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diff --git a/40641.txt b/40641.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 9cf213e..0000000 --- a/40641.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19059 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 15, Slice 8, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, Slice 8 - "Kite-Flying" to "Kyshtym" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: September 1, 2012 [EBook #40641] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 15, SLICE 8 *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE KIU-KIANG FU: "Unfortunately, however, it stands above - instead of below the outlet of the Po-yang lake, and this has - proved to be a decided drawback to its success as a commercial - port." ''commercial'' amended from ''commerical''. - - ARTICLE KLONDIKE: "Gold is practically the only economic product of - the Klondike, though small amounts of tin ore occur, and lignite - coal has been mined lower down on the Yukon." ''practically'' - amended from ''practially''. - - ARTICLE KNARESBOROUGH: "In 1317 John de Lilleburn, who was holding - the castle of Knaresborough for Thomas duke of Lancaster against - the king, surrendered under conditions to William de Ros of Hamelak - ..." ''Knaresborough'' amended from ''Knaresburgh''. - - ARTICLE KNUTSFORD: "... on the Cheshire Lines and London & - North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 5172." - ''Cheshire'' amended from ''Chesire''. - - ARTICLE KOREA: "Buddhism, a forceful civilizing element, reached - Hiaksai in A.D. 384, and from it the sutras and images of northern - Buddhism were carried to Japan, as well as Chinese letters and - ethics." ''Buddhism'' amended from ''Buddism''. - - ARTICLE KUEN-LUN: "... have the appearance of comparatively gentle - swellings of the earth's surface rather than of well-defined - mountain ranges." ''surface'' amended from ''service''. - - ARTICLE KURDISTAN: "... like another Saladin, the bey ruled in - patriarchal state, surrounded by an hereditary nobility, regarded - by his clansmen with reverence and affection, and attended by a - bodyguard of young Kurdish warriors ..." ''patriarchal'' amended - from ''partriarchal''.. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XV, SLICE VIII - - Kite-Flying to Kyshtym - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - KITE-FLYING KOSTER, LAURENS - KIT-FOX KOSTROMA (government of Russia) - KITTO, JOHN KOSTROMA (town of Russia) - KITTUR KOSZEG - KITZINGEN KOTAH - KIU-KIANG FU KOTAS - KIUSTENDIL KOTKA - KIVU KOTRI - KIWI KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIEDRICH VON - KIZILBASHES KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON - KIZIL IRMAK KOUMISS - KIZLYAR KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS - KIZYL-KUM KOUSSO - KJERULF, HALFDAN KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE - KJERULF, THEODOR KOVNO (government of Russia) - KLADNO KOVNO (town of Russia) - KLAFSKY, KATHARINA KOVROV - KLAGENFURT KOWTOW - KLAJ, JOHANN KOZLOV - KLAMATH KRAAL - KLAPKA, GEORG KRAFFT, ADAM - KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS KRAGUYEVATS - KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH KRAKATOA - KLEBER, JEAN BAPTISTE KRAKEN - KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD KRALYEVO - KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH VON KRANTZ, ALBERT - KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON KRASNOVODSK - KLERKSDORP KRASNOYARSK - KLESL, MELCHIOR KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS - KLINGER, FRIEDRICH VON KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH - KLINGER, MAX KRAWANG - KLIPSPRINGER KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL - KLONDIKE KREMENCHUG - KLOPP, ONNO KREMENETS - KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH KREMS - KLOSTERNEUBURG KREMSIER - KLOTZ, REINHOLD KREUTZER, KONRADIN - KNARESBOROUGH KREUTZER, RUDOLPH - KNAVE KREUZBURG - KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON KREUZNACH - KNEE KRIEGSPIEL - KNELLER, SIR GODFREY KRIEMHILD - KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN KRILOFF, IVAN ANDREEVICH - KNIFE KRISHNA - KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH KRISHNAGAR - KNIGHT, CHARLES KRISTIANSTAD - KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY KRIVOY ROG - KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON KROCHMAL, NAHMAN - KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY KRONENBERG - KNIGHT-SERVICE KRONSTADT - KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE KROONSTAD - KNIPPERDOLLINCK, BERNT KROPOTKIN, PETER ALEXEIVICH - KNITTING KROTOSCHIN - KNOBKERRIE KRUDENER, BARBARA JULIANA - KNOLLES, RICHARD KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT - KNOLLES, SIR ROBERT KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS - KNOLLYS KRUGERSDORP - KNOT (bird) KRUMAU - KNOT (loop of rope) KRUMBACHER, CARL - KNOUT KRUMEN - KNOWLES, SIR JAMES KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF - KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN KRUPP, ALFRED - KNOW NOTHING PARTY KRUSENSTERN, ADAM IVAN - KNOX, HENRY KRUSHEVATS - KNOX, JOHN KSHATTRIYA - KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE KUBAN (river of Russia) - KNOXVILLE KUBAN (province of