémoires sur l'Ancienne + Chevalerie_, i. 363, 364 (ed. 1781). + + [15] Du Cange, _Dissertation sur Joinville_, xxi.; Sainte Palaye, + _Mémoires_, i. 272; G. F. Beltz, _Memorials of the Order of the + Garter_ (1841,) p. xxvii. + + [16] Du Cange, _Dissertation_, xxi., and _Lancelot du Lac_, among + other romances. + + [17] Anstis, _Register of the Order of the Garter_, i. 63. + + [18] Grose, _Military Antiq._ i. 207 seq.; Stubbs, _Const. Hist._ ii. + 276 seq., and iii. 278 seq. + + [19] Grose's _Military Antiquities_, ii. 256. + + [20] Sainte Palaye, _Mémoires_, i. 36; Froissart, bk. iii. ch. 9. + + [21] Sainte Palaye, _Mémoires_, pt. i. and Mills, _History of + Chivalry_, vol. i. ch. 2. + + [22] See the long sermon in the romance of _Petit Jehan de Saintré_, + pt. i. ch. v., and compare the theory there set forth with the actual + behaviour of the chief personages. Even Gautier, while he contends + that chivalry did much to refine morality, is compelled to admit the + prevailing immorality to which medieval romances testify, and the + extraordinary free behaviour of the unmarried ladies. No doubt these + romances, taken alone, might give as unfair an idea as modern French + novels give of Parisian morals, but we have abundant other evidence + for placing the moral standard of the age of chivalry definitely + below that of educated society in the present day. + + [23] Sainte Palaye, _Mémoires_, i. 11 seq.: "C'est peut-être à cette + cérémonie et non à celles de la chevalerie qu'on doit rapporter ce + qui se lit dans nos historiens de la première et de la seconde race + au sujet des premières armes que les Rois et les Princes remettoient + avec solemnité au ieunes Princes leurs enfans." + + [24] There are several obscure points as to the relation of the + longer and shorter ceremonies, as well as the origin and original + relation of their several parts. There is nothing to show whence came + "dubbing" or the "accolade." It seems certain that the word "dub" + means to strike, and the usage is as old as the knighting of Henry by + William the Conqueror (_supra_, pp. 851, 852). So, too, in the Empire + a dubbed knight is "ritter geschlagen." The "accolade" may + etymologically refer to the embrace, accompanied by a blow with the + hand, characteristic of the longer form of knighting. The derivation + of "adouber," corresponding to "dub," from "adoptare," which is given + by Du Cange, and would connect the ceremony with "adoptio per arma," + is certainly inaccurate. The investiture with arms, which formed a + part of the longer form of knighting, and which we have seen to rest + on very ancient usage, may originally have had a distinct meaning. We + have observed that Lanfranc invested Henry I. with arms, while + William "dubbed him to rider." If there was a difference in the + meaning of the two ceremonies, the difficulty as to the knighting of + Earl Harold (_supra_, p. 852) is at least partly removed. + + [25] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, 639. + + [26] Daniel, _Histoire de la Milice Françoise_, i. 99-104; Byshe's + Upton, _De Studio Militari_, pp. 21-24; Dugdale, _Warwickshire_, ii. + 708-710; Segar, Honor _Civil and Military_, pp. 69 seq. and Nicolas, + _Orders of Knighthood_, vol. ii. (_Order of the Bath_) pp. 19 seq.... + It is given as "the order and manner of creating Knights of the Bath + in time of peace according to the custom of England," and + consequently dates from a period when the full ceremony of creating + knights bachelors generally had gone out of fashion. But as Ashmole, + speaking of Knights of the Bath, says, "if the ceremonies and + circumstances of their creation be well considered, it will appear + that this king [Henry IV.] did not institute but rather restore the + ancient manner of making knights, and consequently that the Knights + of the Bath are in truth no other than knights bachelors, that is to + say, such as are created with those ceremonies wherewith knights + bachelors were formerly created." (Ashmole, _Order of the Garter_, p. + 15). See also Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 678, and the + _Archæological Journal_, v. 258 seq. + + [27] As may be gathered from Selden, Favyn, La Colombiers, Menestrier + and Sainte Palaye, there were several differences of detail in the + ceremony at different times and in different places. But in the main + it was everywhere the same both in its military and its + ecclesiastical elements. In the _Pontificale Romanum_, the old _Ordo + Romanus_ and the manual or Common Prayer Book in use in England + before the Reformation forms for the blessing or consecration of new + knights are included, and of these the first and the last are quoted + by Selden. + + [28] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 678; Ashmole, _Order of the + Garter_, p. 15; Favyn, _Théâtre d'Honneur_, ii. 1035. + + [29] "If we sum up the principal ensigns of knighthood, ancient and + modern, we shall find they have been or are a horse, gold ring, + shield and lance, a belt and sword, gilt spurs and a gold chain or + collar."--Ashmole, _Order of the Garter_, pp. 12, 13. + + [30] On the banner see Grose, _Military Antiquities_, ii. 257; and + Nicolas, _British Orders of Knighthood_, vol. i. p. xxxvii. + + [31] _Titles of Honor_, pp. 356 and 608. See also Hallam, _Middle + Ages_, iii. 126 seq. and Stubbs, _Const. Hist._ iii. 440 seq. + + [32] Riddell's _Law and Practice in Scottish Peerages_, p. 578; also + Nisbet's _System of Heraldry_, ii. 49 and Selden's _Titles of Honor_, + p. 702. + + [33] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, pp. 608 and 657. + + [34] See "Project concerninge the conferinge of the title of vidom," + wherein it is said that "the title of vidom (vicedominus) was an + ancient title used in this kingdom of England both before and since + the Norman Conquest" (_State Papers_, James I. Domestic Series, + lxiii. 150 B, probable date April 1611). + + [35] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, pp. 452 seq. + + [36] _Ibid._ pp. 449 seq. + + [37] Du Cange, _Dissertation_, ix.; Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. + 452; Daniel, _Milice Françoise_, i. 86 (Paris, 1721). + + [38] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 656; Grose, _Military + Antiquities_, ii. 206. + + [39] Froissart, Bk. I. ch. 241 and Bk. II. ch. 53. The recipients + were Sir John Chandos and Sir Thos. Trivet. + + [40] _Commonwealth of England_ (ed. 1640), p. 48. + + [41] _State Papers_, Domestic Series, James the First, lxvii. 119. + + [42] "Thursday, June 24th: His Majesty was pleased to confer the + honour of knights banneret on the following flag officers and + commanders under the royal standard, who kneeling kissed hands on the + occasion: Admirals Pye and Sprye; Captains Knight, Bickerton and + Vernon," _Gentleman's Magazine_ (1773) xliii. 299. Sir Harris Nicolas + remarks on these and the other cases (_British Orders of Knighthood_, + vol. xliii.) and Sir William Fitzherbert published anonymously a + pamphlet on the subject, _A Short Inquiry into the Nature of the + Titles conferred at Portsmouth_, &c., which is very scarce, but is to + be found under the name of "Fitzherbert" in the catalogue of the + British Museum Library. + + [43] "Sir Henry Ferrers, Baronet, was indicted by the name of Sir + Henry Ferrers, Knight, for the murther of one Stone whom one + Nightingale feloniously murthered, and that the said Sir Henry was + present aiding and abetting, &c. Upon this indictment Sir Henry + Ferrers being arraigned said he never was knighted, which being + confessed, the indictment was held not to be sufficient, wherefore he + was indicted de novo by the name of Sir Henry Ferrers, Baronet." + Brydall, _Jus Imaginis apud Anglos, or the Law of England relating to + the Nobility and Gentry_ (London, 1675), p. 20. Cf. _Patent Rolls_, + 10 Jac. I., pt. x. No. 18; Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 687. + + [44] Louis XIV. introduced the practice of dividing the members of + military orders into several degrees when he established the order of + St Louis in 1693. + + [45] G. F. Beltz, _Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter_ + (1841), p. 385. + + [46] Heylyn, _Cosmographie and History of the Whole World_, bk. i. p. + 286. + + [47] Beltz, _Memorials_, p. xlvi. + + [48] _Orders of Knighthood_, vol. i. p. lxxxiii. + + [49] Mémoires, i. 67, i. 22; _History of Chivalry_; Gibbon, _Decline + and Fall_, vii. 200. + + [50] _Orders of Knighthood_, vol. i. p. xi. + + [51] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 638. + + [52] Harleian MS. 6063; Hargrave MS. 325. + + [53] _Patent Rolls_, 35th Hen. VIII., pt. xvi., No. 24; Burnet, + _Hist. of Reformation_, i. 15. + + [54] Spelman, "De milite dissertatio," _Posthumous Works_, p. 181. + + [55] _London Gazette_, December 6, 1823, and May 15, 1855. + + [56] On the Continent very elaborate ceremonies, partly heraldic and + partly religious, were observed in the degradation of a knight, which + are described by Sainte Palaye, _Mémoires_, i. 316 seq., and after + him by Mills, _History of Chivalry_, i. 60 seq. Cf. _Titles of + Honor_, p. 653. + + [57] Dallaway's _Heraldry_, p. 303. + + [58] Even in 13th century England more than half the population were + serfs, and as such had no claim to the privileges of Magna Carta; + disputes between a serf and his lord were decided in the latter's + court, although the king's courts attempted to protect the serf's + life and limb and necessary implements of work. By French feudal law, + the villein had no appeal from his lord save to God (Pierre de + Fontaines, _Conseil_, ch. xxi. art. 8); and, though common sense and + natural good feeling set bounds in most cases to the tyranny of the + nobles, yet there was scarcely any injustice too gross to be + possible. "How mad are they who exult when sons are born to their + lords!" wrote Cardinal Jacques de Vitry early in the 13th century + (_Exempla_, p. 64, Folk Lore Soc. 1890). + + [59] Sainte Palaye, ii. 90. + + [60] Medley, _English Constitutional History_ (2nd ed., pp. 291, + 466), suggests that Edward might have deliberately calculated this + degradation of the older feudal ideal. + + [61] Being made to "ride the barriers" was the penalty for anybody + who attempted to take part in a tournament without the qualification + of name and arms. Guillim (_Display of Heraldry_, p. 66) and Nisbet + (_System of Heraldry_, ii. 147) speak of this subject as concerning + England and Scotland. See also Ashmole's _Order of the Garter_, p. + 284. But in England knighthood has always been conferred to a great + extent independently of these considerations. At almost every period + there have been men of obscure and illegitimate birth who have been + knighted. Ashmole cites authorities for the contention that + knighthood ennobles, insomuch that whosoever is a knight it + necessarily follows that he is also a gentleman; "for, when a king + gives the dignity to an ignoble person whose merit he would thereby + recompense, he is understood to have conferred whatsoever is + requisite for the completing of that which he bestows." By the common + law, if a villein were made a knight he was thereby enfranchised and + accounted a gentleman, and if a person under age and in wardship were + knighted both his minority and wardship terminated. (_Order of the + Garter_, p. 43; Nicolas, _British Orders of Knighthood_, i. 5.) + + [62] Gautier, pp. 21, 249. + + [63] Du Cange, _s.v. miles_ (ed. Didot, t. iv. p. 402); Sacchetti, + _Novella_, cliii. All the medieval _orders_ of knighthood, however, + insisted in their statutes on the noble birth of the candidate. + + [64] Lecoy de la Marche (_Chaire française au moyen âge_, 2nd ed., p. + 387) gives many instances to prove that "al chevalerie, au xiii^e + siècle, est déjà sur son déclin." But already about 1160 Peter of + Blois had written, "The so-called order of knighthood is nowadays + mere disorder" (_ordo militum nunc est, ordinem non tenere_. Ep. + xciv.: the whole letter should be read); and, half a century earlier + still, Guibert of Nogent gives an equally unflattering picture of + contemporary chivalry in his _De vita sua_ (Migne, _Pat. Lat._, tom. + clvi.). + + [65] It has been taken as the Latin word meaning "he bears" or as + representing the initials of the legend _Fortitudo Ejus Rhodum + Tenuit_, with an allusion to a defence of the island of Rhodes by an + ancient count of Savoy. + + + + +KNIGHT-SERVICE, the dominant and distinctive tenure of land under the +feudal system. It is associated in its origin with that development in +warfare which made the mailed horseman, armed with lance and sword, the +most important factor in battle. Till within recent years it was +believed that knight-service was developed out of the liability, under +the English system, of every five hides to provide one soldier in war. +It is now held that, on the contrary, it was a novel system which was +introduced after the Conquest by the Normans, who relied essentially on +their mounted knights, while the English fought on foot. They were +already familiar with the principle of knight-service, the knight's fee, +as it came to be termed in England, being represented in Normandy by the +_fief du haubert_, so termed from the hauberk or coat of mail (_lorica_) +which was worn by the knight. Allusion is made to this in the coronation +charter of Henry I. (1100), which speaks of those holding by +knight-service as _milites qui per loricam terras suas deserviunt_. + +The Conqueror, it is now held, divided the lay lands of England among +his followers, to be held by the service of a fixed number of knights in +his host, and imposed the same service on most of the great +ecclesiastical bodies which retained their landed endowments. No record +evidence exists of this action on his part, and the quota of +knight-service exacted was not determined by the area or value of the +lands granted (or retained), but was based upon the _unit_ of the feudal +host, the _constabularia_ of ten knights. Of the tenants-in-chief or +barons (i.e. those who held directly of the crown), the principal were +called on to find one or more of these units, while of the lesser ones +some were called on for five knights, that is, half a _constabularia_. +The same system was adopted in Ireland when that country was conquered +under Henry II. The baron who had been enfeoffed by his sovereign on +these terms could provide the knights required either by hiring them for +pay or, more conveniently when wealth was mainly represented by land, by +a process of subenfeoffment, analogous to that by which he himself had +been enfeoffed. That is to say, he could assign to an under-tenant a +certain portion of his fief to be held by the service of finding one or +more knights. The land so held would then be described as consisting of +one or more knights' fees, but the knight's fee had not, as was formerly +supposed, any fixed area. This process could be carried farther till +there was a chain of mesne lords between the tenant-in-chief and the +actual holder of the land; but the liability for performance of the +knight-service was always carefully defined. + +The primary obligation incumbent on every knight was service in the +field, when called upon, for forty days a year, with specified armour +and arms. There was, however, a standing dispute as to whether he could +be called upon to perform this service outside the realm, nor was the +question of his expenses free from difficulty. In addition to this +primary duty he had, in numerous cases at least, to perform that of +"castle ward" at his lord's chief castle for a fixed number of days in +the year. On certain baronies also was incumbent the duty of providing +knights for the guard of royal castles, such as Windsor, Rockingham and +Dover. Under the feudal system the tenant by knight-service had also the +same pecuniary obligations to his lord as had his lord to the king. +These consisted of (1) "relief," which he paid on succeeding to his +lands; (2) "wardship," that is, the profits from his lands during a +minority; (3) "marriage," that is, the right of giving in marriage, +unless bought off, his heiress, his heir (if a minor) and his widow; and +also of the three "aids" (see Aids). + +The chief sources of information for the extent and development of +knight-service are the returns (_cartae_) of the barons (i.e. the +tenants-in-chief) in 1166, informing the king, at his request, of the +names of their tenants by knight-service with the number of fees they +held, supplemented by the payments for "scutage" (see SCUTAGE) recorded +on the pipe rolls, by the later returns printed in the _Testa de +Nevill_, and by the still later ones collected in _Feudal Aids_. In the +returns made in 1166 some of the barons appear as having enfeoffed more +and some less than the number of knights they had to find. In the latter +case they described the balance as being chargeable on their "demesne," +that is, on the portion of their fief which remained in their own hands. +These returns further prove that lands had already been granted for the +service of a fraction of a knight, such service being in practice +already commuted for a proportionate money payment; and they show that +the total number of knights with which land held by military service was +charged was not, as was formerly supposed, sixty thousand, but, +probably, somewhere between five and six thousand. Similar returns were +made for Normandy, and are valuable for the light they throw on its +system of knight-service. + +The principle of commuting for money the obligation of military service +struck at the root of the whole system, and so complete was the change +of conception that "tenure by knight-service of a mesne lord becomes, +first in fact and then in law, tenure by escuage (i.e. scutage)." By the +time of Henry III., as Bracton states, the test of tenure was scutage; +liability, however small, to scutage payment made the tenure military. + +The disintegration of the system was carried farther in the latter half +of the 13th century as a consequence of changes in warfare, which were +increasing the importance of foot soldiers and making the service of a +knight for forty days of less value to the king. The barons, instead of +paying scutage, compounded for their service by the payment of lump +sums, and, by a process which is still obscure, the nominal quotas of +knight-service due from each had, by the time of Edward I., been largely +reduced. The knight's fee, however, remained a knight's fee, and the +pecuniary incidents of military tenure, especially wardship, marriage, +and fines on alienation, long continued to be a source of revenue to the +crown. But at the Restoration (1660) tenure by knight-service was +abolished by law (12 Car. II. c. 24), and with it these vexatious +exactions were abolished. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The returns of 1166 are preserved in the _Liber Niger_ + (13th cent.), edited by Hearne, and the _Liber Rubeus_ or _Red Book of + the Exchequer_ (13 cent.), edited by H. Hall for the Rolls Series in + 1896. The later returns are in _Testa de Nevill_ (Record Commission, + 1807) and in the Record Office volumes of _Feudal Aids_, arranged + under counties. For the financial side of knight-service the early + pipe rolls have been printed by the Record Commission and the Pipe + Roll Society, and abstracts of later ones will be found in _The Red + Book of the Exchequer_, which may be studied on the whole question; + but the editor's view must be received with caution and checked by J. + H. Round's _Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer_ (for private + circulation). The _Baronia Anglica_ of Madox may also be consulted. + The existing theory on knight-service was enunciated by Mr Round in + _English Historical Review_, vi., vii., and reissued by him in his + _Feudal England_ (1895). It is accepted by Pollock and Maitland + (_History of English Law_), who discuss the question at length; by Mr + J. F. Baldwin in his _Scutage and Knight-service in England_ + (University of Chicago Press, 1897), a valuable monograph with + bibliography; and by Petit-Dutaillis, in his _Studies supplementary to + Stubbs' Constitutional History_ (Manchester University Series, 1908). + (J. H. R.) + + + + +KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE, a semi-military secret society in the +United States in the Middle West, 1861-1864, the purpose of which was to +bring the Civil War to a close and restore the "Union as it was." There +is some evidence that before the Civil War there was a Democratic secret +organization of the same name, with its principal membership in the +Southern States. After the outbreak of the Civil War many of the +Democrats of the Middle West, who were opposed to the war policy of the +Republicans, organized the Knights of the Golden Circle, pledging +themselves to exert their influence to bring about peace. In 1863, owing +to the disclosure of some of its secrets, the organization took the name +of Order of American Knights, and in 1864 this became the Sons of +Liberty. The total membership of this order probably reached 250,000 to +300,000, principally in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, +Kentucky and south-western Pennsylvania. Fernando Wood of New York seems +to have been the chief officer and in 1864 Clement L. Vallandigham +became the second in command. The great importance of the Knights of the +Golden Circle and its successors was due to its opposition to the war +policy of the Republican administration. The plan was to overthrow the +Lincoln government in the elections and give to the Democrats the +control of the state and Federal governments, which would then make +peace and invite the Southern States to come back into the Union on the +old footing. In order to obstruct and embarrass the Republican +administration the members of the order held peace meetings to influence +public opinion against the continuance of the war; purchased arms to be +used in uprisings, which were to place the peace party in control of the +Federal government, or failing in that to establish a north-western +confederacy; and took measures to set free the Confederate prisoners in +the north and bring the war to a forced close. All these plans failed at +the critical moment, and the most effective work done by the order was +in encouraging desertion from the Federal armies, preventing +enlistments, and resisting the draft. Wholesale arrests of leaders and +numerous seizures of arms by the United States authorities resulted in a +general collapse of the order late in 1864. Three of the leaders were +sentenced to death by military commissions, but sentence was suspended +until 1866, when they were released under the decision of the United +States Supreme Court in the famous case _Ex parte Milligan_. + + AUTHORITIES.--_An Authentic Exposition of the Knights of the Golden + Circle_ (Indianapolis, 1863); J. F. Rhodes, _History of the United + States from the Compromise of 1850_ (New York, 1905) vol. v.; E. + McPherson, _Political History of the Rebellion_ (Washington, 1876); + and W. D. Foulke, _Life of O. P. Morton_ (2 vols., New York, 1899). + (W. L. F.) + + + + +KNIPPERDOLLINCK (or KNIPPERDOLLING), BERNT (BEREND or BERNHARDT) (c. +1490-1536), German divine, was a prosperous cloth-merchant at Münster +when in 1524 he joined Melchior Rinck and Melchior Hofman in a business +journey to Stockholm, which developed into an abortive religious errand. +Knipperdollinck, a man of fine presence and glib tongue, noted from his +youth for eccentricity, had the ear of the Münster populace when in 1527 +he helped to break the prison of Tonies Kruse, in the teeth of the +bishop and the civic authorities. For this he made his peace with the +latter; but, venturing on another business journey, he was arrested, +imprisoned for a year, and released on payment of a high fine--in regard +of which treatment he began an action before the Imperial Chamber. +Though his aims were political rather than religious, he attached +himself to the reforming movement of Bernhardt Rothmann, once (1529) +chaplain of St Mauritz, outside Münster, now (1532) pastor of the city +church of St Lamberti. A new bishop directed a mandate (April 17, 1532) +against Rothmann, which had the effect of alienating the moderates in +Münster from the democrats. Knipperdollinck was a leader of the latter +in the surprise (December 26, 1532) which made prisoners of the +negotiating nobles at Telgte, in the territory of Münster. In the end, +Münster was by charter from Philip of Hesse (February 14, 1533) +constituted an evangelical city. Knipperdollinck was made a burgomaster +in February 1534. Anabaptism had already (September 8, 1533) been +proclaimed at Münster by a journeyman smith; and, before this, Heinrich +Roll, a refugee, had brought Rothmann (May 1533) to a rejection of +infant baptism. From the 1st of January 1534 Roll preached Anabaptist +doctrines in a city pulpit; a few days later, two Dutch emissaries of +Jan Matthysz, or Matthyssen, the master-baker and Anabaptist prophet of +Haarlem, came on a mission to Münster. They were followed (January 13) +by Jan Beukelsz (or Bockelszoon, or Buchholdt), better known as John of +Leiden. It was his second visit to Münster; he came now as an apostle of +Matthysz. He was twenty-five, with a winning personality, great gifts as +an organizer, and plenty of ambition. Knipperdollinck, whose daughter +Clara was ultimately enrolled among the wives of John of Leiden, came +under his influence. Matthysz himself came to Münster (1534) and lived +in Knipperdollinck's house, which became the centre of the new movement +to substitute Münster for Strassburg (Melchior Hofmann's choice) as the +New Jerusalem. On the death of Matthysz, in a foolish raid (April 5, +1534), John became supreme. Knipperdollinck, with one attempt at revolt, +when he claimed the kingship for himself, was his subservient henchman, +wheedling the Münster democracy into subjection to the fantastic rule of +the "king of the earth." He was made second in command, and executioner +of the refractory. He fell in with the polygamy innovation, the protest +of his wife being visited with a penance. In the military measures for +resisting the siege of Münster he took no leading part. On the fall of +the city (June 25, 1535) he hid in a dwelling in the city wall, but was +betrayed by his landlady. After six months' incarceration, his trial, +along with his comrades, took place on the 19th of January, and his +execution, with fearful tortures, on the 22nd of January 1536. +Knipperdollinck attempted to strangle himself, but was forced to endure +the worst. His body, like those of the others, was hung in a cage on the +tower of St Lamberti, where the cages are still to be seen. An alleged +portrait, from an engraving of 1607, is reproduced in the appendix to A. +Ross's Pansebeia, 1655. + + See L. Keller, _Geschichte der Wiedertäufer und ihres Reichs zu + Münster_ (1880); C. A. Cornelius, _Historische Arbeiten_ (1899); E. + Belfort Bax, _Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists_ (1903). (A. Go.*) + + + + +KNITTING (from O.E. _cnyttan_, to knit; cf. Ger. _Knütten_; the root is +seen in "knot"), the art of forming a single thread or strand of yarn +into a texture or fabric of a loop structure, by employing needles or +wires. "Crochet" work is an analogous art in its simplest form. It +consists of forming a single thread into a single chain of loops. All +warp knit fabrics are built on this structure. Knitting may be said to +be divided into two principles, viz. (1) hand knitting and (2) +frame-work knitting (see HOSIERY). In hand knitting, the wires, pins or +needles used are of different lengths or gauges, according to the class +of work wanted to be produced. They are made of steel, bone, wood or +ivory. Some are headed to prevent the loops from slipping over the ends. +Flat or selvedged work can only be produced on them. Others are pointed +at both ends, and by employing three or more a circular or +circular-shaped fabric can be made. In hand knitting each loop is formed +and thrown off individually and in rotation and is left hanging on the +new loop formed. The cotton, wool and silk fibres are the principal +materials from which knitting yarns are manufactured, wool being the +most important and most largely used. "Lamb's-wool," "wheeling," +"fingering" and worsted yarns are all produced from the wool fibre, but +may differ in size or fineness and quality. Those yarns are largely used +in the production of knitted underwear. Hand knitting is to-day +principally practised as a domestic art, but in some of the remote parts +of Scotland and Ireland it is prosecuted as an industry to some extent. +In the Shetland Islands the wool of the native sheep is spun, and used +in its natural colour, being manufactured into shawls, scarfs, ladies' +jackets, &c. The principal trade of other districts is hose and +half-hose, made from the wool of the sheep native to the district. The +formation of the stitches in knitting may be varied in a great many +ways, by "purling" (knitting or throwing loops to back and front in rib +form), "slipping" loops, taking up and casting off and working in +various coloured yarns to form stripes, patterns, &c. The articles may +be shaped according to the manner in which the wires and yarns are +manipulated. + + + + +KNOBKERRIE (from the Taal or South African Dutch, _knopkirie_, derived +from Du. _knop_, a knob or button, and _kerrie_, a Bushman or Hottentot +word for stick), a strong, short stick with a rounded knob or head used +by the natives of South Africa in warfare and the chase. It is employed +at close quarters, or as a missile, and in time of peace serves as a +walking-stick. The name has been extended to similar weapons used by the +natives of Australia, the Pacific islands, and other places. + + + + +KNOLLES, RICHARD (c. 1545-1610), English historian, was a native of +Northamptonshire, and was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford. He became +a fellow of his college, and at some date subsequent to 1571 left Oxford +to become master of a school at Sandwich, Kent, where he died in 1610. +In 1603 Knolles published his _Generall Historie of the Turkes_, of +which several editions subsequently appeared, among them a good one +edited by Sir Paul Rycaut (1700), who brought the history down to 1699. +It was dedicated to King James I., and Knolles availed himself largely +of Jean Jacques Boissard's _Vitae et Icones Sultanorum Turcicorum_ +(Frankfort, 1596). Although now entirely superseded, it has considerable +merits as regards style and arrangement. Knolles published a translation +of J. Bodin's _De Republica_ in 1606, but the _Grammatica Latina, Graeca +et Hebraica_, attributed to him by Anthony Wood and others, is the work +of the Rev. Hanserd Knollys (c. 1599-1691), a Baptist minister. + + See the _Athenaeum_, August 6, 1881. + + + + +KNOLLES (or KNOLLYS), SIR ROBERT (c. 1325-1407), English soldier, +belonged to a Cheshire family. In early life he served in Brittany, and +he was one of the English survivors who were taken prisoners by the +French after the famous "combat of the thirty" in March 1351. He was, +however, quickly released and was among the soldiers of fortune who took +advantage of the distracted state of Brittany, at this time the scene of +a savage civil war, to win fame and wealth at the expense of the +wretched inhabitants. After a time he transferred his operations to +Normandy, when he served under the allied standards of England and of +Charles II. of Navarre. He led the "great company" in their work of +devastation along the valley of the Loire, fighting at this time for his +own hand and for booty, and winning a terrible reputation by his +ravages. After the conclusion of the treaty of Brétigny in 1360 Knolles +returned to Brittany and took part in the struggle for the possession of +the duchy between John of Montfort (Duke John IV.) and Charles of Blois, +gaining great fame by his conduct in the fight at Auray (September +1364), where Du Guesclin was captured and Charles of Blois was slain. +In 1367 he marched with the Black Prince into Spain and fought at the +battle of Nájera; in 1369 he was with the prince in Aquitaine. In 1370 +he was placed by Edward III. at the head of an expedition which invaded +France and marched on Paris, but after exacting large sums of money as +ransom a mutiny broke up the army, and its leader was forced to take +refuge in his Breton castle of Derval and to appease the disappointed +English king with a large monetary gift. Emerging from his retreat +Knolles again assisted John of Montfort in Brittany, where he acted as +John's representative; later he led a force into Aquitaine, and he was +one of the leaders of the fleet sent against the Spaniards in 1377. In +1380 he served in France under Thomas of Woodstock, afterwards duke of +Gloucester, distinguishing himself by his valour at the siege of Nantes; +and in 1381 he went with Richard II. to meet Wat Tyler at Smithfield. He +died at Sculthorpe in Norfolk on the 15th of August 1407. Sir Robert +devoted much of his great wealth to charitable objects. He built a +college and an almshouse at Pontefract, his wife's birthplace, where the +almshouse still exists; he restored the churches of Sculthorpe and +Harpley; and he helped to found an English hospital in Rome. Knolles won +an immense reputation by his skill and valour in the field, and ranks as +one of the foremost captains of his age. French writers call him +Canolles, or Canole. + + + + +KNOLLYS, the name of an English family descended from Sir Thomas Knollys +(d. 1435), lord mayor of London. The first distinguished member of the +family was Sir Francis Knollys (c. 1514-1596), English statesman, son of +Robert Knollys, or Knolles (d. 1521), a courtier in the service and +favour of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. Robert had also a younger son, +Henry, who took part in public life during the reign of Elizabeth and +who died in 1583. + +Francis Knollys, who entered the service of Henry VIII. before 1540, +became a member of parliament in 1542 and was knighted in 1547 while +serving with the English army in Scotland. A strong and somewhat +aggressive supporter of the reformed doctrines, he retired to Germany +soon after Mary became queen, returning to England to become a privy +councillor, vice-chamberlain of the royal household and a member of +parliament under Queen Elizabeth, whose cousin Catherine (d. 1569), +daughter of William Carey and niece of Anne Boleyn, was his wife. After +serving as governor of Plymouth, Knollys was sent in 1566 to Ireland, +his mission being to obtain for the queen confidential reports about the +conduct of the lord-deputy Sir Henry Sidney. Approving of Sidney's +actions he came back to England, and in 1568 was sent to Carlisle to +take charge of Mary Queen of Scots, who had just fled from Scotland; +afterwards he was in charge of the queen at Bolton Castle and then at +Tutbury Castle. He discussed religious questions with his prisoner, +although the extreme Protestant views which he put before her did not +meet with Elizabeth's approval, and he gave up the position of guardian +just after his wife's death in January 1569. In 1584 he introduced into +the House of Commons, where since 1572 he had represented Oxfordshire, +the bill legalizing the national association for Elizabeth's defence, +and he was treasurer of the royal household from 1572 until his death on +the 19th of July 1596. His monument may still be seen in the church of +Rotherfield Grays, Oxfordshire. Knollys was repeatedly free and frank in +his objections to Elizabeth's tortuous foreign policy; but, possibly +owing to his relationship to the queen, he did not lose her favour, and +he was one of her commissioners on such important occasions as the +trials of Mary Queen of Scots, of Philip Howard earl of Arundel, and of +Anthony Babington. An active and lifelong Puritan, his attacks on the +bishops were not lacking in vigour, and he was also very hostile to +heretics. He received many grants of land from the queen, and was chief +steward of the city of Oxford and a knight of the garter. + +Sir Francis's eldest son Henry (d. 1583), and his sons Edward (d. c. +1580), Robert (d. 1625), Richard (d. 1596), Francis (d. c. 1648), and +Thomas, were all courtiers and served the queen in parliament or in the +field. His daughter Lettice (1540-1634) married Walter Devereux, earl of +Essex, and then Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester; she was the mother of +Elizabeth's favourite, the 2nd earl of Essex. + + Some of Knollys's letters are in T. Wright's _Queen Elizabeth and her + Times_ (1838) and the _Burghley Papers_, edited by S. Haynes (1740); + and a few of his manuscripts are still in existence. A speech which + Knollys delivered in parliament against some claims made by the + bishops was printed in 1608 and again in W. Stoughton's _Assertion for + True and Christian Church Policie_ (London, 1642). + +Sir Francis Knollys's second son William (c. 1547-1632) served as a +member of parliament and a soldier during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, +being knighted in 1586. His eldest brother Henry, having died without +sons in 1583, William inherited his father's estates in Oxfordshire, +becoming in 1596 a privy councillor and comptroller of the royal +household; in 1602 he was made treasurer of the household. Sir William +enjoyed the favour of the new king James I., whom he had visited in +Scotland in 1585, and was made Baron Knollys in 1603 and Viscount +Wallingford in 1616. But in this latter year his fortunes suffered a +temporary reverse. Through his second wife Elizabeth (1586-1658), +daughter of Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk, Knollys was related to +Frances, countess of Somerset, and when this lady was tried for the +murder of Sir Thomas Overbury her relatives were regarded with +suspicion; consequently Lord Wallingford resigned the treasurership of +the household and two years later the mastership of the court of wards, +an office which he had held since 1614. However, he regained the royal +favour, and was created earl of Banbury in 1626. He died in London on +the 25th of May 1632. + +His wife, who was nearly forty years her husband's junior, was the +mother of two sons, Edward (1627-1645) and Nicholas (1631-1674), whose +paternity has given rise to much dispute. Neither is mentioned in the +earl's will, but in 1641 the law courts decided that Edward was earl of +Banbury, and when he was killed in June 1645 his brother Nicholas took +the title. In the Convention Parliament of 1660 some objection was taken +to the earl sitting in the House of Lords, and in 1661 he was not +summoned to parliament; he had not succeeded in obtaining his writ of +summons when he died on the 14th of March 1674. + +Nicholas's son Charles (1662-1740), the 4th earl, had not been summoned +to parliament when in 1692 he killed Captain Philip Lawson in a duel. +This raised the question of his rank in a new form. Was he, or was he +not, entitled to trial by the peers? The House of Lords declared that he +was not a peer and therefore not so entitled, but the court of king's +bench released him from his imprisonment on the ground that he was the +earl of Banbury and not Charles Knollys a commoner. Nevertheless the +House of Lords refused to move from its position, and Knollys had not +received a writ of summons when he died in April 1740. His son Charles +(1703-1771), vicar of Burford, Oxfordshire, and his grandsons, William +(1726-1776) and Thomas Woods (1727-1793), were successively titular +earls of Banbury, but they took no steps to prove their title. However, +in 1806 Thomas Woods's son William (1763-1824), who attained the rank of +general in the British army, asked for a writ of summons as earl of +Banbury, but in 1813 the House of Lords decided against the claim. +Several peers, including the great Lord Erskine, protested against this +decision, but General Knollys himself accepted it and ceased to call +himself earl of Banbury. He died in Paris on the 20th of March 1834. His +eldest son, Sir William Thomas Knollys (1797-1883), entered the army and +served with the Guards during the Peninsular War. Remaining in the army +after the conclusion of the peace of 1815 he won a good reputation and +rose high in his profession. From 1855 to 1860 he was in charge of the +military camp at Aldershot, then in its infancy, and in 1861 he was made +president of the council of military education. From 1862 to 1877 he was +comptroller of the household of the prince of Wales, afterwards King +Edward VII. From 1877 until his death on the 23rd of June 1883 he was +gentleman usher of the black rod; he was also a privy councillor and +colonel of the Scots Guards. His son Francis (b. 1837), private +secretary to Edward VII. and George V., was created Baron Knollys in +1902; another son, Sir Henry Knollys (b. 1840), became private secretary +to King Edward's daughter Maud, queen of Norway. + + See Sir N. H. Nicolas, _Treatise on the Law of Adulterine Bastardy_ + 1833); and G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887), vol. i. + + + + +KNOT, a Limicoline bird very abundant at certain seasons on the shores +of Britain and many countries of the northern hemisphere. Camden in the +edition of his _Britannia_ published in 1607 (p. 408) inserted a passage +not found in the earlier issues of that work, connecting the name with +that of King Canute, and this account of its origin has been usually +received. But no other evidence in its favour is forthcoming, and +Camden's statement is merely the expression of an opinion,[1] so that +there is perhaps ground for believing him to have been mistaken, and +that the clue afforded by Sir Thomas Browne, who (c. 1672) wrote the +name "Gnatts or Knots," may be the true one.[2] Still the statement was +so determinedly repeated by successive authors that Linnaeus followed +them in calling the species _Tringa canutus_, and so it remains with +nearly all modern ornithologists.[3] Rather larger than a snipe, but +with a shorter bill and legs, the knot visits the coasts of some parts +of Europe, Asia and North America at times in vast flocks; and, though +in temperate climates a good many remain throughout the winter, these +are nothing in proportion to those that arrive towards the end of +spring, in England generally about the 15th of May, and after staying a +few days pass northward to their summer quarters, while early in autumn +the young of the year throng to the same places in still greater +numbers, being followed a little later by their parents. In winter the +plumage is ashy-grey above (save the rump, which is white) and white +beneath. In summer the feathers of the back are black, broadly margined +with light orange-red, mixed with white, those of the rump white, more +or less tinged with red, and the lower parts are of a nearly uniform +deep bay or chestnut. The birds which winter in temperate climates +seldom attain the brilliancy of colour exhibited by those which arrive +from the south; the luxuriance generated by the heat of a tropical sun +seems needed to develop the full richness of hue. The young when they +come from their birthplace are clothed in ashy-grey above, each feather +banded with dull black and ochreous, while the breast is more or less +deeply tinged with warm buff. Much curiosity has long existed among +zoologists as to the egg of the knot, of which not a single identified +or authenticated specimen is known to exist in collections. The species +was found breeding abundantly on the North Georgian (now commonly called +the Parry) Islands by Parry's Arctic expedition, as well as soon after +on Melville Peninsula by Captain Lyons, and again during the voyage of +Sir George Nares on the northern coast of Grinnell Land and the shores +of Smith Sound, where Major Feilden obtained examples of the newly +hatched young (_Ibis_, 1877, p. 407), and observed that the parents fed +largely on the buds of _Saxifraga oppositifolia_. These are the only +localities in which this species is known to breed, for on none of the +arctic lands lying to the north of Europe or Asia has it been +unquestionably observed.[4] In winter its wanderings are very extensive, +as it is recorded from Surinam, Brazil, Walfisch Bay in South Africa, +China, Queensland and New Zealand. Formerly this species was extensively +netted in England, and the birds fattened for the table, where they were +esteemed a great delicacy, as witness the entries in the Northumberland +and Le Strange Household Books; and the British Museum contains an old +treatise on the subject: "The maner of kepyng of knotts, after Sir +William Askew and my Lady, given to my Lord Darcy, 25 Hen. VIII." (_MSS. +Sloane_, 1592, 8 _cat._ 663). (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] His words are simply "_Knotts_, i. _Canuti aues_, vt opinor e + Dania enim aduolare creduntur." In the margin the name is spelt + "Cnotts," and he possibly thought it had to do with a well-known + story of that king. Knots undoubtedly frequent the sea-shore, where + Canute is said on one occasion to have taken up his station, but they + generally retreat, and that nimbly, before the advancing surf, which + he is said in the story not to have done. + + [2] In this connexion we may compare the French _maringouin_, + ordinarily a gnat or mosquito, but also, among the French Creoles of + America, a small shore-bird, either a _Tringa_ or an _Aegialitis_, + according to Descourtilz (_Voyage_, ii. 249). See also Littré's + _Dictionnaire_, _s.v._ + + [3] There are few of the _Limicolae_, to which group the knot + belongs, that present greater changes of plumage according to age or + season, and hence before these phases were understood the species + became encumbered with many synonyms, as _Tringa cinerea_, + _ferruginea_, _grisea_, _islandica_, _naevia_ and so forth. The + confusion thus caused was mainly cleared away by Montagu and + Temminck. + + [4] The _Tringa canutus_ of Payer's expedition seems more likely to + have been _T. maritima_, which species is not named among the birds + of Franz Josef Land, though it can hardly fail to occur there. + + + + +KNOT (O.E. _cnotta_, from a Teutonic stem _knutt_; cf. "knit," and Ger. +_knoten_), an intertwined loop of rope, cord, string or other flexible +material, used to fasten two such ropes, &c., to one another, or to +another object. (For the various forms which such "knots" may take see +below.) The word is also used for the distance-marks on a log-line, and +hence as the equivalent of a nautical mile (see LOG), and for any hard +mass, resembling a knot drawn tight, especially one formed in the trunk +of a tree at the place of insertion of a branch. Knots in wood are the +remains of dead branches which have become buried in the wood of the +trunk or branch on which they were borne. When a branch dies down or is +broken off, the dead stump becomes grown over by a healing tissue, and, +as the stem which bears it increases in thickness, gradually buried in +the newer wood. When a section is made of the stem the dead stump +appears in the section as a knot; thus in a board it forms a circular +piece of wood, liable to fall out and leave a "knot-hole." "Knot" or +"knob" is an architectural term for a bunch of flowers, leaves or other +ornamentation carved on a corbel or on a boss. The word is also applied +figuratively to any intricate problem, hard to disentangle, a use +stereotyped in the proverbial "Gordian knot," which, according to the +tradition, was cut by Alexander the Great (see GORDIUM). + +[Illustration: FIG 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG 2.] + +Knots, Bends, Hitches, Splices and Seizings are all ways of fastening +cords or ropes, either to some other object such as a spar, or a ring, +or to one another. The "knot" is formed to make a knob on a rope, +generally at the extremity, and by untwisting the strands at the end and +weaving them together. But it may be made by turning the rope on itself +through a loop, as for instance, the "overhand knot" (fig. 1). A "bend" +(from the same root as "bind"), and a "hitch" (an O.E. word), are ways +of fastening or tying ropes together, as in the "Carrick bend" (fig. +21), or round spars as the Studding Sail Halyard Bend (fig. 19), and the +Timber Hitch (fig. 20). A "splice" (from the same root as "split") is +made by untwisting two rope ends and weaving them together. A "seizing" +(Fr. _saisir_) is made by fastening two spars to one another by a rope, +or two ropes by a third, or by using one rope to make a loop on +another--as for example the Racking Seizing (fig. 41), the Round Seizing +(fig. 40), and the Midshipman's Hitch (fig. 29). The use of the words is +often arbitrary. There is, for instance, no difference in principle +between the Fisherman's Bend (fig. 18) and the Timber Hitch (fig. 20). +Speaking generally, the Knot and the Seizing are meant to be permanent, +and must be unwoven in order to be unfastened, while the Bend and Hitch +can be undone at once by pulling the ropes in the reverse direction from +that in which they are meant to hold. Yet the Reef Knot (figs. 3 and 4) +can be cast loose with ease, and is wholly different in principle, for +instance, from the Diamond Knot (figs. 42 and 43). These various forms +of fastening are employed in many kinds of industry, as for example in +scaffolding, as well as in seamanship. The governing principle is that +the strain which pulls against them shall draw them tighter. The +ordinary "knots and splices" are described in every book on seamanship. + + _Overhand Knot_ (fig. 1).--Used at the end of ropes to prevent their + unreeving and as the commencement of other knots. Take the end _a_ + round the end _b_. + + _Figure-of-Eight Knot_ (fig. 2).--Used only to prevent ropes from + unreeving; it forms a large knob. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + _Reef Knot_ (figs. 3, 4).--Form an overhand knot as above. Then take + the end _a_ over the end _b_ and through the bight. If the end _a_ + were taken under the end _b_, a _granny_ would be formed. This knot is + so named from being used in tying the reef-points of a sail. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + _Bowline_ (figs. 5-7).--Lay the end _a_ of a rope over the standing + part _b_. Form with _b_ a bight _c_ over _a_. Take _a_ round behind + _b_ and down through the bight _c_. This is a most useful knot + employed to form a loop which will not slip. _Running bowlines_ are + formed by making a bowline round its own standing part above _b_. It + is the most common and convenient temporary running noose. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + _Bowline on a Bight_ (figs. 8, 9).--The first part is made similar to + the above with the double part of the rope; then the bight _a_ is + pulled through sufficiently to allow it to be bent over past _d_ and + come up in the position shown in fig. 9. It makes a more comfortable + sling for a man than a single bight. + + _Half-Hitch_ (fig. 10).--Pass the end _a_ of the rope round the + standing part _b_ and through the bight. + + _Two Half-Hitches_ (fig. 11).--The half-hitch repeated; this is + commonly used, and is capable of resisting to the full strength of the + rope. A stop from _a_ to the standing part will prevent it jamming. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.] + + _Clove Hitch_ (figs. 12, 13).--Pass the end _a_ round a spar and cross + it over _b_. Pass it round the spar again and put the end _a_ through + the second bight. + + _Blackwall Hitch_ (fig. 14).--Form a bight at the end of a rope, and + put the hook of a tackle through the bight so that the end of the rope + may be jammed between the standing part and the back of the hook. + + _Double Blackwall Hitch_ (fig. 15).--Pass the end _a_ twice round the + hook and under the standing part _b_ at the last cross. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.] + + _Cat's-paw_ (fig. 16).--Twist up two parts of a lanyard in opposite + directions and hook the tackle in the eyes _i_, _i_. A piece of wood + should be placed between the parts at _g_. A large lanyard should be + clove-hitched round a large toggle and a strap passed round it below + the toggle. + + _Marling-spike Hitch_ (fig. 17).--Lay the end _a_ over _c_; fold the + loop over on the standing part _b_; then pass the marline-spike + through, over both parts of the bight and under the part _b_. Used for + tightening each turn of a seizing. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.] + + _Fisherman's Bend_ (fig. 18).--Take two turns round a spar, then a + half-hitch round the standing part and between the spar and the turns, + lastly a half-hitch round the standing part. + + _Studding-sail Halyard Bend_ (fig. 19).--Similar to the above, except + that the end is tucked under the first round turn; this is more snug. + A _magnus hitch_ has two round turns and one on the other side of the + standing part with the end through the bight. + + _Timber Hitch_ (fig. 20).--Take the end _a_ of a rope round a spar, + then round the standing part _b_, then several times round its own + part _c_, against the lay of the rope. + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.] + + _Carrick Bend_ (fig. 21).--Lay the end of one hawser over its own part + to form a bight as _e_´, _b_; pass the end of another hawser up + through that bight near _b_, going out over the first end at _c_, + crossing under the first long part and over its end at _d_, then under + both long parts, forming the loops, and above the first short part at + _b_, terminating at the end _e_´´, in the opposite direction + vertically and horizontally to the other end. The ends should be + securely stopped to their respective standing parts, and also a stop + put on the becket or extreme end to prevent it catching a pipe or + chock; in that form this is the best quick means of uniting two large + hawsers, since they cannot jam. When large hawsers have to work + through small pipes, good security may be obtained either by passing + ten or twelve taut racking turns with a suitable strand and securing + each end to a standing part of the hawser, or by taking half as many + round turns taut, crossing the ends between the hawsers over the + seizing and reef-knotting the ends. This should be repeated in three + places and the extreme ends well stopped. Connecting hawsers by + bowline knots is very objectionable, as the bend is large and the + knots jam. + + _Sheet Bend_ (fig. 22).--Pass the end of one rope through the bight of + another, round both parts of the other, and under its own standing + part. Used for bending small sheets to the clews of sails, which + present bights ready for the hitch. An ordinary net is composed of a + series of sheet bends. A _weaver's knot_ is made like a sheet bend. + + _Single Wall Knot_ (fig. 23).--Unlay the end of a rope, and with the + strand a form a bight. Take the next strand _b_ round the end of _a_. + Take the last strand _c_ round the end of _b_ and through the bight + made by _a_. Haul the ends taut. + + _Single Wall Crowned_ (fig. 24).--Form a single wall, and lay one of + the ends, _a_, over the knot. Lay _b_ over _a_, and _c_ over _b_ and + through the bight of _a_. Haul the ends taut. + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.] + + _Double Wall and Double Crown_ (fig. 25).--Form a single wall crowned; + then let the ends follow their own parts round until all the parts + appear double. Put the ends down through the knot. + + _Matthew Walker_ (figs. 26, 27).--Unlay the end of a rope. Take the + first strand round the rope and through its own bight; the second + strand round the rope, through the bight of the first, and through its + own bight; the third through all three bights. Haul the ends taut. + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 26.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.] + + _Inside Clinch_ (fig. 28).--The end is bent close round the standing + part till it forms a circle and a half, when it is securely seized at + _a_, _b_ and _c_, thus making a running eye; when taut round anything + it jams the end. It is used for securing hemp cables to anchors, the + standing parts of topsail sheets, and for many other purposes. If the + eye were formed outside the bight an _outside clinch_ would be made, + depending entirely on the seizings, but more ready for slipping. + + _Midshipman's Hitch_ (fig. 29).--Take two round turns inside the + bight, the same as a half-hitch repeated; stop up the end or let + another half-hitch be taken or held by hand. Used for hooking a tackle + for a temporary purpose. + + [Illustration: FIG. 29.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 30.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 31.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 32.] + + _Turk's Head_ (fig. 30).--With fine line (very dry) make a clove hitch + round the rope; cross the bights twice, passing an end the reverse way + (up or down) each time; then keeping the whole spread flat, let each + end follow its own part round and round till it is too tight to + receive any more. Used as an ornament variously on side-ropes and + foot-ropes of jibbooms. It may also be made with three ends, two + formed by the same piece of line secured through the rope and one + single piece. Form with them a diamond knot; then each end crossed + over its neighbour follows its own part as above. + + _Spanish Windlass_ (fig. 31).--An iron bar and two marling-spikes are + taken; two parts of a seizing are twisted like a cat's-paw (fig. 16), + passed round the bar, and hove round till sufficiently taut. In + heaving shrouds together to form an eye two round turns are taken with + a strand and the two ends hove upon. When a lever is placed between + the parts of a long lashing or frapping and hove round, we have what + is also called a Spanish windlass. + + _Slings_ (fig. 32).--This is simply the bight of a rope turned up over + its own part; it is frequently made of chain, when a shackle (bow up) + takes the place of the bight at _s_ and another at _y_, connecting the + two ends with the part which goes round the mast-head. Used to sling + lower yards. For boat's yards it should be a grummet with a thimble + seized in at _y_. As the tendency of all yards is to cant forward with + the weight of the sail, the part marked by an arrow should be the + fore-side--easily illustrated by a round ruler and a piece of twine. + + _Sprit-Sail Sheet Knot_ (fig. 33).--This knot consists of a double + wall and double crown made by the two ends, consequently with six + strands, with the ends turned down. Used formerly in the clews of + sails, now as an excellent stopper, a lashing or shackle being placed + at _s_ and a lanyard round the head at _l_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 33.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 34.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 35.] + + _Turning in a Dead-Eye Cutter-Stay fashion_ (fig. 34).--A bend is made + in the stay or shroud round its own part and hove together with a bar + and strand; two or three seizings diminishing in size (one round and + one or two either round or flat) are hove on taut and snug, the end + being at the side of the fellow part. The dead-eye is put in and the + eye driven down with a commander. + + _Turning in a Dead-Eye end up_ (fig. 35).--The shroud is measured + round the dead-eye and marked where a throat-seizing is hove on; the + dead-eye is then forced into its place, or it may be put in first. The + end beyond _a_ is taken up taut and secured with a round seizing; + higher still the end is secured by another seizing. As it is important + that the lay should always be kept in the rope as much as possible, + these eyes should be formed conformably, either right-handed or + left-handed. It is easily seen which way a rope would naturally kink + by putting a little extra twist into it. A shroud whose dead-eye is + turned in end up will bear a fairer strain, but is more dependent on + the seizings; the under turns of the throat are the first to break and + the others the first to slip. With the cutter-stay fashion the + standing part of the shroud gives way under the nip of the eye. A rope + will afford the greatest resistance to strain when secured round large + thimbles with a straight end and a sufficient number of flat or + racking seizings. To splice shrouds round dead-eyes is objectionable + on account of opening the strands and admitting water, thus hastening + decay. In small vessels, especially yachts, it is admissible on the + score of neatness; in that case a round seizing is placed between the + dead-eye and the splice. The dead-eyes should be in diameter 1½ times + the circumference of a hemp shroud and thrice that of wire; the + lanyard should be half the nominal size of hemp and the same size as + wire: thus, hemp-shroud 12 in., wire 6 in., dead-eye 18 in., lanyard 6 + in. + + [Illustration: FIG. 36.] + + _Short Splice_ (fig. 36).--The most common description of splice is + when a rope is lengthened by another of the same size, or nearly so. + Fig. 36 represents a splice of this kind: the strands have been + unlaid, married and passed through with the assistance of a + marling-spike, over one strand and under the next, twice each way. The + ends are then cut off close. To render the splice neater the strands + should have been halved before turning them in a second time, the + upper half of each strand only being turned in; then all are cut off + smooth. _Eye Splice._--Unlay the strands and place them upon the same + rope spread at such a distance as to give the size of the eye; enter + the centre strand (unlaid) under a strand of the rope (as above), and + the other two in a similar manner on their respective sides of the + first; taper each end and pass them through again. If neatness is + desired, reduce the ends and pass them through once more; cut off + smooth and serve the part disturbed tightly with suitable hard line. + Uses too numerous to mention. _Cut Splice._--Made in a similar manner + to an eye splice, but of two pieces of rope, therefore with two + splices. Used for mast-head pendants, jib-guys, breast backstays, and + even odd shrouds, to keep the eyes of the rigging lower by one part. + It is not so strong as two separate eyes. _Horseshoe Splice._--Made + similar to the above, but one part much shorter than the other, or + another piece of rope is spliced across an eye, forming a horseshoe + with two long legs. Used for back-ropes on dolphin striker, back stays + (one on each side) and cutter's runner pendants. _Long Splice._--The + strands must be unlaid about three times as much as for a short splice + and married--care being taken to preserve the lay or shape of each. + Unlay one of the strands still further and follow up the vacant space + with the corresponding strand of the other part, fitting it firmly + into the rope till only a few inches remain. Treat the other side in a + similar manner. There will then appear two long strands in the centre + and a long and a short one on each side. The splice is practically + divided into three distinct parts; at each the strands are divided and + the corresponding halves knotted (as shown on the top of fig. 38) and + turned in twice. The half strand may, if desired, be still further + reduced before the halves are turned in for the second time. This and + all other splices should be well stretched and hammered into shape + before the ends are cut off. The long splice alone is adapted to + running ropes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 37.] + + _Shroud Knot_ (fig. 37).--Pass a stop at such distance from each end + of the broken shroud as to afford sufficient length of strands, when + it is unlaid, to form a single wall knot on each side after the parts + have been married; it will then appear as represented in the figure, + the strands having been well tarred and hove taut separately. The part + _a_ provides the knot on the opposite side and the ends _b_, _b_; the + part _c_ provides the knot and the ends _d_, _d_. After the knot has + been well stretched the ends are tapered, laid smoothly between the + strands of the shroud, and firmly served over. This knot is used when + shrouds or stays are broken. _French Shroud Knot._--Marry the parts + with a similar amount of and as before; stop one set of strands taut + up on the shroud (to keep the parts together), and turn the ends back + on their own part, forming bights. Make a single wall knot with the + other three strands round the said bights and shroud; haul the knot + taut first and stretch the whole; then heave down the bights close: it + will look like the ordinary shroud knot. It is very liable to slip. If + the ends by which the wall knot is made after being hove were passed + through the bights, it would make the knot stronger. The ends would be + tapered and served. + + [Illustration: FIG. 38.] + + _Flemish Eye_ (fig. 38).--Secure a spar or toggle twice the + circumference of the rope intended to be rove through the eye; unlay + the rope which is to form the eye about three times its circumference, + at which part place a strong whipping. Point the rope vertically under + the eye, and bind it taut up by the core if it is four-stranded rope, + otherwise by a few yarns. While doing so arrange six or twelve pieces + of spun-yarn at equal distances on the wood and exactly halve the + number of yarns that have been unlaid. If it is a small rope, select + two or three yarns from each side near the centre; cross them over the + top at _a_, and half-knot them tightly. So continue till all are + expended and drawn down tightly on the opposite side to that from + which they came, being thoroughly intermixed. Tie the pieces of + spun-yarn which were placed under the eye tightly round various parts, + to keep the eye in shape when taken off the spar, till they are + replaced by turns of marline hove on as taut as possible, the hitches + forming a central line outside the eye. Heave on a good seizing of + spun-yarn close below the spar, and another between six and twelve + inches below the first; it may then be parcelled and served; the eye + is served over twice, and well tarred each time. As large ropes are + composed of so many yarns, a greater number must be knotted over the + toggle each time; a 4-in. rope has 132 yarns, which would require 22 + knottings of six each time; a 10-in. rope has 834 yarns, therefore, if + ten are taken from each side every time, about twice that number of + hitches will be required; sometimes only half the yarns are hitched, + the others being merely passed over. The chief use of these eyes has + been to form the collars of stays, the whole stay in each case having + to be rove through it--a very inconvenient device. It is almost + superseded for that purpose by a leg spliced in the stay and lashing + eyes abaft the mast, for which it is commonly used at present. This + eye is not always called by the same name, but the weight of evidence + is in favour of calling it a Flemish eye. _Ropemaker's Eye_, which + also has alternative names, is formed by taking out of a rope one + strand longer by 6 in. or a foot than the required eye, then placing + the ends of the two strands a similar distance below the disturbance + of the one strand, that is, at the size of the eye; the single strand + is led back through the vacant space it left till it arrives at the + neck of the eye, with a similar length of spare end to the other two + strands. They are all seized together, scraped, tapered, marled and + served. The principal merit is neatness. _Mouse on a Stay._--Formed by + turns of coarse spun-yarn hove taut round the stay, over parcelling at + the requisite distance from the eye to form the collar; assistance is + given by a padding of short yarns distributed equally round the rope, + which, after being firmly secured, especially at what is to be the + under part, are turned back over the first layer and seized down + again, thus making a shoulder; sometimes it is formed with parcelling + only. In either case it is finished by marling, followed by serving or + grafting. The use is to prevent the Flemish eye in the end of the stay + from slipping up any farther. + + _Rolling Hitch_ (fig. 39).--Two round turns are taken round a spar or + large rope in the direction in which it is to be hauled and one + half-hitch on the other side of the hauling part. This is very + useful, as it can be put on and off quickly. + + [Illustration: FIG. 39.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 40.] + + _Round Seizing_ (fig. 40).--So named when the rope it secures does not + cross another and there are three sets of turns. The size of the + seizing line is about one-sixth (nominal) that of the ropes to be + secured, but varies according to the number of turns to be taken. An + eye is spliced in the line and the end rove through it, embracing both + parts. If either part is to be spread open, commence farthest from + that part; place tarred canvas under the seizing; pass the line round + as many times (with much slack) as it is intended to have under-turns; + and pass the end back through them all and through the eye. Secure the + eye from rendering round by the ends of its splice; heave the turns on + with a marling-spike (see fig. 17), perhaps seven or nine; haul the + end through taut, and commence again the riding turns in the hollows + of the first. If the end is not taken back through the eye, but pushed + up between the last two turns (as is sometimes recommended), the + riders must be passed the opposite way in order to follow the + direction of the under-turns, which are always one more in number than + the riders. When the riders are complete, the end is forced between + the last lower turns and two cross turns are taken, the end coming up + where it went down, when a wall knot is made with the strands and the + ends cut close; or the end may be taken once round the shroud. _Throat + Seizing._--Two ropes or parts of ropes are laid on each other parallel + and receive a seizing similar to that shown in figure 35--that is with + upper and riding but no cross turns. As the two parts of rope are + intended to turn up at right angles to the direction in which they + were secured, the seizing should be of stouter line and short, not + exceeding seven lower and six riding turns. The end is better secured + with a turn round the standing part. Used for turning in dead-eyes and + variously. _Flat Seizing._--Commenced similarly to the above, but it + has neither riding nor cross turns. + + [Illustration: FIG. 41.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 42.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 43.] + + _Racking Seizing_ (fig. 41).--A running eye having been spliced round + one part of the rope, the line is passed entirely round the other + part, crossed back round the first part, and so on for ten to twenty + turns, according to the expected strain, every turn being hove as + tight as possible; after which round turns are passed to fill the + spaces at the back of each rope, by taking the end _a_ over both parts + into the hollow at _b_, returning at _c_, and going over to _d_. When + it reaches e a turn may be taken round that rope only, the end rove + under it, and a half-hitch taken, which will form a clove-hitch; knot + the end and cut it close. When the shrouds are wire (which is half the + size of hemp) and the end turned up round a dead-eye of any kind, wire + seizings are preferable. It appears very undesirable to have wire + rigging combined with plates or screws for setting it up, as in case + of accident--such as that of the mast going over the side, a shot or + collision breaking the ironwork--the seamen are powerless. + + _Diamond Knot_ (figs. 42, 43).--The rope must be unlaid as far as the + centre if the knot is required there, and the strands handled with + great care to keep the lay in them. Three bights are turned up as in + fig. 42, and the end of _a_ is taken over _b_ and up the bight _c_. + The end of _b_ is taken over _c_ and up through _a_. The end _c_ is + taken over a and through _b_. When hauled taut and the strands are + laid up again it will appear as in fig. 43. Any number of knots may be + made on the same rope. They were used on man-ropes, the foot-ropes on + the jibboom, and similar places, where it was necessary to give a good + hold for the hands or feet. Turk's heads are now generally used. + _Double Diamond._--Made by the ends of a single diamond following + their own part till the knot is repeated. Used at the upper end of a + side rope as an ornamental stopper-knot. + + _Stropping-Blocks._--There are various modes of securing blocks to + ropes; the most simple is to splice an eye at the end of the rope a + little longer than the block and pass a round seizing to keep it in + place; such is the case with jib-pendants. As a general rule, the + parts of a strop combined should possess greater strength than the + parts of the fall which act against it. The shell of an ordinary block + should be about three times the circumference of the rope which is to + reeve through it, as a 9-in. block for a 3-in. rope; but small ropes + require larger blocks in proportion, as a 4-in. block for a 1-in. + rope. When the work to be done is very important the blocks are much + larger: brace-blocks are more than five times the nominal size of the + brace. Leading-blocks and sheaves in racks are generally smaller than + the blocks through which the ropes pass farther away, which appears to + be a mistake, as more power is lost by friction. A clump-block should + be double the nominal size of the rope. A single strop may be made by + joining the ends of a rope of sufficient length to go round the block + and thimble by a common short splice, which rests on the crown of the + block (the opposite end to the thimble) and is stretched into place by + a jigger; a strand is then passed twice round the space between the + block and the thimble and hove taut by a Spanish windlass to cramp the + parts together ready for the reception of a small round seizing. The + cramping or pinching into shape is sometimes done by machinery + invented by a rigger in Portsmouth dockyard. The strop may be made the + required length by a long splice, but it would not possess any + advantage. + + [Illustration: FIG. 44.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 45.] + + _Grummet-Strop_ (fig. 44).--Made by unlaying a piece of rope of the + desired size about a foot more than three times the length required + for the strop. Place the centre of the rope round the block and + thimble; mark with chalk where the parts cross; take one strand out of + the rope; bring the two chalk marks together; and cross the strand in + the lay on both sides, continuing round and round till the two ends + meet the third time; they are then halved, and the upper halves + half-knotted and passed over and under the next strands, exactly as + one part of a long splice. A piece of worn or well-stretched rope will + better retain its shape, upon which success entirely depends. The + object is neatness, and if three or multiples of three strops are to + be made it is economical. + + _Double Strop_ (fig. 45).--Made with one piece of rope, the splice + being brought as usual to the crown of the block _t_, the bights + fitting into scores some inches apart, converging to the upper part, + above which the thimble receives the bights _a_, _a_; and the four + parts of the strop are secured at _s_, _s_ by a round seizing doubly + crossed. If the block be not then on the right slew (the shell + horizontal or vertical) a union thimble is used with another strop, + which produces the desired effect; thus the fore and main + brace-blocks, being very large and thin, are required (for appearance) + to lie horizontally; a single strop round the yard vertically has a + union thimble between it and the double strop round the block. The + double strop is used for large blocks; it gives more support to the + shell than the single strop and admits of smaller rope being used. + Wire rope is much used for block-strops; the fitting is similar. Metal + blocks are also used in fixed positions; durability is their chief + recommendation. Great care should be taken that they do not chafe the + ropes which pass by them as well as those which reeve through. + + _Selvagee Strop._--Twine, rope-yarn or rope is warped round two or + more pegs placed at the desired distance apart, till it assumes the + requisite size and strength; the two ends are then knotted or spliced. + Temporary firm seizings are applied in several places to bind the + parts together before the rope or twine is removed from the pegs, + after which it is marled with suitable material. A large strop should + be warped round four or six pegs in order to give it the shape in + which it is to be used. This description of strop is much stronger and + more supple than rope of similar size. Twine strops (covered with + duck) are used for boats' blocks and in similar places requiring + neatness. Rope-yarn and spun-yarn strops are used for attaching + luff-tackles to shrouds and for many similar purposes. To bring to a + shroud or hawser, the centre of the strop is passed round the rope and + each part crossed three or four times before hooking the "luff"; a + spun-yarn stop above the centre will prevent slipping and is very + necessary with wire rope. As an instance of a large selvagee + block-strop being used--when the "Melville" was hove down at Chusan + (China), the main-purchase-block was double stropped with a selvagee + containing 28 parts of 3-in. rope; that would produce 112 parts in + the neck, equal to a breaking strain of 280 tons, which is more than + four parts of a 19-in cable. The estimated strain it bore was 80 tons. + + _Stoppers_ for ordinary running ropes are made by splicing a piece of + rope to a bolt or to a hook and thimble, unlaying 3 or 4 ft., tapering + it by cutting away some of the yarns, and marling it down securely, + with a good whipping also on the end. It is used by taking a + half-hitch round the rope which is to be hauled upon, dogging the end + up in the lay and holding it by hand. The rope can come through it + when hauled, but cannot go back. + + [Illustration: FIG. 46.] + + _Whipping and Pointing._--The end of every working rope should at + least be whipped to prevent it fagging out; in ships of war and yachts + they are invariably pointed. Whipping is done by placing the end of a + piece of twine or knittle-stuff on a rope about an inch from the end, + taking three or four turns taut over it (working towards the end); the + twine is then laid on the rope again lengthways contrary to the first, + leaving a slack bight of twine; and taut turns are repeatedly passed + round the rope, over the first end and over the bight, till there are + in all six to ten turns; then haul the bight taut through between the + turns and cut it close. To point a rope, place a good whipping a few + inches from the end, according to size; open out the end entirely; + select all the outer yarns and twist them into knittles either singly + or two or three together; scrape down and taper the central part, + marling it firmly. Turn every alternate knittle and secure the + remainder down by a turn of twine or a smooth yarn hitched close up, + which acts as the weft in weaving. The knittles are then reversed and + another turn of the weft taken, and this is continued till far enough + to look well. At the last turn the ends of the knittles which are laid + back are led forward over and under the weft and hauled through + tightly, making it present a circle of small bights, level with which + the core is cut off smoothly. Hawsers and large ropes have a becket + formed in their ends during the process of pointing. A piece of 1 to + 1½ in. rope about 1½ to 2 ft. long is spliced into the core by each + end while it is open: from four to seven yarns (equal to a strand) are + taken at a time and twisted up; open the ends of the becket only + sufficient to marry them close in; turn in the twisted yarns between + the strands (as splicing) three times, and stop it above and below. + Both ends are treated alike; when the pointing is completed a loop a + few inches in length will protrude from the end of the rope, which is + very useful for reeving it. A hauling line or reeving line should only + be rove through the becket as a fair lead. _Grafting_ is very similar + to pointing, and frequently done the whole length of a rope, as a + side-rope. Pieces of white line more than double the length of the + rope, sufficient in number to encircle it, are made up in hanks called + foxes; the centre of each is made fast by twine and the weaving + process continued as in pointing. Block-strops are sometimes so + covered; but, as it causes decay, a small wove mat which can be taken + off occasionally is preferable. + + _Sheep-Shank_ (fig. 46).--Formed by making a long bight in a + topgallant back-stay, or any rope which it is desirable to shorten, + and taking a half-hitch near each bend, as at _a_, _a_. Rope-yarn + stops at _b_, _b_ are desirable to keep it in place till the strain is + brought on it. Wire rope cannot be so treated, and it is injurious to + hemp rope that is large and stiff. + + _Knotting Yarns_ (fig. 47).--This operation becomes necessary when, a + comparatively short piece of junk is to be made into spun-yarn, or + large rope into small, which is called twice laid. The end of each + yarn is divided, rubbed smooth and married (as for splicing). Two of + the divided parts, as _c_, _c_ and _d_, _d_, are passed in opposite + directions round all the other parts and knotted. The ends e and f + remain passive. The figure is drawn open, but the forks of A and B + should be pressed close together, the knot hauled taut and the ends + cut off. + + [Illustration: FIG. 47.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 48.] + + _Butt Slings_ (fig. 48).--Made of 4-in. rope, each pair being 26 ft. + in length, with an eye spliced in one end, through which the other is + rove before being placed over one end of the cask; the rope is then + passed round the opposite side of the cask and two half-hitches made + with the end, forming another running eye, both of which are beaten + down taut as the tackle receives the weight. Slings for smaller casks + requiring care should be of this description, though of smaller rope, + as the cask cannot possibly slip out. _Bale Slings_ are made by + splicing the ends of about 3 fathoms of 3-in. rope together, which + then looks like a long strop, similar to the double strop represented + in fig. 45--the bights _t_ being placed under the cask or bale and one + of the bights _a_, _a_ rove through the other and attached to the + whip or tackle. + + For a complete treatise on the subject the reader may be referred to + _The Book of Knots, being a Complete Treatise on the Art of Cordage, + illustrated by 172 Diagrams, showing the Manner of making every Knot, + Tie and Splice_, by Tom Bowling (London, 1890). + + +_Mathematical Theory of Knots._ + +In the scientific sense a knot is an endless physical line which cannot +be deformed into a circle. A physical line is flexible and inextensible, +and cannot be cut--so that no lap of it can be drawn through another. + +The founder of the theory of knots is undoubtedly Johann Benedict +Listing (1808-1882). In his "Vorstudien zur Topologie" (_Göttinger +Studien_, 1847), a work in many respects of startling originality, a few +pages only are devoted to the subject.[1] He treats knots from the +elementary notion of twisting one physical line (or thread) round +another, and shows that from the projection of a knot on a surface we +can thus obtain a notion of the relative situation of its coils. He +distinguishes "reduced" from "reducible" forms, the number of crossings +in the reduced knot being the smallest possible. The simplest form of +reduced knot is of two species, as in figs. 49 and 50. Listing points +out that these are formed, the first by right-handed the second by +left-handed twisting. In fact, if three half-twists be given to a long +strip of paper, and the ends be then pasted together, the two edges +become one line, which is the knot in question. We may free it by +slitting the paper along its middle line; and then we have the juggler's +trick of putting a knot on an endless unknotted band. One of the above +forms cannot be deformed into the other. The one is, in Listing's +language, the "perversion" of the other, i.e. its image in a plane +mirror. He gives a method of symbolizing reduced knots, but shows that +in this method the same knot may, in certain cases, be represented by +different symbols. It is clear that the brief notice he published +contains a mere sketch of his investigations. + +The most extensive dissertation on the properties of knots is that of +Peter Guthrie Tait (_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._, xxviii. 145, where the +substance of a number of papers in the _Proceedings_ of the same society +is reproduced). It was for the most part written in ignorance of the +work of Listing, and was suggested by an inquiry concerning vortex +atoms. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 50.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 51.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 52.] + + Tait starts with the almost self-evident proposition that, if any + plane closed curve have double points only, in passing continuously + along the curve from one of these to the same again an even number of + double points has been passed through. Hence the crossings may be + taken alternately over and under. On this he bases a scheme for the + representation of knots of every kind, and employs it to find all the + distinct forms of knots which have, in their simplest projections, 3, + 4, 5, 6 and 7 crossings only. Their numbers are shown to be 1, 1, 2, 4 + and 8. The unique knot of three crossings has been already given as + drawn by Listing. The unique knot of four crossings merits a few + words, because its properties lead to a very singular conclusion. It + can be deformed into any of the four forms--figs. 51 and 52 and their + perversions. Knots which can be deformed into their own perversion + Tait calls "amphicheiral" (from the Greek [Greek: amphi], on both + sides, around, [Greek: cheir], hand), and he has shown that there is + at least one knot of this kind for every even number of crossings. He + shows also that "links" (in which two endless physical lines are + linked together) possess a similar property; and he then points out + that there is a third mode of making a complex figure of endless + physical lines, without either knotting or linking. This may be called + "lacing" or "locking." Its nature is obvious from fig. 53, in which it + will be seen that no one of the three lines is knotted, no two are + linked, and yet the three are inseparably fastened together. + + The rest of Tait's paper deals chiefly with numerical characteristics + of knots, such as their "knottiness," "beknottedness" and + "knotfulness." He also shows that any knot, however complex, can be + fully represented by three closed plane curves, none of which has + double points and no two of which intersect. It may be stated here + that the notion of beknottedness is founded on a remark of Gauss, who + in 1833 considered the problem of the number of inter-linkings of two + closed circuits, and expressed it by the electro-dynamic measure of + the work required to carry a unit magnetic pole round one of the + interlinked curves, while a unit electric current is kept circulating + in the other. This original suggestion has been developed at + considerable length by Otto Boeddicker (_Erweiterung der Gauss'schen + Theorie der Verschlingungen_ (Stuttgart, 1876). This author treats + also of the connexion of knots with Riemann's surfaces. + + [Illustration: FIG. 53.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 54.] + + It is to be noticed that, although every knot in which the crossings + are alternately over and under is irreducible, the converse is not + generally true. This is obvious at once from fig. 54, which is merely + the three-crossing knot with a doubled string--what Listing calls + "paradromic." + + Christian Felix Klein, in the _Mathematische Annalen_, ix. 478, has + proved the remarkable proposition that knots cannot exist in space of + four dimensions. (P. G. T.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See P. G. Tait "On Listing's _Topologie_," _Phil. Mag._, xvii. + 30. + + + + +KNOUT (from the French transliteration of a Russian word of Scandinavian +origin; cf. A.-S. _cnotta_, Eng. knot), the whip used in Russia for +flogging criminals and political offenders. It is said to have been +introduced under Ivan III. (1462-1505). The knout had different forms. +One was a lash of raw hide, 16 in. long, attached to a wooden handle, 9 +in. long. The lash ended in a metal ring, to which was attached a second +lash as long, ending also in a ring, to which in turn was attached a few +inches of hard leather ending in a beak-like hook. Another kind +consisted of many thongs of skin plaited and interwoven with wire, +ending in loose wired ends, like the cat-o'-nine tails. The victim was +tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped, receiving the +specified number of strokes on the back. A sentence of 100 or 120 lashes +was equivalent to a death sentence; but few lived to receive so many. +The executioner was usually a criminal who had to pass through a +probation and regular training; being let off his own penalties in +return for his services. Peter the Great is traditionally accused of +knouting his son Alexis to death, and there is little doubt that the boy +was actually beaten till he died, whoever was the executioner. The +emperor Nicholas I. abolished the earlier forms of knout and substituted +the pleti, a three-thonged lash. Ostensibly the knout has been abolished +throughout Russia and reserved for the penal settlements. + + + + +KNOWLES, SIR JAMES (1831-1908), English architect and editor, was born +in London in 1831, and was educated, with a view to following his +father's profession, as an architect at University College and in Italy. +His literary tastes also brought him at an early age into the field of +authorship. In 1860 he published _The Story of King Arthur_. In 1867 he +was introduced to Tennyson, whose house, Aldworth, on Blackdown, he +designed; this led to a close friendship, Knowles assisting Tennyson in +business matters, and among other things helping to design scenery for +_The Cup_, when Irving produced that play in 1880. Knowles became +intimate with a number of the most interesting men of the day, and in +1869, with Tennyson's co-operation, he started the Metaphysical Society, +the object of which was to attempt some intellectual _rapprochement_ +between religion and science by getting the leading representatives of +faith and unfaith to meet and exchange views. + + The members from first to last were as follows: Dean Stanley, Seeley, + Roden Noel, Martineau, W. B. Carpenter, Hinton, Huxley, Pritchard, + Hutton, Ward, Bagehot, Froude, Tennyson, Tyndall, Alfred Barry, Lord + Arthur Russell, Gladstone, Manning, Knowles, Lord Avebury, Dean + Alford, Alex. Grant, Bishop Thirlwall, F. Harrison, Father Dalgairns, + Sir G. Grove, Shadworth Hodgson, H. Sidgwick, E. Lushington, Bishop + Ellicott, Mark Pattison, duke of Argyll, Ruskin, Robert Lowe, Grant + Duff, Greg, A. C. Fraser, Henry Acland, Maurice, Archbishop Thomson, + Mozley, Dean Church, Bishop Magee, Croom Robertson, FitzJames Stephen, + Sylvester, J. C. Bucknill, Andrew Clark, W. K. Clifford, St George + Mivart, M. Boulton, Lord Selborne, John Morley, Leslie Stephen, F. + Pollock, Gasquet, C. B. Upton, William Gull, Robert Clarke, A. J. + Balfour, James Sully and A. Barratt. + +Papers were read and discussed at the various meetings on such subjects +as the ultimate grounds of belief in the objective and moral sciences, +the immortality of the soul, &c. An interesting description of one of +the meetings was given by Magee (then bishop of Peterborough) in a +letter of 13th of February 1873:-- + + "Archbishop Manning in the chair was flanked by two Protestant bishops + right and left; on my right was Hutton, editor of the _Spectator_, an + Arian; then came Father Dalgairns, a very able Roman Catholic priest; + opposite him Lord A. Russell, a Deist; then two Scotch metaphysical + writers, Freethinkers; then Knowles, the very broad editor of the + _Contemporary_; then, dressed as a layman and looking like a country + squire, was Ward, formerly Rev. Ward, and earliest of the perverts to + Rome; then Greg, author of _The Creed of Christendom_, a Deist; then + Froude, the historian, once a deacon in our Church, now a Deist; then + Roden Noel, an actual Atheist and red republican, and looking very + like one! Lastly Ruskin, who read a paper on miracles, which we + discussed for an hour and a half! Nothing could be calmer, fairer, or + even, on the whole, more reverent then the discussion. In my opinion, + we, the Christians, had much the best of it. Dalgairns, the priest, + was very masterly; Manning, clever and precise and weighty; Froude, + very acute, and so was Greg. We only wanted a Jew and a Mahommedan to + make our Religious Museum complete" (_Life_, i. 284). + +The last meeting of the society was held on 16th May 1880. Huxley said +that it died "of too much love"; Tennyson, "because after ten years of +strenuous effort no one had succeeded in even defining metaphysics." +According to Dean Stanley, "We all meant the same thing if we only knew +it." The society formed the nucleus of the distinguished list of +contributors who supported Knowles in his capacity as an editor. In 1870 +he became editor of the _Contemporary Review_, but left it in 1877 and +founded the _Nineteenth Century_ (to the title of which, in 1901, were +added the words _And After_). Both periodicals became very influential +under him, and formed the type of the new sort of monthly review which +came to occupy the place formerly held by the quarterlies. In 1904 he +received the honour of knighthood. He died at Brighton on the 13th of +February 1908. + + + + +KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN (1784-1862), Irish dramatist and actor, was born +in Cork, on the 12th of May 1784. His father was the lexicographer, +James Knowles (1759-1840), cousin-german of Richard Brinsley Sheridan. +The family removed to London in 1793, and at the age of fourteen Knowles +published a ballad entitled _The Welsh Harper_, which, set to music, was +very popular. The boy's talents secured him the friendship of Hazlitt, +who introduced him to Lamb and Coleridge. He served for some time in the +Wiltshire and afterwards in the Tower Hamlets militia, leaving the +service to become pupil of Dr Robert Willan (1757-1812). He obtained the +degree of M.D., and was appointed vaccinator to the Jennerian Society. +Although, however, Dr Willan generously offered him a share in his +practice, he resolved to forsake medicine for the stage, making his +first appearance probably at Bath, and playing Hamlet at the Crow +Theatre, Dublin. At Wexford he married, in October 1809, Maria +Charteris, an actress from the Edinburgh Theatre. In 1810 he wrote +_Leo_, in which Edmund Kean acted with great success; another play, +_Brian Boroihme_, written for the Belfast Theatre in the next year, also +drew crowded houses, but his earnings were so small that he was obliged +to become assistant to his father at the Belfast Academical Institution. +In 1817 he removed from Belfast to Glasgow, where, besides conducting a +flourishing school, he continued to write for the stage. His first +important success was _Caius Gracchus_, produced at Belfast in 1815; and +his _Virginius_, written for Edmund Kean, was first performed in 1820 at +Covent Garden. In _William Tell_ (1825) Macready found one of his +favourite parts. His best-known play, _The Hunchback_, was produced at +Covent Garden in 1832; _The Wife_ was brought out at the same theatre in +1833; and _The Love Chase_ in 1837. In his later years he forsook the +stage for the pulpit, and as a Baptist preacher attracted large +audiences at Exeter Hall and elsewhere. He published two polemical +works--the _Rock of Rome_ and the _Idol Demolished by its own +Priests_--in both of which he combated the special doctrines of the +Roman Catholic Church. Knowles was for some years in the receipt of an +annual pension of £200, bestowed by Sir Robert Peel. He died at Torquay +on the 30th of November 1862. + + A full list of the works of Knowles and of the various notices of him + will be found in the _Life_ (1872), privately printed by his son, + Richard Brinsley Knowles (1820-1882), who was well known as a + journalist. + + + + +KNOW NOTHING (or AMERICAN) PARTY, in United States history, a political +party of great importance in the decade before 1860. Its principle was +political proscription of naturalized citizens and of Roman Catholics. +Distrust of alien immigrants, because of presumptive attachment to +European institutions, has always been more or less widely diffused, and +race antagonisms have been recurrently of political moment; while +anti-Catholic sentiment went back to colonial sectarianism. These were +the elements of the political "nativism"--i.e. hostility to foreign +influence in politics--of 1830-1860. In these years Irish immigration +became increasingly preponderant; and that of Catholics was even more +so. The geographical segregation and the clannishness of foreign voters +in the cities gave them a power that Whigs and Democrats alike (the +latter more successfully) strove to control, to the great aggravation of +naturalization and election frauds. "No one can deny that ignorant +foreign suffrage had grown to be an evil of immense proportions" (J. F. +Rhodes). In labour disputes, political feuds and social clannishness, +the alien elements--especially the Irish and German--displayed their +power, and at times gave offence by their hostile criticism of American +institutions.[1] In immigration centres like Boston, Philadelphia and +New York, the Catholic Church, very largely foreign in membership and +proclaiming a foreign allegiance of disputed extent, was really "the +symbol and strength of foreign influence" (Scisco); many regarded it as +a transplanted foreign institution, un-American in organization and +ideas.[2] Thus it became involved in politics. The decade 1830-1840 was +marked by anti-Catholic (anti-Irish) riots in various cities and by +party organization of nativists in many places in local elections. Thus +arose the American-Republican (later the Native-American) Party, whose +national career begun practically in 1845, and which in Louisiana in +1841 first received a state organization. New York City in 1844 and +Boston in 1845 were carried by the nativists, but their success was due +to Whig support, which was not continued,[3] and the national +organization was by 1847--in which year it endorsed the Whig nominee for +the presidency--practically dead. Though some Whig leaders had strong +nativist leanings, and though the party secured a few representatives in +Congress, it accomplished little at this time in national politics. In +the early 'fifties nativism was revivified by an unparalleled inflow of +aliens. Catholics, moreover, had combated the Native-Americans +defiantly. In 1852 both Whigs and Democrats were forced to defend their +presidential nominees against charges of anti-Catholic sentiment. In +1853-1854 there was a wide-spread "anti-popery" propaganda and riots +against Catholics in various cities. Meanwhile the Know Nothing Party +had sprung from nativist secret societies, whose relations remain +obscure.[4] Its organization was secret; and hence its name--for a +member, when interrogated, always answered that he knew nothing about +it. Selecting candidates secretly from among those nominated by the +other parties, and giving them no public endorsement, the Know Nothings, +as soon as they gained the balance of power, could shatter at will Whig +and Democratic calculations. Their power was evident by 1852--from which +time, accordingly, "Know Nothingism" is most properly dated. The charges +they brought against naturalization abuses were only too well founded; +and those against election frauds not less so--though, unfortunately, +the Know Nothings themselves followed scandalous election methods in +some cities. The proposed proscription of the foreign-born knew no +exceptions: many wished never to concede to them all the rights of +natives, nor to their children unless educated in the public schools. As +for Catholics, the real animus of Know Nothingism was against +_political_ Romanism; therefore, secondarily, against papal allegiance +and episcopal church administration (in place of administration by lay +trustees, as was earlier common practice in the United States); and, +primarily, against public aid to Catholic schools, and the alleged greed +(i.e. the power and success) of the Irish in politics. The times were +propitious for the success of an aggressive third party; for the Whigs +were broken by the death of Clay and Webster and the crushing defeat of +1852, and both the Whig and Democratic parties were disintegrating on +the slavery issue. But the Know Nothings lacked aggression. In entering +national politics the party abandoned its mysteries, without making +compensatory gains; when it was compelled to publish a platform of +principles, factions arose in its ranks; moreover, to draw recruits the +faster from Whigs and Democrats, it "straddled" the slavery question, +and this, although a temporary success, ultimately meant ruin. In 1854, +however, Know Nothing gains were remarkable.[5] Thereafter the +organization spread like wildfire in the South, in which section there +were almost no aliens, and the Whig dissolution was far advanced. The +Virginia election of May 1855 proved conclusively, however, that Know +Nothingism was no stronger against the Democrats than was the Whig party +it had absorbed; it was the same organization under a new name. In the +North it was even clearer that slavery must be faced. Know Nothing +evasion probably helped the South,[6] but neither Republicans nor +Democrats would endure the evasion; Douglas and Seward, and later +(1855-1856) their parties, denounced it. In the North-West the Know +Nothings were swept into the anti-slavery movement in 1854 without +retaining their organization. In the state campaigns of 1855 professions +were measured to the latitude. The national platform of 1856 (adopted by +a secret grand council), besides including anti-alien and anti-Catholic +planks, offered sops to the North, the South and the "doughfaces" on the +slavery issue. Millard Fillmore was nominated for the presidency. The +anti-slavery delegates of eight Northern states bolted the convention, +and eight months later the Republican wave swept the Know Nothings out +of the North.[7] The national field being thus lost, the state councils +became supreme, and local opportunism fostered variation and weakness. +By 1859 the party was confined almost entirely to the border states. The +Constitutional Union--the "Do Nothing"--Party of 1860 was mainly +composed of Know Nothing remnants.[8] The year 1860 practically marked, +also, the disappearance of the party as a local power.[9] + +Except in city politics nativism had no vitality; in state and national +politics it really had no excuse. Race antipathies gave it local +cohesive power in the North; various causes, already mentioned, advanced +it in the South; and as a device to win offices it was of wide-spread +attraction. Its only real contribution to government was the proof that +nativism is not Americanism. Public opinion has never accepted its +estimate of the alien nor of Catholic citizens. Some of its anti-Church +principles, however--as the non-support of denominational schools--have +been generally accepted; others--as the refusal to exclude the +(Protestant) Bible from public schools--have been generally rejected; +others--as the taxation of all Church property--remain disputed. + + See L. D. Scisco, _Political Nativism in New York State_ (doctoral + thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1901); L. F. Schmeckebier, + _Know Nothing Party in Maryland_ (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, + 1899); G. H. Haynes, "A Know Nothing Legislature" (Mass., 1855), in + _American Historical Assoc. Report_, pt. 1 (1896); J. B. McMaster, + _With the Fathers_, including "The Riotous Career of the Know + Nothings" (New York, 1896); H. F. Desmond, _The Know Nothing Party_ + (Washington, 1905). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] E.g. for some extraordinary "reform" programmes among German + immigrants see Schmeckebier (as below), pp. 48-50. + + [2] "The actual offence of the Catholic Church was its non-conformity + to American methods of church administration and popular education" + (Scisco). + + [3] The Whigs bargained aid in New York city for "American" support + in the state, and charged that the latter was not given. Millard + Fillmore attributed the Whig loss of the state (see LIBERTY PARTY) to + the disaffection of Catholic Whigs angered by the alliance with the + nativists. + + [4] The Order of United Americans and the Order of the Star Spangled + Banner, established in New York respectively in 1845 and 1850, were + the most important sources of its membership. + + [5] This year "American Party" became the official name. Its strength + in Congress was almost thirty-fold that of 1852. It elected + governors, legislatures, or both, in four New England states, and in + Maryland, Kentucky and California; minor officers elsewhere; and + almost won six Southern states. + + [6] For it delayed anti-slavery organization in the North, and + presumably discouraged immigration, which was a source of strength to + the North rather than to the South. + + [7] They carried only Maryland. The popular vote in the North was + under one-seventh, in the South above three-sevenths, of the total + vote cast. + + [8] Note the presidential vote. Seward's loss of the Republican + nomination was partly due to Know Nothing hostility. + + [9] Its firmest hold was in Maryland. Its rule in Baltimore + (1854-1860) was marked by disgraceful riots and abuses. + + + + +KNOX, HENRY (1750-1806), American general, was born in Boston, +Massachusetts, of Scottish-Irish parentage, on the 25th of July 1750. He +was prominent in the colonial militia and tried to keep the Boston crowd +and the British soldiers from the clash known as the Boston massacre +(1770). In 1771 he opened the "London Book-Store" in Boston. He had read +much of tactics and strategy, joined the American army at the outbreak +of the War of Independence, and fought at Bunker Hill, planned the +defences of the camps of the army before Boston, and brought from Lake +George and border forts much-needed artillery. At Trenton he crossed the +river before the main body, and in the attack rendered such good service +that he was made brigadier-general and chief of artillery in the +Continental army on the following day. He was present at Princeton; was +chiefly responsible for the mistake in attacking the "Chew House" at +Germantown; urged New York as the objective of the campaign of 1778; +served with efficiency at Monmouth and at Yorktown; and after the +surrender of Cornwallis was promoted major-general, and served as a +commissioner on the exchange of prisoners. His services throughout the +war were of great value to the American cause; he was one of General +Washington's most trusted advisers, and he brought the artillery to a +high degree of efficiency. From December 1783 until June 1784 he was the +senior officer of the United States army. In April 1783 he had drafted a +scheme of a society to be formed by the American officers and the French +officers who had served in America during the war, and to be called the +"Cincinnati"; of this society he was the first secretary-general +(1783-1799) and in 1805 became vice-president-general. In 1785-1794 Knox +was secretary of war, being the first man to hold this position after +the organization of the Federal government in 1789. He urged +ineffectually a national militia system, to enroll all citizens over 18 +and under 60 in the "advanced corps," the "main corps" or the "reserve," +and for this and his close friendship with Washington was bitterly +assailed by the Republicans. In 1793 he had begun to build his house, +Montpelier, at Thomaston, Maine, where he speculated unsuccessfully in +the holdings of the Eastern Land Association; and he lived there until +his death on the 25th of October 1806. + + See F. S. Drake, _Memoir of General Henry Knox_ (Boston, 1873); and + Noah Brooks, _Henry Knox_ (New York, 1900) in the "American Men of + Energy" series. + + + + +KNOX, JOHN (c. 1505-1572), Scottish reformer and historian. Of his early +life very little is certainly known, in spite of the fact that his +_History of the Reformation_ and his private letters, especially the +latter, are often vividly autobiographical. Even the year of his birth, +usually given as 1505, is matter of dispute. Beza, in his _Icones_, +published in 1580, makes it 1515; Sir Peter Young (tutor to James VI. of +Scotland), writing to Beza from Edinburgh in 1579, says 1513; and a +strong case has been made out for holding that the generally accepted +date is due to an error in transcription (see Dr Hay Fleming in the +_Bookman_, Sept. 1905). But Knox seems to have been reticent about his +early life, even to his contemporaries. What is known is that he was a +son of William Knox, who lived in or near the town of Haddington, that +his mother's name was Sinclair, and that his forefathers on both sides +had fought under the banner of the Bothwells. William Knox was "simple," +not "gentle"--perhaps a prosperous East Lothian peasant. But he sent his +son John to school (no doubt the well-known grammar school of +Haddington), and thereafter to the university, where, like his +contemporary George Buchanan, he sat "at the feet" of John Major. Major +was a native of Haddington, who had recently returned to Scotland from +Paris with a great academical reputation. He retained to the last, as +his _History of Greater Britain_ shows, the repugnance characteristic of +the university of Paris to the tyranny of kings and nobles; but like it, +he was now alarmed by the revolt of Luther, and ceased to urge its +ancient protest against the supremacy of the pope. He exchanged his +"regency" or professorship in Glasgow University for one in that of St +Andrews in 1523. If Knox's college time was later than that date (as it +must have been, if he was born near 1515), it was no doubt spent, as +Beza narrates, at St Andrews, and probably exclusively there. But in +Major's last Glasgow session a "Joannes Knox" (not an uncommon name, +however, at that time in the west of Scotland) matriculated there; and +if this were the future reformer, he may thereafter either have followed +his master to St Andrews or returned from Glasgow straight to +Haddington. But till twenty years after that date his career has not +been again traced. Then he reappears in his native district as a priest +without a university degree (Sir John Knox) and a notary of the diocese +of St Andrews. In 1543 he certainly signed himself "minister of the +sacred altar" under the archbishop of St Andrews. But in 1546 he was +carrying a two-handed sword in defence of the reformer George Wishart, +on the day when the latter was arrested by the archbishop's order. Knox +would have resisted, though the arrest was by his feudal superior, Lord +Bothwell; but Wishart himself commanded his submission, with the words +"One is sufficient for a sacrifice," and was handed over for trial at St +Andrews. And next year the archbishop himself had been murdered, and +Knox was preaching in St Andrews a fully developed Protestantism. + +Knox gives us no information as to how this startling change in himself +was brought about. During those twenty years Scotland had been slowly +tending to freedom in religious profession, and to friendship with +England rather than with France. The Scottish hierarchy, by this time +corrupt and even profligate, saw the twofold danger and met it firmly. +James V., the "Commons' King" had put himself into the hands of the +Beatons, who in 1528 burned Patrick Hamilton. On James's death there was +a slight reaction, but the cardinal-archbishop took possession of the +weak regent Arran, and in 1546 burned George Wishart. England had by +this time rejected the pope's supremacy. In Scotland by a recent statute +it was death even to argue against it; and Knox after Wishart's +execution was fleeing from place to place, when, hearing that certain +gentlemen of Fife had slain the cardinal and were in possession of his +castle of St Andrews, he gladly joined himself to them. In St Andrews he +taught "John's Gospel" and a certain catechism--probably that which +Wishart had got from "Helvetia" and translated; but his teaching was +supposed to be private and tutorial and for the benefit of his friends' +"bairns." The men about him however--among them Sir David Lindsay of the +Mount, "Lyon King" and poet--saw his capacity for greater things, and, +on his at first refusing "to run where God had not called him," planned +a solemn appeal to Knox from the pulpit to accept "the public office and +charge of preaching." At the close of it the speaker (in Knox's own +narrative) "said to those that were present, 'Was not this your charge +to me? And do ye not approve this vocation?' They answered, 'It was, and +we approve it.' Whereat the said Johnne, abashed, burst forth in most +abundant tears and withdrew himself to his chamber," remaining there in +"heaviness" for days, until he came forth resolved and prepared. Knox is +probably not wrong in regarding this strange incident as the spring of +his own public life. The St Andrews invitation was really one to danger +and death; John Rough, who spoke it, died a few years after in the +flames at Smithfield. But it was a call which many in that ardent dawn +were ready to accept, and it had now at length found, or made, a +statesman and leader of men. For what to the others was chiefly a +promise of personal salvation became for the indomitable will of Knox an +assurance also of victory, even in this world, over embattled forces of +ancient wrong. It is certain at least that from this date he never +changed and scarcely even varied his public course. And looking back +upon that course afterwards, he records with much complacency how his +earliest St Andrews sermon built up a whole fabric of aggressive +Protestantism upon Puritan theory, so that his startled hearers +muttered, "Others sned (snipped) the branches; this man strikes at the +root." + +Meantime the system attacked was safe for other thirteen years. In June +1547 St Andrews yielded to the French fleet, and the prisoners, +including Knox, were thrown into the galleys on the Loire, to remain in +irons and under the lash for at least nineteen months. Released at last +(apparently through the influence of the young English king, Edward +VI.), Knox was appointed one of the licensed preachers of the new faith +for England, and stationed in the great garrison of Berwick, and +afterwards at Newcastle. In 1551 he seems to have been made a royal +chaplain; in 1552 he was certainly offered an English bishopric, which +he declined; and during most of this year he used his influence, as +preacher at court and in London, to make the new English settlement more +Protestant. To him at least is due the Prayer-book rubric which explains +that, when kneeling at the sacrament is ordered, "no adoration is +intended or ought to be done." While in Northumberland Knox had been +betrothed to Margaret Bowes, one of the fifteen children of Richard +Bowes, the captain of Norham Castle. Her mother, Elizabeth, co-heiress +of Aske in Yorkshire, was the earliest of that little band of +women-friends whose correspondence with Knox on religious matters throws +an unexpected light on his discriminating tenderness of heart. But now +Mary Tudor succeeded her brother, and Knox in March 1554 escaped into +five years' exile abroad, leaving Mrs. Bowes a fine treatise on +"Affliction," and sending back to England two editions of a more acrid +"Faithful Admonition" on the crisis there. He first drifted to +Frankfort, where the English congregation divided as English Protestants +have always done, and the party opposed to Knox got rid of him at last +by a complaint to the authorities of treason against the emperor Charles +V. as well as Philip and Mary. At Geneva he found a more congenial +pastorate. Christopher Goodman (c. 1520-1603) and he, with other exiles, +began there the Puritan tradition, and prepared the earlier English +version of the Bible, "the household book of the English-speaking +nations" during the great age of Elizabeth. Here, and afterwards at +Dieppe (where he preached in French), Knox kept in communication with +the other Reformers, studied Greek and Hebrew in the interest of +theology, and having brought his wife and her mother from England in +1555 lived for years a peaceful life. + +But even here Knox was preparing for Scotland, and facing the +difficulties of the future, theoretical as well as practical. In his +first year abroad he consulted Calvin and Bullinger as to the right of +the civil "authority" to prescribe religion to his subjects--in +particular, whether the godly should obey "a magistrate who enforces +idolatry and condemns true religion," and whom should they join "in the +case of a religious nobility resisting an idolatrous sovereign." In +August 1555 be visited his native country and found the queen-mother, +Mary of Lorraine, acting as regent in place of the real "sovereign," the +youthful and better-known Mary, now being brought up at the court of +France. Scripture-reading and the new views had spread widely, and the +regent was disposed to wink at this in the case of the "religious +nobility." Knox was accordingly allowed to preach privately for six +months throughout the south of Scotland, and was listened to with an +enthusiasm which made him break out, "O sweet were the death which +should follow such forty days in Edinburgh as here I have had three!" +Before leaving he even addressed a letter to the regent, urging her to +favour the Evangel. She accepted it jocularly as a "pasquil," and Knox +on his departure was condemned and burned in effigy. But he left behind +him a "Wholesome Counsel" to Scottish heads of families, reminding them +that within their own houses they were "bishop and kings," and +recommending the institution of something like the early apostolic +worship in private congregations. Of the Protestant barons Knox, though +in exile, seems to have been henceforward the chief adviser; and before +the end of 1557 they, under the name of the "Lords of the Congregation," +had entered into the first of the religious "bands" or "covenants" +afterwards famous in Scotland. In 1558 he published his "Appellation" to +the nobles, estates and commonalty against the sentence of death +recently pronounced upon him, and along with it a stirring appeal "To +his beloved brethren, the Commonalty of Scotland," urging that the care +of religion fell to them also as being "God's creatures, created and +formed in His own image," and having a right to defend their conscience +against persecution. About this time, indeed, there was in Scotland a +remarkable approximation to that solution of the toleration difficulty +which later ages have approved; for the regent was understood to favour +the demand of the "congregation" that at least the penal statutes +against heretics "be suspended and abrogated," and "that it be lawful to +us to use ourselves in matters of religion and conscience as we must +answer to God." It was a consummation too ideal for that early date; and +next year the regent, whose daughter was now queen of France and there +mixed up with the persecuting policy of the Guises, forbade the reformed +preaching in Scotland. A rupture ensued at once, and Knox appeared in +Edinburgh on the 2nd of May 1559 "even in the brunt of the battle." He +was promptly "blown to the horn" at the Cross there as an outlaw, but +escaped to Dundee, and commenced public preaching in the chief towns of +central Scotland. At Perth and at St Andrews his sermons were followed +by the destruction of the monasteries, institutions disliked in that age +in Scotland alike by the devout and the profane. But while he notes that +in Perth the act was that of "the rascal multitude," he was glad to +claim in St Andrews the support of the civic "authority"; and indeed the +burghs, which were throughout Europe generally in favour of freedom, +soon became in Scotland a main support of the Reformation. Edinburgh was +still doubtful, and the queen regent held the castle; but a truce +between her and the lords for six months to the 1st of January 1560 was +arranged on the footing that every man there "may have freedom to use +his own conscience to the day foresaid"--a freedom interpreted to let +Knox and his brethren preach publicly and incessantly. + +Scotland, like its capital, was divided. Both parties lapsed from the +freedom-of-conscience solution to which each when unsuccessful appealed; +both betook themselves to arms; and the immediate future of the little +kingdom was to be decided by its external alliances. Knox now took a +leading part in the great transaction by which the friendship of France +was exchanged for that of England. He had one serious difficulty. Before +Elizabeth's accession to the English crown, and after the queen mother +in Scotland had disappointed his hopes, he had published a treatise +against what he called "The Monstrous Regiment (regimen or government) +of Women"; though the despotism of that despotic age was scarcely +appreciably worse when it happened to be in female hands. Elizabeth +never forgave him; but Cecil corresponded with the Scottish lords, and +their answer in July 1559, in Knox's handwriting, assures England not +only of their own constancy, but of "a charge and commandment to our +posterity, that the amity and league between you and us, contracted and +begun in Christ Jesus, may by them be kept inviolated for ever." The +league was promised by England; but the army of France was first in the +field, and towards the end of the year drove the forces of the +"congregation" from Leith into Edinburgh, and then out of it in a +midnight rout to Stirling--"that dark and dolorous night," as Knox long +afterwards said, "wherein all ye, my lords, with shame and fear left +this town," and from which only a memorable sermon by their great +preacher roused the despairing multitude into new hope. Their leaders +renounced allegiance to the regent; she ended her not unkindly, but as +Knox calls it "unhappy," life in the castle of Edinburgh; the English +troops, after the usual Elizabethan delays and evasions, joined their +Scots allies; and the French embarked from Leith. On the 6th of July +1560 a treaty was at last made, nominally between Elizabeth and the +queen of France and Scotland; while Cecil instructed his mistress's +plenipotentiaries to agree "that the government of Scotland be granted +to the nation of the land." The revolution was in the meantime complete; +and Knox, who takes credit for having done much to end the enmity with +England which was so long thought necessary for Scotland's independence, +was strangely enough destined, beyond all other men, to leave the stamp +of a more inward independence upon his country and its history. + +At the first meeting of the Estates, in August 1560, the Protestants +were invited to present a confession of their faith. Knox and three +others drafted it, and were present when it was offered and read to the +parliament. The statute-book says it was "by the estates of Scotland +ratified and approved, as wholesome and sound doctrine grounded upon the +infallible truth of God's word." The Scots confession, though of course +drawn up independently, is in substantial accord with the others then +springing up in the countries of the Reformation, but is Calvinist +rather than Lutheran. It remained for two centuries the authorized +Scottish creed, though in the first instance the faith of only a +fragment of the people. Yet its approval became the basis for three acts +passed a week later; the first of which, abolishing the pope's authority +and jurisdiction in Scotland, may perhaps have been consistent with +toleration, as the second, rescinding old statutes which had established +and enforced that and other catholic tenets, undoubtedly was. But the +third, inflicting heavy penalties, with death on a third conviction, on +those who should celebrate mass or even be present at it, showed that +the reformer and his friends had crossed the line, and that their +position could no longer be described as, in Knox's words, "requiring +nothing but the liberty of conscience, and our religion and fact to be +tried by the word of God." He was prepared indeed to fall back upon +that, in the event of the Estates at any time refusing sanction to +either church or creed, as their sovereign in Paris promptly refused it. +But the parliament of 1560 gave no express sanction to the Reformed +Church, and Knox did not wait until it should do so. Already "in our +towns and places reformed," as the Confession puts it, there were local +or "particular kirks," and these grew and spread and were provincially +united, till, in the last month of this memorable year, the first +General Assembly of their representatives met, and became the "universal +kirk," or "the whole church convened." It had before it the plan for +church government and maintenance, drafted in August at the same time +with the Confession, under the name of _The Book of Discipline_, and by +the same framers. Knox was even more clearly in this case the chief +author, and he had by this time come to desire a much more rigid +Presbyterianism than he had sketched in his "Wholesome Counsel" of 1555. +In planning it he seems to have used his acquaintance with the +"Ordonnances" of the Genevan Church under Calvin, and with the "Forma" +of the German Church in London under John Laski (or A. Lasco). Starting +with "truth" contained in Scripture as the church's foundation, and the +Word and Sacraments as means of building it up, it provides ministers +and elders to be elected by the congregations, with a subordinate class +of "readers," and by their means sermons and prayers each "Sunday" in +every parish. In large towns these were to be also on other days, with a +weekly meeting for conference or "prophesying." The "plantation" of new +churches is to go on everywhere under the guidance of higher church +officers called superintendents. All are to help their brethren, "for no +man may be permitted to live as best pleaseth him within the Church of +God." And above all things the young and the ignorant are to be +instructed, the former by a regular gradation or ladder of parish or +elementary schools, secondary schools and universities. Even the poor +were to be fed by the Church's hands; and behind its moral influence, +and a discipline over both poor and rich, was to be not only the +coercive authority of the civil power but its money. Knox had from the +first proclaimed that "the teinds (tithes of yearly fruits) by God's law +do not appertain of necessity to the kirkmen." And this book now demands +that out of them "must not only the ministers be sustained, but also the +poor and schools." But Knox broadens his plan so as to claim also the +property which had been really gifted to the Church by princes and +nobles--given by them indeed, as he held, without any moral right and to +the injury of the people, yet so as to be Church patrimony. From all +such property, whether land or the sheaves and fruits of land, and also +from the personal property of burghers in the towns, Knox now held that +the state should authorize the kirk to claim the salaries of the +ministers, and the salaries of teachers in the schools and universities, +but above all, the relief of the poor--not only of the absolutely +"indigent" but of "your poor brethren, the labourers and handworkers of +the ground." For the danger now was that some gentlemen were already +cruel in exactions of their tenants, "requiring of them whatever before +they paid to the Church, so that the papistical tyranny shall only be +changed into the tyranny of the lords or of the laird." The danger +foreseen alike to the new Church, and to the commonalty and poor, began +to be fulfilled a month later, when the lords, some of whom had already +acquired, as others were about to acquire, much of the Church property, +declined to make any of it over for Knox's magnificent scheme. It was, +they said, "a devout imagination." Seven years afterwards, however, when +the contest with the Crown was ended, the kirk was expressly +acknowledged as the only Church in Scotland, and jurisdiction given it +over all who should attempt to be outsiders; while the preaching of the +Evangel and the planting of congregations went on in all the accessible +parts of Scotland. Gradually too stipends for most Scottish parishes +were assigned to the ministers out of the yearly _teinds_; and the +Church received--what it retained even down to recent times--the +administration both of the public schools and of the Poor Law of +Scotland. But the victorious rush of 1560 was already somewhat stayed, +and the very next year raised the question whether the transfer of +intolerance to the side of the new faith was as wise as it had at first +seemed to be successful. + +Mary Queen of Scots had been for a short time also queen of France, and +in 1561 returned to her native land, a young widow on whom the eyes of +Europe were fixed. Knox's objections to the "regiment of women" were +theoretical, and in the present case he hoped at first for the best, +favouring rather his queen's marriage with the heir of the house of +Hamilton. Mary had put herself into the hands of her half-brother, Lord +James Stuart afterwards earl of Moray, the only man who could perhaps +have pulled her through. A proclamation now continued the "state of +religion" begun the previous year; but mass was celebrated in the +queen's household, and Lord James himself defended it with his sword +against Protestant intrusion. Knox publicly protested; and Moray, who +probably understood and liked both parties, brought the preacher to the +presence of his queen. There is nothing revealed to us by "the broad +clear light of that wonderful book,"[1] _The History of the Reformation +in Scotland_, more remarkable than the four Dialogues or interviews, +which, though recorded only by Knox, bear the strongest stamp of truth, +and do almost more justice to his opponent than to himself. Mary took +the aggressive and very soon raised the real question. "Ye have taught +the people to receive another religion than their princes can allow; and +how can that doctrine be of God, seeing that God commands subjects to +obey their princes?" The point was made keener by the fact that Knox's +own Confession of Faith (like all those of that age, in which an +unbalanced monarchical power culminated) had held kings to be appointed +"for maintenance of the true religion," and suppression of the false; +and the reformer now fell back on his more fundamental principle, that +"right religion took neither original nor authority from worldly +princes, but from the Eternal God alone." All through this dialogue too, +as in another at Lochleven two years afterwards, Knox was driven to +axioms, not of religion but of constitutionalism, which Buchanan and he +may have learned from their teacher Major, but which were not to be +accepted till a later age. "'Think ye,' quoth she, 'that subjects, +having power, may resist their princes?' 'If their princes exceed their +bounds, Madam, they may be resisted and even deposed,'" Knox replied. +But these dialectics, creditable to both parties, had little effect upon +the general situation. Knox had gone too far in intolerance, and Moray +and Maitland of Lethington gradually withdrew their support. The court +and parliament, guided by them, declined to press the queen or to pass +the Book of Discipline; and meantime the negotiations as to the queen's +marriage with a Spanish, a French or an Austrian prince revealed the +real difficulty and peril of the situation. Her marriage to a great +Catholic prince would be ruinous to Scotland, probably also to England, +and perhaps to all Protestantism. Knox had already by letter formally +broken with the earl of Moray, "committing you to your own wit, and to +the conducting of those who better please you"; and now, in one of his +greatest sermons before the assembled lords, he drove at the heart of +the situation--the risk of a Catholic marriage. The queen sent for him +for the last time and burst into passionate tears as she asked, "What +have you to do with my marriage? Or what are you within this +commonwealth?" "A subject born within the same," was the answer of the +son of the East Lothian peasant; and the Scottish nobility, while +thinking him overbold, refused to find him guilty of any crime, even +when, later on, he had "convocated the lieges" to Edinburgh to meet a +crown prosecution. In 1564 a change came. Mary had wearied of her +guiding statesmen, Moray and the more pliant Maitland; the Italian +secretary David Rizzio, through whom she had corresponded with the pope, +now more and more usurped their place; and a weak fancy for her handsome +cousin, Henry Darnley, brought about a sudden marriage in 1565 and swept +the opposing Protestant lords into exile. Darnley, though a Catholic, +thought it well to go to Knox's preaching; but was so unfortunate as to +hear a very long sermon, with allusions not only to "babes and women" as +rulers, but to Ahab who did not control his strong-minded wife. Mary and +the lords still in her council ordered Knox not to preach while she was +in Edinburgh, and he was absent or silent during the weeks in which the +queen's growing distaste for her husband, and advancement of Rizzio over +the nobility remaining in Edinburgh, brought about the conspiracy by +Darnley, Morton and Ruthven. Knox does not seem to have known beforehand +of Rizzio's "slaughter," which had been intended to be a semi-judicial +act; but soon after it he records that "that vile knave Davie was justly +punished, for abusing of the commonwealth, and for other villainy which +we list not to express." The immediate effect however of what Knox thus +approved was to bring his cause to its lowest ebb, and on the very day +when Mary rode from Holyrood to her army, he sat down and penned the +prayer, "Lord Jesus, put an end to this my miserable life, for justice +and truth are not to be found among the sons of men!" He added a short +autobiographic fragment, whose mingled self-abasement and exultation are +not unworthy of its striking title--"John Knox, with deliberate mind, to +his God." During the rest of the year he was hidden in Ayrshire or +elsewhere, and throughout 1566 he was forbidden to preach when the court +was in Edinburgh. But he was influential at the December Assembly in the +capital where a greater tragedy was now preparing, for Mary's +infatuation for Bothwell was visible to all. At the Assembly's request, +however, Knox undertook a long visit to England, where his two sons by +his first wife were being educated, and were afterwards to be Fellows of +St John's, Cambridge, the younger becoming a parish clergyman. It was +thus during the reformer's absence that the murder of Darnley, the +abduction and subsequent marriage of Mary, the flight of Bothwell, and +the imprisonment in Lochleven of the queen, unrolled themselves before +the eyes of Scotland. Knox returned in time to guide the Assembly which +sat on the 25th of June 1567 in dealing with this unparalleled crisis, +and to wind up the revolution by preaching at Stirling on the 9th of +July 1567, after Mary's abdication, at the coronation of the infant +king. + +His main work was now really done; for the parliament of 1567 made Moray +regent, and Knox was only too glad to have his old friend back in power, +though they seem to have differed on the question whether the queen +should be allowed to pass into retirement without trial for her +husband's death, as they had differed all along on the question of +tolerating her private religion. Knox's victory had not come too early, +for his physical strength soon began to fail. But Mary's escape in 1568 +resulted only in her defeat at Langside, and in a long imprisonment and +death in England. In Scotland the regent's assassination in 1570 opened +a miserable civil war, but it made no permanent change. The massacre of +St Bartholomew rather united English and Scottish Protestantism; and +Knox in St Giles' pulpit, challenging the French ambassador to report +his words, denounced God's vengeance on the crowned murderer and his +posterity. When open war broke out between Edinburgh Castle, held by +Mary's friends, and the town, held for her son, both parties agreed that +the reformer, who had already had a stroke of paralysis, should remove +to St Andrews. While there he wrote his will, and published his last +book, in the preface to which he says, "I heartily take my good-night of +the faithful of both realms ... for as the world is weary of me, so am I +of it." And when he now merely signs his name, it is "John Knox, with my +dead hand and glad heart." In the autumn of 1572 he returned to +Edinburgh to die, probably in the picturesque house in the "throat of +the Bow," which for generations has been called by his name. With him +were his wife and three young daughters; for though he had lost Margaret +Bowes at the close of his year of triumph 1560, he had four years after +married Margaret Stewart, a daughter of his friend Lord Ochiltree. She +was a bride of only seventeen and was related to the royal house; yet, +as his Catholic biographer put it, "by sorcery and witchcraft he did so +allure that poor gentlewoman that she could not live without him." But +lords, ladies and burghers also crowded around his bed, and his +colleague and his servant have severally transmitted to us the words in +which his weakness daily strove with pain, rising on the day before his +death into a solemn exultation--yet characteristically, not so much on +his own account as for "the troubled Church of God." He died on the 24th +of November 1572, and at his funeral in St Giles' Churchyard the new +Regent Morton, speaking under the hostile guns of the castle, expressed +the first surprise of those around as they looked back on that stormy +life, that one who had "neither flattered nor feared any flesh" had now +"ended his days in peace and honour." Knox himself had a short time +before put in writing a larger claim for the historic future, "What I +have been to my country, though this unthankful age will not know, yet +the ages to come will be compelled to bear witness to the truth." + +Knox was a rather small man, with a well-knit body; he had a powerful +face, with dark blue eyes under a ridge of eyebrow, high cheek-bones, +and a long black beard which latterly turned grey. This description, +taken from a letter in 1579 by his junior contemporary Sir Peter Young, +is very like Beza's fine engraving of him in the _Icones_--an engraving +probably founded on a portrait which was to be sent by Young to Beza +along with the letter. The portrait, which was unfortunately adopted by +Carlyle, has neither pedigree nor probability. After his two years in +the French galleys, if not before, Knox suffered permanently from gravel +and dyspepsia, and he confesses that his nature "was for the most part +oppressed with melancholy." Yet he was always a hard worker; as sole +minister of Edinburgh studying for two sermons on Sunday and three +during the week, besides having innumerable cares of churches at home +and abroad. He was undoubtedly sincere in his religious faith, and most +disinterested in his devotion to it and to the good of his countrymen. +But like too many of them, he was self-conscious, self-willed and +dogmatic; and his transformation in middle life, while it immensely +enriched his sympathies as well as his energies, left him unable to put +himself in the place of those who retained the views which he had +himself held. All his training too, university, priestly and in foreign +parts, tended to make him logical overmuch. But this was mitigated by a +strong sense of humour (not always sarcastic, though sometimes savagely +so), and by tenderness, best seen in his epistolary friendships with +women; and it was quite overborne by an instinct and passion for great +practical affairs. Hence it was that Knox as a statesman so often struck +successfully at the centre of the complex motives of his time, leaving +it to later critics to reconcile his theories of action. But hence too +he more than once took doubtful shortcuts to some of his most important +ends; giving the ministry within the new Church more power over laymen +than Protestant principles would suggest, and binding the masses outside +who were not members of it, equally with their countrymen who were, to +join in its worship, submit to its jurisdiction, and contribute to its +support. And hence also his style (which contemporaries called +anglicized and modern), though it occasionally rises into liturgical +beauty, and often flashes into vivid historical portraiture, is +generally kept close to the harsh necessities of the few years in which +he had to work for the future. That work was indeed chiefly done by the +living voice; and in speaking, this "one man," as Elizabeth's very +critical ambassador wrote from Edinburgh, was "able in one hour to put +more life in us than five hundred trumpets continually blustering in our +ears." But even his eloquence was constraining and constructive--a +personal call for immediate and universal co-operation; and that +personal influence survives to this day in the institutions of his +people, and perhaps still more in their character. His countrymen indeed +have always believed that to Knox more than to any other man Scotland +owes her political and religious individuality. And since his 19th +century biography by Dr Thomas McCrie, or at least since his recognition +in the following generation by Thomas Carlyle, the same view has taken +its place in literature. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Knox's books, pamphlets, public documents and letters + are collected into the great edition in six volumes of _Knox's Works_, + by David Laing (Edinburgh, 1846-1864), with introductions, appendices + and notes. Of his books the chief are the following: 1.--_The History + of the Reformation in Scotland_, incorporating the Confession and the + Book of Discipline. Begun by Knox as a party manifesto in 1560, it was + continued and revised by himself in 1566 as so to form four books, + with a fifth book apparently written after his death from materials + left by him. It was partly printed in London in 1586 by Vautrollier, + but was suppressed by authority and published by David Buchanan, with + a _Life_, in 1664. 2.--_On Predestination: an Answer to an Anabaptist_ + (London, 1591). 3.--_On Prayer_ (1554). 4.--_On Affliction_ (1556). + 5.--_Epistles_, and _Admonition_, both to English Brethren in 1554. + 6.--_The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of + Women_ (1558). 7.--_An Answer to a Scottish Jesuit_ (1572). + + Knox's life is more or less touched upon by all the Scottish histories + and Church histories which include his period, as well as in the mass + of literature as to Queen Mary. Dr Laing's edition of the _Works_ + contains important biographical material. But among the many express + biographies two especially should be consulted--those by Thomas McCrie + (Edinburgh, 1811; revised and enlarged in 1813, the later editions + containing valuable notes by the author); and by P. Hume Brown + (Edinburgh, 1895). _John Knox and the Reformation_, by Andrew Lang + (London, 1905), is not so much a biography as a collection of + materials, bearing upon many parts of the life, but nearly all on the + unfavourable side. (A. T. I.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] John Hill Burton (_Hist. of Scotland_, iii. 339). Mr Burton's + view (differing from that of Professor Hume Brown) was that the + dialogues--the earlier of them at least--must have been spoken in the + French tongue, in which Knox had recently preached for a year. + + + + +KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE (1853- ), American lawyer and political leader, +was born in Brownsville, Pennsylvania, on the 4th of May 1853. He +graduated from Mount Union College (Ohio) in 1872, and was admitted to +the Pennsylvania bar in 1875. He settled in Pittsburg, where he +continued in private practice, with the exception of two years' service +(1876-1877) as assistant United States district attorney, acquiring a +large practice as a corporation lawyer. In April 1901 he became +attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet of President +McKinley, and retained this position after the accession of President +Roosevelt until June 1904, when he was appointed by Governor Pennypacker +of Pennsylvania to fill the unexpired term of Matthew S. Quay in the +United States Senate; in 1905 he was re-elected to the Senate for the +full term. In March 1909 he became secretary of state in the cabinet of +President Taft. + + + + +KNOXVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Knox county, Tennessee, U.S.A., +in the E. part of the state, 160 m. E. of Nashville, and about 190 m. +S.E. of Louisville, Kentucky, on the right bank of the Tennessee river, +4 m. below the point where it is formed by the junction of the French +Broad and Holston Rivers. Pop. (1880), 9693; (1890), 22,535; (1900), +32,637, of whom 7359 were negroes and 895 were foreign-born; (1910 +census), 36,346. It is served by the main line and by branches of the +Louisville & Nashville and the Southern railways, by the Knoxville & +Bristol railway (Morristown to Knoxville, 58 m.), by the short Knoxville +& Augusta railroad (Knoxville to Walland, 26 m.), and by passenger and +freight steamboat lines on the Tennessee river, which is here navigable +for the greater part of the year. A steel and concrete street-car bridge +crosses the Tennessee at Knoxville. Knoxville is picturesquely situated +at an elevation of from 850 to 1000 ft. in the valley between the Smoky +Mountains and the Cumberland Mountains, and is one of the healthiest +cities in the United States. There are several beautiful parks, of which +Chilhowie and Fountain City are the largest, and among the public +buildings are a city-hall, Federal building, court-house, the Knoxville +general hospital, the Lincoln memorial hospital, the Margaret McClung +industrial home, a Young Men's Christian Association building and the +Lawson-McGhee public library. A monument to John Sevier stands on the +site of the blockhouse first built there. Knoxville is the seat of +Knoxville College (United Presbyterian, 1875) for negroes, East +Tennessee institute, a secondary school for girls, the Baker-Himel +school for boys, Tennessee Medical College (1889), two commercial +schools and the university of Tennessee. The last, a state +co-educational institution, was chartered as Blount College in 1794 and +as East Tennessee College in 1807, but not opened until 1820--the +present name was adopted in 1879. It had in 1907-1908 106 instructors, +755 students (536 in academic departments), and a library of 25,000 +volumes. With the university is combined the state college of +agriculture and engineering; and a large summer school for teachers is +maintained. At Knoxville are the Eastern State insane asylum, state +asylums for the deaf and dumb (for both white and negro), and a national +cemetery in which more than 3200 soldiers are buried. Knoxville is an +important commercial and industrial centre and does a large jobbing +business. It is near hardwood forests and is an important market for +hardwood mantels. Coal-mines in the vicinity produce more than 2,000,000 +tons annually, and neighbouring quarries furnish the famous Tennessee +marble, which is largely exported. Excellent building and pottery clays +are found near Knoxville. Among the city's industrial establishments are +flour and grist mills, cotton and woollen mills, furniture, desk, office +supplies and sash, door, and blind factories, meat-packing +establishments, clothing factories, iron, steel and boiler works, +foundries and machine shops, stove works and brick and cement works. The +value of the factory product increased from $6,201,840 in 1900 to +$12,432,880 in 1905, or 100.5%, in 1905 the value of the flour and grist +mill products alone being $2,048,509. Just outside the city the Southern +railway maintains large car and repair shops. Knoxville was settled in +1786 by James White (1737-1815), a North Carolina pioneer, and was first +known as "White's Fort"; it was laid out as a town in 1791, and named in +honour of General Henry Knox, then secretary of war in Washington's +cabinet. In 1791 the _Knoxville Gazette_, the first newspaper in +Tennessee (the early issue, printed at Rogersville) began publication. +From 1792 to 1796 Knoxville was the capital of the "Territory South of +the Ohio," and until 1811 and again in 1817 it was the capital of the +state. In 1796 the convention which framed the constitution of the new +state of Tennessee met here, and here later in the same year the first +state legislature was convened. Knoxville was chartered as a city in +1815. In its early years it was several times attacked by the Indians, +but was never captured. During the Civil War there was considerable +Union sentiment in East Tennessee, and in the summer of 1863 the Federal +authorities determined to take possession of Knoxville as well as +Chattanooga and to interrupt railway communications between the +Confederates of the East and West through this region. As the +Confederates had erected only slight defences for the protection of the +city, Burnside, with about 12,000 men, easily gained possession on the +2nd of September 1863. Fortifications were immediately begun for its +defence, and on the 4th of November, Bragg, thinking his position at +Chattanooga impregnable against Grant, Sherman, Thomas and Hooker, +despatched a force of 20,000 men under Longstreet to engage Burnside. +Longstreet arrived in the vicinity on the 16th of November, and on the +following day began a siege, which was continued with numerous assaults +until the 28th, when a desperate but unsuccessful attack was made on +Fort Sanders, and upon the approach of a relief force under Sherman, +Longstreet withdrew on the night of the 4th of December. The Confederate +losses during the siege were 182 killed, 768 wounded and 192 captured or +missing; the Union losses were 92 killed, 394 wounded and 207 captured +or missing. West Knoxville (incorporated in 1888) and North Knoxville +(incorporated in 1889) were annexed to Knoxville in 1898. + + See the sketch by Joshua W. Caldwell in _Historic Towns of the + Southern States_, edited by L. P. Powell (New York, 1900); and W. + Rule, G. F. Mellen and J. Wooldridge, _Standard History of Knoxville_ + (Chicago, 1900). + + + + +KNUCKLE (apparently the diminutive of a word for "bone," found in Ger. +_Knochen_), the joint of a finger, which, when the hand is shut, is +brought into prominence. In mechanical use the word is applied to the +round projecting part of a hinge through which the pin is run, and in +ship-building to an acute angle on some of the timbers. A +"knuckle-duster," said to have originally come from the criminal slang +of the United States, is a brass or metal instrument fitting on to the +hand across the knuckles, with projecting studs and used for inflicting +a brutal blow. + + + + +KNUCKLEBONES (HUCKLEBONES, DIBS, JACKSTONES, CHUCK-STONES, FIVE-STONES), +a game of very ancient origin, played with five small objects, +originally the knucklebones of a sheep, which are thrown up and caught +in various ways. Modern "knucklebones" consist of six points, or knobs, +proceeding from a common base, and are usually of metal. The winner is +he who first completes successfully a prescribed series of throws, +which, while of the same general character, differ widely in detail. The +simplest consists in tossing up one stone, the _jack_, and picking up +one or more from the table while it is in the air; and so on until all +five stones have been picked up. Another consists in tossing up first +one stone, then two, then three and so on, and catching them on the back +of the hand. Different throws have received distinctive names, such as +"riding the elephant," "peas in the pod," and "horses in the stable." + +The origin of knucklebones is closely connected with that of dice, of +which it is probably a primitive form, and is doubtless Asiatic. +Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed the invention of draughts and +knucklebones (_astragaloi_) to Palamedes, who taught them to his Greek +countrymen during the Trojan War. Both the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ +contain allusions to games similar in character to knucklebones, and the +Palamedes tradition, as flattering to the national pride, was generally +accepted throughout Greece, as is indicated by numerous literary and +plastic evidences. Thus Pausanias (_Corinth_ xx.) mentions a temple of +Fortune in which Palamedes made an offering of his newly invented game. +According to a still more ancient tradition, Zeus, perceiving that +Ganymede longed for his playmates upon Mount Ida, gave him Eros for a +companion and golden dibs with which to play, and even condescended +sometimes to join in the game (Apollonius). It is significant, however, +that both Herodotus and Plato ascribe to the game a foreign origin. +Plato (_Phaedrus_) names the Egyptian god Theuth as its inventor, while +Herodotus relates that the Lydians, during a period of famine in the +days of King Atys, originated this game and indeed almost all other +games except chess. There were two methods of playing in ancient times. +The first, and probably the primitive method, consisted in tossing up +and catching the bones on the back of the hand, very much as the game +is played to-day. In the Museum of Naples may be seen a painting +excavated at Pompeii, which represents the goddesses Latona, Niobe, +Phoebe, Aglaia and Hileaera, the last two being engaged in playing at +Knucklebones (see GREEK ART, fig. 42). According to an epigram of +Asclepiodotus, astragals were given as prizes to school-children, and we +are reminded of Plutarch's anecdote of the youthful Alcibiades, who, +when a teamster threatened to drive over some of his knucklebones that +had fallen into the wagon-ruts, boldly threw himself in front of the +advancing team. This simple form of the game was generally played only +by women and children, and was called _pentalitha_ or five-stones. There +were several varieties of it besides the usual toss and catch, one being +called _tropa_, or hole-game, the object having been to toss the bones +into a hole in the earth. Another was the simple and primitive game of +"odd or even." + +The second, probably derivative, form of the game was one of pure +chance, the stones being thrown upon a table, either with the hand or +from a cup, and the values of the sides upon which they fell counted. In +this game the shape of the pastern-bones used for astralagoi, as well as +for the _tali_ of the Romans, with whom knucklebones was also popular, +determined the manner of counting. The pastern-bone of a sheep, goat or +calf has, besides two rounded ends upon which it cannot stand, two broad +and two narrow sides, one of each pair being concave and one convex. The +convex narrow side, called _chios_ or "the dog" counted 1; the convex +broad side 3; the concave broad side 4; and the concave narrow side 6. +Four astragals were used and 35 different scores were possible at a +single throw, many receiving distinctive names such as Aphrodite, Midas, +Solon, Alexander, and, among the Romans, Venus, King, Vulture, &c. The +highest throw in Greece, counting 40, was the Euripides, and was +probably a combination throw, since more than four sixes could not be +thrown at one time. The lowest throw, both in Greece and Rome, was the +Dog. + + See _Cassell's Book of Sports and Pastimes_ (London, 1896); _Games and + Songs of American Children_, by W. W. Newell (1893); and _The Young + Folks' Cyclopaedia of Games and Sports_ (New York, 1899), for the + modern children's game. For the history see _Les Jeux des Anciens_, by + L. Becq de Fouquières (Paris, 1869); _Das Knochelspiel der Alten_, by + Bolle (Wismar, 1886); _Die Spiele der Griechen und Römer_, by W. + Richter (Leipzig, 1887). + + + + +KNUTSFORD, a market town in the Knutsford parliamentary division of +Cheshire, England; on the London & North-Western and Great Central +railways, 24 m. E.N.E. of Chester, on the Cheshire Lines and London & +North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 5172. It is +pleasantly situated on an elevated ridge, with the fine domains of +Tatton Park and Tabley respectively north and west of it. The meres in +these domains are especially picturesque. Knutsford is noted in modern +times as the scene of Mrs Gaskell's novel _Cranford_. Among several +ancient houses the most interesting are a cottage with the date 1411 +carved on its woodwork, and the Rose and Crown tavern, dated 1641. A +number of curious old customs linger in the town, such as the practice +of working designs in coloured sand, when a wedding takes place, before +the bride's house. In what is probably the oldest Unitarian graveyard in +the kingdom Mrs Gaskell lies buried; and in a churchyard a mile from the +town stood the ancient church, which, though partially rebuilt in the +time of Henry VIII., fell into ruin in 1741. The church of St John, +built in 1744, and enlarged in 1879, was supplemented, in 1880, by St +Cross Church, in Perpendicular style. The town has a grammar school, +founded before the reign of Henry VIII., but reorganized in 1885. Lord +Egerton built the Egerton schools in 1893. The industries comprise +cotton, worsted and leather manufactures; but Knutsford is mainly a +residential town, as many Manchester merchants have settled here, +attracted by the fine climate and surroundings. Knutsford was the +birthplace of Sir Henry Holland, Physician Extraordinary to Queen +Victoria (1788-1873); and his son, the second Sir Henry, who was +secretary of state for the colonies (1887-1892), was raised to the +peerage in 1888 with the title of Baron Knutsford. + +The name Knutsford (_Cunetesford_, _Knotesford_) is said to signify +Cnut's ford, but there is no evidence of a settlement here previous to +Domesday. In 1086 Erthebrand held Knutsford immediately of William +FitzNigel, baron of Halton, who was himself a mesne lord of Hugh Lupus +earl of Chester. In 1292 William de Tabley, lord of both Over and Nether +Knutsford, granted free burgage to his burgesses in both Knutsfords. +This charter is the only one which gives Knutsford a claim to the title +of borough. It provided that the burgesses might elect a bailiff from +amongst themselves every year. The office however carried little real +power with it, and soon lapsed. In the same year as the charter to +Knutsford the king granted to William de Tabley a market every Saturday +at Nether Knutsford, and a three days' fair at the Feast of St Peter and +St Paul. When this charter was confirmed by Edward III. another market +(Friday) and another three days' fair (Feast of St Simon and St Jude) +were added. The Friday market was certainly dropped by 1592, if it was +ever held. May-day revels are still kept up here and attract large +crowds from the neighbourhood. A silk mill was erected here in 1770, and +there was also an attempt to foster the cotton trade, but the lack of +means of communication made the undertaking impossible. + + See Henry Green, _History of Knutsford_ (1859). + + + + +KOALA (_Phascolarctus cinereus_), a stoutly built marsupial, of the +family _Phascolmyidae_, which also contains the wombats. This animal, +which inhabits the south-eastern parts of the Australian continent, is +about 2 ft. in length, and of an ash-grey colour, an excellent climber, +residing generally in lofty eucalyptus trees, the buds and tender shoots +of which form its principal food, though occasionally it descends to the +ground in the night in search of roots. From its shape the koala is +called by the colonists the "native bear"; the term "native sloth" being +also applied to it, from its arboreal habits and slow deliberate +movements. The flesh is highly prized by the natives, and is palatable +to Europeans. The skins are largely imported into England, for the +manufacture of articles in which a cheap and durable fur is required. + + + + +KOBDO, a town of the Chinese Empire, in north-west Mongolia, at the +northern foot of the Mongolian Altai, on the right bank of the Buyantu +River, 13 m. from its entrance into Lake Khara-usu; 500 m. E.S.E. of +Biysk (Russian), and 470 m. W. of Ulyasutai. It is situated amidst a +dreary plain, and consists of a fortress, the residence of the governor +of the Kobdo district, and a small trading town, chiefly peopled by +Chinese and a few Mongols. It is, however, an important centre for trade +between the cattle-breeding nomads and Peking. It was founded by the +Chinese in 1731, and pillaged by the Mussulmans in 1872. The district of +Kobdo occupies the north-western corner of Mongolia, and is peopled +chiefly by Mongols, and also by Kirghiz and a few Soyotes, Uryankhes and +Khotons. It is governed by a Chinese commissioner, who has under him a +special Mongol functionary (Mongol, _dzurgan_). The chief monastery is +at Ulangom. Considerable numbers of sheep (about 1,000,000), sheepskins, +sheep and camel wool are exported to China, while Chinese cottons, brick +tea and various small goods are imported. Leather, velveteen, cotton, +iron and copper goods boxes, &c., are imported from Russia in exchange +for cattle, furs and wool. The absence of a cart road to Biysk hinders +the development of this trade. + + + + +KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ, BARON VON (1803-1882), German +mineralogist, was born at Munich on the 19th of July 1803. He studied +chemistry and mineralogy at Landshut (1820-1823), and in 1826 became +professor of mineralogy in the university of Munich. He introduced some +new methods of mineral analyses, and in 1835 invented the stauroscope +for the study of the optical properties of crystals. He contributed +numerous papers to scientific journals, and described many new minerals. +He died at Munich on the 11th of November, 1882. + + PUBLICATIONS.--_Charakteristik der Mineralien_ (2 vols. 1830-1831); + _Tafeln zur Bestimmung der Mineralien_ &c. (1833; and later editions, + ed. 12, by K. Oebbeke, 1884); _Grundzüge der Mineralogie_ (1838); + _Geschichte der Mineralogie von 1650-1860_ (1864). + + + + +KOCH, ROBERT (1843-1910), German bacteriologist, was born at Klausthal, +Hanover, on the 11th of December 1843. He studied medicine at Göttingen, +and it was while he was practising as a physician at Wollstein that he +began those bacteriological researches that made his name famous. In +1876 he obtained a pure culture of the bacillus of anthrax, announcing a +method of preventive inoculation against that disease seven years later. +He became a member of the Sanitary Commission at Berlin and a professor +at the School of Medicine in 1880, and five years later he was appointed +to a chair in Berlin University and director of the Institute of Health. +In 1882, largely as the result of the improved methods of +bacteriological investigation he was able to elaborate, he discovered +the bacillus of tuberculosis; and in the following year, having been +sent on an official mission to Egypt and India to study the aetiology of +Asiatic cholera, he identified the comma bacillus as the specific +organism of that malady. In 1890 great hopes were aroused by the +announcement that in tuberculin he had prepared an agent which exercised +an inimical influence on the growth of the tubercle bacillus, but the +expectations that were formed of it as a remedy for consumption were not +fulfilled, though it came into considerable vogue as a means of +diagnosing the existence of tuberculosis in animals intended for food. +At the Congress on Tuberculosis held in London in 1901 he maintained +that tuberculosis in man and in cattle is not the same disease, the +practical inference being that the danger to men of infection from milk +and meat is less than from other human subjects suffering from the +disease. This statement, however, was not regarded as properly proved, +and one of its results was the appointment of a British Royal Commission +to study the question. Dr Koch also investigated the nature of +rinderpest in South Africa in 1896, and found means of combating the +disease. In 1897 he went to Bombay at the head of a commission formed to +investigate the bubonic plague, and he subsequently undertook extensive +travels in pursuit of his studies on the origin and treatment of +malaria. He was summoned to South Africa a second time in 1903 to give +expert advice on other cattle diseases, and on his return was elected a +member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1906-1907 he spent eighteen +months in East Africa, investigating sleeping-sickness. He died at +Baden-Baden of heart-disease on the 28th of May 1910. Koch was +undoubtedly one of the greatest bacteriologists ever known, and a great +benefactor of humanity by his discoveries. Honours were showered upon +him, and in 1905 he was awarded the Nobel prize for medicine. + + Among his works may be mentioned: _Weitere Mitteilungen über ein + Heilmittel gegen Tuberkulose_ (Leipzig, 1891); and _Reiseberichte über + Rinderpest, Bubonenpest in Indien und Afrika, Tsetse- oder + Surra-Krankheit, Texasfieber, tropische Malaria, Schwarzwasserfieber_ + (Berlin, 1898). From 1886 onwards he edited, with Dr Karl Flügge, the + _Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten_ (published at + Leipzig). See Loeffler, "Robert Koch, zum 60ten Geburtstage" in _Deut. + Medizin. Wochenschr._ (No. 50, 1903). + + + + +KOCH, a tribe of north-eastern India, which has given its name to the +state of Kuch Behar (q.v.). They are probably of Mongolian stock, akin +to the Mech, Kachari, Garo and Tippera tribes, and originally spoke, +like these, a language of the Bodo group. But since one of their chiefs +established a powerful kingdom at Kuch Behar in the 16th century they +have gradually become Hinduized, and now adopt the name of Rajbansi (= +"of royal blood"). In 1901 the number in Eastern Bengal and Assam was +returned at nearly 2½ millions. + + + + +KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE (1793-1871), French novelist, was born at Passy on +the 21st of May 1793. He was a posthumous child, his father, a banker of +Dutch extraction, having been a victim of the Terror. Paul de Kock began +life as a banker's clerk. For the most part he resided on the Boulevard +St Martin, and was one of the most inveterate of Parisians. He died in +Paris on the 27th of April 1871. He began to write for the stage very +early, and composed many operatic libretti. His first novel, _L'Enfant +de ma femme_ (1811), was published at his own expense. In 1820 he began +his long and successful series of novels dealing with Parisian life with +_Georgette, ou la mère du Tabellion_. His period of greatest and most +successful activity was the Restoration and the early days of Louis +Philippe. He was relatively less popular in France itself than abroad, +where he was considered as the special painter of life in Paris. Major +Pendennis's remark that he had read nothing of the novel kind for thirty +years except Paul de Kock, "who certainly made him laugh," is likely to +remain one of the most durable of his testimonials, and may be classed +with the legendary question of a foreign sovereign to a Frenchman who +was paying his respects, "Vous venez de Paris et vous devez savoir des +nouvelles. Comment se porte Paul de Kock?" The disappearance of the +_grisette_ and of the cheap dissipation described by Henri Murger +practically made Paul de Kock obsolete. But to the student of manners +his portraiture of low and middle class life in the first half of the +19th century at Paris still has its value. + +The works of Paul de Kock are very numerous. With the exception of a few +not very felicitous excursions into historical romance and some +miscellaneous works of which his share in _La Grande ville, Paris_ +(1842), is the chief, they are all stories of middle-class Parisian +life, of _guinguettes_ and _cabarets_ and equivocal adventures of one +sort or another. The most famous are _André le Savoyard_ (1825) and _Le +Barbier de Paris_ (1826). + + His _Mémoires_ were published in 1873. See also Th. Trimm, _La Vie de + Charles Paul de Kock_ (1873). + + + + +KODAIKANAL, a sanatorium of southern India, in the Madura district of +Madras, situated in the Palni hills, about 7000 ft. above sea-level; +pop. (1901), 1912, but the number in the hot season would be much +larger. It is difficult of access, being 44 m. from a railway station, +and the last 11 m. are impracticable for wheeled vehicles. It contains a +government observatory, the appliances of which are specially adapted +for the study of terrestrial magnetism, seismology and solar physics. + + + + +KODAMA, GENTARO, COUNT (1852-1907), Japanese general, was born in +Choshu. He studied military science in Germany, and was appointed +vice-minister of war in 1892. He became governor-general of Formosa in +1900, holding at the same time the portfolio of war. When the conflict +with Russia became imminent in 1903, he gave up his portfolio to become +vice-chief of the general staff, a sacrifice which elicited much public +applause. Throughout the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5) he served as chief +of staff to Field Marshal Oyama, and it was well understood that his +genius guided the strategy of the whole campaign, as that of General +Kawakami had done in the war with China ten years previously. General +Kodama was raised in rapid succession to the ranks of baron, viscount +and count, and his death in 1907 was regarded as a national calamity. + + + + +KODUNGALUR (or CRANGANUR), a town of southern India, in Cochin state, +within the presidency of Madras. Though now a place of little +importance, its historical interest is considerable. Tradition assigns +to it the double honour of having been the first field of St Thomas's +labours (A.D. 52) in India and the seat of Cheraman Perumal's +government. The visit of St Thomas is generally considered mythical; but +it is certain that the Syrian Church was firmly established here before +the 9th century (Burnell), and probably the Jews' settlement was still +earlier. The latter, in fact, claim to hold grants dated A.D. 378. The +cruelty of the Portuguese drove most of the Jews to Cochin. Up to 1314, +when the Vypin harbour was formed, the only opening in the Cochin +backwater, and outlet for the Periyar, was at Kodungalur, which must +then have been the best harbour on the coast. In 1502 the Syrian +Christians invoked the protection of the Portuguese. In 1523 the latter +built their first fort there, and in 1565 enlarged it. In 1661 the Dutch +took the fort, the possession of which for the next forty years was +contested between this nation, the zamorin, and the raja of Kodungalur. +In 1776 Tippoo seized the stronghold. The Dutch recaptured it two years +later, and, having ceded it to Tippoo in 1784, sold it to the Travancore +raja, and again in 1789 to Tippoo, who destroyed it in the following +year. The country round Kodungalur now forms an autonomous principality, +tributary to the raja of Cochin. + + + + +KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD (1774-1851), German palaeontologist, was +born at Brunswick in 1774, and was educated at Göttingen. In 1807 he +became assistant keeper, and in 1813 he was appointed keeper, of the +department of natural history in the British Museum, and afterwards of +geology and mineralogy, retaining the post until the close of his life. +He described many fossils in the British Museum in a classic work +entitled _Icones fossilium sectiles_ (1820-1825). He died in London on +the 6th of September 1851. + + + + +KOESFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on +the Berkel, 38 m. by rail N.N.W. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905), 8449. It has +three Roman Catholic churches, one of which--the Gymnasial Kirche--is +used by the Protestant community. Here are the ruins of the Ludgeri +Castle, formerly the residence of the bishops of Münster, and also the +castle of Varlar, the residence of the princes of Salm-Horstmar. The +leading industries include the making of linen goods and machinery. + + + + +KOHAT, a town and district of British India, in the Peshawar division of +the North-West Frontier Province. The town is 37 m. south of Peshawar by +the Kohat Pass, along which a military road was opened in 1901. The +population in 1901 was 30,762, including 12,670 in the cantonment, which +is garrisoned by artillery, cavalry and infantry. In the Tirah campaign +of 1897-98 Kohat was the starting-point of Sir William Lockhart's +expedition against the Orakzais and Afridis. It is the military base for +the southern Afridi frontier as Peshawar is for the northern frontier of +the same tribe, and it lies in the heart of the Pathan country. + +The DISTRICT OF KOHAT has an area of 2973 sq. m. It consists chiefly of +a bare and intricate mountain region east of the Indus, deeply scored +with river valleys and ravines, but enclosing a few scattered patches of +cultivated lowland. The eastern or Khattak country especially comprises +a perfect labyrinth of ranges, which fall, however, into two principal +groups, to the north and south of the Teri Toi river. The Miranzai +valley, in the extreme west, appears by comparison a rich and fertile +tract. In its small but carefully tilled glens, the plane, palm, fig and +many orchard trees flourish luxuriantly; while a brushwood of wild +olive, mimosa and other thorny bushes clothes the rugged ravines upon +the upper slopes. Occasional grassy glades upon their sides form +favourite pasture grounds for the Waziri tribes. The Teri Toi, rising on +the eastern limit of Upper Miranzai, runs due eastward to the Indus, +which it joins 12 m. N. of Makhad, dividing the district into two main +portions. The drainage from the northern half flows southward into the +Teri Toi itself, and northward into the parallel stream of the Kohat +Toi. That of the southern tract falls northwards also into the Teri Toi, +and southwards towards the Kurram and the Indus. The frontier mountains, +continuations of the Safed Koh system, attain in places a considerable +elevation, the two principal peaks, Dupa Sir and Mazi Garh, just beyond +the British frontier, being 8260 and 7940 ft. above the sea +respectively. The Waziri hills, on the south, extend like a wedge +between the boundaries of Bannu and Kohat, with a general elevation of +less than 4000 ft. The salt-mines are situated in the low line of hills +crossing the valley of the Teri Toi, and extending along both banks of +that river. The deposit has a width of a quarter of a mile, with a +thickness of 1000 ft.; it sometimes forms hills 200 ft. in height, +almost entirely composed of solid rock-salt, and may probably rank as +one of the largest veins of its kind in the world. The most extensive +exposure occurs at Bahadur Khel, on the south bank of the Teri Toi. The +annual output is about 16,000 tons, yielding a revenue of £40,000. +Petroleum springs exude from a rock at Panoba, 23 m. east of Kohat; and +sulphur abounds in the northern range. In 1901 the population was +217,865, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The frontier tribes +on the Kohat border are the Afridis, Orakzais, Zaimukhts and Turis. All +these are described under their separate names. A railway runs from +Kushalgarh through Kohat to Thal, and the river Indus has been bridged +at Kushalgarh. + + + + +KOHAT PASS, a mountain pass in the North-West Frontier Province of +India, connecting Kohat with Peshawar. From the north side the defile +commences at 4½ m. S.W. of Fort Mackeson, whence it is about 12 or 13 m. +to the Kohat entrance. The pass varies from 400 yds. to 1¼ m. in width, +and its summit is some 600 to 700 ft. above the plain. It is inhabited +by the Adam Khel Afridis, and nearly all British relations with that +tribe have been concerned with this pass, which is the only connexion +between two British districts without crossing and recrossing the Indus +(see AFRIDI). It is now traversed by a cart-road. + + + + +KOHISTAN, a tract of country on the Peshawar border of the North-West +Frontier Province of India. Kohistan means the "country of the hills" +and corresponds to the English word highlands; but it is specially +applied to a district, which is very little known, to the south and west +of Chilas, between the Kagan valley and the river Indus. It comprises an +area of over 1000 sq. m., and is bounded on the N.W. by the river Indus, +on the N.E. by Chilas, and on the S. by Kagan, the Chor Glen and Allai. +It consists roughly of two main valleys running east and west, and +separated from each other by a mountain range over 16,000 ft. high. Like +the mountains of Chilas, those in Kohistan are snow-bound and rocky +wastes from their crests downwards to 12,000 ft. Below this the hills +are covered with fine forest and grass to 5000 or 6000 ft., and in the +valleys, especially near the Indus, are fertile basins under +cultivation. The Kohistanis are Mahommedans, but not of Pathan race, and +appear to be closely allied to the Chilasis. They are a well-built, +brave but quiet people who carry on a trade with British districts, and +have never given the government much trouble. There is little doubt that +the Kohistanis are, like the Kafirs of Kafiristan, the remnants of old +races driven by Mahommedan invasions from the valleys and plains into +the higher mountains. The majority have been converted to Islam within +the last 200 years. The total population is about 16,000. + +An important district also known as Kohistan lies to the north of Kabul +in Afghanistan, extending to the Hindu Kush. The Kohistani Tajiks proved +to be the most powerful and the best organized clans that opposed the +British occupation of Kabul in 1879-80. Part of their country is highly +cultivated, abounding in fruit, and includes many important villages. It +is here that the remains of an ancient city have been lately discovered +by the amir's officials, which may prove to be the great city of +Alexander's founding, known to be to the north of Kabul, but which had +hitherto escaped identification. + +The name of Kohistan is also applied to a tract of barren and hilly +country on the east border of Karachi district, Sind. + + + + +KOHL. (1) The name of the cosmetic used from the earliest times in the +East by women to darken the eyelids, in order to increase the lustre of +the eyes. It is usually composed of finely powdered antimony, but smoke +black obtained from burnt almond-shells or frankincense is also used. +The Arabic word _kohl_, from which has been derived "alcohol," is +derived from _kahala_, to stain. (2) "Kohl" or "kohl-rabi" (cole-rape, +from Lat. _caulis_, cabbage) is a kind of cabbage (q.v.), with a +turnip-shaped top, cultivated chiefly as food for cattle. + + + + +KOHLHASE, HANS, a German historical figure about whose personality some +controversy exists. He is chiefly known as the hero of Heinrich von +Kleist's novel, _Michael Kohlhaas_. He was a merchant, and not, as some +have supposed, a horsedealer, and he lived at Kölln in Brandenburg. In +October 1532, so the story runs, whilst proceeding to the fair at +Leipzig, he was attacked and his horses were taken from him by the +servants of a Saxon nobleman, one Günter von Zaschwitz. In consequence +of the delay the merchant suffered some loss of business at the fair and +on his return he refused to pay the small sum which Zaschwitz demanded +as a condition of returning the horses. Instead Kohlhase asked for a +substantial amount of money as compensation for his loss, and failing to +secure this he invoked the aid of his sovereign, the elector of +Brandenburg. Finding however that it was impossible to recover his +horses, he paid Zaschwitz the sum required for them, but reserved to +himself the right to take further action. Then unable to obtain redress +in the courts of law, the merchant, in a _Fehdebrief_, threw down a +challenge, not only to his aggressor, but to the whole of Saxony. Acts +of lawlessness were soon attributed to him, and after an attempt to +settle the feud had failed, the elector of Saxony, John Frederick I., +set a price upon the head of the angry merchant. Kohlhase now sought +revenge in earnest. Gathering around him a band of criminals and of +desperadoes he spread terror throughout the whole of Saxony; travellers +were robbed, villages were burned and towns were plundered. For some +time the authorities were practically powerless to stop these outrages, +but in March 1540 Kohlhase and his principal associate, Georg +Nagelschmidt, were seized, and on the 22nd of the month they were broken +on the wheel in Berlin. + + The life and fate of Kohlhase are dealt with in several dramas. See + Burkhardt, _Der historische Hans Kohlhase und H. von Kleists Michael + Kohlhaas_ (Leipzig, 1864). + + + + +KOKOMO, a city and the county-seat of Howard county, Indiana, U.S.A., on +the Wildcat River, about 50 m. N. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890), 8261; +(1900), 10,609 of whom 499 were foreign-born and 359 negroes; (1910 +census), 17,010. It is served by the Lake Erie & Western, the Pittsburg +Cincinnati Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo St Louis & Western +railways, and by two interurban electric lines. Kokomo is a centre of +trade in agricultural products, and has various manufactures, including +flint, plate and opalescent glass, &c. The total value of the factory +product increased from $2,062,156 in 1900 to $3,651,105 in 1905, or +77.1%; and in 1905 the glass product was valued at $864,567, or 23.7% of +the total. Kokomo was settled about 1840 and became a city (under a +state law) in 1865. + + + + +KOKO-NOR (or KUKU-NOR) (_Tsing-hai_ of the Chinese, and _Tso-ngombo_ of +the Tanguts), a lake of Central Asia, situated at an altitude of 9975 +ft., in the extreme N.E. of Tibet, 30 m. from the W. frontier of the +Chinese province of Kan-suh, in 100° E. and 37° N. It lies amongst the +eastern ranges of the Kuen-lun, having the Nan-shan Mountains to the +north, and the southern Koko-nor range (10,000 ft.) on the south. It +measures 66 m. by 40 m., and contains half a dozen islands, on one of +which is a Buddhist (i.e. Lamaist) monastery, to which pilgrims resort. +The water is salt, though an abundance of fish live in it, and it often +remains frozen for three months together in winter. The surface is at +times subject to considerable variations of level. The lake is entered +on the west by the river Buhain-gol. The nomads who dwell round its +shores are Tanguts. + + + + +KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAÍ IVANOVICH VON (1818-1893), Russian mineralogist and +major-general in the Russian army, was born at Ust-Kamenogork in Tomsk, +on the 5th of December 1818 (O.S.). He was educated at the military +school of mines in St Petersburg. At the age of twenty-two he was +selected to accompany R. I. Murchison and De Verneuil, and afterwards De +Keyserling, in their geological survey of the Russian Empire. +Subsequently he devoted his attention mainly to the study of mineralogy +and mining, and was appointed director of the Institute of Mines. In +1865 he became director of the Imperial Mineralogical Society of St +Petersburg. He contributed numerous papers on euclase, zircon, epidote, +orthite, monazite and other mineralogical subjects to the St Petersburg +and Vienna academies of science, to Poggendorf's _Annalen_, Leonhard and +Brown's _Jahrbuch_, &c. He also issued as separate works _Materialen zur +Mineralogie Russlands_ (10 vols., 1853-1891), and _Vorlesungen über +Mineralogie_ (1865). He died in St Petersburg on the 3rd of January 1893 +(O.S.). + + + + +KOKSTAD, a town of South Africa, the capital of Griqualand East, 236 m. +by rail S.W. of Durban, 110 m. N. by W. of Port Shepstone, and 150 m. N. +of Port St John, Pondoland. Pop. (1904), 2903, of whom a third were +Griquas. The town is built on the outer slopes of the Drakensberg and is +4270 ft. above the sea. Behind it Mount Currie rises to a height of 7297 +ft. An excellent water supply is derived from the mountains. The town is +well laid out, and possesses several handsome public buildings. It is +the centre of a thriving agricultural district and has a considerable +trade in wool, grain, cattle and horses with Basutoland, Pondoland and +the neighbouring regions of Natal. The town is named after the Griqua +chief Adam Kok, who founded it in 1869. In 1879 it came into the +possession of Cape Colony and was granted municipal government in 1893. +It is the residence of the Headman of the Griqua nation. (See KAFFRARIA +and GRIQUALAND.) + + + + +KOLA, a peninsula of northern Russia, lying between the Arctic Ocean on +the N. and the White Sea on the S. It forms part of the region of +Lapland and belongs administratively to the government of Archangel. The +Arctic coast, known as the Murman coast (Murman being a corruption of +Norman), is 260 m. long, and being subject to the influence of the North +Atlantic drift, is free from ice all the year round. It is a rocky +coast, built of granite, and rising to 650 ft., and is broken by several +excellent bays. On one of these, Kola Bay, the Russian government +founded in 1895 the naval harbour of Alexandrovsk. From May to August a +productive fishery is carried on along this coast. Inland the peninsula +rises up to a plateau, 1000 ft. in general elevation, and crossed by +several ranges of low mountains, which go up to over 3000 ft. in +altitude. The lower slopes of these mountains are clothed with forest up +to 1300 ft., and in places thickly studded with lakes, some of them of +very considerable extent, e.g. Imandra (330 sq. m.), Ump-jaur, +Nuorti-järvi, Guolle-jaur or Kola Lake, and Lu-jaur. From these issue +streams of appreciable magnitude, such as the Tuloma, Voronya, Yovkyok +or Yokanka, and Ponoi, all flowing into the Arctic, and the Varsuga and +Umba, into the White Sea. The area of the peninsula is estimated at +50,000 sq. m. + + See A. O. Kihlmann and Palmén, _Die Expedition nach der Halbinsel + Kola_ (1887-1892) (Helsingfors); A. O. Kihlmann, _Bericht einer + naturwissenschaftlichen Reise durch Russisch-Lappland_ (Helsingfors, + 1890); and W. Ramsay, _Geologische Beobachtungen auf der Halbinsel + Kola_ (Helsingfors, 1899). + + + + +KOLABA (or COLABA), a district of British India, in the southern +division of Bombay. Area, 2131 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 605,566, showing an +increase of 2% in the decade. The headquarters are at Alibagh. Lying +between the Western Ghats and the sea, Kolaba district abounds in hills, +some being spurs running at right angles to the main range, while others +are isolated peaks or lofty detached ridges. The sea frontage, of about +20 m., is throughout the greater part of its length fringed by a belt of +coco-nut and betel-nut palms. Behind this belt lies a stretch of flat +country devoted to rice cultivation. In many places along the banks of +the salt-water creeks there are extensive tracts of salt marshland, some +of them reclaimed, some still subject to tidal inundation, and others +set apart for the manufacture of salt. The district is traversed by a +few small streams. Tidal inlets, of which the principal are the Nagothna +on the north, the Roha or Chaul in the west, and the Bankot creek in the +south, run inland for 30 or 40 m., forming highways for a brisk trade in +rice, salt, firewood, and dried fish. Near the coast especially, the +district is well supplied with reservoirs. The Western Ghats have two +remarkable peaks--Raigarh, where Sivaji built his capital, and +Miradongar. There are extensive teak and black wood forests, the value +of which is increased by their proximity to Bombay. The Great Indian +Peninsula railway crosses part of the district, and communication with +Bombay is maintained by a steam ferry. Owing to its nearness to that +city, the district has suffered severely from plague. Kolaba district +takes its name from a little island off Alibagh, which was one of the +strongholds of Angria, the Mahratta pirate of the 18th century. The same +island has given its name to Kolaba Point, the spur of Bombay Island +running south that protects the entrance to the harbour. On Kolaba Point +are the terminus of the Bombay & Baroda railway, barracks for a European +regiment, lunatic asylum and observatory. + + + + +KOLAR, a town and district of India, in the state of Mysore. The town is +43 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901), 12,210. Although of ancient +foundation, it has been almost completely modernized. Industries include +the weaving of blankets and the breeding of turkeys for export. + +The DISTRICT OF KOLAR has an area of 3180 sq. m. It occupies the portion +of the Mysore table-land immediately bordering the Eastern Ghats. The +principal watershed lies in the north-west, around the hill of Nandidrug +(4810 ft.), from which rivers radiate in all directions; and the whole +country is broken by numerous hill ranges. The chief rivers are the +Palar, the South Pinakini or Pennar, the North Pinakini, and the +Papagani, which are industriously utilized for irrigation by means of +anicuts and tanks. The rocks of the district are mostly syenite or +granite, with a small admixture of mica and feldspar. The soil in the +valleys consists of a fertile loam; and in the higher levels sand and +gravel are found. The hills are covered with scrub, jungle and +brushwood. In 1901 the population was 723,600, showing an increase of +22% in the decade. The district is traversed by the Bangalore line of +the Madras railway, with a branch 10 m. long, known as the Kolar +Goldfields railway. Gold prospecting in this region began in 1876, and +the industry is now settled on a secure basis. Here are situated the +mines of the Mysore, Champion Reef, Ooregum, and Nandidrug companies. To +the end of 1904 the total value of gold produced was 21 millions +sterling, and there had been paid in dividends 9 millions, and in +royalty to the Mysore state one million. The municipality called the +Kolar Gold Fields had in 1901 a population of 38,204; it has suffered +severely from plague. Electricity from the falls of the Cauvery (93 m. +distant) is utilized as the motive power in the mines. Sugar manufacture +and silk and cotton weaving are the other principal industries in the +district. The chief historical interest of modern times centres round +the hill fort of Nandidrug, which was stormed by the British in 1791, +after a bombardment of 21 days. + + + + +KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN (1818-1884), German chemist, was born on +the 27th of September 1818 at Elliehausen, near Göttingen, where in 1838 +he began to study chemistry under F. Wöhler. In 1842 he became assistant +to R. W. von Bunsen at Marburg, and three years later to Lyon Playfair +at London. From 1847 to 1851 he was engaged at Brunswick in editing the +_Dictionary of Chemistry_ started by Liebig, but in the latter year he +went to Marburg as successor to Bunsen in the chair of chemistry. In +1865 he was called to Leipzig in the same capacity, and he died in that +city on the 25th of November 1884. Kolbe had an important share in the +great development of chemical theory that occurred about the middle of +the 19th century, especially in regard to the constitution of organic +compounds, which he viewed as derivatives of inorganic ones, formed from +the latter--in some cases directly--by simple processes of substitution. +Unable to accept Berzelius's doctrine of the unalterability of organic +radicals, he also gave a new interpretation to the meaning of copulae +under the influence of his fellow-worker Edward Frankland's conception +of definite atomic saturation-capacities, and thus contributed in an +important degree to the subsequent establishment of the structure +theory. Kolbe was a very successful teacher, a ready and vigorous +writer, and a brilliant experimentalist whose work revealed the nature +of many compounds the composition of which had not previously been +understood. He published a _Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie_ in 1854, +smaller textbooks of organic and inorganic chemistry in 1877-1883, and +_Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der theoretischen Chemie_ in 1881. From +1870 he was editor of the _Journal für praktische Chemie_, in which many +trenchant criticisms of contemporary chemists and their doctrines +appeared from his pen. + + + + +KOLBERG (or COLBERG), a town of Germany, and seaport of the Prussian +province of Pomerania, on the right bank of the Persante, which falls +into the Baltic about a mile below the town, and at the junction of the +railway lines to Belgard and Gollnow. Pop. (1905), 22,804. It has a +handsome market-place with a statue of Frederick William III.; and there +are extensive suburbs, of which the most important is Münde. The +principal buildings are the huge red-brick church of St Mary, with five +aisles, one of the most remarkable churches in Pomerania, dating from +the 14th century; the council-house (Rathaus), erected after the plans +of Ernst F. Zwirner; and the citadel. Kolberg also possesses four other +churches, a theatre, a gymnasium, a school of navigation, and an +exchange. Its bathing establishments are largely frequented and attract +a considerable number of summer visitors. It has a harbour at the mouth +of the Persante, where there is a lighthouse. Woollen cloth, machinery +and spirits are manufactured; there is an extensive salt-mine in the +neighbouring Zillenberg; the salmon and lamprey fisheries are important; +and a fair amount of commercial activity is maintained. In 1903 a +monument was erected to the memory of Gneisenau and the patriot, Joachim +Christian Nettelbeck (1738-1824), through whose efforts the town was +saved from the French in 1806-7. + +Originally a Slavonic fort, Kolberg is one of the oldest places of +Pomerania. At an early date it became the seat of a bishop, and although +it soon lost this distinction it obtained municipal privileges in 1255. +From about 1276 it ranked as the most important place in the episcopal +principality of Kamin, and from 1284 it was a member of the Hanseatic +League. During the Thirty Years' War it was captured by the Swedes in +1631, passing by the treaty of Westphalia to the elector of Brandenburg, +Frederick William I., who strengthened its fortifications. The town was +a centre of conflict during the Seven Years' War. In 1758 and again in +1760 the Russians besieged Kolberg in vain, but in 1762 they succeeded +in capturing it. Soon restored to Brandenburg, it was vigorously +attacked by the French in 1806 and 1807, but it was saved by the long +resistance of its inhabitants. In 1887 the fortifications of the town +were razed, and it has since become a fashionable watering-place, +receiving annually nearly 15,000 visitors. + + See Riemann, _Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg_ (Kolberg, 1873); Stoewer, + _Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg_ (Kolberg, 1897); Schönlein, _Geschichte + der Belagerungen Kolbergs in den Jahren 1758, 1760, 1761 und 1807_ + (Kolberg, 1878); and Kempin, _Führer durch Bad Kolberg_ (Kolberg, + 1899). + + + + +KÖLCSEY, FERENCZ (1790-1838), Hungarian poet, critic and orator, was +born at Szodemeter, in Transylvania, on the 8th of August 1790. In his +fifteenth year he made the acquaintance of Kazinczy and zealously +adopted his linguistic reforms. In 1809 Kölcsey went to Pest and became +a "notary to the royal board." Law proved distasteful, and at Cseke in +Szatmár county he devoted his time to aesthetical study, poetry, +criticism, and the defence of the theories of Kazinczy. Kölcsey's early +metrical pieces contributed to the _Transylvanian Museum_ did not +attract much attention, whilst his severe criticisms of Csokonai, Kis, +and especially Berzsenyi, published in 1817, rendered him very +unpopular. From 1821 to 1826 he published many separate poems of great +beauty in the _Aurora_, _Hebe_, _Aspasia_, and other magazines of polite +literature. He joined Paul Szemere in a new periodical, styled _Élet és +literatura_ ("Life and Literature"), which appeared from 1826 to 1829, +in 4 vols., and gained for Kölcsey the highest reputation as a critical +writer. From 1832 to 1835 he sat in the Hungarian Diet, where his +extreme liberal views and his singular eloquence soon rendered him +famous as a parliamentary leader. Elected on the 17th of November 1830 a +member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, he took part in its first +grand meeting; in 1832, he delivered his famous oration on Kazinczy, and +in 1836 that on his former opponent Daniel Berzsenyi. When in 1838 Baron +Wesselényi was unjustly thrown into prison upon a charge of treason, +Kölcsey eloquently though unsuccessfully conducted his defence; and he +died about a week afterwards (August 24) from internal inflammation. His +collected works, in 6 vols., were published at Pest, 1840-1848, and his +journal of the diet of 1832-1836 appeared in 1848. A monument erected to +the memory of Kölcsey was unveiled at Szatmár-Németi on the 25th of +September 1864. + + See G. Steinacker, _Ungarische Lyriker_ (Leipzig, and Pest, 1874); F. + Toldy, _Magyar Költök élete_ (2 vols., Pest, 1871); J. Ferenczy and J. + Danielik, _Magyar Irók_ (2 vols., Pest, 1856-1858). + + + + +KOLDING, a town of Denmark in the _amt_ (county) of Vejle, on the east +coast of Jutland, on the Koldingfjord, an inlet of the Little Belt, 9 +m. N. of the German frontier. Pop. (1901), 12,516. It is on the Eastern +railway of Jutland. The harbour throughout has a depth of over 20 ft. A +little to the north-west is the splendid remnant of the royal castle +Koldinghuus, formerly called Oernsborg or Arensborg. It was begun by +Duke Abel in 1248; in 1808 it was burned. The large square tower was +built by Christian IV. (1588-1648), and was surmounted by colossal +statues, of which one is still standing. It contains an antiquarian and +historical museum (1892). The name of Kolding occurs in the 10th +century, but its earliest known town-rights date from 1321. In 1644 it +was the scene of a Danish victory over the Swedes, and on the 22nd of +April 1849 of a Danish defeat by the troops of Schleswig-Holstein. A +comprehensive view of the Little Belt with its islands, and over the +mainland, is obtained from the Skamlingsbank, a slight elevation 8½ m. +S.E., where an obelisk (1863) commemorates the effort made to preserve +the Danish language in Schleswig. + + + + +KOLGUEV, KOLGUEFF or KALGUYEV, an island off the north-west of Russia in +Europe, belonging to the government of Archangel. It lies about 50 m. +from the nearest point of the mainland, and is of roughly oval form, 54 +m. in length from N.N.E. to S.S.W. and 39 m. in extreme breadth. It lies +in a shallow sea, and is quite low, the highest point being 250 ft. +above the sea. Peat-bogs and grass lands cover the greater part of the +surface; there are several considerable streams and a large number of +small lakes. The island is of recent geological formation; it consists +almost wholly of disintegrated sandstone or clay (which rises at the +north-west into cliffs up to 60 ft. high), with scattered masses of +granite. Vegetation is scanty, but bears, foxes and other Arctic +animals, geese, swans, &c., provide means of livelihood for a few +Samoyed hunters. + + + + +KOLHAPUR, a native state of India, within the Deccan division of Bombay. +It is the fourth in importance of the Mahratta principalities, the other +three being Baroda, Gwalior and Indore; and it is the principal state +under the political control of the government of Bombay. Together with +its _jagirs_ or feudatories, it covers an area of 3165 sq. m. In 1901 +the population was 910,011. The estimated revenue is £300,000. Kolhapur +stretches from the heart of the Western Ghats eastwards into the plain +of the Deccan. Along the spurs of the main chain of the Ghats lie wild +and picturesque hill slopes and valleys, producing little but timber, +and till recently covered with rich forests. The centre of the state is +crossed by several lines of low hills running at right angles from the +main range. In the east the country becomes more open and presents the +unpicturesque uniformity of a well-cultivated and treeless plain, broken +only by an occasional river. Among the western hills are the ancient +Mahratta strongholds of Panhala, Vishalgarh, Bavda and Rungna. The +rivers, though navigable during the rains by boats of 2 tons burthen, +are all fordable during the hot months. Iron ore is found in the hills, +and smelting was formerly carried on to a considerable extent; but now +the Kolhapur mineral cannot compete with that imported from Europe. +There are several good stone quarries. The principal agricultural +products are rice, millets, sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, safflower and +vegetables. + +The rajas of Kolhapur trace their descent from Raja Ram, a younger son +of Sivaji the Great, the founder of the Mahratta power. The prevalence +of piracy caused the British government to send expeditions against +Kolhapur in 1765 and 1792; and in the early years of the 19th century +the misgovernment of the chief compelled the British to resort to +military operations, and ultimately to appoint an officer to manage the +state. In recent years the state has been conspicuously well governed, +on the pattern of British administration. The raja Shahu Chhatrapati, +G.C.S.I. (who is entitled to a salute of 21 guns) was born in 1874, and +ten years later succeeded to the throne by adoption. The principal +institutions are the Rajaram college, the high school, a technical +school, an agricultural school, and training-schools for both masters +and mistresses. The state railway from Miraj junction to Kolhapur town +is worked by the Southern Mahratta company. In recent years the state +has suffered from both famine and plague. + +The town of KOLHAPUR, or KARVIR, is the terminus of a branch of the +Southern Mahratta railway, 30 m. from the main line. Pop. (1901), +54,373. Besides a number of handsome modern public buildings, the town +has many evidences of antiquity. Originally it appears to have been an +important religious centre, and numerous Buddhist remains have been +discovered in the neighbourhood. + + + + +KOLIN, or NEU-KOLIN (also _Kollin_; Czech, _Nový Kolín_), a town of +Bohemia, Austria, 40 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,025, +mostly Czech. It is situated on the Elbe, and amongst its noteworthy +buildings may be specially mentioned the beautiful early Gothic church +of St Bartholomew, erected during the latter half of the 14th century. +The industries of the town include sugar-refining, steam mills, brewing, +and the manufacture of starch, syrup, spirits, potash and tin ware. The +neighbourhood is known for the excellence of its fruit and vegetables. +Kolin is chiefly famous on account of the battle here on the 18th of +June 1757, when the Prussians under Frederick the Great were defeated by +the Austrians under Daun (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR). The result was the +raising of the siege of Prague and the evacuation of Bohemia by the +Prussians. Kolin was colonized in the 13th century by German settlers +and made a royal city. In 1421 it was captured by the men of Prague, and +the German inhabitants who refused to accept "the four articles" were +expelled. In 1427 the town declared against Prague, was besieged by +Prokop the Great, and surrendered to him upon conditions at the close of +the year. + + + + +KOLIS, a caste or tribe of Western India, of uncertain origin. Possibly +the name is derived from the Turki _kuleh_ a slave; and, according to +one theory, this name has been passed on to the familiar word "cooly" +for an agricultural labourer. They form the main part of the inferior +agricultural population of Gujarat, where they were formerly notorious +as robbers; but they also extend into the Konkan and the Deccan. In 1901 +the number of Kolis in all India was returned as nearly 3¾ millions; but +this total includes a distinct weaving caste of Kolis or Koris in +northern India. + + + + +KÖLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON (1817-1905), Swiss anatomist and +physiologist, was born at Zürich on the 6th of July 1817. His father and +his mother were both Zürich people, and he in due time married a lady +from Aargau, so that Switzerland can claim him as wholly her own, though +he lived the greater part of his life in Germany. His early education +was carried on in Zürich, and he entered the university there in 1836. +After two years, however, he moved to the university of Bonn, and later +to that of Berlin, becoming at the latter place the pupil of Johannes +Müller and of F. G. J. Henle. He graduated in philosophy at Zürich in +1841, and in medicine at Heidelberg in 1842. The first academic post +which he held was that of prosector of anatomy under Henle; but his +tenure of this office was brief, for in 1844 his native city called him +back to its university to occupy a chair as professor extraordinary of +physiology and comparative anatomy. His stay here too, however, was +brief, for in 1847 the university of Würzburg, attracted by his rising +fame, offered him the post of professor of physiology and of +microscopical and comparative anatomy. He accepted the appointment, and +at Würzburg he remained thenceforth, refusing all offers tempting him to +leave the quiet academic life of the Bavarian town, where he died on the +2nd of November 1905. + +Kölliker's name will ever be associated with that of the tool with which +during his long life he so assiduously and successfully worked, the +microscope. The time at which he began his studies coincided with that +of the revival of the microscopic investigation of living beings. Two +centuries earlier the great Italian Malpighi had started, and with his +own hand had carried far the study by the help of the microscope of the +minute structure of animals and plants. After Malpighi this branch of +knowledge, though continually progressing, made no remarkable bounds +forward until the second quarter of the 19th century, when the +improvement of the compound microscope on the one hand, and the +promulgation by Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden of the "cell +theory" on the other, inaugurated a new era of microscopic +investigation. Into this new learning Kölliker threw himself with all +the zeal of youth, wisely initiated into it by his great teacher Henle, +whose sober and exact mode of inquiry went far at the time to give the +new learning a right direction and to counteract the somewhat fantastic +views which, under the name of the cell theory, were tending to be +prominent. Henle's labours were for the most part limited to the +microscopic investigation of the minute structure of the tissues of man +and of the higher animals, the latter being studied by him mainly with +the view of illustrating the former. But Kölliker had another teacher +besides Henle, the even greater Johannes Müller, whose active mind was +sweeping over the whole animal kingdom, striving to pierce the secrets +of the structure of living creatures of all sorts, and keeping steadily +in view the wide biological problems of function and of origin, which +the facts of structure might serve to solve. We may probably trace to +the influence of these two great teachers, strengthened by the spirit of +the times, the threefold character of Kölliker's long-continued and +varied labours. In all of them, or in almost all of them, the microscope +was the instrument of inquiry, but the problem to be solved by means of +the instrument belonged now to one branch of biology, now to another. + +At Zürich, and afterwards at Würzburg, the title of the chair which he +held laid upon him the duty of teaching comparative anatomy, and very +many of the numerous memoirs which he published, including the very +first paper which he wrote, and which appeared in 1841 before he +graduated, "On the Nature of the so-called Seminal Animalcules," were +directed towards elucidating, by help of the microscope, the structure +of animals of the most varied kinds--that is to say, were zoological in +character. Notable among these were his papers on the Medusae and allied +creatures. His activity in this direction led him to make zoological +excursions to the Mediterranean Sea and to the coasts of Scotland, as +well as to undertake, conjointly with his friend C. T. E. von Siebold, +the editorship of the _Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Zoologie_, +which, founded in 1848, continued under his hands to be one of the most +important zoological periodicals. + +At the time when Kölliker was beginning his career the influence of Karl +Ernst von Baer's embryological teaching was already being widely felt, +men were learning to recognize the importance to morphological and +zoological studies of a knowledge of the development of animals; and +Kölliker plunged with enthusiasm into the relatively new line of +inquiry. His earlier efforts were directed to the invertebrata, and his +memoir on the development of cephalopods, which appeared in 1844, is a +classical work; but he soon passed on to the vertebrata, and studied not +only the amphibian embryo and the chick, but also the mammalian embryo. +He was among the first, if not the very first, to introduce into this +branch of biological inquiry the newer microscopic technique--the +methods of hardening, section-cutting and staining. By doing so, not +only was he enabled to make rapid progress himself, but he also placed +in the hands of others the means of a like advance. The remarkable +strides forward which embryology made during the middle and during the +latter half of the 19th century will always be associated with his name. +His _Lectures on Development_, published in 1861, at once became a +standard work. + +But neither zoology nor embryology furnished Kölliker's chief claim to +fame. If he did much for these branches of science, he did still more +for histology, the knowledge of the minute structure of the animal +tissues. This he made emphatically his own. It may indeed be said that +there is no fragment of the body of man and of the higher animals on +which he did not leave his mark, and in more places than one his mark +was a mark of fundamental importance. Among his earlier results may be +mentioned the demonstration in 1847 that smooth or unstriated muscle is +made up of distinct units, of nucleated muscle-cells. In this work he +followed in the footsteps of his master Henle. A few years before this +men were doubting whether arteries were muscular, and no solid +histological basis as yet existed for those views as to the action of +the nervous system on the circulation, which were soon to be put +forward, and which had such a great influence on the progress of +physiology. By the above discovery Kölliker completed that basis. + +Even to enumerate, certainly to dwell on, all his contributions to +histology would be impossible here: smooth muscle, striated muscle, +skin, bone, teeth, blood-vessels and viscera were all investigated by +him; and he touched none of them without striking out some new truths. +The results at which he arrived were recorded partly in separate +memoirs, partly in his great textbook on microscopical anatomy, which +first saw the light in 1850, and by which he advanced histology no less +than by his own researches. In the case of almost every tissue our +present knowledge contains something great or small which we owe to +Kölliker; but it is on the nervous system that his name is written in +largest letters. So early as 1845, while still at Zürich, he supplied +what was as yet still lacking, the clear proof that nerve-fibres are +continuous with nerve-cells, and so furnished the absolutely necessary +basis for all sound speculations as to the actions of the central +nervous system. From that time onward he continually laboured, and +always fruitfully, at the histology of the nervous system, and more +especially at the difficult problems presented by the intricate patterns +in which fibres and cells are woven together in the brain and spinal +cord. In his old age, at a time when he had fully earned the right to +fold his arms, and to rest and be thankful, he still enriched +neurological science with results of the highest value. From his early +days a master of method, he saw at a glance the value of the new Golgi +method for the investigation of the central nervous system, and, to the +great benefit of science, took up once more in his old age, with the aid +of a new means, the studies for which he had done so much in his youth. +It may truly be said that much of that exact knowledge of the inner +structure of the brain, which is rendering possible new and faithful +conceptions of its working, came from his hands. + +Lastly, Kölliker was in his earlier years professor of physiology as +well as of anatomy; and not only did his histological labours almost +always carry physiological lessons, but he also enriched physiology with +the results of direct researches of an experimental kind, notably those +on curare and some other poisons. In fact, we have to go back to the +science of centuries ago to find a man of science of so many-sided an +activity as he. His life constituted in a certain sense a protest +against that specialized differentiation which, however much it may +under certain aspects be regretted, seems to be one of the necessities +of modern development. In Johannes Müller's days no one thought of +parting anatomy and physiology; nowadays no one thinks of joining them +together. Kölliker did in his work join them together, and indeed said +himself that he thought they ought never to be kept apart. + +Naturally a man of so much accomplishment was not left without honours. +Formerly known simply as Kölliker, the title "von" was added to his +name. He was made a member of the learned societies of many countries; +in England, which he visited more than once, and where he became well +known, the Royal Society made him a fellow in 1860, and in 1897 gave him +its highest token of esteem, the Copley medal. (M. F.) + + + + +KOLLONTAJ, HUGO (1750-1812), Polish politician and writer, was born in +1750 at Niecislawice in Sandomir, and educated at Pinczow and Cracow. +After taking orders he went (1770) to Rome, where he obtained the degree +of doctor of theology and common law, and devoted himself +enthusiastically to the study of the fine arts, especially of +architecture and painting. At Rome too he obtained a canonry attached to +Cracow cathedral, and on his return to Poland in 1755 threw himself +heart and soul into the question of educational reform. His efforts were +impeded by the obstruction of the clergy of Cracow, who regarded him as +an adventurer; but he succeeded in reforming the university after his +own mind, and was its rector for three years (1782-1785). Kollontaj next +turned his attention to politics. In 1786 he was appointed +_referendarius_ of Lithuania, and during the Four Years' Diet +(1788-1792) displayed an amazing and many-sided activity as one of the +reformers of the constitution. He grouped around him all the leading +writers, publicists and progressive young men of the day; declaimed +against prejudices; stimulated the timid; inspired the lukewarm with +enthusiasm; and never rested till the constitution of the 3rd of May +1791 had been carried through. In June 1791 Kollontaj was appointed +vice-chancellor. On the triumph of the reactionaries and the fall of the +national party, he secretly placed in the king's hands his adhesion to +the triumphant Confederation of Targowica, a false step, much blamed at +the time, but due not to personal ambition but to a desire to save +something from the wreck of the constitution. He then emigrated to +Dresden. On the outbreak of Kosciuszko's insurrection he returned to +Poland, and as member of the national government and minister of finance +took a leading part in affairs. But his radicalism had now become of a +disruptive quality, and he quarrelled with and even thwarted Kosciuszko +because the dictator would not admit that the Polish republic could only +be saved by the methods of Jacobinism. On the other hand, the more +conservative section of the Poles regarded Kollontaj as "a second +Robespierre," and he is even suspected of complicity in the outrages of +the 17th and 18th of June 1794, when the Warsaw mob massacred the +political prisoners. On the collapse of the insurrection Kollontaj +emigrated to Austria, where from 1795 to 1802 he was detained as a +prisoner. He was finally released through the mediation of Prince Adam +Czartoryski, and returned to Poland utterly discredited. The remainder +of his life was a ceaseless struggle against privation and prejudice. He +died at Warsaw on the 28th of February 1812. + + Of his numerous works the most notable are: _Political Speeches as + Vice-Chancellor_ (Pol.) (in 6 vols., Warsaw, 1791); _On the Erection + and Fall of the Constitution of May_ (Pol.) (Leipzig, 1793; Paris, + 1868); _Correspondence with T. Czacki_ (Pol.) (Cracow, 1854); _Letters + written during Emigration, 1792-1794_ (Pol.) (Posen, 1872). + + See Ignacz Badeni, _Necrology of Hugo Kollontaj_ (Pol.) (Cracow, + 1819); Henryk Schmitt, _Review of the Life and Works of Kollontaj_ + (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1860); Wojciek Grochowski, "Life of Kollontaj" (Pol.) + in _Tygod Illus._ (Warsaw, 1861). (R. N. B.) + + + + +KOLOMEA (Polish, _Kolomyja_), a town of Austria, in Galicia, 122 m. S. +of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900), 34,188, of which half were Jews. It is +situated on the Pruth, and has an active trade in agricultural products. +To the N.E. of Kolomea, near the Dniester, lies the village of +Czernelica, with ruins of a strongly fortified castle, which served as +the residence of John Sobieski during his campaigns against the Turks. +Kolomea is a very old town and is mentioned already in 1240, but the +assertion that it was a Roman settlement under the name of _Colonia_ is +not proved. It was the principal town of the Polish province of Pokutia, +and it suffered severely during the 15th and 16th centuries from the +attacks of the Moldavians and the Tatars. + + + + +KOLOMNA, a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow, situated on the +railway between Moscow and Ryazan, 72 m. S.E. of Moscow, at the +confluence of the Moskva river with the Kolomenka. Pop. (1897), 20,970. +It is an old town, mentioned in the annals in 1177, and until the 14th +century was the capital of the Ryazan principality. It suffered greatly +from the invasions of the Tatars in the 13th century, who destroyed it +four times, as well as from the wars of the 17th century; but it always +recovered and has never lost its commercial importance. During the 19th +century it became a centre for the manufacture of silks, cottons, ropes +and leather. Here too are railway workshops, where locomotives and +wagons are made. Kolomna carries on an active trade in grain, cattle, +tallow, skins, salt and timber. It has several old churches of great +archaeological interest, including two of the 14th century, one being +the cathedral. One gate (restored in 1895) of the fortifications of the +Kreml still survives. + + + + +KOLOZSVÁR (Ger. _Klausenburg_; Rum. _Cluj_), a town of Hungary, in +Transylvania, the capital of the county of Kolozs, and formerly the +capital of the whole of Transylvania, 248 m. E.S.E. of Budapest by rail. +Pop. (1900), 46,670. It is situated in a picturesque valley on the banks +of the Little Szamos, and comprises the inner town (formerly surrounded +with walls) and five suburbs. The greater part of the town lies on the +right bank of the river, while on the other side is the so-called Bridge +Suburb and the citadel (erected in 1715). Upon the slopes of the citadel +hill there is a gipsy quarter. With the exception of the old quarter, +Kolozsvár is generally well laid out, and contains many broad and fine +streets, several of which diverge at right angles from the principal +square. In this square is situated the Gothic church of St Michael +(1396-1432); in front is a bronze equestrian statue of King Matthias +Corvinus by the Hungarian sculptor Fadrusz (1902). Other noteworthy +buildings are the Reformed church, built by Matthias Corvinus in 1486 +and ceded to the Calvinists by Bethlen Gabor in 1622; the house in which +Matthias Corvinus was born (1443), which contains an ethnographical +museum; the county and town halls, a museum, and the university +buildings. A feature of Kolozsvár is the large number of handsome +mansions belonging to the Transylvanian nobles, who reside here during +the winter. It is the seat of a Unitarian bishop, and of the +superintendent of the Calvinists for the Transylvanian circle. Kolozsvár +is the literary and scientific centre of Transylvania, and is the seat +of numerous literary and scientific associations. It contains a +university (founded in 1872), with four faculties--theology, philosophy, +law and medicine--frequented by about 1900 students in 1905; and amongst +its other educational establishments are a seminary for Unitarian +priests, an agricultural college, two training schools for teachers, a +commercial academy, and several secondary schools for boys and girls. +The industry comprises establishments for the manufacture of woollen and +linen cloth, paper, sugar, candles, soap, earthenwares, as well as +breweries and distilleries. + +Kolozsvár is believed to occupy the site of a Roman settlement named +_Napoca_. Colonized by Saxons in 1178, it then received its German name +of _Klausenburg_, from the old word Klause, signifying a "mountain +pass." Between the years 1545 and 1570 large numbers of the Saxon +population left the town in consequence of the introduction of Unitarian +doctrines. In 1798 the town was to a great extent destroyed by fire. As +capital of Transylvania and the seat of the Transylvanian diets, +Kolozsvár from 1830 to 1848 became the centre of the Hungarian national +movement in the grand principality; and in December 1848 it was taken +and garrisoned by the Hungarians under General Bem. + + + + +KOLPINO, one of the chief iron-works of the crown in Russia, in the +government of St Petersburg, 16 m. S.E. of the city of St Petersburg, on +the railway to Moscow, and on the Izhora river. Pop. (1897), 8076. A +sacred image of St Nicholas in the Trinity church is visited by numerous +pilgrims on the 22nd of May every year. Here is an iron-foundry of the +Russian admiralty. + + + + +KOLS, a generic name applied by Hindus to the Munda, Ho and Oraon tribes +of Bengal. The Mundas are an aboriginal tribe of Dravidian physical +type, inhabiting the Chota Nagpur division, and numbering 438,000 in +1901. The majority of them are animists in religion, but Christianity is +making rapid strides among them. The village community in its primitive +form still exists among the Mundas; the discontent due to the oppression +of their landlords led to the Munda rising of 1899, and to the remedy of +the alleged grievances by a new settlement of the district. The Hos, who +are closely akin to the Mundas, also inhabit the Chota Nagpur division; +in 1901 they numbered 386,000. They were formerly a very pugnacious +race, who successfully defended their territory against all comers until +they were subdued by the British in the early part of the 19th century, +being known as the Larka (or fighting) Kols. They are still great +sportsmen, using the bow and arrow. Like the Mundas they are animists, +but they show little inclination for Christianity. Both Mundas and Hos +speak dialects of the obscure linguistic family known as Munda or Kol. + + See _Imp. Gazetteer of India_, vols. xiii., xviii. (Oxford, 1908). + + + + +KOLYVAÑ. (1) A town of West Siberia, in the government of Tomsk, on the +Chaus river, 5 m. from the Ob and 120 m. S.S.W. of the city of Tomsk. It +is a wealthy town, the merchants carrying on a considerable export trade +in cattle, hides, tallow, corn and fish. It was founded in 1713 under +the name of Chausky Ostrog, and has grown rapidly. Pop. (1897), 11,703. +(2) KOLYVAÑSKIY ZAVOD, another town of the same government, in the +district of Biysk, Altai region, on the Byelaya river, 192 m. S.E. of +Barnaul; altitude, 1290 ft. It is renowned for its stone-cutting +factory, where marble, jasper, various porphyries and breccias are +worked into vases, columns, &c. Pop., 5000. (3) Old name of Reval +(q.v.). + + + + +KOMÁROM (Ger., _Komorn_), the capital of the county of Komárom, Hungary, +65 m. W.N.