Russia) - KNUCKLE KUBELIK, JAN - KNUCKLEBONES KUBERA - KNUTSFORD KUBLAI KHAN - KOALA KUBUS - KOBDO KUCHAN - KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ KUCH BEHAR - KOCH, ROBERT KUDU - KOCH (tribe) KUENEN, ABRAHAM - KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE KUEN-LUN - KODAIKANAL KUFA - KODAMA, GENTARO KUHN, FRANZ FELIX ADALBERT - KODUNGALUR KUHNE, WILLY - KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD KUKA - KOESFELD KU KLUX KLAN - KOHAT KUKU KHOTO - KOHAT PASS KULJA - KOHISTAN KULM - KOHL KULMBACH - KOHLHASE, HANS KULMSEE - KOKOMO KULP - KOKO-NOR KULU - KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAI VON KUM - KOKSTAD KUMAIT IBN ZAID - KOLA KUMAON - KOLABA KUMASI - KOLAR KUMISHAH - KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN KUMQUAT - KOLBERG KUMTA - KOLCSEY, FERENCZ KUMYKS - KOLDING KUNAR - KOLGUEV KUNBIS - KOLHAPUR KUNDT, AUGUST ADOLPH EDUARD EBERHARD - KOLIN KUNDUZ - KOLIS KUNENE - KOLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON KUNERSDORF - KOLLONTAJ, HUGO KUNGRAD - KOLOMEA KUNGUR - KOLOMNA KUNKEL VON LOWENSTJERN, JOHANN - KOLOZSVAR KUNLONG - KOLPINO KUNZITE - KOLS KUOPIO (province of Finland) - KOLYVAN KUOPIO (city of Finland) - KOMAROM KUPRILI - KOMATI KURAKIN, BORIS IVANOVICH - KOMOTAU KURBASH - KOMURA, JUTARO KURDISTAN (country) - KONARAK KURDISTAN (province of Persia) - KONG KURGAN - KONGSBERG KURIA MURIA ISLANDS - KONIA KURILES - KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS KURISCHES HAFF - KONIG, KARL RUDOLPH KURNOOL - KONIGGRATZ KUROKI, ITEI - KONIGINHOF KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH - KONIGSBERG KURO SIWO - KONIGSBORN KURRAM - KONIGSHUTTE KURSEONG - KONIGSLUTTER KURSK (government of Russia) - KONIGSMARK, MARIA AURORA KURSK (town of Russia) - KONIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH KURTZ, JOHANN HEINRICH - KONIGSSEE KURUMAN - KONIGSTEIN KURUMBAS and KURUBAS - KONIGSWINTER KURUNEGALA - KONINCK, LAURENT GUILLAUME DE KURUNTWAD - KONINCK, PHILIP DE KURZ, HERMANN - KONITZ KUSAN - KONKAN KUSHALGARH - KONTAGORA KUSHK - KOORINGA KUSTANAISK - KOPENICK KUSTENLAND - KOPISCH, AUGUST KUTAIAH - KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ KUTAIS (government of Russia) - KOPRULU KUTAIS (town of Russia) - KORA KUT-EL-AMARA - KORAN KUTENAI - KORAT KUTTALAM - KORDOFAN KUTTENBERG - KOREA (country) KUTUSOV, MIKHAIL LARIONOVICH - KOREA (Indian tributary state) KUWET - KORESHAN ECCLESIA, THE KUZNETSK - KORIN, OGATA KVASS - KORKUS KWAKIUTL - KORMOCZBANYA KWANGCHOW BAY - KORNER, KARL THEODOR KWANG-SI - KORNEUBURG KWANG-TUNG - KOROCHA KWANZA - KORSOR KWEI-CHOW - KORTCHA KYAUKPYU - KORYAKS KYAUKSE - KOSCIUSCO KYD, THOMAS - KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ BONAWENTURA KYFFHAUSER - KOSEN KYNASTON, EDWARD - KOSHER KYNETON - KOSLIN KYOSAI, SHO-FU - KOSSOVO KYRIE - KOSSUTH, FERENCZ LAJOS AKOS KYRLE, JOHN - KOSSUTH, LAJOS KYSHTYM - - - - -KITE-FLYING, the art of sending up into the air, by means of the wind, -light frames of varying shapes covered with paper or cloth (called -kites, after the bird--in German _Drache_, dragon), which are attached -to long cords or wires held in the hand or wound on a drum. When made in -the common diamond form, or triangular with a semicircular head, kites -usually have a pendulous tail appended for balancing purposes. The -tradition is that kites were invented by Archytas of Tarentum four -centuries before the Christian era, but they have been in use among -Asiatic peoples and savage tribes like the Maoris of New Zealand from -time immemorial. Kite-flying has always been a national pastime of the -Koreans, Chinese, Japanese, Tonkinese, Annamese, Malays and East -Indians. It is less popular among the peoples of Europe. The origin of -the sport, although obscure, is usually ascribed to religion. With the -Maoris it still retains a distinctly religious character, and the ascent -of the kite is accompanied by a chant called the kite-song. The Koreans -attribute its origin to a general, who, hundreds of years ago, -inspirited his troops by sending up a kite with a lantern attached, -which was mistaken by his army for a new star and a token of divine -succour. Another Korean general is said to have been the first to put -the kite to mechanical uses by employing one to span a stream with a -cord, which was then fastened to a cable and formed the nucleus of a -bridge. In Korea, Japan and China, and indeed throughout Eastern Asia, -even the tradespeople may be seen indulging in kite-flying while waiting -for customers. Chinese and Japanese kites are of many shapes, such as -birds, dragons, beasts and fishes. They vary in size, but are often as -much as 7 ft. in height or breadth, and are constructed of bamboo strips -covered with rice paper or very thin silk. In China the ninth day of the -ninth month is "Kites' Day," when men and boys of all classes betake -themselves to neighbouring eminences and fly their kites. Kite-fighting -is a feature of the pastime in Eastern Asia. The cord near the kite is -usually stiffened with a mixture of glue and crushed glass or porcelain. -The kite-flyer manoeuvres to get his kite to windward of that of his -adversary, then allows his cord to drift against his enemy's, and by a -sudden jerk to cut it through and bring its kite to grief. The Malays -possess a large variety of kites, mostly without tails. The Sultan of -Johor sent to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 a collection -of fifteen different kinds. Asiatic musical kites bear one or more -perforated reeds or bamboos which emit a plaintive sound that can be -heard for great distances. The ignorant, believing that these kites -frighten away evil spirits, often keep them flying all night over their -houses. - -There are various metaphorical uses of the term "kite-flying," such as -in commercial slang, when "flying a kite" means raising money on credit -(cf. "raising the wind"), or in political slang for seeing "how the wind -blows." And "flying-kites," in nautical language, are the topmost sails. - -Kite-flying for scientific purposes began in the middle of the 18th -century. In 1752 Benjamin Franklin made his memorable kite experiment, -by which he attracted electricity from the air and demonstrated the -electrical nature of lightning. A more systematic use of kites for -scientific purposes may, however, be said to date from the experiments -made in the last quarter of the 19th century. (E. B.) - -_Meteorological Use._--Many European and American meteorological -services employ kites regularly, and obtain information not only of the -temperature, but also of the humidity and velocity of the air above. The -kites used are mostly modifications of the so-called box-kites, invented -by L. Hargrave. Roughly these kites may be said to resemble an ordinary -box with the two ends removed, and also the middle part of each of the -four sides. The original Hargrave kite, the form generally used, has a -rectangular section; in Russia a semicircular section with the curved -part facing the wind is most in favour; in England the diamond-shaped -section is preferred for meteorological purposes owing to its simplicity -of construction. Stability depends on a multitude of small details of -construction, and long practice and experience are required to make a -really good kite. The sizes most in use have from 30 to 80 sq. ft. of -sail area. There is no difficulty about raising a kite to a vertical -height of one or even two miles on suitable days, but heights exceeding -three miles are seldom reached. On the 29th of November 1905 at -Lindenberg, the Prussian Aeronautical Observatory, the upper one of a -train of six kites attained an altitude of just four miles. The total -lifting surface of these six kites was nearly 300 sq. ft., and the -length of wire a little over nine miles. The kites are invariably flown -on a steel wire line, for the hindrance to obtaining great heights is -not due so much to the weight of the line as to the wind pressure upon -it, and thus it becomes of great importance to use a material that -possesses the greatest possible strength, combined with the smallest -possible size. Steel piano wire meets this requirement, for a wire of -1/32 in. diameter will weigh about 16 lb. to the mile, and stand a -strain of some 250-280 lb. before it breaks. Some stations prefer to use -one long piece of wire of the same gauge throughout without a join, -others prefer to start with a thin wire and join on thicker and thicker -wire as more kites are added. The process of kite-flying is as follows. -The first kite is started either with the self-recording instruments -secured in it, or hanging from the wire a short distance below it. Wire -is then paid out, whether quickly or slowly depends on the strength of -the wind, but the usual rate is from two to three miles per hour. The -quantity that one kite will take depends on the kite and on the wind, -but roughly speaking it may be said that each 10 sq. ft. of lifting -surface on the kite should carry 1000 ft. of 1/32 in. wire without -difficulty. When as much wire as can be carried comfortably has run out -another kite is attached to the line, and the paying out is continued; -after a time a third is added, and so on. Each kite increases the strain -upon the wire, and moreover adds to the height and makes it more -uncertain what kind of wind the upper kites will encounter; it also adds -to the time that is necessary to haul in the kites. In each way the risk -of their breaking away is increased, for the wind is very uncertain and -is liable to alter in strength. Since to attain an exceptional height -the wire must be strained nearly to its breaking point, and under such -conditions a small increase in the strength of the wind will break the -wire, it follows that great heights can only be attained by those who -are willing to risk the trouble and expense of frequently having their -wire and train of kites break away. The weather is the essential factor -in kite-flying. In the S.E. of England in winter it is possible on about -two days out of three, and in summer on about one day out of three. The -usual cause of failure is want of wind, but there are a few days when -the wind is too strong. (For meteorological results, &c., see -METEOROLOGY.) (W. H. Di.) - -_Military Use._--A kite forms so extremely simple a method of lifting -anything to a height in the air that it has naturally been suggested as -being suitable for various military purposes, such as signalling to a -long distance, carrying up flags, or lamps, or semaphores. Kites have -been used both in the army and in the navy for floating torpedoes on -hostile positions. As much as two miles of line have been paid out. For -purposes of photography a small kite carrying a camera to a considerable -height may be caused to float over a fort or other place of which a -bird's-eye view is required, the shutter being operated by electric -wire, or slow match, or clockwork. Many successful photographs have been -thus obtained in England and America. - -The problem of lifting a man by means of kites instead of by a captive -balloon is a still more important one. The chief military advantages to -be gained are: (1) less transport is required; (2) they can be used in a -strong wind; (3) they are not so liable to damage, either from the -enemy's fire or from trees, &c., and are easier to mend; (4) they can be -brought into use more quickly; (5) they are very much cheaper, both in -construction and in maintenance, not requiring any costly gas. - -Captain B. F. S. Baden-Powell, of the Scots Guards, in June 1894 -constructed, at Pirbright Camp, a huge kite 36 ft. high, with which he -successfully lifted a man on different occasions. He afterwards improved -the contrivance, using five or six smaller kites attached together in -preference to one large one. With this arrangement he frequently -ascended as high as 100 ft. The kites were hexagonal, being 12 ft. high -and 12 ft. across. The apparatus, which could be packed in a few minutes -into a simple roll, weighed in all about 1 cwt. This appliance was -proved to be capable of raising a man even during a dead calm, the -retaining line being fixed to a wagon and towed along. Lieut. H. D. Wise -made some trials in America in 1897 with some large kites of the -Hargrave pattern (Hargrave having previously himself ascended in -Australia), and succeeded in lifting a man 40 ft. above the ground. In -the Russian army a military kite apparatus has also been tried, and was -in evidence at the manoeuvres in 1898. Experiments have also been -carried out by most of the European powers. (B. F. S. B.-P.) - - - - -KIT-FOX (_Canis [Vulpes] velox_), a small fox, from north-western -America, measuring less than a yard in length, with a tail of nearly a -third this length. There is a good deal of variation in the colour of -the fur, the prevailing tint being grey. A specimen in the Zoological -Gardens of London had the back and tail dark grey, the tail tipped with -black, and a rufous wash on the cheeks, shoulders, flanks and outer -surface of the limbs, with the under surface white. The specific name -was given on account of the extraordinary swiftness of the animal. (See -CARNIVORA.) - - - - -KITTO, JOHN (1804-1854), English biblical scholar, was the son of a -mason at Plymouth, where he was born on the 4th of December 1804. An -accident brought on deafness, and in November 1819 he was sent to the -workhouse, where he was employed in making list shoes. In 1823 a fund -was raised on his behalf, and he was sent to board with the clerk of the -guardians, having his time at his own disposal, and the privilege of -making use of a public library. After preparing a small volume of -miscellanies, which was published by subscription, he studied dentistry -with Anthony Norris Groves in Exeter. In 1825 he obtained congenial -employment in the printing office of the Church Missionary Society at -Islington, and in 1827 was transferred to the same society's -establishment at Malta. There he remained for eighteen months, but -shortly after his return to England he accompanied Groves and other -friends on a private missionary enterprise to Bagdad, where he obtained -personal knowledge of Oriental life and habits which he afterwards -applied with tact and skill in the illustration of biblical scenes and -incidents. Plague broke out, the missionary establishment was broken up, -and in 1832 Kitto returned to England. On arriving in London he was -engaged in the preparation of various serial publications of the Society -for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, the most important of which were -the _Pictorial History of Palestine_ and the _Pictorial Bible_. The -_Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature_, edited under his superintendence, -appeared in two volumes in 1843-1845 and passed through three editions. -His _Daily Bible Illustrations_ (8 vols. 1849-1853) received an -appreciation which is not yet extinct. In 1850 he received an annuity of -L100 from the civil list. In August 1854 he went to Germany for the -waters of Cannstatt on the Neckar, where on the 25th of November he -died. - - See Kitto's own work, _The Lost Senses_ (1845); J. E. Ryland's - _Memoirs of Kitto_ (1856); and John Eadie's _Life of Kitto_ (1857). - - - - -KITTUR, a village of British India, in the Belgaum district of Bombay; -pop. (1901), 4922. It contains a ruined fort, formerly the residence of -a Mahratta chief. In connexion with a disputed succession to this -chiefship in 1824, St John Thackeray, an uncle of the novelist, was -killed when approaching the fort under a flag of truce; and a nephew of -Sir Thomas Munro, governor of Madras, fell subsequently when the fort -was stormed. - - - - -KITZINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria on the Main, 95 -m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Main by rail, at