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 16,816. It is situated at +the eastern extremity of the island Csallóköz or Grosse Schütt, at the +confluence of the Waag with the Danube. Just below Komárom the two arms +into which the Danube separates below Pressburg, forming the Grosse +Schütt island, unite again. Since 1896 the market-town of Uj-Szöny, +which lies on the opposite bank of the Danube, has been incorporated +with Komárom. The town is celebrated chiefly for its fortifications, +which form the centre of the inland fortifications of the +Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A brisk trade in cereals, timber, wine and +fish is carried on. Komárom is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, +having received its charter in 1265. The fortifications were begun by +Matthias Corvinus, and were enlarged and strengthened during the Turkish +wars (1526-64). New forts were constructed in 1663 and were greatly +enlarged between 1805 and 1809. In 1543, 1594, 1598 and 1663 it was +beleaguered by the Turks. It was raised to the dignity of a royal free +town in 1751. During the revolutionary war of 1848-49 Komárom was a +principal point of military operations, and was long unsuccessfully +besieged by the Austrians, who on the 11th of July 1849 were defeated +there by General Görgei, and on the 3rd of August by General Klapka. On +the 27th of September the fortress capitulated to the Austrians upon +honourable terms, and on the 3rd and 4th of October was evacuated by the +Hungarian troops. The treasure of the Austrian national bank was removed +here from Vienna in 1866, when that city was threatened by the +Prussians. + + + + +KOMATI, a river of south-eastern Africa. It rises at an elevation of +about 5000 ft. in the Ermelo district of the Transvaal, 11 m. W. of the +source of the Vaal, and flowing in a general N. and E. direction reaches +the Indian Ocean at Delagoa Bay, after a course of some 500 miles. In +its upper valley near Steynsdorp are gold-fields, but the reefs are +almost entirely of low grade ore. The river descends the Drakensberg by +a pass 30 m. S. of Barberton, and at the eastern border of Swaziland is +deflected northward, keeping a course parallel to the Lebombo mountains. +Just W. of 32° E. and in 25° 25´ S. it is joined by one of the many +rivers of South Africa named Crocodile. This tributary rises, as the +Elands river, in the Bergendal (6437 ft.) near the upper waters of the +Komati, and flows E. across the high veld, being turned northward as it +reaches the Drakensberg escarpment. The fall to the low veld is over +2000 ft. in 30 m., and across the country between the Drakensberg and +the Lebombo (100 m.) there is a further fall of 3000 ft. A mile below +the junction of the Crocodile and Komati, the united stream, which from +this point is also known as the Manhissa, passes to the coast plain +through a cleft 626 ft. high in the Lebombo known as Komati Poort, where +are some picturesque falls. At Komati Poort, which marks the frontier +between British and Portuguese territory, the river is less than 60 m. +from its mouth in a direct line, but in crossing the plain it makes a +wide sweep of 200 m., first N. and then S., forming lagoon-like expanses +and backwaters and receiving from the north several tributaries. In +flood time there is a connexion northward through the swamps with the +basin of the Limpopo. The Komati enters the sea 15 m. N. of Lourenço +Marques. It is navigable from its mouth, where the water is from 12 to +18 ft. deep, to the foot of the Lebombo. + +The railway from Lourenço Marques to Pretoria traverses the plain in a +direct line, and at mile 45 reaches the Komati. It follows the south +bank of the river and enters the high country at Komati Poort. At a +small town with the same name, 2 m. W. of the Poort, on the 23rd of +September 1900, during the war with England, 3000 Boers crossed the +frontier and surrendered to the Portuguese authorities. From the Poort +westward the railway skirts the south bank of the Crocodile river +throughout its length. + + + + +KOMOTAU (Czech, _Chomútov_), a town of Bohemia, Austria 79 m. N.N.W. of +Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,925, almost exclusively German. It has +an old Gothic church, and its town-hall was formerly a commandery of the +Teutonic knights. The industrial establishments comprise manufactories +of woollen cloth, linen and paper, dyeing houses, breweries, +distilleries, vinegar works and the central workshops of the Buschtehrad +railway. Lignite is worked in the neighbourhood. Komotau was originally +a Czech market-place, but in 1252 it came into the possession of the +Teutonic Order and was completely Germanized. In 1396 it received a town +charter; and in 1416 the knights sold both town and lordship to +Wenceslaus IV. On the 16th of March 1421, the town was stormed by the +Taborites, sacked and burned. After several changes of ownership, +Komotau came in 1588 to Popel of Lobkovic, who established the Jesuits +here, which led to trouble between the Protestant burghers and the +over-lord. In 1594 the lordship fell to the crown, and in 1605 the town +purchased its freedom and was created a royal city. + + + + +KOMURA, JUTARO, COUNT (1855- ), Japanese statesman, was born in Hiuga. +He graduated at Harvard in 1877, and entered the foreign office in Tokyo +in 1884. He served as chargé d'affaires in Peking, as Japanese minister +in Seoul, in Washington, in St Petersburg, and in Peking (during the +Boxer trouble), earning in every post a high reputation for diplomatic +ability. In 1901 he received the portfolio of foreign affairs, and held +it throughout the course of the negotiations with Russia and the +subsequent war (1904-5), being finally appointed by his sovereign to +meet the Russian plenipotentiaries at Portsmouth, and subsequently the +Chinese representatives in Peking, on which occasions the Portsmouth +treaty of September 1905 and the Peking treaty of November in the same +year were concluded. For these services, and for negotiating the second +Anglo-Japanese alliance, he received the Japanese title of count and was +made a K.C.B. by King Edward VII. He resigned his portfolio in 1906 and +became privy councillor, from which post he was transferred to the +embassy in London, but he returned to Tokyo in 1908 and resumed the +portfolio of foreign affairs in the second Katsura cabinet. + + + + +KONARAK or KANARAK, a ruined temple in India, in the Puri district of +Orissa, which has been described as for its size "the most richly +ornamented building--externally at least--in the whole world." It was +erected in the middle of the 13th century, and was dedicated to the +sun-god. It consisted of a tower, probably once over 180 ft. high, with +a porch in front 140 ft. high, sculptured with figures of lions, +elephants, horses, &c. + + + + +KONG, the name of a town, district and range of hills in the N.W. of the +Ivory Coast colony, French West Africa. The hills are part of the band +of high ground separating the inner plains of West Africa from the coast +regions. In maps of the first half of the 19th century the range is +shown as part of a great mountain chain supposed to run east and west +across Africa, and is thus made to appear a continuation of the +Mountains of the Moon, or the snow-clad heights of Ruwenzori. The +culminating point of the Kong system is the Pic des Kommono, 4757 ft. +high. In general the summits of the hills are below 2000 ft. and not +more than 700 ft. above the level of the country. The "circle of Kong," +one of the administrative divisions of the Ivory Coast colony, covers +46,000 sq. m. and has a population of some 400,000. The inhabitants are +negroes, chiefly Bambara and Mandingo. About a fourth of the population +profess Mahommedanism; the remainder are spirit worshippers. The town of +Kong, situated in 9° N., 4° 20´ W., is not now of great importance. +Probably René Caillié, who spent some time in the western part of the +country in 1827, was the first European to visit Kong. In 1888 Captain +L. G. Binger induced the native chiefs to place themselves under the +protection of France, and in 1893 the protectorate was attached to the +Ivory Coast colony. For a time Kong was overrun by the armies of Samory +(see SENEGAL), but the capture of that chief in 1898 was followed by the +peaceful development of the district by France (see IVORY COAST). + + + + +KONGSBERG, a mining town of Norway in Buskerud _amt_ (county), on the +Laagen, 500 ft. above the sea, and 61 m. W.S.W. of Christiania by rail. +Pop. (1900), 5585. With the exception of the church and the town-house, +the buildings are mostly of wood. The origin and whole industry of the +town are connected with the government silver-mines in the +neighbourhood. Their first discovery was made by a peasant in 1623, +since which time they have been worked with varying success. During the +18th century Kongsberg was more important than now, and contained double +its present population. Within the town are situated the smelting-works, +the mint, and a Government weapon factory. Three miles below the Laagen +forms a fine fall of 140 ft. (Labrofos). The neighbouring Jonksnut (2950 +ft.) commands extensive views of the Telemark. A driving-road from +Kongsberg follows a favourite route for travellers through this +district, connecting with routes to Sand and Odde on the west coast. + + + + +KONIA. (1) A vilayet in Asia Minor which includes the whole, or parts +of, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Phrygia, Lycaonia, Cilicia and Cappadocia. It +was formed in 1864 by adding to the old eyalet of Karamania the western +half of Adana, and part of south-eastern Anadoli. It is divided into +five sanjaks: Adalia, Buldur, Hamid-abad, Konia and Nigdeh. The +population (990,000 Moslems and 80,000 Christians) is for the most part +agricultural and pastoral. The only industries are carpet-weaving and +the manufacture of cotton and silk stuffs. There are mines of chrome, +mercury, cinnabar, argentiferous lead and rock salt. The principal +exports are salt, minerals, opium, cotton, cereals, wool and livestock; +and the imports cloth-goods, coffee, rice and petroleum. The vilayet is +now traversed by the Anatolian railway, and contains the railhead of the +Ottoman line from Smyrna. + +(2) The chief town [anc. _Iconium_ (q.v.)], altitude 3320 ft., situated +at the S.W. edge of the vast central plain of Asia Minor, amidst +luxuriant orchards famous in the middle ages for their yellow plums and +apricots and watered by streams from the hills. Pop. 45,000, including +5000 Christians. There are interesting remains of Seljuk buildings, all +showing strong traces of Persian influence in their decorative details. +The principal ruin is that of the palace of Kilij Arslan II., which +contained a famous hall. The most important mosques are the great +_Tekke_, which contains the tomb of the poet Mevlana Jelal ed-din Rumi, +a mystic (sufi) poet, founder of the order of Mevlevi (whirling) +dervishes, and those of his successors, the "Golden" mosque and those of +Ala ed-Din and Sultan Selim. The walls, largely the work of Ala ed-Din +I., are preserved in great part and notable for the number of ancient +inscriptions built into them. They once had twelve gates and were 30 +ells in height. The climate is good--hot in summer and cold, with snow, +in winter. Konia is connected by railway with Constantinople and is the +starting-point of the extension towards Bagdad. After the capture of +Nicaea by the Crusaders (1097), Konia became the capital of the Seljuk +Sultans of Rum (see SELJUKS and TURKS). It was temporarily occupied by +Godfrey, and again by Frederick Barbarossa, but this scarcely affected +its prosperity. During the reign of Ala ed-Din I. (1219-1236) the city +was thronged with artists, poets, historians, jurists and dervishes, +driven westwards from Persia and Bokhara by the advance of the Mongols, +and there was a brief period of great splendour. After the break up of +the empire of Rum, Konia became a secondary city of the amirate of +Karamania and in part fell to ruin. In 1472 it was annexed to the +Osmanli empire by Mahommed II. In 1832 it was occupied by Ibrahim Pasha +who defeated and captured the Turkish general, Reshid Pasha, not far +from the walls. It had come to fill only part of its ancient circuit, +but of recent years it has revived considerably, and, since the railway +reached it, has acquired a semi-European quarter, with a German hotel, +cafés and Greek shops, &c. + + See W. M. Ramsay, _Historical Geography of Asia Minor_ (1890); _St + Paul the Traveller_ (1895); G. Le Strange, _Lands of the E. Caliphate_ + (1905). (D. G. H.) + + + + +KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS (1591-1646), Polish soldier, was the most +illustrious member of an ancient Polish family which rendered great +services to the Republic. Educated at the academy of Cracow, he learned +the science of war under the great Jan Chodkiewicz, whom he accompanied +on his Muscovite campaigns, and under the equally great Stanislaus +Zolkiewski, whose daughter Catherine he married. On the death of his +first wife he wedded, in 1619, Christina Lubomirska. In 1619 he took +part in the expedition against the Turks which terminated so +disastrously at Cecora, and after a valiant resistance was captured and +sent to Constantinople, where he remained a close prisoner for three +years. On his return he was appointed commander of all the forces of the +Republic, and at the head of an army of 25,000 men routed 60,000 Tatars +at Martynow, following up this success with fresh victories, for which +he received the thanks of the diet and the palatinate of Sandomeria from +the king. In 1625 he was appointed guardian of the Ukraine against the +Tatars, but in 1626 was transferred to Prussia to check the victorious +advance of Gustavus Adolphus. Swedish historians have too often ignored +the fact that Koniecpolski's superior strategy neutralized all the +efforts of the Swedish king, whom he defeated again and again, notably +at Homerstein (April 1627) and at Trzciand (April 1629). But for the +most part the fatal parsimony of his country compelled Koniecpolski to +confine himself to the harassing guerrilla warfare in which he was an +expert. In 1632 he was appointed to the long vacant post of _hetman +wielki koronny_, or commander in chief of Poland, and in that capacity +routed the Tatars at Sasowy Rogi (April 1633) and at Paniawce (April and +October 1633), and the Turks, with terrific loss, at Abazd Basha. To +keep the Cossacks of the Ukraine in order he also built the fortress of +Kudak. As one of the largest proprietors in the Ukraine he suffered +severely from Cossack depredations and offered many concessions to them. +Only after years of conflict, however, did he succeed in reducing these +unruly desperadoes to something like obedience. In 1644 he once more +routed the Tatars at Ockmatow, and again in 1646 at Brody. This was his +last exploit, for he died the same year, to the great grief of +Wladislaus IV., who had already concerted with him the plan for a +campaign on a grand scale against the Turks, and relied principally upon +the Grand Hetman for its success. Though less famous than his +contemporaries Zolkiehwski and Chodkiewicz, Koniecpolski was fully their +equal as a general, and his inexorable severity made him an ideal +lord-marcher. + + See an unfinished biography in the _Tyg. Illus. of Warsaw_ for 1863; + Stanislaw Przylenski, _Memorials of the Koniecpolskis_ (Pol.) + (Lemberg, 1842). (R. N. B.) + + + + +KÖNIG, KARL RUDOLPH (1832-1901), German physicist, was born at +Königsberg (Prussia) on the 26th of November 1832, and studied at the +university of his native town, taking the degree of Ph.D. About 1852 he +went to Paris, and became apprentice to the famous violin-maker, J. B. +Vuillaume, and some six years later he started business on his own +account. He called himself a "maker of musical instruments," but the +instruments for which his name is best known are tuning-forks, which +speedily gained a high reputation among physicists for their accuracy +and general excellence. From this business König derived his livelihood +for the rest of his life. He was, however, very far from being a mere +tradesman, and even as a manufacturer he regarded the quality of the +articles that left his workshop as a matter of greater solicitude than +the profits they yielded. Acoustical research was his real interest, and +to that he devoted all the time and money he could spare from his +business. An exhibit which he sent to the London Exhibition of 1862 +gained a gold medal, and at the Philadelphia Exposition at 1876 great +admiration was expressed for a tonometric apparatus of his manufacture. +This consisted of about 670 tuning-forks, of as many different pitches, +extending over four octaves, and it afforded a perfect means for +testing, by enumeration of the beats, the number of vibrations producing +any given note and for accurately tuning any musical instrument. An +attempt was made to secure this apparatus for the university of +Pennsylvania, and König was induced to leave it behind him in America on +the assurance that it would be purchased; but, ultimately, the money not +being forthcoming, the arrangement fell through, to his great +disappointment and pecuniary loss. Some of the forks he disposed of to +the university of Toronto and the remainder he used as a nucleus for +the construction of a still more elaborate tonometer. While the range of +the old apparatus was only between 128 and 4096 vibrations a second, the +lowest fork of the new one made only 16 vibrations a second, while the +highest gave a sound too shrill to be perceptible by the human ear. +König will also be remembered as the inventor and constructor of many +other beautiful pieces of apparatus for the investigation of acoustical +problems, among which may be mentioned his wave-sirens, the first of +which was shown at Philadelphia in 1876. His original work dealt, among +other things, with Wheatstone's sound-figures, the characteristic notes +of the different vowels, manometric flames, &c.; but perhaps the most +important of his researches are those devoted to the phenomena produced +by the interference of two tones, in which he controverted the views of +H. von Helmholtz as to the existence of summation and difference tones. +He died in Paris on the 2nd of October 1901. + + + + +KÖNIGGRÄTZ (Czech, _Hradec Králové_), a town and episcopal see of +Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 9773, mostly +Czech. It is situated in the centre of a very fertile region called the +"Golden Road," and contains many buildings of historical and +architectural interest. The cathedral was founded in 1303 by Elizabeth, +wife of Wenceslaus II; and the church of St John, built in 1710, stands +on the ruins of the old castle. The industries include the manufacture +of musical instruments, machinery, colours, and _carton-pierre_, as well +as gloves and wax candles. The original name of Königgrätz, one of the +oldest settlements in Bohemia, was _Chlumec Dobroslavsky_; the name +_Hradec_, or "the Castle," was given to it when it became the seat of a +count, and _Kralove_, "of the queen" (Ger. _Königin_), was prefixed when +it became one of the dower towns of the queen of Wenceslaus II., +Elizabeth of Poland, who lived here for thirty years. It remained a +dower town till 1620. Königgrätz was the first of the towns to declare +for the national cause during the Hussite wars. After the battle of the +White Mountain (1620) a large part of the Protestant population left the +place. In 1639 the town was occupied for eight months by the Swedes. +Several churches and convents were pulled down to make way for the +fortifications erected under Joseph II. The fortress was finally +dismantled in 1884. Near Königgrätz took place, on the 3rd of July 1866, +the decisive battle (formerly called Sadowa) of the Austro-Prussian war +(see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR). + + + + +KÖNIGINHOF (_Dvur Kralove_ in Czech), the seat of a provincial district +and of a provincial law-court, is situated in north-eastern Bohemia on +the left bank of the Elbe, about 160 kilometres from Prague. Brewing, +corn-milling and cotton-weaving are the principal industries. Pop. about +11,000. The city is of very ancient origin. Founded by King Wenceslaus +II. of Bohemia (1278-1305), it was given by him to his wife Elizabeth, +and thus received the name of Dvur Kralove (the court of the queen). +During the Hussite wars, Dvur Kralove was several times taken and +retaken by the contending parties. In a battle fought partly within the +streets of the town, the Austrian army was totally defeated by the +Prussians on the 29th of June 1866. In the 19th century Dvur Kralove +became widely known as the spot where a MS. was found that was long +believed to be one of the oldest written documents in the Czech +language. In 1817 Wenceslas Hanka, afterwards for a long period +librarian of the Bohemian museum, declared that he had found in the +church tower in the town of Dvur Kralove when on a visit there, a very +ancient MS. containing epic and lyric poems. Though Dobrovsky, the +greatest Czech philologist of the time, from the first expressed +suspicions, the MS. known as the Kralodvorsky Rukopis manuscript of +Königinhof was long accepted as genuine, frequently printed and +translated into most European languages. Doubts as to the genuineness of +the document never, however, ceased, and they became stronger when Hanka +was convicted of having fabricated other false Bohemian documents. A +series of works and articles written by Professors Goll, Gebauer, +Masoryk, and others have recently proved that the MS. is a forgery, and +hardly any Bohemian scholars of the present day believe in its +genuineness. + + The discussion of the authenticity of the MS. of Dvur Kralove lasted + with short interruptions about seventy years, and the Bohemian works + written on the subject would fill a considerable library. Count + Lützow's _History of Bohemian Literature_ gives a brief account of the + controversy. + + + + +KÖNIGSBERG (Polish _Krolewiec_), a town of Germany, capital of the +province of East Prussia and a fortress of the first rank. Pop. (1880), +140,800; (1890), 161,666; (1905), 219,862 (including the incorporated +suburbs). It is situated on rising ground, on both sides of the Pregel, +4½ m. from its mouth in the Frische Haff, 397 m. N. E. of Berlin, on the +railway to Eydtkuhnen and at the junction of lines to Pillau, Tilsit and +Kranz. It consists of three parts, which were formerly independent +administrative units, the Altstadt (old town), to the west, Löbenicht to +the east, and the island Kneiphof, together with numerous suburbs, all +embraced in a circuit of 9½ miles. The Pregel, spanned by many bridges, +flows through the town in two branches, which unite below the Grüne +Brücke. Its greatest breadth within the town is from 80 to 90 yards, and +it is usually frozen from November to March. Königsberg does not retain +many marks of antiquity. The Altstadt has long and narrow streets, but +the Kneiphof quarter is roomier. Of the seven market-places only that in +the Altstadt retains something of its former appearance. Among the more +interesting buildings are the Schloss, a long rectangle begun in 1255 +and added to later, with a Gothic tower 277 ft. high and a chapel built +in 1592, in which Frederick I. in 1701 and William I. in 1861 crowned +themselves kings of Prussia; and the cathedral, begun in 1333 and +restored in 1856, a Gothic building with a tower 164 ft. high, adjoining +which is the tomb of Kant. The Schloss was originally the residence of +the Grand Masters of the Teutonic order and later of the dukes of +Prussia. Behind is the parade-ground, with the statues of Albert I. and +of Frederick William III. by August Kiss, and the grounds also contain +monuments to Frederick I. and William I. To the east is the +Schlossteich, a long narrow ornamental lake covering 12 acres. The +north-west side of the parade-ground is occupied by the new university +buildings, completed in 1865; these and the new exchange on the south +side of the Pregel are the finest architectural features of the town. +The university (Collegium Albertinum) was founded in 1544 by Albert I., +duke of Prussia, as a "purely Lutheran" place of learning. It is chiefly +distinguished for its mathematical and philosophical studies, and +possesses a famous observatory, established in 1811 by Frederick William +Bessel, a library of about 240,000 volumes, a zoological museum, a +botanical garden, laboratories and valuable mathematical and other +scientific collections. Among its famous professors have been Kant (who +was born here in 1724 and to whom a monument was erected in 1864), J. G. +von Herder, Bessel, F. Neumann and J. F. Herbart. It is attended by +about 1000 students and has a teaching staff of over 100. Among other +educational establishments, Königsberg numbers four classical schools +(gymnasia) and three commercial schools, an academy of painting and a +school of music. The hospitals and benevolent institutions are numerous. +The town is less well equipped with museums and similar institutions, +the most noteworthy being the Prussia museum of antiquities, which is +especially rich in East Prussian finds from the Stone age to the Viking +period. Besides the cathedral the town has fourteen churches. + +Königsberg is a naval and military fortress of the first order. The +fortifications were begun in 1843 and were only completed in 1905, +although the place was surrounded by walls in early times. The works +consist of an inner wall, brought into connexion with an outlying system +of works, and of twelve detached forts, of which six are on the right +and six on the left bank of the Pregel. Between them lie two great +forts, that of Friedrichsburg on an island in the Pregel and that of the +Kaserne Kronprinz on the east of the town, both within the environing +ramparts. The protected position of its harbour has made Königsberg one +of the most important commercial cities of Germany. A new channel has +recently been made between it and its port, Pillau, 29 miles distant, on +the outer side of the Frische Haff, so as to admit vessels drawing 20 +feet of water right up to the quays of Königsberg, and the result has +been to stimulate the trade of the city. It is protected for a long +distance by moles, in which a break has been left in the Fischhauser +Wiek, to permit of freer circulation of the water and to prevent damage +to the mainland. + +The industries of Königsberg have made great advances within recent +years, notable among them are printing-works and manufactures of +machinery, locomotives, carriages, chemicals, toys, sugar, cellulose, +beer, tobacco and cigars, pianos and amber wares. The principal exports +are cereals and flour, cattle, horses, hemp, flax, timber, sugar and +oilcake. There are two pretty public parks, one in the Hufen, with a +zoological garden attached, another the Luisenwahl which commemorates +the sojourn of Queen Louisa of Prussia in the town in the disastrous +year 1806. + +The Altstadt of Königsberg grew up around the castle built in 1255 by the +Teutonic Order, on the advice of Ottaker II. King of Bohemia, after whom +the place was named. Its first site was near the fishing village of +Steindamm, but after its destruction by the Prussians in 1263 it was +rebuilt in its present position. It received civic privileges in 1286, the +two other parts of the present town--Löbenicht and Kneiphof--receiving +them a few years later. In 1340 Königsberg entered the Hanseatic League. +From 1457 it was the residence of the grand master of the Teutonic Order, +and from 1525 till 1618 of the dukes of Prussia. The trade of Königsberg +was much hindered by the constant shifting and silting up of the channels +leading to its harbour; and the great northern wars did it immense harm, +but before the end of the 17th century it had almost recovered. + +In 1724 the three independent parts were united into a single town by +Frederick William I. + +Königsberg suffered severely during the war of liberation and was +occupied by the French in 1807. In 1813 the town was the scene of the +deliberations which led to the successful uprising of Prussia against +Napoleon. During the 19th century the opening of a railway system in +East Prussia and Russia gave a new impetus to its commerce, making it +the principal outlet for the Russian staples--grain, seeds, flax and +hemp. It has now regular steam communication with Memel, Stettin, Kiel, +Amsterdam and Hull. + + See Faber, _Die Haupt- und Residenzstadt Königsberg in Preussen_ + (Königsberg, 1840); Schubert, _Zur 600-jährigen Jubelfeier + Königsbergs_ (Königsberg, 1855); Beckherrn, _Geschichte der + Befestigungen Königsbergs_ (Königsberg, 1890); H. G. Prutz, _Die + königliche Albertus-Universität zu Königsberg im 19 Jahrhundert_ + (Königsberg, 1894); Armstedt, _Geschichte der königlichen Haupt- und + Residenzstadt Königsberg_ (Stuttgart, 1899); M. Schultze, _Königsberg + und Ostpreussen zu Anfang 1813_ (Berlin, 1901); and Gordak, _Wegweiser + durch Königsberg_ (Königsberg, 1904). + + + + +KÖNIGSBORN, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, +immediately to the N. of the town of Unna, of which it practically forms +a suburb. It has large saltworks, producing annually over 15,000 tons. +The brine springs, in connexion with which there is a hydropathic +establishment, have a temperature of 93° F., and are efficacious in skin +diseases, rheumatism and scrofula. + + See Wegele, _Bad Königsborn und seine Heilmittel_ (Essen, 1902). + + + + +KÖNIGSHÜTTE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, +situated in the middle of the Upper Silesian coal and iron district, 3 +m. S. of Beuthen and 122 m. by rail S.E. of Breslau. Pop. (1852), 4495; +(1875), 26,040; (1900), 57,919. In 1869 it was incorporated with various +neighbouring villages, and raised to the dignity of a town. It has two +Protestant and three Roman Catholic churches and several schools and +benevolent institutions. The largest iron-works in Silesia is situated +at Königshütte, and includes puddling works, rolling-mills, and +zinc-works. Founded in 1797, it was formerly in the hands of government, +but is now carried on by a company. There are also manufactures of +bricks and glass and a trade in wood and coal. Nearly one-half of the +population of the town consists of Poles. + + See Mohr, _Geschichte der Stadt Königshütte_ (Königshütte, 1890). + + + + + +KÖNIGSLUTTER, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick, on the +Lutter 36 m. E. of Brunswick by the railway to Eisleben and Magdeburg. +Pop. (1905), 3260. It possesses an Evangelical church, a castle and some +interesting old houses. Its chief manufactures are sugar, machinery, +paper and beer. Near the town are the ruins of a Benedictine abbey +founded in 1135. In its beautiful church, which has not been destroyed, +are the tombs of the emperor Lothair II., his wife Richenza, and of his +son-in-law, Duke Henry the Proud of Saxony and Bavaria. + + + + +KÖNIGSMARK, MARIA AURORA, COUNTESS OF (1662-1728), mistress of Augustus +the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of Poland, belonged to a noble +Swedish family, and was born on the 8th of May 1662. Having passed some +years at Hamburg, where she attracted attention both by her beauty and +her talents, Aurora went in 1694 to Dresden to make inquiries about her +brother Philipp Christoph, count of Königsmark, who had suddenly and +mysteriously disappeared from Hanover. Here she was noticed by Augustus, +who made her his mistress; and in October 1696 she gave birth to a son +Maurice, afterwards the famous marshal de Saxe. The elector however +quickly tired of Aurora, who then spent her time in efforts to secure +the position of abbess of Quedlinburg, an office which carried with it +the dignity of a princess of the Empire, and to recover the lost +inheritance of her family in Sweden. She was made coadjutor abbess and +lady-provost (_Pröpstin_) of Quedlinburg, but lived mainly in Berlin, +Dresden and Hamburg. In 1702 she went on a diplomatic errand to Charles +XII. of Sweden on behalf of Augustus, but her adventurous journey ended +in failure. The countess, who was described by Voltaire as "the most +famous woman of two centuries," died at Quedlinburg on the 16th of +February 1728. + + See F. Cramer, _Denkwürdigkeiten der Gräfin M. A. Königsmark_ + (Leipzig, 1836); and _Biographische Nachrichten von der Gräfin M. A. + Königsmark_ (Quedlinburg, 1833); W. F. Palmblad, _Aurora Königsmark + und ihre Verwandte_ (Leipzig, 1848-1853); C. L. de Pöllnitz, _La Saxe + galante_ (Amsterdam, 1734); and O. J. B. von Corvin-Wiersbitzki, + _Maria Aurora, Gräfin von Königsmark_ (Rudolstadt, 1902). + + + + +KÖNIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH, COUNT OF (1665-1694), was a member of a +noble Swedish family, and is chiefly known as the lover of Sophia +Dorothea, wife of the English king George I. then electoral prince of +Hanover. Born on the 14th of March 1665, Königsmark was a brother of the +countess noticed above. After wandering and fighting in various parts of +Europe he entered the service of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover. +Here he made the acquaintance of Sophia Dorothea, and assisted her in +one or two futile attempts to escape from Hanover. Regarded, rightly or +wrongly, as the lover of the princess, he was seized, and disappeared +from history, probably by assassination, on the 1st of July 1694. One +authority states that George I. was accustomed to boast about this deed; +but this statement is doubted, and the Hanoverian court resolutely +opposed all efforts to clear up the mystery. It is not absolutely +certain that Sophia Dorothea was guilty of a criminal intrigue with +Königsmark, as it is probable that the letters which purport to have +passed between the pair are forgeries. The question of her guilt or +innocence, however, has been and still remains a fruitful and popular +subject for romance and speculation. + + See _Briefwechsel des Grafen Königsmark und der Prinzessin Sophie + Dorothea von Celle_, edited by W. F. Palmblad (Leipzig, 1847); A. + Köcher, "Die Prinzessin von Ahlden," in the _Historische Zeitschrift_ + (Munich, 1882); and W. H. Wilkins, _The Love of an Uncrowned Queen_ + (London, 1900). + + + + +KÖNIGSSEE, or Lake of St Bartholomew, a lake of Germany, in the kingdom +of Bavaria, province of Upper Bavaria, about 2½ m. S. from +Berchtesgaden, 1850 ft. above sea-level. It has a length of 5 m., and a +breadth varying from 500 yards to a little over a mile, and attains a +maximum depth of 600 ft. The Königssee is the most beautiful of all the +lakes in the German Alps, pent in by limestone mountains rising to an +altitude of 6500 ft., the flanks of which descend precipitously to the +green waters below. The lake abounds in trout, and the surrounding +country is rich in game. On a promontory by the side of the lake is a +chapel to which pilgrimages are made on St Bartholomew's Day. Separated +by a narrow strip of land from the Königssee is the Obersee, a smaller +lake. + + + + +KÖNIGSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, situated in a +deep valley on the left bank of the Elbe, at the influx of the Biela, in +the centre of Saxon Switzerland, 25 m. S.E. of Dresden by the railway to +Bodenbach and Testchen. It contains a Roman Catholic and a Protestant +church, a monument to the composer Julius Otto, and has some small +manufactures of machinery, celluloid, paper, vinegar and buttons. It is +chiefly remarkable for the huge fortress, lying immediately to the +north-west of the town, which crowns a sandstone rock rising abruptly +from the Elbe to a height of 750 ft. Across the Elbe lies the +Lilienstein, a similar formation, but unfortified. The fortress of +Königstein was probably a Slav stronghold as early as the 12th century, +but it is not mentioned in chronicles before the year 1241, when it was +a fief of Bohemia. In 1401 it passed to the margraves of Meissen and by +the treaty of Eger in 1459 it was formally ceded by Bohemia to Saxony. +About 1540 the works were strengthened, and the place was used as a +_point d'appui_ against inroads from Bohemia. Hence the phrase +frequently employed by historians that Königstein is "the key to +Bohemia." As a fact, the main road from Dresden into that country lies +across the hills several miles to the south-west, and the fortress has +exercised little, if any, influence in strategic operations, either +during the middle ages or in modern times. It was further strengthened +under the electors Christian I., John George I. and Frederick Augustus +II. of Saxony, the last of whom completed it in its present form. During +the Prussian invasion of Saxony in 1756 it served as a place of refuge +for the King of Poland, Augustus III., as it did also in 1849, during +the Dresden insurrection of May in that year, to the King of Saxony, +Frederick Augustus II. and his ministers. It was occupied by the +Prussians in 1867, who retained possession of it until the peace of +1871. It is garrisoned by detachments of several Saxon infantry +regiments, and serves as a treasure house for the state and also as a +place of detention for officers sentenced to fortress imprisonment. A +remarkable feature of the place is a well, hewn out of the solid rock to +a depth of 470 ft. + + See Klemm, _Der Königstein in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1905); + and Gautsch, _Aelteste Geschichte der sächsischen Schweiz_ (Dresden, + 1880). + + + + +KÖNIGSWINTER, a town and summer resort of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine +province, on the right bank of the Rhine, 24 m. S.S.E. of Cologne by the +railway to Frankfort-on-Main, at the foot of the Siebengebirge. Pop. +(1905), 3944. The romantic Drachenfels (1010 ft.), crowned by the ruins +of a castle built early in the 12th century by the archbishop of +Cologne, rises behind the town. From the summit, to which there is a +funicular railway, there is a magnificent view, celebrated by Byron in +_Childe Harold's Pilgrimage_. A cave in the hill is said to have +sheltered the dragon which was slain by the hero Siegfried. The mountain +is quarried, and from 1267 onward supplied stone (trachyte) for the +building of Cologne cathedral. The castle of Drachenburg, built in 1883, +is on the north side of the hill. Königswinter has a Roman Catholic and +an Evangelical church, some small manufactures and a little shipping. It +has a monument to the poet, Wolfgang Müller. Near the town are the ruins +of the abbey of Heisterbach. + + + + +KONINCK, LAURENT GUILLAUME DE (1809-1887), Belgian palaeontologist and +chemist, was born at Louvain on the 3rd of May 1809. He studied medicine +in the university of his native town, and in 1831 he became assistant in +the chemical schools. He pursued the study of chemistry in Paris, Berlin +and Giessen, and was subsequently engaged in teaching the science at +Ghent and Liége. In 1856 he was appointed professor of chemistry in the +Liége University, and he retained this post until the close of his life. +About the year 1835 he began to devote his leisure to the investigation +of the Carboniferous fossils around Liége, and ultimately he became +distinguished for his researches on the palaeontology of the Palaeozoic +rocks, and especially for his descriptions of the mollusca, brachiopods, +crustacea and crinoids of the Carboniferous limestone of Belgium. In +recognition of this work the Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1875 +by the Geological Society of London, and in 1876 he was appointed +professor of palaeontology at Liége. He died at Liége on the 16th of +July 1887. + + PUBLICATIONS.--_Éléments de chimie inorganique_ (1839); _Description + des animaux fossiles qui se trouvent dans le terrain Carbonifère de + Belgique_ (1842-1844, supp. 1851); _Recherches sur les animaux + fossiles_ (1847, 1873). See _Notice sur L. G. de Koninck_, by E. + Dupont; _Annuaire de l'Acad. roy. de Belgique_ (1891), with portrait + and bibliography. + + + + +KONINCK, PHILIP DE [de Coninck, de Koningh, van Koening] (1619-1688), +Dutch landscape painter, was born in Amsterdam in 1619. Little is known +of his history, except that he was a pupil of Rembrandt, whose influence +is to be seen in all his work. He painted chiefly broad sunny +landscapes, full of space, light and atmosphere. Portraits by him, +somewhat in the manner of Rembrandt, also exist; there are examples of +these in the galleries at Copenhagen and Christiania. Of his landscapes +the principal are "Vue de l'embouchure d'une rivière," at the Hague; a +slightly larger replica is in the National Gallery, London; "Lisière +d'un bois," and "Paysage" (with figures by A. Vandevelde) at Amsterdam; +and landscapes in Brussels, Florence (Uffizi), Berlin and Cologne. + +Several of his works have been falsely attributed to Rembrandt, and many +more to his namesake and fellow-townsman SALOMON DE KONINCK (1609-1656), +who was also a disciple of Rembrandt; his paintings and etchings consist +mainly of portraits and biblical scenes. + +Both these painters are to be distinguished from DAVID DE KONINCK +(1636-?1687), who is also known as "Rammelaar." He was born in Antwerp. +He studied there under Jan Fyt, and later settled in Rome, where he is +stated to have died in 1687; this is, however, doubtful. His pictures +are chiefly landscapes with animals, and still-life. + + + + +KONITZ, a town of Germany, in the province of West Prussia, at the +junction of railways to Schneidemühl and Gnesen, 68 m. S.W. of Danzig. +Pop. (1905), 11,014. It is still surrounded by its old fortifications, +has two Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a new town-hall, +handsome public offices, and a prison. It has iron-foundries, saw-mills, +electrical works, and manufactures of bricks. Konitz was the first +fortified post established in Prussia by Hermann Balk, who in 1230 had +been commissioned as _Landmeister_, by the grand-master of the Teutonic +order, to reduce the heathen Prussians. For a long time it continued to +be a place of military importance. + + See Uppenkamp, _Geschichte der Stadt Konitz_ (Konitz, 1873). + + + + +KONKAN, or CONCAN, a maritime tract of Western India, situated within +the limits of the Presidency of Bombay, and extending from the +Portuguese settlement of Goa on the S. to the territory of Daman, +belonging to the same nation, on the N. On the E. it is bounded by the +Western Ghats, and on the W. by the Indian Ocean. This tract comprises +the three British districts of Thana, Ratnagiri and Kolaba, and the +native states of Janjira and Sawantwari. It may be estimated at 300 m. +in length, with an average breadth of about 40. From the mountains on +its eastern frontier, which in one place attain a height of 4700 ft., +the surface, marked by a succession of irregular hilly spurs from the +Ghats, slopes to the westward, where the mean elevation of the coast is +not more than 100 ft. above the level of the sea. Several mountain +streams, but none of any magnitude, traverse the country in the same +direction. One of the most striking characteristics of the climate is +the violence of the monsoon rains--the mean annual fall at Mahabaleshwar +amounting to 239 in. The coast has a straight general outline, but is +much broken into small bays and harbours. This, with the uninterrupted +view along the shore, and the land and sea breezes, which force vessels +steering along the coast to be always within sight of it, rendered this +country from time immemorial the seat of piracy; and so formidable had +the pirates become in the 18th century, that all ships suffered which +did not receive a pass from their chiefs. The Great Mogul maintained a +fleet for the express purpose of checking them, and they were frequently +attacked by the Portuguese. British commerce was protected by occasional +expeditions from Bombay; but the piratical system was not finally +extinguished until 1812. The southern Konkan has given its name to a +dialect of Marathi, which is the vernacular of the Roman Catholics of +Goa. + + + + +KONTAGORA, a province in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria, +on the east bank of the Niger to the north of Nupe and opposite Borgu. +It is bounded W. by the Niger, S. by the province of Nupe, E. by that of +Zaria, and N. by that of Sokoto. It has an area of 14,500 sq. m. and a +population estimated at about 80,000. At the time of the British +occupation of Northern Nigeria the province formed a Fula emirate. +Before the Fula domination, which was established in 1864, the ancient +pagan kingdom of Yauri was the most important of the lesser kingdoms +which occupied this territory. The Fula conquest was made from Nupe on +the south and a tribe of independent and warlike pagans continued to +hold the country between Kontagora and Sokoto on the north. The province +was brought under British domination in 1901 as the result of a military +expedition sent to prevent audacious slave-raiding in British protected +territory and of threats directed against the British military station +of Jebba on the Niger. The town of Kontagora was taken in January of +1901. The emir Ibrahim fled, and was not captured till early in 1902. +The province, after having been held for a time in military occupation, +was organized for administration on the same system as the rest of the +protectorate. In 1903 Ibrahim, after agreeing to take the oath of +allegiance to the British crown and to accept the usual conditions of +appointment, which include the abolition of the slave trade within the +province, was reinstated as emir and the British garrison was withdrawn. +Since then the development of the province has progressed favourably. +Roads have been opened and Kontagora connected by telegraph with +headquarters at Zungeru. British courts of justice have been established +at the British headquarters, and native courts in every district. In +1904 an expedition reduced to submission the hitherto independent tribes +in the northern belt, who had up to that time blocked the road to +Sokoto. Their arms were confiscated and their country organized as a +district of the province under a chief and a British assistant resident. + + + + +KOORINGA [BURRA], a town of Burra county, South Australia on Burra +Creek, 101 m. by rail N. by E. of Adelaide. Pop. (1901), 1994. It is the +centre of a mining and agricultural district in which large areas are +devoted to wheat-growing. The famous Burra Burra copper mine, discovered +by a shepherd in 1844, is close to the town, while silver and lead ore +is also found in the vicinity. + + + + +KÖPENICK (CÖPENICK), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Brandenburg, on an island in the Spree, 9 m. S.E. from Berlin by the +railway to Fürstenwalde. Pop. (1905), 27,721. It contains a royal +residence, which was built on the site of a palace which belonged to the +great elector, Frederick William. This is surrounded by gardens and +contains a fine banqueting hall and a chapel. Other buildings are a +Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and a teachers' seminary. The +varied industries embrace the manufacture of glass, linoleum, +sealing-wax and ink. In the vicinity is Spindlersfeld, with important +dye-works. + +Köpenick, which dates from the 12th century, received municipal rights +in 1225. Shortly afterwards, it became the bone of contention between +Brandenburg and Meissen, but, at the issue of the feud, remained with +the former, becoming a favourite residence of the electors of +Brandenburg. In the palace the famous court martial was held in 1730, +which condemned the crown-prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the +Great, to death. In 1906 the place derived ephemeral fame from the +daring feat of a cobbler, one Wilhelm Voigt, who, attired as a captain +in the army, accompanied by soldiers, whom his apparent rank deceived, +took the mayor prisoner, on a fictitious charge of having falsified +accounts and absconded with a considerable sum of municipal money. The +"captain of Köpenick" was arrested, tried, and sentenced to a term of +imprisonment. + + See Graf zu Dohna, _Kurfürstliche Schlösser in der Mark Brandenburg_ + (Berlin, 1890). + + + + +KOPISCH, AUGUST (1799-1853), German poet, was born at Breslau on the +26th of May 1799. In 1815 he began the study of painting at the Prague +academy, but an injury to his hand precluded the prospects of any great +success in this profession, and he turned to literature. After a +residence in Dresden Kopisch proceeded, in 1822, to Italy, where, at +Naples, he formed an intimate friendship with the poet August, count of +Platen Hallermund. He was an expert swimmer, a quality which enabled him +in company with Ernst Fries to discover the blue grotto of Capri. In +1828 he settled at Berlin and was granted a pension by Frederick William +IV., who in 1838 conferred upon him the title of professor. He died at +Berlin on the 3rd of February 1853. Kopisch produced some very original +poetry, light in language and in form. He especially treated legends and +popular subjects, and among his _Gedichte_ (Berlin, 1836) are some naïve +and humorous little pieces such as _Die Historie von Noah_, _Die +Heinzelmännchen_, _Das grüne Tier_ and _Der Scheiderjunge von +Krippstedt_, which became widely popular. He also published a +translation of Dante's _Divine Comedy_ (Berlin, 1840), and under the +title _Agrumi_ (Berlin, 1838) a collection of translations of Italian +folk songs. + + Kopisch's collected works were published in 5 vols. (Berlin, 1856.) + + + + +KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ (1817-1892), German chemist, was born on the +30th of October 1817 at Hanau, where his father, Johann Heinrich Kopp +(1777-1858), a physician, was professor of chemistry, physics and +natural history at the Lyceum. + +After attending the gymnasium of his native town, he studied at Marburg +and Heidelberg, and then, attracted by the fame of Liebig, went in 1839 +to Giessen, where he became a _privatdozent_ in 1841, and professor of +chemistry twelve years later. In 1864 he was called to Heidelberg in the +same capacity, and he remained there till his death on the 20th of +February 1892. Kopp devoted himself especially to physico-chemical +inquiries, and in the history of chemical theory his name is associated +with several of the most important correlations of the physical +properties of substances with their chemical constitution. Much of his +work was concerned with specific volumes, the conception of which he set +forth in a paper published when he was only twenty-two years of age; and +the principles he established have formed the basis of subsequent +investigations in that subject, although his results have in some cases +undergone modification. Another question to which he gave much attention +was the connexion of the boiling-point of compounds, organic ones in +particular, with their composition. In addition to these and other +laborious researches, Kopp was a prolific writer. In 1843-1847 he +published a comprehensive _History of Chemistry_, in four volumes, to +which three supplements were added in 1869-1875. The _Development of +Chemistry in Recent Times_ appeared in 1871-1874, and in 1886 he +published a work in two volumes on _Alchemy in Ancient and Modern +Times_. In addition he wrote (1863) on theoretical and physical +chemistry for the Graham-Otto _Lehrbuch der Chemie_, and for many years +assisted Liebig in editing the _Annalen der Chemie_ and the +_Jahresbericht_. + +He must not be confused with EMIL KOPP (1817-1875), who, born at +Warselnheim, Alsace, became in 1847 professor of toxicology and +chemistry at the École supérieure de Pharmacie at Strasburg, in 1849 +professor of physics and chemistry at Lausanne, in 1852 chemist to a +Turkey-red factory near Manchester, in 1868 professor of technology at +Turin, and finally, in 1871, professor of technical chemistry at the +Polytechnic of Zürich, where he died in 1875. + + + + +KOPRÜLÜ, or KUPRILI (Bulgarian _Valésa_, Greek _Vélissa_), a town of +Macedonia, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Salonica, situated 600 +ft. above sea-level, on the river Vardar, and on the Salonica-Mitrovitza +railway, 25 m. S.E. of Uskub. Pop. (1905), about 22,000. Koprülü has a +flourishing trade in silk; maize and mulberries are cultivated in the +neighbourhood. The Greek and Bulgarian names of the town may be corrupt +forms of the ancient Bylazora, described by Polybius as the chief city +of Paeonia. + + + + +KORA, or CORA, an ancient town of Northern India, in the Fatehpur +district of the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 2806. As the capital of a +Mahommedan province, it gave its name to part of the tract (with +Allahabad) granted by Lord Clive to the titular Mogul emperor, Shah +Alam, in 1765. + + + + +KORAN. The Koran (Kor'án) is the sacred Book of Islam, on which the +religion of more than two hundred millions of Mahommedans is founded, +being regarded by them as the immediate word of God. And since the use +of the Koran in public worship, in schools and otherwise, is much more +extensive than, for example, the reading of the Bible in most Christian +countries, it has been truly described as the most widely-read book in +existence. This circumstance alone is sufficient to give it an urgent +claim on our attention, whether it suit our taste and fall in with our +religious and philosophical views or not. Besides, it is the work of +Mahomet, and as such is fitted to afford a clue to the spiritual +development of that most successful of all prophets and religious +personalities. It must be owned that the first perusal leaves on a +European an impression of chaotic confusion--not that the book is so +very extensive, for it is not quite as large as the New Testament. This +impression can in some degree be modified only by the application of a +critical analysis with the assistance of Arabian tradition. + + + Mahomet's View of Revelation. + +To the faith of the Moslems, as has been said, the Koran is the word of +God, and such also is the claim which the book itself advances. For +except in sur. i.--which is a prayer for men--and some few passages +where Mahomet (vi. 104, 114; xxvii. 93; xlii. 8) or the angels (xix. 65; +xxxvii. 164 sqq.) speak in the first person without the intervention of +the usual imperative "say" (sing. or pl.), the speaker throughout is +God, either in the first person singular or more commonly the plural of +majesty "we." The same mode of address is familiar to us from the +prophets of the Old Testament; the human personality disappears, in the +moment of inspiration, behind the God by whom it is filled. But all the +greatest of the Hebrew prophets fall back speedily upon the unassuming +human "I"; while in the Koran the divine "I" is the stereotyped form of +address. Mahomet, however, really felt himself to be the instrument of +God; this consciousness was no doubt brighter at his first appearance +than it afterwards became, but it never entirely forsook him. +Nevertheless we cannot doubt his good-faith, not even in the cases in +which the moral quality of his actions leaves most to be desired. In +spite of all, the dominant fact remains, that to the end he was zealous +for his God and for the salvation of his people, nay, of the whole of +humanity, and that he never lost the unconquerable certainty of his +divine mission. + +The rationale of revelation is explained in the Koran itself as follows: +In heaven is the original text ("the mother of the book," xliii. 3; "a +concealed book," lv. 77; "a well-guarded tablet," lxxxv. 22). By the +process of "sending down" (_tanzíl_), one piece after another was +communicated to the Prophet. The mediator was an angel, who is called +sometimes the "Spirit" (xxvi. 193), sometimes the "holy Spirit" (xvi. +104), and at a later time "Gabriel" (only in ii. 91, 92; lxvi. 4). This +angel dictates the revelation to the Prophet, who repeats it after him, +and afterwards proclaims it to the world (lxxxvii. 6, &c.). It is plain +that we have here a somewhat crude attempt of the Prophet to represent +to himself the more or less unconscious process by which his ideas arose +and gradually took shape in his mind. It is no wonder if in such +confused imagery the details are not always self-consistent. When, for +example, this heavenly archetype is said to be in the hands of "exalted +scribes" (lxxx. 13 sqq.), this seems a transition to a quite different +set of ideas, namely, the books of fate, or the record of all human +actions--conceptions which are actually found in the Koran. It is to be +observed, at all events, that Mahomet's transcendental idea of God, as a +Being exalted altogether above the world, excludes the thought of direct +intercourse between the Prophet and God. + + + Component Parts of the Koran. + +It is an explicit statement of the Koran that the sacred book was +revealed ("sent down") by God, not all at once, but piecemeal and +gradually (xxv. 34). This is evident from the actual composition of the +book, and is confirmed by Moslem tradition. That is to say, Mahomet +issued his revelations in fly-leaves of greater or less extent. A single +piece of this kind was called either, like the entire collection, +_kor'an_, i.e. "recitation," "reading," or, better still, is the +equivalent of Aramaic _geryana_ "lectionary"; or _kitab_, "writing"; or +_sura_, which is perhaps the late-Hebrew _shura_, and means literally +"series." The last became, in the lifetime of Mahomet, the regular +designation of the individual sections as distinguished from the whole +collection; and accordingly it is the name given to the separate +chapters of the existing Koran. These chapters are of very unequal +length. Since many of the shorter ones are undoubtedly complete in +themselves, it is natural to assume that the longer, which are sometimes +very comprehensive, have arisen from the amalgamation of various +originally distinct revelations. This supposition is favoured by the +numerous traditions which give us the circumstances under which this or +that short piece, now incorporated in a larger section, was revealed; +and also by the fact that the connexion of thought in the present suras +often seems to be interrupted. And in reality many pieces of the long +suras have to be severed out as originally independent; even in the +short ones parts are often found which cannot have been there at first. +At the same time we must beware of carrying this sifting operation too +far,--as Nöldeke now believes himself to have done in his earlier works, +and as Sprenger also sometimes seems to do. That some suras were of +considerable length from the first is seen, for example, from xii., +which contains a short introduction, then the history of Joseph, and +then a few concluding observations, and is therefore perfectly +homogeneous. In like manner, xx., which is mainly occupied with the +history of Moses, forms a complete whole. The same is true of xviii., +which at first sight seems to fall into several pieces; the history of +the seven sleepers, the grotesque narrative about Moses, and that about +Alexander "the Horned," are all connected together, and the same rhyme +through the whole sura. Even in the separate narrations we may observe +how readily the Koran passes from one subject to another, how little +care is taken to express all the transitions of thought, and how +frequently clauses are omitted, which are almost indispensable. We are +not at liberty, therefore, in every case where the connexion in the +Koran is obscure, to say that it is really broken, and set it down as +the clumsy patchwork of a later hand. Even in the old Arabic poetry such +abrupt transitions are of very frequent occurrence. It is not uncommon +for the Koran, after a new subject has been entered on, to return +gradually or suddenly to the former theme,--a proof that there at least +separation is not to be thought of. In short, however imperfectly the +Koran may have been redacted, in the majority of cases the present suras +are identical with the originals. + +How these revelations actually arose in Mahomet's mind is a question +which it is almost as idle to discuss as it would be to analyse the +workings of the mind of a poet. In his early career, sometimes perhaps +in its later stages also, many revelations must have burst from him in +uncontrollable excitement, so that he could not possibly regard them +otherwise than as divine inspirations. We must bear in mind that he was +no cold systematic thinker, but an Oriental visionary, brought up in +crass superstition, and without intellectual discipline; a man whose +nervous temperament had been powerfully worked on by ascetic +austerities, and who was all the more irritated by the opposition he +encountered, because he had little of the heroic in his nature. Filled +with his religious ideas and visions, he might well fancy he heard the +angel bidding him recite what was said to him. There may have been many +a revelation of this kind which no one ever heard but himself, as he +repeated it to himself in the silence of the night (lxxiii. 4). Indeed +the Koran itself admits that he forgot some revelations (lxxxvii. 7). +But by far the greatest part of the book is undoubtedly the result of +deliberation, touched more or less with emotion, and animated by a +certain rhetorical rather than poetical glow. Many passages are based +upon purely intellectual reflection. It is said that Mahomet +occasionally uttered such a passage immediately after one of those +epileptic fits which not only his followers, but (for a time at least) +he himself also, regarded as tokens of intercourse with the higher +powers. If that is the case, it is impossible to say whether the trick +was in the utterance of the revelation or in the fit itself. + + + The Koran Written. + +How the various pieces of the Koran took literary form is uncertain. +Mahomet himself, so far as we can discover, never wrote down anything. +The question whether he could read and write has been much debated among +Moslems, unfortunately more with dogmatic arguments and spurious +traditions than authentic proofs. At present one is inclined to say that +he was not altogether ignorant of these arts, but that from want of +practice he found it convenient to employ some one else whenever he had +anything to write. After the migration to Medina (A.D. 622) we are told +that short pieces--chiefly legal decisions--were taken down immediately +after they were revealed, by an adherent whom he summoned for the +purpose; so that nothing stood in the way of their publication. Hence it +is probable that in Mecca, where the art of writing was commoner than in +Medina, he had already begun to have his oracles committed to writing. +That even long portions of the Koran existed in written form from an +early date may be pretty safely inferred from various indications; +especially from the fact that in Mecca the Prophet had caused insertions +to be made, and pieces to be erased in his previous revelations. For we +cannot suppose that he knew the longer suras by heart so perfectly that +he was able after a time to lay his finger upon any particular passage. +In some instances, indeed, he may have relied too much on his memory. +For example, he seems to have occasionally dictated the same sura to +different persons in slightly different terms. In such cases, no doubt, +he may have partly intended to introduce improvements; and so long as +the difference was merely in expression, without affecting the sense, it +could occasion no perplexity to his followers. None of them had literary +pedantry enough to question the consistency of the divine revelation on +that ground. In particular instances, however, the difference of reading +was too important to be overlooked. Thus the Koran itself confesses that +the unbelievers cast it up as a reproach to the Prophet that God +sometimes substituted one verse for another (xvi. 103). On one occasion, +when a dispute arose between two of his own followers as to the true +reading of a passage which both had received from the Prophet himself, +Mahomet is said to have explained that the Koran was revealed in seven +forms. In this apparently genuine dictum seven stands, of course, as in +many other cases, for an indefinite but limited number. But one may +imagine what a world of trouble it has cost the Moslem theologians to +explain the saying in accordance with their dogmatic beliefs. A great +number of explanations are current, some of which claim the authority of +the Prophet himself; as, indeed, fictitious utterances of Mahomet play +throughout a conspicuous part in the exegesis of the Koran. One very +favourite, but utterly untenable interpretation is that the "seven +forms," are seven different Arabic dialects. + + + Abrogated Readings. + +When such discrepancies came to the cognizance of Mahomet it was +doubtless his desire that only one of the conflicting texts should be +considered authentic; only he never gave himself much trouble to have +his wish carried into effect. Although in theory he was an upholder of +verbal inspiration, he did not push the doctrine to its extreme +consequences; his practical good sense did not take these things so +strictly as the theologians of later centuries. Sometimes, however, he +did suppress whole sections or verses, enjoining his followers to efface +or forget them, and declaring them to be "abrogated." A very remarkable +case is that of the two verses in liii., when he had recognized three +heathen goddesses as exalted beings, possessing influence with God. This +had occurred in a moment of weakness, in order that by such a promise, +which yet left Allah in his lofty position, he might gain over his +fellow-countrymen. This object he achieved, but soon his conscience +smote him, and he declared these words to have been an inspiration of +Satan. + + + Abrogated Laws. + +So much for abrogated readings; the case is somewhat different when we +come to the abrogation of laws and directions to the Moslems, which +often occurs in the Koran. There is nothing in this at variance with +Mahomet's idea of God. God is to him an absolute despot, who declares a +thing right or wrong from no inherent necessity but by his arbitrary +fiat. This God varies his commands at pleasure, prescribes one law for +the Christians, another for the Jews, and a third for the Moslems; nay, +he even changes his instructions to the Moslems when it pleases him. +Thus, for example, the Koran contains very different directions, suited +to varying circumstances, as to the treatment which idolaters are to +receive at the hands of believers. But Mahomet showed no anxiety to have +these superseded enactments destroyed. Believers could be in no +uncertainty as to which of two contradictory passages remained in force; +and they might still find edification in that which had become obsolete. +That later generations might not so easily distinguish the "abrogated" +from the "abrogating" did not occur to Mahomet, whose vision, naturally +enough, seldom extended to the future of his religious community. +Current events were invariably kept in view in the revelations. In +Medina it called forth the admiration of the Faithful to observe how +often God gave them the answer to a question whose settlement was +urgently required at the moment. The same näiveté appears in a remark of +the Caliph Othman about a doubtful case: "If the Apostle of God were +still alive, methinks there had been a Koran passage revealed on this +point." Not unfrequently the divine word was found to coincide with the +advice which Mahomet had received from his most intimate disciples. +"Omar was many a time of a certain opinion," says one tradition, "and +the Koran was then revealed accordingly." + + + Contents of the Koran. + +The contents of the different parts of the Koran are extremely varied. +Many passages consist of theological or moral reflections. We are +reminded of the greatness, the goodness, the righteousness of God as +manifested in Nature, in history, and in revelation through the +prophets, especially through Mahomet. God is magnified as the One, the +All-powerful. Idolatry and all deification of created beings, such as +the worship of Christ as the Son of God, are unsparingly condemned. The +joys of heaven and the pains of hell are depicted in vivid sensuous +imagery, as is also the terror of the whole creation at the advent of +the last day and the judgment of the world. Believers receive general +moral instruction, as well as directions for special circumstances. The +lukewarm are rebuked, the enemies threatened with terrible punishment, +both temporal and eternal. To the sceptical the truth of Islam is held +forth; and a certain, not very cogent, method of demonstration +predominates. In many passages the sacred book falls into a diffuse +preaching style, others seem more like proclamations or general orders. +A great number contain ceremonial or civil laws, or even special +commands to individuals down to such matters as the regulation of +Mahomet's harem. In not a few definite questions are answered which had +actually been propounded to the Prophet by believers or infidels. +Mahomet himself, too, repeatedly receives direct injunctions, and does +not escape an occasional rebuke. One sura (i.) is a prayer, two (cxiii. +cxiv.) are magical formulas. Many suras treat of a single topic, others +embrace several. + + + Narratives. + +From the mass of material comprised in the Koran--and the account we +have given is far from exhaustive--we should select the histories of the +ancient prophets and saints as possessing a peculiar interest. The +purpose of Mahomet is to show from these histories how God in former +times had rewarded the righteous and punished their enemies. For the +most part the old prophets only serve to introduce a little variety in +point of form, for they are almost in every case facsimiles of Mahomet +himself. They preach exactly like him, they have to bring the very same +charges against their opponents, who on their part behave exactly as the +unbelieving inhabitants of Mecca. The Koran even goes so far as to make +Noah contend against the worship of certain false gods, mentioned by +name, who were worshipped by the Arabs of Mahomet's time. In an address +which is put in the mouth of Abraham (xxvi. 75 sqq.), the reader quite +forgets that it is Abraham, and not Mahomet (or God himself), who is +speaking. Other narratives are intended rather for amusement, although +they are always well seasoned with edifying phrases. It is no wonder +that the godless Korrishites thought these stories of the Koran not +nearly so entertaining as those of Rostam and Ispandiar, related by Nadr +the son of Harith, who had learned in the course of his trade journeys +on the Euphrates the heroic mythology of the Persians. But the Prophet +was so exasperated by this rivalry that when Nadr fell into his power +after the battle of Badr, he caused him to be executed; although in all +other cases he readily pardoned his fellow-countrymen. + + + Relation to the Old and New Testaments. + +These histories are chiefly about Scripture characters, especially those +of the Old Testament. But the deviations from the Biblical narratives +are very marked. Many of the alterations are found in the legendary +anecdotes of the Jewish Haggada and the New Testament Apocrypha; but +many more are due perhaps to misconceptions such as only a listener (not +the reader of a book) could fall into. One would suppose that the most +ignorant Jew could never have mistaken Haman, the minister of Ahasuerus, +for the minister of Pharaoh, as happens in the Koran, or identified +Miriam, the sister of Moses, with Mary (= Mariam), the mother of Christ. +So long, however, as we have no closer acquaintance with Arab Judaism +and Christianity, we must always reckon with the possibility that many +of these mistakes were due to adherents of these religions who were his +authorities, or were a naïve reproduction of versions already widely +accepted by his contemporaries. In addition to his misconceptions there +are sundry capricious alterations, some of them very grotesque, due to +Mahomet himself. For instance, in his ignorance of everything out of +Arabia, he makes the fertility of Egypt--where rain is almost never seen +and never missed--depend on rain instead of the inundations of the Nile +(xii. 49). + +It is uncertain whether his account of Alexander was borrowed from Jews +or Christians, since the romance of Alexander belonged to the +stereotyped literature of that age. The description of Alexander as "the +Horned" in the Koran is, however, in accordance with the result of +recent researches, to be traced to a Syrian legend dating from A.D. +514-515 (Th. Nöldeke, "Beiträge zur Gesch. des Alexanderromanes" in +_Denkschriften Akad. Wien_, vol. xxxviii. No. 5, p. 27, &c.). According +to this, God caused horns to grow on Alexander's head to enable him to +overthrow all things. This detail of the legend is ultimately traceable, +as Hottinger long ago supposed, to the numerous coins on which Alexander +is represented with the ram's horns of Ammon.[1] Besides Jewish and +Christian histories there are a few about old Arabian prophets. In these +he seems to have handled his materials even more freely than in the +others. + +The opinion has already been expressed that Mahomet did not make use of +written sources. Coincidences and divergences alike can always be +accounted for by oral communications from Jews who knew a little and +Christians who knew next to nothing. Even in the rare passages where we +can trace direct resemblances to the text of the Old Testament (cf. xxi. +105 with Ps. xxxvii. 29; i. 5 with Ps. xxvii. 11) or the New (cf. vii. +48 with Luke xvi. 24; xlvi. 19 with Luke xvi. 25), there is nothing more +than might readily have been picked up in conversation with any Jew or +Christian. In Medina, where he had the opportunity of becoming +acquainted with Jews of some culture, he learned some things out of the +Mishna, e.g. v. 35 corresponds almost word for word with Mishna +_Sanhedrin_ iv. 5; compare also ii. 183 with Mishna _Berak'hoth_ i. 2. +That these are only cases of oral communication will be admitted by any +one with the slightest knowledge of the circumstances. Otherwise we +might even conclude that Mahomet had studied the Talmud; e.g. the +regulation as to ablution by rubbing with sand, where water cannot be +obtained (iv. 46), corresponds to a talmudic ordinance (_Berak'hoth_ 15 +a). Of Christianity he can have been able to learn very little, even in +Medina; as may be seen from the absurd travesty of the institution of +the Eucharist in v. 112 sqq. For the rest, it is highly improbable that +before the Koran any real literary production--anything that could be +strictly called a book--existed in the Arabic language. + + + Style. + +In point of style and artistic effect, the different parts of the Koran +are of very unequal value. An unprejudiced and critical reader will +certainly find very few passages where his aesthetic susceptibilities +are thoroughly satisfied. But he will often be struck, especially in the +older pieces, by a wild force of passion, and a vigorous, if not rich, +imagination. Descriptions of heaven and hell, and allusions to God's +working in Nature, not unfrequently show a certain amount of poetic +power. In other places also the style is sometimes lively and +impressive; though it is rarely indeed that we come across such strains +of touching simplicity as in the middle of xciii. The greater part of +the Koran is decidedly prosaic; much of it indeed is stiff in style. Of +course, with such a variety of material, we cannot expect every part to +be equally vivacious, or imaginative, or poetic. A decree about the +right of inheritance, or a point of ritual, must necessarily be +expressed in prose, if it is to be intelligible. No one complains of the +civil laws in Exodus or the sacrificial ritual in Leviticus, because +they want the fire of Isaiah or the tenderness of Deuteronomy. But +Mahomet's mistake consists in persistent and slavish adherence to the +semi-poetic form which he had at first adopted in accordance with his +own taste and that of his hearers. For instance, he employs rhyme in +dealing with the most prosaic subjects, and thus produces the +disagreeable effect of incongruity between style and matter. It has to +be considered, however, that many of those sermonizing pieces which are +so tedious to us, especially when we read two or three in succession +(perhaps in a very inadequate translation), must have had a quite +different effect when recited under the burning sky and on the barren +soil of Mecca. There, thoughts about God's greatness and man's duty, +which are familiar to us from childhood, were all new to the hearers--it +is hearers we have to think of in the first instance, not readers--to +whom, at the same time, every allusion had a meaning which often escapes +our notice. When Mahomet spoke of the goodness of the Lord in creating +the clouds, and bringing them across the cheerless desert, and pouring +them out on the earth to restore its rich vegetation, that must have +been a picture of thrilling interest to the Arabs, who are accustomed to +see from three to five years elapse before a copious shower comes to +clothe the wilderness once more with luxuriant pastures. It requires an +effort for us, under our clouded skies, to realize in some degree the +intensity of that impression. + + + Rhetorical Form and Rhyme. + +The fact that scraps of poetical phraseology are specially numerous in +the earlier suras, enables us to understand why the prosaic mercantile +community of Mecca regarded their eccentric townsman as a "poet," or +even a "possessed poet." Mahomet himself had to disclaim such titles, +because he felt himself to be a divinely inspired prophet; but we too, +from our standpoint, shall fully acquit him of poetic genius. Like many +other predominantly religious characters, he had no appreciation of +poetic beauty; and if we may believe one anecdote related of him, at a +time when every one made verses, he affected ignorance of the most +elementary rules of prosody. Hence the style of the Koran is not +poetical but rhetorical; and the powerful effect which some portions +produce on us is gained by rhetorical means. Accordingly the sacred book +has not even the artistic form of poetry; which, among the Arabs, +includes a stringent metre, as well as rhyme. The Koran is never +metrical, and only a few exceptionally eloquent portions fall into a +sort of spontaneous rhythm. On the other hand, the rhyme is regularly +maintained; although, especially in the later pieces, after a very +slovenly fashion. Rhymed prose was a favourite form of composition among +the Arabs of that day, and Mahomet adopted it; but if it imparts a +certain sprightliness to some passages, it proves on the whole a +burdensome yoke. The Moslems themselves have observed that the tyranny +of the rhyme often makes itself apparent in derangement of the order of +words, and in the choice of verbal forms which would not otherwise have +been employed; e.g. an imperfect instead of a perfect. In one place, to +save the rhyme, he calls Mount Sinai _Sinin_ (xcv. 2) instead of _Sina_ +(xxiii. 20); in another Elijah is called _Ilyasin_ (xxxvii. 130) instead +of _Ilyas_ (vi. 85; xxxvii. 123). The substance even is modified to suit +exigencies of rhyme. Thus the Prophet would scarcely have fixed on the +unusual number of _eight_ angels round the throne of God (lxix. 17) if +the word _thamaniyah_, "eight," had not happened to fall in so well with +the rhyme. And when lv. speaks of _two_ heavenly gardens, each with +_two_ fountains and _two_ kinds of fruit, and again of _two_ similar +gardens, all this is simply because the dual termination (_an_) +corresponds to the syllable that controls the rhyme in that whole sura. +In the later pieces, Mahomet often inserts edifying remarks, entirely +out of keeping with the context, merely to complete his rhyme. In Arabic +it is such an easy thing to accumulate masses of words with the same +termination, that the gross negligence of the rhyme in the Koran is +doubly remarkable. One may say that this is another mark of the +Prophet's want of mental training, and incapacity for introspective +criticism. + + + Stylistic Weaknesses. + + Dogma of the Stylistic Perfection of the Koran. + +On the whole, while many parts of the Koran undoubtedly have +considerable rhetorical power, even over an unbelieving reader, the +book, aesthetically considered, is by no means a first-rate performance. +To begin with what we are most competent to criticize, let us look at +some of the more extended narratives. It has already been noticed how +vehement and abrupt they are where they ought to be characterized by +epic repose. Indispensable links, both in expression and in the sequence +of events, are often omitted, so that to understand these histories is +sometimes far easier for us than for those who heard them first, because +we know most of them from better sources. Along with this, there is a +great deal of superfluous verbiage; and nowhere do we find a steady +advance in the narration. Contrast in these respects the history of +Joseph (xii.) and its glaring improprieties with the admirably conceived +and admirably executed story in Genesis. Similar faults are found in the +non-narrative portions of the Koran. The connexion of ideas is extremely +loose, and even the syntax betrays great awkwardness. Anacolutha are of +frequent occurrence, and cannot be explained as conscious literary +devices. Many sentences begin with a "when" or "on the day when" which +seems to hover in the air, so that the commentators are driven to supply +a "think of this" or some such ellipsis. Again, there is no great +literary skill evinced in the frequent and needless harping on the same +words and phrases; in xviii., for example, "till that" (_hatta idha_) +occurs no fewer than eight times. Mahomet, in short, is not in any sense +a master of style. This opinion will be endorsed by any European who +reads through the book with an impartial spirit and some knowledge of +the language, without taking into account the tiresome effect of its +endless iterations. But in the ears of every pious Moslem such a +judgment will sound almost as shocking as downright atheism or +polytheism. Among the Moslems, the Koran has always been looked on as +the most perfect model of style and language. This feature of it is in +their dogmatic the greatest of all miracles, the incontestable proof of +its divine origin. Such a view on the part of men who knew Arabic +infinitely better than the most accomplished European Arabist will ever +do, may well startle us. In fact, the Koran boldly challenged its +opponents to produce ten suras, or even a single one, like those of the +sacred book, and they never did so. That, to be sure, on calm +reflection, is not so very surprising. Revelations of the kind which +Mahomet uttered, no unbeliever could produce without making himself a +laughing-stock. However little real originality there is in Mahomet's +doctrines, as against his own countrymen he was thoroughly original, +even in the form of his oracles. To compose such revelations at will was +beyond the power of the most expert literary artist; it would have +required either a prophet or a shameless impostor. And if such a +character appeared _after_ Mahomet, still he could never be anything but +an imitator, like the false prophets who arose about the time of his +death and afterwards. That the adversaries should produce any sample +whatsoever of poetry or rhetoric equal to the Koran is not at all what +the Prophet demands. In that case he would have been put to shame, even +in the eyes of many of his own followers, by the first poem that came to +hand. Nevertheless, it is on a false interpretation of this challenge +that the dogma of the incomparable excellence of the style and diction +of the Koran is based. The rest has been accomplished by dogmatic +prejudice, which is quite capable of working other miracles besides +turning a defective literary production into an unrivalled masterpiece +in the eyes of believers. This view once accepted, the next step was to +find everywhere evidence of the perfection of the style and language. +And if here and there, as one can scarcely doubt, there was among the +old Moslems a lover of poetry who had his difficulties about this dogma, +he had to beware of uttering an opinion which might have cost him his +head. We know of at least one rationalistic theologian who defined the +dogma in such a way that we can see he did not believe it (Shahrastani, +p. 39). The truth is, it would have been a miracle indeed if the style +of the Koran had been perfect. For although there was at that time a +recognized poetical style, already degenerating to mannerism, a +developed prose style did not exist. All beginnings are difficult; and +it can never be esteemed a serious charge against Mahomet that his book, +the first prose work of a high order in the language, testifies to the +awkwardness of the beginner. And further, we must always remember that +entertainment and aesthetic effect were at most subsidiary objects. The +great aim was persuasion and conversion; and, say what we will, that aim +has been realized on the most imposing scale. + + + Foreign words. + +Mahomet repeatedly calls attention to the fact that the Koran is not +written, like other sacred books, in a strange language, but in Arabic, +and therefore is intelligible to all. At that time, along with foreign +ideas, many foreign words had crept into the language; especially +Aramaic terms for religious conceptions of Jewish or Christian origin. +Some of these had already passed into general use, while others were +confined to a more limited circle. Mahomet, who could not fully express +his new ideas in the common language of his countrymen, but had +frequently to find out new terms for himself, made free use of such +Jewish and Christian words, as was done, though perhaps to a smaller +extent, by certain thinkers and poets of that age who had more or less +risen above the level of heathenism. In Mahomet's case this is the less +wonderful because he was indebted to the instruction of Jews and +Christians, whose Arabic--as the Koran pretty clearly intimates with +regard to one of them--was very defective. On the other hand, it is yet +more remarkable that several of such borrowed words in the Koran have a +sense which they do not possess in the original language. It is not +necessary that this phenomenon should in every case be due to the same +cause. Just as the prophet often misunderstood traditional traits of the +sacred history, he may, as an unlearned man, likewise have often +employed foreign expressions wrongly. Other remarkable senses of words +were possibly already acclimatized in the language of Arabian Jews or +Christians. Thus, _forqan_ means really "redemption," but Mahomet uses +it for "revelation." The widespread opinion that this sense first +asserted itself in reference to the Arab root [Arabic word] (_faraqa_), +"sever," or "decide," is open to considerable doubt. There is, for +instance, no difficulty in deriving the Arab meaning of "revelation" +from the common Aramaic "salvation," and this transference must have +taken place in a community for which salvation formed the central object +of faith, i.e. either amongst those Jews who looked to the coming of a +Messiah or more probably, among Christians, since Christianity is in a +very peculiar sense the religion of salvation. _Milla_ is properly +"word" (= Aramaic _melltha_), but in the Koran "religion." It is +actually used of the religion of the Jews and Christians (once), of the +heathen (5 times), but mostly (8 times) of the religion of Abraham, +which Mahomet in the Medina period places on the same level with Islam. +Although of the Aramaic dialects none employs the term _Melltha_ in the +sense of religion, it appears that the prophet found such a use. +_Illiyun_, which Mahomet uses of a heavenly book (Sura 83; 18, 19), is +clearly the Hebrew _elyon_, "high" or "exalted." It is, however, +doubtful in what sense this word appeared to him, either as a name of +God, as in the Old Testament it often occurs and regularly without the +article, or actually as the epithet of a heavenly book, although this +use cannot be substantiated from Jewish literature. So again the word +_mathani_ is, as Geiger has conjectured, the regular plural of the +Aramaic _mathnitha_, which is the same as the Hebrew _Mishnah_, and +denotes in Jewish usage a legal decision of some of the ancient Rabbins. +But in the Koran Mahomet appears to have understood it in the sense of +"saying" or "sentence" (cf. xxxix. 24). On the other hand, it is by no +means certain that by "the Seven Mathani" (xv. 87) the seven verses of +Sura i. are meant. Words of undoubtedly Christian origin are less +frequent in the Koran. It is an interesting fact that of these a few +have come over from the Abyssinian; such as _hawariyun_ "apostles," +_maida_ "table," _munafig_ "doubter, sceptic," _ragun_ "cursed," +_mihrab_ "temple"; the first three of these make their first appearance +in suras of the Medina period. The word _shaitan_ "Satan," which was +likewise borrowed, at least in the first instance, from the Abyssinian, +had probably been already introduced into the language. Sprenger has +rightly observed that Mahomet makes a certain parade of these foreign +terms, as of other peculiarly constructed expressions; in this he +followed a favourite practice of contemporary poets. It is the tendency +of the imperfectly educated to delight in out-of-the-way expressions, +and on such minds they readily produce a remarkably solemn and +mysterious impression. This was exactly the kind of effect that Mahomet +desired, and to secure it he seems even to have invented a few odd +vocables, as _ghislin_ (lxix. 36), _sijjin_ (lxxxiii. 7, 8), _tasnim_ +(lxxxiii. 27), and _salsabil_ (lxxvi. 18). But, of course, the necessity +of enabling his hearers to understand ideas which they must have found +sufficiently novel in themselves, imposed tolerably narrow limits on +such eccentricities. + + + Date of the Several Parts. + +The constituents of our present Koran belong partly to the Mecca +period[2] (before A.D. 622), partly to the period commencing with the +migration to Medina (from the autumn of 622 to 8th June 632). Mahomet's +position in Medina was entirely different from that which he had +occupied in his native town. In the former he was from the first the +leader of a powerful party, and gradually became the autocratic ruler of +Arabia; in the latter he was only the despised preacher of a small +congregation. This difference, as was to be expected, appears in the +Koran. The Medina pieces, whether entire suras or isolated passages +interpolated in Meccan suras, are accordingly pretty broadly distinct, +as to their contents, from those issued in Mecca. In the great majority +of cases there can be no doubt whatever whether a piece first saw the +light in Mecca or in Medina; and for the most part the internal evidence +is borne out by Moslem tradition. And since the revelations given in +Medina frequently take notice of events about which we have fairly +accurate information, and whose dates are at least approximately known, +we are often in a position to fix their date with at any rate +considerable certainty; here again tradition renders valuable +assistance. Even with regard to the Medina passages, however, a great +deal remains uncertain, partly because the allusions to historical +events and circumstances are generally rather obscure, partly because +traditions about the occasion of the revelation of the various pieces +are often fluctuating, and often rest on misunderstanding or arbitrary +conjecture. An important criterion for judging the period during which +individual Meccan suras, interpolated in Medina revelations, arose +(e.g. _Sur._ xvi. 124, vi. 162) is provided by the Ibrahim legend, the +great importance of which, as throwing light on the evolution of +Mahomet's doctrine in its relation to older revealed religions, has been +convincingly set forth by Dr Snouck Hurgronje in his dissertation for +the doctor's degree and in later essays.