the junction of the main-lines -to Passau, Wurzburg and Schweinfurt. Pop. (1900), 8489. A bridge, 300 -yards long, connects it with its suburb Etwashausen on the left bank of -the river. A railway bridge also spans the Main at this point. Kitzingen -is still surrounded by its old walls and towers, and has an Evangelical -and two Roman Catholic churches, two municipal museums, a town-hall, a -grammar school, a richly endowed hospital and two old convents. Its -chief industries are brewing, cask-making and the manufacture of cement -and colours. Considerable trade in wine, fruit, grain and timber is -carried on by boats on the Main. Kitzingen possessed a Benedictine abbey -in the 8th century, and later belonged to the bishopric of Wurzburg. - - See F. Bernbeck, _Kitzinger Chronik 745-1565_ (Kitzingen, 1899). - - - - -KIU-KIANG FU, a prefecture and prefectural city in the province of -Kiang-si, China. The city, which is situated on the south bank of the -Yangtsze-kiang, 15 m. above the point where the Kan Kiang flows into -that river from the Po-yang lake, stands in 29 deg. 42' N. and 116 deg. -8' E. The north face of the city is separated from the river by only the -width of a roadway, and two large lakes lie on its west and south -fronts. The walls are from 5 to 6 m. in circumference, and are more than -usually strong and broad. As is generally the case with old cities in -China, Kiu-Kiang has repeatedly changed its name. Under the Tsin dynasty -(A.D. 265-420), it was known as Sin-Yang, under the Liang dynasty -(502-557) as Kiang Chow, under the Suy dynasty (589-618) as Kiu-Kiang, -under the Sung dynasty (960-1127) as Ting-Kiang, and under the Ming -dynasty (1368-1644) it assumed the name it at present bears. Kiu-Kiang -has played its part in the history of the empire, and has been -repeatedly besieged and sometimes taken, the last time being in February -1853, when the T'ai-p'ing rebels gained possession of the city. After -their manner they looted and utterly destroyed it, leaving only the -remains of a single street to represent the once flourishing town. The -position of Kiu-Kiang on the Yangtsze-kiang and its proximity to the -channels of internal communication through the Po-yang lake, more -especially to those leading to the green-tea-producing districts of the -provinces of Kiang-si and Ngan-hui, induced Lord Elgin to choose it as -one of the treaty ports to be opened under the terms of his treaty -(1861). Unfortunately, however, it stands above instead of below the -outlet of the Po-yang lake, and this has proved to be a decided drawback -to its success as a commercial port. The immediate effect of opening the -town to foreign trade was to raise the population in one year from -10,000 to 40,000. The population in 1908, exclusive of foreigners, was -officially estimated at 36,000. The foreign settlement extends westward -from the city, along the bank of the Yangtsze-kiang, and is bounded on -its extreme west by the P'un river, which there runs into the Yangtsze. -The bund, which is 500 yards long, was erected by the foreign community. -The climate is good, and though hot in the summer months is invariably -cold and bracing in the winter. According to the customs returns the -value of the trade of the port amounted in 1902 to L2,854,704, and in -1904 to L3,489,816, of which L1,726,506 were imports and L1,763,310 -exports. In 1904 322,266 lb. of opium were imported. - - - - -KIUSTENDIL, the chief town of a department in Bulgaria, situated in a -mountainous country, on a small affluent of the Struma, 43 m. S.W. of -Sofia by rail. Pop. (1906), 12,353. The streets are narrow and uneven, -and the majority of the houses are of clay or wood. The town is chiefly -notable for its hot mineral springs, in connexion with which there are -nine bathing establishments. Small quantities of gold and silver are -obtained from mines near Kiustendil, and vines, tobacco and fruit are -largely cultivated. Some remains survive of the Roman period, when the -town was known as Pautalia, Ulpia Pautalia, and Pautalia Aurelii. In the -10th century it became the seat of a bishopric, being then and during -the later middle ages known by the Slavonic name of Velbuzhd. After the -overthrow of the Servian kingdom it came into the possession of -Constantine, brother of the despot Yovan Dragash, who ruled over -northern Macedonia. Constantine was expelled and killed by the Turks in -1394. In the 15th century Kiustendil was known as Velbushka Banya, and -more commonly as Konstantinova Banya (Constantine's Bath), from which -has developed the Turkish name Kiustendil. - - - - -KIVU, a considerable lake lying in the Central African (or Albertine) -rift-valley, about 60 m. N. of Tanganyika, into which it discharges its -waters by the Rusizi River. On the north it is separated from the basin -of the Nile by a line of volcanic peaks. The length of the lake is about -55 m., and its greatest breadth over 30, giving an area, including -islands, of about 1100 sq. m. It is about 4830 ft. above sea-level and -is roughly triangular in outline, the longest side lying to the west. -The coast-line is much broken, especially on the south-east, where the -indentations present a fjord-like character. The lake is deep, and the -shores are everywhere high, rising in places in bold precipitous cliffs -of volcanic rock. A large island, Kwijwi or Kwichwi, oblong in shape and -traversed by a hilly ridge, runs in the direction of the major axis of -the lake, south-west of the centre, and there are many smaller islands. -The lake has many fish, but no crocodiles or hippopotami. South of Kivu -the rift-valley is blocked by huge ridges, through which the Rusizi now -breaks its way in a succession of steep gorges, emerging from the lake -in a foaming torrent, and descending 2000 ft. to the lacustrine plain at -the head of Tanganyika. The lake fauna is a typically fresh-water one, -presenting no affinities with the marine or "halolimnic" fauna of -Tanganyika and other Central African lakes, but is similar to that shown -by fossils to have once existed in the more northern parts of the -rift-valley. The former outlet or extension in this direction seems to -have been blocked in recent geological times by the elevation of the -volcanic peaks which dammed back the water, causing it finally to -overflow to the south. This volcanic region is of great interest and has -various names, that most used being Mfumbiro (q.v.), though this name is -sometimes restricted to a single peak. Kivu and Mfumbiro were first -heard of by J. H. Speke in 1861, but not visited by a European until -1894, when Count von Gotzen passed through the country on his journey -across the continent. The lake and its vicinity were subsequently -explored by Dr R. Kandt, Captain Bethe, E. S. Grogan, J. E. S. Moore, -and Major St Hill Gibbons. The ownership of Kivu and its neighbourhood -was claimed by the Congo Free State and by Germany, the dispute being -settled in 1910, after Belgium had taken over the Congo State. The -frontier agreed upon was the west bank of the Rusizi, and the west shore -of the lake. The island of Kwijwi also fell to Belgium. - - See R. Kandt, _Caput Nili_ (Berlin, 1904), and _Karte des Kivusees_, - 1: 285,000, with text by A. v. Bockelmann (Berlin, 1902); E. S. Grogan - and A. H. Sharpe, _From the Cape to Cairo_ (London, 1900); J. E. S. - Moore, _To the Mountains of the Moon_ (London, 1901); A. St H. - Gibbons, _Africa from South to North_, ii. (London, 1904). - - - - -KIWI, or KIWI-KIWI, the Maori name--first apparently introduced to -zoological literature by Lesson in 1828 (_Man. d'Ornithologie_, ii. -210, or _Voy. de la "Coquille," zoologie_, p. 418), and now very -generally adopted in English--of one of the most characteristic forms of -New Zealand birds, the _Apteryx_ of scientific writers. This remarkable -bird was unknown till George Shaw described and figured it in 1813 -(_Nat. Miscellany_, pls. 1057, 1058) from a specimen brought to him from -the southern coast of that country by Captain Barcley of the ship -"Providence." At Shaw's death, in the same year, it passed into the -possession of Lord Stanley, afterwards 13th earl of Derby, and president -of the Zoological Society, and it is now with the rest of his collection -in the Liverpool Museum. Considering the state of systematic ornithology -at the time, Shaw's assignment of a position to this new and strange -bird, of which he had but the skin, does him great credit, for he said -it seemed "to approach more nearly to the Struthious and Gallinaceous -tribes than to any other." And his credit is still greater when we find -the venerable John Latham, who is said to have examined the specimen -with Shaw, placing it some years later among the penguins (_Gen. Hist. -Birds_, x. 394), being apparently led to that conclusion through its -functionless wings and the backward situation of its legs. In this false -allocation, James Francis Stephens also in 1826 acquiesced (_Gen. -Zoology_, xiii. 70). Meanwhile in 1820 K. J. Temminck, who had never -seen a specimen, had assorted it with the dodo in an order to which he -applied the name of _Inertes_ (_Man. d'Ornithologie_, i. cxiv.). In 1831 -R. P. Lesson, who had previously (_loc. cit._) made some blunders about -it, placed it (_Traite d'Ornithologie_, p. 12), though only, as he says, -"par analogie et _a priori_," in his first division of birds, "Oiseaux -Anomaux," which is equivalent to what we now call _Ratitae_, making of -it a separate family "Nullipennes." At that time no second example was -known, and some doubt was felt, especially on the Continent, as to the -very existence of such a bird [1]--though Lesson had himself when in the -Bay of Islands in April 1824 (_Voy. "Coquille," ut supra_) heard of it; -and a few years later J. S. C. Dumont d'Urville had seen its skin, which -the naturalists of his expedition procured, worn as a tippet by a Maori -chief at Tolaga Bay (Houa-houa),[2] and in 1830 gave what proves to be -on the whole very accurate information concerning it (_Voy. -"Astrolabe,"_ ii. 107). To put all suspicion at rest, Lord Derby sent -his unique specimen for exhibition at a meeting of the Zoological -Society, on the 12th of February 1833 (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1833, p. -24), and a few months later (_tom. cit._, p. 80) William Yarrell -communicated to that body a complete description of it, which was -afterwards published in full with an excellent portrait (_Trans. Zool. -Society_, vol. i. p. 71, pl. 10). Herein the systematic place of the -species, as akin to the Struthious birds, was placed