[3] According to this, Ibrahim, +after the controversy with the Jews, first of all became Mahomet's +special forerunner in Medina, then the first Moslem, and finally the +founder of the Ka'ba. But at all events it is far easier to arrange in +some sort of chronological order the Medina suras than those composed in +Mecca. There is, indeed, one tradition which professes to furnish a +chronological list of all the suras. But not to mention that it occurs +in several divergent forms, and that it takes no account of the fact +that our present suras are partly composed of pieces of different dates, +it contains so many suspicious or undoubtedly false statements, that it +is impossible to attach any great importance to it. Besides, it is a +priori unlikely that a contemporary of Mahomet should have drawn up such +a list; and if any one had made the attempt he would have found it +almost impossible to obtain reliable information as to the order of the +earlier Meccan suras. We have in this list no genuine tradition, but +rather the lucubrations of an undoubtedly conscientious Moslem critic, +who may have lived about a century after the Flight. + + + The Meccan Suras. + +Among the revelations put forth in Mecca there is a considerable number +of (for the most part) short suras, which strike every attentive reader +as being the oldest. They are in an altogether different strain from +many others, and in their whole composition they show least resemblance +to the Medina pieces. It is no doubt conceivable--as Sprenger +supposes--that Mahomet might have returned at intervals to his earlier +manner; but since this group possesses a remarkable similarity of style, +and since the gradual formation of a different style is on the whole an +unmistakable fact, the assumption has little probability; and we shall +therefore abide by the opinion that these form a distinct group. At the +opposite extreme from them stands another cluster, showing quite obvious +affinities with the style of the Medina suras, which must therefore be +assigned to the later part of the Prophet's work in Mecca. Between these +two groups stand a number of other Meccan suras, which in every respect +mark the transition from the first period to the third. It need hardly +be said that the three periods--which were first distinguished by +Professor Weil--are not separated by sharp lines of division. With +regard to some suras, it may be doubtful whether they ought to be +reckoned amongst the middle group, or with one or other of the extremes. +And it is altogether impossible, within these groups, to establish even +a probable chronological arrangement of the individual revelations. In +default of clear allusions to well-known events, or events whose date +can be determined, we might indeed endeavour to trace the psychological +development of the Prophet by means of the Koran, and arrange its parts +accordingly. But in such an undertaking one is always apt to take +subjective assumptions or mere fancies for established data. Good +traditions about the origin of the Meccan revelations are not very +numerous. In fact the whole history of Mahomet previous to the Flight is +so imperfectly related that we are not even sure in what year he +appeared as a prophet. Probably it was in A.D. 610; it may have been +somewhat earlier, but scarcely later. If, as one tradition says, xxx. 1 +seq. ("The Romans are overcome in the nearest neighbouring land") refers +to the defeat of the Byzantines by the Persians, not far from Damascus, +about the spring of 614, it would follow that the third group, to which +this passage belongs, covers the greater part of the Meccan period. And +it is not in itself unlikely that the passionate vehemence which +characterizes the first group was of short duration. Nor is the +assumption contradicted by the tolerably well attested, though far from +incontestable statement, that when Omar was converted (A.D. 615 or 616), +xx., which belongs to the second group, already existed in writing. But +the reference of xxx. 1 seq. to this particular battle is by no means so +certain that positive conclusions can be drawn from it. It is the same +with other allusions in the Meccan suras to occurrences whose chronology +can be partially ascertained. It is better, therefore, to rest satisfied +with a merely relative determination of the order of even the three +great clusters of Meccan revelations. + + + Oldest Meccan Suras. + +In the pieces of the first period the convulsive excitement of the +Prophet often expresses itself with the utmost vehemence. He is so +carried away by his emotion that he cannot choose his words; they seem +rather to burst from him. Many of these pieces remind us of the oracles +of the old heathen soothsayers, whose style is known to us from +imitations, although we have perhaps not a single genuine specimen. Like +those other oracles, the suras of this period, which are never very +long, are composed of short sentences with tolerably pure but rapidly +changing rhymes. The oaths, too, with which many of them begin were +largely used by the soothsayers. Some of these oaths are very uncouth +and hard to understand, some of them perhaps were not meant to be +understood, for indeed all sorts of strange things are met with in these +chapters. Here and there Mahomet speaks of visions, and appears even to +see angels before him in bodily form. There are some intensely vivid +descriptions of the resurrection and the last day which must have +exercised a demonic power over men who were quite unfamiliar with such +pictures. Other pieces paint in glowing colours the joys of heaven and +the pains of hell. However, the suras of this period are not all so wild +as these; and those which are conceived in a calmer mood appear to be +the oldest. Yet, one must repeat, it is exceedingly difficult to make +out any strict chronological sequence. For instance, it is by no means +certain whether the beginning of xcvi. is really, what a widely +circulated tradition calls it, the oldest part of the whole Koran. That +tradition goes back to the Prophet's favourite wife Ayesha; but as she +was not born at the time when the revelation is said to have been made, +it can only contain at the best what Mahomet told her years afterwards, +from his own not very clear recollection, with or without fictitious +additions, and this woman is little trustworthy. Moreover, there are +other pieces mentioned by others as the oldest. In any case xcvi. 1 sqq. +is certainly very early. According to the traditional view, which +appears to be correct, it treats of a vision in which the Prophet +receives an injunction to recite a revelation conveyed to him by the +angel. It is interesting to observe that here already two things are +brought forward as proofs of the omnipotence and care of God: one is the +creation of man out of a seminal drop--an idea to which Mahomet often +recurs; the other is the then recently introduced art of writing, which +the Prophet instinctively seizes on as a means of propagating his +doctrines. It was only after Mahomet encountered obstinate resistance +that the tone of the revelations became thoroughly passionate. In such +cases he was not slow to utter terrible threats against those who +ridiculed the preaching of the unity of God, of the resurrection, and of +the judgment. His own uncle Abu Lahab had rudely repelled him, and in a +brief special sura (cxi.) he and his wife are consigned to hell. The +suras of this period form almost exclusively the concluding portions of +the present text. One is disposed to assume, however, that they were at +one time more numerous, and that many of them were lost at an early +period. + +Since Mahomet's strength lay in his enthusiastic and fiery imagination +rather than in the wealth of ideas and clearness of abstract thought on +which exact reasoning depends, it follows that the older suras, in which +the former qualities have free scope, must be more attractive to us than +the later. In the suras of the second period the imaginative glow +perceptibly diminishes; there is still fire and animation, but the tone +becomes gradually more prosaic. As the feverish restlessness subsides, +the periods are drawn out, and the revelations as a whole become longer. +The truth of the new doctrine is proved by accumulated instances of +God's working in nature and in history; the objections of opponents, +whether advanced in good faith or in jest, are controverted by +arguments; but the demonstration is often confused or even weak. The +histories of the earlier prophets, which had occasionally been briefly +touched on in the first period, are now related, sometimes at great +length. On the whole, the charm of the style is passing away. + + + The Fatiha. + +There is one piece of the Koran, belonging to the beginning of this +period, if not to the close of the former, which claims particular +notice. This is Sura i., the Lord's Prayer of the Moslems, a vigorous +hymn of praise to God, the Lord of both worlds, which ends in a petition +for aid and true guidance (_huda_). The words of this sura, which is +known as _al-fatiha_ ("the opening one"), are as follows:-- + + (1) In the name of God, the compassionate compassioner. (2) Praise be + [literally "is"] to God, the Lord of the worlds, (3) the compassionate + compassioner, (4) the Sovereign of the day of judgment. (5) Thee do we + worship and of Thee do we beg assistance. (6) Direct us in the right + way; (7) in the way of those to whom Thou hast been gracious, on whom + there is no wrath, and who go not astray. + +The thoughts are so simple as to need no explanation; and yet the prayer +is full of meaning. It is true that there is not a single original idea +of Mahomet's in it. Of the seven verses of the sura no less than five +(verses 1, 2, 3, 4, 6) have an extremely suspicious relationship with +the stereotyped formulae of Jewish and Christian liturgies. Verse 6 +agrees, word for word, with Ps. xxvii. 11. On the other hand, the +question must remain open whether Mahomet only gave free renderings of +the several borrowed formulae, or whether in actually composing them he +kept existing models. The designation of God as the "Compassioner," +_Rahman_, is simply the Jewish _Rahmana_, which was a favourite name for +God in the Talmudic period. The word had long before Mahomet's time been +used for God in southern Arabia (cf. e.g. the Sabaean Inscriptions, +Glaser, 554, line 32; 618, line 2). + +Mahomet seems for a while to have entertained the thought of adopting +_al-Rahman_ as a proper name of God, in place of _Allah_, which was +already used by the heathens.[4] This purpose he ultimately +relinquished, but it is just in the suras of the second period that the +use of _Rahman_ is specially frequent. If, for this reason, it is to a +certain extent certain that Sura i. belongs to this period, yet we can +neither prove that it belongs to the beginning of the Mecca period nor +that the present introductory formula "In the name of God," &c., +belonged to it from the first. It may therefore even be doubted whether +Mahomet at the outset looked upon the latter as revealed. Tradition, of +course, knows in this connexion no doubt, and looks upon the Fatiha +precisely as the most exalted portion of the Koran. Every Moslem who +says his five prayers regularly--as the most of them do--repeats it not +less than twenty times a day. + + + Latest Meccan Suras. + +The suras of the third Meccan period, which form a fairly large part of +our present Koran, are almost entirely prosaic. Some of the revelations +are of considerable extent, and the single verses also are much longer +than in the older suras. Only now and then a gleam of poetic power +flashes out. A sermonizing tone predominates. The suras are very +edifying for one who is already reconciled to their import, but to us at +least they do not seem very well fitted to carry conviction to the minds +of unbelievers. That impression, however, is not correct, for in reality +the demonstrations of these longer Meccan suras appear to have been +peculiarly influential for the propagation of Islam. Mahomet's mission +was not to Europeans, but to a people who, though quick-witted and +receptive, were not accustomed to logical thinking, while they had +outgrown their ancient religion. + + + Medinan Suras. + +When we reach the Medina period it becomes, as has been indicated, much +easier to understand the revelations in their historical relations, +since our knowledge of the history of Mahomet in Medina is tolerably +complete. In many cases the historical occasion is perfectly clear, in +others we can at least recognize the general situation from which they +arose, and thus approximately fix their time. There still remains, +however, a remnant, of which we can only say that it belongs to Medina. + +The style of this period bears a fairly close resemblance to that of the +latest Meccan period. It is for the most part pure prose, enriched by +occasional rhetorical embellishments. Yet even here there are many +bright and impressive passages, especially in those sections which may +be regarded as proclamations to the army of the faithful. For the +Moslems Mahomet has many different messages. At one time it is a summons +to do battle for the faith; at another, a series of reflections on +recently experienced success or misfortune, or a rebuke for their weak +faith; or an exhortation to virtue, and so on. He often addresses +himself to the "doubters," some of whom vacillate between faith and +unbelief, others make a pretence of faith, while others scarcely take +the trouble even to do that. They are no consolidated party, but to +Mahomet they are all equally vexatious, because, as soon as danger has +to be encountered, or a contribution is levied, they all alike fall +away. There are frequent outbursts, ever increasing in bitterness, +against the Jews, who were very numerous in Medina and its neighbourhood +when Mahomet arrived. He has much less to say against the Christians, +with whom he never came closely in contact; and as for the idolaters, +there was little occasion in Medina to have many words with them. A part +of the Medina pieces consists of formal laws belonging to the +ceremonial, civil and criminal codes; or directions about certain +temporary complications. The most objectionable parts of the whole Koran +are those which treat of Mahomet's relations with women. The laws and +regulations were generally very concise revelations, but most of them +have been amalgamated with other pieces of similar or dissimilar import, +and are now found in very long suras. + +Such is an imperfect sketch of the composition and the internal history +of the Koran, but it is probably sufficient to show that the book is a +very heterogeneous collection. If only those passages had been preserved +which had a permanent value for the theology, the ethics, or the +jurisprudence of the Moslems, a few fragments would have been amply +sufficient. Fortunately for knowledge, respect for the sacredness of the +letter has led to the collection of all the revelations that could +possibly be collected--the "abrogating" along with the "abrogated," +passages referring to passing circumstances as well as those of lasting +importance. Every one who takes up the book in the proper religious +frame of mind, like most of the Moslems, reads pieces directed against +long-obsolete absurd customs of Mecca just as devoutly as the weightiest +moral precepts--perhaps even more devoutly, because he does not +understand them so well. + + + Mysterious Letters. + + At the head of twenty-nine of the suras stand certain initial letters, + from which no clear sense can be obtained. Thus, before ii. iii. xxxi. + xxxii. we find [Arabic word] (_Alif Lam Mim_), before xl.-xlvi. + [Arabic word] (_Ha Mim_). Nöldeke at one time suggested that these + initials did not belong to Mahomet's text, but might be the monograms + of possessors of codices, which, through negligence on the part of the + editors, were incorporated in the final form of the Koran; he now + deems it more probable that they are to be traced to the Prophet + himself, as Sprenger, Loth and others suppose. One cannot indeed admit + the truth of Loth's statement that in the proper opening words of + these suras we may generally find an allusion to the accompanying + initials; but it can scarcely be accidental that the first verse of + the great majority of them (in iii. it is the second verse) contains + the word "book," "revelation," or some equivalent. They usually begin + with: "This is the book," or "Revelation ('down sending') of the + book," or something similar. Of suras which commence in this way only + a few (xviii. xxiv. xxv. xxxix.) want the initials, while only xxix. + and xxx. have the initials and begin differently. These few exceptions + may easily have proceeded from ancient corruptions; at all events they + cannot neutralize the evidence of the greater number. Mahomet seems to + have meant these letters for a mystic reference to the archetypal text + in heaven. To a man who regarded the art of writing, of which at the + best he had but a slight knowledge, as something supernatural, and who + lived amongst illiterate people, an A B C may well have seemed more + significant than to us who have been initiated into the mysteries of + this art from our childhood. The Prophet himself can hardly have + attached any particular meaning to these symbols: they served their + purpose if they conveyed an impression of solemnity and enigmatical + obscurity. In fact, the Koran admits that it contains many things + which neither can be, nor were intended to be, understood (iii. 5). To + regard these letters as ciphers is a precarious hypothesis, for the + simple reason that cryptography is not to be looked for in the very + infancy of Arabic writing. If they are actually ciphers, the + multiplicity of possible explanations at once precludes the hope of a + plausible interpretation. None of the efforts in this direction, + whether by Moslem scholars or by Europeans, has led to convincing + results. This remark applies even to the ingenious conjecture of + Sprenger, that the letters [Arabic word] (_Kaf He Ye Ain Sad_) before + xix. (which treats of John and Jesus, and, according to tradition, was + sent to the Christian king of Abyssinia) stand for _Jesus Nazarenus + Rex Judaeorum_. Sprenger arrives at this explanation by a very + artificial method; and besides, Mahomet was not so simple as the + Moslem traditionalists, who imagined that the Abyssinians could read a + piece of the Arabic Koran. It need hardly be said that the Moslems + have from of old applied themselves with great assiduity to the + decipherment of these initials, and have sometimes found the deepest + mysteries in them. Generally, however, they are content with the + prudent conclusion that God alone knows the meaning of these letters. + + + Transmission of the Koran. + + Zaid's First Koran. + +It is probable (see above) that Mahomet had already caused revelations +to be written down at Mecca, and that this began from the moment when he +felt certain that he was the transmitter of the actual text of a +heavenly book to mankind. It is even true that he may at some time or +another have formed the intention of collecting these revelations. The +idea of a heavenly model would in itself have suggested such a course +and, only in an inferior degree to this, the necessity of setting a new +and uncorrupted document of the divine will over against the sacred +scriptures of the Jews and Christians, the people of the Book, as the +Koran calls them. In any case, when Mahomet died, the separate pieces of +the Koran, notwithstanding their theoretical sacredness, existed only in +scattered copies; they were consequently in great danger of being +partially or entirely destroyed. Many Moslems knew large portions by +heart, but certainly no one knew the whole; and a merely oral +propagation would have left the door open to all kinds of deliberate and +inadvertent alterations. But now, after the death of the Prophet, most +of the Arabs revolted against his successor, and had to be reduced to +submission by force. Especially sanguinary was the struggle against the +prophet Maslama (Mubarrad, _Kamil_ 443, 5), commonly known by the +derisive diminutive Mosailima. At that time (A.D. 633) many of the most +devoted Moslems fell, the very men who knew most Koran pieces by heart. +Omar then began to fear that the Koran might be entirely forgotten, and +he induced the Caliph Abu Bekr to undertake the collection of all its +parts. The Caliph laid the duty on Zaid ibn Thabit, a native of Medina, +then about twenty-two years of age, who had often acted as amanuensis to +the Prophet, in whose service he is even said to have learned the Jewish +letters. The account of this collection of the Koran has reached us in +several substantially identical forms, and goes back to Zaid himself. +According to it, he collected the revelations from copies written on +flat stones, pieces of leather, ribs of palm-leaves (not palm-leaves +themselves), and such-like material, but chiefly "from the breasts of +men," i.e. from their memory. From these he wrote a fair copy, which he +gave to Abu Bekr, from whom it came to his successor Omar, who again +bequeathed it to his daughter Hafsa, one of the widows of the Prophet. +This redaction, commonly called _al-sohof_ ("the leaves"), had from the +first no canonical authority; and its internal arrangement can only be +conjectured. + + + Othman's Koran. + +The Moslems were as far as ever from possessing a uniform text of the +Koran. The bravest of their warriors sometimes knew deplorably little +about it; distinction on _that_ field they cheerfully accorded to pious +men like Ibn Mas'ud. It was inevitable, however, that discrepancies +should emerge between the texts of professed scholars, and as these men +in their several localities were authorities on the reading of the +Koran, quarrels began to break out between the levies from different +districts about the true form of the sacred book. During a campaign in +A.H. 30 (A.D. 650-651), Hodhaifa, the victor in the great and decisive +battle of Nehaveand (see CALIPHATE; and PERSIA: _History_) perceived +that such disputes might become dangerous, and therefore urged on the +caliph Othman the necessity for a universally binding text. The matter +was entrusted to Zaid, who had made the former collection, with three +leading Koreishites. These brought together as many copies as they could +lay their hands on, and prepared an edition which was to be canonical +for all Moslems. To prevent any further disputes, they burned all the +other codices except that of Hafsa, which, however, was soon afterwards +destroyed by Merwan the governor of Medina. The destruction of the +earlier codices was an irreparable loss to criticism; but, for the +essentially political object of putting an end to controversies by +admitting only one form of the common book of religion and of law, this +measure was necessary. + +The result of these labours is in our hands; as to how they were +conducted we have no trustworthy information, tradition being here too +much under the influence of dogmatic presuppositions. The critical +methods of a modern scientific commission will not be expected of an age +when the highest literary education for an Arab consisted in ability to +read and write. It now appears highly probable that this second +redaction took this simple form: Zaid read off from the codex which he +had previously written, and his associates, simultaneously or +successively, wrote one copy each to his dictation. These three +manuscripts will therefore be those which the caliph, according to +trustworthy tradition, sent in the first instance as standard copies to +Damascus, Basra and Kufa to the warriors of the provinces of which these +were the capitals, while he retained one at Medina. Be that as it may, +it is impossible now to distinguish in the present form of the book what +belongs to the first redaction from what is due to the second. + +In the arrangement of the separate sections, a classification according +to contents was impracticable because of the variety of subjects often +dealt with in one sura. A chronological arrangement was out of the +question, because the chronology of the older pieces must have been +imperfectly known, and because in some cases passages of different dates +had been joined together. Indeed, systematic principles of this kind +were altogether disregarded at that period. The pieces were accordingly +arranged in indiscriminate order, the only rule observed being to place +the long suras first and the shorter towards the end, and even that was +far from strictly adhered to. The two magic formulae, suras cxiii., +cxiv. owe their position at the end of the collection to their peculiar +contents, which differ from all the other suras; they are protecting +spells for the faithful. Similarly it is by reason of its contents that +sura i. stands at the beginning: not only because it is in praise of +Allah, as Psalm i. is in praise of the righteous man, but because it +gives classical expression to important articles of the faith. These are +the only special traces of design. The combination of pieces of +different origin may proceed partly from the possessors of the codices +from which Zaid compiled his first complete copy, partly from Zaid +himself. The individual suras are separated simply by the +superscription: "In the name of God, the compassionate Compassioner," +which is wanting only in the ninth. The additional headings found in our +texts (the name of the suras, the number of verses, &c.) were not in the +original codices, and form no integral part of the Koran. + +It is said that Othman directed Zaid and his associates, in cases of +disagreement, to follow the Koreish dialect; but, though well attested, +this account can scarcely be correct. The extremely primitive writing of +those days was quite incapable of rendering such minute differences as +can have existed between the pronunciation of Mecca and that of Medina. + + + The Koran not complete. + +Othman's Koran was not complete. Some passages are evidently +fragmentary; and a few detached pieces are still extant which were +originally parts of the Koran, although they have been omitted by Zaid. +Amongst these are some which there is no reason to suppose Mahomet +desired to suppress. Zaid may easily have overlooked a few stray +fragments, but that he purposely omitted anything which he believed to +belong to the Koran is very unlikely. It has been conjectured that in +deference to his superiors he kept out of the book the names of +Mahomet's enemies, if they or their families came afterwards to be +respected. But it must be remembered that it was never Mahomet's +practice to refer explicitly to contemporary persons and affairs in the +Koran. Only a single friend, his adopted son Zaid (xxxiii. 37), and a +single enemy, his uncle Abu Lahab (cxi.)--and these for very special +reasons--are mentioned by name; and the name of the latter has been left +in the Koran with a fearful curse annexed to it, although his son had +embraced Islam before the death of Mahomet, and his descendants belonged +to the noblest families. So, on the other hand, there is no single verse +or clause which can be plausibly made out to be an interpolation by Zaid +at the instance of Abu Bekr, Omar, or Othman. Slight clerical errors +there may have been, but the Koran of Othman contains none but genuine +elements--though sometimes in very strange order. All efforts of +European scholars to prove the existence of later interpolations in the +Koran have failed. + +Of the four exemplars of Othman's Koran, one was kept in Medina, and one +was sent to each of the three metropolitan cities, Kufa, Basra, and +Damascus. It can still be pretty clearly shown in detail that these four +codices deviated from one another in points of orthography, in the +insertion or omission of a wa ("and") and such-like minutiae; but these +variations nowhere affect the sense. All later manuscripts are derived +from these four originals. + + + Other Editions. + +At the same time, the other forms of the Koran did not at once become +extinct. In particular we have some information about the codex of Ubay +ibn Ka'b. If the list which gives the order of its suras is correct, it +must have contained substantially the same materials as our text; in +that case Ubay ibn Ka'b must have used the original collection of Zaid. +The same is true of the codex of Ibn Mas'ud, of which we have also a +catalogue. It appears that the principle of putting the longer suras +before the shorter was more consistently carried out by him than by +Zaid. He omits i. and the magical formulae of cxiii., cxiv. Ubay, on the +other hand, had embodied two additional short prayers, which we may +regard as Mahomet's. One can easily understand that differences of +opinion may have existed as to whether and how far formularies of this +kind belonged to the Koran. Some of the divergent readings of both these +texts have been preserved as well as a considerable number of other +ancient variants. Most of them are decidedly inferior to the received +readings, but some are quite as good, and a few deserve preference. + + + Ibn Mas'ud. + +The only man who appears to have seriously opposed the general +introduction of Othman's text is Ibn Mas'ud. He was one of the oldest +disciples of the Prophet, and had often rendered him personal service; +but he was a man of contracted views, although he is one of the pillars +of Moslem theology. His opposition had no effect. Now when we consider +that at that time there were many Moslems who had heard the Koran from +the mouth of the Prophet, that other measures of the imbecile Othman met +with the most vehement resistance on the part of the bigoted champions +of the faith, that these were still further incited against him by some +of his ambitious old comrades until at last they murdered him, and +finally that in the civil wars after his death the several parties were +glad of any pretext for branding their opponents as infidels;--when we +consider all this, we must regard it as a strong testimony in favour of +Othman's Koran that no party found fault with his conduct in this +matter, or repudiated the text formed by Zaid, who was one of the most +devoted adherents of Othman and his family, and that even among the +Shiites criticism of the caliph's action is only met with as a rare +exception. + + + Later History of the Text. + + But this redaction is not the close of the textual history of the + Koran. The ancient Arabic alphabet was very imperfect; it not only + wanted marks for the short and in part even for the long vowels, but + it often expressed several consonants by the same sign, e.g. one and + the same character could mean B, T, Th at the beginning and N and J + (I) in the middle of words. Hence there were many words which could + be read in very different ways. This variety of possible readings was + at first very great, and many readers seem to have actually made it + their object to discover pronunciations which were new, provided they + were at all appropriate to the ambiguous text. There was also a + dialectic licence in grammatical forms, which had not as yet been + greatly restricted. An effort was made by many to establish a more + refined pronunciation for the Koran than was usual in common life or + in secular literature. The various schools of "readers" differed very + widely from one another; although for the most part there was no + important divergence as to the sense of words. A few of them gradually + rose to special authority, and the rest disappeared. Seven readers are + generally reckoned chief authorities, but for practical purposes this + number was continually reduced in process of time; so that at present + only two "reading-styles" are in actual use,--the common style of + Hafs, and that of Nafi'; which prevails in Africa to the west of + Egypt. There is, however, a very comprehensive massoretic literature + in which a number of other styles are indicated. The invention of + vowel-signs of diacritic points to distinguish similarly formed + consonants, and of other orthographic signs, soon put a stop to + arbitrary conjectures on the part of the readers. Many zealots + objected to the introduction of these innovations in the sacred text, + but theological consistency had to yield to practical necessity. In + accurate codices, indeed, all such additions, as well as the titles of + the sura, &c., are written in coloured ink, while the black characters + profess to represent exactly the original of Othman. But there is + probably no copy quite faithful in this respect. Moreover, the right + recitation of the Koran is an art which even people of Arab tongue can + only learn with great difficulty. In addition to the nuances of + pronunciation already alluded to, there is a semi-musical modulation. + In these matters also the various schools differ. + + + Manuscripts. + + In European libraries, besides innumerable modern manuscripts of the + Koran, there are also codices, or fragments, of high antiquity, some + of them probably dating from the 1st century of the Flight. For the + restoration of the text, however, the works of ancient scholars on its + readings and modes of writing are more important than the manuscripts; + which, however elegantly they may be written and ornamented, proceed + from irresponsible copyists. The original, written by Othman himself, + has indeed been exhibited in various parts of the Mahommedan world. + The library of the India Office contains one such manuscript, bearing + the subscription: "Written by 'Othman the son of 'Affan." These, of + course, are barefaced forgeries, although of very ancient date; so are + those which profess to be from the hand of 'Ali, one of which is + preserved in the same library. In recent times the Koran has been + often printed and lithographed, both in the East and the West. In + Mahommedan countries lithography alone is employed. + + + Commentators. + + Shortly after Mahomet's death certain individuals applied themselves + to the exposition of the Koran. Much of it was obscure from the + beginning, other sections were unintelligible apart from a knowledge + of the circumstances of their origin. Unfortunately, those who took + possession of this field were not very honourable. Ibn 'Abbas, a + cousin of Mahomet, and the chief source of the traditional exegesis of + the Koran, has, on theological and other grounds, given currency to a + number of falsehoods; and at least some of his pupils have emulated + his example. These earliest expositions dealt more with the sense and + connexion of whole verses than with the separate words. Afterwards, as + the knowledge of the old language declined, and the study of philology + arose, more attention began to be paid to the explanation of vocables. + A good many fragments of this older theological and philological + exegesis have survived from the first two centuries of the Flight, + although we have no complete commentary of this period. The great + commentary of Tabari, A.D. 839-923, of which for the last few years we + have possessed an Oriental edition in 30 parts (Cairo A.H. 1321 = A.D. + 1903), is very full when it comes to speak of canonical law, as well + as in its accounts of the occasions of the several revelations; for, + as in his great historical work, he faithfully records a large number + of traditions with the channels by which they have come down to us + (genealogical trees, _isnad_). In other respects the hopes based upon + this commentary have not been fulfilled. + + + Translations. + + Another very famous commentary is that of Zamakhshari (A.D. + 1075-1144), edited by Nassau-Lees, Calcutta, 1859; but this scholar, + with his great insight and still greater subtlety, is too apt to read + his own scholastic ideas into the Koran. The favourite commentary of + Baidawi (d. A.D. 1286), edited by Fleischer (Leipzig, 1846-1848), is + little more than an abridgment of Zamakhshari's. Thousands of + commentaries on the Koran, some of them of prodigious size, have been + written by Moslems; and even the number of those still extant in + manuscript is by no means small. Although these works all contain much + that is useless or false, yet they are invaluable aids to our + understanding of the sacred book. An unbiased European can, no doubt, + see many things at a glance more clearly than a good Moslem who is + under the influence of religious prejudice; but we should still be + helpless without the exegetical literature of the Mahommedans. Even + the Arabian Moslems would only understand the Koran very dimly and + imperfectly if they did not give special attention to the study of its + interpretation. The advantage of being in a language commonly + understood, which the holy book claims for itself, has vanished in + the course of thirteen centuries. According to the dominant view, + however, the ritual use of the Koran is not in the least concerned + with the sacred words being understood, but solely with their being + quite properly recited. Nevertheless, a great deal remains to be + accomplished by European scholarship for the correct interpretation of + the Koran. We want, for example, an exhaustive classification and + discussion of all the Jewish elements in the Koran; a praiseworthy + beginning was made in Geiger's youthful essay _Was hat Mohamed aus dem + Judenthum aufgenommen?_ (Bonn, 1833; the "second revised edition," + Leipzig, 1902, is only a reprint). We want especially a thorough + commentary, executed with the methods and resources of modern science. + No European language, it would seem, can even boast of a translation + which completely satisfies modern requirements. The best are in + English; where we have the extremely paraphrastic, but for its time + admirable translation of George Sale (repeatedly printed), that of + Rodwell (1861), which seeks to give the pieces in chronological order, + and that of Palmer (1880), who wisely follows the traditional + arrangements. The introduction which accompanies Palmer's translation + is not in all respects abreast of the most recent scholarship. + Considerable extracts from the Koran are well translated in E. W. + Lane's _Selections from the Kur-an_. Not much can be said in praise of + the complete translations into the German language, neither of that of + Ullmann, which has appeared in several editions, nor of that of + Henning (Leipzig) and Grigull (Halle), all of them shallow amateurs + who have no notion of the difficulties to be met with in the task, and + are almost entirely dependent on Sale. Friedrich Rückert's excellent + version (published by August Müller, Frankfort-on-Maine, 1888) gives + only selections. M. Klamroth's translation of the fifty oldest suras, + _Die fünfzig ältesten Suren_ (Hamburg, 1890) attempts successfully to + reproduce the rhymed form of the originals. The publication of the + translation of the Koran by the great Leipzig Arabic scholar, H. L. + Fleischer (d. 1888) has so far unfortunately been delayed. (For modern + editions, commentaries, &c., see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION: _Bibliography_). + + Besides commentaries on the whole Koran, or on special parts and + topics, the Moslems possess a whole literature bearing on their sacred + book. There are works on the spelling and right pronunciation of the + Koran, works on the beauty of its language, on the number of its + verses, words and letters, &c.; nay, there are even works which would + nowadays be called "historical and critical introductions." Moreover, + the origin of Arabic philology is intimately connected with the + recitation and exegesis of the Koran. To exhibit the importance of the + sacred book for the whole mental life of the Moslems would be simply + to write the history of that life itself; for there is no department + in which its all-pervading, but unfortunately not always salutary, + influence has not been felt. + + + Eternity of the Koran. + + The unbounded reverence of the Moslems for the Koran reaches its + climax in the dogma that this book, as the divine word, i.e. thought, + is immanent in God, and consequently _eternal_ and _uncreated_. This + dogma, which was doubtless due to the influence of the Christian + doctrine of the eternal Word of God, has been accepted by almost all + Mahommedans since the beginning of the 3rd century. Some theologians + did indeed protest against it with great energy; it was in fact too + preposterous to declare that a book composed of unstable words and + letters, and full of variants, was absolutely divine. But what were + the distinctions and sophisms of the theologians for, if they could + not remove such contradictions, and convict their opponents of heresy? + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following works may be especially consulted: Weil, + _Einleitung in den Koran_ (2nd ed., 1878); Th. Nöldeke, _Geschichte + des Qoran's_ (Göttingen, 1860; 2nd ed. by Friedrich Schwally, 1908); + the Lives of Mahomet by William Muir and Aloys Sprenger (vols. + i.-iii., Berlin, 1861-1865; 2nd ed., 1869); C. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het + mekkaansche Feest_ (Leiden, 1880), _De Islam_ (de Gids, 1886, ii. + 257-273, 454-498, iii. 90-134); "Une nouvelle biographie de Mohammed," + _Revue de l'histoire des religions_, tome 29, p. 48 f., 149 sqq.; + Leone Caetani, _Annali dell'Islam_, i. (Milan, 1905), ii.(Milan, + 1907); Frants Buhl, _Muhammeds Liv_ (Copenhagen, 1903). + (Th. N.; Fr. Sy.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Reproductions of such Ptolemaic and Lysimachan coins are to be + found in J. J. Bernouilli, _Die erhaltenen Darstellungen Alexanders + d. Gr._ (Munich, 1905), Tab. VIII.; also in Theodor Schreiber, + "Studien über das Bildniss Alexanders des Gr." in the _Abh. Sachs. + Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_, Bd. xxi. (1903), Tab. XIII. + + [2] For the schemes of Nöldeke and Grimm see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. + + [3] See Bibliography at end. + + [4] Since in Arabic also the root [Arabic word] signifies "to have + pity," the Arabs must have at once perceived the force of the new + name. While the foreign word _Rahman_ is, in accordance with its + origin, everywhere in the Koran to be understood as "Merciful," there + is some doubt as to _Rahim_. The close connexion of the two + expressions, it is true, makes it probable that Mahomet only added + the adjective _Rahim_ to the substantive _Rahman_ in order to + strengthen the conception. But the genuine Arab meaning of _Rahim_ is + "gracious," and thus, the old Mahommedan Arab papyri render this word + by [Greek: philanthrôpos]. + + + + +KORAT, the capital of the provincial division (_Monton_) of Nakawn Racha +Sema, or "the frontier country," in Siam; in 102° 5´ E., 14° 59´ N. Pop. +about 7000, mixed Cambodian and Siamese. It is the headquarters of a +high commissioner and of an army division. It is the terminus of a +railway from Bangkok, 170 m. distant, and the distributing centre for +the whole of the plateau district which forms the eastern part of Siam. +There are copper mines of reputed wealth in the neighbourhood. It is the +centre of a silk-growing district and is the headquarters of the +government sericultural department, instituted in 1904 with the +assistance of Japanese experts for the purpose of improving the quality +of Siamese silk. The government is that of an ordinary provincial +division of Siam. A French vice-consul resides here. Since the founding +of Ayuthia in the 14th century, Korat has been tributary to, or part +of, Siam, with occasional lapses into independence or temporary +subjection to Cambodia. Before that period it was probably part of +Cambodia, as appears from the nature of the ruins still to be seen in +its neighbourhood. In 1896 the last vestige of its tributary condition +vanished with the introduction of the present system of Siamese rural +administration. + + + + +KORDOFAN, a country of north-east Africa, forming a _mudiria_ (province) +of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It lies mainly between 12° and 16° W. and +29° and 32½° E., and has an area of about 130,000 sq. m., being bounded +W. by Darfur, N. by the Bayuda steppes, E. by the White Nile mudiria and +S. by the country of the Shilluks and other negro tribes, forming part +of the Upper Nile mudiria. + +The greater part of Kordofan consists of undulating plains, riverless, +barren, monotonous, with an average altitude of 1500 ft. Thickets and +small acacias dot the steppes, which, green during the _kharif_ or rainy +season, at other times present a dull brown burnt-up aspect. In the +west, isolated peaks, such as Jebel Abu Senum and Jebel Kordofan, rise +from 150 to 600 ft. above the plain. North-west are the mountain groups +of Kaja and Katul (2000 to 3000 ft.), in the east are the Jebel Daier +and Jebel Tagale (Togale), ragged granitic ranges with precipitous +sides. In the south are flat, fertile and thickly wooded plains, which +give place to jungle at the foot of the hills of Dar Nuba, the district +forming the south-east part of Kordofan. Dar Nuba is well-watered, the +scenery is diversified and pretty, affording a welcome contrast to that +of the rest of the country. Some of the Nuba hills exceed 3000 ft. in +height. The south-western part of the country, a vast and almost level +plain, is known as Dar Homr. A granitic sand with abundance of mica and +feldspar forms the upper stratum throughout the greater part of +Kordofan; but an admixture of clay, which is observable in the north, +becomes strongly marked in the south, where there are also stretches of +black vegetable mould. Beneath there appears to be an unbroken surface +of mica schist. Though there are no perennial rivers, there are +watercourses (_khors_ or _wadis_) in the rainy season; the chief being +the Khor Abu Habl, which traverses the south-central region. In Dar Homr +the Wadi el Ghalla and the Khor Shalango drain towards the Homr affluent +of the Bahr el Ghazal. During the rainy season there is a considerable +body of water in these channels, but owing partly to rapid evaporation +and partly to the porous character of the soil the surface of the +country dries rapidly. The water which has found its way through the +granitic sand flows over the surface of the mica schist and settles in +the hollows, and by sinking wells to the solid rock a supply of water +can generally be obtained. It is estimated that (apart from those in a +few areas where the sand stratum is thin and water is reached at the +depth of a few feet) there are about 900 of these wells. They are narrow +shafts going down usually 30 to 50 ft., but some are over 200 ft. deep. +The water is raised by rope and bucket at the cost of enormous labour, +and in few cases is any available for irrigation. The very cattle are +trained to go a long time without drinking. Entire villages migrate +after the harvest to the neighbourhood of some plentiful well. In a few +localities the surface depressions hold water for the greater part of +the year but there is only one permanent lake--Keilat, which is some +four miles by two. As there is no highland area draining into Kordofan, +the underground reservoirs are dependent on the local rainfall, and a +large number of the wells are dry during many months. The rainy season +lasts from mid-June to the end of September, rain usually falling every +three or four days in brief but violent showers. In general the climate +is healthy except in the rainy season, when large tracts are converted +into swamps and fever is very prevalent. In the _shita_ or cold weather +(October to February inclusive) there is a cold wind from the north. The +seif or hot weather lasts from March to mid-June; the temperature rarely +exceeds 105° F. + + The chief constituent of the low scrub which covers the northern part + of the country is the grey gum acacia (_hashob_). In the south the red + gum acacias (_talh_) are abundant. In Dar Hamid, in the N.W. of + Kordofan, date, dom and other palms grow. The basbab or calabash tree, + known in the eastern Sudan as the _tebeldi_ and locally _Homr_, is + fairly common and being naturally hollow the trees collect water, + which the natives regularly tap. Another common source of water supply + is a small kind of water melon which grows wild and is also + cultivated. In the dense jungles of the south are immense creepers, + some of them rubber-vines. The cotton plant is also found. The fauna + includes the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe, lion, leopard, + cheetah, roan-antelope, hartebeeste, kudu and many other kinds of + antelope, wart-hog, hares, quail, partridge, jungle-fowl, bustard and + guinea-fowl. Nearly all the kinds of game mentioned are found chiefly + in the western and southern districts. The ril or addra gazelle found + in N. and N.W. Kordofan are not known elsewhere in the eastern Sudan. + Reptiles, sand-flies and mosquitoes are common. Ostriches are found in + the northern steppes. The chief wealth of the people consists in the + gum obtained from the grey acacias, in oxen, camels and ostrich + feathers. The finest cattle are of the humped variety, the bulls of + the Baggara being trained to the saddle and to carry burdens. There + are large herds of camel, the camel-owning Arabs usually owning also + large numbers of sheep and goats. Dukhn, a species of millet which can + grow in the arid northern districts is there the chief grain crop, its + place in the south being taken by durra. Dukhn is, however, the only + crop cultivated in Dar Homr. From this grain a beer called _merissa_ + is brewed. Barley and cotton are cultivated in some districts. A + little gold dust is obtained, but the old gold and other mines in the + Tagale country have been, apparently, worked out. Iron is found in + many districts and is smelted in a few places. In the absence of fuel + the industry is necessarily a small one. There are large beds of + hematite some 60 m. N.W. and the same distance N.E. of El Obeid. + +_Inhabitants._--The population of Kordofan was officially estimated in +1903 to be 550,000. The inhabitants are roughly divisible into two +types--Arabs in the plains and Nubas in the hills. Many of the villagers +of the plains are however of very mixed blood--Arab, Egyptian, Turkish, +Levantine and Negro. It is said that some village communities are +descended from the original negro inhabitants. They all speak Arabic. +The most important village tribe is the Gowama, who own most of the +gum-producing country. Other large tribes are the Dar Hamid and the +Bederia--the last-named living round El Obeid. The nomad Arabs are of +two classes, camel owners (_Siat El Ilbil_) and cattle owners +(_Baggara_), the first-named dwelling in the dry northern regions, the +Baggara in southern Kordofan. Of the camel-owning tribes the chief are +the Hamar and the Kabbabish. Many of the Hamar have settled down in +villages. The Baggara are great hunters, and formerly were noted slave +raiders. They possess many horses, but when journeying place their +baggage on their oxen. They use a stabbing spear, small throwing spears, +and a broad-bladed short sword. Some of the richer men possess suits of +chain armour. The principal Baggara tribes are the Hawazma, Meseria, +Kenana, Habbania, and Homr. The Homr are said to have entered Kordofan +from Wadai about the end of the 18th century and to have come from North +Africa. They speak a purer Arabic than the riverain tribes. The Nubas +are split into many tribes, each under a _mek_ or king, who is not +uncommonly of Arab descent. The Nubas have their own language, though +the inhabitants of each hill have usually a different dialect. They are +a primitive race, very black, of small build but distinctive negro +features. They have feuds with one another and with the Baggara. During +the _mahdia_ they maintained their independence. The Nubas appear to +have been the aboriginal inhabitants of the country and are believed to +be the original stock of the Nubians of the Nile Valley (see NUBIA). In +the northern hills are communities of black people with woolly hair but +of non-negro features. They speak Arabic and are called Nuba Arabs. Some +of the southern hills are occupied by Arab-speaking negroes, escaped +slaves and their descendants, who called themselves after the tribe they +formerly served and who have little intercourse with the Nubas. + +The capital, El Obeid (q.v.), is centrally situated. On it converge +various trade routes, notably from Darfur and from Dueim, a town on the +White Nile 125 m. above Khartum, which served as port for the province. +Thence was despatched the gum for the Omdurman market. But the railway +from Khartum to El Obeid, via Sennar, built in 1909-1911, crosses the +Nile some 60 m. farther south above Abba Island. Nahud (pop. about +10,000), 165 m. W.S.W. of El Obeid, is a commercial centre which has +sprung into importance since the fall of the dervishes. All the trade +with Darfur passes through the town, the chief commerce being in cattle, +feathers, ivory and cotton goods. Trade is largely in the hands of +Greeks, Syrians, Danagla and Jaalin. Taiara, on the route between El +Obeid and the Nile, was destroyed by the dervishes but has been rebuilt +and is a thriving mart for the gum trade. El Odoaiya or Eddaiya is the +headquarters of the Homr country. It and Baraka in the Muglad district +are on the trade road between Nahud and Shakka in Darfur. + +Bara is a small town some 50 m. N.N.E. of Obeid. Talodi and Tendek are +government stations in the Nuba country. The Nubas have no large towns. +They live in villages on the hillsides or summits. The usual habitation +built both by Arabs and Nubas is the tukl, a conical-shaped hut made of +stone, mud, wattle and daub or straw. The Nuba tukls are the better +built. In the chief towns houses are built of mud bricks with flat +roofs. + +_History._--Of the early history of Kordofan there is little record. It +never formed an independent state. About the beginning of the 16th +century Funj from Sennar settled in the country; towards the end of that +century Kordofan was conquered by Suleiman Solon, sultan of Darfur. +About 1775 it was conquered by the Funj, and there followed a +considerable immigration of Arab tribes into the country. The Sennari +however suffered a decisive defeat in 1784 and thereafter under Darfur +viceroys the country enjoyed prosperity. In 1821 Kordofan was conquered +by Mahommed Bey the defterdar, son-in-law of Mehemet Ali, pasha of +Egypt. It remained under Egyptian rule till 1882 when Mahommed Ahmed, +the mahdi, raised the country to revolt. It was in Kordofan that Hicks +Pasha and his army, sent to crush the revolt, were annihilated (Nov. +1883). The Baggara of Kordofan from that time onward were the chief +supporters of the mahdi, and his successor, the khalifa Abdullah, was a +Baggara. In Kordofan in 1899 the khalifa met his death, the country +having already passed into the hands of the new Sudan government. The +chief difficulty experienced by the administration was to habituate the +Arabs and Nubas, both naturally warlike, to a state of peace. In +consequence of the anti-slave raiding measures adopted, the Arabs of +Talodi in May 1906 treacherously massacred the mamur of that place and +40 men of the Sudanese regiment. The promptness with which this +disturbance was suppressed averted what otherwise might have been a +serious rising. (See SUDAN: _Anglo-Egyptian_, § "History.") + + See _The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, + 1905); H. A. MacMichael, _Notes on the History of Kordofan before the + Egyptian Conquest_ (Cairo, 1907); John Petherick, _Egypt, the Sudan, + and Central Africa_ (London, 1861); Ignaz Pallme, _Beschreibung von + Kordofan_ (Stuttgart, 1843; trans. _Travels in Kordofan_, London, + 1844); Major H. G. Prout, _General Report on Province of Kordofan_ + (Cairo, 1877); Ernst Marno, _Reise in der egypt. Equat. Provinz_ + (Vienna, 1879); papers (with maps) by Capt. W. Lloyd in the _Geog. + Journ._ (June 1907 and March 1910); and the bibliography given under + SUDAN: _Anglo-Egyptian_. + + + + +KOREA, or COREA (CH'AO HSIEN, DAI HAN). Its mainland portion consists of +a peninsula stretching southwards from Manchuria, with an estimated +length of about 600 m., an extreme breadth of 135 m., and a coast-line +of 1740 m. It extends from 34° 18´ to 43° N., and from 124° 36´ to 130° +47´ E. Its northern boundary is marked by the Tumen and Yalu rivers; the +eastern boundary by the Sea of Japan; the southern boundary by Korea +Strait; and the western boundary by the Yalu and the Yellow Sea. For 11 +m. along the Tumen river the north frontier is conterminous with Russia +(Siberia); otherwise Korea has China (Manchuria) on its land frontier. +Nearly the whole surface of the country is mountainous. (For map, see +JAPAN.) + +The south and west coasts are fringed by about 200 islands (exclusive of +islets), two-thirds of which are inhabited; 100 of them are from 100 to +2000 ft. in height, and many consist of bold bare masses of volcanic +rock. The most important are Quelpart and the Nan Hau group. The latter, +36 m. from the eastern end of Quelpart, possesses the deep, +well-sheltered and roomy harbour of Port Hamilton, which lies between +the north points of the large and well-cultivated islands of Sun-ho-dan +and So-dan, which have a population of 2000. Aitan, between their +south-east points, completes this noble harbour. The east coast of Korea +is steep and rock-bound, with deep water and a tidal rise and fall of 1 +to 2 ft. The west coast is often low and shelving, and abounds in +mud-banks, and the tidal rise and fall is from 20 to 36 ft. Korean +harbours, except two or three which are closed by drift ice for some +weeks in winter, are ice-free. Among them are Port Shestakov, Port +Lazarev, and Wön-san (Gensan), in Broughton Bay;[1] Fusan, Ma-san-po, at +the mouth of the Nak-tong, on the south coast; Mok-po, Chin-nampo, near +the mouth of the Tai-dong; and Chemulpo, near the mouth of the Han, the +port of the capital and the sea terminus of the first Korean railway on +the west coast. + +Korea is distinctly mountainous, and has no plains deserving the name. +In the north there are mountain groups with definite centres, the most +notable being Paik-tu San or Pei-shan (8700 ft.) which contains the +sources of the Yalu and Tumen. From these groups a lofty range runs +southwards, dividing the empire into two unequal parts. On its east, +between it and the coast, which it follows at a moderate distance, is a +fertile strip difficult of access, and on the west it throws off so many +lateral ranges and spurs as to break up the country into a chaos of +corrugated and precipitous hills and steep-sided valleys, each with a +rapid perennial stream. Farther south this axial range, which includes +the Diamond Mountain group, falls away towards the sea in treeless spurs +and small and often infertile levels. The northern groups and the +Diamond Mountain are heavily timbered, but the hills are covered mainly +with coarse, sour grass and oak and chestnut scrub. The rivers are +shallow and rocky, and are usually only navigable for a few miles from +the sea. Among the exceptions are the Yalu (Amnok), Tumen, Tai-dong, +Naktong, Mok-po, and Han. The last, rising in Kang-wön-do, 30 m. from +the east coast, cuts Korea nearly in half, reaching the sea on the west +coast near Chemulpo; and, in spite of many serious rapids, is a valuable +highway for commerce for over 150 miles. + + _Geology._--The geology of Korea is very imperfectly known. + Crystalline schists occupy a large part of the country, forming all + the higher mountain ranges. They are always strongly folded and it is + in them that the mineral wealth of Korea is situated. Towards the + Manchurian frontier they are covered unconformably by some 1600 ft. of + sandstones, clay-slates and limestones, which contain Cambrian fossils + and are the equivalents of a part of the Sinian system of China. + Carboniferous beds, consisting chiefly of slates, sandstones and + conglomerates, are found in the south-eastern provinces. They contain + a few seams of coal, but the most important coal-bearing deposits of + the country belong to the Tertiary period. Recent eruptive and + volcanic rocks are met with in the interior of Korea and also in the + island of Quelpart. The principal mountain in the latter, Hal-la-san + (or Mount Auckland), according to Chinese stories, was in eruption in + the year 1007. With this possible exception there are no active + volcanoes in Korea, and the region has also been remarkably free from + earthquakes throughout historic times. + + _Climate._--The climate is superb for nine months of the year, and the + three months of rain, heat and damp are not injurious to health. + Koreans suffer from malaria, but Europeans and their children are + fairly free from climatic maladies, and enjoy robust health. The + summer mean temperature of Seoul is about 75° F., that of winter about + 33°; the average rainfall, 36.3 in. in the year, and of the rainy + season 21.86 in. The rains come in July and August on the west and + north-east coasts, and from April to July on the south coast, the + approximate mean annual rainfall of these localities being 30, 35 and + 42 in. respectively. These averages are based on the observations of + seven years only. + + _Flora._--The plants and animals await study and classification. Among + the indigenous trees are the _Abies excelsa_, _Abies microsperma_, + _Pinus sinensis_, _Pinus pinea_, three species of oak, five of maple, + lime, birch, juniper, mountain ash, walnut, Spanish chestnut, hazel, + willow, hornbeam, hawthorn, plum, pear, peach, _Rhus vernicifera_, (?) + _Rhus semipinnata_, _Acanthopanax ricinifolia_, _Zelkawa_, _Thuja + orientalis_, _Elaeagnus_, _Sophora Japonica_, &c. Azaleas and + rhododendrons are widely distributed, as well as other flowering + shrubs and creepers, _Ampelopsis Veitchii_ being universal. Liliaceous + plants and cruciferae are numerous. The native fruits, except walnuts + and chestnuts, are worthless. The persimmon attains perfection, and + experiment has proved the suitability of the climate to many foreign + fruits. The indigenous economic plants are few, and are of no + commercial value, excepting wild _ginseng_, bamboo, which is applied + to countless uses, and "tak-pul" (_Hibiscus Manihot_), used in the + manufacture of paper. + + _Fauna._--The tiger takes the first place among wild animals. He is of + great size, his skin is magnificent, and he is so widely distributed + as to be a peril to man and beast. Tiger-hunting is a profession with + special privileges. Leopards are numerous, and have even been shot + within the walls of Seoul. There are deer (at least five species), + boars, bears, antelopes, beavers, otters, badgers, tiger-cats, marten, + an inferior sable, striped squirrels, &c. Among birds there are black + eagles, peregrines (largely used in hawking), and, specially protected + by law, turkey bustards, three varieties of pheasants, swans, geese, + common and spectacled teal, mallards, mandarin ducks white and pink + ibis, cranes, storks, egrets, herons, curlews, pigeons, doves, + nightjars, common and blue magpies, rooks, crows, orioles, halcyon and + blue kingfishers, jays, nut-hatches, redstarts, snipe, grey shrikes, + hawks, kites, &c. But, pending further observations, it is not + possible to say which of the smaller birds actually breed in Korea and + which only make it a halting-place in their annual migrations. + +_Area and Population._--The estimated area is 82,000 sq. m.--somewhat +under that of Great Britain. The first complete census was taken in +1897, and returned the population in round numbers at 17,000,000, +females being in the majority. It was subsequently, however, estimated +at a maximum of 12,000,000. There is a foreign population of about +65,000, of whom 60,000 are Japanese. It is estimated that little more +than half the arable land is under cultivation, and that the soil could +support an additional 7,000,000. The native population is absolutely +homogeneous. Northern Korea, with its severe climate, is thinly peopled, +while the rich and warm provinces of the south and west are populous. A +large majority of the people are engaged in agriculture. There is little +emigration, except into Russian and Chinese territory, but some Koreans +have emigrated to Hawaii and Mexico. + +The capital is the inland city of Seoul, with a population of nearly +200,000. Among other towns, Songdo (Kaisöng), the capital from about 910 +to 1392, is a walled city of the first rank, 25 m. N.W. of Seoul, with a +population of 60,000. It possesses the stately remains of the palace of +the Korean kings of the Wang dynasty, is a great centre of the grain +trade and the sole centre of the _ginseng_ manufacture, makes wooden +shoes, coarse pottery and fine matting, and manufactures with sesamum +oil the stout oiled paper for which Korea is famous. Phyöng-yang, a city +on the Tai-dong, had a population of 60,000 before the war of 1894, in +which it was nearly destroyed; but it fast regained its population. It +lies on rocky heights above a region of stoneless alluvium on the east, +and with the largest and richest plain in Korea on the west. It has five +coal-mines within ten miles, and the district is rich in iron, silk, +cotton, and grain. It has easy communication with the sea (its port +being Chin-nampo), and is important historically and commercially. +Auriferous quartz is worked by a foreign company in its neighbourhood. +Near the city is the illustrated standard of land measurement cut by +Ki-tze in 1124 B.C. + +With the exceptions of Kang-hwa, Chöng-ju, Tung-nai, Fusan, and Wön-san, +it is very doubtful if any other Korean towns reach a population of +15,000. The provincial capitals and many other cities are walled. Most +of the larger towns are in the warm and fertile southern provinces. One +is very much like another, and nearly all their streets are replicas of +the better alleys of Seoul. The actual antiquities of Korea are dolmens, +sepulchral pottery, and Korean and Japanese fortifications. + +_Race._--The origin of the Korean people is unknown. They are of the +Mongol family; their language belongs to the so-called Turanian group, +is polysyllabic, possesses an alphabet of 11 vowels and 14 consonants, +and a script named _En-mun_. Literature of the higher class and official +and upper class correspondence are exclusively in Chinese characters, +but since 1895 official documents have contained an admixture of +_En-mun_. The Koreans are distinct from both Chinese and Japanese in +physiognomy, though dark straight hair, dark oblique eyes, and a tinge +of bronze in the skin are always present. The cheek-bones are high; the +nose inclined to flatness; the mouth thin-lipped and refined among +patricians, and wide and full-lipped among plebeians; the ears are +small, and the brow fairly well developed. The expression indicates +quick intelligence rather than force and mental calibre. The male height +averages 5 ft. 4½ in. The hands and feet are small and well-formed. The +physique is good, and porters carry on journeys from 100 to 200 lb. Men +marry at from 18 to 20 years, girls at 16, and have large families, in +which a strumous taint is nearly universal. Women are secluded and +occupy a very inferior position. The Koreans are rigid monogamists, but +concubinage has a recognized status. + +_Production and Industries._ i. _Minerals._--Extensive coal-fields, +producing coal of fair quality, as yet undeveloped, occur in Hwang-hai +Do and elsewhere. Iron is abundant, especially in Phyöng-an Do, and rich +copper ore, silver and galena are found. Crystal is a noted product of +Korea, and talc of good quality is also present. In 1885 the rudest +process of "placer" washing produced an export of gold dust amounting to +£120,000; quartz-mining methods were subsequently introduced, and the +annual declared value of gold produced rose to about £450,000; but much +is believed to have been sent out of the country clandestinely. The +reefs were left untouched till 1897, when an American company, which had +obtained a concession in Phyöng-an Do in 1895, introduced the latest +mining appliances, and raised the declared export of 1898 to £240,047, +believed to represent a yield for that year of £600,000. Russian, +German, English, French and Japanese applicants subsequently obtained +concessions. The _concessionnaires_ regard Korean labour as docile and +intelligent. The privilege of owning mines in Korea was extended to +aliens under the Mining Regulations of 1906. + +ii. _Agriculture._--Korean soil consists largely of light sandy loam, +disintegrated lava, and rich, stoneless alluvium, from 3 to 10 ft. deep. +The rainfall is abundant during the necessitous months of the year, +facilities for the irrigation of the rice crop are ample, and drought +and floods are seldom known. Land is held from the proprietors on the +terms of receiving seed from them and returning half the produce, the +landlord paying the taxes. Any Korean can become a landowner by +reclaiming and cultivating unoccupied crown land for three years free of +taxation, after which he pays taxes annually. Good land produces two +crops a year. The implements used are two makes of iron-shod wooden +ploughs; a large shovel, worked by three or five men, one working the +handle, the others jerking the blade by ropes attached to it; a short +sharp-pointed hoe, a bamboo rake, and a wooden barrow, all of rude +construction. Rice is threshed by beating the ears on a log; other +grains, with flails on mud threshing-floors. Winnowing is performed by +throwing up the grain on windy days. Rice is hulled and grain coarsely +ground in stone querns or by water pestles. There are provincial +horse-breeding stations, where pony stallions, from 10 to 12 hands high, +are bred for carrying burdens. Magnificent red bulls are bred by the +farmers for ploughing and other farming operations, and for the +transport of goods. Sheep and goats are bred on the imperial farms, but +only for sacrifice. Small, hairy, black pigs, and fowls, are universal. +The cultivation does not compare in neatness and thoroughness with that +of China and Japan. There are no trustworthy estimates of the yield of +any given measurement of land. The farmers put the average yield of rice +at thirty-fold, and of other grain at twenty-fold. Korea produces all +cereals and root crops except the tropical, along with cotton, tobacco, +a species of the Rhea plant used for making grass-cloth, and the +_Brousonettia papyrifera_. The articles chiefly cultivated are rice, +millet, beans, _ginseng_ (at Songdo), cotton, hemp, oil-seeds, bearded +wheat, oats, barley, sorghum, and sweet and Irish potatoes. Korean +agriculture suffers from infamous roads, the want of the exchange of +seed, and the insecurity of the gains of labour. It occupies about +three-fourths of the population. + +iii. _Other Industries._--The industries of Korea, apart from supplying +the actual necessaries of a poor population, are few and rarely +collective. They consist chiefly in the manufacture of sea-salt, of +varied and admirable paper, thin and poor silk, horse-hair crinoline for +hats, fine split bamboo blinds, hats and mats, coarse pottery, hemp +cloth for mourners, brass bowls and grass-cloth. Wön-san and Fusan are +large fishing centres, and salt fish and fish manure are important +exports; but the prolific fishing-grounds are worked chiefly by Japanese +labour and capital. Paper and _ginseng_ are the only manufactured +articles on the list of Korean exports. The arts are nil. + +_Commerce._--A commercial treaty was concluded with Japan in 1876, and +treaties with the European countries and the United States of America +were concluded subsequently. An imperial edict of the 20th of May 1904 +annulled all Korean treaties with Russia. After the opening of certain +Korean ports to foreign trade, the customs were placed under the +management of European commissioners nominated by Sir Robert Hart from +Peking. The ports and other towns open are Seoul, Chemulpo, Fusan, +Wön-san, Chin-nampo, Mok-po, Kun-san, Ma-san-po, Song-chin, Wiju, +Yong-ampo, and Phyöng-yang. The value of foreign trade of the open ports +has fluctuated considerably, but has shown a tendency to increase on the +whole. For example, in 1884 imports were valued at £170,113 and exports +at £95,377. By 1890 imports had risen to £790,261, and thereafter +fluctuated greatly, standing at only £473,598 in 1893, but at £1,017,238 +in 1897, and £1,382,352 in 1901, but under abnormal conditions in 1904 +this last amount was nearly doubled. Exports in 1890 were valued at +£591,746; they also fluctuated greatly, falling to £316,072 in 1893, but +standing at £863,828 in 1901, and having a further increase in some +subsequent years. These figures exclude the value of gold dust. The +principal imports are cotton goods, railway materials, mining supplies +and metals, tobacco, kerosene, timber, and clothing. Japanese cotton +yarns are imported to be woven into a strong cloth on Korean hand-looms. +Beans and peas, rice, cowhides, and ginseng are the chief exports, apart +from gold. + + _Communications._--Under Japanese auspices a railway from Chemulpo to + Seoul was completed in 1900. This became a branch of the longer line + from Fusan to Seoul (286 m.), the concession for which was granted in + 1898. This line was pushed forward rapidly on the outbreak of the + Russo-Japanese War, and the whole was opened early in 1905. A railway + from Seoul to Wiju was planned under French engineers, but the work + was started by the Korean government. This line also, however, was + taken over by the Japanese military authorities, and the first trains + ran through early in 1905, in which year Japan obtained control of the + whole of the Korean internal communications. The main roads centring + in Seoul are seldom fit even for the passage of ox-carts, and the + secondary roads are bad bridle-tracks, frequently degenerating into + "rock ladders." Some improvements, however, have been effected under + Japanese direction. The inland transit of goods is almost entirely on + the backs of bulls carrying from 450 to 600 lb., on ponies carrying + 200 lb., and on men carrying from 100 to 150 lb., bringing the average + cost up to a fraction over 8d. per mile per ton. The corvée exists, + with its usual hardships. Bridges are made of posts, carrying a + framework either covered with timber or with pine branches and earth. + They are removed at the beginning of the rainy season, and are not + replaced for three months. The larger rivers are unbridged, but there + are numerous government ferries. The infamous roads and the risks + during the bridgeless season greatly hamper trade. Japanese steamers + ply on the Han between Chemulpo and Seoul. + + A postal system, established in 1894-1895, has been gradually + extended. There are postage stamps of four values. The Japanese, under + the agreement of 1905, took over the postal, telegraphic and telephone + services. Korea is connected with the Chinese and Japanese telegraph + systems by a Japanese line from Chemulpo via Seoul to Fusan, and by a + line acquired by the empire between Seoul and Wiju. The state has also + lines from Seoul to the open ports, &c. Korea has regular steam + communication with ports in Japan, the Gulf of Pechili, Shanghai, &c. + Her own mercantile marine is considerable. + +_Government._--From 1895, when China renounced her claims to suzerainty, +to 1910 the king (since 1897 emperor) was in theory an independent +sovereign, Japan in 1904 guaranteeing the welfare and dignity of the +imperial house. Under a treaty signed at Seoul on the 17th of November +1905, Japan directed the external relations of Korea, and Japanese +diplomatic and consular representatives took charge of Korean subjects +and interests in foreign countries. Japan undertook the maintenance of +existing treaties between Korea and foreign powers; and Korea agreed +that her future foreign treaties should be concluded through the medium +of Japan. A resident-general represented Japan at Seoul, to direct +diplomatic affairs, the first being the Marquis Ito. Under a further +convention of July 1907, the resident-general's powers were enormously +increased. In administrative reforms the Korean government followed his +guidance; laws could not be enacted nor administrative measures +undertaken without his consent; the appointment and dismissal of high +officials, and the engagement of foreigners in government employ, were +subject to his pleasure. Each department of state has a Japanese +vice-minister, and a large proportion of Japanese officials were +introduced into these departments as well as Japanese chiefs of the +bureaus of police and customs. By a treaty dated August 22nd 1910, which +came into effect seven days later the emperor of Korea made "complete +and permanent cession to the emperor of Japan of all rights of +sovereignty over the whole of Korea." The entire direction of the +administration was then taken over by the Japanese resident-general, who +was given the title of governor-general. The jurisdiction of the +consular courts was abolished but Japan guaranteed the continuance of +the existing Korean tariff for ten years. + + _Local Administration._--Korea for administrative purposes is divided + into provinces and prefectures or magistracies. Japanese reforms in + this department have been complete. Each provincial government has a + Japanese secretary, police inspector and clerks. The secretary may + represent the governor in his absence. + + _Law._--A criminal code, scarcely equalled for barbarity, though twice + mitigated by royal edict since 1785, remained in force in its main + provisions till 1895. Subsequently, a mixed commission of revision + carried out some good work. Elaborate legal machinery was devised, + though its provisions were constantly violated by the imperial will + and the gross corruption of officials. Five classes of law courts were + established, and provision was made for appeals in both civil and + criminal cases. Abuses in legal administration and in tax-collecting + were the chief grievances which led to local insurrections. Oppression + by the throne and the official and noble classes prevailed + extensively; but the weak protected themselves by the use of the + _Kyei_, or principle of association, which developed among Koreans + into powerful trading gilds, trades-unions, mutual benefit + associations, money-lending gilds, &c. Nearly all traders, porters and + artisans were members of gilds, powerfully bound together and strong + by combined action and mutual helpfulness in time of need. Under the + Japanese régime the judiciary and the executive were rigidly + separated. The law courts, including the court of cassation, three + courts of appeal, eight local courts, and 115 district courts, were + put under Japanese judges, and the codification of the laws was + undertaken. The prison system was also reformed. + + _Finance and Money._--Until 1904 the finances of Korea were completely + disorganized; the currency was chaotic, and the budget was an official + formality making little or no attempt at accuracy. By agreement of the + 22nd of August 1904, Korea accepted a Japanese financial adviser, and + valuable reforms were quickly entered upon under the direction of the + first Japanese official, Mr T. Megata. He had to contend against + corrupt officialdom, indiscriminate expenditure, and absence of + organization in the collection of revenue, apart from the confusion + with regard to the currency. This last was nominally on a silver + standard. The coins chiefly in use were (i) copper _cash_, which were + strung in hundreds on strings of straw, and, as about 9lb. weight was + equal to one shilling, were excessively cumbrous, but were + nevertheless valued at their face value; (ii) nickel coins, which, + being profitable to mint, were issued in enormous quantities, quickly + depreciated, and were moreover extensively forged. The Dai Ichi Ginko + (First Bank of Japan), which has a branch in Seoul and agencies in + other towns, was made the government central treasury, and its notes + were recognized as legal tender in Korea. The currency of Korea being + thus fixed, the first step was to reorganize the nickel coinage. From + the 1st of August 1905 the old nickels paid into the treasury were + remitted and the issue carefully regulated; so also with the cash, + which was retained as a subsidiary coinage, while a supplementary + coinage was issued of silver 10-sen pieces and bronze 1-sen and + half-sen pieces. To aid the free circulation of money and facilitate + trade, the government grants subsidies for the establishment of + co-operative warehouse companies with bonded warehouses. Regulations + have also been promulgated with respect to promissory notes, which + have long existed in Korea. They took the form of a piece of paper + about an inch broad and five to eight inches long, on which was + written the sum, the date of payment and the name of the payer and + payee, with their seals; the paper was then torn down its length, and + one half given to each party. The debtor was obliged to pay the amount + of the debt to any person who presented the missing half of the bill. + The readiness with which they were accepted led to over-issue, and, + consequently, financial crises. The new regulations require the + amount of the notes to be expressed in yen, not to be payable in old + nickel coins or cash. The notes can only be issued by members of a + note association, a body constituted under government regulations, + whose members must uphold the credit and validity of their notes. The + notes must also be made payable to a definite person and require + endorsement, safeguards which were previously lacking. Administrative + reform was also taken in hand; the large number of superfluous and + badly paid officials was considerably reduced, and the status and + salary of all existing government officials considerably improved. An + endeavour was made to publish an annual budget, in which the revenue + and expenditure should accurately represent the sums actually received + and expended. Regulations were framed for the purpose of establishing + adequate supervision over the revenue and expenditure for the + abolition of irregular taxation and extortions, as well as the + practice of farming out the collection of the revenue to individuals, + and, generally, to adapt the whole collection and expenditure of the + national revenue to modern ideas of public finance. Down to 1910 the + sum expended by Japan on Korean reforms was estimated to approach + fifteen millions sterling. Among reforms not specifically referred to + may be mentioned the improvement of coastwise navigation, the + provision of posts, roads, railways, public buildings, hospitals and + sanitary works, and the official advancement of industries. + + _Religion._--Buddhism, which swayed Korea from the 10th to the 14th + century, has been discredited for three centuries, and its priests are + ignorant, immoral and despised. Confucianism is the official cult, and + all officials offer sacrifices and homage at stated seasons in the + Confucian temples. Confucian ethics are the basis of morality and + social order. Ancestor-worship is universal. The popular cult is, + however, the propitiation of demons, a modification of the Shamanism + of northern Asia. The belief in demons, mostly malignant, keeps the + Koreans in constant terror, and much of their substance is spent on + propitiations. Sorceresses and blind sorcerers are the intermediaries. + At the close of the 19th century the fees annually paid to these + persons were estimated at £150,000; there were in Seoul 1000 + sorceresses, and very large sums are paid to the male sorcerers and + geomancers. + + Putting aside the temporary Christian work of a Jesuit chaplain to the + Japanese Christian General Konishe, in 1594 during the Japanese + invasion, as well as that on a larger scale by students who received + the evangel in the Roman form from Peking in 1792, and had made 4000 + converts by the end of 1793, the first serious attempt at the + conversion of Korea was made by the French _Société des Missions + Étrangères_ in 1835. In spite of frequent persecutions, there were + 16,500 converts in 1857 and 20,000 in 1866, in which year the French + bishops and priests were martyred by order of the emperor's father, + and several thousand native Christians were beheaded, banished or + imprisoned. This mission in 1900 had about 30 missionaries and 40,000 + converts. In 1884 and 1885, toleration being established, Protestant + missionaries of the American Presbyterian and Methodist Episcopal + Churches entered Korea, and were followed by a large number of agents + of other denominations. An English bishop, clergy, doctors and nursing + sisters arrived in 1890. Hospitals, orphanages, schools and an + admirable college in Seoul have been founded, along with tri-lingual + (Chinese, Korean and English) printing-presses; religious, historical + and scientific works and much of the Bible have been translated into + _En-mun_, and periodicals of an enlightened nature in the Korean + script are also circulated. The progress of Protestant missions was + very slow for some years, but from 1895 converts multiplied. + + _Education._--The "Royal Examinations" in Chinese literature held in + Seoul up to 1894, which were the entrance to official position, being + abolished, the desire for a purely Chinese education diminished. In + Seoul there were established an imperial English school with two + foreign teachers, a reorganized Confucian college, a normal college + under a very efficient foreign principal, Japanese, Chinese, Russian + and French schools, chiefly linguistic, several Korean primary + schools, mission boarding-schools, and the _Pai Chai_ College + connected with the American Methodist Episcopal Church, under imperial + patronage, and subsidized by government, in which a liberal education + of a high class was given and _En-mun_ receives much attention. The + Koreans are expert linguists, and the government made liberal grants + to the linguistic schools. In the primary schools boys learn + arithmetic, and geography and Korean history are taught, with the + outlines of the governmental systems of other civilized countries. The + education department has been entirely reorganized under the Japanese + régime, Japanese models being followed. + +_History._--By both Korean and Chinese tradition Ki-tze--a councillor of +the last sovereign of the 3rd Chinese dynasty, a sage, and the reputed +author of parts of the famous Chinese classic, the _Shu-King_--is +represented as entering Korea in 1122 B.C. with several thousand Chinese +emigrants, who made him their king. The peninsula was then peopled by +savages living in caves and subterranean holes. By both learned and +popular belief in Korea Ki-tze is recognized as the founder of Korean +social order, and is greatly reverenced. He called the new kingdom +_Ch'ao-Hsien_, pacified and policed its borders, and introduced laws +and Chinese etiquette and polity. Korean ancient history is far from +satisfying the rigid demands of modern criticism, but it appears that +Ki-tze's dynasty ruled the peninsula until the 4th century B.C., from +which period until the 10th century A.D. civil wars and foreign +aggressions are prominent. Nevertheless, Hiaksai, which with Korai and +Shinra then constituted Korea, was a centre of literary culture in the +4th century, through which the Chinese classics and the art of writing +reached the other two kingdoms. Buddhism, a forceful civilizing element, +reached Hiaksai in A.D. 384, and from it the sutras and images of +northern Buddhism were carried to Japan, as well as Chinese letters and +ethics. Internecine wars were terminated about 913 by Wang the Founder, +who unified the peninsula under the name Korai, made Song-do its +capital, and endowed Buddhism as the state religion. In the 11th century +Korea was stripped of her territory west of the Yalu by a warlike horde +of Tungus stock, since which time her frontiers have been stationary. +The Wang dynasty perished in 1392, an important epoch in the peninsula, +when Ni Taijo, or Litan, the founder of the present dynasty, ascended +the throne, after his country had suffered severely from Jenghiz and +Khublai Khan. He tendered his homage to the first Ming emperor of China, +received from him his investiture as sovereign, and accepted from him +the Chinese calendar and chronology, in itself a declaration of fealty. +He revived the name _Ch'ao-Hsien_, changed the capital from Song-do to +Seoul, organized an administrative system, which with some modifications +continued till 1895, and exists partially still, carried out vigorous +reforms, disestablished Buddhism, made merit in Chinese literary +examinations the basis of appointment to office, made Confucianism the +state religion, abolished human sacrifices and the burying of old men +alive, and introduced that Confucian system of education, polity, and +social order which has dominated Korea for five centuries. Either this +king or an immediate successor introduced the present national costume, +the dress worn by the Chinese before the Manchu conquest. The early +heirs of this vigorous and capable monarch used their power, like him, +for the good of the people; but later decay set in, and Japanese +buccaneers ravaged the coasts, though for two centuries under Chinese +protection Korea was free from actual foreign invasion. In 1592 occurred +the epoch-making invasion of Korea by a Japanese army of 300,000 men, by +order of the great regent Hideyoshi. China came to the rescue with +60,000 men, and six years of a gigantic and bloody war followed, in +which Japan used firearms for the first time against a foreign foe. +Seoul and several of the oldest cities were captured, and in some +instances destroyed, the country was desolated, and the art treasures +and the artists were carried to Japan. The Japanese troops were recalled +in 1598 at Hideyoshi's death. The port and fishing privileges of Fusan +remained in Japanese possession, a heavy tribute was exacted, and until +1790 the Korean king stood in humiliating relations towards Japan. Korea +never recovered from the effects of this invasion, which bequeathed to +all Koreans an intense hatred of the Japanese. + +In 1866, 1867, and 1871 French and American punitive expeditions +attacked parts of Korea in which French missionaries and American +adventurers had been put to death, and inflicted much loss of life, but +retired without securing any diplomatic successes, and Korea continued +to preserve her complete isolation. The first indirect step towards +breaking it down had been taken in 1860, when Russia obtained from China +the cession of the Usuri province, thus bringing a European power down +to the Tumen. A large emigration of famine-stricken Koreans and +persecuted Christians into Russian territory followed. The emigrants +were very kindly received, and many of them became thrifty and +prosperous farmers. In 1876 Japan, with the consent of China, wrung a +treaty from Korea by which Fusan was fully opened to Japanese settlement +and trade, and Wön-san (Gensan) and Inchiun (Chemulpo) were opened to +her in 1880. In 1882 China promulgated her "Trade and Frontier +Regulations," and America negotiated a commercial treaty, followed by +Germany and Great Britain in 1883, Italy and Russia in 1884, France in +1886, and Austria in 1892. A "Trade Convention" was also concluded with +Russia. Seoul was opened in 1884 to foreign residence, and the provinces +to foreign travel, and the diplomatic agents of the contracting powers +obtained a recognized status at the capital. These treaties terminated +the absolute isolation which Korea had effectually preserved. During the +negotiations, although under Chinese suzerainty, she was treated with as +an independent state. Between 1897 and 1899, under diplomatic pressure, +a number of ports were opened to foreign trade and residence. From 1882 +to 1894 the chief event in the newly opened kingdom was a plot by the +Tai-won-Kun, the father of the emperor, to seize on power, which led to +an attack on the Japanese legation, the members of which were compelled +to fight their way, and that not bloodlessly, to the sea. Japan secured +ample compensation; and the Chinese resident, aided by Chinese troops, +deported the Tai-won-Kun to Tientsin. In 1884 at an official banquet the +leaders of the progressive party assassinated six leading Korean +statesmen, and the intrigues in Korea of the banished or escaped +conspirators created difficulties which were very slow to subside. In +spite of a constant struggle for ascendancy between the queen and the +returned Tai-won-Kun, the next decade was one of quiet. China, always +esteemed in Korea, consolidated her influence under the new conditions +through a powerful resident; prosperity advanced, and certain reforms +were projected by foreign "advisers." In May 1894 a more important +insurrectionary rising than usual led the king to ask armed aid from +China. She landed 2000 troops on the 10th of June, having previously, in +accordance with treaty provisions, notified Japan of her intention. Soon +after this Japan had 12,000 troops in Korea, and occupied the capital +and the treaty ports. Then Japan made three sensible proposals for +Korean reform, to be undertaken jointly by herself and China. China +replied that Korea must be left to reform herself, and that the +withdrawal of the Japanese troops must precede negotiations. Japan +rejected this suggestion, and on the 23rd of July attacked and occupied +the royal palace. After some further negotiations and fights by land and +sea between Japan and China war was declared formally by Japan, and +Korea was for some time the battle-ground of the belligerents. The +Japanese victories resulted for Korea in the solemn renunciation of +Chinese suzerainty by the Korean king, the substitution of Japanese for +Chinese influence, the introduction of many important reforms under +Japanese advisers, and of checks on the absolutism of the throne. +Everything promised well. The finances flourished under the capable +control of Mr (afterwards Sir) M'Leavy Brown, C.M.G. Large and judicious +retrenchments were carried out in most of the government departments. A +measure of judicial and prison reform was granted. Taxation was placed +on an equable basis. The pressure of the trade gilds was relaxed. Postal +and educational systems were introduced. An approach to a constitution +was made. The distinction between patrician and plebeian, domestic +slavery, and beating and slicing to death were abolished. The age for +marriage of both sexes was raised. Chinese literary examinations ceased +to be a passport to office. Classes previously degraded were +enfranchised, and the alliance between two essentially corrupt systems +of government was severed. For about eighteen months all the departments +were practically under Japanese control. On the 8th of October 1895 the +Tai-won-Kun, with Korean troops, aided by Japanese troops under the +orders of Viscount Miura, the Japanese minister, captured the palace, +assassinated the queen, and made a prisoner of the king, who, however, +four months later, escaped to the Russian legation, where he remained +till the spring of 1897. Japanese influence waned. The engagements of +the advisers were not renewed. A strong retrograde movement set in. +Reforms were dropped. The king, with the checks upon his absolutism +removed, reverted to the worst traditions of his dynasty, and the +control and arrangements of finance were upset by Russia. + +At the close of 1897 the king assumed the title of emperor, and changed +the official designation of the empire to _Dai Han_--Great Han. By 1898 +the imperial will, working under partially new conditions, produced +continual chaos, and by 1900 succeeded in practically overriding all +constitutional restraints. Meanwhile Russian intrigue was constantly +active. At last Japan resorted to arms, and her success against Russia +in the war of 1904-5 enabled her to resume her influence over Korea. On +the 23rd of February 1904 an agreement was determined whereby Japan +resumed her position as administrative adviser to Korea, guaranteed the +integrity of the country, and bound herself to maintain the imperial +house in its position. Her interests were recognized by Russia in the +treaty of peace (September 5, 1905), and by Great Britain in the +Anglo-Japanese agreement of the 12th of August 1905. The Koreans did not +accept the restoration of Japanese influence without demur. In August +1905 disturbances arose owing to an attempt by some merchants to obtain +special assistance from the treasury on the pretext of embarrassment +caused by Japanese financial reforms; these disturbances spread to some +of the provinces, and the Japanese were compelled to make a show of +force. Prolonged negotiations were necessary to the completion of the +treaty of the 17th of November 1905, whereby Japan obtained the control +of Korea's foreign affairs and relations, and the confirmation of +previous agreements, the far-reaching results of which have been +indicated. Nor was opposition to Japanese reforms confined to popular +demonstration. In 1907 a Korean delegacy, headed by Prince Yong, a +member of the imperial family, was sent out to lay before the Hague +conference of that year, and before all the principal governments, a +protest against the treatment of Korea by Japan. While this was of +course fruitless from the Korean point of view, it indicated that the +Japanese must take strong measures to suppress the intrigues of the +Korean court. + +At the instigation of the Korean ministry the emperor abdicated on the +19th of July 1907, handing over the crown to his son. Somewhat serious +_émeutes_ followed in Seoul and elsewhere, and the Japanese proposals +for a new convention, increasing the powers of the resident general, had +to be presented to the cabinet under a strong guard. The convention was +signed on the 25th of July. One of the reforms immediately undertaken +was the disbanding of the Korean standing army, which led to an +insurrection and an intermittent guerrilla warfare which, owing to the +nature of the country, was not easy to subdue. Under the direction of +Prince Ito (q.v.) the work of reform was vigorously prosecuted. In July +1909, General Teranchi, Japanese minister of war, became +resident-general, with the mission to bring about annexation. This was +effected peacefully in August 1910, the emperor of Korea by formal +treaty surrendering his country and crown. (See JAPAN.) + + AUTHORITIES.--The first Asiatic notice of Korea is by Khordadbeh, an + Arab geographer of the 9th century A.D., in his _Book of Roads and + Provinces_, quoted by Baron Richthofen in his great work on _China_, + p. 575. The earliest European source of information is a narrative by + H. Hamel, a Dutchman, who was shipwrecked on the coast of Quelpart in + 1654, and held in captivity in Korea for thirteen years. The amount of + papers on Korea scattered through English, German, French and Russian + magazines, and the proceedings of geographical societies, is very + great, and for the last three centuries Japanese writers have + contributed largely to the sum of general knowledge of the peninsula. + The list which follows includes some of the more recent works which + illustrate the history, manners and customs, and awakening of Korea: + _British Foreign Office Reports on Korean Trade, Annual Series_ + (London); _Bibliographie koréanne_ (3 vols., Paris, 1897); Mrs. I. L. + Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (2 vols., London, 1897); M. von + Brandt, _Ostasiatische Fragen_ (Leipzig, 1897); A. E. J. Cavendish and + H. E. Goold Adams, _Korea, and the Sacred White Mountain_ (London, + 1894); Stewart Culin, _Korean Games_ (Philadelphia, 1895); Curzon, + _Problems of the Far East_ (London, 1896); Dallet, _Histoire de + l'église de Korée_ (2 vols., Paris, 1874); J. S. Gale, _Korean + Sketches_ (Edinburgh, 1898); W. E. Griffis, _The Hermit Nation_ (8th + and revised edition, New York, 1907); H. Hamel, _Relation du naufrage + d'un vaisseau Halindois, &c., traduite du Flamond par M. Minutoli_ + (Paris, 1670); Okoji Hidemoto, _Der Feldzug der Japanir gegen Korea im + Jahre 1597; translated from Japanese by Professor von Pfizmaier_ (2 + vols., Vienna, 1875); M. Jametel, "La Korée: ses ressources, son + avenir commercial," _L'Économiste française_ (Paris, July 1881); + Percival Lowell, _Chosön: The Land of the Morning Calm_ (London, + Boston, 1886); L. J. Miln, _Quaint Korea_ (Harper, New York, 1895); + V. de Laguerie, _La Korée indépendante, russe ou japonaise?_ (Paris, + 1898); J. Ross, _Korea: Its History, Manners and Customs_ (Paisley, + 1880); W. H. Wilkinson, _The Korean Government: Constitutional Changes + in Korea during the period 23rd July 1894--30th June 1896_ (Shanghai, + 1896); A. Hamilton, _Korea_ (London, 1903); C. J. D. Taylor, _Koreans + at Home_ (London, 1904); E. Boudaret, _En Corée_ (Paris, 1904); + Laurent-Crémazy, _Le Code pénal de la Corée_ (Paris, 1904); G. T. + Ladd, _In Korea with Marquis Ito_ (London, 1908); Dictionaries and + vocabularies by W. F. Myers (English secretary of Legation at Peking), + the French missionaries, and others, were superseded in 1898 by a + large and learned volume by the Rev J. S. Gale, a Presbyterian + missionary, who devoted some years to the work. On geology, see C. + Gottsche, "Geologische Skizze von Korea," _Sitz. preuss. Akad. Wiss._ + (Berlin, Jahrg. 1886, pp. 857-873, Pl. viii.). A summary of this + paper, with a reproduction of the map, is given by L. Pervinquière in + _Rev. sci._ Paris, 5th series, vol. i. (1904), pp. 545-552. + (I. L. B.; O. J. R. H.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Named after William Robert Broughton (1762-1821), an English + navigator who explored these seas in 1795-1798. + + + + +KOREA, a tributary state of India, transferred from Bengal to the +Central Provinces in 1905; area, 1631 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 35,113, or +only 22 persons per sq. m.; estimated revenue, £1200. It consists of an +elevated table-land, with hills rising to above 3000 ft. Such traffic as +there is is carried by means of pack-bullocks. + + + + +KORESHAN ECCLESIA, THE, or CHURCH ARCHTRIUMPHANT, a communistic body, +founded by Cyrus R. Teed, a medical practitioner, who was born at Utica, +New York, in 1839. Teed was regarded by his adherents as "the new +Messiah now in the World," and many other extravagant views both in +science and economics are held by them. Two communities were founded: in +Chicago (1886) and at Estero, in Lee county, Florida (1894), where in +1903 the Chicago community removed. Their name is derived from Koresh, +the Hebrew form of Cyrus, and they have a journal, _The Flaming Sword_. + + + + +KORIN, OGATA (c. 1657-1716), Japanese painter and lacquerer, was born at +Koto, the son of a wealthy merchant who had a taste for the arts and is +said to have given his son some elementary instruction therein. Korin +also studied under Soken Yamamoto, Kano, Tsunenobu and Gukei Sumiyoshi; +and he was greatly influenced by his predecessors Koyetsu and Sotatsu. +On arriving at maturity, however, he broke away from all tradition, and +developed a very original and quite distinctive style of his own, both +in painting and in the decoration of lacquer. The characteristic of this +is a bold impressionism, which is expressed in few and simple highly +idealized forms, with an absolute disregard either of realism or of the +usual conventions. In lacquer Korin's use of white metals arid of +mother-of-pearl is notable; but herein he followed Koyetsu. Korin died +on the 2nd of June 1716, at the age of fifty-nine. His chief pupils were +Kagei Tatebashi and Shiko Watanable; but the present knowledge and +appreciation of his work are largely due to the efforts of Hoitsu Sakai, +who brought about a revival of Korin's style. + + See A. Morrison, _The Painters of Japan_ (1902); S. Tajima, + _Masterpieces selected from the Korin School_ (1903); S. Hoitsu, _The + 100 Designs by Korin_ (1815) and _More Designs by Korin_ (1826). + (E. F. S.) + + + + +KORKUS, an aboriginal tribe of India, dwelling on the Satpura hills in +the Central Provinces. They are of interest as being the westernmost +representatives of the Munda family of speech. They are rapidly becoming +hinduized, as may be gathered from the figures of the census of 1901, +which show 140,000 Korkus by race, but only 88,000 speakers of the Korku +language. + + + + +KÖRMÖCZBÁNYA (German, _Kremnitz_), an old mining town, in the county of +Bars, in Hungary, 158 m. N. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 4299. It +is situated in a deep valley in the Hungarian Ore Mountains region. +Among its principal buildings are the castle, several Roman Catholic +(from the 13th and 14th centuries) and Lutheran churches, a Franciscan +monastery (founded 1634), the town-hall, and the mint where the +celebrated Kremnitz gold ducats were formerly struck. The bulk of the +inhabitants find employment in connexion with the gold and silver mines. +By means of a tunnel 9 m. in length, constructed in 1851-1852, the water +is drained off from the mines into the river Gran. According to +tradition, Körmöczbánya was founded in the 8th century by Saxons. The +place is mentioned in documents in 1317, and became a royal free town +in 1328, being therefore one of the oldest free towns in Hungary. + + + + +KÖRNER, KARL THEODOR (1791-1813), German poet and patriot, often called +the German "Tyrtaeus," was born at Dresden on the 23rd of September +1791. His father, Christian Gottfried Körner (1756-1831), a +distinguished Saxon jurist, was Schiller's most intimate friend. He was +educated at the Kreuzschule in Dresden and entered at the age of +seventeen the mining academy at Freiburg in Saxony, where he remained +two years. Here he occupied himself less with science than with verse, a +collection of which appeared under the title _Knospen_ in 1810. In this +year he went to the university of Leipzig, in order to study law; but he +became involved in a serious conflict with the police and was obliged to +continue his studies in Berlin. In August 1811 Körner went to Vienna, +where he devoted himself entirely to literary pursuits; he became +engaged to the actress Antonie Adamberger, and, after the success of +several plays produced in 1812, he was appointed poet to the +Hofburgtheater. When the German nation rose against the French yoke, in +1813, Körner gave up all his prospects at Vienna and joined Lützow's +famous corps of volunteers at Breslau. On his march to Leipzig he passed +through Dresden, where he issued his spirited _Aufruf an die Sachsen_, +in which he called upon his countrymen to rise against their oppressors. +He became lieutenant towards the end of April, and took part in a +skirmish at Kitzen near Leipzig on the 7th of June, when he was severely +wounded. After being nursed by friends at Leipzig and Carlsbad, he +rejoined his corps and fell in an engagement outside a wood near +Gadebusch in Mecklenburg on the 26th of August 1813. He was buried by +his comrades under an oak close to the village of Wöbbelin, where there +is a monument to him. + +The abiding interest in Körner is patriotic and political rather than +literary. His fame as a poet rests upon his patriotic lyrics, which were +published by his father under the title _Leier und Schwert_ in 1814. +These songs, which fired the poet's comrades to deeds of heroism in +1813, bear eloquent testimony to the intensity of the national feeling +against Napoleon, but judged as literature they contain more bombast +than poetry. Among the best known are "Lützow's wilde verwegene Jagd," +"Gebet während der Schlacht" (set to music by Weber) and "Das +Schwertlied." This last was written immediately before his death, and +the last stanza added on the fatal morning. As a dramatist Körner was +remarkably prolific, but his comedies hardly touch the level of +Kotzebue's and his tragedies, of which the best is _Zriny_ (1814), are +rhetorical imitations of Schiller's. + + His works have passed through many editions. Among the more recent + are: _Sämtliche Werke_ (Stuttgart, 1890), edited by Adolf Stern; by H. + Zimmer (2 vols., Leipzig, 1893) and by E. Goetze (Berlin, 1900). The + most valuable contributions to our knowledge of the poet have been + furnished by E. Peschel, the founder and director of the Körner Museum + in Dresden, in _Theodor Körners Tagebuch und Kriegslieder, aus dem + Jahre 1813_ (Freiburg, 1893) and, in conjunction with E. Wildenow, + _Theodor Körner und die Seinen_ (Leipzig, 1898). + + + + +KORNEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 9 m. N.W. of Vienna by +rail. Pop. (1900), 8298. It is situated on the left bank of the Danube, +opposite Klosterneuburg. It is a steamship station and an important +emporium of the salt and corn trade. The industry comprises the +manufacture of coarse textiles, pasteboard, &c. Its charter as a town +dates from 1298, and it was a much frequented market in the preceding +century. At the beginning of the 15th century it was surrounded by +walls, and in 1450 a fortress was erected. It was frequently involved in +the conflict between the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus and the +emperor Frederick William III., and also during the Thirty Years' War. + + + + +KOROCHA, a town of central Russia, in the government of Kursk, 75 m. +S.S.E. of the city of Kursk, on the Korocha river. Pop. (1897), 14,405. +Its inhabitants live by gardening, exporting large quantities of dried +cherries, by making candles and leather, and by trade; the merchants +purchase cattle, grain and salt in the south and send them to Moscow. +Founded in 1638, Korocha was formerly a small fort intended to check the +Tatar invasions. + + + + +KORSÖR, a seaport of Denmark, in the _amt_ (county) of the island of +Zealand, 69 m. by rail W.S.W. of Copenhagen, on the east shore of the +Great Belt. Pop. (1901), 6054. The harbour, which is formed by a bay of +the Baltic, has a depth throughout of 20 ft. It is the point of +departure and arrival of the steam ferry to Nyborg on Fünen, lying on +the Hamburg, Schleswig, Fredericia and Copenhagen route. There is also +regular communication by water with Kiel. The chief exports are fish, +cereals, bacon; imports, petroleum and coal. A market town since the +14th century, Korsör has ruins of an old fortified castle, on the south +side of the channel, dating from the 14th and 17th centuries. + + + + +KORTCHA (Slavonic, _Goritza_ or _Koritza_), a city of Albania, European +Turkey, in the vilayet of Iannina, in a wide plain watered by the Devol +and Dunavitza rivers, and surrounded by mountains on every side except +the north, where Lake Malik constitutes the boundary. Pop. (1905), about +10,000, including Greeks, Albanians and Slavs. Kortcha is the see of an +Orthodox Greek metropolitan, whose large cathedral is richly decorated +in the interior with paintings and statues. The Kortcha school for +girls, conducted by American missionaries, is the only educational +establishment in which the Turkish government permits the use of +Albanian as the language of instruction. The local trade is chiefly +agricultural. + + + + +KORYAKS, a Mongoloid people of north-eastern Siberia, inhabiting the +coast-lands of the Bering Sea to the south of the Anadyr basin and the +country to the immediate north of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the +southernmost limit of their range being Tigilsk. They are akin to the +Chukchis, whom they closely resemble in physique and in manner of life. +Thus they are divided into the settled fishing tribes and the nomad +reindeer breeders and hunters. The former are described as being more +morally and physically degraded even than the Chukchis, and hopelessly +poor. The Koryaks of the interior, on the other hand, still own enormous +reindeer herds, to which they are so attached that they refuse to part +with an animal to a stranger at any price. They are in disposition +brave, intelligent and self-reliant, and recognize no master. They have +ever tenaciously resisted Russian aggression, and in their fights with +the Cossacks have proved themselves recklessly brave. When outnumbered +they would kill their women and children, set fire to their homes, and +die fighting. Families usually gather in groups of sixes or sevens, +forming miniature states, in which the nominal chief has no +predominating authority, but all are equal. The Koryaks are polygamous, +earning their wives by working for their fathers-in-law. The women and +children are treated well, and Koryak courtesy and hospitality are +proverbial. The chief wedding ceremony is a forcible abduction of the +bride. They kill the aged and infirm, in the belief that thus to save +them from protracted sufferings is the highest proof of affection. The +victims choose their mode of death, and young Koryaks practise the art +of giving the fatal blow quickly and mercifully. Infanticide was +formerly common, and one of twins was always sacrificed. They burn their +dead. The prevailing religion is Shamanism; sacrifices are made to evil +spirits, the heads of the victims being placed on stones facing east. + + See G. Kennan, _Tent Life in Siberia_ (1871); "Über die Koriaken u. + ihnen nähe verwandten Tchouktchen," in _Bul. Acad. Sc. St. + Petersburg_, xii. 99. + + + + +KOSCIUSCO, the highest mountain in Australia, in the range of the +Australian Alps, towards the south-eastern extremity of New South Wales. +Its height is 7328 ft. An adjacent peak to the south, Mueller's Peak, +long considered the highest in the continent, is 7268 ft. high. A +meteorological station was established on Kosciusco in 1897. + + + + +KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ ANDRZEJ BONAWENTURA (1746-1817), Polish soldier and +statesman, the son of Ludwik Kosciuszko, sword-bearer of the palatinate +of Brzesc, and Tekla Ratomska, was born in the village of +Mereczowszczyno. After being educated at home he entered the corps of +cadets at Warsaw, where his unusual ability and energy attracted the +notice of Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski, by whose influence in 1769 he +was sent abroad at the expense of the state to complete his military +education. In Germany, Italy and France he studied diligently, +completing his course at Brest, where he learnt fortification and naval +tactics, returning to Poland in 1774 with the rank of captain of +artillery. While engaged in teaching the daughters of the Grand Hetman, +Sosnowski of Sosnowica, drawing and mathematics, he fell in love with +the youngest of them, Ludwika, and not venturing to hope for the consent +of her father, the lovers resolved to fly and be married privately. +Before they could accomplish their design, however, the wooer was +attacked by Sosnowski's retainers, but defended himself valiantly till, +covered with wounds, he was ejected from the house. This was in 1776. +Equally unfortunate was Kosciuszko's wooing of Tekla Zurowska in 1791, +the father of the lady in this case also refusing his consent. + +In the interval between these amorous episodes Kosciuszko won his spurs +in the New World. In 1776 he entered the army of the United States as a +volunteer, and brilliantly distinguished himself, especially during the +operations about New York and at Yorktown. Washington promoted +Kosciuszko to the rank of a colonel of artillery and made him his +adjutant. His humanity and charm of manner made him moreover one the +most popular of the American officers. In 1783 Kosciuszko was rewarded +for his services and his devotion to the cause of American independence +with the thanks of Congress, the privilege of American citizenship, a +considerable annual pension with landed estates, and the rank of +brigadier-general, which he retained in the Polish service. + +In the war following upon the proclamation of the constitution of the +3rd of May 1791 and the formation of the reactionary Confederation of +Targowica (see POLAND: _History_), Kosciuszko took a leading part. As +the commander of a division under Prince Joseph Poniatowski he +distinguished himself at the battle of Zielence in 1792, and at Dubienka +(July 18) with 4000 men and 10 guns defended the line of the Bug for +five days against the Russians with 18,000 men and 60 guns, subsequently +retiring upon Warsaw unmolested. When the king acceded to the +Targowicians, Kosciuszko with many other Polish generals threw up his +commission and retired to Leipzig, which speedily became the centre of +the Polish emigration. In January 1793, provided with letters of +introduction from the French agent Perandier, Kosciuszko went on a +political mission to Paris to induce the revolutionary government to +espouse the cause of Poland. In return for assistance he promised to +make the future government of Poland as close a copy of the French +government as possible; but the Jacobins, already intent on detaching +Prussia from the anti-French coalition, had no serious intention of +fighting Poland's battles. The fact that Kosciuszko's visit synchronized +with the execution of Louis XVI. subsequently gave the enemies of Poland +a plausible pretext for accusing her of Jacobinism, and thus prejudicing +Europe against her. On his return to Leipzig Kosciuszko was invited by +the Polish insurgents to take the command of the national armies, with +dictatorial power. He hesitated at first, well aware that a rising in +the circumstances was premature. "I will have nothing to do with Cossack +raiding," he replied; "if war we have, it must be a regular war." He +also insisted that the war must be conducted on the model of the +American War of Independence, and settled down in the neighbourhood of +Cracow to await events. When, however, he heard that the insurrection +had already broken out, and that the Russian armies were concentrating +to crush it, Kosciuszko hesitated no longer, but hastened to Cracow, +which he reached on the 23rd of March 1794. On the following day his +arms were consecrated according to ancient custom at the church of the +Capucins, by way of giving the insurrection a religious sanction +incompatible with Jacobinism. The same day, amidst a vast concourse of +people in the market-place, Kosciuszko took an oath of fidelity to the +Polish nation; swore to wage war against the enemies of his country; but +protested at the same time that he would fight only for the independence +and territorial integrity of Poland. + +The insurrection had from the first a purely popular character. We find +none of the great historic names of Poland in the lists of the original +confederates. For the most part the confederates of Kosciuszko were +small squires, traders, peasants and men of low degree generally. Yet +the comparatively few gentlemen who joined the movement sacrificed +everything to it. Thus, to take but a single instance, Karol Prozor sold +the whole of his ancestral estates and thus contributed 1,000,000 +thalers to the cause. From the 24th of March to the 1st of April +Kosciuszko remained at Cracow organizing his forces. On the 3rd of April +at Raclawice, with 4000 regulars, and 2000 peasants armed only with +scythes and pikes, and next to no artillery, he defeated the Russians, +who had 5000 veterans and 30 guns. This victory had an immense moral +effect, and brought into the Polish camp crowds of waverers to what had +at first seemed a desperate cause. For the next two months Kosciuszko +remained on the defensive near Sandomir. He durst not risk another +engagement with the only army which Poland so far possessed, and he had +neither money, officers nor artillery. The country, harried incessantly +during the last two years, was in a pitiable condition. There was +nothing to feed the troops in the very provinces they occupied, and +provisions had to be imported from Galicia. Money could only be obtained +by such desperate expedients as the melting of the plate of the churches +and monasteries, which was brought in to Kosciuszko's camp at Pinczow +and subsequently coined at Warsaw, minus the royal effigy, with the +inscription: "Freedom, Integrity and Independence of the Republic, +1794." Moreover, Poland was unprepared. Most of the regular troops were +incorporated in the Russian army, from which it was very difficult to +break away, and until these soldiers came in Kosciuszko had principally +to depend on the valour of his scythemen. But in the month of April the +whole situation improved. On the 17th of that month the 2000 Polish +troops in Warsaw expelled the Russian garrison after days of street +fighting, chiefly through the ability of General Mokronowski, and a +provisional government was formed. Five days later Jakob Jasinski drove +the Russians from Wilna. + +By this time Kosciuszko's forces had risen to 14,000, of whom 10,000 +were regulars, and he was thus able to resume the offensive. He had +carefully avoided doing anything to provoke Austria or Prussia. The +former was described in his manifestoes as a potential friend; the +latter he never alluded to as an enemy. "Remember," he wrote, "that the +only war we have upon our hands is war to the death against the +Muscovite tyranny." Nevertheless Austria remained suspicious and +obstructive; and the Prussians, while professing neutrality, very +speedily effected a junction with the Russian forces. This Kosciuszko, +misled by the treacherous assurances of Frederick William's ministers, +never anticipated, when on the 4th of June he marched against General +Denisov. He encountered the enemy on the 5th of June at Szczekociny, and +then discovered that his 14,000 men had to do not merely with a Russian +division but with the combined forces of Russia and Prussia, numbering +25,000 men. Nevertheless, the Poles acquitted themselves manfully, and +at dusk retreated in perfect order upon Warsaw unpursued. Yet their +losses had been terrible, and of the six Polish generals present three, +whose loss proved to be irreparable, were slain, and two of the others +were seriously wounded. A week later another Polish division was +defeated at Kholm; Cracow was taken by the Prussians on the 22nd of +June; and the mob at Warsaw broke upon the gaols and murdered the +political prisoners in cold blood. Kosciuszko summarily punished the +ringleaders of the massacres and had 10,000 of the rank and file drafted +into his camp, which measures had a quieting effect. But now dissensions +broke out among the members of the Polish government, and it required +all the tact of Kosciuszko to restore order amidst this chaos of +suspicions and recriminations. At this very time too he had need of all +his ability and resource to meet the external foes of Poland. On the 9th +of July Warsaw was invested by Frederick William of Prussia with an army +of 25,000 men and 179 guns, and the Russian general Fersen with 16,000 +men and 74 guns, while a third force of 11,000 occupied the right bank +of the Vistula. Kosciuszko for the defence of the city and its outlying +fortifications could dispose of 35,000 men, of whom 10,000 were +regulars. But the position, defended by 200 inferior guns, was a strong +one, and the valour of the Poles and the engineering skill of +Kosciuszko, who was now in his element, frustrated all the efforts of +the enemy. Two unsuccessful assaults were made upon the Polish positions +on the 26th of August and the 1st of September, and on the 6th the +Prussians, alarmed by the progress of the Polish arms in Great Poland, +where Jan Henryk Dabrowski captured the Prussian fortress of Bydogoszcz +and compelled General Schwerin with his 20,000 men to retire upon +Kalisz, raised the siege. Elsewhere, indeed, after a brief triumph the +Poles were everywhere worsted, and Suvarov, after driving them before +him out of Lithuania was advancing by forced marches upon Warsaw. Even +now, however, the situation was not desperate, for the Polish forces +were still numerically superior to the Russian. But the Polish generals +proved unequal to carrying out the plans of the dictator; they allowed +themselves to be beaten in detail, and could not prevent the junction of +Suvarov and Fersen. Kosciuszko himself, relying on the support of +Poninski's division 4 m. away, attacked Fersen at Maciejowice on the +10th of October. But Poninski never appeared, and after a bloody +encounter the Polish army of 7000 was almost annihilated by the 16,000 +Russians; and Kosciuszko, seriously wounded and insensible, was made a +prisoner on the field of battle. The long credited story that he cried +"Finis Poloniae!" as he fell is a fiction. + +Kosciuszko was conveyed to Russia, where he remained till the accession +of Paul in 1796. On his return on the 19th of December 1796 he paid a +second visit to America, and lived at Philadelphia till May 1798, when +he went to Paris, where the First Consul earnestly invited his +co-operation against the Allies. But he refused to draw his sword unless +Napoleon undertook to give the restoration of Poland a leading place in +his plans; and to this, as he no doubt foresaw, Bonaparte would not +consent. Again and again he received offers of high commands in the +French army, but he kept aloof from public life in his house at +Berville, near Paris, where the emperor Alexander visited him in 1814. +At the Congress of Vienna his importunities on behalf of Poland finally +wearied Alexander, who preferred to follow the counsels of Czartoryski; +and Kosciuszko retired to Solothurn, where he lived with his friend +Zeltner. Shortly before his death, on the 2nd of April 1817, he +emancipated his serfs, insisting only on the maintenance of schools on +the liberated estates. His remains were carried to Cracow and buried in +the cathedral; while the people, reviving an ancient custom, raised a +huge mound to his memory near the city. + +Kosciuszko was essentially a democrat, but a democrat of the school of +Jefferson and Lafayette. He maintained that the republic could only be +regenerated on the basis of absolute liberty and equality before the +law; but in this respect he was far in advance of his age, and the +aristocratic prejudices of his countrymen compelled him to resort to +half measures. He wrote _Manoeuvres of Horse Artillery_ (New York, 1808) +and a description of the campaign of 1792 (in vol. xvi. of E. +Raczynski's _Sketch of the Poles and Poland_ (Posen, 1843). + + See Jozef Zajaczek, _History of the Revolution of_ 1794 (Pol.) + (Lemberg, 1881); Leonard Jakob Borejko Chodzko, _Biographie du général + Kosciuszko_ (Fontainebleau, 1837); Karol Falkenstein, _Thaddäus + Kosciuszko_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1834; French ed., Paris, 1839); Antoni + Choloniewski, _Tadeusz Kosciuszko_ (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1902); Franciszek + Rychlicki, _T. Kosciuszko and the Partition of Poland_ (Pol.) (Cracow, + 1875). (R. N. B.) + + + + +KÖSEN, a village and summer resort of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Saxony, 33 m. by rail S. by W. of Halle, on the Saale. Pop. (1905), +2990. The town has a mineral spring, which is used for bathing, being +efficacious for rheumatism and other complaints. Kösen, which became a +town in 1869, has large mill-works; it has a trade in wood and wine. On +the adjacent Rudelsburg, where there is a ruined castle, the German +students have erected a monument to their comrades who fell in the +Franco-German War of 1870-71. Hereon are also memorials to Bismarck and +to the emperor William I. The town is famous as the central +meeting-place of the German students' corps, which hold an annual +congress here every Whitsuntide. + + See Techow, _Führer durch Kösen und Umgegend_ (Kösen, 1889); and + Rosenberg, _Kösen_ (Naumburg, 1877). + + + + +KOSHER, or KASHER (Hebrew clean, right, or fit), the Jewish term for any +food or vessels for food made ritually fit for use, in contradistinction +to those _pasul_, unfit, and _terefah_, forbidden. Thus the vessels used +at the Passover are "kosher," as are also new metal vessels bought from +a Gentile after they have been washed in a ritual bath. But the term is +specially used of meat slaughtered in accordance with the law of Moses. +The _schochat_ or butcher must be a devout Jew and of high moral +character, and be duly licensed by the chief rabbi. The +slaughtering--the object of which is to insure the complete bleeding of +the body, the Jews being forbidden to eat blood--is done by severing the +windpipe with a long and razor-sharp knife by one continuous stroke +backwards and forwards. No unnecessary force is permitted, and no +stoppage must occur during the operation. The knife is then carefully +examined, and if there be the slightest flaw in its blade the meat +cannot be eaten, as the cut would not have been clean, the uneven blade +causing a thrill to pass through the beast and thus driving the blood +again through the arteries. After this every portion of the animal is +thoroughly examined, for if there is any organic disease the devout Jew +cannot taste the meat. In order to soften meat before it is salted, so +as to allow the salt to extract the blood more freely, the meat is +soaked in water for about half an hour. It is then covered with salt for +about an hour and afterwards washed three times. Kosher meat is labelled +with the name of the slaughterer and the date of killing. + + + + +KÖSLIN, or CÖSLIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Pomerania, at the foot of the Gollenberg (450 ft.), 5 m. from the +Baltic, and 105 m. N.E. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (1905), 21,474. The +town has two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a gymnasium, a +cadet academy and a deaf and dumb asylum. In the large market place is +the statue of the Prussian king Frederick William I., erected in 1824, +and there is a war memorial on the Friedrich Wilhelm Platz. The +industries include the manufacture of soap, tobacco, machinery, paper, +bricks and tiles, beer and other goods. Köslin was built about 1188 by +the Saxons, and raised to the rank of a town in 1266. In 1532 it +accepted the doctrines of the Reformation. It was severely tried in the +Thirty Years' War and in the Seven Years' War, and in 1720 it was burned +down. On the Gollenberg stands a monument to the memory of the +Pomeranians who fell in the war of 1813-15. + + + + +KOSSOVO, or Kosovo, a vilayet of European Turkey, comprising the sanjak +of Uskub in Macedonia, and the sanjaks of Prizren and Novibazar (q.v.) +in northern Albania. Pop. (1905), about 1,100,000; area, 12,700 sq. m. +For an account of the physical features of Kossovo, see ALBANIA and +MACEDONIA. The inhabitants are chiefly Albanians and Slavs, with smaller +communities of Greeks, Turks, Vlachs and gipsies. A few good roads +traverse the vilayet (see USKÜB), and the railway from Salonica +northward bifurcates at Usküb, the capital, one branch going to +Mitrovitza in Albania, the other to Nish in Servia. Despite the +undoubted mineral wealth of the vilayet, the only mines working in 1907 +were two chrome mines, at Orasha and Verbeshtitza. In the volume of its +agricultural trade, however, Kossovo is unsurpassed by any Turkish +province. The exports, worth about £950,000, include livestock, large +quantities of grain and fruit, tobacco, vegetables, opium, hemp and +skins. Rice is cultivated for local consumption, and sericulture is a +growing industry, encouraged by the Administration of the Ottoman Debt. +The yearly value of the imports is approximately £1,200,000; these +include machinery and other manufactured goods, metals, groceries, +chemical products and petroleum, which is used in the flour-mills and +factories on account of the prohibitive price of coal. There is +practically no trade with Adriatic ports; two-thirds of both exports and +imports pass through Salonica, the remainder going by rail into Servia. +The chief towns, Usküb (32,000), Prizren (30,000), Koprülü (22,000), +Ishtib [Slav. _Stip_] (21,000), Novibazar (12,000) and Prishtina +(11,000) are described in separate articles. + +In the middle ages the vilayet formed part of the Servian Empire, its +northern districts are still known to the Serbs as Old Servia (_Stara +Srbiya_). The plain of Kossovo (Kossovopolje, "Field of Blackbirds"), a +long valley lying west of Prishtina and watered by the Sibnitza, a +tributary of the Servian Ibar, is famous in Balkan history and legend as +the scene of the battle of Kossovo (1389), in which the power of Servia +was destroyed by the Turks. (See SERVIA: _History_.) + + + + +KOSSUTH, FERENCZ LAJOS AKOS (1841- ), Hungarian statesman, the son of +Lajos Kossuth, was born on the 16th of November 1841, and educated at +the Paris Polytechnic and the London University, where in 1859 he won a +prize for political economy. After working as a civil engineer on the +Dean Forest railway he went (1861) to Italy, where he resided for the +next thirty-three years, taking a considerable part in the railway +construction of the peninsula, and at the same time keeping alive the +Hungarian independence question by a whole series of pamphlets and +newspaper articles. At Cesena in 1876 he married Emily Hoggins. In 1885 +he was decorated for his services by the Italian government. His last +great engineering work was the construction of the steel bridges for the +Nile. In 1894 he escorted his father's remains to Hungary, and the +following year resolved to settle in his native land and took the oath +of allegiance. As early as 1867 he had been twice elected a member of +the Hungarian diet, but on both occasions refused to accept the mandate. +On the 10th of April 1895 he was returned for Tapolca and in 1896 for +Cegléd, and from that time took an active part in Hungarian politics. In +the autumn of 1898 he became the leader of the obstructionists or +"Independence Party," against the successive Szell, Khuen-Haderváry, +Szápáry and Stephen Tisza administrations (1898-1904), exercising great +influence not only in parliament but upon the public at large through +his articles in the _Egyetértés_. The elections of 1905 having sent his +party back with a large majority, he was received in audience by the +king and helped to construct the Wekerle ministry, of which he was one +of the most distinguished members. + + See Sturm, _The Almanack of the Hungarian Diet_ (1905-1910), art. + "Kossuth" (Hung.) (Budapest, 1905). + + + + +KOSSUTH, LAJOS [Louis] (1802-1894), Hungarian patriot, was born at +Monok, a small town in the county of Zemplin, on the 19th of September +1802. His father, who was descended from an old untitled noble family +and possessed a small estate, was by profession an advocate. Louis, who +was the eldest of four children, received from his mother a strict +religious training. His education was completed at the Calvinist college +of Sárospatak and at the university of Budapest. At the age of nineteen +he returned home and began practice with his father. His talents and +amiability soon won him great popularity, especially among the peasants. +He was also appointed steward to the countess Szápáry, a widow with +large estates, and as her representative had a seat in the county +assembly. This position he lost owing to a quarrel with his patroness, +and he was accused of appropriating money to pay a gambling debt. His +fault cannot have been very serious, for he was shortly afterwards (he +had in the meantime settled in Pesth) appointed by Count Hunyady to be +his deputy at the National Diet in Pressburg (1825-1827, and again in +1832). It was a time when, under able leaders, a great national party +was beginning the struggle for reform against the stagnant Austrian +government. As deputy he had no vote, and he naturally took little share +in the debates, but it was part of his duty to send written reports of +the proceedings to his patron, since the government, with a +well-grounded fear of all that might stir popular feeling, refused to +allow any published reports. Kossuth's letters were so excellent that +they were circulated in MS. among the Liberal magnates, and soon +developed into an organized parliamentary gazette (_Orszagyulesi +tudositasok_), of which he was editor. At once his name and influence +spread. In order to increase the circulation, he ventured on +lithographing the letters. This brought them under the official censure, +and was forbidden. He continued the paper in MS., and when the +government refused to allow it to be circulated through the post sent it +out by hand. In 1836 the Diet was dissolved. Kossuth continued the +agitation by reporting in letter form the debates of the county +assemblies, to which he thereby gave a political importance which they +had not had when each was ignorant of the proceedings of the others. The +fact that he embellished with his own great literary ability the +speeches of the Liberals and Reformers only added to the influence of +his news-letters. The government in vain attempted to suppress the +letters, and other means having failed, he was in May 1837, with +Weszelenyi and several others, arrested on a charge of high treason. +After spending a year in prison at Ofen, he was tried and condemned to +four more years' imprisonment. His confinement was strict and injured +his health, but he was allowed the use of books. He greatly increased +his political information, and also acquired, from the study of the +Bible and Shakespeare, a wonderful knowledge of English. His arrest had +caused great indignation. The Diet, which met in 1839, supported the +agitation for the release of the prisoners, and refused to pass any +government measures; Metternich long remained obdurate, but the danger +of war in 1840 obliged him to give way. Immediately after his release +Kossuth married Teresa Meszleny, a Catholic, who during his prison days +had shown great interest in him. Henceforward she strongly urged him on +in his political career; and it was the refusal of the Roman priests to +bless their union that first prompted Kossuth to take up the defence of +mixed marriages. + +He had now become a popular leader. As soon as his health was restored +he was appointed (January 1841) editor of the _Pesti Hirlap_, the newly +founded organ of the party. Strangely enough, the government did not +refuse its consent. The success of the paper was unprecedented. The +circulation soon reached what was then the immense figure of 7000. The +attempts of the government to counteract his influence by founding a +rival paper, the _Vilag_, only increased his importance and added to the +political excitement. The warning of the great reformer Szechenyi that +by his appeal to the passions of the people he was leading the nation to +revolution was neglected. Kossuth, indeed, was not content with +advocating those reforms--the abolition of entail, the abolition of +feudal burdens, taxation of the nobles--which were demanded by all the +Liberals. By insisting on the superiority of the Magyars to the Slavonic +inhabitants of Hungary, by his violent attacks on Austria (he already +discussed the possibility of a breach with Austria), he raised the +national pride to a dangerous pitch. At last, in 1844, the government +succeeded in breaking his connexion with the paper. The proprietor, in +obedience to orders from Vienna (this seems the most probable account), +took advantage of a dispute about salary to dismiss him. He then applied +for permission to start a paper of his own. In a personal interview +Metternich offered to take him into the government service. The offer +was refused, and for three years he was without a regular position. He +continued the agitation with the object of attaining both the political +and commercial independence of Hungary. He adopted the economic +principles of List, and founded a society, the "Vedegylet," the members +of which were to consume none but home produce. He advocated the +creation of a Hungarian port at Fiume. With the autumn of 1847 the great +opportunity of his life came. Supported by the influence of Louis +Batthyany, after a keenly fought struggle he was elected member for +Budapest in the new Diet. "Now that I am a deputy, I will cease to be an +agitator," he said. He at once became chief leader of the Extreme +Liberals. Deak was absent. Batthyany, Szechenyi, Szemere, Eotvos, his +rivals, saw how his intense personal ambition and egoism led him always +to assume the chief place, and to use his parliamentary position to +establish himself as leader of the nation; but before his eloquence and +energy all apprehensions were useless. His eloquence was of that nature, +in its impassioned appeals to the strongest emotions, that it required +for its full effect the highest themes and the most dramatic situations. +In a time of rest, though he could never have been obscure, he would +never have attained the highest power. It was therefore a necessity of +his nature, perhaps unconsciously, always to drive things to a crisis. +The crisis came, and he used it to the full. + +On the 3rd of March 1848, as soon as the news of the revolution in +Paris had arrived, in a speech of surpassing power he demanded +parliamentary government for Hungary and constitutional government for +the rest of Austria. He appealed to the hope of the Habsburgs, "our +beloved Archduke Francis Joseph," to perpetuate the ancient glory of the +dynasty by meeting half-way the aspirations of a free people. He at once +became the leader of the European revolution; his speech was read aloud +in the streets of Vienna to the mob by which Metternich was overthrown +(March 13), and when a deputation from the Diet visited Vienna to +receive the assent of the emperor to their petition it was Kossuth who +received the chief ovation. Batthyany, who formed the first responsible +ministry, could not refuse to admit Kossuth, but he gave him the +ministry of finance, probably because that seemed to open to him fewest +prospects of engrossing popularity. If that was the object, it was in +vain. With wonderful energy he began developing the internal resources +of the country: he established a separate Hungarian coinage--as always, +using every means to increase the national self-consciousness; and it +was characteristic that on the new Hungarian notes which he issued his +own name was the most prominent inscription; hence the name of _Kossuth +Notes_, which was long celebrated. A new paper was started, to which was +given the name of _Kossuth Hirlapia_, so that from the first it was +Kossuth rather than the Palatine or the president of the ministry whose +name was in the minds of the people associated with the new government. +Much more was this the case when, in the summer, the dangers from the +Croats, Serbs and the reaction at Vienna increased. In a great speech of +11th July he asked that the nation should arm in self-defence, and +demanded 200,000 men; amid a scene of wild enthusiasm this was granted +by acclamation. When Jellachich was marching on Pesth he went from town +to town rousing the people to the defence of the country, and the +popular force of the _Honved_ was his creation. When Batthyany resigned +he was appointed with Szemere to carry on the government provisionally, +and at the end of September he was made President of the Committee of +National Defence. From this time he was in fact, if not in name, the +dictator. With marvellous energy he kept in his own hands the direction +of the whole government. Not a soldier himself, he had to control and +direct the movements of armies; can we be surprised if he failed, or if +he was unable to keep control over the generals or to establish that +military co-operation so essential to success? Especially it was Görgei +(q.v.) whose great abilities he was the first to recognize, who refused +obedience; the two men were in truth the very opposite to one another: +the one all feeling, enthusiasm, sensibility; the other cold, stoical, +reckless of life. Twice Kossuth deposed him from the command; twice he +had to restore him. It would have been well if Kossuth had had something +more of Görgei's calculated ruthlessness, for, as has been truly said, +the revolutionary power he had seized could only be held by +revolutionary means; but he was by nature soft-hearted and always +merciful; though often audacious, he lacked decision in dealing with +men. It has been said that he showed a want of personal courage; this is +not improbable, the excess of feeling which made him so great an orator +could hardly be combined with the coolness in danger required of a +soldier; but no one was able, as he was, to infuse courage into others. +During all the terrible winter which followed, his energy and spirit +never failed him. It was he who overcame the reluctance of the army to +march to the relief of Vienna; after the defeat of Schwechat, at which +he was present, he sent Bem to carry on the war in Transylvania. At the +end of the year, when the Austrians were approaching Pesth, he asked for +the mediation of Mr Stiles, the American envoy. Windischgrätz, however, +refused all terms, and the Diet and government fled to Debrecszin, +Kossuth taking with him the regalia of St Stephen, the sacred Palladium +of the Hungarian nation. Immediately after the accession of the Emperor +Francis Joseph all the concessions of March had been revoked and Kossuth +with his colleagues outlawed. In April 1849, when the Hungarians had won +many successes, after sounding the army, he issued the celebrated +declaration of Hungarian independence, in which he declared that "the +house of Habsburg-Lorraine, perjured in the sight of God and man, had +forfeited the Hungarian throne." It was a step characteristic of his +love for extreme and dramatic action, but it added to the dissensions +between him and those who wished only for autonomy under the old +dynasty, and his enemies did not scruple to accuse him of aiming at the +crown himself. For the time the future form of government was left +undecided, but Kossuth was appointed responsible governor. The hopes of +ultimate success were frustrated by the intervention of Russia; all +appeals to the western powers were vain, and on the 11th of August +Kossuth abdicated in favour of Görgei, on the ground that in the last +extremity the general alone could save the nation. How Görgei used his +authority to surrender is well known; the capitulation was indeed +inevitable, but a greater man than Kossuth would not have avoided the +last duty of conducting the negotiations so as to get the best terms. + +With the capitulation of Villagos Kossuth's career was at an end. A +solitary fugitive, he crossed the Turkish frontier. He was hospitably +received by the Turkish authorities, who, supported by Great Britain, +refused, notwithstanding the threats of the allied emperors, to +surrender him and the other fugitives to the merciless vengeance of the +Austrians. In January 1849 he was removed from Widdin, where he had been +kept in honourable confinement, to Shumla, and thence to Katahia in Asia +Minor. Here he was joined by his children, who had been confined at +Pressburg; his wife (a price had been set on her head) had joined him +earlier, having escaped in disguise. In September 1851 he was liberated +and embarked on an American man-of-war. He first landed at Marseilles, +where he received an enthusiastic welcome from the people, but the +prince-president refused to allow him to cross France. On the 23rd of +October he landed at Southampton and spent three weeks in England, where +he was the object of extraordinary enthusiasm, equalled only by that +with which Garibaldi was received ten years later. Addresses were +presented to him at Southampton, Birmingham and other towns; he was +officially entertained by the lord mayor of London; at each place he +pleaded the cause of his unhappy country. Speaking in English, he +displayed an eloquence and command of the language scarcely excelled by +the greatest orators in their own tongue. The agitation had no immediate +effect, but the indignation which he aroused against Russian policy had +much to do with the strong anti-Russian feeling which made the Crimean +War possible. + +From England he went to the United States of America: there his +reception was equally enthusiastic, if less dignified; an element of +charlatanism appeared in his words and acts which soon destroyed his +real influence. Other Hungarian exiles protested against the claim he +appeared to make that he was the one national hero of the revolution. +Count Casimir Batthyany attacked him in _The Times_, and Szemere, who +had been prime minister under him, published a bitter criticism of his +acts and character, accusing him of arrogance, cowardice and duplicity. +He soon returned to England, where he lived for eight years in close +connexion with Mazzini, by whom, with some misgiving, he was persuaded +to join the Revolutionary Committee. Quarrels of a kind only too common +among exiles followed; the Hungarians were especially offended by his +claim still to be called governor. He watched with anxiety every +opportunity of once more freeing his country from Austria. An attempt to +organize a Hungarian legion during the Crimean War was stopped; but in +1859 he entered into negotiations with Napoleon, left England for Italy, +and began the organization of a Hungarian legion, which was to make a +descent on the coast of Dalmatia. The Peace of Villafranca made this +impossible. From that time he resided in Italy; he refused to follow the +other Hungarian patriots, who, under the lead of Deak, accepted the +composition of 1867; for him there could be no reconciliation with the +house of Habsburg, nor would he accept less than full independence and a +republic. He would not avail himself of the amnesty, and, though elected +to the Diet of 1867, never took his seat. He never lost the affections +of his countrymen, but he refrained from an attempt to give practical +effect to his opinions, nor did he allow his name to become a new cause +of dissension. A law of 1879, which deprived of citizenship all +Hungarians who had voluntarily been absent ten years, was a bitter blow +to him. + +He died in Turin on the 20th of March 1894; his body was taken to Pesth, +where he was buried amid the mourning of the whole nation, Maurus Jokai +delivering the funeral oration. A bronze statue, erected by public +subscription, in the Kerepes cemetery, commemorates Hungary's purest +patriot and greatest orator. + + Many points in Kossuth's career and character will probably always + remain the subject of controversy. His complete works were published + in Hungarian at Budapest in 1880-1895. The fullest account of the + Revolution is given in Helfert, _Geschichte Oesterreichs_ (Leipzig, + 1869, &c.), representing the Austrian view, which may be compared with + that of C. Gracza, _History of the Hungarian War of Independence, + 1848-1849_ (in Hungarian) (Budapest, 1894). See also E. O. S., + _Hungary and its Revolutions, with a Memoir of Louis Kossuth_ (Bohn, + 1854); Horvath, _25 Jahre aus der Geschichte Ungarns, 1823-1848_ + (Leipzig, 1867); Maurice, _Revolutions of 1848-1849_; W. H. Stiles, + _Austria in 1848-1849_ (New York, 1852); Szemere, _Politische + Charakterskizzen: III. Kossuth_ (Hamburg, 1853); Louis Kossuth, + _Memoirs of my Exile_ (London, 1880); Pulszky, _Meine Zeit, mein + Leben_ (Pressburg, 1880); A. Somogyi, _Ludwig Kossuth_ (Berlin, 1894). + (J. W. He.) + + + + +KOSTER (or COSTER), LAURENS (c. 1370-1440), Dutch printer, whose claims +to be considered at least one of the inventors of the art (see +TYPOGRAPHY) have been recognized by many investigators. His real name +was Laurens Janssoen-Koster (i.e. sacristan) being merely the title +which he bore as an official of the great parish church of Haarlem. We +find him mentioned several times between 1417 and 1434 as a member of +the great council, as an assessor (_scabinus_), and as the city +treasurer. He probably perished in the plague that visited Haarlem in +1439-1440; his widow is mentioned in the latter year. His descendants, +through his daughter Lucia, can be traced down to 1724. + + See Peter Scriver, _Beschryvinge der Stad Harlem_ (Haarlem, 1628); + Scheltema, _Levensschets van Laurens d. Koster_ (Haarlem, 1834); Van + der Linde, _De Haarlemsche Costerlegende_ (Hague, 1870). + + + + +KOSTROMA, a government of central Russia, surrounded by those of +Vologda, Vyatka, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Vladimir and Yaroslav, lying mostly +on the left bank of the upper Volga. It has an area of 32,480 sq. m. Its +surface is generally undulating, with hilly tracts on the right bank of +the Volga, and extensive flat and marshy districts in the east. Rocks of +the Permian system predominate, though a small tract belongs to the +Jurassic, and both are overlain by thick deposits of Quaternary clays. +The soil in the east is for the most part sand or a sandy clay; a few +patches, however, are fertile black earth. Forests, yielding excellent +timber for ship-building, and in many cases still untouched, occupy 61% +of the area of the government. The export of timber is greatly +facilitated by the navigable tributaries of the Volga, e.g. the +Kostroma, Unzha, Neya, Vioksa and Vetluga. The climate is severe; frosts +of -22° F. are common in January, and the mean temperature of the year +is only 3°.1 (summer, 64°.5; winter, -13°.3). The population, which +numbered 1,176,000 in 1870 and 1,424,171 in 1897, is almost entirely +Russian. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,596,700. Out of +20,000,000 acres, 7,861,500 acres belong to private owners, 6,379,500 to +the peasant communities, 3,660,800 to the crown, and 1,243,000 to the +imperial family. Agriculture is at a low ebb; only 4,000,000 acres are +under crops (rye, oats, wheat and barley), and the yield of corn is +insufficient for the wants of the population. Flax and hops are +cultivated to an increasing extent. But market-gardening is of some +importance. Bee-keeping was formerly an important industry. The chief +articles of commerce are timber, fuel, pitch, tar, mushrooms, and wooden +wares for building and household purposes, which are largely +manufactured by the peasantry and exported to the steppe governments of +the lower Volga and the Don. Boat-building is also carried on. Some +other small industries, such as the manufacture of silver and copper +wares, leather goods, bast mats and sacks, lace and felt boots, are +carried on in the villages; but the trade in linen and towelling, +formerly the staple, is declining. There are cotton, flax and linen +mills, engineering and chemical works, distilleries, tanneries and paper +mills. The government of Kostroma is divided into twelve districts, the +chief towns of which, with populations in 1897, are Kostroma (q.v.), +Bui (2626), Chukhloma (2200), Galich (6182), Kineshma (7564), Kologriv +(2566), Makariev (6068), Nerekhta (3002), Soligalich (3420), Varnavin +(1140), Vetluga (5200) and Yurievets (4778). + + + + +KOSTROMA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, +230 m. N.N.E. of Moscow and 57 m. E.N.E. from Yaroslav, on the left bank +of the Volga, at the mouth of the navigable Kostroma, with suburbs on +the opposite side of the Volga. Pop. (1897), 41,268. Its glittering +gilded cupolas make it a conspicuous feature in the landscape as it +climbs up the terraced river bank. It is one of the oldest towns of +Russia, having been founded in 1152. Its fort was often the refuge of +the princes of Moscow during war, but the town was plundered more than +once by the Tatars. The cathedral, built in 1239 and rebuilt in 1773, is +situated in the kreml, or citadel, and is a fine monument of old Russian +architecture. In the centre of the town is a monument to the peasant +Ivan Susanin and the tsar Michael (1851). The former sacrificed his own +life in 1669 by leading the Poles astray in the forests in order to save +the life of his own tsar Michael Fedeorovich. On the opposite bank of +the Volga, close to the water's edge, stands the monastery of Ipatiyev, +founded in 1330, with a cathedral built in 1586, both associated with +the election of Tsar Michael (1669). Kostroma has been renowned since +the 16th century for its linen, which was exported to Holland, and the +manufacture of linen and linen-yarn is still kept up to some extent. The +town has also cotton-mills, tanneries, saw-mills, an iron-foundry and a +machine factory. It carries on an active trade--importing grain, and +exporting linen, linen yarn, leather, and especially timber and wooden +wares. + + + + +KÖSZEG (Ger. _Güns_), a town in the county of Vas, in Hungary, 173 m. W. +of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 7422. It is pleasantly situated in the +valley of the Güns, and is dominated towards the west by the peaks of +Altenhaus (2000 ft.) and of the Geschriebene Stein (2900 ft.). It +possesses a castle of Count Esterhazy, a modern Roman Catholic Church in +Gothic style and two convents. It has important cloth factories and a +lively trade in fruit and wine. The town has a special historical +interest for the heroic and successful defence of the fortress by +Nicolas Jurisics against a large army of Sultan Soliman, in July-August +1532, which frustrated the advance of the Turks to Vienna for that year. + +To the south-east of Köszeg, at the confluence of the Güns with the +Raab, is situated the town of Sárvár (pop. 3158), formerly fortified, +where in 1526 the first printing press in Hungary was established. + + + + +KOTAH, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area of +5684 sq. m. The country slopes gently northwards from the high +table-land of Malwa, and is drained by the Chambal with its tributaries, +all flowing in a northerly or north-easterly direction. The Mokandarra +range, from 1200 to 1600 ft. above sea-level, runs from south-east to +north-west. The Mokandarra Pass through these hills, in the +neighbourhood of the highest peak (1671 ft.), has been rendered +memorable by the passage of Colonel Monson's army on its disastrous +retreat in 1804. There are extensive game preserves, chiefly covered +with grass. In addition to the usual Indian grains, wheat, cotton, +poppy, and a little tobacco of good quality are cultivated. The +manufactures are very limited. Cotton fabrics are woven, but are being +rapidly superseded by the cheap products of Bombay and Manchaster. +Articles of wooden furniture are also constructed. The chief articles of +export are opium and grain; salt, cotton and woollen cloth are imported. + +Kotah is an offshoot from Bundi state, having been bestowed upon a +younger son of the Bundi raja by the emperor Shah Jahan in return for +services rendered him when the latter was in rebellion against his +father Jahangir. In 1897 a considerable portion of the area taken to +form Jhalawar (q.v.) in 1838 was restored to Kotah. In 1901 the +population was 544,879, showing a decrease of 24% due to the results of +famine. The estimated revenue is £206,000; tribute, £28,000. The maharao +Umad Singh, was born in 1873, and succeeded in 1889. He was educated at +the Mayo College, Ajmere, and became a major in the British army. A +continuation of the branch line of the Indian Midland railway from Goona +to Baran passes through Kotah, and it is also traversed by a new line, +opened in 1909. The state suffered from drought in 1896-1897, and again +more severely in 1899-1900. + +The town of Kotah is on the right bank of the Chambal. Pop. (1901), +33,679. It is surrounded and also divided into three parts by massive +walls, and contains an old and a new palace of the maharao and a number +of fine temples. Muslins are the chief articles of manufacture, but the +town has no great trade, and this and the unhealthiness of the site may +account for the decrease in population. + + + + +KOTAS (Kotar, Koter, Kohatur, Gauhatar), an aboriginal tribe of the +Nilgiri hills, India. They are a well-made people, of good features, +tall, and of a dull copper colour, but some of them are among the +fairest of the hill tribes. They recognize no caste among themselves, +but are divided into _keris_ (streets), and a man must marry outside his +_keri_. Their villages (of which there are seven) are large, averaging +from thirty to sixty huts. They are agriculturists and herdsmen, and the +only one of the hill tribes who practise industrial arts, being +excellent as carpenters, smiths, tanners and basket-makers. They do +menial work for the Todas, to whom they pay a tribute. They worship +ideal gods, which are not represented by any images. Their language is +an old and rude dialect of Kanarese. In 1901 they numbered 1267. + + + + +KOTKA, a seaport of Finland, in the province of Viborg, 35 m. by rail +from Kuivola junction on the Helsingfors railway, on an island of the +same name at the mouth of the Kymmene river. Pop. (1904), 7628. It is +the chief port for exports from and imports to east Finland and a centre +of the timber trade. + + + + +KOTRI, a town of British India, in Karachi district, Sind, situated on +the right bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901), 7617. Kotri is the junction of +branches of the North-Western railway, serving each bank of the Indus, +which is here crossed by a railway bridge. It was formerly the station +for Hyderabad, which lies across the Indus, and the headquarters of the +Indus steam flotilla, now abolished in consequence of the development of +railway facilities. Besides its importance as a railway centre, however, +Kotri still has a considerable general transit trade by river. + + + + +KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON (1761-1819), German dramatist, +was born on the 3rd of May, 1761, at Weimar. After attending the +gymnasium of his native town, he went in his sixteenth year to the +university of Jena, and afterwards studied about a year in Duisburg. In +1780 he completed his legal course and was admitted an advocate. Through +the influence of Graf Görtz, Prussian ambassador at the Russian court, +he became secretary of the governor-general of St Petersburg. In 1783 he +received the appointment of assessor to the high court of appeal in +Reval, where he married the daughter of a Russian lieutenant-general. He +was ennobled in 1785, and became president of the magistracy of the +province of Esthonia. In Reval he acquired considerable reputation by +his novels, _Die Leiden der Ortenbergischen Familie_ (1785) and +_Geschichte meines Vaters_ (1788), and still more by the plays _Adelheid +von Wulfingen_ (1789), _Menschenhass und Reue_ (1790) and _Die Indianer +in England_ (1790). The good impression produced by these works was, +however, almost effaced by a cynical dramatic satire, _Doktor Bahrdt mit +der eisernen Stirn_, which appeared in 1790 with the name of Knigge on +the title-page. After the death of his first wife Kotzebue retired from +the Russian service, and lived for a time in Paris and Mainz; he then +settled in 1795 on an estate which he had acquired near Reval and gave +himself up to literary work. Within a few years he published six volumes +of miscellaneous sketches and stories (_Die jüngsten Kinder meiner +Laune_, 1793-1796) and more than twenty plays, the majority of which +were translated into several European languages. In 1798 he accepted the +office of dramatist to the court theatre in Vienna, but owing to +differences with the actors he was soon obliged to resign. He now +returned to his native town, but as he was not on good terms with +Goethe, and had openly attacked the Romantic school, his position in +Weimar was not a pleasant one. He had thoughts of returning to St +Petersburg, and on his journey thither he was, for some unknown reason, +arrested at the frontier and transported to Siberia. Fortunately he had +written a comedy which flattered the vanity of the emperor Paul I.; he +was consequently speedily brought back, presented with an estate from +the crown lands of Livonia, and made director of the German theatre in +St Petersburg. He returned to Germany when the emperor Paul died, and +again settled in Weimar; he found it, however, as impossible as ever to +gain a footing in literary society, and turned his steps to Berlin, +where in association with Garlieb Merkel (1769-1850) he edited _Der +Freimütige_ (1803-1807) and began his _Almanach dramatischer Spiele_ +(1803-1820). Towards the end of 1806 he was once more in Russia, and in +the security of his estate in Esthonia wrote many satirical articles +against Napoleon in his journals _Die Biene_ and _Die Grille_. As +councillor of state he was attached in 1816 to the department for +foreign affairs in St Petersburg, and in 1817 went to Germany as a kind +of spy in the service of Russia, with a salary of 15,000 roubles. In a +weekly journal (_Literarisches Wochenblatt_) which he published in +Weimar he scoffed at the pretensions of those Germans who demanded free +institutions, and became an object of such general dislike that he was +obliged to move to Mannheim. He was especially detested by the young +enthusiasts for liberty, and one of them, Karl Ludwig Sand, a +theological student, stabbed him, in Mannheim, on the 23rd of March +1819. Sand was executed, and the government made his crime an excuse for +placing the universities under strict supervision. + +Besides his plays, Kotzebue wrote several historical works, which, +however, are too one-sided and prejudiced to have much value. Of more +interest are his autobiographical writings, _Meine Flucht nach Paris im +Winter_ 1790 (1791), _Über meinen Aufenthalt in Wien_ (1799), _Das +merkwürdigste Jahr meines Lebens_ (1801), _Erinnerungen aus Paris_ +(1804), and _Erinnerungen von meiner Reise aus Liefland nach Rom und +Neapel_ (1805). As a dramatist he was extraordinarily prolific, his +plays numbering over 200; his popularity, not merely on the German, but +on the European stage, was unprecedented. His success, however, was due +less to any conspicuous literary or poetic ability than to an +extraordinary facility in the invention of effective situations; he +possessed, as few German playwrights before or since, the unerring +instinct for the theatre; and his influence on the _technique_ of the +modern drama from Scribe to Sardou and from Bauernfeld to Sudermann is +unmistakable. Kotzebue is to be seen to best advantage in his comedies, +such as _Der Wildfang_, _Die beiden Klingsberg_ and _Die deutschen +Kleinstädter_, which contain admirable genre pictures of German life. +These plays held the stage in Germany long after the once famous +_Menschenhass und Reue_ (known in England as _The Stranger_), _Graf +Benjowsky_, or ambitious exotic tragedies like _Die Sonnenjungfrau_ and +_Die Spanier in Peru_ (which Sheridan adapted as _Pizarro_) were +forgotten. + + Two collections of Kotzebue's dramas were published during his + lifetime: _Schauspiele_ (5 vols., 1797); _Neue Schauspiele_ (23 vols., + 1798-1820). His _Sämtliche dramatische Werke_ appeared in 44 vols., in + 1827-1829, and again, under the title _Theater_, in 40 vols., in + 1840-1841. A selection of his plays in 10 vols, appeared at Leipzig in + 1867-1868. Cp. H. Döring, _A. von Kotzebues Leben_ (1830); W. von + Kotzebue, _A. von Kotzebue_ (1881); Ch. Rabany, _Kotzebue, sa vie et + son temps_ (1893); W. Sellier, _Kotzebue in England_ (1901). + + + + +KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON (1787-1846), Russian navigator, second son of the +foregoing, was born at Reval on the 30th of December 1787. After being +educated at the St Petersburg school of cadets, he accompanied +Krusenstern on his voyage of 1803-1806. After his promotion to +lieutenant Kotzebue was placed in command of an expedition, fitted out +at the expense of the imperial chancellor, Count Rumantsoff, in the brig +"Rurick." In this vessel, with only twenty-seven men, Kotzebue set out +on the 30th of July 1815 to find a passage across the Arctic Ocean and +explore the less-known parts of Oceania. Proceeding by Cape Horn, he +discovered the Romanzov, Rurik and Krusenstern Islands, then made for +Kamchatka, and in the middle of July proceeded northward, coasting along +the north-west coast of America, and discovering and naming Kotzebue +Gulf or Sound and Krusenstern Cape. Returning by the coast of Asia, he +again sailed to the south, sojourned for three weeks at the Sandwich +Islands, and on the 1st of January 1817 discovered New Year Island. +After some further cruising in the Pacific he again proceeded north, but +a severe attack of illness compelling him to return to Europe, he +reached the Neva on the 3rd of August 1818, bringing home a large +collection of previously unknown plants and much new ethnological +information. In 1823 Kotzebue, now a captain, was entrusted with the +command of an expedition in two ships of war, the main object of which +was to take reinforcements to Kamchatka. There was, however, a staff of +scientists on board, who collected much valuable information and +material in geography, ethnography and natural history. The expedition, +proceeding by Cape Horn, visited the Radak and Society Islands, and +reached Petropavlovsk in July 1824. Many positions along the coast were +rectified, the Navigator islands visited, and several discoveries made. +The expedition returned by the Marianna, Philippine, New Caledonia and +Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on the 10th of July 1826. There are +English translations of both Kotzebue's narratives: _A Voyage of +Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's Straits for the Purpose of +exploring a North-East Passage, undertaken in the Years 1815-1818_ (3 +vols. 1821), and _A New Voyage Round the World in the Years 1823-1826_ +(1830). Three years after his return from his second voyage, Kotzebue +died at Reval on the 15th of February 1846. + + + + +KOUMISS, milk-wine, or milk brandy, a fermented alcoholic beverage +prepared from milk. It is of very ancient origin, and according to +Herodotus was known to the Scythians. The name is said to be derived +from an ancient Asiatic tribe, the Kumanes or Komans. It is one of the +staple articles of diet of the Siberian and Caucasian races, but of late +years it has also been manufactured on a considerable scale in western +Europe, on account of its valuable medicinal properties. It is generally +made from mares' or camels' milk by a process of fermentation set up by +the addition to the fresh milk of a small quantity of the finished +article. This fermentation, which appears to be of a symbiotic nature, +being dependent on the action of two distinct types of organisms, the +one a fission fungus, the other a true yeast, eventuates in the +conversion of a part of the milk sugar into lactic acid and alcohol. +Koumiss generally contains 1 to 2% of alcohol, 0.5 to 1.5% of lactic +acid, 2 to 4% of milk sugar and 1 to 2% of fat. _Kefir_ is similar to +koumiss, but is usually prepared from cows' milk, and the fermentation +is brought about by the so-called Kefir Grains (derived from a plant). + + + + +KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS (1814-1883), Greek statesman, whose name is +commonly spelt Coumoundouros, was born in 1814. His studies at the +university of Athens were repeatedly interrupted for lack of means, and +he began to earn his living as a clerk. He took part in the Cretan +insurrection of 1841, and in the demonstration of 1843, by which the +Greek constitution was obtained from King Otto, he was secretary to +General Theodoraki Grivas. He then settled down to the bar at Kalamata +in Messenia, where he married a lady belonging to the Mavromichalis +family. He was elected to the chamber in 1851, and four years later his +eloquence and ability had secured the president's chair for him. He +became minister of finance in 1856, and again in 1857 and 1859. He +adhered to the moderate wing of the Liberal party until the revolution +of 1862 and the dethronement of King Otto, when he was minister of +justice in the provincial government. He was twice minister of the +interior under Kanaris, in 1864 and in 1865. In March 1865 he became +prime minister, and he formed several subsequent administrations in the +intervals of the ascendancy of Tricoupi. During the Cretan insurrection +of 1866-68 he made active warlike preparations against Turkey, but was +dismissed by King George, who recognized that Greece could not act +without the support of the Powers. He was again premier at the time of +the outbreak of the insurrection in Thessaly in January 1878, and +supported by Delyanni as minister of foreign affairs he sent an army of +10,000 men to help the insurgents against Turkey. The troops were +recalled on the understanding that Greece should be represented at the +Congress of Berlin. In October 1880 the fall of the Tricoupi ministry +restored him to power, when he resumed his warlike policy, but repeated +appeals to the courts of Europe yielded little practical result, and +Koumoundouros was obliged to reduce his territorial demands and to +accept the limited cessions in Thessaly and Epirus, which were carried +out in July 1881. His ministry was overturned in 1882 by the votes of +the new Thessalian deputies, who were dissatisfied with the +administrative arrangements of the new province, and he died at Athens +on the 9th of March 1883. + + + + +KOUSSO (KOSSO or CUSSO), a drug which consists of the panicles of the +pistillate flowers of _Brayera anthelmintica_, a handsome rosaceous tree +60 ft. high, growing throughout the table-land of Abyssinia, at an +elevation of 3000 to 8000 ft. above the sea-level. The drug as imported +is in the form of cylindrical rolls, about 18 in. in length and 2 in. in +diameter, and comprises the entire inflorescence or panicle kept in form +by a band wound transversely round it. The active principle is koussin +or kosin, C31H38O10, which is soluble in alcohol and alkalis, and may be +given in doses of thirty grains. Kousso is also used in the form of an +unstrained infusion of ¼ to ½ oz. of the coarsely powdered flowers, +which are swallowed with the liquid. It is considered to be an effectual +vermifuge for _Taenia solium_. In its anthelmintic action it is nearly +allied to male fern, but it is much inferior to that drug and is very +rarely used in Great Britain. + + + + +KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE (1850-1891), Russian mathematician, daughter of +General Corvin-Krukovsky, was born at Moscow on the 15th of January +1850. As a young girl she was fired by the aspiration after intellectual +liberty that animated so many young Russian women at that period, and +drove them to study at foreign universities, since their own were closed +to them. This led her, in 1868, to contract one of those conventional +marriages in vogue at the time, with a young student, Waldemar +Kovalevsky, and the two went together to Germany to continue their +studies. In 1869 she went to Heidelberg, where she studied under H. von +Helmholtz, G. R. Kirchhoff, L. Königsberger and P. du Bois-Reymond, and +from 1871-1874 read privately with Karl Weierstrass at Berlin, as the +public lectures were not then open to women. In 1874 the university of +Göttingen granted her a degree _in absentia_, excusing her from the oral +examination on account of the remarkable excellence of the three +dissertations sent in, one of which, on the theory of partial +differential equations, is one of her most remarkable works. Another was +an elucidation of P. S. Laplace's mathematical theory of the form of +Saturn's rings. Soon after this she returned to Russia with her husband, +who was appointed professor of palaeontology at Moscow, where he died in +1883. At this time Madame Kovalevsky was at Stockholm, where Gustaf +Mittag Leffler, also a pupil of Weierstrass, who had been recently +appointed to the chair of mathematics at the newly founded university, +had procured for her a post as lecturer. She discharged her duties so +successfully that in 1884 she was appointed full professor. This post +she held till her death on the 10th of February 1891. In 1888 she +achieved the greatest of her successes, gaining the Prix Bordin offered +by the Paris Academy. The problem set was "to perfect in one important +point the theory of the movement of a solid body round an immovable +point," and her solution added a result of the highest interest to those +transmitted to us by Leonhard Euler and J. L. Lagrange. So remarkable +was this work that the value of the prize was doubled as a recognition +of unusual merit. Unfortunately Madame Kovalevsky did not live to reap +the full reward of her labours, for she died just as she had attained +the height of her fame and had won recognition even in her own country +by election to membership of the St Petersburg Academy of Science. + + See E. de Kerbedz, "Sophie de Kowalevski," _Benidiconti del circolo + mathematico di Palermo_ (1891); the obituary notice by G. Mittag + Leffler in the _Acta mathematica_, vol. xvi.; and J. C. Poggendorff, + _Biographisch-literarisches Handwörterbuch_. + + + + +KOVNO (in Lithuanian _Kauna_), a government of north-western Russia, +bounded N. by the governments of Courland and Vitebsk, S.E. by that of +Vilna, and S. and S.W. by Suwalki and the province of East Prussia, a +narrow strip touching the Baltic near Memel. It has an area of 15,687 +sq. m. The level uniformity of its surface is broken only by two low +ridges which nowhere rise above 800 ft. The geological character is +varied, the Silurian, Devonian, Jurassic and Tertiary systems being all +represented; the Devonian is that which occurs most frequently, and all +are covered with Quaternary boulder-clays. The soil is either a sandy +clay or a more fertile kind of black earth. The government is drained by +the Niemen, Windau, Courland Aa and Dvina, which have navigable +tributaries. In the flat depressions covered with boulder-clays there +are many lakes and marshes, while forests occupy about 25½% of the +surface. The climate is comparatively mild, the mean temperature at the +city of Kovno being 44°F. The population was 1,156,040 in 1870, and +1,553,244 in 1897. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,683,600. It is +varied, consisting of Lithuanians proper and Zhmuds (together 74%), Jews +(14%), Germans (2½%), Poles (9%), with Letts and Russians; 76.6% are +Roman Catholics, 13.7% Jews, 4.5% Protestants, and 5% belong to the +Greek Church. Of the total 788,102 were women in 1897 and 147,878 were +classed as urban. The principal occupation of the inhabitants is +agriculture, 63% of the surface being under crops; both grain (wheat, +rye, oats and barley) and potatoes are exported. Flax is cultivated and +the linseed exported. Dairying flourishes, and horse and cattle breeding +are attracting attention. Fishing is important, and the navigation on +the rivers is brisk. A variety of petty domestic industries are carried +on by the Jews, but only to a slight extent in the villages. As many as +18,000 to 24,000 men are compelled every year to migrate in search of +work. The factories consist principally of distilleries, tobacco and +steam flour-mills, and hardware manufactories. Trade, especially the +transit trade, is brisk, from the situation of the government on the +Prussian frontier, the custom-houses of Yerburg and Tauroggen being +amongst the most important in Russia. The chief towns of the seven +districts into which the government is divided, with their populations +in 1897, are Kovno (q.v.), Novo-Alexandrovsk (6370), Ponevyezh (13,044), +Rosieny (7455), Shavli (15,914), Telshi (6215) and Vilkemir (13,509). + +The territory which now constitutes the government of Kovno was formerly +known as Samogitia and formed part of Lithuania. During the 13th, 14th +and 15th centuries the Livonian and Teutonic Knights continually invaded +and plundered it, especially the western part, which was peopled with +Zhmuds. In 1569 it was annexed, along with the rest of the principality +of Lithuania, to Poland; and it suffered very much from the wars of +Russia with Sweden and Poland, and from the invasion of Charles XII. in +1701. In 1795 the principality of Lithuania was annexed to Russia, and +until 1872, when the government of Kovno was constituted, the territory +now forming it was a part of the government of Vilna. + + + + +KOVNO, a town and fortress of Russia, capital of the government of the +same name, stands at the confluence of the Niemen with the Viliya, 550 +m. S.W. of St Petersburg by rail, and 55 m. from the Prussian frontier. +Pop. (1863), 23,937; (1903), 73,743, nearly one-half being Jews. It +consists of a cramped Old Town and a New Town stretching up the side of +the Niemen. It is a first-class fortress, being surrounded at a mean +distance of 2½ m. by a girdle of forts, eleven in number. The town lies +for the most part in the fork and is guarded by three forts in the +direction of Vilna, one covers the Vilna bridge, while the southern +approaches are protected by seven. Kovno commands and bars the railway +Vilna-Eydtkuhnen. Its factories produce nails, wire-work and other metal +goods, mead and bone-meal. It is an important entrepôt for timber, +cereals, flax, flour, spirits, bone-meal, fish, coal and building-stone +passing from and to Prussia. The city possesses some 15th-century +churches. It was founded in the 11th century; and from 1384 to 1398 +belonged to the Teutonic Knights. Tsar Alexis of Russia plundered and +burnt it in 1655. Here the Russians defeated the Poles on the 26th of +June 1831. + + + + +KOVROV, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir, 40 m. N.E. of +the city of Vladimir by the railway from Moscow to Nizhniy-Novgorod, and +on the Klyazma River. It has railway-carriage works, cotton mills, steam +flour mills, tallow works and quarries of limestone, and carries on an +active trade in the export of wooden wares and in the import of grain, +salt and fish, brought from the Volga governments. Pop. (1890), 6600; +(1900), 16,806. + + + + +KOWTOW, or KOTOU, the Chinese ceremonial act of prostration as a sign of +homage, submission, or worship. The word is formed from _ko_, knock, and +_tou_, head. To the emperor, the "kowtow" is performed by kneeling three +times, each act accompanied by touching the ground with the forehead. + + + + +KOZLOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, on the Lyesnoi +Voronezh River, 45 m. W.N.W. of the city of Tambov by rail. Pop. (1900), +41,555. Kozlov had its origin in a small monastery, founded in the +forest in 1627; nine years later, an earthwork was raised close by, for +the protection of the Russian frontier against the Tatars. Situated in a +very fertile country, on the highway to Astrakhan and at the head of +water communication with the Don, the town soon became a centre of +trade; as the junction of the railways leading to the Sea of Azov, to +Tsaritsyn on the lower Volga, to Saratov and to Orel, its importance has +recently been still further increased. Its export of cattle, grain, +meat, eggs (22,000,000), tallow, hides, &c., is steadily growing, and it +possesses factories, flour mills, tallow works, distilleries, tanneries +and glue works. + + + + +KRAAL, also spelt _craal_, _kraul_, &c. (South African Dutch, derived +possibly from a native African word, but probably from the Spanish +_corral_, Portuguese _curral_, an enclosure for horses, cattle and the +like), in South and Central Africa, a native village surrounded by a +palisade, mud wall or other fencing roughly circular in form; by +transference, the community living within the enclosure. Folds for +animals and enclosures made specially for defensive purposes are also +called kraals. + + + + +KRAFFT (or KRAFT), ADAM (c. 1455-1507), German sculptor, of the +Nuremberg school, was born, probably at Nuremberg, about the middle of +the 15th century, and died, some say in the hospital, at Schwabach, +about 1507. He seems to have emerged as sculptor about 1490, the date of +the seven reliefs of scenes from the life of Christ, which, like almost +every other specimen of his work, are at Nuremberg. The date of his last +work, an Entombment, with fifteen life-size figures, in the Holzschuher +chapel of the St John's cemetery, is 1507. Besides these, Krafft's chief +works are several monumental reliefs in the various churches of +Nuremberg; he produced the great Schreyer monument (1492) for St +Sebald's at Nuremberg, a skilful though mannered piece of sculpture +opposite the Rathaus, with realistic figures in the costume of the time, +carved in a way more suited to wood than stone, and too pictorial in +effect; Christ bearing the Cross, above the altar of the same church; +and various works made for public and private buildings, as the relief +over the door of the Wagehaus, a St George and the Dragon, several +Madonnas, and some purely decorative pieces, as coats of arms. His +masterpiece is perhaps the magnificent tabernacle, 62 ft. high, in the +church of St Laurence (1493-1500). He also made the great tabernacle for +the Host, 80 ft. high, covered with statuettes, in Ulm Cathedral, and +the very spirited "Stations of the Cross" on the road to the Nuremberg +cemetery. + + See _Adam Krafft und seine Schule_, by Friedrich Wanderer (1869); + _Adam Krafft und die Künstler seiner Zeit_, by Berthold Daun (1897); + Albert Gümbel in _Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft_, Bd. xxv. Heft 5, + 1902. + + + + +KRAGUYEVATS (also written KRAGUIEVATZ and KRAGUJEVAC), the capital of +the Kraguyevats department of Servia; situated 59 m. S.S.W. of Belgrade, +in a valley of the Shumadia, or "forest-land," and on the Lepenitsa, a +small stream flowing north-east to join the Morava. On the opposite bank +stands the picturesque hamlet of Obilichevo, with a large powder +factory. Kraguyevats itself is the main arsenal of Servia, and +possesses an iron-foundry and a steam flour-mill. It is the seat of the +district prefecture, of a tribunal, of a fine library, and of a large +garrison. It boasts the finest college building and the finest modern +cathedral (in Byzantine style) in Servia. In the first years of Servia's +autonomy under Prince Milosh, it was the residence of the prince and the +seat of government (1818-1839). Even later, between 1868 and 1880, the +national assembly (_Narodna Skupshtina_) usually met there. In 1885 it +was connected by a branch line (Kraguyevats-Lapovo) with the principal +railway (Belgrade-Nish), and thenceforward the prosperity of the town +steadily increased. Pop. (1900), 14,160. + + + + +KRAKATOA (KRAKATAO, KRAKATAU), a small volcanic island in Sunda Strait, +between the islands of Java and Sumatra, celebrated for its eruption in +1883, one of the most stupendous ever recorded. At some early period a +large volcano rose in the centre of the tract where the Sunda Strait now +runs. Long before any European had visited these waters an explosion +took place by which the mountain was so completely blown away that only +the outer portions of its base were left as a broken ring of islands. +Subsequent eruptions gradually built up a new series of small cones +within the great crater ring. Of these the most important rose to a +height of 2623 ft. above the sea and formed the peak of the volcanic +island of Krakatoa. But compared with the great neighbouring volcanoes +of Java and Sumatra, the islets of the Sunda Strait were comparatively +unknown. Krakatoa was uninhabited, and no satisfactory map or chart of +it had been made. In 1680 it appears to have been in eruption, when +great earthquakes took place and large quantities of pumice were +ejected. But the effects of this disturbance had been so concealed by +the subsequent spread of tropical vegetation that the very occurrence of +the eruption had sometimes been called in question. At last, about 1877, +earthquakes began to occur frequently in the Sunda Strait and continued +for the next few years. In 1883 the manifestations of subterranean +commotion became more decided, for in May Krakatoa broke out in +eruption. For some time the efforts of the volcano appear to have +consisted mainly in the discharge of pumice and dust, with the usual +accompaniment of detonations and earthquakes. But on the 26th of August +a succession of paroxysmal explosions began which lasted till the +morning of the 28th. The four most violent took place on the morning of +the 27th. The whole of the northern and lower portion of the island of +Krakatoa, lying within the original crater ring of prehistoric times, +was blown away; the northern part of the cone of Rakata almost entirely +disappeared, leaving a vertical cliff which laid bare the inner +structure of that volcano. Instead of the volcanic island which had +previously existed, and rose from 300 to 1400 ft. above the sea, there +was now left a submarine cavity, the bottom of which was here and there +more than 1000 ft. below the sea-level. This prodigious evisceration was +the result of successive violent explosions of the superheated vapour +absorbed in the molten magma within the crust of the earth. The vigour +and repetition of these explosions, it has been suggested, may have been +caused by sudden inrushes of the water of the ocean as the throat of the +volcano was cleared and the crater ring was lowered and ruptured. The +access of large bodies of cold water to the top of the column of molten +lava would probably give rise at once to some minor explosions, and then +to a chilling of the surface of the lava and a consequent temporary +diminution or even cessation of the volcanic eructations. But until the +pent-up water-vapour in the lava below had found relief it would only +gather strength until it was able to burst through the chilled crust and +overlying water, and to hurl a vast mass of cooled lava, pumice and dust +into the air. + +The amount of material discharged during the two days of paroxysmal +energy was enormous, though there are no satisfactory data for even +approximately estimating it. A large cavity was formed where the island +had previously stood, and the sea-bottom around this crater was covered +with a wide and thick sheet of fragmentary materials. Some of the +surrounding islands received such a thick accumulation of ejected stones +and dust as to bury their forests and greatly to increase the area of +the land. So much was the sea filled up that a number of new islands +rose above its level. But a vast body of the fine dust was carried far +and wide by aerial currents, while the floating pumice was transported +for many hundreds of miles on the surface of the ocean. At Batavia, 100 +m. from the centre of eruption, the sky was darkened by the quantity of +ashes borne across it, and lamps had to be used in the houses at midday. +The darkness even reached as far as Bandong, a distance of nearly 150 +miles. It was computed that the column of stones, dust and ashes +projected from the volcano shot up into the air for a height of 17 m. or +more. The finer particles coming into the higher layers of the +atmosphere were diffused over a large part of the surface of the earth, +and showed their presence by the brilliant sunset glows to which they +gave rise. Within the tropics they were at first borne along by +air-currents at an estimated rate of about 73 m. an hour from east to +west, until within a period of six weeks they were diffused over nearly +the whole space between the latitudes 30° N. and 45° S. Eventually they +spread northwards and southwards and were carried over North and South +America, Europe, Asia, South Africa and Australasia. In the Old World +they spread from the north of Scandinavia to the Cape of Good Hope. + +Another remarkable result of this eruption was the world-wide +disturbance of the atmosphere. The culminating paroxysm on the morning +of the 27th of August gave rise to an atmospheric wave or oscillation, +which, travelling outwards from the volcano as a centre, became a great +circle at 180° from its point of origin, whence it continued travelling +onwards and contracting till it reached a node at the antipodes to +Krakatoa. It was then reflected or reproduced, travelling backwards +again to the volcano, whence it once more returned in its original +direction. "In this manner its repetition was observed not fewer than +seven times at many of the stations, four passages having been those of +the wave travelling from Krakatoa, and three those of the wave +travelling from its antipodes, subsequently to which its traces were +lost" (Sir R. Strachey). + +The actual sounds of the volcanic explosions were heard over a vast +area, especially towards the west. Thus they were noticed at Rodriguez, +nearly 3000 English miles away, at Bangkok (1413 m.), in the Philippine +Islands (about 1450 m.), in Ceylon (2058 m.) and in West and South +Australia (from 1300 to 2250 m.). On no other occasion have sound-waves +ever been perceived at anything like the extreme distances to which the +detonations of Krakatoa reached. + +Not less manifest and far more serious were the effects of the +successive explosions of the volcano upon the waters of the ocean. A +succession of waves was generated which appear to have been of two +kinds, long waves with periods of more than an hour, and shorter but +higher waves, with irregular and much briefer intervals. The greatest +disturbance, probably resulting from a combination of both kinds of +waves, reached a height of about 50 ft. The destruction caused by the +rush of such a body of sea-water along the coasts and low islands was +enormous. All vessels lying in harbour or near the shore were stranded, +the towns, villages and settlements close to the sea were either at +once, or by successive inundations, entirely destroyed, and more than +36,000 human beings perished. The sea-waves travelled to vast distances +from the centre of propagation. The long wave reached Cape Horn (7818 +geographical miles) and possibly the English Channel (11,040 m.). The +shorter waves reached Ceylon and perhaps Mauritius (2900 m.). + + See R. D. M. Verbeek, _Krakatau_ (Batavia, 1886); "The Eruption of + Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena," _Report of the Krakatoa Committee + of the Royal Society_ (London, 1888). + + + + +KRAKEN, in Norwegian folk-lore, a sea-monster, believed to haunt the +coasts of Norway. It was described in 1752 by the Norwegian bishop +Pontoppidan as having a back about a mile and a half round and a body +which showed above the sea like an island, and its arms were long enough +to enclose the largest ship. The further assertion that the kraken +darkened the water around it by an excretion suggests that the myth was +based on the appearance of some gigantic cuttle-fish. + + See J. Gibson, _Monsters of the Sea_ (1887); A. S. Packard, "Colossal + Cuttle-fishes," _American Naturalist_ (Salem, 1873), vol. vii.; A. E. + Verrill, "The Colossal Cephalopods of the Western Atlantic," in + _American Naturalist_ (Salem, 1875), vol. ix.; and "Gigantic Squids," + in _Trans. of Connecticut Academy_ (1879), vol. v. + + + + +KRALYEVO (sometimes written KRALJEVO or KRALIEVO), a city of Servia, and +capital of a department bearing the same name. Kralyevo is built beside +the river Ibar, 4 m. W. of its confluence with the Servian Morava; and +in the midst of an upland valley, between the Kotlenik Mountains, on the +north, and the Stolovi Mountains, on the south. Formerly known as +Karanovats, Kralyevo received its present name, signifying "the King's +Town," from King Milan (1868-1889), who also made it a bishopric, +instead of Chachak, 22 m. W. by N. Kralyevo is a garrison town, with a +prefecture, court of first instance, and an agricultural school. But by +far its most interesting feature is the Coronation church belonging to +Jicha monastery. Here six or seven kings are said to have been crowned. +The church is Byzantine in style, and has been partially restored; but +the main tower dates from the year 1210, when it was founded by St Sava, +the patron saint of Servia. Pop. (1900), about 3600. + +The famous monastery of Studenitsa, 24 m. S. by W. of Kralyevo, stands +high up among the south-western mountains, overlooking the Studenitsa, a +tributary of the Ibar. It consists of a group of old-fashioned timber +and plaster buildings, a tall belfry, and a diminutive church of white +marble, founded in 1190 by King Stephen Nemanya, who himself turned monk +and was canonized as St Simeon. The carvings round the north, south and +west doors have been partially defaced by the Turks. The inner walls are +decorated with Byzantine frescoes, among which only a painting of the +Last Supper, and the portraits of five saints, remain unrestored. The +dome and narthex are modern additions. Besides the silver shrine of St +Simeon, many gold and silver ornaments, church vessels and old +manuscripts, there are a set of vestments and a reliquary, believed by +the monks to have been the property of St Sava. + + + + +KRANTZ (or CRANTZ), ALBERT (c. 1450-1517), German historian, was a +native of Hamburg. He studied law, theology and history at Rostock and +Cologne, and after travelling through western and southern Europe was +appointed professor, first of philosophy and subsequently of theology, +in the university of Rostock, of which he was rector in 1482. In 1493 he +returned to Hamburg as theological lecturer, canon and prebendary in the +cathedral. By the senate of Hamburg he was employed on more than one +diplomatic mission abroad, and in 1500 he was chosen by the king of +Denmark and the duke of Holstein as arbiter in their dispute regarding +the province of Dithmarschen. As dean of the cathedral chapter, to which +office he was appointed in 1508, Krantz applied himself with zeal to the +reform of ecclesiastical abuses, but, though opposed to various +corruptions connected with church discipline, he had little sympathy +with the drastic measures of Wycliffe or Huss. With Luther's protest +against the abuse of Indulgences he was in general sympathy, but with +the reformer's later attitude he could not agree. When, on his +death-bed, he heard of the ninety-five theses, he is said, on good +authority, to have exclaimed: "Brother, Brother, go into thy cell and +say, God have mercy upon me!" Krantz died on the 7th of December 1517. + + Krantz was the author of a number of historical works which for the + period when they were written are characterized by exceptional + impartiality and research. The principal of these are _Chronica + regnorum aquilonarium Daniae, Sueciae, et Norvagiae_ (Strassburg, + 1546); _Vandalia, sive Historia de Vandalorum vera origine_, &c. + (Cologne, 1518); _Saxonia_ (1520); and _Metropolis, sive Historia de + ecclesiis sub Carolo Magno in Saxonia_ (Basel, 1548). See life by N. + Wilckens (Hamburg, 1722). + + + + +KRASNOVODSK, a seaport of Russian Transcaspia, on the N. shore of +Balkhan or Krasnovodsk Bay, on the S. side of the Caspian Sea, opposite +to Baku, and at 69 ft. below sea-level. Pop. (1897), 6359. It is +defended by a fort. Here begins the Transcaspian railway to Merv and +Bokhara. There is a fishing industry, and salt and sulphur are +obtained. Krasnovodsk, which is the capital of the Transcaspian +province, was founded in 1869. + + + + +KRASNOYARSK, a town of Eastern Siberia, capital of the government of +Yeniseisk, on the left bank of the Yenisei River, at its confluence with +the Kacha, and on the highway from Moscow to Irkutsk, 670 m. by rail +N.W. from the latter. Pop. (1900), 33,337. It has a municipal museum and +a railway technical school. It was founded by Cossacks in 1628, and +during the early years of its existence it was more than once besieged +by the Tatars and the Kirghiz. Its commercial importance depends +entirely upon the gold-washings of the Yeniseisk district. Brick-making, +soap-boiling, tanning and iron-founding are carried on. The climate is +very cold, but dry. The Yenisei River is frozen here for 160 days in the +year. + + + + +KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS (1812-1887), Polish novelist and +miscellaneous writer, was born at Warsaw on the 28th of July 1812, of an +aristocratic family. He showed a precocious talent for authorship, +beginning his literary career with a volume of sketches from society as +early as 1829, and for more than half a century scarcely ever +intermitting his literary production, except during a period of +imprisonment upon a charge of complicity in the insurrection of 1831. He +narrowly escaped being sent to Siberia, but, rescued by the intercession +of powerful friends, he settled upon his landed property near Grodno, +and devoted himself to literature with such industry that a mere +selection from his fiction alone, reprinted at Lemberg from 1871 to +1875, occupies 102 volumes. He was thus the most conspicuous literary +figure of his day in Poland. His extreme fertility was suggestive of +haste and carelessness, but he declared that the contrivance of his plot +gave him three times as much trouble as the composition of his novel. +Apart from his gifts as a story-teller, he did not possess extraordinary +mental powers; the "profound thoughts" culled from his writings by his +admiring biographer Bohdanowicz are for the most part mere truisms. His +copious invention is nevertheless combined with real truth to nature, +especially evinced in the beautiful little story of _Jermola the Potter_ +(1857), from which George Eliot appears to have derived the idea of +_Silas Marner_, though she can only have known it at second hand. +Compared with the exquisite art of _Silas Marner_, _Jermola_ appears +rude and unskilful, but it is not on this account the less touching in +its fidelity to the tenderest elements of human nature. Kraszewski's +literary activity falls into two well-marked epochs, the earlier when, +residing upon his estate, he produced romances like _Jermola_, _Ulana_ +(1843), _Kordecki_ (1852), devoid of any special tendency, and that +after 1863, when the suspicions of the Russian government compelled him +to settle in Dresden. To this period belong several political novels +published under the pseudonym of _Boleslawita_, historical fictions such +as _Countess Cosel_, and the "culture" romances _Morituri_ (1874-1875) +and _Resurrecturi_ (1876), by which he is perhaps best known out of his +own country. In 1884 he was accused of plotting against the German +government and sentenced to seven years' imprisonment in a fortress, but +was released in 1886, and withdrew to Geneva, where he died on the 19th +of March 1887. His remains were brought to Poland and interred at +Cracow. Kraszewski was also a poet and dramatist; his most celebrated +poem is his epic _Anafielas_ (3 vols., 1840-1843) on the history of +Lithuania. He was indefatigable as literary critic, editor and +translator, wrote several historical works, and was conspicuous as a +restorer of the study of national archaeology in Poland. Among his most +valuable works were _Litwa_ (Warsaw, 2 vols., 1847-1850), a collection +of Lithuanian antiquities; and an aesthetic history of Poland (Posen, 3 +vols., 1873-1875). (R. G.) + + + + +KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1781-1832), German philosopher, was +born at Eisenberg on the 4th of May 1781, and died at Munich on the 27th +of September 1832. Educated at first at Eisenberg, he proceeded to Jena, +where he studied philosophy under Hegel and Fichte and became +_privatdozent_ in 1802. In the same year, with characteristic +imprudence, he married a wife without dowry. Two years after, lack of +pupils compelled him to move to Rudolstadt and later to Dresden, where +he gave lessons in music. In 1805 his ideal of a universal world-society +led him to join the Freemasons, whose principles seemed to tend in the +direction he desired. He published two books on Freemasonry, _Die drei +ältesten Kunsturkunden der Freimaurerbrüderschaft_ and _Höhere +Vergeistigung der echt überlieferten Grundsymbole der Freimaurerei_, but +his opinions drew upon him the opposition of the Masons. He lived for a +time in Berlin and became a _privatdozent_, but was unable to obtain a +professorship. He therefore proceeded to Göttingen and afterwards to +Munich, where he died of apoplexy at the very moment when the influence +of Franz von Baader had at last obtained a position for him. + +One of the so-called "Philosophers of Identity," Krause endeavoured to +reconcile the ideas of a God known by Faith or Conscience and the world +as known to sense. God, intuitively known by Conscience, is not a +personality (which implies limitations), but an all-inclusive essence +(_Wesen_), which contains the Universe within itself. This system he +called _Panentheism_, a combination of Theism and Pantheism. His theory +of the world and of humanity is universal and idealistic. The world +itself and mankind, its highest component, constitute an organism +(_Gliedbau_), and the universe is therefore a divine organism +(_Wesengliedbau_). The process of development is the formation of higher +unities, and the last stage is the identification of the world with God. +The form which this development takes, according to Krause, is Right or +the Perfect Law. Right is not the sum of the conditions of external +liberty but of absolute liberty, and embraces all the existence of +nature, reason and humanity. It is the mode, or rationale, of all +progress from the lower to the highest unity or identification. By its +operation the reality of nature and reason rises into the reality of +humanity. God is the reality which transcends and includes both nature +and humanity. Right is, therefore, at once the dynamic and the safeguard +of progress. Ideal society results from the widening of the organic +operation of this principle from the individual man to small groups of +men, and finally to mankind as a whole. The differences disappear as the +inherent identity of structure predominates in an ever-increasing +degree, and in the final unity Man is merged in God. + +The comparatively small area of Krause's influence was due partly to the +overshadowing brilliance of Hegel, and partly to two intrinsic defects. +The spirit of his thought is mystical and by no means easy to follow, +and this difficulty is accentuated, even to German readers, by the use +of artificial terminology. He makes use of germanized foreign terms +which are unintelligible to the ordinary man. His principal works are +(beside those quoted above): _Entwurf des Systems der Philosophie_ +(1804); _System der Sittenlehre_ (1810); _Das Urbild der Menschheit_ +(1811); and _Vorlesungen über das System der Philosophie_ (1828). He +left behind him at his death a mass of unpublished notes, part of which +has been collected and published by his disciples, H. Ahrens +(1808-1874), Leonhardi, Tiberghien and others. + + See H. S. Lindemann, _Uebersichtliche Darstellung des Lebens ... + Krauses_ (1839); P. Hohlfeld, _Die Krausesche Philosophie_ (1879); A. + Procksch, _Krause, ein Lebensbild nach seinen Briefen_ (1880); R. + Eucken, _Zur Erinnerung an Krause_ (1881); B. Martin, _Krauses Leben + und Bedeutung_ (1881), and Histories of Philosophy by Zeller, + Windelband and Höffding. + + + + +KRAWANG, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East Indies, bounded +E. and S. by Charibon and the Preanger, W. by Batavia, and N. by the +Java Sea, and comprising a few insignificant islands. The natives are +Sundanese, but contain a large admixture of Middle Javanese and +Bantamers in the north, where they established colonies in the 17th +century. Like the residency of Batavia, the northern half of Krawang is +flat and occasionally marshy, while the southern half is mountainous and +volcanic. Warm and cold mineral, salt and sulphur springs occur in the +hills. Salt is extracted by the government, though in smaller quantities +now than formerly. The principal products are rice, coffee, sugar, +vanilla, indigo and nutmeg. Fishing is practised along the coast and +forest culture in the hills, while the industries also include the +manufacture of coarse linen, sacks and leather tanning. Gold and silver +were formerly thought to be hidden in the Parang mountain in the +Gandasoli district south-west of Purwakarta, and mining was begun by the +Dutch East India Company in 1722. The largest part of the residency +consists of private lands, and only the Purwakarta and Krawang divisions +forming the middle and north-west sections come directly under +government control. The remainder of the residency is divided between +the Pamanukan-Chiasem lands occupying the whole eastern half of the +residency and the Tegalwaru lands in the south-western corner. The +former is owned by a company and forms the largest estate in Java. The +Tegalwaru is chiefly owned by Chinese proprietors. Purwakarta is the +capital of the residency. Subang and Pamanukan both lie at the junction +of several roads near the borders of Cheribon and are the chief centres +of activity in the east of the residency. + + + + +KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL, FREIHERR (1735-1804), Austrian soldier. Entering +the Austrian army at the age of nineteen, he arrived somewhat rapidly at +the grade of major, but it was many years before he had any opportunity +of distinguishing himself. In 1784 he suppressed a rising in +Transylvania, and in the Turkish wars he took an active part at Porczeny +and the Vulcan Pass. Made major-general in 1790, three years later he +commanded the advanced guard of the Allies operating in France. He +distinguished himself at Famars, Charleroi, Fleurus, Weissenberg, and +indeed at almost every encounter with the troops of the French Republic. +In the celebrated campaign of 1796 on the Rhine and Danube he did +conspicuous service as a corps commander. At Wetzlar he defeated Kléber, +and at Amberg and Würzburg he was largely responsible for the victory of +the archduke Charles. In the following year he was less successful, +being twice defeated on the Lahn and the Main. Kray commanded in Italy +in 1799, and reconquered from the French the plain of Lombardy. For his +victories of Verona, Mantua, Legnago and Magnano he was promoted +_Feldzeugmeister_, and he ended the campaign by further victories at +Novi and Fossano. Next year he commanded on the Rhine against Moreau. +(For the events of this memorable campaign see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY +WARS.) As a consequence of the defeats he underwent at Biberach, +Messkirch, &c., Kray was driven into Ulm, but by a skilful march round +Moreau's flank succeeded in escaping to Bohemia. He was relieved of his +command by the Austrian government, and passed his remaining years in +retirement. He died in 1804. Kray was one of the best representatives of +the old Austrian army. Tied to an obsolete system and unable from habit +to realize the changed conditions of warfare, he failed, but his enemies +held him in the highest respect as a brave, skilful and chivalrous +opponent. It was he who at Altenkirchen cared for the dying Marceau, and +the white uniforms of Kray and his staff mingled with the blue of the +French in the funeral procession of the young general of the Republic. + + + + +KREMENCHUG, a town of south-west Russia, in the government of Poltava, +on the left bank of the Dnieper (which periodically overflows its +banks), 73 m. S.W. of the city of Poltava, on the Kharkov-Nikolayev +railway. Pop. (1887), 31,000; (1897, with Kryukov suburb), 58,648. The +most notable public buildings are the cathedral (built in 1808), the +arsenal and the town-hall. The town is supposed to have been founded in +1571. From its situation at the southern terminus of the navigable +course of the Dnieper, and on the highway from Moscow to Odessa, it +early acquired great commercial importance, and by 1655 it was a wealthy +town. From 1765 to 1789 it was the capital of "New Russia." It has a +suburb, Kryukov, on the right bank of the Dnieper, united with the town +by a railway bridge. Nearly all commercial transactions in salt with +White Russia are effected at Kremenchug. The town is also the centre of +the tallow trade with Warsaw; considerable quantities of timber are +floated down to this place. Nearly all the trade in the brandy +manufactured in the government of Kharkov, and destined for the +governments of Ekaterinoslav and Taurida, is concentrated here, as also +is the trade in linseed between the districts situated on the left +affluents of the Dnieper and the southern ports. Other articles of +commerce are rye, rye-flour, wheat, oats and buckwheat, which are sent +partly up the Dnieper to Pinsk, partly by land to Odessa and Berislav, +but principally to Ekaterinoslav, on light boats floated down during the +spring floods. The Dnieper is crossed at Kremenchug by a tubular bridge +1081 yds. long; there is also a bridge of boats. The manufactures +consist of carriages, agricultural machinery, tobacco, steam +flour-mills, steam saw-mills and forges. + + + + +KREMENETS (Polish, _Krzemieniec_), a town of south-west Russia, in the +government of Volhynia, 130 m. W. of Zhitomir, and 25 m. E. of Brody +railway station (Austrian Galicia). Pop. (1900), 16,534. It is situated +in a gorge of the Kremenets Hills. The Jews, who are numerous, carry on +a brisk trade in tobacco and grain exported to Galicia and Odessa. The +picturesque ruins of an old castle on a crag close by the town are +usually known as the castle of Queen Bona, i.e. Bona Sforza (wife of +Sigismund I. of Poland); it was built, however, in the 8th or 9th +century. The Mongols vainly besieged it in 1241 and 1255. From that time +Kremenets was under the dominion alternately of Lithuania and Poland, +till 1648, when it was taken by the Zaporogian Cossacks. From 1805 to +1832 its Polish lyceum was the centre of superior instruction for the +western provinces of Little Russia; but after the Polish insurrection of +1831 the lyceum was transferred to Kiev, and is now the university of +that town. + + + + +KREMS, a town of Austria, in lower Austria, 40 m. W.N.W. of Vienna by +rail. Pop. (1900), 12,657. It is situated at the confluence of the Krems +with the Danube. The manufactures comprise steel goods, mustard and +vinegar, and a special kind of white lead (_Kremser Weiss_) is prepared +from deposits in the neighbourhood. The trade is mainly in these +products and in wine and saffron. The Danube harbour of Krems is at the +adjoining town of Stein (pop., 4299). + + + + +KREMSIER, (Czech, _Kromeríz_), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 37 m. E. +by N. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,991, mostly Czech. It is +situated on the March, in the fertile region of the Hanna, and not far +from the confluence of these two rivers. It is the summer residence of +the bishop of Olmütz, whose palace, surrounded by a fine park and +gardens, and containing a picture gallery, library and various +collections, forms the chief object of interest. Its industries include +the manufacture of machinery and iron-founding, brewing and +corn-milling, and there is a considerable trade in corn, cattle, fruit +and manufactures. In 1131 Kremsier was the seat of a bishopric. It +suffered considerably during the Hussite war; and in 1643 it was taken +and burned by the Swedes. After the rising of 1848 the Austrian +parliament met in the palace at Kremsier from November 1848 till March +1849. In August 1885 a meeting took place here between the Austrian and +the Russian emperors. + + + + +KREUTZER, KONRADIN (1780-1849), German musical composer, was born on the +22nd of November 1780 in Messkirch in Baden, and died on the 14th of +December 1849 in Riga. He owes his fame almost exclusively to one opera, +_Das Nachtlager von Granada_ (1834), which kept the stage for half a +century in spite of the changes in musical taste. It was written in the +style of Weber, and is remarkable especially for its flow of genuine +melody and depth of feeling. The same qualities are found in Kreutzer's +part-songs for men's voices, which at one time were extremely popular in +Germany, and are still listened to with pleasure. Amongst these "Der Tag +des Herrn" ("The Lord's Day") may be named as the most excellent. +Kreutzer was a prolific composer, and wrote a number of operas for the +theatre at Vienna, which have disappeared from the stage and are not +likely to be revived. He was from 1812 to 1816 Kapellmeister to the king +of Württemberg, and in 1840 became conductor of the opera at Cologne. +His daughter, Cecilia Kreutzer, was a singer of some renown. + + + + +KREUTZER, RUDOLPH (1766-1831), French violinist, of German extraction, +was born at Versailles, his father being a musician in the royal chapel. +Rudolph gradually became famous as a violinist, playing with great +success at various continental capitals. It was to him that in 1803 +Beethoven dedicated his famous violin sonata (_op._ 47) known as the +"Kreutzer." Apart, however, from his fame as a violinist, Kreutzer was +also a prolific composer; he wrote twenty-nine operas, many of which +were successfully produced, besides nineteen violin concertos and +chamber music. He died at Geneva in 1831. + + + + +KREUZBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on +the Stober, 24 m. N.N.E. of Oppeln. Pop. (1905), 10,919. It has an +Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a gymnasium and a teacher's +seminary. Here are flour-mills, distilleries, iron-works, breweries, and +manufactories of sugar and of machinery. Kreuzburg, which became a town +in 1252, was the birthplace of the novelist Gustav Freytag. + + + + +KREUZNACH (_Creuznach_), a town and watering-place of Germany, in the +Prussian Rhine province, situated on the Nahe, a tributary of the Rhine, +9 m. by rail S. of Bingerbrück. Pop. (1900), 21,321. It consists of the +old town on the right bank of the river, the new town on the left, and +the Bade Insel (bath island), connected by a fine stone bridge. The town +has two Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium, a +commercial school and a hospital. There is a collection of Roman and +medieval antiquities, among which is preserved a fine Roman mosaic +discovered in 1893. On the Bade Insel is the Kurhaus (1872) and also the +chief spring, the Elisabethquelle, impregnated with iodine and bromine, +and prescribed for scrofulous, bronchial and rheumatic disorders. The +chief industries are marble-polishing and the manufacture of leather, +glass and tobacco. Vines are cultivated on the neighbouring hills, and +there is a trade in wine and corn. + +The earliest mention of the springs of Kreuznach occurs in 1478, but it +was only in the early part of the 19th century that Dr Prieger, to whom +there is a statue in the town, brought them into prominence. Now the +annual number of visitors amounts to several thousands. Kreuznach was +evidently a Roman town, as the ruins of a Roman fortification, the +Heidenmauer, and various antiquities have been found in its immediate +neighbourhood. In the 9th century it was known as Cruciniacum, and it +had a palace of the Carolingian kings. In 1065 the emperor Henry IV. +presented it to the bishopric of Spires; in the 13th century it obtained +civic privileges and passed to the counts of Sponheim; in 1416 it became +part of the Palatinate. The town was ceded to Prussia in 1814. In 1689 +the French reduced the strong castle of Kauzenberg to the ruin which now +stands on a hill above Kreuznach. + + See Schneegans, _Historisch-topographische Beschreibung Kreuznachs und + seiner Umgebung_ (7th ed., 1904); Engelmann, _Kreuznach und seine + Heilquellen_ (8th ed., 1890); and Stabel, _Das Solbad Kreuznach für + Ärzte dargestellt_ (Kreuznach, 1887). + + + + +KRIEGSPIEL (KRIEGSSPIEL), the original German name, still used to some +extent in England, for the War Game (q.v.). + + + + +KRIEMHILD (_Grîmhild_), the heroine of the Nibelungenlied and wife of +the hero Siegfried. The name (from O. H. Ger. _grîma_, a mask or helm, +and _hiltja_ or _hilta_, war) means "the masked warrior woman," and has +been taken to prove her to have been originally a mythical, daemonic +figure, an impersonation of the powers of darkness and of death. In the +north, indeed, the name _Grimhildr_ continued to have a purely mythical +character and to be applied only to daemonic beings; but in Germany, the +original home of the Nibelungen myth, it certainly lost all trace of +this significance, and in the _Nibelungenlied_ Kriemhild is no more than +a beautiful princess, the daughter of King Dancrât and Queen Uote, and +sister of the Burgundian kings Gunther, Giselhêr and Gêrnôt, the masters +of the Nibelungen hoard. As she appears in the Nibelungen legend, +however, Kriemhild would seem to have an historical origin, as the wife +of Attila, king of the Huns, as well as sister of the Nibelung kings. +According to Jordanes (c. 49), who takes his information from the +contemporary and trustworthy account of Priscus, Attila died of a +violent hemorrhage at night, as he lay beside a girl named Ildico (i.e. +O. H. Ger. Hildikô). The story got abroad that he had perished by the +hand of a woman in revenge for her relations slain by him; according to +some (e.g. Saxo Poeta and the Quedlinburg chronicle) it was her father +whom she revenged; but when the treacherous overthrow of the Burgundians +by Attila had become a theme for epic poets, she figured as a Burgundian +princess, and her act as done in revenge for her brothers. Now the name +Hildikô is the diminutive of Hilda or Hild, which again--in accordance +with a custom common enough--may have been used as an abbreviation of +Grîmhild (cf. _Hildr_ for _Brynhildr_). It has been suggested (Symons, +_Heldensage_, p. 55) that when the legend of the overthrow of the +Burgundians, which took place in 437, became attached to that of the +death of Attila (453), Hild, the supposed sister of the Burgundian +kings, was identified with the daemonic Grîmhild, the sister of the +mythical Nibelung brothers, and thus helped the process by which the +Nibelung myth became fused with the historical story of the fall of the +Burgundian kingdom. The older story, according to which Grîmhild slays +her husband Attila in revenge for her brothers, is preserved in the +Norse tradition, though Grîmhild's part is played by Gudrun, a change +probably due to the fact, mentioned above, that the name Grîmhild still +retained in the north its sinister significance. The name of Grîmhild is +transferred to Gudrun's mother, the "wise wife," a semi-daemonic figure, +who brews the potion that makes Sigurd forget his love for Brunhild and +his plighted troth. In the _Nibelungenlied_, however, the primitive +supremacy of the blood-tie has given place to the more modern idea of +the supremacy of the passion of love, and Kriemhild marries Attila +(Etzel) in order to compass the death of her brothers, in revenge for +the murder of Siegfried. Theodor Abeling, who is disposed to reject or +minimize the mythical origins, further suggests a confusion of the story +of Attila's wife Ildico with that of the murder of Sigimund the +Burgundian by the sons of Chrothildis, wife of Clovis. (See +NIBELUNGENLIED.) + + See B. Symons, _Germanische Heldensage_ (Strassburg, 1905); F. Zarnke, + _Das Nibelungenlied_, p. ii. (Leipzig, 1875); T. Abeling, _Einleitung + in das Nibelungenlied_ (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1909). (W. A. P.) + + + + +KRILOFF (or KRUILOV), IVAN ANDREEVICH (1768-1844), the great national +fabulist of Russia, was born on the 14th of February 1768, at Moscow, +but his early years were spent at Orenburg and Tver. His father, a +distinguished military officer, died in 1779; and young Kriloff was left +with no richer patrimony than a chest of old books, to be brought up by +the exertions of a heroic mother. In the course of a few years his +mother removed to St Petersburg, in the hope of securing a government +pension; and there Kriloff obtained a post in the civil service, but he +gave it up immediately after his mother's death in 1788. Already in 1783 +he had sold to a bookseller a comedy of his own composition, and by this +means had procured for himself the works of Molière, Racine, Boileau; +and now, probably under the influence of these writers, he produced +_Philomela_ and _Cleopatra_, which gave him access to the dramatic +circle of Knyazhin. Several attempts he made to start a literary +magazine met with little success; but, together with his plays, they +served to make the author known in society. For about four years +(1797-1801) Kriloff lived at the country seats of Prince Sergius +Galitzin, and when the prince was appointed military governor of Livonia +he accompanied him as official secretary. Of the years which follow his +resignation of this post little is known, the common opinion being that +he wandered from town to town under the influence of a passion for +card-playing. Before long he found his place as a fabulist, the first +collection of his _Fables_, 23 in number, appearing in 1809. From 1812 +to 1841 he held a congenial appointment in the Imperial Public +Library--first as assistant, and then as head of the Russian books +department. He died on the 21st of November 1844. His statue in the +Summer Garden is one of the finest monuments in St Petersburg. + +Honours were showered upon Kriloff while he yet lived: the Academy of +Sciences admitted him a member in 1811, and bestowed upon him its gold +medal; in 1838 a great festival was held under imperial sanction to +celebrate the jubilee of his first appearance as an author; and the +emperor assigned him a handsome pension. Before his death about 77,000 +copies of his Fables had found sale in Russia; and his wisdom and humour +had become the common possession of the many. He was at once poet and +sage. His fables for the most part struck root in some actual event, and +they told at once by their grip and by their beauty. Though he began as +a translator and imitator he soon showed himself a master of invention, +who found abundant material in the life of his native land. To the +Russian ear his verse is of matchless quality; while word and phrase are +direct, simple and eminently idiomatic, colour and cadence vary with the +theme. + + A collected edition of Kriloff's works appeared at St Petersburg, + 1844. Of the numerous editions of his _Fables_, which have been often + translated, may be mentioned that illustrated by Trutovski, 1872. The + author's life has been written in Russian by Pletneff, by Lebanoff and + by Grot, _Liter, zhizn Kruilova_. "Materials" for his life are + published in vol. vi. of the _Sbornik Statei_ of the literary + department of the Academy of Sciences. W. R. S. Ralston prefixed an + excellent sketch to his English prose version of the _Fables_ (1868; + 2nd ed. 1871). Another translation, by T. H. Harrison, appeared in + 1883. + + + + +KRISHNA (the Dark One), an incarnation of Vishnu, or rather the form in +which Vishnu himself is the most popular object of worship throughout +northern India. In origin, Krishna, like Rama, was undoubtedly a deified +hero of the Kshatriya caste. In the older framework of the _Mahabharata_ +he appears as a great chieftain and ally of the Pandava brothers; and it +is only in the interpolated episode of the _Bhagavad-gita_ that he is +identified with Vishnu and becomes the revealer of the doctrine of +_bhakti_ or religious devotion. Of still later date are the popular +developments of the modern cult of Krishna associated with Radha, as +found in the _Vishnu Purana_. Here he is represented as the son of a +king saved from a slaughter of the innocents, brought up by a cowherd, +sporting with the milkmaids, and performing miraculous feats in his +childhood. The scene is laid in the neighbourhood of Muttra, on the +right bank of the Jumna, where the whole country to the present day is +holy ground. Another place associated with incidents of his later life +is Dwarka, the westernmost point in the peninsula of Kathiawar. The two +most famous preachers of Krishna-worship and founders of sects in his +honour were Vallabha and Chaitanya, both born towards the close of the +15th century. The followers of the former are now found chiefly in +Rajputana and Gujarat. They are known as Vallabhacharyas, and their +_gosains_ or high priests as maharajas, to whom semi-divine honours are +paid. The licentious practices of this sect were exposed in a lawsuit +before the high court at Bombay in 1862. Chaitanya was the Vaishnav +reformer of Bengal, with his home at Nadiya. A third influential +Krishna-preacher of the 19th century was Swami Narayan, who was +encountered by Bishop Heber in Gujarat, where his followers at this day +are numerous and wealthy. Among the names of Krishna are _Gopal_, the +cowherd; _Gopinath_, the lord of the milkmaids; and _Mathuranath_, the +lord of Muttra. His legitimate consort was Rukmini, daughter of the king +of Berar; but Radha is always associated with him in his temples. (See +HINDUISM.) + + + + +KRISHNAGAR, a town of British India, headquarters of Nadia district in +Bengal, situated on the left bank of the river Jalangi and connected +with Ranaghat, on the Eastern Bengal railway, by a light railway. Pop. +(1901), 24,547. It is the residence of the raja of Nadia and contains a +government college. Coloured clay figures are manufactured. + + + + +KRISTIANSTAD (CHRISTIANSTAD), a port of Sweden, chief town of the +district (_län_) of Kristianstad, on a peninsula in Lake Sjövik, an +expansion of the river Helge, 10 m. from the Baltic. Pop. (1900), +10,318. Its harbour, custom-house, &c., are at Åhus at the mouth of the +river. It is among the first twelve manufacturing towns of Sweden as +regards value of output, having engineering works, flour-mills, +distilleries, weaving mills and sugar factories. Granite and wood-pulp +are exported, and coal and grain imported. The town is the seat of the +court of appeal for the provinces of Skane and Blekinge. It was founded +and fortified in 1614 by Christian IV. of Denmark, who built the fine +ornate church. The town was ceded to Sweden in 1658, retaken by +Christian V. in 1676, and again acquired by Sweden in 1678. + + + + +KRIVOY ROG, a town of south Russia, in the government of Kherson, on the +Ingulets River, near the station of the same name on the Ekaterinoslav +railway, 113 m. S.W. of the city of Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1900), about +10,000. It is the centre of a district very rich in minerals, obtained +from a narrow stretch of crystalline schists underlying the Tertiary +deposits. Iron ores (60 to 70% of iron), copper ores, colours, brown +coal, graphite, slate, and lithographic stone are obtained--nearly +2,000,000 tons of iron ore annually. + + + + +KROCHMAL, NAHMAN (1785-1840), Jewish scholar, was born at Brody in +Galicia in 1785. He was one of the pioneers in the revival of Jewish +learning which followed on the age of Moses Mendelssohn. His chief work +was the _Moreh Nebuche hazeman_ ("Guide for the Perplexed of the Age"), +a title imitated from that of the 12th-century "Guide for the Perplexed" +of Maimonides (q.v.). This book was not published till after the +author's death, when it was edited by Zunz (1851). The book is a +philosophy of Jewish history, and has a double importance. On the one +side it was a critical examination of the Rabbinic literature and much +influenced subsequent investigators. On the other side, Krochmal, in the +words of N. Slouschz, "was the first Jewish scholar who views Judaism, +not as a distinct and independent entity, but as a part of the whole of +civilization." Krochmal, under Hegelian influences, regarded the +nationality of Israel as consisting in its religious genius, its +spiritual gifts. Thus Krochmal may be called the originator of the idea +of the mission of the Jewish people, "cultural Zionism" as it has more +recently been termed. He died at Tarnopol in 1840. + + See S. Schechter, _Studies in Judaism_ (1896), pp. 56 seq.; N. + Slouschz, _Renascence of Hebrew Literature_ (1909), pp. 63 seq. + (I. A.) + + + + +KRONENBERG, a town of Germany in the Prussian Rhine Province, 6 m. S.W. +from Elberfeld, with which it is connected by railway and by an electric +tramway line. Pop. (1905), 11,340. It is a scattered community, +consisting of an agglomeration of seventy-three different hamlets. It +has a Roman Catholic and two Protestant churches, a handsome modern +town-hall and considerable industries, consisting mainly of steel and +iron manufactures. + + + + +KRONSTADT or CRONSTADT, a strongly fortified seaport town of Russia, the +chief naval station of the Russian fleet in the northern seas, and the +seat of the Russian admiralty. Pop. (1867), 45,115; (1897), 59,539. It +is situated on the island of Kotlin, near the head of the Gulf of +Finland, 20 m. W. of St Petersburg, of which it is the chief port, in +59° 59´ 30´´ N. and 29° 46´ 30´´ E. Kronstadt, always strong, has been +thoroughly refortified on modern principles. The old "three-decker" +forts, five in number, which formerly constituted the principal defences +of the place, and defied the Anglo-French fleets during the Crimean War, +are now of secondary importance. From the plans of Todleben a new fort, +Constantine, and four batteries were constructed (1856-1871) to defend +the principal approach, and seven batteries to cover the shallower +northern channel. All these modern fortifications are low and thickly +armoured earthworks, powerfully armed with heavy Krupp guns in turrets. +The town itself is surrounded with an _enceinte_. The island of Kotlin, +or Kettle (Finn., _Retusari_, or Rat Island) in general outline forms an +elongated triangle, 7½ m. in length by about 1 in breadth, with its base +towards St Petersburg. The eastern or broad end is occupied by the town +of Kronstadt, and shoals extend for a mile and a half from the western +point of the island to the rock on which the Tolbaaken lighthouse is +built. The island thus divides the seaward approach to St Petersburg +into two channels; that on the northern side is obstructed by shoals +which extend across it from Kotlin to Lisynos on the Finnish mainland, +and is only passable by vessels drawing less than 15 ft. of water; the +southern channel, the highway to the capital, is narrowed by a spit +which projects from opposite Oranienbaum on the Russian mainland, and, +lying close to Kronstadt, has been strongly guarded by batteries. The +approach to the capital has been greatly facilitated by the construction +in 1875-1885 of a canal, 23 ft. deep, through the shallows. The town of +Kronstadt is built on level ground, and is thus exposed to inundations, +from one of which it suffered in 1824. On the south side of the town +there are three harbours--the large western or merchant harbour, the +western flank of which is formed by a great mole joining the +fortifications which traverse the breadth of the island on this side; +the middle harbour, used chiefly for fitting out and repairing vessels; +and the eastern or war harbour for vessels of the Russian navy. The +Peter and Catherine canals, communicating with the merchant and middle +harbours, traverse the town. Between them stood the old Italian palace +of Prince Menshikov, the site of which is now occupied by the pilot +school. Among other public buildings are the naval hospital, the British +seaman's hospital (established in 1867), the civic hospital, admiralty +(founded 1785), arsenal, dockyards and foundries, school of marine +engineering, the cathedral of St Andrew, and the English church. The +port is ice-bound for 140 to 160 days in the year, from the beginning of +December till April. A very large proportion of the inhabitants are +sailors, and large numbers of artisans are employed in the dockyards. +Kronstadt was founded in 1710 by Peter the Great, who took the island of +Kotlin from the Swedes in 1703, when the first fortifications were +constructed. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +KROONSTAD, a town of Orange River Colony, 127 m. by rail N.E. of +Bloemfontein and 130 m. S.W. of Johannesburg. Pop. (1904), 7191, of whom +3708 were whites. Kroonstad lies 4489 ft. above the sea and is built on +the banks of the Valsch River, a perennial tributary of the Vaal. It is +a busy town, being the centre of a rich agricultural district and of the +diamond and coal-mining industry of the north-western parts of the +colony. It is also a favourite residential place and resort of visitors +from Johannesburg. It enjoys a healthy climate, affords opportunities +for boating rare in South Africa, and boasts a golf-links. The principal +building is the Dutch Reformed church in the centre of the market +square. + +On the capture of Bloemfontein by the British during the Anglo-Boer War +of 1899-1902 Kroonstad was chosen by the Orange Free State Boers as the +capital of the state, a dignity it held from the 13th of March to the +11th of May 1900. On the following day the town was occupied by Lord +Roberts. The linking of the town in 1906 with the Natal system made the +route via Kroonstad the shortest railway connexion between Cape Town and +Durban. Another line goes N.W. from Kroonstad to Klerksdorp, passing (17 +miles) the Lace diamond mine and (45 miles) the coal mines at +Vierfontein. + + + + +KROPOTKIN, PETER ALEXEIVICH, PRINCE (1842- ), Russian geographer, +author and revolutionary, was born at Moscow in 1842. His father, Prince +Alexei Petrovich Kropotkin, belonged to the old Russian nobility; his +mother, the daughter of a general in the Russian army, had remarkable +literary and liberal tastes. At the age of fifteen Prince Peter +Kropotkin, who had been designed by his father for the army, entered the +Corps of Pages at St Petersburg (1857). Only a hundred and fifty +boys--mostly children of the nobility belonging to the court--were +educated in this privileged corps, which combined the character of a +military school endowed with special rights and of a Court institution +attached to the imperial household. Here he remained till 1862, reading +widely on his own account, and giving special attention to the works of +the French encyclopaedists and to modern French history. Before he left +Moscow Prince Kropotkin had developed an interest in the condition of +the Russian peasantry, and this interest increased as he grew older. The +years 1857-1861 witnessed a rich growth in the intellectual forces of +Russia, and Kropotkin came under the influence of the new +Liberal-revolutionary literature, which indeed largely expressed his own +aspirations. In 1862 he was promoted from the Corps of Pages to the +army. The members of the corps had the prescriptive right of choosing +the regiment to which they would be attached. Kropotkin had never +wished for a military career, but, as he had not the means to enter the +St Petersburg University, he elected to join a Siberian Cossack regiment +in the recently annexed Amur district, where there were prospects of +administrative work. For some time he was aide de camp to the governor +of Transbaikalia at Chita, subsequently being appointed attaché for +Cossack affairs to the governor-general of East Siberia at Irkutsk. +Opportunities for administrative work, however, were scanty, and in 1864 +Kropotkin accepted charge of a geographical survey expedition, crossing +North Manchuria from Transbaikalia to the Amur, and shortly afterwards +was attached to another expedition which proceeded up the Sungari River +into the heart of Manchuria. Both these expeditions yielded most +valuable geographical results. The impossibility of obtaining any real +administrative reforms in Siberia now induced Kropotkin to devote +himself almost entirely to scientific exploration, in which he continued +to be highly successful. In 1867 he quitted the army and returned to St +Petersburg, where he entered the university, becoming at the same time +secretary to the physical geography section of the Russian Geographical +Society. In 1873 he published an important contribution to science, a +map and paper in which he proved that the existing maps of Asia entirely +misrepresented the physical formation of the country, the main +structural lines being in fact from south-west to north-east, not from +north to south, or from east to west as had been previously supposed. In +1871 he explored the glacial deposits of Finland and Sweden for the +Russian Geographical Society, and while engaged in this work was offered +the secretaryship of that society. But by this time he had determined +that it was his duty not to work at fresh discoveries but to aid in +diffusing existing knowledge among the people at large, and he +accordingly refused the offer, and returned to St Petersburg, where he +joined the revolutionary party. In 1872 he visited Switzerland, and +became a member of the International Workingmen's Association at Geneva. +The socialism of this body was not, however, advanced enough for his +views, and after studying the programme of the more violent Jura +Federation at Neuchâtel and spending some time in the company of the +leading members, he definitely adopted the creed of anarchism (q.v.) +and, on returning to Russia, took an active part in spreading the +nihilist propaganda. In 1874 he was arrested and imprisoned, but escaped +in 1876 and went to England, removing after a short stay to Switzerland, +where he joined the Jura Federation. In 1877 he went to Paris, where he +helped to start the socialist movement, returning to Switzerland in +1878, where he edited for the Jura Federation a revolutionary newspaper, +_Le Révolté_, subsequently also publishing various revolutionary +pamphlets. Shortly after the assassination of the tsar Alexander II. +(1881) Kropotkin was expelled from Switzerland by the Swiss government, +and after a short stay at Thonon (Savoy) went to London, where he +remained for nearly a year, returning to Thonon towards the end of 1882. +Shortly afterwards he was arrested by the French government, and, after +a trial at Lyons, sentenced by a police-court magistrate (under a +special law passed on the fall of the Commune) to five years' +imprisonment, on the ground that he had belonged to the International +Workingmen's Association (1883). In 1886 however, as the result of +repeated agitation on his behalf in the French Chamber, he was released, +and settled near London. + +Prince Kropotkin's authority as a writer on Russia is universally +acknowledged, and he has contributed largely to the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_. Among his other works may be named _Paroles d'un révolté_ +(1884); _La Conquête du pain_ (1888); _L'Anarchie: sa philosophie, son +idéal_ (1896); _The State, its Part in History_ (1898); _Fields, +Factories and Workshops_ (1899); _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_ (1900); +_Mutual Aid, a Factor of Evolution_ (1902); _Modern Science and +Anarchism_ (Philadelphia, 1903); _The Desiccation of Asia_ (1904); The +Orography of Asia (1904); and _Russian Literature_ (1905). + + + + +KROTOSCHIN (in Polish, _Krotoszyn_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Posen, 32 m. S.E. of Posen. Pop. (1900), 12,373. It has +three churches, a synagogue, steam saw-mills, and a steam brewery, and +carries on trade in grain and seeds. The castle of Krotoschin is the +chief place of a mediatized principality which was formed in 1819 out of +the domains of the Prussian crown and was granted to the prince of Thurn +and Taxis in compensation for the relinquishment by him of the monopoly +of the Prussian postal system, formerly held by his family. + + + + +KRÜDENER, BARBARA JULIANA, BARONESS VON (1764-1824), Russian religious +mystic and author, was born at Riga in Livonia on the 11th of November +1764. Her father, Otto Hermann von Vietinghoff, who had fought as a +colonel in Catherine II.'s wars, was one of the two councillors for +Livonia and a man of immense wealth; her mother, _née_ Countess Anna +Ulrica von Münnich, was a grand-daughter of the celebrated field +marshal. Juliana, as she was usually called, was one of a numerous +family. Her education, according to her own account, consisted of +lessons in French spelling, deportment and sewing; and at the age of +eighteen (Sept. 29, 1782) she was married to Baron Burckhard Alexis +Constantin von Krüdener, a widower sixteen years her senior. The baron, +a diplomatist of distinction, was cold and reserved; the baroness was +frivolous, pleasure-loving, and possessed of an insatiable thirst for +attention and flattery; and the strained relations due to this +incompatibility of temper were embittered by her limitless extravagance, +which constantly involved herself and her husband in financial +difficulties. At first indeed all went well. On the 31st of January 1784 +a son was born to them, named Paul after the grand-duke Paul (afterwards +emperor), who acted as god-father. The same year Baron Krüdener became +ambassador at Venice,[1] where he remained until transferred to +Copenhagen in 1786. + +In 1787 the birth of a daughter (Juliette) aggravated the nervous +disorders from which the baroness had for some time been suffering, and +it was decided that she must go to the south for her health; she +accordingly left, with her infant daughter and her step-daughter Sophie. +In 1789 she was at Paris when the states general met; a year later, at +Montpellier, she met a young cavalry captain, Charles Louis de +Frégeville, and a passionate attachment sprang up between them. They +returned together to Copenhagen, where the baroness told her husband +that her heart could no longer be his. The baron was coldly kind; he +refused to hear of a divorce and attempted to arrange a _modus vivendi_, +which was facilitated by the departure of De Frégeville for the war. All +was useless; Juliana refused to remain at Copenhagen, and, setting out +on her travels, visited Riga, St Petersburg--where her father had become +a senator[2]--Berlin, Leipzig and Switzerland. In 1798 her husband +became ambassador at Berlin, and she joined him there. But the stiff +court society of Prussia was irksome to her; money difficulties +continued; and by way of climax, the murder of the tsar Paul, in whose +favour Baron Krüdener had stood high, made the position of the +ambassador extremely precarious. The baroness seized the occasion to +leave for the baths of Teplitz, whence she wrote to her husband that the +doctors had ordered her to winter in the south. He died on the 14th of +June 1802, without ever having seen her again. + +Meanwhile the baroness had been revelling in the intellectual society of +Coppet and of Paris. She was now thirty-six; her charms were fading, but +her passion for admiration survived. She had tried the effect of the +shawl dance, in imitation of Emma, Lady Hamilton; she now sought fame in +literature, and in 1803, after consulting Châteaubriand and other +writers of distinction, published her _Valérie_, a sentimental romance, +of which under a thin veil of anonymity she herself was the heroine. In +January 1804 she returned to Livonia. + +At Riga occurred her "conversion." A gentleman of her acquaintance when +about to salute her fell dying at her feet. The shock overset her not +too well balanced mind; she sought for consolation, and found it in the +ministrations of her shoemaker, an ardent disciple of the Moravian +Brethren. Though she had "found peace," however, the disorder of her +nerves continued, and she was ordered by her doctor to the baths of +Wiesbaden. At Königsberg she had an interview with Queen Louise, and, +more important still, with one Adam Müller, a rough peasant, to whom the +Lord had revealed a prophetic mission to King Frederick William III. +"Chiliasm" was in the air. Napoleon was evidently Antichrist; and the +"latter days" were about to be accomplished. Under the influence of the +pietistic movement the belief was widely spread, in royal courts, in +country parsonages, in peasants' hovels: a man would be raised up "from +the north ... from the rising of the sun" (Isa. xli. 25); Antichrist +would be overthrown, and Christ would come to reign a thousand years +upon the earth. The interview determined the direction of the baroness's +religious development. A short visit to the Moravians at Herrenhut +followed; then she went, via Dresden, to Karlsruhe, to sit at the feet +of Heinrich Jung-Stilling (q.v.), the high priest of occultist pietism, +whose influence was supreme at the court of Baden and infected those of +Stockholm and St Petersburg.[3] By him she was instructed in the +chiliastic faith and in the mysteries of the supernatural world. Then, +hearing that a certain pastor in the Vosges, Jean Frédéric Fontaines, +was prophesying and working miracles, she determined to go to him. On +the 5th of June 1801, accordingly, she arrived at the Protestant +parsonage of Sainte Marie-aux-Mines, accompanied by her daughter +Juliette, her step-daughter Sophie and a Russian valet. + +This remained for two years her headquarters. Fontaines, half-charlatan, +half-dupe, had introduced into his household a prophetess named Marie +Gottliebin Kummer,[4] whose visions, carefully calculated for her own +purposes, became the oracle of the divine mysteries for the baroness. +Under this influence she believed more firmly than ever in the +approaching millennium and her own mission to proclaim it. Her rank, her +reckless charities, and her exuberant eloquence produced a great effect +on the simple country folk; and when, in 1809, it was decided to found a +colony of the "elect" in order to wait for "the coming of the Lord," +many wretched peasants sold or distributed all they possessed and +followed the baroness and Fontaines into Württemberg, where the +settlement was established at Catharinenplaisir and the château of +Bönnigheim, only to be dispersed (May 1) by an unsympathetic +government.[5] Further wanderings followed: to Lichtenthal near Baden; +to Karlsruhe and the congenial society of pietistic princesses; to Riga, +where she was present at the death-bed of her mother (Jan. 24, 1811); +then back to Karlsruhe. The influence of Fontaines, to whom she had been +"spiritually married" (Madame Fontaines being content with the part of +Martha in the household, so long as the baroness's funds lasted), had +now waned, and she had fallen under that of Johann Kaspar Wegelin +(1766-1833), a pious linen-draper of Strassburg, who taught her the +sweetness of "complete annihilation of the will and mystic death." Her +preaching and her indiscriminate charities now began to attract curious +crowds from afar; and her appearance everywhere was accompanied by an +epidemic of visions and prophesyings, which culminated in the appearance +in 1811 of the comet, a sure sign of the approaching end. In 1812 she +was at Strassburg, whence she paid more than one visit to J. F. Oberlin +(q.v.), the famous pastor of Waldbach in Steinthal (Ban de la Roche), +and where she had the glory of converting her host, Adrien de +Lazay-Marnesia, the prefect. In 1813 she was at Geneva, where she +established the faith of a band of young pietists in revolt against the +Calvinist Church authorities--notably Henri Louis Empeytaz, afterwards +destined to be the companion of her crowning evangelistic triumph. In +September 1814 she was again at Waldbach, where Empeytaz had preceded +her; and at Strassburg, where the party was joined by Franz Karl von +Berckheim, who afterwards married Juliette.[6] At the end of the year +she returned with her daughters and Empeytaz to Baden, a fateful +migration. + +The empress Elizabeth of Russia was now at Karlsruhe; and she and the +pietist ladies of her entourage hoped that the emperor Alexander might +find at the hands of Madame de Krüdener the peace which an interview +with Jung-Stilling had failed to bring him. The baroness herself wrote +urgent letters to Roxane de Stourdza, sister of the tsar's Rumanian +secretary, begging her to procure an interview. There seemed to be no +result; but the correspondence paved the way for the opportunity which a +strange chance was to give her of realizing her ambition. In the spring +of 1815 the baroness was settled at Schlüchtern, a piece of Baden +territory _enclavé_ in Württemberg, busy persuading the peasants to sell +all and fly from the wrath to come. Near this, at Heilbronn, the emperor +Alexander established his headquarters on the 4th of June. That very +night the baroness sought and obtained an interview. To the tsar, who +had been brooding alone over an open Bible, her sudden arrival seemed an +answer to his prayers; for three hours the prophetess preached her +strange gospel, while the most powerful man in Europe sat, his face +buried in his hands, sobbing like a child; until at last he declared +that he had "found peace." At the tsar's request she followed him to +Heidelberg and later to Paris, where she was lodged at the Hôtel +Montchenu, next door to the imperial headquarters in the Elysée Palace. +A private door connected the establishments, and every evening the +emperor went to take part in the prayer-meetings conducted by the +baroness and Empeytaz. Chiliasm seemed to have found an entrance into +the high councils of Europe, and the baroness von Krüdener had become a +political force to be reckoned with. Admission to her religious +gatherings was sought by a crowd of people celebrated in the +intellectual and social world; Châteaubriand came, and Benjamin +Constant, Madame Récamier, the duchesse de Bourbon, and Madame de Duras. +The fame of the wonderful conversion, moreover, attracted other members +of the chiliastic fraternity, among them Fontaines, who brought with him +the prophetess Marie Kummer. + +In this religious forcing-house the idea of the Holy Alliance germinated +and grew to rapid maturity. On the 26th of September the portentous +proclamation, which was to herald the opening of a new age of peace and +goodwill on earth, was signed by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria and +Prussia (see HOLY ALLIANCE; and EUROPE: _History_). Its authorship has +ever been a matter of dispute. Madame de Krüdener herself claimed that +she had suggested the idea, and that Alexander had submitted the draft +for her approval. This is probably correct, though the tsar later, when +he had recovered his mental equilibrium, reproved her for her +indiscretion in talking of the matter. His eyes, indeed, had begun to be +opened before he left Paris, and Marie Kummer was the unintentional +cause. At the very first séance the prophetess, whose revelations had +been praised by the baroness in extravagant terms, had the evil +inspiration to announce in her trance to the emperor that it was God's +will that he should endow the religious colony to which she belonged! +Alexander merely remarked that he had received too many such revelations +before to be impressed. The baroness's influence was shaken but not +destroyed, and before he left Paris Alexander gave her a passport to +Russia. She was not, however, destined to see him again. + +She left Paris on the 22nd of October 1815, intending to travel to St +Petersburg by way of Switzerland. The tsar, however, offended by her +indiscretions and sensible of the ridicule which his relations with her +had brought upon him, showed little disposition to hurry her arrival. +She remained in Switzerland, where she presently fell under the +influence of an unscrupulous adventurer named J. G. Kellner. For months +Empeytaz, an honest enthusiast, struggled to save her from this man's +clutches, but in vain. Kellner too well knew how to flatter the +baroness's inordinate vanity: the author of the Holy Alliance could be +none other than the "woman clothed with the sun" of Rev. xii. 1. She +wandered with Kellner from place to place, proclaiming her mission, +working miracles, persuading her converts to sell all and follow her. +Crowds of beggars and rapscallions of every description gathered +wherever she went, supported by the charities squandered from the common +fund. She became a nuisance to the authorities and a menace to the +peace; Württemberg had expelled her, and the example was followed by +every Swiss canton she entered in turn. At last, in August 1817, she set +out for her estate in Livonia, accompanied by Kellner and a remnant of +the elect. + +The emperor Alexander having opened the Crimea to German and Swiss +chiliasts in search of a land of promise, the baroness's son-in-law +Berckheim and his wife now proceeded thither to help establish the new +colonies. In November 1820 the baroness at last went herself to St +Petersburg, where Berckheim was lying ill. She was there when the news +arrived of Ypsilanti's invasion of the Danubian principalities, which +opened the war of Greek independence. She at once proclaimed the divine +mission of the tsar to take up arms on behalf of Christendom. Alexander, +however, had long since exchanged her influence for that of Metternich, +and he was far from anxious to be forced into even a holy war. To the +baroness's overtures he replied in a long and polite letter, the gist of +which was that she must leave St Petersburg at once. In 1823 the death +of Kellner, whom to the last she regarded as a saint, was a severe blow +to her. Her health was failing, but she allowed herself to be persuaded +by Princess Galitzin to accompany her to the Crimea, where she had +established a Swiss colony. Here, at Karasu Bazar, she died on the 25th +of December 1824. + +Sainte-Beuve said of Madame de Krüdener: "Elle avait un immense besoin +que le monde s'occupât d'elle...; l'amour propre, toujours l'amour +propre...!" A kindlier epitaph might, perhaps, be written in her own +words, uttered after the revelation of the misery of the Crimean +colonists had at last opened her eyes: "The good that I have done will +endure; the evil that I have done (for how often have I not mistaken for +the voice of God that which was no more than the result of my +imagination and my pride) the mercy of God will blot out." + + Much information about Madame de Krüdener, coloured by the author's + views, is to be found in H. L. Empeytaz's _Notice sur Alexandre, + empereur de Russie_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1840). The _Vie de Madame de + Krudener_ (2 vols., Paris, 1849), by the Swiss banker and Philhellene + J. G. Eynard, was long the standard life and contains much material, + but is far from authoritative. In English appeared the _Life and + Letters of Madame de Krüdener_, by Clarence Ford (London, 1893). The + most authoritative study, based on a wealth of original research, is + E. Muhlenbeck's _Étude sur les origines de la Sainte-Alliance_ (Paris, + 1909), in which numerous references are given. (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] A portrait of Madame de Krüdener and her son as "Venus disarming + Cupid," by Angelica Kauffmann, of this period, is in the Louvre. + + [2] He died while she was there in 1792. + + [3] The consorts of Alexander I. of Russia and of Gustavus Adolphus + IV. of Sweden were princesses of Baden. + + [4] She had been condemned some years previously in Württemberg to + the pillory and three years' imprisonment as a "swindler" + (_Betrügerin_), on her own confession. Her curious history is given + in detail by M. Muhlenbeck. + + [5] In 1809 it was obviously inconvenient to have people proclaiming + Napoleon as "the Beast." + + [6] Berckheim had been French commissioner of police in Mainz and had + abandoned his post in 1813. + + + + +KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT (1770-1842), German philosopher and author, was +born at Radis in Prussia on the 22nd of June 1770, and died at Leipzig +on the 12th of January 1842. He studied at Wittenberg under Reinhard and +Jehnichen, at Jena under Reinhold, and at Göttingen. From 1801 to 1804 +he was professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, after which he +succeeded Kant in the chair of logic and metaphysics at the university +of Königsberg. From 1809 till his death he was professor of philosophy +at Leipzig. He was a prolific writer on a great variety of subjects, in +all of which he excelled as a popularizer rather than as an original +thinker. In philosophy his method was psychological; he attempted to +explain the Ego by examining the nature of its reflection upon the facts +of consciousness. Being is known to us only through its presentation in +consciousness; consciousness only in its relation to Being. Both Being +and Consciousness, however, are immediately known to us, as also the +relation existing between them. By this Transcendental Synthesis he +proposed to reconcile Realism and Idealism, and to destroy the +traditional difficulty between transcendental, or pure, thought and +"things in themselves." Apart from the intrinsic value of his work, it +is admitted that it had the effect of promoting the study of philosophy +and of stimulating freedom of thought in religion and politics. His +principal works are: _Briefe über den neuesten Idealismus_ (1801); +_Versuch über die Principien der philosophischen Erkenntniss_ (1801); +_Fundamentalphilosophie_ (1803); _System der theoretischen Philosophie_ +(1806-1810), _System der praktischen Philosophie_ (1817-1819); _Handbuch +der Philosophie_ (1820; 3rd ed., 1828); _Logik oder Denklehre_ (1827); +_Geschichte der Philos. alter Zeit_ (1815; 2nd ed., 1825); _Allgemeines +Handwörterbuch der philosophischen Wissenschaften_ (1827-1834; 2nd ed., +1832-1838); _Universal-philosophische Vorlesungen für Gebildete +beiderlei Geschlechts_. His work _Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philos. +des XIX. Jahrh._ (1835-1837) contains interesting criticisms of Hegel +and Schelling. + + See also his autobiography, _Meine Lebensreise_ (Leipzig, 2nd ed., + 1840). + + + + +KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS (1825-1904), president of the +Transvaal Republic, was born in Colesberg, Cape Colony, on the 10th of +October 1825. His father was Caspar Jan Hendrick Kruger, who was born in +1796, and whose wife bore the name of Steyn. In his ancestry on both +sides occur Huguenot names. The founder of the Kruger family appears to +have been a German named Jacob Kruger, who in 1713 was sent with others +by the Dutch East India Company to the Cape. At the age of ten Paul +Kruger--as he afterwards came to be known--accompanied his parents in +the migration, known as the Great Trek, from the Cape Colony to the +territories north of the Orange in the years 1835-1840. From boyhood his +life was one of adventure. Brought up on the borderland between +civilization and barbarism, constantly trekking, fighting and hunting, +his education was necessarily of the most primitive character. He learnt +to read and to write, and was taught the narrowest form of Dutch +Presbyterianism. His literature was almost confined to the Bible, and +the Old Testament was preferred to the New. It is related of Kruger, as +indeed it has been said of Piet Retief and others of the early Boer +leaders, that he believed himself the object of special Divine guidance. +At about the age of twenty-five he is said to have disappeared into the +veldt, where he remained alone for several days, under the influence of +deep religious fervour. During this sojourn in the wilderness Kruger +stated that he had been especially favoured by God, who had communed +with and inspired him. Throughout his life he professed this faith in +God's will and guidance, and much of his influence over his followers is +attributable to their belief in his sincerity and in his enjoyment of +Divine favour. The Dutch Reformed Church in the Transvaal, pervaded by a +spirit and faith not unlike those which distinguished the Covenanters, +was divided in the early days into three sects. Of these the narrowest, +most puritanical, and most bigoted was the Dopper sect, to which Kruger +belonged. His Dopper following was always unswerving in its support, and +at all critical times in the internal quarrels of the state rallied +round him. The charge of hypocrisy, frequently made against Kruger--if +by this charge is meant the mere juggling with religion for purely +political ends--does not appear entirely just. The subordination of +reason to a sense of superstitious fanaticism is the keynote of his +character, and largely the explanation of his life. Where faith is so +profound as to believe the Divine guidance _all_, and the individual +intelligence _nil_, a man is able to persuade himself that any course he +chooses to take is the one he is directed to take. Where bigotry is so +blind, reason is but dust in the balance. At the same time there were +incidents in Kruger's life which but ill conform to any Biblical +standard he might choose to adopt or feel imposed upon him. Even van +Oordt, his eloquent historian and apologist, is cognisant of this fact. + +When the lad, who had already taken part in fights with the Matabele and +the Zulus, was fourteen his family settled north of the Vaal and were +among the founders of the Transvaal state. At the age of seventeen Paul +found himself an assistant field cornet, at twenty he was field cornet, +and at twenty-seven held a command in an expedition against the Bechuana +chief Sechele--the expedition in which David Livingstone's mission-house +was destroyed. + +In 1853 he took part in another expedition against Montsioa. When not +fighting natives in those early days Kruger was engaged in distant +hunting excursions which took him as far north as the Zambezi. In 1852 +the Transvaal secured the recognition of its independence from Great +Britain in the Sand River convention. For many years after this date the +condition of the country was one bordering upon anarchy, and into the +faction strife which was continually going on Kruger freely entered. In +1856-1857 he joined M. W. Pretorius in his attempt to abolish the +district governments in the Transvaal and to overthrow the Orange Free +State government and compel a federation between the two countries. The +raid into the Free State failed; the blackest incident in connexion with +it was the attempt of the Pretorius and Kruger party to induce the +Basuto to harass the Free State forces behind, while they were attacking +them in front. + +From this time forward Kruger's life is so intimately bound up with the +history of his country, and even in later years of South Africa, that a +study of that history is essential to an understanding of it (see +TRANSVAAL and SOUTH AFRICA). In 1864, when the faction fighting ended +and Pretorius was president, Kruger was elected commandant-general of +the forces of the Transvaal. In 1870 a boundary dispute arose with the +British government, which was settled by the Keate award (1871). The +decision caused so much discontent in the Transvaal that it brought +about the downfall of President Pretorius and his party; and Thomas +François Burgers, an educated Dutch minister, resident in Cape Colony, +was elected to succeed him. During the term of Burgers' presidency +Kruger appeared to great disadvantage. Instead of loyally supporting the +president in the difficult task of building up a stable state, he did +everything in his power to undermine his authority, going so far as to +urge the Boers to pay no taxes while Burgers was in office. The faction +of which he was a prominent member was chiefly responsible for bringing +about that _impasse_ in the government of the country which drew such +bitter protest from Burgers and terminated in the annexation by the +British in April 1877. At this period of Transvaal history it is +impossible to trace any true patriotism in the action of the majority of +the inhabitants. The one idea of Kruger and his faction was to oust +Burgers from office on any pretext, and, if possible, to put Kruger in +his place. When the downfall of Burgers was assured and annexation +offered itself as the alternative resulting from his downfall, it is +true that Kruger opposed it. But matters had gone too far. Annexation +became an accomplished fact, and Kruger accepted paid office under the +British government. He continued, however, so openly to agitate for the +retrocession of the country, being a member of two deputations which +went to England endeavouring to get the annexation annulled, that in +1878 Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the British administrator, dismissed him +from his service. In 1880 the Boer rebellion occurred, and Kruger was +one of the famous triumvirate, of which General Piet Joubert and +Pretorius were the other members, who, after Majuba, negotiated the +terms of peace on which the Pretoria convention of August 1881 was +drafted. In 1883 he was elected president of the Transvaal, receiving +3431 votes as against 1171 recorded for Joubert. + +In November 1883 President Kruger again visited England, this time for +the purpose of getting another convention. The visit was successful, the +London convention, which for years was a subject of controversy, being +granted by Lord Derby in 1884 on behalf of the British government. The +government of the Transvaal being once more in the hands of the Boers, +the country rapidly drifted towards that state of national bankruptcy +from which it had only been saved by annexation in 1877. In 1886, the +year in which the Rand mines were discovered, President Kruger was by no +means a popular man even among his own followers; as an administrator of +internal affairs he had shown himself grossly incompetent, and it was +only the specious success of his negotiations with the British +government which had retained him any measure of support. In 1888 he was +elected president for a second term of office. In 1889 Dr. Leyds, a +young Hollander, was appointed state secretary, and the system of state +monopolies around which so much corruption grew up was soon in full +course of development. The principle of government monopoly in trade +being thus established, President Kruger now turned his attention to the +further securing of Boer political monopoly. The Uitlanders were +increasing in numbers, as well as providing the state with a revenue. In +1890, 1891, 1892, and 1894 the franchise laws (which at the time of the +convention were on a liberal basis) were so modified that all Uitlanders +were practically excluded altogether. In 1893 Kruger had to face a third +presidential election, and on this occasion the opposition he had raised +among the burgers, largely by the favouritism he displayed to the +Hollander party, was so strong that it was fully anticipated that his +more liberal opponent, General Joubert, would be elected. Before the +election was decided Kruger took care to conciliate the volksraad +members, as well as to see that at all the volksraad elections, which +occurred shortly before the presidential election, his supporters were +returned, or, if not returned, that his opponents were objected to on +some trivial pretext, and by this means prevented from actually sitting +in the volksraad until the presidential election was over. The Hollander +and _concessionnaire_ influence, which had become a strong power in the +state, was all in favour of President Kruger. In spite of these facts +Kruger's position was insecure. "General Joubert was, without any doubt +whatever, elected by a very considerable majority."[1] But the figures +as announced gave Kruger a majority of about 700 votes. General Joubert +accused the government of tampering with the returns, and appealed to +the volksraad. The appeal, however, was fruitless, and Kruger retained +office. The action taken by President Kruger at this election, and his +previous actions in ousting President Burgers and in absolutely +excluding the Uitlanders from the franchise, all show that at any cost, +in his opinion, the government must remain a close corporation, and that +while he lived he must remain at the head of it. + +From 1877 onward Kruger's external policy was consistently anti-British, +and on every side--in Bechuanaland, in Rhodesia, in Zululand--he +attempted to enlarge the frontiers of the Transvaal at the expense of +Great Britain. In these disputes he usually gained something, and it was +not until 1895 that he was definitely defeated in his endeavours to +obtain a seaport. His internal policy was blind, reckless and +unscrupulous, and inevitably led to disaster. It may be summed up in his +own words when replying to a deputation of Uitlanders, who desired to +obtain the legalization of the use of the English language in the +Transvaal. "This," said Kruger, "is my country; these are my laws. Those +who do not like to obey my laws can leave my country." This rejection of +the advances of the Uitlanders--by whose aid he could have built up a +free and stable republic--led to his downfall, though the failure of the +Jameson Raid in the first days of 1896 gave him a signal opportunity to +secure the safety of his country by the grant of real reforms. But the +Raid taught him no lesson of this kind, and despite the intervention of +the British government the Uitlanders' grievances were not remedied. + +In 1898 Kruger was elected president of the Transvaal for the fourth and +last time. In 1899 relations between the Transvaal and Great Britain had +become so strained, by reason of the oppression of the foreign +population, that a conference was arranged at Bloemfontein between Sir +Alfred (afterwards Lord) Milner, the high commissioner, and President +Kruger. Kruger was true to his principles. At every juncture in his life +his object had been to gain for himself and his own narrow policy +everything that he could, while conceding nothing in return. It was for +this reason that he invariably failed to come to any arrangement with +Sir John Brand while the latter was president of the Free State. In +1889, the very year following President Brand's death, he was able to +make a treaty with President Reitz, his successor, which bound each of +the Boer republics to assist the other in case its independence was +menaced, unless the quarrel could be shown to be an unjust one on the +part of the state so menaced. In effect it bound the Free State to share +all the hazardous risk of the reckless anti-British Transvaal policy, +without the Free State itself receiving anything in return. Kruger thus +achieved one of the objects of his life. With such a history of apparent +success, it is not to be wondered at that the Transvaal president came +to Bloemfontein to meet Sir Alfred Milner in no mood for concession. It +is true that he made an ostensible offer on the franchise question, but +that proposal was made dependent on so many conditions that it was a +palpable sham. Every proposition which Sir Alfred Milner made was met by +the objection that it threatened the independence of the Transvaal. This +retort was President Kruger's rallying cry whenever he found himself in +the least degree pressed, either from within or without the state. To +admit Uitlanders to the franchise, to no matter how moderate a degree, +would destroy the independence of the state. In October 1899, after a +long and fruitless correspondence with the British government, war with +Great Britain was ushered in by an ultimatum from the Transvaal. +Immediately after the ultimatum Natal and the Cape Colony were invaded +by the Boers both of the Transvaal and the Free State. Yet one of the +most memorable utterances made by Kruger at the Bloemfontein conference +was couched in the following terms: "We follow out what God says, +'Accursed be he that removeth his neighbour's landmark.' As long as your +Excellency lives you will see that we shall never be the attacking party +on another man's land." The course of the war that followed is described +under TRANSVAAL. In 1900, Bloemfontein and Pretoria having been occupied +by British troops, Kruger, too old to go on commando, with the consent +of his executive proceeded to Europe, where he endeavoured to induce the +European powers to intervene on his behalf, but without success. + +From this time he ceased to have any political influence. He took up his +residence at Utrecht, where he dictated a record of his career, +published in 1902 under the title of _The Memoirs of Paul Kruger_. He +died on the 14th of July 1904 at Clarens, near Vevey, on the shores of +the Lake of Geneva, whither he had gone for the sake of his health. He +was buried at Pretoria on the following 16th of December, Dingaan's Day, +the anniversary of the day in 1838 when the Boers crushed the Zulu king +Dingaan--a fight in which Kruger, then a lad of thirteen, had taken +part. Kruger was thrice married, and had a large family. His second wife +died in 1891. When he went to Europe he left his third wife in Lord +Roberts's custody at Pretoria, but she gradually failed, and died there +(July 1901). It was in her grave that the body of her husband was laid. +It is recorded that when a statue to President Kruger at Pretoria was +erected, it was by Mrs. Kruger's wish that the hat was left open at the +top, in order that the rain-water might collect there for the birds to +drink. + + See J. F. van Oordt, _P. Kruger en de opkomst d. Zuid-Afrikaansche + Republiek_ (Amsterdam, 1898); the _Memoirs_ already mentioned; F. R. + Statham, _Paul Kruger and his Times_ (1898); and, among works with a + wider scope, G. M. Theal, _History of South Africa_ (for events down + to 1872 only); Sir J. P. Fitzpatrick, _The Transvaal from Within_ + (1899); _The Times History of the War in South Africa_ (1900-9); and + A. P. Hillier, _South African Studies_ (1900). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, in _The Transvaal from Within_, ch. iii. + + + + +KRUGERSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 21 m. N.W. of Johannesburg by +rail. Pop. (1904), 20,073, of whom 6946 were whites. It is built on the +Witwatersrand at an elevation of 5709 ft. above the sea, and is a mining +centre of some importance. It is also the starting-point of a railway to +Zeerust and Mafeking. Krugersdorp was founded in 1887 at the time of the +discovery of gold on the Rand and is named after President Kruger. +Within the municipal area is the Paardekraal monument erected to +commemorate the victory gained by the Boers under Andries Pretorius in +1838 over the Zulu king Dingaan, and on the 16th of December each year, +kept as a public holiday, large numbers of Boers assemble at the +monument to celebrate the event. Here in December 1880 a great meeting +of Boers resolved again to proclaim the independence of the Transvaal. +The formal proclamation was made on Dingaan's Day, and after the defeat +of the British at Majuba Hill in 1881 that victory was also commemorated +at Paardekraal on the 16th of December. The monument, which was damaged +during the war of 1899-1902, was restored by the British authorities. +It was at Doornkop, near Krugersdorp, that Dr L. S. Jameson and his +"raiders" surrendered to Commandant Piet Cronje on the 2nd of January +1896 (see TRANSVAAL: _History_). At Sterkfontein, 8 m. N.W. of +Krugersdorp, are limestone caves containing beautiful stalactites. + + + + +KRUMAU (in Czech, _Krumlov_), is a town in Bohemia situated on the banks +of the Moldau (Vitava). It has about 8000 inhabitants, partly of Czech, +partly of German nationality. Krumau is principally celebrated because +its ancient castle was long the stronghold of the Rosenberg family, +known also as _pani z ruze_, the lords of the rose. Henry II. of +Rosenberg (d. 1310) was the first member of the family to reside at +Krumau. His son Peter I. (d. 1349) raised the place to the rank of a +city. The last two members of the family were two brothers, William, +created prince of Ursini-Rosenberg in 1556 (d. 1592), and Peter Vok, who +played a very large part in Bohemian history. Their librarian was +Wenceslas Brezan, who has left a valuable work on the annals of the +Rosenberg family. Peter Vok of Rosenberg, a strong adherent of the +Utraquist party, sold Krumau shortly before his death (1611), because +the Jesuits had established themselves in the neighbourhood. + +The lordship, one of the most extensive in the monarchy, was bought by +the emperor Rudolph II. for his natural son, Julius of Austria. In 1622 +the emperor Ferdinand II. presented the lordship to his minister, Hans +Ulrich von Eggenberg, and in 1625 raised it to the rank of an hereditary +duchy in his favour. From the Eggenberg family Krumau passed in 1719 to +Prince Adam Franz Karl of Schwarzenberg, who was created duke of Krumau +in 1723. The head of the Schwarzenberg family bears the title of duke of +Krumau. The castle, one of the largest and finest in Bohemia, preserves +much of its ancient character. + + See W. Brezan, _Zivot Vilema z Rosenberka_ (Life of William of + Rosenberg), 1847; also _Zivot Petra Voka z Rosenberka_ (Life of Peter + Vok of Rosenberg), 1880. + + + + +KRUMBACHER, CARL (1856-1909), German Byzantine scholar, was born at +Kürnach in Bavaria on the 23rd of September 1856. He was educated at the +universities of Munich and Leipzig, and held the professorship of the +middle age and modern Greek language and literature in the former from +1897 to his death. His greatest work is his _Geschichte der +byzantinischen Litteratur_ (from Justinian to the fall of the Eastern +Empire, 1453), a second edition of which was published in 1897, with the +collaboration of A. Ehrhard (section on theology) and H. Gelzer (general +sketch of Byzantine history, A.D. 395-1453). The value of the work is +greatly enhanced by the elaborate bibliographies contained in the body +of the work and in a special supplement. Krumbacher also founded the +_Byzantinische Zeitschrift_ (1892) and the _Byzantinisches Archiv_ +(1898). He travelled extensively and the results of a journey to Greece +appeared in his _Griechische Reise_ (1886). Other works by him are: +_Casia_ (1897), a treatise on a 9th-century Byzantine poetess, with the +fragments; _Michael Glykas_ (1894); "Die griechische Litteratur des +Mittelalters" in P. Hinneberg's _Die Kultur der Gegenwart_, i. 8 (1905); +_Das Problem der neugriechischen Schriftsprache_ (1902), in which he +strongly opposed the efforts of the purists to introduce the classical +style into modern Greek literature, and _Populäre Aufsätze_ (1909). + + + + +KRUMEN (KROOMEN, KROOBOYS, KRUS, or CROOS), a negro people of the West +Coast of Africa. They dwell in villages scattered along the coast of +Liberia from below Monrovia nearly to Cape Palmas. The name has been +wrongly derived from the English word "crew," with reference to the fact +that Krumen were the first West African people to take service in +European vessels. It is probably from Kraoh, the primitive name of one +of their tribes. Under Krumen are now grouped many kindred tribes, the +Grebo, Basa, Nifu, &c., who collectively number some 40,000. The Krus +proper live in the narrow strip of coast between the Sino river and Cape +Palmas, where are their five chief villages, Kruber, Little Kru, Settra +Kru, Nana Kru and King William's Town. They are traditionally from the +interior, but have long been noted as skilful seamen and daring +fishermen. They are a stout, muscular, broad-chested race, probably the +most robust of African peoples. They have true negro features--skin of a +blue-black hue and woolly and abundant hair. The women are of a lighter +shade than negro women generally, and in several respects come much +nearer to a European standard. Morally as well as physically the Krumen +are one of the most remarkable races in Africa. They are honest, brave, +proud, so passionately fond of freedom that they will starve or drown +themselves to escape capture, and have never trafficked in slaves. +Politically the Krus are divided into small commonwealths, each with an +hereditary chief whose duty is simply to represent the people in their +dealings with strangers. The real government is vested in the elders, +who wear as insignia iron rings on their legs. Their president, the head +fetish-man, guards the national symbols, and his house is sanctuary for +offenders till their guilt is proved. Personal property is held in +common by each family. Land also is communal, but the rights of the +actual cultivator cease only when he fails to farm it. + +At 14 or 15 the Kru "boys" eagerly contract themselves for voyages of +twelve or eighteen months. Generally they prefer work near at home, and +are to be found on almost every ship trading on the Guinea coast. As +soon as they have saved enough to buy a wife they return home and settle +down. Krumen ornament their faces with tribal marks--black or blue lines +on the forehead and from ear to ear. They tattoo their arms and mutilate +the incisor teeth. As a race they are singularly intelligent, and +exhibit their enterprise in numerous settlements along the coast. Sierra +Leone, Grand Bassa and Monrovia all have their Kru towns. Dr Bleek +classifies the Kru language with the Mandingo family, and in this he is +followed by Dr R. G. Latham; Dr Kölle, who published a Kru grammar +(1854), considers it as distinct. + + See A. de Quatrefages and E. T. Hamy, _Crania ethnica_, ix. 363 + (1878-1879); Schlagintweit-Sakunlunski, in the _Sitzungsberichte_ of + the academy at Munich (1875); Nicholas, in _Bull. de la Soc. + d'Anthrop._ (Paris, 1872); J. Büttikofer, _Reisebilder aus Liberia_ + (Leiden, 1890); Sir H. H. Johnston, _Liberia_ (London, 1906). + + + + +KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1767-1845), German theologian, was born on +the 13th of July 1767 at Tecklenburg, Westphalia. Having studied +theology at Lingen and Halle, he became successively rector of the +grammar school at Mörs (1793), professor of theology at Duisburg (1800), +preacher at Crefeld, and afterwards at Kettwig, _Consistorialrath_ and +superintendent in Bernburg, and, after declining an invitation to the +university of Bonn, pastor of the Ansgariuskirche in Bremen (1824). He +died at Bremen on the 14th of April 1845. He was the author of many +religious works, but is best known by his _Parabeln_ (1805; 9th ed. +1876; Eng. trans. 1844). + + A. W. Möller published his life and letters in 1849. + +His brother GOTTFRIED DANIEL KRUMMACHER (1774-1837), who studied +theology at Duisburg and became pastor successively in Bärl (1798), +Wülfrath (1801) and Elberfeld (1816), was the leader of the "pietists" +of Wupperthal, and published several volumes of sermons, including one +entitled _Die Wanderungen Israels durch d. Wüste nach Kanaan_ (1834). + +FRIEDRICH WILHELM KRUMMACHER (1796-1868), son of Friedrich Adolf, +studied theology at Halle and Jena, and became pastor successively at +Frankfort (1819), Ruhrort (1823), Gemarke, near Barmen in the Wupperthal +(1825), and Elberfeld (1834). In 1847 he received an appointment to the +Trinity Church in Berlin, and in 1853 he became court chaplain at +Potsdam. He was an influential promoter of the Evangelical Alliance. His +best-known works are _Elias der Thisbiter_ (1828-1833; 6th ed. 1874; +Eng. trans. 1838); _Elisa_ (1837) and _Das Passionsbuch, der leidende +Christus_ (1854, in _English The Suffering Saviour_, 1870). His +_Autobiography_ was published in 1869 (Eng. trans. 1871). + +EMIL WILHELM KRUMMACHER (1798-1886), another son, was born at Mörs in +1798. In 1841 he became pastor in Duisburg. He wrote, amongst other +works, _Herzensmanna aus Luthers Werken_ (1852). His son Hermann +(1828-1890), who was appointed _Consistorialrath_ in Stettin in 1877, +was the author of _Deutsches Leben in Nordamerika_ (1874). + + + + +KRUPP, ALFRED (1812-1887), German metallurgist, was born at Essen on the +26th of April 1812. His father, Friedrich Krupp (1787-1826), had +purchased a small forge in that town about 1810, and devoted himself to +the problem of manufacturing cast steel; but though that product was put +on the market by him in 1815, it commanded but little sale, and the firm +was far from prosperous. After his death the works were carried on by +his widow, and Alfred, as the eldest son, found himself obliged, a boy +of fourteen, to leave school and undertake their direction. For many +years his efforts met with little success, and the concern, which in +1845 employed only 122 workmen, did scarcely more than pay its way. But +in 1847 Krupp made a 3 pdr. muzzle-loading gun of cast steel, and at the +Great Exhibition of London in 1851 he exhibited a solid flawless ingot +of cast steel weighing 2 tons. This exhibit caused a sensation in the +industrial world, and the Essen works sprang into fame. Another +successful invention, the manufacture of weldless steel tires for +railway vehicles, was introduced soon afterwards. The profits derived +from these and other steel manufactures were devoted to the expansion of +the works and to the development of the artillery with which the name of +Krupp is especially associated (see ORDNANCE). The model settlement, +which is one of the best-known features of the Krupp works, was started +in the 'sixties, when difficulty began to be found in housing the +increasing number of workmen; and now there are various "colonies," +practically separate villages, dotted about to the south and south-west +of the town, with schools, libraries, recreation grounds, clubs, stores, +&c. The policy also was adopted of acquiring iron and coal mines, so +that the firm might have command of supplies of the raw material +required for its operations. Alfred Krupp, who was known as the "Cannon +King," died at Essen on the 14th of July 1887, and was succeeded by his +only son, Friedrich Alfred Krupp (1854-1902), who was born at Essen on +the 17th of February 1854. The latter devoted himself to the financial +rather than to the technical side of the business, and under him it +again underwent enormous expansion. Among other things he in 1896 leased +the "Germania" ship-building yard at Kiel, and in 1902 it passed into +the complete ownership of the firm. In the latter year, which was also +the year of his death, on the 22nd of November, the total number of men +employed at Essen and its associated works was over 40,000. His elder +daughter Bertha, who succeeded him, was married in October 1906 to Dr +Gustav von Bohlen und Halbach, who on that occasion received the right +to bear the name Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach. The enormous increase in +the German navy involved further expansion in the operations of the +Krupp firm as manufacturers of the armour plates and guns required for +the new ships, and in 1908 its capital, then standing at £9,000,000, was +augmented by £2,500,000. + + + + +KRUSENSTERN, ADAM IVAN (1770-1846), Russian navigator, hydrographer and +admiral, was born at Haggud in Esthonia on the 19th of November 1770. In +1785 he entered the corps of naval cadets, after leaving which, in 1788, +with the grade of midshipman, he served in the war against Sweden. +Having been appointed to serve in the British fleet for several years +(1793-1799), he visited America, India and China. After publishing a +paper pointing out the advantages of direct communication between Russia +and China by Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, he was appointed by +the emperor Alexander I. to make a voyage to the east coast of Asia to +endeavour to carry out the project. Two English ships were bought, in +which the expedition left Kronstadt in August 1803 and proceeded by Cape +Horn and the Sandwich Islands to Kamchatka, and thence to Japan. +Returning to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope, after an extended series +of explorations, Krusenstern reached Kronstadt in August 1806, his being +the first Russian expedition to circumnavigate the world. The emperor +conferred several honours upon him, and he ultimately became admiral. As +director of the Russian naval school Krusenstern did much useful work. +He was also a member of the scientific committee of the marine +department, and his contrivance for counteracting the influence of the +iron in vessels on the compass was adopted in the navy. He died at Reval +on the 24th of August 1846. + + Krusenstern's _Voyage Round the World in 1803-1806_ was published at + St Petersburg in 1810-1814, in 3 vols., with folio atlas of 104 plates + and maps (Eng. ed., 2 vols. 1813; French ed., 2 vols., and atlas of 30 + plates, 1820). His narrative contains a good many important + discoveries and rectifications, especially in the region of Japan, and + the contributions made by the various savants were of much scientific + importance. A valuable work is his _Atlas de l'Océan Pacifique_, with + its accompanying _Recueil des mémoires hydrographiques_ (St + Petersburg, 1824-1827). See _Memoir_ by his daughter, Madame Charlotte + Bernhardi, translated by Sir John Ross (1856). + + + + +KRUSHEVATS (or KRUSEVAC), a town of Servia, lying in a fertile region of +hills and dales near the right bank of the Servian Morava. Pop. (1900), +about 10,000. Krushevats is the capital of a department bearing the same +name, and has an active trade in tobacco, hemp, flax, grain and +livestock, for the sale of which it possesses about a dozen markets. It +was in Krushevats that the last Servian tsar, Lazar, assembled his army +to march against the Turks, and lose his empire, at Kosovo, in 1389. The +site of his palace is marked by a ruined enclosure containing a fragment +of the tower of Queen Militsa, whither, according to legend, tidings of +the defeat were brought her by crows from the battlefield. Within the +enclosure stands a church, dating from the reign of Stephen Dushan +(1336-1356), with beautiful rose windows and with imperial peacocks, +dragons and eagles sculptured on the walls. Several old Turkish houses +were left at the beginning of the 20th century, besides an ancient +Turkish fountain and bath. + + + + +KSHATTRIYA, one of the four original Indian castes, the other three +being the Brahman, the Vaisya and the Sudra. The Kshattriya was the +warrior caste, and their function was to protect the people and abstain +from sensual pleasures. On the rise of Brahmin ascendancy the +Kshattriyas were repressed, and their consequent revolt gave rise to +Buddhism and Jainism, the founders of both these religions belonging to +the Kshattriya caste. Though, according to tradition, the Kshattriyas +were all exterminated by Parasurama, the rank is now conceded to the +modern Rajputs, and also to the ruling families of native states. (See +CASTE.) + + + + +KUBAN, a river of southern Russia, rising on the W. slope of the Elbruz, +in the Caucasus, at an altitude of 13,930 ft., races down the N. face of +the Caucasus as a mountain-torrent, but upon getting down to the +lower-lying steppe country S. of Stavropol it turns, at 1075 ft. +altitude, towards the N.W., and eventually, assuming a westerly course, +enters the Gulf of Kyzyl-tash, on the Black Sea, in the vicinity of the +Straits of Kerch. Its lower course lies for some distance through +marshes, where in times of overflow its breadth increases from the +normal 700 ft. to over half a mile. Its total length is 500 m., the area +of its basin 21,480 sq. m. It is navigable for steamers for 73 m., as +far as the confluence of its tributary, the Laba (200 m. long). This, +like its other affluents, the Byelaya (155 m.), Urup, and Great and +Little Zelenchuk, joins it from the left. The Kuban is the ancient +Hypanis and Vardanes and the Pshishche of the Circassians. + + + + +KUBAÑ, a province of Russian Caucasia, having the Sea of Azov on the W., +the territory of Don Cossacks on the N., the government of Stavropol and +the province of Terek on the E., and the government of Kutais and the +Black Sea district on the S. and S.W. It thus contains the low and +marshy lowlands on the Sea of Azov, the western portion of the fertile +steppes of northern Caucasia, and the northern slopes of the Caucasus +range from its north-west extremity to the Elbruz. The area is 36,370 +sq. m. On the south the province includes the parallel ranges of the +Black Mountains (Kara-dagh), 3000 to 6000 ft. high, which are +intersected by gorges that grow deeper and wider as the main range is +approached. Owing to a relatively wet climate and numerous streams, +these mountains are densely clothed with woods, under the shadow of +which a thick undergrowth of rhododendrons, "Caucasian palms" (_Buxus +sempervirens_), ivy, clematis, &c., develops, so as to render the +forests almost impassable. These cover altogether nearly 20% of the +aggregate area. Wide, treeless plains, from 1000 to 2000 ft. high, +stretch north of the Kubañ, and are profusely watered by that river and +its many tributaries--the Little and Great Zelenchuk, Urup, Laba, +Byelaya, Pshish--mountain torrents that rush through narrow gorges from +the Caucasus range. In its lower course the Kubañ forms a wide, low +delta, covered with rushes, haunted by wild boar, and very unhealthy. +The same characteristics mark the low plains on the east of the Sea of +Azov, dotted over with numerous semi-stagnant lakes. Malaria is the +enemy of these regions, and is especially deadly on the Tamañ Peninsula, +as also along the left bank of the lower and middle Kubañ. + +There is considerable mineral wealth. Coal is found on the Kubañ and its +tributaries, but its extraction is still insignificant (less than 10,000 +tons per annum). Petroleum wells exist in the district of Maikop, but +the best are in the Tamañ Peninsula, where they range over 570 sq. m. +Iron ores, silver and zinc are found; alabaster is extracted, as also +some salt, soda and Epsom salts. The best mineral waters are at Psekup +and Tamañ, where there are also numbers of mud volcanoes, ranging from +small hillocks to hills 365 ft. high and more. The soil is very fertile +in the plains, parts of which consist of black earth and are being +rapidly populated. + +The population reached 1,928,419 in 1897, of whom 1,788,622 were +Russians, 13,926 Armenians, 20,137 Greeks and 20,778 Germans. There were +at the same date 945,873 women, and only 156,486 people lived in towns. +The estimated population in 1906 was 2,275,400. The aborigines were +represented by 100,000 Circassians, 5000 Nogai Tatars and some Ossetes. +The Circassians or Adyghe, who formerly occupied the mountain valleys, +were compelled, after the Russian conquest in 1861, either to settle on +the flat land or to emigrate; those who refused to move voluntarily were +driven across the mountains to the Black Sea coast. Most of them (nearly +200,000) emigrated to Turkey, where they formed the Bashi-bazouks. +Peasants from the interior provinces of Russia occupied the plains of +the Kubañ, and they now number over 1,000,000, while the Kubañ Cossacks +in 1897 numbered 804,372 (405,428 women). In point of religion 90% of +the population were in 1897 members of the Orthodox Greek Church, 4% +Raskolniks and other Christians and 5.4% Mahommedans, the rest being +Jews. + +Wheat is by far the chief crop (nearly three-quarters of the total area +under crops are under wheat); rye, oats, barley, millet, Indian corn, +some flax and potatoes, as also tobacco, are grown. Agricultural +machinery is largely employed, and the province is a reserve granary for +Russia. Livestock, especially sheep, is kept in large numbers on the +steppes. Bee-keeping is general, and gardening and vine-growing are +spreading rapidly. Fishing in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, as also in +the Kubañ, is important. + +Two main lines of railway intersect the province, one running N.W. to +S.E., from Rostov to Vladikavkaz, and another starting from the former +south-westwards to Novorossiysk on the north coast of the Black Sea. The +province is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which, with +their populations in 1897, are Ekaterinodar, capital of the province +(65,697), Anapa (6676), Labinsk (6388), Batalpashinsk (8100), Maikop +(34,191), Temryuk (14,476) and Yeisk (35,446). + +The history of the original settlements of the various native tribes, +and their language and worship before the introduction of Mahommedanism, +remain a blank page in the legends of the Caucasus. The peninsula of +Tamañ, a land teeming with relics of ancient Greek colonists, has been +occupied successively by the Cimmerians, Sarmatians, Khazars, Mongols +and other nations. The Genoese, who established an extensive trade in +the 13th century, were expelled by the Turks in 1484, and in 1784 Russia +obtained by treaty the entire peninsula and the territory on the right +bank of the Kubañ, the latter being granted by Catherine II. in 1792 to +the Cossacks of the Dnieper. Then commenced the bloody struggle with +the Circassians, which continued for more than half a century. Not only +domestic, but even field work, is conducted mostly by the women, who are +remarkable for their physical strength and endurance. The native +mountaineers, known under the general name of Circassians, but locally +distinguished as the Karachai, Abadsikh, Khakuchy, Shapsugh, have +greatly altered their mode of life since the pacification of the +Caucasus, still, however, maintaining Mahommedanism, speaking their +vernacular, and strictly observing the customs of their ancestors. +Exports include wheat, tobacco, leather, wool, petroleum, timber, fish, +salt and live cattle; imports, dry goods, grocery and hardware. Local +industry is limited to a few tanneries, petroleum refineries and spirit +distilleries. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +KUBELIK, JAN (1880- ), Bohemian violinist, was born near Prague, of +humble parentage. He learnt the violin from childhood, and appeared in +public at Prague in 1888, subsequently being trained at the +Conservatorium by the famous teacher Ottakar Sevcik. From him he learnt +an extraordinary technique, and from 1898 onwards his genius was +acclaimed at concerts throughout Europe. He first appeared in London in +1900, and in America in 1901, creating a _furore_ everywhere. In 1903 he +married the Countess Czaky Szell. + + + + +KUBERA (or KUVERA), in Hindu mythology, the god of wealth. Originally he +appears as king of the powers of evil, a kind of Pluto. His home is +Alaka in Mount Kailasa, and his garden, the world's treasure-house, is +Chaitraratha, on Mount Mandara. Kubera is half-brother to the demon +Ravana, and was driven from Ceylon by the latter. + + + + +KUBLAI KHAN (or KAAN, as the supreme ruler descended from Jenghiz was +usually distinctively termed in the 13th century) (1216-1294), the most +eminent of the successors of Jenghiz (Chinghiz), and the founder of the +Mongol dynasty in China. He was the second son of Tule, youngest of the +four sons of Jenghiz by his favourite wife. Jenghiz was succeeded in the +khanship by his third son Okkodai, or Ogdai (1229), he by his son Kuyuk +(1246), and Kuyuk by Mangu, eldest son of Tule (1252). Kublai was born +in 1216, and, young as he was, took part with his younger brother Hulagu +(afterwards conqueror of the caliph and founder of the Mongol dynasty in +Persia) in the last campaign of Jenghiz (1226-27). The Mongol poetical +chronicler, Sanang Setzen, records a tradition that Jenghiz himself on +his death-bed discerned young Kublai's promise and predicted his +distinction. + +Northern China, Cathay as it was called, had been partially conquered by +Jenghiz himself, and the conquest had been followed up till the Kin or +"golden" dynasty of Tatars, reigning at K'ai-feng Fu on the Yellow +River, were completely subjugated (1234). But China south of the +Yangtsze-kiang remained many years later subject to the native dynasty +of Sung, reigning at the great city of Lingan, or Kinsai (_King-sz'_, +"capital"), now known as Hang-chow Fu. Operations to subdue this region +had commenced in 1235, but languished till Mangu's accession. Kublai was +then named his brother's lieutenant in Cathay, and operations were +resumed. By what seems a vast and risky strategy, of which the motives +are not quite clear, the first campaign of Kublai was directed to the +subjugation of the remote western province of Yunnan. After the capture +of Tali Fu (well known in recent years as the capital of a Mahommedan +insurgent sultan), Kublai returned north, leaving the war in Yunnan to a +trusted general. Some years later (1257) the khan Mangu himself entered +on a campaign in west China, and died there, before Ho-chow in +Sze-ch'uen (1259). + +Kublai assumed the succession, but it was disputed by his brother +Arikbugha and by his cousin Kaidu, and wars with these retarded the +prosecution of the southern conquest. Doubtless, however, this was +constantly before Kublai as a great task to be accomplished, and its +fulfilment was in his mind when he selected as the future capital of his +empire the Chinese city that we now know as Peking. Here, in 1264, to +the north-east of the old city, which under the name of Yenking had been +an occasional residence of the Kin sovereigns, he founded his new +capital, a great rectangular plot of 18 m. in circuit. The (so-called) +"Tatar city" of modern Peking is the city of Kublai, with about +one-third at the north cut off, but Kublai's walls are also on this +retrenched portion still traceable. + +The new city, officially termed T'ai-tu ("great court"), but known among +the Mongols and western people as Kaan-baligh ("city of the khan") was +finished in 1267. The next year war against the Sung Empire was resumed, +but was long retarded by the strenuous defence of the twin cities of +Siang-yang and Fan-cheng, on opposite sides of the river Han, and +commanding two great lines of approach to the basin of the +Yangtsze-kiang. The siege occupied nearly five years. After this Bayan, +Kublai's best lieutenant, a man of high military genius and noble +character, took command. It was not, however, till 1276 that the Sung +capital surrendered, and Bayan rode into the city (then probably the +greatest in the world) as its conqueror. The young emperor, with his +mother, was sent prisoner to Kaan-baligh; but two younger princes had +been despatched to the south before the fall of the city, and these +successively were proclaimed emperor by the adherents of the native +throne. An attempt to maintain their cause was made in Fu-kien, and +afterwards in the province of Kwang-tung; but in 1279 these efforts were +finally extinguished, and the faithful minister who had inspired them +terminated the struggle by jumping with his young lord into the sea. + +Even under the degenerate Sung dynasty the conquest of southern China +had occupied the Mongols during half a century of intermittent +campaigns. But at last Kublai was ruler of all China, and probably the +sovereign (at least nominally) of a greater population than had ever +acknowledged one man's supremacy. For, though his rule was disputed by +the princes of his house in Turkestan, it was acknowledged by those on +the Volga, whose rule reached to the frontier of Poland, and by the +family of his brother Hulagu, whose dominion extended from the Oxus to +the Arabian desert. For the first time in history the name and character +of an emperor of China were familiar as far west as the Black Sea and +not unknown in Europe. The Chinese seals which Kublai conferred on his +kinsmen reigning at Tabriz are stamped upon their letters to the kings +of France, and survive in the archives of Paris. Adventurers from +Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, Byzantium, even from Venice, served him as +ministers, generals, governors, envoys, astronomers or physicians; +soldiers from all Asia to the Caucasus fought his battles in the south +of China. Once in his old age (1287) Kublai was compelled to take the +field in person against a serious revolt, raised by Nayan, a prince of +his family, who held a vast domain on the borders of Manchuria. Nayan +was taken and executed. The revolt had been stirred up by Kaidu, who +survived his imperial rival, and died in 1301. Kublai himself died in +1294, at the age of seventy-eight. + +Though a great figure in Asiatic history, and far from deserving a niche +in the long gallery of Asiatic tyrants, Kublai misses a record in the +short list of the good rulers. His historical locus was a happy one, +for, whilst he was the first of his race to rise above the innate +barbarism of the Mongols, he retained the force and warlike character of +his ancestors, which vanished utterly in the effeminacy of those who +came after him. He had great intelligence and a keen desire for +knowledge, with apparently a good deal of natural benevolence and +magnanimity. But his love of splendour, and his fruitless expeditions +beyond sea, created enormous demands for money, and he shut his eyes to +the character and methods of those whom he employed to raise it. A +remarkable narrative of the oppressions of one of these, Ahmed of +Fenaket, and of the revolt which they provoked, is given by Marco Polo, +in substantial accordance with the Chinese annals. + +Kublai patronized Chinese literature and culture generally. The great +astronomical instruments which he caused to be made were long preserved +at Peking, but were carried off to Berlin in 1900. Though he put hardly +any Chinese into the first ranks of his administration, he attached many +to his confidence, and was personally popular among them. Had his +endeavour to procure European priests for the instruction of his +people, of which we know through Marco Polo, prospered, the Roman +Catholic church, which gained some ground under his successors, might +have taken stronger root in China. Failing this momentary effort, Kublai +probably saw in the organized force of Tibetan Buddhism the readiest +instrument in the civilization of his countrymen, and that system +received his special countenance. An early act of his reign had been to +constitute a young lama of intelligence and learning the head of the +Lamaite Church, and eventually also prince of Tibet, an act which may be +regarded as a precursory form of the rule of the "grand lamas" of Lassa. +The same ecclesiastic, Mati Dhwaja, was employed by Kublai to devise a +special alphabet for use with the Mongol language. It was chiefly based +on Tibetan forms of Nagari; some coins and inscriptions in it are +extant; but it had no great vogue, and soon perished. Of the splendour +of his court and entertainments, of his palaces, summer and winter, of +his great hunting expeditions, of his revenues and extraordinary paper +currency, of his elaborate system of posts and much else, an account is +given in the book of Marco Polo, who passed many years in Kublai's +service. + +We have alluded to his foreign expeditions, which were almost all +disastrous. Nearly all arose out of a hankering for the nominal +extension of his empire by claiming submission and tribute. Expeditions +against Japan were several times repeated; the last, in 1281, on an +immense scale, met with huge discomfiture. Kublai's preparations to +avenge it were abandoned owing to the intense discontent which they +created. In 1278 he made a claim of submission upon Champa, an ancient +state representing what we now call Cochin China. This eventually led to +an attempt to invade the country through Tongking, and to a war with the +latter state, in which the Mongols had much the worst of it. War with +Burma (or Mien, as the Chinese called it) was provoked in very similar +fashion, but the result was more favourable to Kublai's arms. The +country was overrun as far as the Irrawaddy delta, the ancient capital, +Pagan, with its magnificent temples, destroyed, and the old royal +dynasty overthrown. The last attempt of the kind was against Java, and +occurred in the last year of the old khan's reign. The envoy whom he had +commissioned to claim homage was sent back with ignominy. A great +armament was equipped in the ports of Fu-kien to avenge this insult; but +after some temporary success the force was compelled to re-embark with a +loss of 3000 men. The death of Kublai prevented further action. + +Some other expeditions, in which force was not used, gratified the +khan's vanity by bringing back professions of homage, with presents, and +with the curious reports of foreign countries in which Kublai delighted. +Such expeditions extended to the states of southern India, to eastern +Africa, and even to Madagascar. + +Of Kublai's twelve legitimate sons, Chingkim, the favourite and +designated successor, died in 1284/5; and Timur, the son of Chingkim, +took his place. No great king arose in the dynasty after Kublai. He had +in all nine successors of his house on the throne of Kaan-baligh, but +the long and imbecile reign of the ninth, Toghon Timur, ended (1368) in +disgrace and expulsion and the native dynasty of Ming reigned in their +stead. (H. Y.) + + + + +KUBUS, a tribe inhabiting the central parts of Sumatra. They are nomadic +savages living entirely in the forests in shelters of branches and +leaves built on platforms. It has been suggested that they represent a +Sumatran aboriginal race; but Dr J. G. Garson, reporting on Kubu skulls +and skeletons submitted to him by Mr. H. O. Forbes, declared them +decidedly Malay, though the frizzle in the hair might indicate a certain +mixture of negrito blood (_Jour. Anthrop. Instit._, April 1884). They +are of a rich olive-brown tint, their hair jet black and inclined to +curl, and, though not dwarfs, are below the average height. + + + + +KUCHAN, a fertile and populous district of the province Khorasan in +Persia, bounded N. by the Russian Transcaspian territory, W. by Bujnurd, +S. by Isfaraïn, and extending in the E. to near Radkan. Its area is +about 3000 sq. m. and its population, principally composed of Zafaranlu +Kurds, descendants of tribes settled there by Shah Abbas I. in the 17th +century, is estimated at 100,000. About 3000 families are nomads and +live in tents. The district produces much grain, 25,000 to 30,000 tons +yearly, and contains two towns, Kuchan and Shirvan (pop. 6000), and many +villages. + +KUCHAN, the capital of the district, has suffered much from the effects +of earthquakes, notably in 1875, 1894 and 1895. The last earthquake laid +the whole town in ruins and caused considerable loss of life. About 8000 +of the survivors removed to a site 7½ m. E. and there built a new town +named Nasseriyeh after Nasr-ud-din Shah, but known better as Kuchan i +jadid, i.e. New Kuchan, and about 1000 remained in the ruined city in +order to be near their vineyards and gardens. The geographical position +of the old town is 37° 8´ N., 58° 25´ E., elevation 4100 ft. The new +town has been regularly laid out with broad streets and spacious +bazaars, and, situated as it is half-way between Meshed and Askabad on +the cart-road connecting those two places, has much trade. Its +population is estimated at 10,000. There are telegraph and post offices. + + + + +KUCH BEHAR, or COOCH BEHAR, a native state of India, in Bengal, +consisting of a submontane tract, not far from Darjeeling, entirely +surrounded by British territory. Area, 1307 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 566,974; +estimated revenue, £140,000. The state forms a level plain of triangular +shape, intersected by numerous rivers. The greater portion is fertile +and well cultivated, but tracts of jungle are to be seen in the +north-east corner, which abuts upon Assam. The soil is uniform in +character throughout, consisting of a light, friable loam, varying in +depth from 6 in. to 3 ft., superimposed upon a deep bed of sand. The +whole is detritus, washed down by torrents from the neighbouring +Himalayas. The rivers all pass through the state from north to south, to +join the main stream of the Brahmaputra. Some half-dozen are navigable +for small trading boats throughout the year, and are nowhere fordable; +and there are about twenty minor streams which become navigable only +during the rainy season. The streams have a tendency to cut new channels +for themselves after every annual flood, and they communicate with one +another by cross-country watercourses. Rice is grown on three-fourths of +the cultivated area. Jute and tobacco are also largely grown for export. +The only special industries are the weaving of a strong silk obtained +from worms fed on the castor-oil plant, and of a coarse jute cloth used +for screens and bedding. The external trade is chiefly in the hands of +Marwari immigrants from Rajputana. Among other improvements a railway +has been constructed, with the assistance of a loan from the British +government. The earthquake of the 12th of June 1897 caused damage to +public buildings, roads, &c., in the state to the estimated amount of +£100,000. + +The Koch or Rajbansi, from which the name of the state is derived, are a +widely spread tribe, evidently of aboriginal descent, found throughout +all northern Bengal, from Purnea district to the Assam valley. They are +akin to the Indo-Chinese races of the north-east frontier; but they have +now become largely hinduized, especially in their own home, where the +appellation "Koch" has come to be used as a term of reproach. Their +total number in all India was returned in 1901 as nearly 2½ millions. + +As in the case of many other small native states, the royal family of +Kuch Behar lays claim to a divine origin in order to conceal an impure +aboriginal descent. The greatest monarch of the dynasty was Nar Narayan, +the son of Visu Singh, who began to reign about 1550. He conquered the +whole of Kamrup, built temples in Assam, of which ruins still exist +bearing inscriptions with his name, and extended his power southwards +over what is now part of the British districts of Rangpur and Purnea. +His son, Lakshmi Narayan, who succeeded him in Kuch Behar, became +tributary to the Mogul Empire. In 1772 a competitor for the throne, +having been driven out of the country by his rivals, applied for +assistance to Warren Hastings. A detachment of sepoys was accordingly +marched into the state; the Bhutias, whose interference had led to this +intervention, were expelled, and forced to sue for peace through the +mediation of the lama of Tibet. By the treaty made on this occasion, +April 1773, the raja acknowledged subjection to the Company, and made +over to it one-half of his annual revenues. In 1863, on the death of the +raja, leaving a son and heir only ten months old, a British commissioner +was appointed to undertake the direct management of affairs during the +minority of the prince, and many important reforms were successfully +introduced. The maharaja Sir Nripendra Narayan, G.C.I.E., born in 1862, +was educated under British guardianship at Patna and Calcutta, and +became hon. lieutenant-colonel of the 6th Bengal Cavalry. In 1897-98 he +served in the Tirah campaign on the staff of General Yeatman-Biggs, and +received the distinction of a C.B. He was present at the Jubilee in +1887, the Diamond Jubilee of 1897, and King Edward's Coronation in 1902, +and became a well-known figure in London society. In 1878 he married a +daughter of Keshub Chunder Sen, the Brahmo leader. His eldest son was +educated in England. + +The town of Kuch Behar is situated on the river Tursa, and has a railway +station. Pop. (1901), 10,458. It contains a college affiliated to the +Calcutta University. + + + + +KUDU (_koodoo_), the native name for a large species of African antelope +(q.v.), with large corkscrew-like horns in the male, and the body marked +with narrow vertical white lines in both sexes. The female is hornless. +_Strepsiceros capensis_ (or _S. strepsiceros_) is the scientific name of +the true kudu, which ranges from the Cape to Somaliland; but there is +also a much smaller species (_S. imberbis_) in East and North-East +Africa. + +[Illustration: Male Kudu.] + + + + +KUENEN, ABRAHAM (1828-1891), Dutch Protestant theologian, the son of an +apothecary, was born on the 16th of September 1828, at Haarlem, North +Holland. On his father's death it became necessary for him to leave +school and take a humble place in the business. By the generosity of +friends he was educated at the gymnasium at Haarlem and afterwards at the +university of Leiden. He studied theology, and won his doctor's degree by +an edition of thirty-four chapters of Genesis from the Arabic version of +the Samaritan Pentateuch. In 1853 he became professor extraordinarius of +theology at Leiden, and in 1855 full professor. He married a daughter of +W. Muurling, one of the founders of the Gröningen school, which made the +first pronounced breach with Calvinistic theology in the Reformed Church +of Holland. Kuenen himself soon became one of the main supports of the +modern theology, of which J. N. Scholten (1811-1885) and Karel Willem +Opzoomer (b. 1821) were the chief founders, and of which Leiden became +the headquarters. His first great work, an historico-critical +introduction to the Old Testament, _Historisch-kritisch onderzoek naar +het onstaan en de verzameling van de boeken des Ouden Verbonds_ (3 vols., +1861-1865; 2nd ed., 1885-1893; German by T. Weber and C. T. Müller, +1885-1894), followed the lines of the dominant school of Heinrich Ewald. +But before long he came under the influence of J. W. Colenso, and learned +to regard the prophetic narrative of Genesis, Exodus, and Numbers as +older than what was by the Germans denominated _Grundschrift_ ("Book of +Origins"). In 1869-1870 he published his book on the religion of Israel, +_De godsdienst van Israël tot den ondergang van der Joodschen Staat_ +(Eng. trans., 1874-1875). This was followed in 1875 by a study of Hebrew +prophecy, _De profeten en de profetie onder Israel_ (Eng. trans., 1877), +largely polemical in its scope, and specially directed against those who +rest theological dogmas on the fulfilment of prophecy. In 1882 Kuenen +went to England to deliver a course of Hibbert lectures, _National +Religions and Universal Religion_; in the following year he presided at +the congress of Orientalists held at Leiden. In 1886 his volume on the +Hexateuch was published in England. He died at Leiden on the 10th of +December 1891. + + Kuenen was also the author of many articles, papers and reviews; a + series on the Hexateuch, which appeared in the _Theologisch + Tijdschrift_, of which in 1866 he became joint editor, is one of the + finest products of modern criticism. His collected works were + translated into German and published by K. Budde in 1894. Several of + his works have been translated into English by Philip Wicksteed. See + the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_. + + + + +KUEN-LUN, or KWEN-LUN, a term used to designate generally the mountain +ranges which run along the northern edge of the great Tibetan plateau in +Central Asia. In a wider application it means the succession of ranges +which extend from the Pamirs on the W. to 113° E., until it strikes +against or merges in the steep escarpments of the S.E. flank of the +Mongolian plateau. In the narrower acceptation it applies only to those +ranges which part the desert of Takla-makan on the N. from the Tibetan +plateau on the S. between the Pamirs and the transverse glen of the +Kara-muren, that is, nearly to the longitude of the town of Cherchen +(about 85½° E.). Although the use of the name is thus restricted in +geographical usage, the mountain system so designated does, as a fact, +extend eastwards as far as the great depression of Tsaidam (say 95° E.), +though it is uncertain whether its direct orographical continuation +eastwards is to be identified with the Astin-tagh, or, as F. Grenard and +K. Bogdanovich believe--and with them Sven Hedin is inclined to +agree--with the parallel ranges of Kalta-alaghan and Arka-tagh, which +lie S. of the Astin-tagh. At any rate the Astin-tagh, whether it is the +principal continuation of the Kuen-lun or only a subsidiary flanking +system, is itself the westward continuation of the Nan-shan or Southern +Mountains, which reach down far into China (to 113° E.). + +Taken in its widest meaning, the Kuen-lun Mountains thus stretch in a +wavy line for nearly 2500 m. from E. to W., and while in the W. their +constituent ranges are folded and squeezed by lateral compression into a +breadth of some 150-200 m., their summits being forced up to +correspondingly higher altitudes, in the E. they spread out to a breadth +of some 600 m., the ranges being in that quarter less folded, and +consequently both flatter and lower. In the tectonic structure of Asia +the Kuen-lun forms, as it were, the backbone of the continent. In point +of age it is very much older than either the Himalayas to the S. or the +Tian-shan to the N. But although the crests of its component ranges +reach altitudes of 21,500 to 22,000 ft., they are not as a rule +overtopped by individual peaks of commanding and towering elevation, as +the Himalayas are, but run on the whole tolerably uniform and relatively +at little greater altitude than the lofty valleys which separate them +one from another. It is a strikingly marked characteristic of the +northern edge of the Tibetan plateau that its outermost border-range +(e.g. Western Kuen-lun and Astin-tagh) is throughout double; and this +"twinning" of the mountain-ranges, as also of the intermont lake-basins +among the Kuen-lun ranges, is a peculiar feature of the Tibetan plateau. + + The supreme orographic importance of this great Central Asian mountain + system was recognized in a fashion even by the geographers of ancient + Greece. They used to suppose that an immense range of mountains + crossed Asia from west to east on the parallel of the island of + Rhodes, extending through Asia Minor, the Kurdish highlands, the N. of + Persia, the N. of Bactria (Afghanistan), the Hindu-kush, and so on + into China. This long range they supposed to separate the waters which + flow N. to the Arctic from those which flow S. to the Indian Ocean. K. + Ritter (_Asien_, ii.) was the first of modern geographers to recognize + the true character of the Kuen-lun as a border range of the Tibetan + plateau; and Baron von Richthofen (_China_, i. 1876) still further + defined and accentuated the conception of the system by representing + it as a complex arrangement of several parallel ranges, running in + wavy lines from the Pamirs (76° E.) eastwards to 118° E. But though + von Richthofen's general conception of the Kuen-lun system was broadly + sound and in accordance with facts, the details both of his + description and of that of his pupil Wegener[1] require now very + considerable revision, and need even to be in part recast, as a + consequence of explorations and investigations made since they wrote + by, amongst others, the Russian explorers N. M. Przhevalsky, M. V. + Pyevtsov, V. I. Roboroysky, P. K. Kozlov, K. Bogdanovich, V. A. + Obruchev, and (?) Skassi; by the Englishmen A. D. Carey, A. Dalgleish, + St G. R. Littledale, H. Bower, H. H. P. Deasy and M. S. Wellby; by the + American W. W. Rockhill; the Frenchmen J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins, F. + Grenard, P. G. Bonvalot and Prince Henri d'Orléans; by the Hungarians + L. von Loczy and Count Szechényi; and above all by the Swede Sven + Hedin. + + _Western Kuen-lun._--On the east the Pamir highlands are fenced off + from the East Turkestan lowlands by the double border-ridge of + Sarik-kol (the Sarik-kol range and the Muztagh or Kashgar range), + which has its eastern foot down in the Tarim basin (4000-4500 ft.) and + its western up on the Pamirs at 10,500 to 13,000 ft. above sea-level, + while its own summits, e.g. the Muztagh-ata (25,780 ft.), shoot up far + above the limits of perpetual snow. This double border-ridge is + continued east of the meridian of Yarkand or Yarkent (77° E.) by a + succession of twin ranges, all running, though under different names, + from the W.N.W. to the E.S.E. According to the investigations of F. + Stoliczka and K. Bogdanovich, the same fossils occur in both sets of + border ranges, in the Sarik-kol and in their eastward continuations, + e.g. corals, _Stromatophorae_, _Bryozoa_, _Atrypa reticularis_, _A. + latilinguis_ and _A. aspera_, _Spirifer verneuili_, &c., and these the + latter geologist assigns to the Devonian epoch. These eastward + continuations of the double border-range of the Pamirs are the + constituent ranges of the Kuen-lun proper. The names given to them are + the Kilian or Kiliang, the Khotan and the Keriya Mountains in the more + northerly range and the Raskem or Raskan, the Sughet and the + Ullugh-tagh Mountains in the more southerly range. Although they all + decrease in altitude from west to east, they nevertheless reach + elevations of 19,000 ft., with individual peaks ascending some + 2000-2500 ft. higher. From the East Turkestan lowlands on the north + the ascent is very steep, and the passes across both sets of ranges + lie at great altitudes; for example, the pass of Sanju-davan in the + lower range is 16,325 ft. above sea-level, and the Kyzyl-davan, + farther east, is 16,900 ft., while the Sughet-davan in the higher + range is 17,825 ft. The latter range is separated from the Karakorum + Mountains by the deeply trenched gorge of the Raskem or Yarkand-darya, + while the deep glen of the Kara-kash or Khotan-darya intervenes + between the upper (Sughet Mountains) and the lower (Kilian Mountains) + border-ranges. Altogether this western extremity of the Kuen-lun + system is a very rugged mountainous region, a consequence partly of + the intricacy of the flanking ranges and spurs, partly of the powerful + lateral compression to which they have been subjected, and partly of + the great and abrupt differences in vertical elevation between the + crests of the ranges and the bottoms of the deep, narrow, rugged glens + between them. In the broad orographical disposition of the ranges + there is considerable similarity between north Tibet and west Persia, + in that in both cases the ranges are crowded together in the west, but + spread out wider as they advance towards the east. To the two + principal ranges in this part of the system F. Grenard, who + accompanied J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins on his journey in 1890-1895, gives + the names the Altyn-tagh and Ustun-tagh, though he names no less than + six parallel ranges altogether. Now as Altyn-tagh[2] is an accepted, + though in point of fact erroneous, name for Astin-tagh, it is clear + that Grenard considers the main Kuen-lun ranges to be continued + directly by the Astin-tagh. + + From the transverse breach of the Keriya-darya (about 81½° E.) to that + of the Kara-muren in the longitude of Cherchen (about 85½° E.) the + parallel border-ranges of the Tibetan plateau trend to the E.N.E., and + here occur in the lower or outer range the passes of Dalai-kurghan-art + (14,290 ft.), Choka-davan, i.e. Littledale's Chokur Pass (9530 ft.) + and others at altitudes ranging from 8600 to 11,500 ft., while in the + upper range are the At-to-davan (16,600 ft.), Yapkak-lik-davan (15,550 + ft.), Sarshu-davan (15,680 ft.) and others not named at 16,590 and + 17,300 ft. + + _Middle Kuen-lun._--Between the upper transverse glens of the + Kara-muren (or Mitt River) and the Cherchen-darya stretches the short + range of Tokuz-davan. From it, on the east side of the Cherchen-daryt, + in about 86° E., the component ranges of the middle Kuen-lun begin to + diverge and radiate outwards (i.e. to north and to south) like the + fingers of the outspread human hand. And here at least four principal + ranges or groups of ranges admit of being discriminated, namely the + Astin-tagh, the Chimen-tagh, the Kalta-alaghan and the Arka-tagh, all + belonging to the mountainous country which borders on the north the + actual plateau region of Tibet. Although these several ranges, or + systems of ranges, differ considerably in their orographical + characteristics, the following description will apply generally to the + entire region from the Astin-tagh southwards to the Arka-tagh. The + broad features of the surface configuration are a series of nearly + parallel mountain-ranges, running from W.S.W. E.N.E. to W.N.W. E.S.E., + and separated by high intermont valleys, which are choked with + disintegrated material and divided into a chequered pattern of + self-contained, shallow lacustrine basins. As a rule the crests of the + ranges are worn down by aerial denudation and have the general + appearance of rounded domes. Hard rock (mostly granite and crystalline + schists, with red sandstone in places) appears only in the transverse + glens, which are often choked with their débris in the form either of + gravel-and-shingle or loose blocks of stone or both. The flanks of the + mountains are so deeply buried in disintegrated material that the + difference in vertical altitude between the floors of the valleys and + the summits of the ranges is comparatively small. But as each + successive range, proceeding south, represents a higher step in the + terraced ascent from the desert of Gobi to the plateau of Tibet, the + ranges when viewed from the north frequently appear like veritable + upstanding mountain ranges, and this appearance is accentuated by the + general steepness of the ascent; whereas, when viewed on the other + hand from the south, these several ranges, owing to their long and + gentle slope in that direction, have the appearance of comparatively + gentle swellings of the earth's surface rather than of well-defined + mountain ranges. As a rule, the streams flow alternately east and west + down the intermont latitudinal valleys, until they break through some + transverse glen in the range on the northern side of the valley. In + the western parts of the system they mostly go to feed the Kara-muren + or the Cherchen-darya, while farther east they flow down into some + larger self-contained basin of internal drainage, such as the + Achik-kol, the two lakes Kara-kol, or the Ghaz-kol, and even yet + farther east make their way, some of them into the lakes of the + Tsaidam depression or become lost in its sands or in those of the + Kum-tagh desert on the north, or go to feed the headstreams of the + great rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow River) and the Yangtsze-kiang (Blue + River) in the south. It appears to be a rule that the rivers which + eventually terminate in the deserts of Gobi and Takla-makan grow + increasingly larger in magnitude from east to west. Another law + appears to distinguish the hydrography of at any rate the great + latitudinal valleys of the Arka-tagh and the Chimen valley (north of + the Chimen-tagh): the streams flow close under the foot of the range + that shuts in each individual valley on the north. But in respect of + precipitation there is a very marked difference between the valleys of + the north and those of the south. Whereas both the mountains and + valleys of the Astin-tagh and of the Akato-tagh (the next large range + to the Astin-tagh on the south) are arid and desolate in the extreme, + smitten as it were with the desiccating breath of the desert, those of + the Arka-tagh and beyond are supersaturated with moisture, so that, at + any rate in summer, the surface is in many parts little better than a + quaking quagmire. Throughout vegetation is scanty and faunal life poor + in species, though in some respects certain of the species, e.g. wild + yaks, wild asses (_kulans_), antelopes (_orongo_ and others), marmots, + hares and partridges exist locally in large numbers. The wild camel + approaches the north outliers of the Astin-tagh, but rarely, if ever, + ventures to enter their fastnesses. Bears, wolves, foxes, goats + (_kökmet_), wild sheep (_arkharis_), lizards, earth-rats, and a small + rodent (_teshikan_), with ravens, eagles, wild ducks and wild geese + are the other varieties principally encountered. The vegetation + consists almost entirely of scrubby bushes of several varieties, + including tamarisks and wild briers, of reeds (_kamish_), and of grass + on the _yaylaks_ (pasture-grounds) of the middle ranges. On the + Arka-tagh even the moss, the last surviving representative of the + flora, disappears entirely. In the eastern Astin-tagh a variety of + wild tea (_chay_, mountain tea) is used by the Mongols. Gold is + obtained in very small quantities in a few places in the Astin-tagh + and the Kalta-alaghan. The nomenclature of the numerous ranges in this + part of the Kuen-lun is extremely confusing, owing to different + travellers having applied the same name to different ranges and to + different travellers have applied different names to what is probably + often identically the same range. In this article the nomenclature + adopted is that employed by the latest, and probably the most + thorough, explorer of this part of Central Asia, namely, Sven Hedin. + Nevertheless, owing to the fact that nearly all the longer and more + important crossings of Tibet and its northern montane region have been + made from north to south, or vice versa, that is, transversely across + the ranges, and comparatively few from east to west along the + intermont latitudinal valleys, the identifications between ranges in + the east and ranges in the west are in more than one instance more or + less doubtful. + + The _Astin-tagh_, although it occupies a similar position to the twin + ranges of the Western Kuen-lun, in that it forms the outermost + escarpment or border-ridge on the north of the Tibetan plateau, would + appear in the opinion of the most competent judges (e.g. Grenard, + Bogdanovich, Sven Hedin, Przhevalsky), to be only a branch or + subsidiary range of the main range of the Kuen-lun. It is not however + a single, long, continuous chain, as it is shown, for example, on the + map of the Russian general staff, but consists of two parallel main + ranges, and in the east of three, and even to the N.E. of Tsaidam of + four, parallel main ranges, flanked throughout by several subsidiary + chains, spurs and offshoots. Beyond that it swells out into the vast + _massif_ of Anambaruin-ula, which is traversed by at least three minor + parallel chains. But on the east of the Anambaruin-ula it once more + contracts to two main ranges, the more southerly being that which + Przhevalsky called the Humboldt Range (crossed by a pass at 13,200 + ft.). This branch is probably continued in the range which overhangs + the Koko-nor on the south, namely, the south Koko-nor Range. The + northern branch merges eastwards into the Nan-shan or Southern + Mountains.[3] The passes in the Lower Astin-tagh range from altitudes + of 10,150 to 10,700 ft., and in the Upper Astin-tagh at 11,770 to + 15,680 ft. (Tash-davan), though one pass beside the Charkhlik-su is + only 9660 ft. high. And as the relative altitudes of crest and pass + remain approximately the same as in the Western Kuen-lun, it is + evident how greatly the general elevation of the twin border ridge + decreases towards the east. But there exists a striking difference + between the crests of the Astin-tagh and those of the ranges which + give rise to the gigantic ridge and furrow arrangement on the Tibetan + plateau. "Here in the Astin-tagh the mountains, like those in the + Kuruk-tagh,[4] are indeed severely weathered, but they always consist, + from base to summit, of hard rock, bare and barren, most frequently + piled up in eccentric, rugged masses, denticulated, pinnacled crests + and peaks. On the Tibetan plateau, on the other hand, most of the + ranges are distinguished by their rounded outlines and soft + consistency, and their striking poverty in hard rock, which in the + best cases only crops out near the summits. There too disintegration + has been to a remarkable extent operative. This gives rise to the + great morphological difference, that in the former regions, the + Astin-tagh and the Kuruk-tagh, the products of disintegration are + almost always carried away by the wind, and so disappear; no matter + how powerful or how active the disintegration may be, none of the + loosened material ever succeeds either in gathering amongst the + mountains or in accumulating at their foot. The climate is so arid, + and precipitation so extremely rare, that the fine powdery material + falls a helpless prey to the winds. On the other hand, the + precipitation on the Tibetan plateau is so copious, and so uniformly + distributed, that it is able to retain the loosened material _in + situ_, and causes it to heap itself up in rounded masses on the flanks + of the mountains that are its primitive source of origin, these + projecting in great part like skeletons from the midst of their own + ruins."[5] The twin ranges of the Astin-tagh are fairly equivalent in + point of magnitude and regularity; but while the Lower Range, on the + north, sensibly decreases in altitude towards the east, the Upper + Range, on the south, maintains its general altitude in a remarkable + way, and is gapped by steep, wild, deeply incised transverse glens + directed towards the north, and generally fenced in by dark + precipitous walls of rock. The great valley between the two is "cut up + into a series of self-contained basins, each serving as the gathering + ground of the brooks that run down off the adjacent mountains. Outside + the lower end of each large transverse glen there is a scree of + sedimentary matter. These screes are however very flat and their lower + edges generally reach all the way down to the central part of the + basin, which is occupied by an expanse of yellow clay, perfectly flat + and fairly hard, as well as dry and barren, often cracked into + polygonal cakes and drawn out in the direction of the long axis of the + valley.... But though the great morphological features of this + latitudinal valley forcibly recall the latitudinal valleys of Tibet, + the climatic differences give rise to differences between the basins + corresponding to the differences between the mountain-ranges + themselves. For while the self-contained basins of Tibet generally + possess a salt lake in the middle, into which brooks and streams of + greater or less magnitude gather, often from very considerable + distances, these self-contained basins of the Astin-tagh are very + small in area, and it is extremely seldom that their central parts + receive any water at all, only in fact after copious rain. These + terminal lakes, or more accurately sedimentary plains, are therefore + almost always dry."[6] + + The next parallel range on the south, the _Akato-tagh_, and the valley + which separates it from the Astin-tagh, are equally arid and + waterless. The valley, known by the general name of Kakir, meaning a + "hard, dry, sterile expanse of clay," is chequered with shallow + self-contained basins of the usual type and has remarkably gentle + slopes up to the mountains on both north and south. Its surface + slopes from altitudes of 10,100 to 10,600 ft. in the west, where is + the lake of Uzunshor (9650 ft.) to 9400 ft. in the east, in which + direction it continues as far as the Anambaruin-ula (see below) and + the plain or flat basin of Särtäng, a north extension of Tsaidam. This + range of Akato-tagh, the Altun Range of Carey, is the same as that + which on the map of the Russian general staff bears the name + Chimen-tagh. Like the Astin-tagh it stretches towards the E.N.E., and, + like it, appears to be built up of granite and schists, but its crest + is greatly denuded, so that it is a mere crumbling skeleton protruding + above the deep mantle of disintegrated material which masks its + flanks. The slopes on both north and south are extremely gentle, but + that on the south is eight to ten times as long as that on the north. + In the east the range is mostly narrow, and dies away on the edge of + the Tsaidam depression; but in the west it swells out into the lofty + and imposing mass of the Ilve-chimen or Shia-manglay, which is capped + with perpetual snow. This part of the range is crossed by the pass of + Chopur-alik at an altitude of 16,160 ft., but farther east the passes + lie at altitudes of 13,380 to 10,520 ft. The latitudinal valley that + intervenes between the Akato-tagh and the next great range on the + south, the Chimen-tagh, slopes for the most part eastwards, from + 12,500 ft. down to the shallow salt lake of Ghaz-kol or Chimen-koli + (9305 ft.). In the western part of this valley occurs the very + important transverse water-divide of Gulcha-davan (14,150 ft.), which + separates the basin of the Cherchen-darya that goes down into the + Tarim basin from the area that drains down to the Ghaz-kol, which + belongs to the Tsaidam depression. This, the Chimen valley, contains + in places a good deal of drift-sand, which however is stationary in + the mass and heaped up along the northern foot of the Chimen-tagh. + Nevertheless the Akato-tagh is only of secondary importance in the + general Kuen-lun system, being nothing more than a central ridge + running along the broad Kakir valley that separates the Astin-tagh + from the Chimen-tagh. + + The latter range, the _Chimen-tagh_, is identical in its western parts + with the Piazlik-tagh and in the east must be equated with the Tsaidam + chain of Przhevalsky; and it is probably continued westwards by the + range which the Russian explorers call the Moscow Range or the + Achik-tagh, running north of the Achik-kol and, according to + Przhevalsky, connecting on the west with the Tokuz-davan. The + Chimen-tagh rises into imposing summits, some rounded, some pyramidal + in outline, which are capped with snow, though the snow melts in + summer. This range acts as a "breakwater" to the clouds, arresting and + condensing the moisture which is carried northwards by the south + winds. Hence its slopes are not so arid as those of the Akato-tagh and + the Astin-tagh. Snow falls all the year round on the Chimen-tagh, even + in July, and water is abundant everywhere. The southern slope of the + range is gentle but short, the northern slope long and steep. Grass is + able to grow, and animal life is more abundant. The range is crossed + by passes at 13,970, 13,230 and 13,760 ft., and the Piazlik-tagh by a + pass at an altitude of 13,640 ft. + + The next important range, still going south, is the _Kalta-alaghan_, + Carey's Chimen-tagh Range, Przhevalsky's Columbus Range and the range + which is variously designated (e.g. by Pyevtsov) as the Ambal-ashkan, + Kalga-lagan and Ara-tagh. This last is, however, properly the name of + a short secondary range which rises along the middle (_ara_ = middle) + of the valley between the Chimen-tagh and the Kalta-alaghan. Not only + is it of lower elevation than them both, but it dies away towards the + west, the valleys on each side of it meeting round its extremity to + form one broad, open valley, with an altitude of 11,790 to 13,725 ft. + The Ara-tagh is crossed by a pass at an altitude of 14,345 ft. In the + Kalta-alaghan, which is the culminating range of this part of the + Kuen-lun, and is overtopped by towering, snow-clad peaks, the passes + climb to considerably higher altitudes, namely, 14,560, 14,470, 14,430 + and 14,190 ft., while the pass of Avraz-davan ascends to 15,700 ft. + This range appears to be linked on to the Tokuz-davan by the + Muzluk-tagh, in which there are passes at 16,870 and 15,450 ft. It is + possible however that the Muzluk-tagh belongs more intimately to the + Chimen-tagh system, that is, to the Moscow or Achik-kol ranges, Indeed + Bogdanovich considers that the Tokuz-davan, the Muzluk-tagh, the + Moscow Range and the Chimen-tagh form one single closely connected + chain, in which he also places Przhevalsky's isolated peak of Mount + Kreml (15,055 ft.). Sven Hedin, whilst agreeing that this may possibly + be the true conception, inclines to the view that the Achik-kol Range + dies away towards the E., and that the Chimen-tagh and the + Kalta-alaghan merge westwards into the border-ranges that lie north of + the Muzluk-tagh and the Tokuz-davan. Unlike most of the other parallel + ranges of N. Tibet, the Kalta-alaghan does not decrease, but it + increases in elevation towards the east, where, like the Chimen-tagh, + it abuts upon and merges in the ranges that border Tsaidam on the + south. + + Immediately south of the Kalta-alaghan comes a relatively deep + depression, the _Kum-kol valley_, forming a very well-marked feature + in the physical conformation of this region. It is crossed + transversely by a water-divide which separates the basin of the + twin-lakes of Kum-kol (12,700 ft.) from the basin of Tsaidam, some + 3500 ft. lower. The floor of the valley consequently slopes away in + both directions, like the Chimen valley between the Akato-tagh and the + Chimen-tagh; and in so far as it slopes westwards towards the Kum-kol + lakes it differs from nearly all the other great latitudinal valleys + that run parallel with it, because they slope generally towards the + east. Not far from the Kum-kol lakes there is a drift-sand area, + though the dunes are stationary. The upper lake of Kum-kol + (Chon-kum-kol) (12,730 ft.), which contains fresh water, is of small + area (8 sq. m.) and in depth nowhere exceeds 13 ft.; but the lower + lake (Ayak-kum-kol) (12,685 ft.), which is salt, is much bigger (283 + sq. m.) and goes down to depths of 64 and 79 ft. Farther west, lying + between the Muzluk-tagh and the Arka-tagh, is the lake of Achik-kol + (13,940 ft.), 16½ m. broad and 50 m. in circuit. + + The next great parallel range is the lofty and imposing _Arka-tagh_, + the Przhevalsky Range of the Russian geographers, which has its + eastward continuations in the Marco Polo Range (general altitude + 15,750-16,250 ft.) and Gurbu-naiji Mountains of Przhevalsky. The + Arka-tagh[7] is the true backbone of the Kuen-lun system, and in + Central Asia is exceeded in elevation only by the Tang-la, a long way + farther south, this last being probably an eastern wing of the + Karakorum Mountains of the Pamirs region. At the same time the + Arka-tagh is the actual border-range of the Tibetan plateau properly + so-called; to the south of it none of the long succession of lofty + parallel ranges which ridge the Tibetan highlands seems to have any + connexion with the Kuen-lun system. Of great length, the Arka-tagh, + which is a mountain-system rather than a range, varies greatly in + configuration in different parts, sometimes exhibiting a sharply + defined main crest, with several lower flanking ranges, and sometimes + consisting of numerous parallel crests of nearly uniform altitude. + Amongst these it is possible to distinguish in the middle of the + system four predominant ranges, of which the second from the north is + probably the principal range, though the fourth is the highest. The + passes across the first range (north) lie at altitudes of 15,675, + 16,420, 17,320 and 18,300 ft.; across the second at 16,830, 17,020, + 17,070 and 17,220 ft.; across the third at 16,800, 16,660, 17,065, + 17,830 and 17,880 ft.; and across the fourth at 16,540, 16,765, + 16,780, 18,100 and 18,110 ft. The crests of the ranges lie + comparatively little higher than the valleys which separate them, the + altitudes in the latter running at 14,940 to 16,700 ft., if not + higher, and being only 500 to 1000 ft. lower than the crests of the + accompanying ranges. The Arka-tagh ranges do not culminate in lofty + jagged, pinnacled peaks, but in broad rounded, flattened domes, a + characteristic feature of the system throughout. These Arka-tagh + mountains are built up, at all events superficially, of sand and + powdery, finely sifted disintegrated material. Where the hard rock + does crop out on the surface, it is so excessively weathered as to be + with difficulty recognized as rock at all. The culminating summits of + the ranges generally present the appearance of a flat, rounded + swelling, and when they are crowned with glaciers, as many of them + are, these shape themselves into what may be described as a mantle, a + breast-plate, or a flat cap, from which lappets and fringes project at + intervals; nowhere do there exist any of the long, narrow, winding + glacier tongues which are so characteristic of the Alps of Europe. But + not the slightest indication has been discovered that these mountains + were ever panoplied with ice. The process of disintegration and + levelling down has reached such an advanced stage that, if ever there + did exist evidences of former glaciation, they have now become + entirely obliterated, even to the complete pulverization of the + erratic blocks, supposing there were any. The view that meets the eye + southwards from the heights of the Kalta-alaghan is the picture of a + chaos of mountain chains, ridges, crests, peaks, spurs, detached + masses, in fact, montane conformations of every possible description + and in every possible arrangement. Immediately north of the Arka-tagh + the country is studded with three or four exceptionally conspicuous + and imposing detached mountain masses, all capped with snow and some + of them carrying small glaciers. Amongst them are Shapka Monomakha or + the Monk's Cap; the Chulak-akkan, which may however be only Shapka + Monomakha seen from a different point of view; Tömürlik-tagh[8] (i.e. + the Iron Mountain); and farther west, Ullugh-muz-tagh, which, + according to Grenard, reaches an altitude of 24,140 ft. But the + relations in which these detached mountain-masses stand to one another + and to the Arka-tagh behind them have not yet been elucidated. In the + vicinity of the Ullugh-muz-tagh there exist numerous indications of + former volcanic activity, the eminences and summits frequently being + capped with tuff, and smaller fragments of tuff are scattered over + other parts of the Arka-tagh ranges. + + The next succeeding parallel range, the _Koko-shili_, which is + continued eastwards by the Bayan-khara-ula, between the upper + headstreams of the Hwang-ho or Yellow River and the Yangtsze-kiang, + belongs orographically to the plateau of Tibet. + + The succession of ranges which follow one another from the deserts of + Takla-makan and Gobi up to the plateau proper of Tibet rise in steps + or terraces, each range being higher than the range to the north of it + and lower than the range to the south of it. The difference in + altitude between the lowest, most northerly range, the Lower + Astin-tagh, and the most southerly of the Arka-tagh ranges amounts to + nearly 7500 ft. With one exception, namely the climb out of the + Kum-kol valley to the Arka-tagh, the first three steps are + individually the biggest; whereas the Upper Astin-tagh exceeds the + Lower Astin-tagh by an altitude of some 1350 ft., it is itself + exceeded by the Akato-tagh to the extent of 1760 ft. There is also a + considerable rise of 880 ft. from the Akato-tagh to the Chimen-tagh. + But between the Chimen-tagh, the Ara-tagh and the Kalta-alaghan there + is comparatively little difference in point of elevation, namely, 730 + ft. in all. The biggest ascent is that from the Kalta-alaghan to the + Arka-tagh, namely, nearly 1850 ft. The ranges of the Arka-tagh, again, + run at pretty nearly the same absolute general altitudes, namely, + 16,470 to 17,260 ft. When the altitudes of the intermont latitudinal + valleys are compared, the significance orographically of the Chimen + valley and of the Kum-kol valley is strikingly emphasized. Both are + much more deeply excavated than all the other latitudinal valleys that + run parallel to them, the Chimen valley being 875 ft. above the valley + to the north of it, but no less than 2235 ft. below the valley to the + south of it. The case of the Kum-kol valley is altogether exceptional, + for it lies not higher, but 680 ft. lower, than the valley to the + north of it, and consequently the climb up out of it to the first (on + north) of the Arka-tagh valleys amounts to no less than 2900 ft. Hence + these ten parallel ranges of the middle Kuen-lun system may be grouped + in three divisions--(1) the more strictly border ranges of the Upper + and Lower Astin-tagh and the Akato-tagh; (2) the three ranges of + Chimen-tagh, Ara-tagh and Kalta-alaghan, which may be considered as + forming a transitional system between the foregoing and the third + division; (3) the Arka-tagh, which constitute the elevated rampart of + the Tibetan plateau proper. (J. T. Be.) + + The _Nan-shan Highlands_ overlook Tsaidam on the N.E. They embrace a + region 380 m. long and 260 m. wide, entirely occupied with parallel + mountain ranges all running from the N.W. to the S.E. Broad, flat, + longitudinal valleys, at altitudes of 12,000 to 14,000 ft. (9000 to + 10,000 at the south-western border) and dotted with lakes (Koko-nor, + 9970 ft.; Khara-nor, 13,285 ft.), fill up the space between these + mountain ranges. In the S.E. the Nan-shan highlands abut upon the + highlands of the Chinese province of Kan-suh, and near the great + northward bend of the Hwang-ho they meet the escarpments by which the + Great Khingan and the In-shan ranges are continued, and by which the + Mongolian plateau steps down to the lowlands of China. On the N.E. the + Nan-shan highlands have their foot on the Mongolian plateau (average + altitude, 4000 ft.), i.e. in the Ala-shan. On the N.W. they are + fringed by a border range, the Da-sue-shan, a continuation of the + Astin-tagh, which rises to 12,200-13,000 ft. in its passes, and is + pierced by several rivers flowing west to Lake Khala-chi or Khara-nor. + This border-range, which continues on to the 97th meridian, separates + the Nan-shan range from the Pe-shan range. + + On the S.W. the Nan-shan mountains consist of short irregular chains, + separated by broad plains, dotted with lakes, which differ but + slightly in altitude from Tsaidam (8800-9000 ft.). Next a succession + of narrow ranges intervene between this lower border terrace and the + higher terrace (12,000-13,500 ft.). The first mountain range on this + higher terrace is Ritter's range, covered in part with extensive + snow-fields. The passes at both ends of this snow-clad _massif_ lie at + altitudes of 15,990 ft. and 14,680 ft. The next range is Humboldt or + Ama-surgu range, which runs N.W. to S.E. from the Astin-tagh to about + 38° N., and is perhaps continued by the southern Kuku (Koko)-nor + range, which strikes the Hwang-ho with an elevation of 7440 ft. It + includes, in fact, several other parallel ranges--e.g. the Mushketov, + Semenov, Suess, Alexander III., Bain-sarlyk--the mutual relations of + which are, however, not yet definitely settled. + + Small lateral chains of mountains, rising some 2000 ft. above the + general level of that plateau, connect the central Nan-shan with the + next parallel ranges, namely, those of the eastern Nan-shan. The + mutual relations of the latter, as well as the names of the several + constituent chains, are equally unsettled. Thus, one of them is named + indiscriminately Nan-shan, Richthofen Range and Momo-shan. In fact, + the region is dominated by three ranges of nearly equal altitude, all + lifting many of their peaks above the snow-line. Finally, there is a + range of mountains, about 10,000 ft. high, named Lung-shan by + Obruchev, which borders the Kan-chow and Lian-chow valley on the N.E., + and belongs to the Nan-shan system. But the string of oases in Kan-suh + province, which stretches between the towns named, lies on the lower + level of the Mongolian plateau (4000 to 5000 ft.), so that the + Lung-shan ought possibly to be regarded as a continuation of the + Pe-shan mountains of the Gobi. + + Generally speaking, the Nan-shan highlands are a region raised 12,000 + to 14,000 ft. above the sea, and intersected by wild, stony and partly + snow-clad mountains, towering another 4000 to 7000 ft. above its + surface, and arranged in narrow parallel chains all running N.W. to + S.E. The chains of mountains are severally from 8 to 17 m. wide, + seldom as much as 35, while the broad, flat valleys between them + attain widths of 20 to 27 m. As a rule the passes are at an altitude + of 12,000 to 14,000 ft., and the peaks reach 18,000 to 20,000 ft. in + the western portion of the highlands, while in the eastern portion + they may be about 2000 ft. lower. The glaciers also attain a greater + development in the western portion of the Nan-shan, but the valleys + are dry, and the slopes of both the mountains and the valleys, + furrowed by deep ravines, are devoid of vegetation. Good pasture + grounds are only found near the streams. The soil is dry gravel and + clay, upon which bushes of _Ephedra_, _Nitraria_ and _Salsolaceae_ + grow sparsely. In the north-eastern Nan-shan, on the contrary, a + stream runs through each gorge, and both the mountain slopes and the + bottoms of the valleys are covered with vegetation. Forests of + conifers (_Picea obovata_) and deciduous trees--Przhevalsky's poplar, + birch, mountain ash, &c., and a variety of bushes--are common + everywhere. Higher up, in the picturesque gorges, grow rhododendrons, + willows, _Potentilla fruticosa_, _Spriaeae_, _Lonicereae_, &c., and + the rains must evidently be more copious and better distributed. In + the central Nan-shan it is only the north-eastern slopes that bear + forests. In the south, where the Nan-shan enters Kan-suh province, + extensive accumulations of loess make their appearance, and it is only + the northern slopes of the hills that are clothed with trees. + (P. A. K.) + + AUTHORITIES.--An enumeration of the works published before 1890, and a + map of itineraries, will be found in Wegener's _Versuch einer + Orographie des Kuen-lun_ (Marburg, 1891), but his map is only + approximately correct. Of the books published since 1890 the most + important are Sven Hedin's _Scientific Results of a Journey in Central + Asia_, 1899-1902 (Stockholm, 1905-1907, 6 vols.), with an elaborate + atlas and a general map of Tibet on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000; H. H. + P. Deasy's _In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan_ (London, 1901), with a + good map; F. Grenard's vol. (iii.) of J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins's + _Mission scientifique dans la haute Asie, 1890-1895_ (n.p., 1897), + also with a very useful map; W. W. Rockhill's _Diary of a Journey + through Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and 1892_ (Washington, 1894); M. S. + Wellby's _Through Unknown Tibet_ (London, 1898); P. G. Bonvalot's _De + Paris au Tonkin à travers le Tibet inconnu_ (Paris, 1892); St G. R. + Littledale's "A Journey across Tibet," in _Geog. Journal_ (May 1896); + H. Bower's _Diary of a Journey across Tibet_ (London, 1894); the + _Izvestia_ of the Russian Geog. Soc. and _Geog. Journal_, both + _passim_. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In "Orographie des Kwen-lun," in _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft + für Erdkunde zu Berlin_ (1891). + + [2] It is used, for instance, on the map of "Inner-Asien" (No. 62) of + _Stieler's Hand-atlas_ (ed. 1905) and in the _Atlas_ of the Russian + General Staff. Etymologically the correct form is Astin-tagh or + Astun-tagh, meaning the Lower or Nearer Mountains. Ustun-tagh, which + appears on Stieler's map as an _alternative_ name for Altyn-tagh, + means Higher or Farther Mountains, and though not used locally of any + specific range, would be appropriately employed to designate the + higher and more southerly of the twin border-ranges of the Tibetan + plateau. + + [3] The Northern Mountains are the Pe-shan in the desert of Gobi (see + GOBI). + + [4] On the opposite or north side of the desert of Lop (desert of + Gobi). + + [5] Sven Hedin, _Scientific Results_, iii. 308. + + [6] _Ibid._ 310-311. + + [7] This is the correct form, Arka-tagh meaning the Farther or + Remoter Mountains. The form Akka-tagh is incorrect. + + [8] The form Tumenlik-tagh is erroneous. + + + + +KUFA, a Moslem city, situated on the shore of the Hindieh canal, about 4 +m. E. by N. of Nejef (32° 4´ N., 44° 20´ E.), was founded by the Arabs +after the battle of Kadesiya in A.D. 638 as one of the two capitals of +the new territory of Irak, the whole country being divided into the +_sawads_, or districts, of Basra and Kufa. The caliph 'Ali made it his +residence and the capital of his caliphate. After the removal of the +capital to Bagdad, in the middle of the following century, Kufa lost its +importance and began to fall into decay. At the beginning of the 19th +century, travellers reported extensive and important ruins as marking +the ancient site. Since that time the ruins have served as quarries for +bricks for the building of Nejef, and at the present time little remains +but holes in the ground, representing excavations for bricks, with +broken fragments of brick and glass strewn over a considerable area. A +mosque still stands on the spot where 'Ali is reputed to have +worshipped. (For history see CALIPHATE.) + + + + +KUHN, FRANZ FELIX ADALBERT (1812-1881), German philologist and +folklorist, was born at Königsberg in Neumark on the 19th of November +1812. From 1841 he was connected with the Köllnisches Gymnasium at +Berlin, of which he was appointed director in 1870. He died at Berlin on +the 5th of May 1881. Kuhn was the founder of a new school of comparative +mythology, based upon comparative philology. Inspired by Grimm's +_Deutsche Mythologie_, he first devoted himself to German stories and +legends, and published _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (1842), +_Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (1848), and _Sagen, +Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (1859). But it is on his researches +into the language and history of the Indo-Germanic peoples as a whole +that his reputation is founded. His chief works in this connexion are: +_Zur ältesten Geschichte der Indogermanischen Völker_ (1845), in which +he endeavoured to give an account of the earliest civilization of the +Indo-Germanic peoples before their separation into different families, +by comparing and analysing the original meaning of the words and stems +common to the different languages; _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des +Göttertranks_ (1859; new ed. by E. Kuhn, under title of _Mythologische +Studien_, 1886); and _Über Entwicklungsstufen der Mythenbildung_ (1873), +in which he maintained that the origin of myths was to be looked for in +the domain of language, and that their most essential factors were +polyonymy and homonymy. The _Zeitschrift für vergleichende +Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der Indogermanischen Sprachen_, with +which he was intimately connected, is the standard periodical on the +subject. + + See obituary notice by C. Bruchmann in Bursian's _Biographisches + Jahrbuch_ (1881) and J. Schmidt in the above _Zeitschrift_, xxvi. n.s. + 6. + + + + +KÜHNE, WILLY (1837-1900), German physiologist, was born at Hamburg on +the 28th of March 1837. After attending the gymnasium at Lüneburg, he +went to Göttingen, where his master in chemistry was F. Wöhler and in +physiology R. Wagner. Having graduated in 1856, he studied under various +famous physiologists, including E. Du Bois-Reymond at Berlin, Claude +Bernard in Paris, and K. F. W. Ludwig and E. W. Brücke in Vienna. At the +end of 1863 he was put in charge of the chemical department of the +pathological laboratory at Berlin, under R. von Virchow; in 1868 he was +appointed professor of physiology at Amsterdam; and in 1871 he was +chosen to succeed H. von Helmholtz in the same capacity at Heidelberg, +where he died on the 10th of June 1900. His original work falls into two +main groups--the physiology of muscle and nerve, which occupied the +earlier years of his life, and the chemistry of digestion, which he +began to investigate while at Berlin with Virchow. He was also known for +his researches on vision and the chemical changes occurring in the +retina under the influence of light. The visual purple, described by +Franz Boll in 1876, he attempted to make the basis of a photochemical +theory of vision, but though he was able to establish its importance in +connexion with vision in light of low intensity, its absence from the +retinal area of most distinct vision detracted from the completeness of +the theory and precluded its general acceptance. + + + + +KUKA, or KUKAWA, a town of Bornu, a Mahommedan state of the central +Sudan, incorporated in the British protectorate of Nigeria (see Bornu). +Kuka is situated in 12° 55´ N. and 13° 34´ E., 4½ m. from the western +shores of Lake Chad, in the midst of an extensive plain. It is the +headquarters of the British administration in Bornu, and was formerly +the residence of the native sovereign, who in Bornu bears the title of +shehu. + +The modern town of Kuka was founded c. 1810 by Sheikh Mahommed al Amin +al Kanemi, the deliverer of Bornu from the Fula invaders. It is supposed +to have received its name from the _kuka_ or monkey bread tree +(_Adansonia digitata_), of which there are extensive plantations in the +neighbourhood. Kuka or Kaoukaou was a common name in the Sudan in the +middle ages. The number of towns of this name gave occasion for much +geographical confusion, but Idrisi writing in the 12th century, and Ibn +Khaldun in the 14th century, both mention two important towns called +Kaou Kaou, of which one would seem to have occupied a position very near +to that of the modern Kuka. Ibn Khaldun speaks of it as the capital of +Bornu and as situated on the meridian of Tripoli. In 1840 the present +town was laid waste by Mahommed Sherif, the sultan of Wadai; and when it +was restored by Sheikh Omar he built two towns separated by more than +half a mile of open country, each town being surrounded by walls of +white clay. It was probably owing to there being two towns that the +plural _Kukawa_ became the ordinary designation of the town in Kano and +throughout the Sudan, though the inhabitants used the singular _Kuka_. +The town became wealthy and populous (containing some 60,000 +inhabitants), being a centre for caravans to Tripoli and a +stopping-place of pilgrims from the Hausa countries going across Africa +to Mecca. The chief building was the great palace of the sheikh. Between +1823 and 1872 Kuka was visited by several English and German travellers. +In 1893 Bornu was seized by the ex-slave Rabah (q.v.), an adventurer +from the Bahr-el-Ghazal, who chose a new capital, Dikwa, Kuka falling +into complete decay. The town was found in ruins in 1902 by the British +expedition which replaced on the throne of Bornu a descendant of the +ancient rulers. In the same year the rebuilding of Kuka was begun and +the town speedily regained part of its former importance. It is now one +of the principal British stations of eastern Bornu. Owing, however, to +the increasing importance of Maidugari, a town 80 m. S.S.W. of Kuka, the +court of the shehu was removed thither in 1908. + + For an account of Kuka before its destruction by Rabah, see the + _Travels_ of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890); and _Sahara und + Sudan_, by Gustav Nachtigal (Berlin, 1879), i. 581-748. + + + + +KU KLUX KLAN, the name of an American secret association of Southern +whites united for self-protection and to oppose the Reconstruction +measures of the United States Congress, 1865-1876. The name is generally +applied not only to the order of Ku Klux Klan, but to other similar +societies that existed at the same time, such as the Knights of the +White Camelia, a larger order than the Klan; the White Brotherhood; the +White League; Pale Faces; Constitutional Union Guards; Black Cavalry; +White Rose; The '76 Association; and hundreds of smaller societies that +sprang up in the South after the Civil War. The object was to protect +the whites during the disorders that followed the Civil War, and to +oppose the policy of the North towards the South, and the result of the +whole movement was a more or less successful revolution against the +Reconstruction and an overthrow of the governments based on negro +suffrage. It may be compared in some degree to such European societies +as the Carbonara, Young Italy, the Tugendbund, the Confréries of France, +the Freemasons in Catholic countries, and the Vehmgericht. + +The most important orders were the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the +White Camelia. The former began in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee, as a +social club of young men. It had an absurd ritual and a strange uniform. +The members accidentally discovered that the fear of it had a great +influence over the lawless but superstitious blacks, and soon the club +expanded into a great federation of regulators, absorbing numerous local +bodies that had been formed in the absence of civil law and partaking of +the nature of the old English neighbourhood police and the ante-bellum +slave patrol. The White Camelia was formed in 1867 in Louisiana and +rapidly spread over the states of the late Confederacy. The period of +organization and development of the Ku Klux movement was from 1865 to +1868; the period of greatest activity was from 1868 to 1870, after which +came the decline. + +The various causes assigned for the origin and development of this +movement were: the absence of stable government in the South for several +years after the Civil War; the corrupt and tyrannical rule of the alien, +renegade and negro, and the belief that it was supported by the Federal +troops which controlled elections and legislative bodies; the +disfranchisement of whites; the spread of ideas of social and political +equality among the negroes; fear of negro insurrections; the arming of +negro militia and the disarming of the whites; outrages upon white women +by black men; the influence of Northern adventurers in the Freedmen's +Bureau (q.v.) and the Union League (q.v.) in alienating the races; the +humiliation of Confederate soldiers after they had been paroled--in +general, the insecurity felt by Southern whites during the decade after +the collapse of the Confederacy. + +In organization the Klan was modelled after the Federal Union. Its +Prescript or constitution, adopted in 1867, and revised in 1868, +provided for the following organization: The entire South was the +Invisible Empire under a Grand Wizard, General N. B. Forrest; each state +was a Realm under a Grand Dragon; several counties formed a Dominion +under a Grand Titan; each county was a Province under a Grand Giant; the +smallest division being a Den under a Grand Cyclops. The staff officers +bore similar titles, relics of the time when the order existed only for +amusement: Genii, Hydras, Furies, Goblins, Night Hawks, Magi, Monks and +Turks. The private members were called Ghouls. The Klan was twice +reorganized, in 1867 and in 1868, each time being more centralized; in +1869 the central organization was disbanded and the order then gradually +declined. The White Camelia with a similar history had a similar +organization, without the queer titles. Its members were called Brothers +and Knights, and its officials Commanders. + +The constitutions and rituals of these secret orders have declarations +of principles, of which the following are characteristic: to protect and +succour the weak and unfortunate, especially the widows and orphans of +Confederate soldiers; to protect members of the white race in life, +honour and property from the encroachments of the blacks; to oppose the +Radical Republican party and the Union League; to defend constitutional +liberty, to prevent usurpation, emancipate the whites, maintain peace +and order, the laws of God, the principles of 1776, and the political +and social supremacy of the white race--in short, to oppose African +influence in government and society, and to prevent any intermingling of +the races. + +During the Reconstruction the people of the South were divided thus: +nearly all native whites (the most prominent of whom were disfranchised) +on one side irrespective of former political faith, and on the other +side the ex-slaves organized and led by a few native and Northern whites +called respectively scalawags and carpet-baggers, who were supported by +the United States government and who controlled the Southern state +governments. The Ku Klux movement in its wider aspects was the effort of +the first class to destroy the control of the second class. To control +the negro the Klan played upon his superstitious fears by having night +patrols, parades and drills of silent horsemen covered with white +sheets, carrying skulls with coals of fire for eyes, sacks of bones to +rattle, and wearing hideous masks. In calling upon dangerous blacks at +night they pretended to be the spirits of dead Confederates, "just from +Hell," and to quench their thirst would pretend to drink gallons of +water which was poured into rubber sacks concealed under their robes. +Mysterious signs and warnings were sent to disorderly negro politicians. +The whites who were responsible for the conduct of the blacks were +warned or driven away by social and business ostracism or by violence. +Nearly all southern whites (except "scalawags"), whether members of the +secret societies or not, in some way took part in the Ku Klux movement. +As the work of the societies succeeded, they gradually passed out of +existence. In some communities they fell into the control of violent men +and became simply bands of outlaws, dangerous even to the former +members; and the anarchical aspects of the movement excited the North to +vigorous condemnation.[1] The United States Congress in 1871-1872 +enacted a series of "Force Laws" intended to break up the secret +societies and to control the Southern elections. Several hundred arrests +were made, and a few convictions were secured. The elections were +controlled for a few years, and violence was checked, but the Ku Klux +movement went on until it accomplished its object by giving protection +to the whites, reducing the blacks to order, replacing the whites in +control of society and state, expelling the worst of the carpet-baggers +and scalawags, and nullifying those laws of Congress which had resulted +in placing the Southern whites under the control of a party composed +principally of ex-slaves. + + AUTHORITIES.--J. C. Lester and D. L. Wilson, _Ku Klux Klan_ (New York, + 1905); W. L. Fleming, _Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama_ (New + York, 1905), and _Documentary History of Reconstruction_ (Cleveland, + 1906); J. W. Garner, _Reconstruction in Mississippi_ (New York, 1901); + W. G. Brown, _Lower South in American History_ (New York, 1901); J. M. + Beard, _Ku Klux Sketches_ (Philadelphia, 1876); J. W. Burgess, + _Reconstruction and the Constitution_ (New York, 1901). (W. L. F.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The judgment of the historian William Garrott Brown, himself a + Southerner, is worth quoting: "That violence was often used cannot be + denied. Negroes were often whipped, and so were carpet-baggers. The + incidents related in such stories as Tourgée's _A Fool's Errand_ all + have their counterparts in the testimony before congressional + committees and courts of law. In some cases, after repeated warnings, + men were dragged from their beds and slain by persons in disguise, + and the courts were unable to find or to convict the murderers. + Survivors of the orders affirm that such work was done in most cases + by persons not connected with them or acting under their authority. + It is impossible to prove or disprove their statements. When such + outrages were committed, not on worthless adventurers, who had no + station in the Northern communities from which they came, but on + cultivated persons who had gone South from genuinely philanthropic + motives--no matter how unwisely or tactlessly they went about their + work--the natural effect was to horrify and enrage the North." + + + + +KUKU KHOTO (Chinese _Kwei-hwa_), a city of the Chinese province of +Shan-si, situated to the north of the Great Wall, in 40° 50´ N. and 111° +45´ E., about 160 m. W. of Kalgan. It lies in the valley of a small +river which joins the Hwang-ho 50 m. to the south. There are two +distinct walled towns in Kuku Khoto, at an interval of a mile and a +half; the one is the seat of the civil governor and is surrounded by the +trading town, and the other is the seat of the military governor, and +stands in the open country. In the first or old town more especially +there are strong traces of western Asiatic influence; the houses are not +in the Chinese style, being built all round with brick or stone and +having flat roofs, while a large number of the people are still +Mahommedans and, there is little doubt, descended from western settlers. +The town at the same time is a great seat of Buddhism--the lamaseries +containing, it is said, no less than 20,000 persons devoted to a +religious life. As the southern terminus of the routes across the desert +of Gobi from Ulyasutai and the Tian Shan, Kuku Khoto is a great mart for +the exchange of flour, millet and manufactured goods for the raw +products of Mongolia. A Catholic and a Protestant mission are maintained +in the town. Lieut. Watts-Jones, R.E., was murdered at Kwei-hwa during +the Boxer outbreak in 1900. + + Early notices of Kuku Khoto will be found in Gerbillon (1688-1698, in + Du Halde (vol. ii., Eng. ed.), and in Astley's _Collection_ (vol. iv.) + + + + +KULJA (Chinese, _Ili-ho_), a territory in north-west China; bounded, +according to the treaty of St Petersburg of 1881, on the W. by the +Semiryechensk province of Russian Turkestan, on the N. by the Boro-khoro +Mountains, and on the S. by the mountains Khan-tengri, Muz-art, Terskei, +Eshik-bashi and Narat. It comprises the valleys of the Tekez (middle and +lower portion), Kunghez, the Ili as far as the Russian frontier and its +tributary, the Kash, with the slopes of the mountains turned towards +these rivers. Its area occupies about 19,000 sq. m. (Grum-Grzimailo). +The valley of the Kash is about 160 m. long, and is cultivated in its +lower parts, while the Boro-khoro Mountains are snow-clad in their +eastern portion, and fall with very steep slopes to the valley. The +Avral Mountains, which separate the Kash from the Kunghez, are lower, +but rocky, naked and difficult of access. The valley of the Kunghez is +about 120 m. long; the river flows first in a gorge, then amidst +thickets of rushes, and very small portions of its valley are fit for +cultivation. The Narat Mountains in the south are also very wild, but +are covered with forests of deciduous trees (apple tree, apricot tree, +birch, poplar, &c.) and pine trees. The Tekez flows in the mountains, +and pierces narrow gorges. The mountains which separate it from the +Kunghez are also snow-clad, while those to the south of it reach 24,000 +ft. of altitude in Khan-tengri, and are covered with snow and +glaciers--the only pass through them being the Muzart. Forests and +alpine meadows cover their northern slopes. Agriculture was formerly +developed on the Tekez, as is testified by old irrigation canals. The +Ili is formed by the junction of the Kunghez with the Tekez, and for 120 +m. it flows through Kulja, its valley reaching a width of 50 m. at +Horgos-koljat. This valley is famed for its fertility, and is admirably +irrigated by canals, part of which, however, fell into decay after +55,000 of the inhabitants migrated to Russian territory in 1881. The +climate of this part of the valley is, of course, continental--frosts of +-22° F. and heats of 170° F. being experienced--but snow lasts only for +one and a half months, and the summer heat is tempered by the proximity +of the high mountains. Apricots, peaches, pears and some vines are +grown, as also some cotton-trees near the town of Kulja, where the +average yearly temperature is 48°.5 F. (January 15°, July 77°). Barley +is grown up to an altitude of 6500 ft. + +The population may number about 125,000, of whom 75,000 are settled and +about 50,000 nomads (Grum-Grzimailo). The Taranchis from East Turkestan +represent about 40% of the population; about 40,000 of them left Kulja +when the Russian troops evacuated the territory, and the Chinese +government sent some 8000 families from different towns of Kashgaria to +take their place. There are, besides, about 20,000 Sibos and Solons, +3500 Kara-kidans, a few Dungans, and more than 10,000 Chinese. The +nomads are represented by about 18,000 Kalmucks, and the remainder by +Kirghiz. Agriculture is insufficient to satisfy the needs of the +population, and food is imported from Semiryechensk. Excellent beds of +coal are found in different places, especially about Kulja, but the +fairly rich copper ores and silver ores have ceased to be worked. + +The chief towns are Suidun, capital of the province, and Kulja. The +latter (Old Kulja) is on the Ili river. It is one of the chief cities of +the region, owing to the importance of its bazaars, and is the seat of +the Russian consul and a telegraph station. The walled town is nearly +square, each side being about a mile in length; and the walls are not +only 30 ft. high but broad enough on the top to serve as a carriage +drive. Two broad streets cut the enclosed area into four nearly equal +sections. Since 1870 a Russian suburb has been laid out on a wide scale. +The houses of Kulja are almost all clay-built and flat-roofed, and +except in the special Chinese quarter in the eastern end of the town +only a few public buildings show the influence of Chinese architecture. +Of these the most noteworthy are the Taranchi and Dungan mosques, both +with turned-up roofs, and the latter with a pagoda-looking minaret. The +population is mainly Mahommedan, and there are only two Buddhist +pagodas. A small Chinese Roman Catholic church has maintained its +existence through all the vicissitudes of modern times. Paper and +vermicelli are manufactured with rude appliances in the town. The +outskirts are richly cultivated with wheat, barley, lucerne and poppies. +Schuyler estimated the population, which includes Taranchis, Dungans, +Sarts, Chinese, Kalmucks and Russians, at 10,000 in 1873; it has since +increased. + +New Kulja, Manchu Kulja, or Ili, which lies lower down the valley on the +same side of the stream, has been a pile of ruins since the terrible +massacre of all its inhabitants by the insurgent Dungans in 1868. It was +previously the seat of the Chinese government for the province, with a +large penal establishment and strong garrison; its population was about +70,000. + +_History._--Two centuries B.C. the region was occupied by the fair and +blue-eyed Ussuns, who were driven away in the 6th century of our era by +the northern Huns. Later the Kulja territory became a dependency of +Dzungaria. The Uighurs, and in the 12th century the Kara-Khitai, took +possession of it in turn. Jenghiz Khan conquered Kulja in the 13th +century, and the Mongol Khans resided in the valley of the Ili. It is +supposed (Grum-Grzimailo) that the Oirads conquered it at the end of the +16th or the beginning of the 17th century; they kept it till 1755, when +the Chinese annexed it. During the insurrection of 1864 the Dungans and +the Taranchis formed here the Taranchi sultanate, and this led to the +occupation of Kulja by the Russians in 1871. Ten years later the +territory was restored to China. + + + + +KULM (CULM). (1) A town of Germany, in the province of West Prussia, 33 +m. by rail N.W. of Thorn, on an elevation above the plain, and 1 m. E. +of the Vistula. Pop. (1905), 11,665. It is surrounded by old walls, +dating from the 13th century, and contains some interesting buildings, +notably its churches, of which two are Roman Catholic and two +Protestant, and its medieval town-hall. The cadet school, founded here +in 1776 by Frederick the Great, was removed to Köslin in 1890. There are +large oil mills, also iron foundries and machine shops, as well as an +important trade in agricultural produce, including fruit and vegetables. +Kulm gives name to the oldest bishopric in Prussia, although the bishop +resides at Pelplin. It was presented about 1220 by Duke Conrad of +Masovia to the bishop of Prussia. Frederick II. pledged it in 1226 to +the Teutonic order, to whom it owes its early development. By the second +peace of Thorn in 1466 it passed to Poland, and it was annexed to +Prussia in 1772. It joined the Hanseatic League, and used to carry on +very extensive manufactures of cloth. + +(2) A village of Bohemia about 3 m. N.E. of Teplitz, at the foot of the +Erzgebirge, celebrated as the scene of a battle in which the French were +defeated by the Austrians, Prussians and Russians on the 29th and 30th +of August 1813 (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). + + + + +KULMBACH, or CULMBACH, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of +Upper Franconia, picturesquely situated on the Weisser Main, and the +Munich-Bamberg-Hof railway, 11 m. N.W. from Bayreuth. Pop. (1900), 9428. +It contains a Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches, a museum and +several schools. The town has several linen manufactories and a large +cotton spinnery, but is chiefly famed for its many extensive breweries, +which mainly produce a black beer, not unlike English porter, which is +largely exported. Connected with these are malting and bottling works. +On a rocky eminence, 1300 ft. in height, to the south-east of the town +stands the former fortress of Plassenburg, during the 14th and 15th +centuries the residence of the margraves of Bayreuth, called also +margraves of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. It was dismantled in 1807, and is now +used as a prison. Kulmbach and Plassenburg belonged to the dukes of +Meran, and then to the counts of Orlamunde, from whom they passed in the +14th century to the Hohenzollerns, burgraves of Nuremberg, and thus to +the margraves of Bayreuth. + + See F. Stein, _Kulmbach und die Plassenburg in alter und neuer Zeit_ + (Kulmbach, 1903); Huther, _Kulmbach und Umgebung_ (Kulmbach, 1886); + and C. Meyer, _Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Kulmbach_ (Munich, + 1895). + + + + +KULMSEE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of West Prussia, on +a lake, 14 m. by rail N. of Thorn and at the junction of railways to +Bromberg and Marienburg. Pop. (1900), 8987. It has a fine Roman Catholic +cathedral, which was built in the 13th, and restored in the 15th +century, and an Evangelical church. Until 1823 the town was the seat of +the bishops of Kulm. + + + + +KULP, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Erivan, 60 +m. W.S.W. from the town of Erivan and 2 m. S. of the Aras river. Pop. +(1897), 3074. Close by is the Kulp salt mountain, about 1000 ft. high, +consisting of beds of clay intermingled with thick deposits of rock +salt, which has been worked from time immemorial. Regular galleries are +cut in the transparent, horizontal salt layers, from which cubes of +about 70 lb. weight are extracted, to the amount of 27,500 tons every +year. + + + + +KULU, a subdivision of Kangra district, Punjab, British India, which +nominally includes the two Himalayan cantons or _waziris_ of Lahul and +Spiti. The _tahsil_ of Kulu has an area of 1054 sq. m., of which only 60 +sq. m. are cultivated; pop. (1901), 68,954. The Sainj, which joins the +Beas at Largi, divides the tract into two portions, Kulu proper and +Soraj. Kulu proper, north of the Sainj, together with inner Soraj, forms +a great basin or depression in the midst of the Himalayan system, having +the narrow gorge of the Beas at Largi as the only outlet for its waters. +North and east the Bara Bangahal and mid-Himalayan ranges rise to a mean +elevation of 18,000 ft., while southward the Jalori and Dhaoladhar +ridges attain a height of 11,000 ft. The higher villages stand 9000 ft. +above the sea; and even the cultivated tracts have probably an average +elevation of 5000 ft. The houses consist of four-storeyed châlets in +little groups, huddled closely together on the ledges or slopes of the +valleys, picturesquely built with projecting eaves and carved wooden +verandas. The Beas, which, with its tributaries, drains the entire +basin, rises at the crest of the Rohtang pass, 13,326 ft. above the sea, +and has an average fall of 125 ft. per mile. Its course presents a +succession of magnificent scenery, including cataracts, gorges, +precipitous cliffs, and mountains clad with forests of deodar, towering +above the tiers of pine on the lower rocky ledges. It is crossed by +several suspension bridges. Great mineral wealth exists, but the +difficulty of transport and labour prevents its development. Hot springs +occur at three localities, much resorted to as places of pilgrimage. The +character of the hillmen resembles that of most other mountaineers in +its mixture of simplicity, independence and superstition. Tibetan +polyandry still prevails in Soraj, but has almost died out elsewhere. +The temples are dedicated rather to local deities than to the greater +gods of the Hindu pantheon. Kulu is an ancient Rajput principality, +which was conquered by Ranjit Singh about 1812. Its hereditary ruler, +with the title of rai, is now recognized by the British government as +_jagirdar_ of Rupi. + + + + +KUM, a small province in Persia, between Teheran on the N. and Kashan on +the S. It is divided into seven _buluk_ (districts): (1) Humeh, with +town; (2) Kumrud; (3) Vazkerud; (4) Kinar Rud Khaneh; (5) Kuhistan; (6) +Jasb; (7) Ardahal; has a population of 45,000 to 50,000, and pays a +yearly revenue of about £8000. The province produces much grain and a +fine quality of cotton with a very long staple. + +KUM, the capital, in 34° 39´ N. and 50° 55´ E., on the Anarbar river, +which rises near Khunsar, has an elevation of 3100 ft. It owes much of +its importance to the fact that it contains the tomb of Imam Reza's +sister Fatmeh, who died there A.D. 816, and large numbers of pilgrims +visit the city during six or seven months of the year. The fixed +population is between 25,000 and 30,000. A carriage road 92 m. in +length, constructed in 1890-1893, connects the city with Teheran. It has +post and telegraph offices. + + See _Eastern Persian Irak_, R. G. S. suppl. (London, 1896). + + + + +KUMAIT IBN ZAID (679-743), Arabian poet, was born in the reign of the +first Omayyad caliph and lived in the reigns of nine others. He was, +however, a strong supporter of the house of Hashim and an enemy of the +South Arabians. He was imprisoned by the caliph Hisham for his verse in +praise of the Hashimites, but escaped by the help of his wife and was +pardoned by the intercession of the caliph's son Maslama. Taking part in +a rebellion, he was killed by the troops of Khalid ul-Qasri. + + His poems, the _Hashimiyyat_, have been edited by J. Horovitz (Leiden, + 1904). An account of him is contained in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_, xv. + 113-130. (G. W. T.) + + + + +KUMAON, or KUMAUN, an administrative division of British India, in the +United Provinces, with headquarters at Naini Tal. It consists of a large +Himalayan tract, together with two submontane strips called the Tarai +and the Bhabhar; area 13,725 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,207,030, showing an +increase of less than 2% in the decade. The submontane strips were up to +1850 an almost impenetrable forest, given up to wild animals; but since +then the numerous clearings have attracted a large population from the +hills, who cultivate the rich soil during the hot and cold seasons, +returning to the hills in the rains. The rest of Kumaon is a maze of +mountains, some of which are among the loftiest known. In a tract not +more than 140 m. in length and 40 m. in breadth there are over thirty +peaks rising to elevations exceeding 18,000 ft. (see HIMALAYA). The +rivers rise chiefly in the southern slope of the Tibetan watershed north +of the loftiest peaks, amongst which they make their way down valleys of +rapid declivity and extraordinary depth. The principal are the Sarda +(Kali), the Pindar and Kailganga, whose waters join the Alaknanda. The +valuable timber of the yet uncleared forest tracts is now under official +supervision. The chief trees are the chir, or three-leaved Himalayan +pine, the cypress, fir, alder, sal or iron-wood, and _saindan_. +Limestone, sandstone, slate, gneiss and granite constitute the principal +geological formations. Mines of iron, copper, gypsum, lead and asbestos +exist; but they are not thoroughly worked. Except in the submontane +strips and deep valleys the climate is mild. The rainfall of the outer +Himalayan range, which is first struck by the monsoon, is double that of +the central hills, in the average proportion of 80 in. to 40. No winter +passes without snow on the higher ridges, and in some years it is +universal throughout the mountain tract. Frosts, especially in the +valleys, are often severe. Kumaon is occasionally visited by epidemic +cholera. Leprosy is most prevalent in the east of the district. Goitre +and cretinism afflict a small proportion of the inhabitants. The hill +fevers at times exhibit the rapid and malignant features of plague. + +In 1891 the division was composed of the three districts of Kumaon, +Garhwal and the Tarai; but the two districts of Kumaon and the Tarai +were subsequently redistributed and renamed after their headquarters, +Naini Tal and Almora. Kumaon proper constituted an old Rajput +principality, which became extinct at the beginning of the 19th century. +The country was annexed after the Gurkha war of 1815, and was governed +for seventy years on the non-regulation system by three most successful +administrators--Mr Traill, Mr J. H. Batten and Sir Henry Ramsay. + + + + +KUMASI, or COOMASSIE, the capital of Ashanti, British West Africa, in 6° +34´ 50´´ N., 2° 12´ W., 168 m. by rail N. of Sekondi and 120 m. by road +N.N.W. of Cape Coast. Pop. (1906), 6280; including suburbs, over 12,000. +Kumasi is situated on a low rocky eminence, from which it extends across +a valley to the hill opposite. It lies in a clearing of the dense forest +which covers the greater part of Ashanti, and occupies an area about 1½ +m. in length and over 3 m. in circumference. The land immediately around +the town, once marshy, has been drained. On the north-west is the small +river Dah, one of the headstreams of the Prah. The name Kum-asi, more +correctly Kum-ase (under the okum tree) was given to the town because of +the number of those trees in its streets. The most imposing building in +Kumasi is the fort, built in 1896. It is the residence of the chief +commissioner and is capable of holding a garrison of several hundred +men. There are also officers' quarters and cantonments outside the fort, +European and native hospitals, and stations of the Basel and Wesleyan +missions. The native houses are built with red clay in the style +universal throughout Ashanti. They are somewhat richly ornamented, and +those of the better class are enclosed in compounds within which are +several separate buildings. Near the railway station are the leading +mercantile houses. The principal Ashanti chiefs own large houses, built +in European style, and these are leased to strangers. + +Before its destruction by the British in 1874 the city presented a +handsome appearance and bore many marks of a comparatively high state of +culture. The king's palace, built of red sandstone, had been modelled, +it is believed, on Dutch buildings at Elmina. It was blown up by Sir +Garnet (subsequently Viscount) Wolseley's forces on the 6th of February +1874, and but scanty vestiges of it remain. The town was only partially +rebuilt on the withdrawal of the British troops, and it is difficult +from the meagre accounts of early travellers to obtain an adequate idea +of the capital of the Ashanti kingdom when at the height of its +prosperity (middle of the 18th to middle of the 19th century). The +streets were numerous, broad and regular; the main avenue was 70 yds. +wide. A large market-place existed on the south-east, and behind it in a +grove of trees was the Spirit House. This was the place of execution. Of +its population before the British occupation there is no trustworthy +information. It appears not to have exceeded 20,000 in the first quarter +of the 19th century. This is owing partly to the fact that the +commercial capital of Ashanti, and the meeting-place of several caravan +routes from the north and east, was Kintampo, a town farther north. The +decline of Kumasi after 1874 was marked. A new royal palace was built, +but it was of clay, not brick, and within the limits of the former town +were wide stretches of grass-grown country. In 1896 the town again +suffered at the hands of the British, when several of the largest and +most ancient houses in the royal and priestly suburb of Bantama were +destroyed by fire. In the revolt of 1900 Kumasi was once more injured. +The railway from the coast, which passes through the Tarkwa and Obuassi +gold-fields, reached Kumasi in September 1903. Many merchants at the +Gold Coast ports thereupon opened branches in Kumasi. A marked revival +in trade followed, leading to the rapid expansion of the town. By 1906 +Kumasi had supplanted the coast towns and had become the distributing +centre for the whole of Ashanti. + + + + +KUMISHAH, a district and town in the province of Isfahan, Persia. The +district, which has a length of 50 and a breadth of 16 m., and contains +about 40 villages, produces much grain. The town is situated on the high +road from Isfahan to Shiraz, 52 m. S. of the former. It was a +flourishing city several miles in circuit when it was destroyed by the +Afghans in 1722, but is now a decayed place, with crumbled walls and +mouldering towers and a population of barely 15,000. It has post and +telegraph offices. South of the city and extending to the village +Maksudbeggi, 16 m. away, is a level plain, which in 1835 (February 28) +was the scene of a battle in which the army (2000 men, 16 guns) of +Mahommed Shah, commanded by Sir H. Lindsay-Bethune, routed the much +superior combined forces (6000 men) of the shah's two rebellious uncles, +Firman-Firma and Shuja es Saltana. + + + + +KUMQUAT (_Citrus japonica_), a much-branched shrub from 8 to 12 ft. +high, the branches sometimes bearing small thorns, with dark green +glossy leaves and pure white orange-like flowers standing singly or +clustered in the leaf-axils. The bright orange-yellow fruit is round or +ellipsoidal, about 1 in. in diameter, with a thick minutely tuberculate +rind, the inner lining of which is sweet, and a watery acidulous pulp. +It has long been cultivated in China and Japan, and was introduced to +Europe in 1846 by Mr Fortune, collector for the London Horticultural +Society, and shortly after into North America. It is much hardier than +most plants of the orange tribe, and succeeds well when grafted on the +wild species, _Citrus trifoliata_. It is largely used by the Chinese as +a sweetmeat preserved in sugar. + + + + +KUMTA, or COOMPTA, a sea-coast town of British India, in the North +Kanara district of Bombay, 40 m. S. of Karwar. Pop. (1901), 10,818. It +has an open roadstead, with a considerable trade. Carving in sandal-wood +is a speciality. The commercial importance of Kumta has declined since +the opening of the Southern Mahratta railway system. + + + + +KUMYKS, a people of Turkish stock in Caucasia, occupying the Kumyk +plateau in north Daghestan and south Terek, and the lands bordering the +Caspian. It is supposed that Ptolemy knew them under the name of Kami +and Kamaks. Various explorers see in them descendants of the Khazars. A. +Vambéry supposes that they settled in their present quarters during the +flourishing period of the Khazar kingdom in the 8th century. It is +certain that some Kabardians also settled later. The Russians built +forts in their territory in 1559 and under Peter I. Having long been +more civilized than the surrounding Caucasian mountaineers, the Kumyks +have always enjoyed some respect among them. The upper terraces of the +Kumyk plateau, which the Kumyks occupy, leaving its lower parts to the +Nogai Tatars, are very fertile. + + + + +KUNAR, a river and valley of Afghanistan, on the north-west frontier of +British India. The Kunar valley (Khoaspes in the classics) is the +southern section of that great river system which reaches from the Hindu +Kush to the Kabul river near Jalalabad, and which, under the names of +Yarkhun, Chitral, Kashkar, &c., is more extensive than the Kabul basin +itself. The lower reaches of the Kunar are wide and comparatively +shallow, the river meandering in a multitude of channels through a broad +and fairly open valley, well cultivated and fertile, with large +flourishing villages and a mixed population of Mohmand and other tribes +of Afghan origin. Here the hills to the eastward are comparatively low, +though they shut in the valley closely. Beyond them are the Bajour +uplands. To the west are the great mountains of Kafiristan, called +Kashmund, snow-capped, and running to 14,000 ft. of altitude. Amongst +them are many wild but beautiful valleys occupied by Kafirs, who are +rapidly submitting to Afghan rule. From 20 to 30 miles up the river on +its left bank, under the Bajour hills, are thick clusters of villages, +amongst which are the ancient towns of Kunar and Pashat. The chief +tributary from the Kafiristan hills is the Pechdara, which joins the +river close to Chagan Sarai. It is a fine, broad, swift-flowing stream, +with an excellent bridge over it (part of Abdur Rahman's military road +developments), and has been largely utilized for irrigation. The +Pechdara finds its sources in the Kafir hills, amongst forests of pine +and deodar and thick tangles of wild vine and ivy, wild figs, +pomegranates, olives and oaks, and dense masses of sweet-scented shrubs. +Above Chagan Sarai, as far as Arnawai, where the Afghan boundary crosses +the river, and above which the valley belongs to Chitral, the river +narrows to a swift mountain stream obstructed by boulders and hedged in +with steep cliffs and difficult "parris" or slopes of rocky hill-side. +Wild almond here sheds its blossoms into the stream, and in the dawn of +summer much of the floral beauty of Kashmir is to be found. At Asmar +there is a slight widening of the valley, and the opportunity for a +large Afghan military encampment, spreading to both sides of the river +and connected by a very creditable bridge built on the cantilever +system. There are no apparent relics of Buddhism in the Kunar, such as +are common about Jalalabad or Chitral, or throughout Swat and Dir. This +is probably due to the late occupation of the valley by Kafirs, who +spread eastwards into Bajour within comparatively recent historical +times, and who still adhere to their fastnesses in the Kashmund hills. +The Kunar valley route to Chitral and to Kafiristan is being developed +by Afghan engineering. It may possibly extend ultimately unto Badakshan, +in which case it will form the most direct connexion between the Oxus +and India, and become an important feature in the strategical geography +of Asia. (T. H. H.*) + + + + +KUNBIS, the great agricultural caste of Western India, corresponding to +the Kurmis in the north and the Kapus in the Telugu country. Ethnically +they cannot be distinguished from the Mahrattas, though the latter name +is sometimes confined to the class who claim higher rank as representing +the descendants of Sivaji's soldiers. In some districts of the Deccan +they form an actual majority of the population, which is not the case +with any other Indian caste. In 1901 the total number of both Kunbis and +Mahrattas in all India was returned at nearly 8¾ millions. + + + + +KUNDT, AUGUST ADOLPH EDUARD EBERHARD (1839-1894), German physicist, was +born at Schwerin in Mecklenburg on the 18th of November 1839. He began +his scientific studies at Leipzig, but afterwards went to Berlin. At +first he devoted himself to astronomy, but coming under the influence of +H. G. Magnus, he turned his attention to physics, and graduated in 1864 +with a thesis on the depolarization of light. In 1867 he became +_privatdozent_ in Berlin University, and in the following year was +chosen professor of physics at the Zürich Polytechnic; then, after a +year or two at Würzburg, he was called in 1872 to Strassburg, where he +took a great part in the organization of the new university, and was +largely concerned in the erection of the Physical Institute. Finally in +1888 he went to Berlin as successor to H. von Helmholtz in the chair of +experimental physics and directorship of the Berlin Physical Institute. +He died after a protracted illness at Israelsdorf, near Lübeck, on the +21st of May 1894. As an original worker Kundt was especially successful +in the domains of sound and light. In the former he developed a valuable +method for the investigation of aerial waves within pipes, based on the +fact that a finely divided powder--lycopodium, for example--when dusted +over the interior of a tube in which is established a vibrating column +of air, tends to collect in heaps at the nodes, the distance between +which can thus be ascertained. An extension of the method renders +possible the determination of the velocity of sound in different gases. +In light Kundt's name is widely known for his inquiries in anomalous +dispersion, not only in liquids and vapours, but even in metals, which +he obtained in very thin films by means of a laborious process of +electrolytic deposition upon platinized glass. He also carried out many +experiments in magneto-optics, and succeeded in showing, what Faraday +had failed to detect, the rotation under the influence of magnetic force +of the plane of polarization in certain gases and vapours. + + + + +KUNDUZ, a khanate and town of Afghan Turkestan. The khanate is bounded +on the E. by Badakshan, on the W. by Tashkurghan, on the N. by the Oxus +and on the S. by the Hindu Kush. It is inhabited mainly by Uzbegs. Very +little is known about the town, which is the trade centre of a +considerable district, including Kataghan, where the best horses in +Afghanistan are bred. + + + + +KUNENE, formerly known also as Nourse, a river of South-West Africa, +with a length of over 700 m., mainly within Portuguese territory, but in +its lower course forming the boundary between Angola and German +South-West Africa. The upper basin of the river lies on the inner +versant of the high plateau region which runs southwards from Bihe +parallel to the coast, forming in places ranges of mountains which give +rise to many streams running south to swell the Kunene. The main stream +rises in 12° 30´ S. and about 160 m. in a direct line from the sea at +Benguella, runs generally from north to south through four degrees of +latitude, but finally flows west to the sea through a break in the outer +highlands. A little south of 16° S. it receives the Kulonga from the +east, and in about 16° 50´ the Kakulovar from the west. The Kakulovar +has its sources in the Serra da Chella and other ranges of the Humpata +district behind Mossamedes, but, though the longest tributary of the +Kunene, is but a small river in its lower course, which traverses the +arid region comprised within the lower basin of the Kunene. Between the +mouths of the Kulonga and Kakulovar the Kunene traverses a swampy plain, +inundated during high water, and containing several small lakes at other +parts of the year. From this swampy region divergent branches run S.E. +They are mainly intermittent, but the Kwamatuo, which leaves the main +stream in about 15° 8´ E., 17° 15´ S., flows into a large marsh or lake +called Etosha, which occupies a depression in the inner table-land about +3400 ft. above sea-level. From the S.E. end of the Etosha lake streams +issue in the direction of the Okavango, to which in times of great flood +they contribute some water. From the existence of this divergent system +it is conjectured that at one time the Kunene formed part of the +Okavango, and thus of the Zambezi basin. (See NGAMI.) + +On leaving the swampy region the Kunene turns decidedly to the west, and +descends to the coast plain by a number of cataracts, of which the chief +(in 17° 25´ S., 14° 20´ E.) has a fall of 330 ft. The river becomes +smaller in volume as it passes through an almost desert region with +little or no vegetation. The stream is sometimes shallow and fordable, +at others confined to a narrow rocky channel. Near the sea the Kunene +traverses a region of sand-hills, its mouth being completely blocked at +low water. The river enters the Atlantic in 17° 18´ S., 11° 40´ E. There +are indications that a former branch of the river once entered a bay to +the south. + + + + +KUNERSDORF, a village of Prussia, 4 m. E. of Frankfurt-on-Oder, the +scene of a great battle, fought on the 12th of August 1759, between the +Prussian army commanded by Frederick the Great and the allied Russians +under Soltykov and Austrians under Loudon, in which Frederick was +defeated with enormous losses and his army temporarily ruined. (See +SEVEN YEARS' WAR.) + + + + +KUNGRAD, a trading town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Syr-darya, +in the delta of the Amu-darya, 50 m. S. of Lake Aral; altitude 260 ft. +It is the centre of caravan routes leading to the Caspian Sea and the +Uralsk province. + + + + +KUNGUR, a town of eastern Russia, in the government of Perm, on the +highway to Siberia, 58 m. S.S.E. of the city of Perm. Pop. (1892), +12,400; (1897), 14,324. Tanneries and the manufacture of boots, gloves, +leather, overcoats, iron castings and machinery are the chief +industries. It has trade in boots, iron wares, cereals, tallow and +linseed exported, and in tea imported direct from China. + + + + +KUNKEL (or KUNCKEL) VON LOWENSTJERN, JOHANN (1630-1703), German chemist, +was born in 1630 (or 1638), near Rendsburg, his father being alchemist +to the court of Holstein. He became chemist and apothecary to the dukes +of Lauenburg, and then to the elector of Saxony, Johann Georg II., who +put him in charge of the royal laboratory at Dresden. Intrigues +engineered against him caused him to resign this position in 1677, and +for a time he lectured on chemistry at Annaberg and Wittenberg. Invited +to Berlin by Frederick William, in 1679 he became director of the +laboratory and glass works of Brandenburg, and in 1688 Charles XI. +brought him to Stockholm, giving him the title of Baron von Lowenstjern +in 1693 and making him a member of the council of mines. He died on the +20th of March 1703 (others say 1702) at Dreissighufen, his country house +near Pernau. Kunkel shares with Boyle the honour of having discovered +the secret of the process by which Brand of Hamburg had prepared +phosphorus in 1669, and he found how to make artificial ruby (red glass) +by the incorporation of purple of Cassius. His work also included +observations on putrefaction and fermentation, which he spoke of as +sisters, on the nature of salts, and on the preparation of pure metals. +Though he lived in an atmosphere of alchemy, he derided the notion of +the alkahest or universal solvent, and denounced the deceptions of the +adepts who pretended to effect the transmutation of metals; but he +believed mercury to be a constituent of all metals and heavy minerals, +though he held there was no proof of the presence of "sulphur +comburens." + + His chief works were _Oeffentliche Zuschrift von dem Phosphor Mirabil_ + (1678); _Ars vitriaria experimentalis_ (1689) and _Laboratorium + chymicum_ (1716). + + + + +KUNLONG, the name of a district and ferry on the Salween, in the +northern Shan States of Burma. Both are insignificant, but the place has +gained notoriety from being the nominal terminus in British territory of +the railway across the northern Shan States to the borders of Yunnan, +with its present terminus at Lashio. In point of fact, however, this +terminus will be 7 m. below the ferry and outside of Kunlong circle. At +present Kunlong ferry is little used, and the village was burnt by +Kachins in 1893. It is served by dug-outs, three in number in 1899, and +capable of carrying about fifteen men on a trip. Formerly the trade was +very considerable, and the Burmese had a customs station on the island, +from which the place takes its name; but the rebellion in the great +state of Theinni, and the southward movement of the Kachins, as well as +the Mahommedan rebellion in Yunnan, diverted the caravans to the +northern route to Bhamo, which is still chiefly followed. The Wa, who +inhabit the hills immediately overlooking the Nam Ting valley, now make +the route dangerous for traders. The great majority of these Wa live in +unadministered British territory. + + + + +KUNZITE, a transparent lilac-coloured variety of spodumene, used as a +gem-stone. It was discovered in 1902 near Pala, in San Diego county, +California, not far from the locality which yields the fine specimens of +rubellite and lepidolite, well known to mineralogists. The mineral was +named by Dr C. Baskerville after Dr George F. Kunz, the gem expert of +New York, who first described it. Analysis by R. O. E. Davis showed it +to be a spodumene. Kunzite occurs in large crystals, some weighing as +much as 1000 grams each, and presents delicate hues from rosy lilac to +deep pink. It is strongly dichroic. Near the surface it may lose colour +by exposure. Kunzite becomes strongly phosphorescent under the Röntgen +rays, or by the action of radium or on exposure to ultra-violet rays. +(See SPODUMENE.) + + + + +KUOPIO, a province of Finland, which includes northern Karelia, bounded +on the N.W. and N. by Uleåborg, on the E. by Olonets, on the S.E. by +Viborg, on the S. by St Michel and on the W. by Vasa. Its area covers +16,500 sq. m., and the population (1900) was 313,951, of whom 312,875 +were Finnish-speaking. The surface is hilly, reaching from 600 to 800 +ft. of altitude in the north (Suomenselkä hills), and from 300 to 400 +ft. in the south. It is built up of gneisso-granites, which are covered, +especially in the middle and east, with younger granites, and partly of +gneisses, quartzite, and talc schists and augitic rocks. The whole is +covered with glacial and later lacustrine deposits. The soil is of +moderate fertility, but often full of boulders. Large lakes cover 16% of +surface, marshes and peat bogs over 29% of the area, and forests occupy +2,672,240 hectares. Steamers ply along the lakes as far as Joensuu. The +climate is severe, the average temperature being for the year 36° F., +for January 13° and for July 63°. Only 2.3% of the whole surface is +under cultivation. Rye, barley, oats and potatoes are the chief crops, +and in good years these meet the needs of the population. Dairy farming +and cattle breeding are of rapidly increasing importance. Nearly 38,800 +tons of iron ore are extracted every year, and nearly 12,000 tons of pig +iron and 6420 tons of iron and steel are obtained in ten iron-works. +Engineering and chemical works, tanneries, saw-mills, paper-mills and +distilleries are the chief industrial establishments. The preparation of +carts, sledges and other wooden goods is an important domestic industry. +Timber, iron, butter, furs and game are exported. The chief towns of the +government are Kuopio (13,519), Joensuu (3954) and Iisalmi (1871). + + + + +KUOPIO, capital of the Finnish province of that name, situated on Lake +Kalla-vesi, 180 m. by rail from the Kuivola junction of the St +Petersburg-Helsingfors main line. Pop. (1904), 13,519. It is +picturesquely situated, is the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral, +two lyceums and two gymnasia (both for boys and girls), a commercial and +several professional schools. There is an agricultural school at Leväis, +close by. Kuopio, in consequence of its steamer communication with +middle Finland and the sea (via Saima Canal), is a trading centre of +considerable importance. + + + + +KUPRILI, spelt also KÖPRILI, KOEPRULU, KEUPRULU, &c., the name of a +family of Turkish statesmen. + +1. MAHOMMED KUPRILI (c. 1586-1661) was the grandson of an Albanian who +had settled at Kupri in Asia Minor. He began life as a scullion in the +imperial kitchen, became cook, then purse-bearer to Khosrev Pasha, and +so, by wit and favour, rose to be master of the horse, "pasha of two +tails," and governor of a series of important cities and sanjaks. In +1656 he was appointed governor of Tripoli; but before he had set out to +his new post he was nominated to the grand vizierate at the instance of +powerful friends. He accepted office only on condition of being allowed +a free hand. He signalized his accession to power by suppressing an +_émeute_ of orthodox Mussulman fanatics in Constantinople (Sept. 22), +and by putting to death certain favourites of the powerful Valide +Sultana, by whose corruption and intrigues the administration had been +confused. A little later (January 1657) he suppressed with ruthless +severity a rising of the spahis; a certain Sheik Salim, leader of the +fanatical mob of the capital, was drowned in the Bosporus; and the Greek +Patriarch, who had written to the voivode of Wallachia to announce the +approaching downfall of Islam, was hanged. This impartial severity was a +foretaste of Kuprili's rule, which was characterized throughout by a +vigour which belied the expectations based upon his advanced years, and +by a ruthlessness which in time grew to be almost blood-lust. His +justification was the new life which he breathed into the decaying bones +of the Ottoman empire. + +Having cowed the disaffected elements in the state, he turned his +attention to foreign enemies. The victory of the Venetians off Chios +(May 2, 1657) was a severe blow to the Turkish sea-power, which Kuprili +set himself energetically to repair. A second battle, fought in the +Dardanelles (July 17-19), ended by a lucky shot blowing up the Venetian +flag-ship; the losses of the Ottoman fleet were repaired, and in the +middle of August Kuprili appeared off Tenedos, which was captured on the +31st and reincorporated permanently in the Turkish empire. Thus the +Ottoman prestige was restored at sea, while Kuprili's ruthless +enforcement of discipline in the army and suppression of revolts, +whether in Europe or Asia, restored it also on land. It was, however, +due to his haughty and violent temper that the traditional friendly +relations between Turkey and France were broken. The French ambassador, +de la Haye, had delayed bringing him the customary gifts, with the idea +that he would, like his predecessors, speedily give place to a new grand +vizier; Kuprili was bitterly offended, and, on pretext of an abuse of +the immunities of diplomatic correspondence, bastinadoed the +ambassador's son and cast him and the ambassador himself into prison. A +special envoy, sent by Louis XIV., to make inquiries and demand +reparation, was treated with studied insult; and the result was that +Mazarin abandoned the Turkish alliance and threw the power of France on +to the side of Venice, openly assisting the Venetians in the defence of +Crete. + +Kuprili's restless energy continued to the last, exhibiting itself on +one side in wholesale executions, on the other in vast building +operations. By his orders castles were built at the mouth of the Don and +on the bank of the Dnieper, outworks against the ever-aggressive Tatars, +as well as on either shore of the Dardanelles. His last activity as a +statesman was to spur the sultan on to press the war against Hungary. He +died on the 31st of October 1661. The advice which, on his death-bed, he +is said to have given to the sultan is characteristic of his +Machiavellian statecraft. This was: never to pay attention to the advice +of women, to allow nobody to grow too rich, to keep his treasury well +filled, and himself and his troops constantly occupied. Had he so +desired, Kuprili might have taken advantage of the revolts of the +Janissaries to place himself on the throne; instead, he recommended the +sultan to appoint his son as his successor, and so founded a dynasty of +able statesmen who occupied the grand vizierate almost without +interruption for half a century. + +2. FAZIL AHMED KUPRILI (1635-1676), son of the preceding, succeeded his +father as grand vizier in 1661 (this being the first instance of a son +succeeding his father in that office since the time of the Chenderélis). +He began life in the clerical career, which he left, at the age of +twenty-three, when he had attained the rank of _muderris_. Usually +humane and generous, he sought to relieve the people of the excessive +taxation and to secure them against unlawful exactions. Three years +after his accession to office Turkey suffered a crushing defeat at the +battle of St Gothard and was obliged to make peace with the Empire. But +Kuprili's influence with the sultan remained unshaken, and five years +later Crete fell to his arms (1669). The next war in which he was called +upon to take part was with Poland, in defence of the Cossacks, who had +appealed to Turkey for protection. At first successful, Kuprili was +defeated by the Poles under John Sobieski at Khotin and Lemberg; the +Turks, however, continued to hold their own, and finally in October 1676 +consented to honourable terms of peace by the treaty of Zurawno (October +16, 1676), retaining Kaminiec, Podolia and the greater part of the +Ukraine. Three days later Ahmed Kuprili died. His military capacity was +far inferior to his administrative qualities. He was a liberal protector +of art and literature, and the kindliness of his disposition formed a +marked contrast to the cruelty of his father; but he was given to +intemperance, and the cause of his death was dropsy brought on by +alcoholic abuse. + +3. ZADE MUSTAFA KUPRILI (1637-1691), surnamed Fazil, son of Mahommed +Kuprili, became grand vizier to Suleiman II. in 1689. Called to office +after disaster had driven Turkey's forces from Hungary and Poland and +her fleets from the Mediterranean, he began by ordering strict economy +and reform in the taxation; himself setting the example, which was +widely followed, of voluntary contributions for the army, which with the +navy he reorganized as quickly as he could. His wisdom is shown by the +prudent measures which he took by enacting the _Nizam-i-jedid_, or new +regulations for the improvement of the condition of the Christian rayas, +and for affording them security for life and property; a conciliatory +attitude which at once bore fruit in Greece, where the people abandoned +the Venetian cause and returned to their allegiance to the Porte. He met +his death at the battle of Salankamen in 1691, when the total defeat of +the Turks by the Austrians under Prince Louis of Baden led to their +expulsion from Hungary. + +4. HUSSEIN KUPRILI (surnamed AMUJA-ZADE) was the son of Hassan, a +younger brother of Mahommed Kuprili. After occupying various important +posts he became grand vizier in 1697, and owing to his ability and +energy the Turks were able to drive the Austrians back over the Save, +and Turkish fleets were sent into the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. +The efforts of European diplomacy succeeded in inducing Austria and +Turkey to come to terms by the treaty of Carlowitz, whereby Turkey was +shorn of her chief conquests (1699). After this event Hussein Kuprili, +surnamed "the Wise," devoted himself to the suppression of the revolts +which had broken out in Arabia, Egypt and the Crimea, to the reduction +of the Janissaries, and to the institution of administrative and +financial reform. Unfortunately the intrigues against him drove him from +office in 1702, and soon afterwards he died. + +5. NUMAN KUPRILI, son of Mustafa Fazil, became grand vizier in 1710. The +expectations formed of him were not fulfilled, as although he was +tolerant, wise and just like his father, he injudiciously sought to take +upon himself all the details of administration, a task which proved to +be beyond his powers. He failed to introduce order into the +administration and was dismissed from office in less than fourteen +months after his appointment. + +6. ABDULLAH KUPRILI, a son of Mustafa Fazil Kuprili, was appointed +Kaimmakam or _locum tenens_ of the grand vizier in 1703. He commanded +the Persian expedition in 1723 and captured Tabriz in 1725, resigning +his office in 1726. In 1735 he again commanded against the Persians, but +fell at the disastrous battle of Bagaverd, thus emulating his father's +heroic death at Selankamen. + + + + +KURAKIN, BORIS IVANOVICH, PRINCE (1676-1727), Russian