beyond cavil, and -the author called upon all interested in zoology to aid in further -research as to this singular form. In consequence of this appeal a -legless skin was within two years sent to the society (_Proceedings_, -1835, p. 61) obtained by W. Yate of Waimate, who said it was the second -he had seen, and that he had kept the bird alive for nearly a fortnight, -while in less than another couple of years additional information (_op. -cit._, 1837, p. 24) came from T. K. Short to the effect that he had seen -two living, and that all Yarrell had said was substantially correct, -except underrating its progressive powers. Not long afterwards Lord -Derby received and in March 1838 transmitted to the same society the -trunk and viscera of an _Apteryx_, which, being entrusted to Sir R. -Owen, furnished that eminent anatomist, in conjunction with other -specimens of the same kind received from Drs Lyon and George Bennett, -with the materials of the masterly monograph laid before the society in -instalments, and ultimately printed in its _Transactions_ (ii. 257; iii. -277). From this time the whole structure of the kiwi has certainly been -far better known than that of nearly any other bird, and by degrees -other examples found their way to England, some of which were -distributed to the various museums of the Continent and of America.[3] - -[Illustration: Kiwi.] - -In 1847 much interest was excited by the reported discovery of another -species of the genus (_Proceedings_, 1847, p. 51); and though the story -was not confirmed, a second species was really soon after made known by -John Gould (_tom. cit._, p. 93; _Transactions_, vol. iii, p. 379, pl. -57) under the name of _Apteryx oweni_--a just tribute to the great -master who had so minutely explained the anatomy of the group. Three -years later A. D. Bartlett drew attention to the manifest difference -existing among certain examples, all of which had hitherto been regarded -as specimens of _A. australis_, and the examination of a large series -led him to conclude that under that name two distinct species were -confounded. To the second of these, the third of the genus (according to -his views), he gave the name of _A. mantelli_ (_Proceedings_, 1850, p. -274), and it soon turned out that to this new form the majority of the -specimens already obtained belonged. In 1851 the first kiwi known to -have reached England alive was presented to the Zoological Society by -Eyre, then lieutenant-governor of New Zealand. This was found to belong -to the newly described _A. mantelli_, and some careful observations on -its habits in captivity were published by John Wolley and another -(_Zoologist_, pp. 3409, 3605).[4] Subsequently the society has received -several other live examples of this form, besides one of the real _A. -australis_ (_Proceedings_, 1872, p. 861), some of _A. oweni_, and one of -a supposed fourth species, _A. haasti_, characterized in 1871 by Potts -(_Ibis_, 1872, p. 35; _Trans. N. Zeal. Institute_, iv. 204; v. 195).[5] - -The kiwis form a group of the subclass _Ratitae_ to which the rank of an -order may fitly be assigned, as they differ in many important -particulars from any of the other existing forms of Ratite birds. The -most obvious feature the _Apteryges_ afford is the presence of a back -toe, while the extremely aborted condition of the wings, the position of -the nostrils--almost at the tip of the maxilla--and the absence of an -after-shaft in the feathers, are characters nearly as manifest, and -others not less determinative, though more recondite, will be found on -examination. The kiwis are peculiar to New Zealand, and it is believed -that _A. mantelli_ is the representative in the North Island of the -southern _A. australis_, both being of a dark reddish-brown, -longitudinally striped with light yellowish-brown, while _A. oweni_, of -a light greyish-brown transversely barred with black, is said to occur -in both islands. About the size of a large domestic fowl, they are birds -of nocturnal habit, sleeping, or at least inactive, by day, feeding -mostly on earth-worms, but occasionally swallowing berries, though in -captivity they will eat flesh suitably minced. Sir Walter Buller writes -(_B. of New Zealand_, p. 362):-- - - "The kiwi is in some measure compensated for the absence of wings by - its swiftness of foot. When running it makes wide strides and carries - the body in an oblique position, with the neck stretched to its full - extent and inclined forwards. In the twilight it moves about - cautiously and as noiselessly as a rat, to which, indeed, at this time - it bears some outward resemblance. In a quiescent posture, the body - generally assumes a perfectly rotund appearance; and it sometimes, but - only rarely, supports itself by resting the point of its bill on the - ground. It often yawns when disturbed in the daytime, gaping its - mandibles in a very grotesque manner. When provoked it erects the - body, and, raising the foot to the breast, strikes downwards with - considerable force and rapidity, thus using its sharp and powerful - claws as weapons of defence.... While hunting for its food the bird - makes a continual sniffing sound through the nostrils, which are - placed at the extremity of the upper mandible. Whether it is guided as - much by touch as by