diplomatist, was +the brother-in-law of Peter the Great, their wives being sisters. He was +one of the earliest of Peter's pupils. In 1697 he was sent to Italy to +learn navigation. His long and honourable diplomatic career began in +1707, when he was sent to Rome to induce the pope not to recognize +Charles XII.'s candidate, Stanislaus Leszczynski, as king of Poland. +From 1708 to 1712 he represented Russia at London, Hanover, and the +Hague successively, and, in 1713, was the principal Russian +plenipotentiary at the peace congress of Utrecht. From 1716 to 1722 he +held the post of ambassador at Paris, and when, in 1724, Peter set forth +on his Persian campaign, Kurakin was appointed the supervisor of all the +Russian ambassadors accredited to the various European courts. "The +father of Russian diplomacy," as he has justly been called, was +remarkable throughout his career for infinite tact and insight, and a +wonderfully correct appreciation of men and events. He was most useful +to Russia perhaps when the Great Northern war (see SWEDEN, _History_) +was drawing to a close. Notably he prevented Great Britain from +declaring war against Peter's close ally, Denmark, at the crisis of the +struggle. Kurakin was one of the best-educated Russians of his day, and +his autobiography, carried down to 1709, is an historical document of +the first importance. He intended to write a history of his own times +with Peter the Great as the central figure, but got no further than the +summary, entitled _History of Tsar Peter Aleksievich and the People +Nearest to Him_ (1682-1694) (Rus.). + + See _Archives of Prince A. Th. Kurakin_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1890); + A. Brückner, _A Russian Tourist in Western Europe in the beginning of + the XVIIIth Century_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1892). (R. N. B.) + + + + +KURBASH, or KOURBASH (from the Arabic _qurbash_, a whip; Turkish +_qirbach_; and French _courbache_), a whip or strap about a yard in +length, made of the hide of the hippopotamus or rhinoceros. It is an +instrument of punishment and torture used in various Mahommedan +countries, especially in the Turkish empire. "Government by kurbash" +denotes the oppression of a people by the constant abuse of the kurbash +to maintain authority, to collect taxes, or to pervert justice. The use +of the kurbash for such purposes, once common in Egypt, has been +abolished by the British authorities. + + + + +KURDISTAN, in its wider sense, the "country of the Kurds" (Koords), +including that part of Mount Taurus which buttresses the Armenian +table-land (see ARMENIA), and is intersected by the Batman Su, the +Bohtan Su, and other tributaries of the Tigris; and the wild mountain +district, watered by the Great and Little Zab, which marks the western +termination of the great Iranian plateau. + +_Population._--The total Kurd population probably exceeds two and a half +millions, namely, Turkish Kurds 1,650,000, Persian 800,000, Russian +50,000, but there are no trustworthy statistics. The great mass of the +population has its home in Kurdistan. But Kurds are scattered +irregularly over the country from the river Sakaria on the west to Lake +Urmia on the east, and from Kars on the north to Jebel Sinjar on the +south. There is also an isolated settlement in Khorasan. The tribes, +_ashiret_, into which the Kurds are divided, resemble in some respects +the Highland clans of Scotland. Very few of them number more than 10,000 +souls, and the average is about 3000. The sedentary and pastoral Kurds, +_Yerli_, who live in villages in winter and encamp on their own +pasture-grounds in summer, form an increasing majority of the +population. The nomad Kurds, _Kocher_, who always dwell in tents, are +the wealthiest and most independent. They spend the summer on the +mountains and high plateaus, which they enter in May and leave in +October; and pass the winter on the banks of the Tigris and on the great +plain north of Jebel Sinjar, where they purchase right of pasturage +from the Shammar Arabs. Each tribe has its own pasture-grounds, and +trespass by other tribes is a fertile source of quarrel. During the +periodical migrations Moslem and Christian alike suffer from the +predatory instincts of the Kurd, and disturbances are frequent in the +districts traversed. In Turkey the sedentary Kurds pay taxes; but the +nomads only pay the sheep tax, which is collected as they cross the +Tigris on their way to their summer pastures. + +_Character._--The Kurd delights in the bracing air and unrestricted +liberty of the mountains. He is rarely a muleteer or camel-man, and does +not take kindly to handicrafts. The Kurds generally bear a very +indifferent reputation, a worse reputation perhaps, than they really +deserve. Being aliens to the Turks in language and to the Persians in +religion, they are everywhere treated with mistrust, and live as it were +in a state of chronic warfare with the powers that be. Such a condition +is not of course favourable to the development of the better qualities +of human nature. The Kurds are thus wild and lawless; they are much +given to brigandage; they oppress and frequently maltreat the Christian +populations with whom they are brought in contact,--these populations +being the Armenians in Diarbekr, Erzerum and Van, the Jacobites and +Syrians in the Jebel-Tur, and the Nestorians and Chaldaeans in the +Hakkari country. + +Perhaps the most distinguishing characteristic of the Kurdish chief is +pride of ancestry. This feeling is in many cases exaggerated, for in +reality the present tribal organization does not date from any great +antiquity. In the list indeed of eighteen principal tribes of the nation +which was drawn up by the Arabian historian Masudi, in the 10th century, +only two or three names are to be recognized at the present day. A +14th-century list, however, translated by Quatremère,[1] presents a +great number of identical names, and there seems no reason to doubt that +certain Kurdish families can trace their descent from the Omayyad +caliphs, while only in recent years the Baban chief of Suleimania, +representing the old Sohrans, and the Ardelan chief of Sinna,[2] +representing an elder branch of the Gurans, each claimed an ancestry of +at least five hundred years. There was up to a recent period no more +picturesque or interesting scene to be witnessed in the east than the +court of one of these great Kurdish chiefs, where, like another Saladin, +the bey ruled in patriarchal state, surrounded by an hereditary +nobility, regarded by his clansmen with reverence and affection, and +attended by a bodyguard of young Kurdish warriors, clad in chain armour, +with flaunting silken scarfs, and bearing javelin, lance and sword as in +the time of the crusades. + +Though ignorant and unsophisticated the Kurd is not wanting in natural +intelligence. In recent years educated Kurds have held high office under +the sultan, including that of grand vizier, have assisted in translating +the Bible into Turkish, and in editing a newspaper. The men are lithe, +active and strong, but rarely of unusual stature. The women do not veil, +and are allowed great freedom. The Kurds as a race are proud, faithful +and hospitable, and have rude but strict feelings of honour. They are, +however, much under the influence of dervishes, and when their +fanaticism is aroused their habitual lawlessness is apt to degenerate +into savage barbarity. They are not deficient in martial spirit, but +have an innate dislike to the restraints of military service. The +country is rich in traditions and legends, and in lyric and in epic +poems, which have been handed down from earlier times and are recited in +a weird melancholy tone. + +_Antiquities._--Kurdistan abounds in antiquities of the most varied and +interesting character. But it has been very little opened up to modern +research. A series of rock-cut cuneiform inscriptions extend from +Malatia on the west to Miandoab (in Persia) on the east, and from the +banks of the Aras on the north to Rowanduz on the south, which record +the glories of a Turanian dynasty, who ruled the country of Nairi during +the 8th and 7th centuries, B.C., contemporaneously with the lower +Assyrian empire. Intermingled with these are a few genuine Assyrian +inscriptions of an earlier date; and in one instance, at Van, a later +tablet of Xerxes brings the record down to the period of Grecian +history. The most ancient monuments of this class, however, are to be +found at Holwan and in the neighbourhood, where the sculptures and +inscriptions belong probably to the Guti and Luli tribes, and date from +the early Babylonian period. + +In the northern Kurdish districts which represent the Arzanene, +Intilene, Anzitene, Zabdicene, and Moxuene of the ancients, there are +many interesting remains of Roman cities, e.g. at Arzen, Miyafarikin +(anc. _Martyropolis_), Sisauronon, and the ruins of Dunisir near Dara, +which Sachau identified with the Armenian capital of Tigranocerta. Of +the Macedonian and Parthian periods there are remains both sculptured +and inscribed at several points in Kurdistan; at Bisitun or Behistun +(q.v.), in a cave at Amadia, at the Mithraic temple of Kereftu, on the +rocks at Sir Pul-o-Zohab near the ruins of Holwan, and probably in some +other localities, such as the Balik country between Lahijan and +Koi-Sanjak; but the most interesting site in all Kurdistan, perhaps in +all western Asia, is the ruined fire temple of Pai Kuli on the southern +frontier of Suleimania. Among the débris of this temple, which is +scattered over a bare hillside, are to be found above one hundred slabs, +inscribed with Parthian and Pahlavi characters, the fragments of a wall +which formerly supported the eastern face of the edifice, and bore a +bilingual legend of great length, dating from the Sassanian period. +There are also remarkable Sassanian remains in other parts of +Kurdistan--at Salmus to the north, and at Kermanshah and Kasr-i-Shirin +on the Turkish frontier to the south. + + _Language._--The Kurdish language, Kermanji, is an old Persian patois, + intermixed to the north with Chaldaean words and to the south with a + certain Turanian element which may not improbably have come down from + Babylonian times. Several peculiar dialects are spoken in secluded + districts in the mountains, but the only varieties which, from their + extensive use, require to be specified are the Zaza and the Guran. The + Zaza is spoken throughout the western portion of the Dersim country, + and is said to be unintelligible to the Kermanji-speaking Kurds. It is + largely intermingled with Armenian, and may contain some trace of the + old Cappadocian, but is no doubt of the same Aryan stock as the + standard Kurdish. The Guran dialect again, which is spoken throughout + Ardelan and Kermanshah[3] chiefly differs from the northern Kurdish in + being entirely free from any Semitic intermixture. It is thus somewhat + nearer to the Persian than the Kermanji dialect, but is essentially + the same language. It is a mistake to suppose that there is no + Kurdish literature. Many of the popular Persian poets have been + translated into Kurdish, and there are also books relating to the + religious mysteries of the Ali-Illahis in the hands of the Dersimlis + to the north and of the Gurans of Kermanshah to the south. The New + Testament in Kurdish was printed at Constantinople in 1857. The Rev. + Samuel Rhea published a grammar and vocabulary of the Hakkari dialect + in 1872. In 1879 there appeared, under the auspices of the imperial + academy of St Petersburg a French-Kurdish dictionary compiled + originally by Mons. Jaba, many years Russian consul at Erzerum, but + completed by Ferdinand Justi by the help of a rich assortment of + Kurdish tales and ballads, collected by Socin and Prym in Assyria. + + _Religion._--The great body of the nation, in Persia as well as in + Turkey, are Sunnis of the Shafi'ite sect, but in the recesses of the + Dersim to the north and of Zagros to the south there are large + half-pagan communities, who are called indifferently Ali-Illahi and + Kizjil-bash, and who hold tenets of some obscurity, but of + considerable interest. Outwardly professing to be Shi'ites or + "followers of Ali," they observe secret ceremonies and hold esoteric + doctrines which have probably descended to them from very early ages, + and of which the essential condition is that there must always be upon + the earth a visible manifestation of the Deity. While paying reverence + to the supposed incarnations of ancient days, to Moses, David, Christ, + Ali and his tutor Salman-ul-Farisi, and several of the Shi'ite imams + and saints, they have thus usually some recent local celebrity at + whose shrine they worship and make vows; and there is, moreover, in + every community of Ali-Illahis some living personage, not necessarily + ascetic, to whom, as representing the godhead, the superstitious + tribesmen pay almost idolatrous honours. Among the Gurans of the south + the shrine of Baba Yadgar, in a gorge of the hills above the old city + of Holwan, is thus regarded with a supreme veneration. Similar + institutions are also found in other parts of the mountains, which may + be compared with the tenets of the Druses and Nosairis in Syria and + the Ismailites in Persia. + +_History._--With regard to the origin of the Kurds, it was formerly +considered sufficient to describe them as the descendants of the +Carduchi, who opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand through the +mountains, but modern research traces them far beyond the period of the +Greeks. At the dawn of history the mountains overhanging Assyria were +held by a people named _Gutu_, a title which signified "a warrior," and +which was rendered in Assyrian by the synonym of _Gardu_ or _Kardu_, the +precise term quoted by Strabo to explain the name of the Cardaces +([Greek: Kardakes]). These _Gutu_ were a Turanian tribe of such power as +to be placed in the early cuneiform records on an equality with the +other nations of western Asia, that is, with the Syrians and Hittites, +the Susians, Elamites, and Akkadians of Babylonia; and during the whole +period of the Assyrian empire they seem to have preserved a more or less +independent political position. After the fall of Nineveh they coalesced +with the Medes, and, in common with all the nations inhabiting the high +plateaus of Asia Minor, Armenia and Persia, became gradually Aryanized, +owing to the immigration at this period of history of tribes in +overwhelming numbers which, from whatever quarter they may have sprung, +belonged certainly to the Aryan family. + +The _Gutu_ or Kurdu were reduced to subjection by Cyrus before he +descended upon Babylon, and furnished a contingent of fighting men to +his successors, being thus mentioned under the names of Saspirians and +Alarodians in the muster roll of the army of Xerxes which was preserved +by Herodotus. + +In later times they passed successively under the sway of the +Macedonians, the Parthians, and Sassanians, being especially befriended, +if we may judge from tradition as well as from the remains still +existing in the country, by the Arsacian monarchs, who were probably of +a cognate race. Gotarzes indeed, whose name may perhaps be translated +"chief of the _Gutu_," was traditionally believed to be the founder of +the Gurans, the principal tribe of southern Kurdistan,[4] and his name +and titles are still preserved in a Greek inscription at Behistun near +the Kurdish capital of Kermanshah. Under the caliphs of Bagdad the Kurds +were always giving trouble in one quarter or another. In A.D. 838, and +again in 905, there were formidable insurrections in northern Kurdistan; +the amir, Adod-addaula, was obliged to lead the forces of the caliphate +against the southern Kurds, capturing the famous fortress of Sermaj, of +which the ruins are to be seen at the present day near Behistun, and +reducing the province of Shahrizor with its capital city now marked by +the great mound of Yassin Teppeh. The most flourishing period of Kurdish +power was probably during the 12th century of our era, when the great +Saladin, who belonged to the Rawendi branch of the Hadabani tribe, +founded the Ayyubite dynasty of Syria, and Kurdish chiefships were +established, not only to the east and west of the Kurdistan mountains, +but as far as Khorasan upon one side and Egypt and Yemen on the other. +During the Mongol and Tatar domination of western Asia the Kurds in the +mountains remained for the most part passive, yielding a reluctant +obedience to the provincial governors of the plains. + +When Sultan Selim I., after defeating Shah Ismail, 1514, annexed Armenia +and Kurdistan, he entrusted the organization of the conquered +territories to Idris, the historian, who was a Kurd of Bitlis. Idris +found Kurdistan bristling with castles, held by hereditary tribal chiefs +of Kurd, Arab, and Armenian descent, who were practically independent, +and passed their time in tribal warfare or in raiding the agricultural +population. He divided the territory into sanjaks or districts, and, +making no attempt to interfere with the principle of heredity, installed +the local chiefs as governors. He also resettled the rich pastoral +country between Erzerum and Erivan, which had lain waste since the +passage of Timur, with Kurds from the Hakkiari and Bohtan districts. The +system of administration introduced by Idris remained unchanged until +the close of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29. But the Kurds, owing to +the remoteness of their country from the capital and the decline of +Turkey, had greatly increased in influence and power, and had spread +westwards over the country as far as Angora. After the war the Kurds +attempted to free themselves from Turkish control, and in 1834 it became +necessary to reduce them to subjection. This was done by Reshid Pasha. +The principal towns were strongly garrisoned, and many of the Kurd beys +were replaced by Turkish governors. A rising under Bedr Khan Bey in 1843 +was firmly repressed, and after the Crimean War the Turks strengthened +their hold on the country. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 was followed +by the attempt of Sheikh Obaidullah, 1880-81, to found an independent +Kurd principality under the protection of Turkey. The attempt, at first +encouraged by the Porte, as a reply to the projected creation of an +Armenian state under the suzerainty of Russia (see ARMENIA), collapsed +after Obaidullah's raid into Persia, when various circumstances led the +central government to reassert its supreme authority. Until the +Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29 there had been little hostile feeling +between the Kurds and the Armenians, and as late as 1877-1878 the +mountaineers of both races had got on fairly well together. Both +suffered from Turkey, both dreaded Russia. But the national movement +amongst the Armenians, and its encouragement by Russia after the last +war, gradually aroused race hatred and fanaticism. In 1891 the activity +of the Armenian Committees induced the Porte to strengthen the position +of the Kurds by raising a body of Kurdish irregular cavalry, which was +well armed and called Hamidieh after the Sultan. The opportunities thus +offered for plunder and the gratification of race hatred brought out the +worst qualities of the Kurds. Minor disturbances constantly occurred, +and were soon followed by the massacre of Armenians at Sasun and other +places, 1894-96, in which the Kurds took an active part. + + AUTHORITIES.--Rich, _Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan_ (1836); + Wagner, _Reise nach Persien und dem Lande der Kurden_ (Leipzig, 1852); + Consul Taylor in _R. G. S. Journal_ (1865); Millingen, _Wild Life + among the Koords_ (1870); Von Luschan, "Die Wandervolker Kleinasiens," + in _V^n. d. G. für Anthropologie_ (Berlin, 1886); Clayton, "The + Mountains of Kurdistan," in _Alpine Journal_ (1887); Binder, _Au + Kurdistan_ (Paris, 1887); Naumann, _Vom Goldnen Horn zu den Quellen + des Euphrat_ (Munich, 1893); Murray, _Handbook to Asia Minor, &c._ + (1895); Lerch, _Forschungen über die Kurden_ (St Petersburg, 1857-58); + Jaba, _Dict. Kurde-Français_ (St Petersburg, 1879); Justi, _Kurdische + Grammatik_ (1880); Prym and Socin, _Kurdische Sammlungen_ (1890); + Makas, _Kurdische Studien_ (1901); Earl Percy, _Highlands of Asiatic + Turkey_ (1901); Lynch, _Armenia_ (1901); A. V. Williams Jackson, + _Persia, Past and Present_ (1906). (C. W. W.; H. C. R.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See _Notices et Extraits des MSS._, xiii. 305. Of the tribes + enumerated in this work of the 14th century who still retain a + leading place among the Kurds, the following names may be quoted: + _Guranieh_ of Dartang, modern Gurans; _Zengeneh_, in Hamadan hills, + now in Kermanshah; _Hasnani_ of Kerkuk and Arbil, now in the Dersim + mountains, having originally come from Khorasan according to + tradition; _Sohrieh_ of Shekelabad and Tel-Haftun, modern Sohran, + from whom descend the Baban of Suleimanieh; _Zerzari_ of Hinjarin + mountains, modern Zerzas of Ushnu (cuneiform pillars of Kel-i-shin + and Sidek noticed by author); _Julamerkieh_, modern Julamerik, said + to be descended from the caliph Merwan-ibn-Hakam; _Hakkarieh_, + Hakkari inhabiting _Zuzan_ of Arab geography; _Bokhtieh_, modern + Bohtan. The _Rowadi_, to whom Saladin belonged, are probably modern + Rawendi, as they held the fortress of Arbil (Arbela). Some twenty + other names are mentioned, but the orthography is so doubtful that it + is useless to try to identify them. + + [2] The _Sheref-nama_, a history of the Kurds dating from the 16th + century, tells us that "towards the close of the reign of the + Jenghizians, a man named Baba Ardilan, a descendant of the governors + of Diarbekr, and related to the famous Ahmed-ibn-Merwan, after + remaining for some time among the Gurans, gained possession of the + country of Shahrizor" and the Ardelan family history, with the + gradual extension of their power over Persian Kurdistan, is then + traced down to the Saffavid period. + + [3] The Guran are mentioned in the _Mesalik-el-Absar_ as the dominant + tribe in southern Kurdistan in the 14th century, occupying very much + the same seats as at present, from the Hamadan frontier to Shahrizor. + Their name probably signifies merely "the mountaineers," being + derived from _gur_ or _giri_, "a mountain," which is also found in + Zagros, i.e. _za-giri_, "beyond the mountain," or _Pusht-i-koh_, as + the name is translated in Persian. They are a fine, active and hardy + race, individually brave, and make excellent soldiers, though in + appearance very inferior to the tribal Kurds of the northern + districts. These latter indeed delight in gay colours, while the + Gurans dress in the most homely costume, wearing coarse blue cotton + vests, with felt caps and coats. In a great part of Kurdistan the + name Guran has become synonymous with an agricultural peasantry, as + opposed to the migratory shepherds. + + [4] "The Kalhur tribe are traditionally descended from + Gudarz-ibn-Gio, whose son Roham was sent by Bahman Keiani to destroy + Jerusalem and bring the Jews into captivity. This Roham is the + individual usually called Bokht-i-nasser (Nebuchadrezzar) and he + ultimately succeeded to the throne. The neighbouring country has ever + since remained in the hands of his descendants, who are called + Gurans" (_Sheref-Nama_, Persian MS.). The same popular tradition + still exists in the country, and [Greek: GÔTARZÊO GEOPOTHROS] is + found on the rock at Behistun, showing that Gudarz-ibn-Gio was really + an historic personage. See _Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc._ ix. 114. + + + + +KURDISTAN, in the narrower sense, a province of Persia, situated in the +hilly districts between Azerbaijan and Kermanshah, and extending to the +Turkish frontier on the W., and bounded on the E. by Gerrus and Hamadan. +In proportion to its size and population it pays a very small yearly +revenue--only about £14,000--due to the fact that a great part of the +population consists of wild and disorderly nomad Kurds. Some of these +nomads pass their winters in Turkish territory, and have their summer +pasture-grounds in the highlands of Kurdistan. This adds much to the +difficulty of collecting taxation. The province is divided into sixteen +districts, and its eastern part, in which the capital is situated, is +known as Ardelan. The capital is Senendij, usually known as Sinna (not +Sihna, or Sahna, as some writers have it), situated 60 m. N.W. of +Hamadan, in 35° 15´ N., 47° 18´ E., at an elevation of 5300 ft. The city +has a population of about 35,000 and manufactures great quantities of +carpets and felts for the supply of the province and for export. Some of +the carpets are very fine and expensive, rugs 2 yards by 1½ costing £15 +to £20. Post and telegraph offices have been established since 1879. + + + + +KURGAN, a town (founded 1553) of West Siberia, in the government of +Tobolsk, on the Siberian railway, 160 m. E. of Chelyabinsk, and on the +left bank of the Tobol, in a wealthy agricultural district. Pop. (1897), +10,579. Owing to its position at the terminus of steam navigation up the +river Tobol, it has become second only to Tyumen as a commercial centre. +It has a public library and a botanic garden. There is a large trade in +cattle with Petropavlovsk, and considerable export of grain, tallow, +meat, hides, butter, game and fish, there being three large fairs in the +year. In the vicinity are a great number of prehistoric kurgans or +burial-mounds. + + + + +KURIA MURIA ISLANDS, a group of five islands in the Arabian Sea, close +under the coast of Arabia, belonging to Britain and forming a dependency +of Aden. They are lofty and rocky, and have a total area of 28 sq. m., +that of the largest, Hallania, being 22 sq. m. They are identified with +the ancient _Insulae Zenobii_, and were ceded by the sultan of Muscat to +Britain in 1854 for the purposes of a cable station. They are inhabited +by a few families of Arabs, who however speak a dialect differing +considerably from the ordinary Arabic. The islands yield some guano. + + + + +KURILES (Jap. _Chishima_, "thousand islands"), a chain of small islands +belonging to Japan, stretching in a north-easterly direction from Nemuro +Bay, on the extreme east of the island of Yezo, to Chishima-kaikyo +(Kuriles Strait), which separates them from the southernmost point of +Kamchatka. They extend from 44° 45´ to 50° 56´ N. and from 145° 25´ to +156° 32´ E. Their coasts measure 1496 m.; their area is 6159 sq. m.; +their total number is 32, and the names of the eight principal islands, +counting from the south, are Kunashiri, Shikotan, Etorofu (generally +called Etorop, and known formerly to Europe as Staten Island), Urup, +Simusir, Onnekotan, Paramoshiri (Paramusir) and Shumshiri. From +Noshapzaki (Notsu-no-sake or Notsu Cape), the most easterly point of +Nemuro province, to Tomari, the most westerly point in Kunashiri, the +distance is 7(1/3) m., and the Kuriles Strait separating Shumshiri from +Kamchatka is about the same width. The name "Kurile" is derived from the +Russian _kurit_ (to smoke), in allusion to the active volcanic character +of the group. The dense fogs that envelop these islands, and the +violence of the currents in their vicinity, have greatly hindered +exploration, so that little is known of their physiography. They lie +entangled in a vast net of sea-weed; are the resort of innumerable +birds, and used to be largely frequented by seals and sea-otters, which, +however, have been almost completely driven away by unregulated +hunting. Near the south-eastern coast of Kunashiri stands a mountain +called Rausunobori (3005 ft. high), round whose base sulphur bubbles up +in large quantities, and hot springs as well as a hot stream are found. +On the west coast of the same island is a boiling lake, called Ponto, +which deposits on its bed and round its shores black sand, consisting +almost entirely of pure sulphur. This island has several lofty peaks; +Ponnobori-yama near the east coast, and Chachanobori and Rurindake in +the north. Chachanobori (about 7382 ft.) is described by Messrs +Chamberlain and Mason as "a cone within a cone, the inner and higher of +the two being--so the natives say--surrounded by a lake." The island has +extensive forests of conifers with an undergrowth of ferns and flowering +plants, and bears are numerous. The chief port of Kunashiri is Tomari, +on the south coast. The island of Shikotan is remarkable for the growth +of a species of bamboo (called Shikotan-chiku), having dark brown spots +on the cane. Etorofu has a coast-line broken by deep bays, of which the +principal are Naibo-wan, Rubetsu-wan and Bettobuwan on the northern +shore and Shitokap-wan on the southern. It is covered almost completely +with dense forest, and has a number of streams abounding with salmon. +Shana, the chief port, is in Rubetsu Bay. This island, the principal of +the group, is divided into four provinces for administrative purposes, +namely, Etorofu, Furubetsu, Shana and Shibetoro. Its mountains are +Atosha-nobori (4035 ft.) in Etorofu; Chiripnupari (5009 ft.) in Shana; +and Mokoro-nobori (3930 ft.) and Atuiyadake (3932 ft.) in Shibetoro. +Among the other islands three only call for notice on account of their +altitudes, namely, Ketoi-jima, Rashua-jima and Matua-jima, which rise to +heights of 3944, 3304 and 5240 ft. respectively. + +_Population._--Not much is known about the aborigines. By some +authorities Ainu colonists are supposed to have been the first settlers, +and to have arrived there via Yezo; by others, the earliest comers are +believed to have been a hyperborean tribe travelling southwards by way +of Kamchatka. The islands themselves have not been sufficiently explored +to determine whether they furnish any ethnological evidences. The +present population aggregates about 4400, or 0.7 per sq. m., of whom +about 600 are Ainu (q.v.). There is little disposition to emigrate +thither from Japan proper, the number of settlers being less than 100 +annually. + +_History._--The Kurile Islands were discovered in 1634 by the Dutch +navigator Martin de Vries. The three southern islands, Kunashiri, +Etorofu, and Shikotan, are believed to have belonged to Japan from a +remote date, but at the beginning of the 18th century the Russians, +having conquered Kamchatka, found their way to the northern part of the +Kuriles in pursuit of fur-bearing animals, with which the islands then +abounded. Gradually these encroachments were pushed farther south, +simultaneously with aggressions imperilling the Japanese settlements in +the southern half of Sakhalin. Japan's occupation was far from effective +in either region, and in 1875 she was not unwilling to conclude a +convention by which she agreed to withdraw altogether from Sakhalin +provided that Russia withdrew from the Kuriles. + +An officer of the Japanese navy, Lieut. Gunji, left Tokyo with about +forty comrades in 1892, his intention being to form a settlement on +Shumshiri, the most northerly of the Kurile Islands. They embarked in +open boats, and for that reason, as well as because they were going to +constitute themselves their country's extreme outpost, the enterprise +attracted public enthusiasm. After a long struggle the immigrants became +fairly prosperous. + + See Capt. H. J. Snow, _Notes on the Kurile Islands_ (London, 1896). + + + + +KURISCHES HAFF, a lagoon of Germany, on the Baltic coast of East +Prussia, stretching from Labiau to Memel, a distance of 60 m., has an +area of nearly 680 sq. m. It is mostly shallow and only close to Memel +attains a depth of 23 ft. It is thus unnavigable except for small +coasting and fishing boats, and sea-going vessels proceed through the +Memeler Tief (Memel Deep), which connects the Baltic with Memel and has +a depth of 19 ft. and a breadth of 800 to 1900 ft. The Kurisches Haff is +separated from the Baltic by a long spit, or tongue of land, the +so-called Kurische Nehrung, 72 m. in length and with a breadth of 1 to 2 +miles. The latter is fringed throughout its whole length by a chain of +dunes, which rise in places to a height of nearly 200 ft. and threaten, +unless checked, to be pressed farther inland and silt up the whole Haff. + + See Berendt, _Geologie des Kurischen Haffs_ (Königsberg, 1869); + Sommer, _Das Kurische Haff_ (Danzig, 1889); A. Bezzenberger, _Die + Kurische Nehrung und ihre Bewohner_ (Stuttgart, 1889); and Lindner, + _Die Preussische Wüste einst und jetzt, Bilder von der Kurischen + Nehrung_ (Osterwieck, 1898). + + + + +KURNOOL, or KARNUL, a town and district of British India, in the Madras +presidency. The town is built on a rocky soil at the junction of the +Hindri and Tungabhadra rivers 33 m. from a railway station. The old +Hindu fort was levelled in 1865, with the exception of one of the gates, +which was preserved as a specimen of ancient architecture. Cotton cloth +and carpets are manufactured. Pop. (1901), 25,376, of whom half are +Mussulmans. + +The DISTRICT OF KURNOOL has an area of 7578 sq. m., pop. (1901), +872,055, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. Two long mountain +ranges, the Nallamalais and the Yellamalais, extend in parallel lines, +north and south, through its centre. The principal heights of the +Nallamalai range are Biranikonda (3149 ft.), Gundlabrahmeswaram (3055 +ft.), and Durugapukonda (3086 ft.). The Yellamalai is a low range, +generally flat-topped with scarped sides; the highest point is about +2000 ft. Several low ridges run parallel to the Nallamalais, broken here +and there by gorges, through which mountain streams take their course. +Several of these gaps were dammed across under native rule, to form +tanks for purposes of irrigation. The principal rivers are the +Tungabhadra and Kistna, which bound the district on the north. When in +flood, the Tungabhadra averages 900 yards broad and 15 ft. deep. The +Kistna here flows chiefly through uninhabited jungles, sometimes in long +smooth reaches, with intervening shingly rapids. The Bhavanasi rises on +the Nallamalais, and falls into the Kistna at Sungameswaram, a place of +pilgrimage. During the 18th century Kurnool formed the _jagir_ of a +semi-independent Pathan Nawab, whose descendant was dispossessed by the +British government for treason in 1838. The principal crops are millets, +cotton, oil-seeds, and rice, with a little indigo and tobacco. Kurnool +suffered very severely from the famine of 1876-1877, and to a slight +extent in 1896-1897. It is the chief scene of the operations of the +Madras Irrigation Company taken over by government in 1882. The canal, +which starts from the Tungabhadra river near Kurnool town, was +constructed at a total cost of two millions sterling, but has not been a +financial success. A more successful work is the Cumbum tank, formed +under native rule by damming a gorge of the Gundlakamma river. Apart +from the weaving of coarse cotton cloth, the chief industrial +establishments are cotton presses, indigo vats, and saltpetre +refineries. The district is served by the Southern Mahratta railway. + + + + +KUROKI, ITEI, COUNT (1844- ), Japanese general, was born in Satsuma. He +distinguished himself in the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95. He commanded +the I. Army in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), when he won the opening +battle of the war at the Yalu river, and afterwards advanced through the +mountains and took part with the other armies in the battles of +Liao-Yang, Shaho and Mukden (see RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR). He was created +baron for his services in the former war, and count for his services in +the latter. + + + + +KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH (1848- ), Russian general, was born in +1848 and entered the army in 1864. From 1872 to 1874 he studied at the +Nicholas staff college, after which he spent a short time with the +French troops in Algiers. In 1875 he was employed in diplomatic work in +Kashgaria and in 1876 he took part in military operations in Turkistan, +Kokan and Samerkand. In the war of 1877-78 against Turkey he earned a +great reputation as chief of staff to the younger Skobelev, and after +the war he wrote a detailed and critical history of the operations which +is still regarded as the classical work on the subject and is available +for other nations in the German translation by Major Krahmer. After the +war he served again on the south-eastern borders in command of the +Turkestan Rifle Brigade, and in 1881 he won further fame by a march of +500 miles from Tashkent to Geok-Tepe, taking part in the storming of the +latter place. In 1882 he was promoted major-general, at the early age of +34, and he henceforth was regarded by the army as the natural successor +of Skobelev. In 1890 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and thirteen +years later, having acquired in peace and war the reputation of being +one of the foremost soldiers in Europe, he quitted the post of minister +of war which he then held and took command of the Russian army then +gathering in Manchuria for the contest with Japan. His ill-success in +the great war of 1904-5, astonishing as it seemed at the time, was +largely attributable to his subjection to the superior command of +Admiral Alexeiev, the tsar's viceroy in the Far East, and to internal +friction amongst the generals, though in his history of the war (Eng. +trans., 1909) he frankly admitted his own mistakes and paid the highest +tribute to the gallantry of the troops who had been committed to battle +under conditions unfavourable to success. After the defeat of Mukden and +the retirement of the whole army to Tieling he resigned the command to +General Linievich, taking the latter officer's place at the head of one +of the three armies in Manchuria. (See RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR.) + + + + +KURO SIWO, or KURO SHIO (literally blue salt), a stream current in the +Pacific Ocean, easily distinguishable by the warm temperature and blue +colour of its waters, flowing north-eastwards along the east coast of +Japan, and separated from it by a strip of cold water. The current +persists as a stream to about 40 N., between the meridians of 150° E. +and 160° E., when it merges in the general easterly drift of the North +Pacific. The Kuro Siwo is the analogue of the Gulf Stream in the +Atlantic. + + + + +KURRAM, a river and district on the Kohat border of the North-West +Frontier province of India. The Kurram river drains the southern flanks +of the Safed Koh, enters the plains a few miles above Bannu, and joins +the Indus near Isa-Khel after a course of more than 200 miles. The +district has an area of 1278 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 54,257. It lies +between the Miranzai Valley and the Afghan border, and is inhabited by +the Turis, a tribe of Turki origin who are supposed to have subjugated +the Bangash Pathans five hundred years ago. It is highly irrigated, well +peopled, and crowded with small fortified villages, orchards and groves, +to which a fine background is afforded by the dark pine forests and +alpine snows of the Safed Koh. The beauty and climate of the valley +attracted some of the Mogul emperors of Delhi, and the remains exist of +a garden planted by Shah Jahan. Formerly the Kurram valley was under the +government of Kabul, and every five or six years a military expedition +was sent to collect the revenue, the soldiers living meanwhile at free +quarters on the people. It was not until about 1848 that the Turis were +brought directly under the control of Kabul, when a governor was +appointed, who established himself in Kurram. The Turis, being Shiah +Mahommedans, never liked the Afghan rule. During the second Afghan War, +when Sir Frederick Roberts advanced by way of the Kurram valley and the +Peiwar Kotal to Kabul, the Turis lent him every assistance in their +power, and in consequence their independence was granted them in 1880. +The administration of the Kurram valley was finally undertaken by the +British government, at the request of the Turis themselves, in 1890. +Technically it ranks, not as a British district, but as an agency or +administered area. Two expeditions in the Kurram valley also require +mention: (1) The Kurram expedition of 1856 under Brigadier Chamberlain. +The Turis on the first annexation of the Kohat district by the British +had given much trouble. They had repeatedly leagued with other tribes to +harry the Miranzai valley, harbouring fugitives, encouraging resistance, +and frequently attacking Bangash and Khattak villages in the Kohat +district. Accordingly in 1856 a British force of 4896 troops traversed +their country, and the tribe entered into engagements for future good +conduct. (2) The Kohat-Kurram expedition of 1897 under Colonel W. Hill. +During the frontier risings of 1897 the inhabitants of the Kurram +valley, chiefly the Massozai section of the Orakzais, were infected by +the general excitement, and attacked the British camp at Sadda and other +posts. A force of 14,230 British troops traversed the country, and the +tribesmen were severely punished. In Lord Curzon's reorganization of the +frontier in 1900-1901, the British troops were withdrawn from the forts +in the Kurram valley, and were replaced by the Kurram militia, +reorganized in two battalions, and chiefly drawn from the Turi tribe. + + + + +KURSEONG, or KARSIANG, a sanatorium of northern India, in the Darjeeling +district of Bengal, 20 m. S. of Darjeeling and 4860 ft. above sea-level; +pop. (1901), 4469. It has a station on the mountain railway, and is a +centre of the tea trade. It also contains boys' and girls' schools for +Europeans and Eurasians. + + + + +KURSK, a government of middle Russia, bounded N. by the government of +Orel, E. by that of Voronezh, S. by Kharkov and W. by Chernigov. Area, +17,932 sq. m. It belongs to the central plateau of middle Russia, of +which it mostly occupies the southern slope, the highest parts being in +Orel and Kaluga, to the north of Kursk. Its surface is 700 to 1100 ft. +high, deeply trenched by ravines, and consequently assumes a hilly +aspect when viewed from the river valleys. Cretaceous and Eocene rocks +prevail, and chalk, iron-stone, potters' clay and phosphates are among +the economic minerals. No fewer than four hundred streams are counted +within its borders, but none of them is of any service as waterways. A +layer of fertile loess covers the whole surface, and Kursk belongs +almost entirely to the black-earth region. The flora is distinct from +that of the governments to the north, not only on account of the +black-earth flora which enters into its composition, but also of the +plants of south-western Russia which belong to it, a characteristic +which is accentuated in the southern portion of the government. The +climate is milder than that of middle Russia generally, and winds from +the south-east and the south-west prevail in winter. The average +temperatures are--for the year 42° F., for January 14° F. and for July +67° F. The very interesting magnetic phenomenon, known as the Byelgorod +anomaly, covering an oval area 20 m. long and 12 m. wide, has been +studied near the town of this name. The population, 1,893,597 in 1862, +was 2,391,091 in 1897, of whom 1,208,488 were women and 199,676 lived in +towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 2,797,000. It is thoroughly +Russian (76% Great Russians and 24% Little Russians), and 94% are +peasants who own over 59% of the land, and live mostly in large +villages. Owing to the rapid increase of the peasantry and the small +size of the allotments given at the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, +emigration, chiefly to Siberia, is on the increase, while 80,000 to +100,000 men leave home every summer to work in the neighbouring +governments. Three-quarters of the available land is under crops, +chiefly rye, other crops being wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, millet, +potatoes, sugar-beets, hemp, flax, sunflowers and fruits. Grain is +exported in considerable quantities. Bees are commonly kept, as also are +large numbers of livestock. Factories (steam flour-mills, +sugar-factories, distilleries, wool-washing, tobacco factories) give +occupation to about 23,000 workers. Domestic and petty trades are on the +increase in the villages, and new ones are being introduced, the chief +products being boots, ikons (sacred images) and shrines, toys, caps, +vehicles, baskets, and pottery. About 17 m. from the chief town is held +the Korennaya fair, formerly the greatest in South Russia, and still +with an annual trade valued at £900,000. The Kursk district contains +more than sixty old town sites; and barrows or burial mounds (_kurgans_) +are extremely abundant. Notwithstanding the active efforts of the local +councils (_zemstvos_), less than 10% of the population read and write. +The government is crossed from north to south and from west to south by +two main lines of railway. The trade in grain, hemp, hemp-seed oil, +sheepskins, hides, tallow, felt goods, wax, honey and leather goods is +very brisk. There are fifteen districts, the chief towns of which, with +their populations in 1897, are Kursk (q.v.) Byelgorod (21,850), Dmitriev +(7315), Fatezh (4959), Graivoron (7669), Korocha (14,405), Lgov (5376), +Novyi Oskol (2762), Oboyañ (11872), Putivl (8965), Rylsk (11,415), +Staryi Oskol (16,662), Shchigry (3329), Suja (12,856) and Tim (7380). +There are more than twenty villages which have from 5000 to 12,000 +inhabitants each. (P. A K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +KURSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, at +the junction of the railways from Moscow, Kiev and Kharkov, 330 m. +S.S.W. from Moscow. Pop. (1897), 52,896. It is built on two hills (750 +ft.), the slopes of which are planted with orchards. The environs all +round are well wooded and the woods are famous for their nightingales. +Among the public buildings the more noticeable are a monastery with an +image of the Virgin, greatly venerated since 1295; the Orthodox Greek +cathedral (18th century); and the episcopal palace, Kursk being a +bishopric of the national church. It is essentially a provincial town, +and is revered as the birthplace of Theodosius, one of the most +venerated of Russian saints. It has a public garden, and has become the +seat of several societies (medical, musical, educational and for sport). +Its factories include steam flour-mills, distilleries, tobacco-works, +hemp-crushing mills, tanneries, soap-works and iron-works. It has a +great yearly fair (_Korennaya_), and an active trade in cereals, linen, +leather, fruit, horses, cattle, hides, sheepskins, furs, down, bristles, +wax, tallow and manufactured goods. + +Kursk was in existence in 1032. It was completely destroyed by the +Mongols in 1240. The defence of the town against an incursion of the +Turkish Polovtsi (or Comans or Cumani) is celebrated in _The Triumph of +Igor_, an epic which forms one of the most valuable relics of early +Russian literature. From 1586 to the close of the 18th century the +citadel was a place of considerable strength; the remains are now +comparatively few. + + + + +KURTZ, JOHANN HEINRICH (1809-1890), German Lutheran theologian, was born +at Montjoie near Aix la Chapelle on the 13th of December 1809, and was +educated at Halle and Bonn. Abandoning the idea of a commercial career, +he gave himself to the study of theology and became religious instructor +at the gymnasium of Mitau in 1835, and ordinary professor of theology +(church history, 1850; exegesis, 1859) at Dorpat. He resigned his chair +in 1870 and went to live at Marburg, where he died on the 26th of April +1890. Kurtz was a prolific writer, and many of his books, especially the +_Lehrbuch der heiligen Geschichte_ (1843), became very popular. In the +field of biblical criticism he wrote a _Geschichte des Alten Bundes_ +(1848-1855), _Zur Theologie der Psalmen_ (1865) and _Erklärung des +Briefs an die Hebräer_ (1869). His chief work was done in church +history, among his productions being _Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte für +Studierende_ (1849), _Abriss der Kirchengeschichte_ (1852) and _Handbuch +der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte_ (1853-1856). Several of his books +have been translated into English. + + + + +KURUMAN, a town in the Bechuanaland division of Cape Colony, 120 m. N.W. +of Kimberley and 85 m. S.W. of Vryburg. It is a station of the London +Missionary Society, founded in 1818, and from 1821 to 1870 was the scene +of the labours of Robert Moffat (q.v.) who here translated the Bible +into the Bechuana tongue. In the middle period of the 19th century +Kuruman was the rendezvous of all travellers going north or south. Of +these the best known is David Livingstone. The trunk railway line +passing considerably to the east of the town, Kuruman is no longer a +place of much importance. It is pleasantly situated on the upper course +of the Kuruman river, being beautified by gardens and orchards, and +presents a striking contrast to the desert conditions of the surrounding +country. Its name is that of the son and heir of Mosilikatze, the +founder of the Matabele nation. Kuruman disappeared during his father's +lifetime and the succession passed to Lobengula (see RHODESIA: +_History_). In November 1899 the town was besieged by a Boer force. The +garrison, less than a hundred strong, held out for six weeks against +over 1000 of the enemy, but was forced to surrender on the 1st of +January 1900. In June following it was reoccupied by the British. + + + + +KURUMBAS and KURUBAS, aboriginal tribes of southern India, by some +thought to be of distinct races. There are two types of Kurumbas, those +who live on the Nilgiri plateau, speak the Kurumba dialect and are mere +savages; and those who live in the plains, speak Kanarese and are +civilized. The former are a small people, with wild matted hair and +scanty beard, sickly-looking, pot-bellied, large-mouthed, with +projecting jaws, prominent teeth and thick lips. Their villages are +called _mottas_, groups of four or five huts, built in mountain glens or +forests. At the 1901 census the numbers were returned at 4083. + + See James W. Breeks, _An Account of Primitive Tribes of the Nilgiris_ + (1873); Dr John Shortt, _Hill Ranges of Southern India_, pt. i. 47-53; + Rev. F. Metz, _Tribes Inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills_ (Mangalore, + 1864). + + + + +KURUNEGALA, the chief town in the north-western province of Ceylon. Pop. +of the town, 6483; of the district, 249,429. It was the residence of the +kings of Ceylon from A.D. 1319 to 1347, and is romantically situated +under the shade of Adagalla (the rock of the Tusked Elephant), which is +600 ft. high. It was in 1902 the terminus of the Northern railway (59 m. +from Colombo), which has since been extended 200 m. farther, to the +northernmost coast of the Jaffna Peninsula. Kurunegala is the centre of +rice, coco-nut, tea, coffee and cocoa cultivation. + + + + +KURUNTWAD, or KURANDVAD, a native state of India, in the Deccan division +of Bombay, forming part of the Southern Mahratta jagirs. Originally +created in 1772 by a grant from the peshwa, the state was divided in +1811 into two parts, one of which, called Shedbal, lapsed to the British +government in 1857. In 1855 Kuruntwad was further divided between a +senior and a junior branch. The territory of both is widely scattered +among other native states and British districts. Area of the senior +branch, 185 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 42,474; revenue, £13,000. Area of +junior branch, 114 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 34,003; revenue, £9000. The +joint tribute is £640. The chiefs are Brahmans by caste, of the +Patwardhan family. The town of Kuruntwad, in which both branches have +their residence, is on the right bank of the Panchganga river near its +junction with the Kistna. Pop. (1901), 10,451. + + + + +KURZ, HERMANN (1813-1873), German poet and novelist, was born at +Reutlingen on the 30th of November 1813. Having studied at the +theological seminary at Maulbronn and at the university of Tübingen, he +was for a time assistant pastor at Ehningen. He then entered upon a +literary career, and in 1863 was appointed university librarian at +Tübingen, where he died on the 10th of October 1873. Kurz is less known +to fame by his poems, _Gedichte_ (1836) and _Dichtungen_ (1839), than by +his historical novels, _Schillers Heimatjahre_ (1843, 3rd ed., 1899) and +_Der Sonnenwirt_ (1854, 2nd ed., 1862), and his excellent translations +from English, Italian and Spanish. He also published a successful modern +German version of Gottfried von Strassburg's _Tristan und Isolde_ +(1844). His collected works were published in ten volumes (Stuttgart, +1874), also in twelve volumes (Leipzig, 1904). + +His daughter, ISOLDE KURZ, born on the 21st of December 1853 at +Stuttgart, takes a high place among contemporary lyric poets in Germany +with her _Gedichte_ (Stuttgart, 1888, 3rd ed. 1898) and _Neue Gedichte_ +(1903). Her short stories, _Florentiner Novellen_ (1890, 2nd ed. 1893), +_Phantasien und Märchen_ (1890), _Italienische Erzählungen_ (1895) and +_Von Dazumal_ (1900) are distinguished by a fine sense of form and +clear-cut style. + + + + +KUSAN ("lake" or "inland bay"), a small group of North American Indian +tribes, formerly living on the Coos river and the coast of Oregon. They +call themselves Anasitch, and other names given them have been Ka-us or +KWO-KWOOS, Kowes and Cook-koo-oose. They appear to be in no way related +to their neighbours. The few survivors, mostly of mixed blood, are on +the Siletz reservation, Oregon. + + + + +KUSHALGARH, a village in the Kohat district of the North-West Frontier +province of India. It is only notable as the point at which the Indus is +bridged to permit of the extension of the strategic frontier railway +from Rawalpindi to the Miranzai and Kurram valleys. + + + + +KUSHK, a river of Afghanistan, which also gives its name to the chief +town in the Afghan province of Badghis, and to a military post on the +border of Russian Turkestan. The river Kushk, during a portion of its +course, forms the boundary between Afghan and Russian territory; but the +town is some 20 m. from the border. Kushk, or Kushkinski Post, is now a +fourth-class Russian fortress, on a Russian branch railway from Merv, +the terminus of which is 12 m. to the south, at Chahil Dukteran. It is +served by both the Transcaspian and the Orenburg-Tashkent railways. The +terminus is only 66 m. from Herat, and in the event of war would become +an important base for a Russian advance. Some confusion has arisen +through the popular application of the name of Kushk to this terminus, +though it is situated neither at the Russian post nor at the old town. + (T. H. H.*) + + + + +KUSTANAISK, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Turgai, on the +Tobol river, 410 m. E.N.E. of Orenburg, in a very fertile part of the +steppes. Pop. (1897), 14,065. The first buildings were erected in 1871, +and it has since grown with American-like rapidity. The immigrants from +Russia built a large village, which became the centre of the district +administration in 1884, and a town in 1893, under the name of +Nicolaevsk, changed later into Kustanaisk. It is an educational centre, +and a cathedral has been built. There are tanneries, tallow works, +potteries, and a fair for cattle, while its trade makes it a rival to +Orenburg and Troitsk. + + + + +KÜSTENLAND (coast-land or littoral), a common name for the three +crown-lands of Austria, Görz and Gradisca, Istria and Trieste. Their +combined area is 3084 sq. m., and their population in 1900 was 755,183. +They are united for certain administrative purposes under the governor +of Trieste, the legal and financial authorities of which also exercise +jurisdiction over the entire littoral. + + + + +KUTAIAH, KUTAYA, or KIUTAHIA, the chief town of a sanjak in the vilayet +of Brusa (Khudavendikiar), Asia Minor, is situated on the Pursaksu, an +affluent of the Sakaria (anc. _Sangarius_). The town lies at an +important point of the great road across Asia Minor from Constantinople +to Aleppo, and is connected by a branch line with the main line from +Eski-shehr to Afium Kara-Hissar, of the Anatolian railway. It has a busy +trade; pop. estimated at 22,000. Kutaiah has been identified with the +ancient Cotiaeum. + + See V. Cuinet, _Turquie d'Asie_, vol. iv. (Paris, 1894). + + + + +KUTAIS, a government of Russian Transcaucasia, situated between the +Caucasus range on the N. and the Black Sea on the W., the government of +Tiflis on the E. and the province of Kars on the S. Area, 14,313 sq. m. +The government includes the districts of Guria, Mingrelia, Imeretia, +Abkhasia and Svanetia, and consists of four distinct parts: (1) the +lowlands, drained by the Rion, and continued N.W. along the shore of the +Black Sea; (2) the southern slopes of the main Caucasus range; (3) the +western slopes of the Suram mountains, which separate Kutais from +Tiflis; and (4) the slopes of the Armenian highlands, as well as a +portion of the highlands themselves, drained by the Chorokh and its +tributary, the Ajaris-tskhali, which formerly constituted the Batum +province. Generally speaking, the government is mountainous in the north +and south. Many secondary ridges and spurs shoot off the main range, +forming high, narrow valleys (see CAUCASUS). The district of Batum and +Artvin in the S.W., which in 1903 were in part separated for +administration as the semi-military district of Batum, are filled up by +spurs of the Pontic range, 9000 to 11,240 ft. high, the Arzyan ridge +separating them from the plateau of Kars. Deep gorges, through which +tributaries of the Chorokh force their passage to the main river, +intersect these highlands, forming most picturesque gorges. The lowlands +occupy over 2400 sq. m. They are mostly barren in the littoral region, +but extremely fertile higher up the Rion. + +The climate is very moist and warm. The winters are often without frost +at all in the lowlands, while the lowest temperatures observed are 18° +F. at Batum and 9° at Poti. The mountains condense the moisture brought +by the west winds, and the yearly amount of rain varies from 50 to 120 +in. The chief rivers are the Rion, which enters the Black Sea at Poti; +the Chorokh, which enters the same sea at Batum; and the Ingur, the +Kodor and the Bzyb, also flowing into the Black Sea in Abkhasia. The +vegetation is extremely rich, its character suggesting the sub-tropic +regions of Japan (see CAUCASIA). The population belongs almost entirely +to the Kartvelian or Georgian group, and is distributed as follows: +Imeretians, 41.2%; Mingrelians and Lazes, 22.5%; Gurians, 7.3%; Ajars, +5.8%; Svanetians, 1.3%; of other nationalities there are 6% of +Abkhasians, 2.6% of Turks, 2.3% of Armenians, besides Russians, Jews, +Greeks, Persians, Kurds, Ossetes and Germans. By religion 87% of the +population are Greek Orthodox and only 10% Mussulmans. The total +population was 933,773 in 1897, of whom 508,468 were women and 77,702 +lived in towns. The estimated population in 1906 was 924,800. The land +is excessively subdivided, and, owing to excellent cultivation, fetches +very high prices. The chief crops are maize, wheat, barley, beans, rye, +hemp, potatoes and tobacco. Maize, wine and timber are largely exported. +Some cotton-trees have been planted. The vine, olive, mulberry and all +sorts of fruit trees are cultivated, as also many exotic plants +(eucalyptus, cork-oak, camellia, and even tea). Manganese ore is the +chief mineral, and is extracted for export to the extent of 160,000 to +180,000 tons annually, besides coal, lead and silver ores, copper, +naphtha, some gold, lithographic stone and marble. Factories are still +in infancy, but silk is spun. A railway runs from the Caspian Sea, via +Tiflis and the Suram tunnel, to Kutais, and thence to Poti and Batum, +and from Kutais to the Tkvibuli coal and manganese mines. The export of +both local produce and goods shipped by rail from other ports of +Transcaucasia is considerable, Batum and Poti being the two chief ports +of Caucasia. Kutais is divided into seven districts, of which the chief +towns, with their populations in 1897, are Kutais, capital of the +province (q.v.); Lailashi (834), chief town of Lechgum, of which +Svanetia makes a separate administrative unit; Ozurgeti (4694); Oni, +chief town of Racha; Senaki (101); Kvirili, of Sharopan district; +Zugdidi; and two semi-military districts--Batum (28,512) with Artvin +(7000) and Sukhum-kaleh (7809). (P. A. K.--J. T. Be.) + + + + +KUTAIS, a town of Russian Caucasia, capital of the government of the +same name, 60 m. by rail E. of Poti and 5 m. from the Rion station of +the railway between Poti and Tiflis. Pop. (1897), 32,492. It is one of +the oldest towns of Caucasia, having been the ancient capital (Aea or +Kutaea) of Colchis, and later the capital of Imeretia (from 792); +Procopius mentions it under the name of Kotatision. Persians, Mongols, +Turks and Russians have again and again destroyed the town and its +fortress. In 1810 it became Russian. It is situated on both banks of the +Rion river, which is spanned by three bridges. Its most remarkable +building is the ruined cathedral, erected in the 11th century by the +Bagratids, the ruling dynasty of Georgia, and destroyed by the Turks in +1692; it is the most important representative extant of Georgian +architecture. The fort, mentioned by Procopius, is now a heap of ruins, +destroyed by the Russians in 1770. The inhabitants make hats and silks, +and trade in agricultural produce and wine. On the right bank of the +Rion is a government model garden, with a model farm. + + + + +KUT-EL-AMARA, a small town in Turkish Asia, on the east bank of the +Tigris (32° 29´ 19´´ N., 44° 45´ 37´´ E.) at the point where the +Shatt-el-Haï leaves that stream. It is a coaling station of the steamers +plying between Basra and Bagdad, and an important Turkish post for the +control of the lower Tigris. + + + + +KUTENAI (Kutonaga), a group of North-American Indian tribes forming the +distinct stock of Kitunahan. Their former range was British Columbia, +along the Kootenay lake and river. They were always friendly to the +whites and noted for their honesty. In 1904 there were some 550 in +British Columbia; and in 1908 there were 606 on the Flathead Agency, +Montana. + + + + +KUTTALAM, or COURTALLUM, a sanatorium of southern India, in the +Tinnevelly district of Madras; pop. (1901), 1197. Though situated only +450 ft. above sea-level, it possesses the climate of a much higher +elevation, owing to the breezes that reach it through a gap in the +Ghats. It has long been a favourite resort for European visitors, the +season lasting from July to September; and it has recently been made +more accessible by the opening of the railway from Tinnevelly into +Travancore. The scenery is most picturesque, including a famous +waterfall. + + + + +KUTTENBERG (Czech, _Kutná Hora_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 45 m. E. +by S. of Prague. Pop. (1900), 14,799, mostly Czech. Amongst its +buildings are the Gothic five-naved church of St Barbara, begun in 1368, +the Gothic church of St Jacob (14th century) and the Late Gothic Trinity +church (end of 15th century). The Wälscher Hof, formerly a royal +residence and mint, was built at the end of the 13th century, and the +Gothic Steinerne Haus, which since 1849 serves as town-hall, contains +one of the richest archives in Bohemia. The industry includes +sugar-refining, brewing, the manufacture of cotton and woollen stuffs, +leather goods and agricultural implements. + +The town of Kuttenberg owes its origin to the silver mines, the +existence of which can be traced back to the first part of the 13th +century. The city developed with great rapidity, and at the outbreak of +the Hussite troubles, early in the 14th century, was next to Prague the +most important in Bohemia, having become the favourite residence of +several of the Bohemian kings. It was here that, on the 18th of January +1410, Wenceslaus IV. signed the famous decree of Kuttenberg, by which +the Bohemian nation was given three votes in the elections to the +faculty of Prague University as against one for the three other +"nations." In the autumn of the same year Kuttenberg was the scene of +horrible atrocities. The fierce mining population of the town was mainly +German, and fanatically Catholic, in contrast with Prague, which was +Czech and utraquist. By way of reprisals for the Hussite outrages in +Prague, the miners of Kuttenberg seized on any Hussites they could find, +and burned, beheaded or threw them alive into the shafts of disused +mines. In this way 1600 people are said to have perished, including the +magistrates and clergy of the town of Kaurim, which the Kuttenbergers +had taken. In 1420 the emperor Sigismund made the city the base for his +unsuccessful attack on the Taborites; Kuttenberg was taken by Zizka, and +after a temporary reconciliation of the warring parties was burned by +the imperial troops in 1422, to prevent its falling again into the hands +of the Taborites. Zizka none the less took the place, and under Bohemian +auspices it awoke to a new period of prosperity. In 1541 the richest +mine was hopelessly flooded; in the insurrection of Bohemia against +Ferdinand I. the city lost all its privileges; repeated visitations of +the plague and the horrors of the Thirty Years' War completed its ruin. +Half-hearted attempts after the peace to repair the ruined mines failed; +the town became impoverished, and in 1770 was devastated by fire. The +mines were abandoned at the end of the 18th century; one mine was again +opened by the government in 1874, but the work was discontinued in 1903. + + + + +KUTUSOV [GOLENISHCHEV-KUTUZOV], MIKHAIL LARIONOVICH, PRINCE OF SMOLENSK +(1745-1813), Russian field marshal, was born on the 16th of September +1745 at St Petersburg, and entered the Russian army in 1759 or 1760. He +saw active service in Poland, 1764-69, and against the Turks, 1770-74; +lost an eye in action in the latter year; and after that travelled for +some years in central and western Europe. In 1784 he became +major-general, in 1787 governor-general of the Crimea; and under +Suvorov, whose constant companion he became, he won considerable +distinction in the Turkish War of 1788-91, at the taking of Ochakov, +Odessa, Benda and Ismail, and the battles of Rimnik and Mashin. He was +now (1791) a lieutenant-general, and successively occupied the positions +of ambassador at Constantinople, governor-general of Finland, commandant +of the corps of cadets at St Petersburg, ambassador at Berlin, and +governor-general of St Petersburg. In 1805 he commanded the Russian +corps which opposed Napoleon's advance on Vienna (see NAPOLEONIC +CAMPAIGNS), and won the hard-fought action of Dürrenstein on the +18th-19th of November. + +On the eve of Austerlitz (q.v.) he tried to prevent the Allied generals +from fighting a battle, and when he was overruled took so little +interest in the event that he fell asleep during the reading of the +orders. He was, however, present at the battle itself, and was wounded. +From 1806 to 1811 Kutusov was governor-general of Lithuania and Kiev, +and in 1811, being then commander-in-chief in the war against the Turks, +he was made a prince. Shortly after this he was called by the unanimous +voice of the army and the people to command the army that was retreating +before Napoleon's advance. He gave battle at Borodino (q.v.), and was +defeated, but not decisively, and after retreating to the south-west of +Moscow, he forced Napoleon to begin the celebrated retreat. The old +general's cautious pursuit evoked much criticism, but at any rate he +allowed only a remnant of the Grand Army to regain Prussian soil. He was +now field marshal and prince of Smolensk--this title having been given +him for a victory over part of the French army at that place in November +1812. Early in the following year he carried the war into Germany, took +command of the allied Russians and Prussians, and prepared to raise all +central Europe in arms against Napoleon's domination, but before the +opening of the campaign he fell ill and died on the 25th of March 1813 +at Bunzlau. Memorials have been erected to him at that place and at St +Petersburg. + + Mikhailovsky-Danilevski's life of Kutusov (St Petersburg, 1850) was + translated into French by A. Fizelier (Paris, 1850). + + + + +KUWET (KUWEIT, KOWEIT), a port in Arabia at the north-western angle of +the Persian Gulf in 29° 20' N. and 48° E., about 80 m. due S. of Basra +and 60 m. S.W. of the mouth of the Shat el Arab. The name Kuwet is the +diminutive form of Kut, a common term in Irak for a walled village; it +is also shown in some maps as Grane or Grain, a corruption of Kuren, the +diminutive of Karn, a horn. It lies on the south side of a bay 20 m. +long and 5 m. wide, the mouth of which is protected by two islands, +forming a fine natural harbour, with good anchorage in from 4 to 9 +fathoms of water. The town has 15,000 inhabitants and is clean and well +built; the country around being practically desert, it depends entirely +on the sea and its trade, and its sailors have a high reputation as the +most skilful and trustworthy on the Persian Gulf; while its position as +the nearest port to Upper Nejd gives it great importance as the port of +entry for rice, piece goods, &c., and of export for horses, sheep, wool +and other products of the interior. Kuwet was recommended in 1850 by +General F. R. Chesney as the terminus of his proposed Euphrates Valley +railway, and since 1898, when the extension of the Anatolian railway to +Bagdad and the Gulf has been under discussion, attention has again been +directed to it. An alternative site for the terminus has been suggested +in Um Khasa, at the head of the Khor `Abdallah, where a branch of the +Shat el Arab formerly entered the sea; it lies some 20 m. N.E. of Kuwet +and separated from it by the island of Bubian, which has for some time +been in Turkish occupation. An attempt by Turkey to occupy Kuwet in 1898 +was met by a formal protest from Great Britain against any infringement +of the _status quo_, and in 1899 Sheikh Mubarak of Kuwet placed his +interests under British protection. + +The total trade passing through Kuwet in 1904-1905 was valued at +£160,000. The imports include arms and ammunition, piece goods, rice, +coffee, sugar, &c.; and the exports, horses, pearls, dates, wool, &c. +The steamers of the British India Steamship Company call fortnightly. + (R. A. W.) + + + + +KUZNETSK, two towns of Russia. (1) A town in the government of Saratov, +74 m. by rail east of Penza. It has grown rapidly since the development +of the railway system in the Volga basin. It has manufactures of +agricultural machinery and hardware, in a number of small factories and +workshops, besides tanneries, rope-works, boot and shoe making in +houses, and there is considerable trade in sheepskins, grain, salt and +wooden goods exported to the treeless regions of south-east Russia. Pop. +(1897), 21,740. (2) A town in West Siberia, in the government of Tomsk, +150 m. E.N.E. of Barnaul, on the Upper Tom river, at the head of +navigation. It has trade in grain, cattle, furs, cedarwood, nuts, wax, +honey and tallow, and is the centre of a coal-mining district. Pop. +(1897), 3141. + + + + +KVASS, or KWASS (a Russian word for "leaven"), one of the national +alcoholic drinks of Russia, and popular also in eastern Europe. It is +made, by a simultaneous acid and alcoholic fermentation, of wheat, rye, +barley and buckwheat meal or of rye-bread, with the addition of sugar or +fruit. It has been a universal drink in Russia since the 16th century. +Though in the large towns it is made commercially, elsewhere it is +frequently an article of domestic production. Kvass is of very low +alcoholic content (0.7 to 2.2%). There are, beside the ordinary kind, +superior forms of the drink, such as apple or raspberry kvass. + + + + +KWAKIUTL, a tribe of North-American Indians of Wakashan stock. They +number about 2000. Formerly the term was used of the one tribe in the +north-east of Vancouver, but now it is the collective name for a group +of Wakashan peoples. The Kwakiutl Indians are remarkable for their +conservatism in all matters and specially their adherence to the custom +of Potlatch, which it is sometimes suggested originated with them. +Tribal government is in the hands of secret societies. There are three +social ranks, hereditary chiefs, middle and third estates, most of the +latter being slaves or their descendants. Entry to the societies is +forbidden the latter, and can only be obtained by the former after +torture and fasting. The _hamatsa_ or cannibal society is only open to +those who have been members of a lower society for eight years. + + + + +KWANGCHOW BAY (KWANGCHOW WAN), a coaling station on the south coast of +China, acquired, along with other concessions, by the French government +in April 1898. It is situated on the east side of the peninsula of +Lienchow, in the province of Kwang-tung, and directly north of the +island of Hainan. It is held on lease for 99 years on similar terms to +those by which Kiaochow is held by Germany, Port Arthur by Japan and +Wei-hai-wei by Great Britain. The cession includes the islands lying in +the bay; these enclose a roadstead 18 m. long by 6 m. wide, with +admirable natural defences and a depth at no part of less than 33 ft. +The bay forms the estuary of the Ma-Ts'e river, navigable by the largest +men-of-war for 12 m. from the coast. The limits of the concession inland +were fixed in November 1899. On the left bank of the Ma-Ts'e France +gained from Kow Chow Fu a strip of territory 11 m. by 6 m., and on the +right bank a strip 15 m. by 11 m. from Lei Chow Fu. The country is well +populated; the capital and chief town is Lei Chow. The cession carries +with it full territorial jurisdiction during the continuance of the +lease. In January 1900 it was placed under the authority of the +governor-general of Indo-China, who in the same month appointed a civil +administrator over the country, which was divided into three districts. +The population of the territory is about 189,000. A mixed tribunal has +been instituted, but the local organization is maintained for purposes +of administration. In addition to the territory acquired, the right has +been given to connect the bay by railway with the city and harbour of +Ompon, situated on the west side of the peninsula, and in consequence of +difficulties which were offered by the provincial government on the +occasion of taking possession, and which compelled the French to have +recourse to arms, the latter demanded and obtained exclusive mining +rights in the three adjoining prefectures. Two lines of French +steamships call at the bay. By reason of the great strategical +importance of the bay, and the presence of large coal-beds in the near +neighbourhood, much importance is attached by the French to the +acquirement of Kwangchow Wan. + + + + +KWANG-SI, a southern province of China, bounded N. by Kwei-chow and +Hu-nan, E. and S. by Kwang-tung, S.W. and W. by French Indo-Chino and +Yun-nan. It covers an area of 80,000 sq. m. It is the least populous +province of China, its inhabitants numbering (1908) little over +5,000,000. The Skias, an aboriginal race, form two-thirds of the +population. The provincial capital is Kwei-lin Fu, or City of the Forest +of Cinnamon Trees, and there are besides ten prefectural cities. The +province is largely mountainous. The principal rivers are the Si-kiang +and the Kwei-kiang, or Cinnamon River, which takes its rise in the +district of Hing-gan, in the north of the province, and in the +neighbourhood of that of the Siang river, which flows northward through +Hu-nan to the Tung-t'ing Lake. The Kwei-kiang, on the other hand, takes +a southerly course, and passes the cities of Kwei-lin, Yang-so Hien, +P'ing-le Fu, Chao-p'ing Hien, and so finds its way to Wu-chow Fu, where +it joins the waters of the Si-kiang. Another considerable river is the +Liu-kiang, or Willow River, which rises in the mountains inhabited by +the Miao-tsze, in Kwei-chow. Leaving its source it takes a +south-easterly direction, and enters Kwang-si, in the district of +Hwai-yuen. After encircling the city of that name, it flows south as +far as Liu-ch'eng Hien, where it forms a junction with the Lung-kiang, +or Dragon River. Adopting the trend of this last-named stream, which has +its head-waters in Kwei-chow, the mingled flow passes eastward, and +farther on in a south-easterly direction, by Lai-chow Fu, Wu-suan Hien, +and Sin-chow Fu, where it receives the waters of the Si-kiang, and +thenceforth changes its name for that of its affluent. The treaty ports +in Kwang-si are Wu-chow Fu, Lung-chow and Nanning Fu. + + + + +KWANG-TUNG, a southern province of China, bounded N. by Hu-nan, Kiang-si +and Fu-kien, S. and E. by the sea, and W. by Kwang-si. It contains an +area, including the island of Hainan, of 75,500 sq. m., and is divided +into nine prefectures; and the population is estimated at about +30,000,000. Its name, which signifies "east of Kwang," is derived, +according to Chinese writers, from the fact of its being to the east of +the old province of Hu-kwang, in the same way that Kwang-si derives its +name from its position to the west of Hu-kwang. Kwang-tung extends for +more than 600 m. from east to west, and for about 420 from north to +south. It may be described as a hilly region, forming part as it does of +the Nan Shan ranges. These mountains, speaking generally, trend in a +north-east and south-westerly direction, and are divided by valleys of +great fertility. The principal rivers of the province are the Si-kiang, +the Pei-kiang, or North River, which rises in the mountains to the north +of the province, and after a southerly course joins the Si-kiang at +San-shui Hien; the Tung-kiang, or East River, which, after flowing in a +south-westerly direction from its source in the north-east of the +province, empties itself into the estuary which separates the city of +Canton from the sea; and the Han River, which runs a north and south +course across the eastern portion of the province, taking its rise in +the mountains on the western frontier of Fu-kien and emptying itself +into the China Sea in the neighbourhood of Swatow. Kwang-tung is one of +the most productive provinces of the empire. Its mineral wealth is very +considerable, and the soil of the valleys and plains is extremely +fertile. The principal article of export is silk, which is produced in +the district forming the river delta, extending from Canton to Macao and +having its apex at San-shui Hien. Three large coal-fields exist in the +province, namely, the Shao-chow Fu field in the north; the Hwa Hien +field, distant about 30 m. from Canton; and the west coast field, in the +south-west. The last is by far the largest of the three and extends over +the districts of Wu-ch'uen, Tien-pai, Yang-kiang, Yang-ch'un, Gan-p'ing, +K'ai-p'ing, Sin-hing, Ho-shan, Sin-hwang, and Sin-ning. The coal from +the two first-named fields is of an inferior quality, but that in the +west coast field is of a more valuable kind. Iron ore is found in about +twenty different districts, notably in Ts'ing-yuen, Ts'ung-hwa, +Lung-men, and Lu-feng. None, however, is exported in its raw state, as +all which is produced is manufactured in the province, and principally +at Fat-shan, which has been called the Birmingham of China. The +Kwang-tung coast abounds with islands, the largest of which is Hainan, +which forms part of the prefecture of K'iung-chow Fu. This island +extends for about 100 m. from north to south and the same distance from +east to west. The southern and eastern portions of Hainan are +mountainous, but on the north there is a plain of some extent. Gold is +found in the central part; and sugar, coco-nuts, betel-nuts, birds' +nests, and agar agar, or sea vegetable, are among the other products of +the island. Canton, Swatow, K'iung-chow (in Hainan), Pakhoi, San-shui +are among the treaty ports. Three ports in the province have been ceded +or leased to foreign powers--Macao to Portugal, Hong-Kong (with Kowloon) +to Great Britain, and Kwangchow to France. + + + + +KWANZA (COANZA or QUANZA), a river of West Africa, with a course of +about 700 m. entirely within the Portuguese territory of Angola. The +source lies in about 13° 40´ S., 17° 30´ E. on the Bihe plateau, at an +altitude of over 5000 ft. It runs first N.E. and soon attains fairly +large dimensions. Just north of 12° it is about 60 yds. wide and 13 to +16 ft. deep. From this point to 10° it flows N.W., receiving many +tributaries, especially the Luando from the east. In about 10°, and at +intervals during its westerly passage through the outer plateau +escarpments, its course is broken by rapids, the river flowing in a +well-defined valley flanked by higher ground. The lowest fall is that of +Kambamba, or Livingstone, with a drop of 70 ft. Thence to the sea, a +distance of some 160 m., it is navigable by small steamers, though very +shallow in the dry season. The river enters the sea in 9° 15´ S., 13° +20´ E., 40 m. S. of Loanda. There is a shifting bar at its mouth, +difficult to cross, but the river as a waterway has become of less +importance since the fertile district in its middle basin has been +served by the railway from Loanda to Ambaca (see ANGOLA). + + + + +KWEI-CHOW, a south-western province of China, bounded N. by Sze-ch'uen, +E. by Hu-nan, S. by Kwang-si, and W. by Yun-nan. It contains 67,000 sq. +m., and has a population of about 8,000,000. Kwei-yang Fu is the +provincial capital, and besides this there are eleven prefectural cities +in the province. With the exception of plains in the neighbourhood of +Kwei-yang Fu, Ta-ting Fu, and Tsun-i Fu, in the central and northern +regions, the province may be described as mountainous. The mountain +ranges in the south are largely inhabited by Miao-tsze, who are the +original owners of the soil and have been constantly goaded into a state +of rebellion by the oppression to which they have been subjected by the +Chinese officials. To this disturbing cause was added another in 1861 by +the spread of the Mahommedan rebellion in Yun-nan into some of the +south-western districts of the province. The devastating effects of +these civil wars were most disastrous to the trade and the prosperity of +Kwei-chow. The climate is by nature unhealthy, the supply of running +water being small, and that of stagnant water, from which arises a fatal +malaria, being considerable. The agricultural products of the province +are very limited, and its chief wealth lies in its minerals. Copper, +silver, lead, and zinc are found in considerable quantities, and as +regards quicksilver, Kwei-chow is probably the richest country in the +world. This has been from of old the chief product of the province, and +the belt in which it occurs extends through the whole district from +south-west to north-east. One of the principal mining districts is K'ai +Chow, in the prefecture of Kwei-yang Fu, and this district has the +advantage of being situated near Hwang-p'ing Chow, from which place the +products can be conveniently and cheaply shipped to Hankow. Cinnabar, +realgar, orpiment and coal form the rest of the mineral products of +Kwei-chow. Wild silk is another valuable article of export. It is +chiefly manufactured in the prefecture of Tsun-i Fu. + + + + +KYAUKPYU, a district in the Arakan division of Lower Burma, on the +eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. It consists of, first, a strip of +mainland along the Bay of Bengal, extending from the An pass, across the +main range, to the Ma-i River, and, secondly, the large islands of +Ramree and Cheduba, with many others to the south, lying off the coast +of Sandoway. The mainland in the north and east is highly mountainous +and forest-clad, and the lower portion is cut up into numerous islands +by a network of tidal creeks. Between the mainland and Ramree lies a +group of islands separated by deep, narrow, salt-water inlets, forming +the north-eastern shore of Kyaukpyu harbour, which extends for nearly 30 +m. along Ramree in a south-easterly direction, and has an average +breadth of 3 m. The principal mountains are the Arakan Yomas, which send +out spurs and sub-spurs almost to the sea-coast. The An pass, an +important trade route, rises to a height of 4664 ft. above sea-level. +The Dha-let and the An rivers are navigable by large boats for 25 and 45 +m. respectively. Above these distances they are mere mountain torrents. +Large forests of valuable timber cover an area of about 650 sq. m. +Kyaukpyu contains numerous "mud volcanoes," from which marsh gas is +frequently discharged, with occasional issue of flame. The largest of +these is situated in the centre of Cheduba island. Earth-oil wells exist +in several places in the district. The oil when brought to the surface +has the appearance of a whitish-blue water, which gives out brilliant +straw-coloured rays, and emits a strong pungent odour. Limestone, iron +and coal are also found. Area 4387 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 168,827, +showing an increase in the decade of 2.3%. + +The chief town, Kyaukpyu, had a population in 1901 of 3145. It has a +municipal committee of twelve members, three _ex officio_ and nine +appointed by the local government, and there is a third-class district +gaol. Kyaukpyu is a port under the Indian Ports Act (X. of 1889), and +the steamers of the British India Navigation Company call there once a +week going and coming between Rangoon and Calcutta. + + + + +KYAUKSE, a district in the Meiktila division of Upper Burma, with an +area of 1274 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 141,253. It is also +known as the _Ko-kayaing_, so called from the original nine canals of +the district. It consists of a generally level strip running north and +south at the foot of the Shan Hills, and of a hilly region rising up +these hills to the east, and including the Yeyaman tract, which lies +between 21° 30' and 21° 40' N. and 96° 15' and 96° 45' E., with peaks +rising to between 4500 and 5000 ft. This tract is rugged and scored by +ravines, and is very sparsely inhabited. The Panlaung and Zawgyi rivers +from the Shan States flow through the district and are utilized for the +numerous irrigation canals. Notwithstanding this, much timber is floated +down, and the Panlaung is navigable for small boats all the year round. +Rain is very scarce, but the canals supply ample water for cultivation +and all other purposes. They are said to have been dug by King Nawrahta +in 1092. He is alleged to have completed the system of nine canals and +weirs in three years' time. Others have been constructed since the +annexation of Upper Burma. At that time many were in serious disrepair, +but most of them have been greatly improved by the construction of +proper regulators and sluices. Two-thirds of the population are +dependent entirely on cultivation for their support, and this is mainly +rice on irrigated land. In the Yeyaman tract the chief crop is rice. The +great majority of the population is pure Burmese, but in the hills there +are a good many Danus, a cross between Shans and Burmese. The railway +runs through the centre of the rice-producing area, and feeder roads +open up the country as far as the Shan foot-hills. The greater part of +the district consists of state land, the cultivators being tenants of +government, but there is a certain amount of hereditary freehold. + +KYAUKSE town is situated on the Zawgyi River and on the Rangoon-Mandalay +railway line, and is well laid out in regular streets, covering an area +of about a square mile. It has a population (1901) of 5420, mostly +Burmese, with a colony of Indian traders. Above it are some bare rocky +hillocks, picturesquely studded with pagodas. + + + + +KYD, THOMAS (1558-1594), one of the most important of the English +Elizabethan dramatists who preceded Shakespeare. Kyd remained until the +last decade of the 19th century in what appeared likely to be +impenetrable obscurity. Even his name was forgotten until Thomas Hawkins +about 1773 discovered it in connexion with _The Spanish Tragedy_ in +Thomas Heywood's _Apologie for Actors_. But by the industry of English +and German scholars a great deal of light has since been thrown on his +life and writings. He was the son of Francis Kyd, citizen and scrivener +of London, and was baptized in the church of St Mary Woolnoth, Lombard +Street, on the 6th of November 1558. His mother, who survived her son, +was named Agnes, or Anna. In October 1565 Kyd entered the newly founded +Merchant Taylors' School, where Edmund Spenser and perhaps Thomas Lodge +were at different times his school-fellows. It is thought that Kyd did +not proceed to either of the universities; he apparently followed, soon +after leaving school, his father's business as a scrivener. But Nashe +describes him as a "shifting companion that ran through every art and +throve by none." He showed a fairly wide range of reading in Latin. The +author on whom he draws most freely is Seneca, but there are many +reminiscences, and occasionally mistranslations of other authors. Nashe +contemptuously said that "English Seneca read by candlelight yeeldes +many good sentences," no doubt exaggerating his indebtedness to Thomas +Newton's translation. John Lyly had a more marked influence on his +manner than any of his contemporaries. It is believed that he produced +his famous play, _The Spanish Tragedy_, between 1584 and 1589; the +quarto in the British Museum (which is probably earlier than the +Göttingen and Ellesmere quartos, dated 1594 and 1599) is undated, and +the play was licensed for the press in 1592. The full title runs, _The +Spanish Tragedie containing the Lamentable End of Don Horatio and +Bel-imperia; with the Pitiful Death of Old Hieronimo_, and the play is +commonly referred to by Henslowe and other contemporaries as +_Hieronimo_. This drama enjoyed all through the age of Elizabeth and +even of James I. and Charles I. so unflagging a success that it has been +styled the most popular of all old English plays. Certain expressions in +Nashe's preface to the 1589 edition of Robert Greene's _Menaphon_ may be +said to have started a whole world of speculation with regard to Kyd's +activity. Much of this is still very puzzling; nor is it really +understood why Ben Jonson called him "sporting Kyd." In 1592 there was +added a sort of prologue to _The Spanish Tragedy_, called _The First +Part of Jeronimo, or The Warres of Portugal_, not printed till 1605. +Professor Boas concludes that Kyd had nothing to do with this +melodramatic production, which gives a different version of the story +and presents Jeronimo as little more than a buffoon. On the other hand, +it becomes more and more certain that what German criticism calls the +_Ur-Hamlet_, the original draft of the tragedy of the prince of Denmark, +was a lost work by Kyd, probably composed by him in 1587. This theory +has been very elaborately worked out by Professor Sarrazin, and +confirmed by Professor Boas; these scholars are doubtless right in +holding that traces of Kyd's play survive in the first two acts of the +1603 first quarto of _Hamlet_, but they probably go too far in +attributing much of the actual language of the last three acts to Kyd. +Kyd's next work was in all probability the tragedy of _Soliman and +Perseda_, written perhaps in 1588 and licensed for the press in 1592, +which, although anonymous, is assigned to him on strong internal +evidence by Mr Boas. No copy of the first edition has come down to us; +but it was reprinted, after Kyd's death, in 1599. In the summer or +autumn of 1590 Kyd seems to have given up writing for the stage, and to +have entered the service of an unnamed lord, who employed a troop of +"players." Kyd was probably the private secretary of this nobleman, in +whom Professor Boas sees Robert Radcliffe, afterwards fifth earl of +Sussex. To the wife of the earl (Bridget Morison of Cassiobury) Kyd +dedicated in the last year of his life his translation of Garnier's +_Cornelia_ (1594), to the dedication of which he attached his initials. +Two prose works of the dramatist have survived, a treatise on domestic +economy, _The Householder's Philosophy_, translated from the Italian of +Tasso (1588); and a sensational account of _The Most Wicked and Secret +Murdering of John Brewer, Goldsmith_ (1592). His name is written on the +title-page of the unique copy of the last-named pamphlet at Lambeth, but +probably not by his hand. That many of Kyd's plays and poems have been +lost is proved by the fact that fragments exist, attributed to him, +which are found in no surviving context. Towards the close of his life +Kyd was brought into relations with Marlowe. It would seem that in 1590, +soon after he entered the service of this nobleman, Kyd formed his +acquaintance. If he is to be believed, he shrank at once from Marlowe as +a man "intemperate and of a cruel heart" and "irreligious." This, +however, was said by Kyd with the rope round his neck, and is scarcely +consistent with a good deal of apparent intimacy between him and +Marlowe. When, in May 1593, the "lewd libels" and "blasphemies" of +Marlowe came before the notice of the Star Chamber, Kyd was immediately +arrested, papers of his having been found "shuffled" with some of +Marlowe's, who was imprisoned a week later. A visitation on Kyd's papers +was made in consequence of his having attached a seditious libel to the +wall of the Dutch churchyard in Austin Friars. Of this he was innocent, +but there was found in his chamber a paper of "vile heretical conceits +denying the deity of Jesus Christ." Kyd was arrested and put to the +torture in Bridewell. He asserted that he knew nothing of this document +and tried to shift the responsibility of it upon Marlowe, but he was +kept in prison until after the death of that poet (June 1, 1593). When +he was at length dismissed, his patron refused to take him back into his +service. He fell into utter destitution, and sank under the weight of +"bitter times and privy broken passions." He must have died late in +1594, and on the 30th of December of that year his parents renounced +their administration of the goods of their deceased son, in a document +of great importance discovered by Professor Schick. + +The importance of Kyd, as the pioneer in the wonderful movement of +secular drama in England, gives great interest to his works, and we are +now able at last to assert what many critics have long conjectured, that +he takes in that movement the position of a leader and almost of an +inventor. Regarded from this point of view, _The Spanish Tragedy_ is a +work of extraordinary value, since it is the earliest specimen of +effective stage poetry existing in English literature. It had been +preceded only by the pageant-poems of Peele and Lyly, in which all that +constitutes in the modern sense theatrical technique and effective +construction was entirely absent. These gifts, in which the whole power +of the theatre as a place of general entertainment was to consist, were +supplied earliest among English playwrights to Kyd, and were first +exercised by him, so far as we can see, in 1586. This, then, is a more +or less definite starting date for Elizabethan drama, and of peculiar +value to its historians. Curiously enough, _The Spanish Tragedy_, which +was the earliest stage-play of the great period, was also the most +popular, and held its own right through the careers of Shakespeare, Ben +Jonson, and Fletcher. It was not any shortcoming in its harrowing and +exciting plot, but the tameness of its archaic versification, which +probably led in 1602 to its receiving "additions," which have been a +great stumbling-block to the critics. It is known that Ben Jonson was +paid for these additional scenes, but they are extremely unlike all +other known writings of his, and several scholars have independently +conjectured that John Webster wrote them. Of Kyd himself it seems +needful to point out that neither the Germans nor even Professor Boas +seems to realize how little definite merit his poetry has. He is +important, not in himself, but as a pioneer. The influence of Kyd is +marked on all the immediate predecessors of Shakespeare, and the bold +way in which scenes of violent crime were treated on the Elizabethan +stage appears to be directly owing to the example of Kyd's innovating +genius. His relation to _Hamlet_ has already been noted, and _Titus +Andronicus_ presents and exaggerates so many of his characteristics that +Mr Sidney Lee and others have supposed that tragedy to be a work of +Kyd's touched up by Shakespeare. Professor Boas, however, brings cogent +objections against this theory, founding them on what he considers the +imitative inferiority of _Titus Andronicus_ to _The Spanish Tragedy_. +The German critics have pushed too far their attempt to find indications +of Kyd's influence on later plays of Shakespeare. The extraordinary +interest felt for Kyd in Germany is explained by the fact that _The +Spanish Tragedy_ was long the best known of all Elizabethan plays +abroad. It was acted at Frankfort in 1601, and published soon afterwards +at Nuremberg. It continued to be a stock piece in Germany until the +beginning of the 18th century; it was equally popular in Holland, and +potent in its effect upon Dutch dramatic literature. + + Kyd's works were first collected and his life written by Professor F. + S. Boas in 1901. Of modern editions of _The Spanish Tragedy_ may be + mentioned that by Professor J. M. Manly in _Specimens of the + Pre-Shakespearean Drama_, vol. ii. (Boston, 1897), and by J. Schick in + the _Temple Dramatists_ (1898). See also _Cornelia_ (ed. H. Gassner, + 1894); C. Markscheffel, _T. Kyd's Tragödien_ (1885); Gregor Sarrazin, + Thomas Kyd und sein Kreis (1892); G. O. Fleischer, "Bemerkungen über + Thomas Kyd's Spanish Tragedy" (_Jahresbericht der Drei-Königschule zu + Dresden-Neustadt_ (1896); J. Schick, "T. Kyd's Spanish Tragedy" + (_Literarhistorische Forschungen_, vol. 19, 1901); and R. Koppel, in + Prölss, _Altengl. Theater_ (vol. i., 1904). (E. G.) + + + + +KYFFHÄUSER, a double line of hills in Thuringia, Germany. The northern +part looks steeply down upon the valley of the Goldene Aue, and is +crowned by two ruined castles, Rothenburg (1440 ft.) on the west, and +Kyffhausen (1542 ft.) on the east. The latter, built probably in the +10th century, was frequently the residence of the Hohenstaufen emperors, +and was finally destroyed in the 16th century. The existing ruins are +those of the Oberburg with its tower, and of the Unterburg with its +chapel. The hill is surmounted by an imposing monument to the emperor +William I., the equestrian statue of the emperor being 31 ft. high and +the height of the whole 210 ft. This was erected in 1896. According to +an old and popular legend, the emperor Frederick Barbarossa sits asleep +beside a marble table in the interior of the mountain, surrounded by his +knights, awaiting the destined day when he shall awaken and lead the +united peoples of Germany against her enemies, and so inaugurate an era +of unexampled glory. But G. Vogt has advanced cogent reasons (see _Hist. +Zeitschrift_, xxvi. 131-187) for believing that the real hero of the +legend is the other great Hohenstaufen emperor, Frederick II., not +Frederick I. Around him gradually crystallized the hopes of the German +peoples, and to him they looked for help in the hour of their sorest +need. But this is not the only legend of a slumbering future deliverer +which lives on in Germany. Similar hopes cling to the memory of +Charlemagne, sleeping in a hill near Paderborn; to that of the Saxon +hero Widukind, in a hill in Westphalia; to Siegfried, in the hill of +Geroldseck; and to Henry I., in a hill near Goslar. + + See Richter, _Das deutsche Kyffhäusergebirge_ (Eisleben, 1876); + Lemcke, _Der deutsche Kaisertraum und der Kyffhäuser_ (Magdeburg, + 1887); and _Führer durch das Kyffhäusergebirge_ (Sangerhausen, 1891); + Baltzer, _Das Kyffhäusergebirge_ (Rudolstadt, 1882); A. Fulda, _Die + Kyffhäusersage_ (Sangerhausen, 1889); and Anemüller, _Kyffhäuser und + Rothenburg_ (Detmold, 1892). + + + + +KYNASTON, EDWARD (c. 1640-1706), English actor, was born in London and +first appeared in Rhodes's company, having been, like Betterton, a clerk +in Rhodes's book-shop before he set up a company in the Cockpit in Drury +Lane. Kynaston was probably the last and certainly the best of the male +actors of female parts, for which his personal beauty admirably fitted +him. His last female part was Evadne in _The Maid's Tragedy_ in 1661 +with Killigrew's company. In 1665 he was playing important male parts at +Covent Garden. He joined Betterton at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1695, +after which he received less important rôles, retiring in 1699. He died +in 1706, and was buried on the 18th of January. + + + + +KYNETON, a town of Dalhousie county, Victoria, Australia, on the river +Campaspe, 56 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 3274. It is +the centre of a prosperous agricultural and pastoral district. Important +stock sales and an annual exhibition of stock are held. There are, +moreover, some rich gold quartz reefs in the neighbourhood. Kyneton lies +at an elevation of 1687 ft., and the scenery of the district, which +includes some beautiful waterfalls, attracts visitors in summer. + + + + +KYOSAI, SHO-FU (1831-1889), Japanese painter, was born at Koga in the +province of Shimotsuke, Japan, in 1831. After working for a short time, +as a boy, with Kuniyoshi, he received his artistic training in the +studio of Kano Dohaku, but soon abandoned the formal traditions of his +master for the greater freedom of the popular school. During the +political ferment which produced and followed the revolution of 1867, +Kyosai attained a considerable reputation as a caricaturist. He was +three times arrested and imprisoned by the authorities of the shogunate. +Soon after the assumption of effective power by the mikado, a great +congress of painters and men of letters was held, at which Kyosai was +present. He again expressed his opinion of the new movement in a +caricature, which had a great popular success, but also brought him into +the hands of the police--this time of the opposite party. Kyosai must be +considered the greatest successor of Hokusai (of whom, however, he was +not a pupil), and as the first political caricaturist of Japan. His +work--like his life--is somewhat wild and undisciplined, and +"occasionally smacks of the _sake_ cup." But if he did not possess +Hokusai's dignity, power and reticence, he substituted an exuberant +fancy, which always lends interest to draughtsmanship of very great +technical excellence. In addition to his caricatures, Kyosai painted a +large number of pictures and sketches, often choosing subjects from the +folk-lore of his country. A fine collection of these works is preserved +in the British Museum; and there are also good examples in the National +Art Library at South Kensington, and the Musée Guimet at Paris. Among +his illustrated books may be mentioned _Yehon Taka-kagami_, +Illustrations of Hawks (5 vols., 1870, &c.); _Kyosai Gwafu_ (1880); +_Kyosai Dongwa_; _Kyosai Raku-gwa_; _Kyosai Riaku-gwa_; _Kyosai Mangwa_ +(1881); _Kyosai Suigwa_ (1882); and _Kyosai Gwaden_ (1887). The latter +is illustrated by him under the name of Kawanabe Toyoku, and two of its +four volumes are devoted to an account of his own art and life. He died +in 1889. + + See Guimet (É.) and Regamey (F.), _Promenades japonaises_ (Paris, + 1880); Anderson (W.), _Catalogue of Japanese Painting in the British + Museum_ (London, 1886); Mortimer Menpes, "A Personal View of Japanese + Art: A Lesson from Kyosai," _Magazine of Art_ (1888). (E. F. S.) + + + + +KYRIE (in full _kyrie eleison_, or _eleeson_, Gr. [Greek: kyrie +eleêson]; cf. Ps. cxxii. 3, Matt. XV. 22, &c., meaning "Lord, have +mercy"), the words of petition used at the beginning of the Mass and in +other offices of the Eastern and Roman Churches. In the Anglican Book of +Common Prayer the Kyrie is introduced into the orders for Morning and +Evening Prayer, and also, with an additional petition, as a response +made by the congregation after the reading of each of the Ten +Commandments at the opening of the Communion Service. These responses +are usually sung, and the name Kyrie is thus also applied to their +musical setting. In the Lutheran Church the Kyrie is still said or sung +in the original Greek. "Kyrielle," a shortened form of _Kyrie eleison_, +is applied to eight-syllabled four-line verses, the last line in each +verse being repeated as a refrain. + + + + +KYRLE, JOHN (1637-1724), "the Man of Ross," English philanthropist, was +born in the parish of Dymock, Gloucestershire, on the 22nd of May 1637. +His father was a barrister and M.P., and the family had lived at Ross, +in Herefordshire, for many generations. He was educated at Balliol +College, Oxford, and having succeeded to the property at Ross took up +his abode there. In everything that concerned the welfare of the little +town in which he lived he took a lively interest--in the education of +the children, the distribution of alms, in improving and embellishing +the town. He delighted in mediating between those who had quarrelled and +in preventing lawsuits. He was generous to the poor and spent all he had +in good works. He lived a great deal in the open air working with the +labourers on his farm. He died on the 7th of November 1724, and was +buried in the chancel of Ross Church. His memory is preserved by the +Kyrie Society, founded in 1877, to better the lot of working people, by +laying out parks, encouraging house decoration, window gardening and +flower growing. Ross was eulogized by Pope in the third _Moral Epistle_ +(1732), and by Coleridge in an early poem (1794). + + + + +KYSHTYM, a town of Russia, in the government of Perm, 56 m. by rail N.N.W. +of Chelyabinsk, on a river of the same name which connects two lakes. Pop. +(1897), 12,331. The official name is Verkhne-Kyshtymskiy-Zavod, or Upper +Kyshtym Works, to distinguish it from the Lower (Nizhne) Kyshtym Works, +situated two miles lower down the same river. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 15, Slice 8, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40641 *** |