smell I cannot safely say; but it appears to me - that both senses are used in the action. That the sense of touch is - highly developed seems quite certain, because the bird, although it - may not be audibly sniffing, will always first touch an object with - the point of its bill, whether in the act of feeding or of surveying - the ground; and when shut up in a cage or confined in a room it may be - heard, all through the night, tapping softly at the walls.... It is - interesting to watch the bird, in a state of freedom, foraging for - worms, which constitute its principal food: it moves about with a slow - action of the body; and the long, flexible bill is driven into the - soft ground, generally home to the very root, and is either - immediately withdrawn with a worm held at the extreme tip of the - mandibles, or it is gently moved to and fro, by an action of the head - and neck, the body of the bird being perfectly steady. It is amusing - to observe the extreme care and deliberation with which the bird draws - the worm from its hiding-place, coaxing it out as it were by degrees, - instead of pulling roughly or breaking it. On getting the worm fairly - out of the ground, it throws up its head with a jerk, and swallows it - whole." - -The foregoing extract refers to _A. mantelli_, but there is little doubt -of the remarks being equally applicable to _A. australis_, and probably -also to _A. oweni_, though the different proportion of the bill in the -last points to some diversity in the mode of feeding. (A. N.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Cuvier in the second edition of his _Regne Animal_ only referred - to it in a footnote (i. 498). - - [2] Cruise in 1822 (_Journ. Residence in New Zealand_, p. 313) had - spoken of an "emeu" found in that island, which must of course have - been an _Apteryx_. - - [3] In 1842, according to Broderip (_Penny Cyclopaedia_, xxiii. 146), - two had been presented to the Zoological Society by the New Zealand - Company, and two more obtained by Lord Derby, one of which he had - given to Gould. In 1844 the British Museum possessed three, and the - sale catalogue of the Rivoli Collection, which passed in 1846 to the - Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, includes a single - specimen--probably the first taken to America. - - [4] This bird in 1859 laid an egg, and afterwards continued to lay - one or two more every year. In 1865 a male of the same species was - introduced, but though a strong disposition to breed was shown on the - part of both, and the eggs, after the custom of the _Ratitae_, were - incubated by him, no progeny was hatched (_Proceedings_, 1868, p. - 329). - - [5] A fine series of figures of all these supposed species is given - by Rowley (_Orn. Miscellany_, vol. i. pls. 1-6). Some others, as _A. - maxima_, _A. mollis_, and _A. fusca_ have also been indicated, but - proof of their validity has yet to be adduced. - - - - -KIZILBASHES (Turkish, "Red-Heads"), the nickname given by the Orthodox -Turks to the Shiitic Turkish immigrants from Persia, who are found -chiefly in the plains from Kara-Hissar along Tokat and Amasia to Angora. -During the wars with Persia the Turkish sultans settled them in these -districts. They are strictly speaking persianized Turks, and speak pure -Persian. There are many Kizilbashes in Afghanistan. Their immigration -dates only from the time of Nadir Shah (1737). They are an industrious -honest folk, chiefly engaged in trade and as physicians, scribes, and so -on. They form the bulk of the amir's cavalry. Their name seems to have -been first used in Persia of the Shiites in allusion to their red caps. - - See Ernest Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans l'Asie - occidentale_ (Lyons, 1895). - - - - -KIZIL IRMAK, i.e. "Red River" (anc. _Halys_), the largest river in Asia -Minor, rising in the Kizil Dagh at an altitude of 6500 ft., and running -south-west past Zara to Sivas. Below Sivas it flows south to the -latitude of Kaisarieh, and then curves gradually round to the north. -Finally, after a course of about 600 m., it discharges its waters into -the Black Sea between Sinope and Samsun, where it forms a large delta. -The only important tributaries are the Delije Irmak on the right and the -Geuk Irmak on the left bank. - - - - -KIZLYAR (KIZLIAR, or KIZLAR), a town of Russia, in Caucasia, in the -province of Terek, 120 m. N.E. of Vladikavkaz, in the low-lying delta of -the river Terek, about 35 m. from the Caspian. The population decreased -from 8309 in 1861 to 7353 in 1897. The town lies to the left of the main -stream between two of the larger secondary branches, and is subject to -flooding. The town proper, which spreads out round the citadel, has -Tatar, Georgian and Armenian quarters. The public buildings include the -Greek cathedral, dating from 1786; a Greek nunnery, founded by the -Georgian chief Daniel in 1736; the Armenian church of SS Peter and Paul, -remarkable for its size and wealth. The population is mainly supported -by the gardens and vineyards irrigated by canals from the river. A -government vineyard and school of viticulture are situated 3(1/2) m. from -the town. About 1,200,000 gallons of Kizlyar wine are sold annually at -the fair of Nizhniy-Novgorod. Silk and cotton are woven. Kizlyar is -mentioned as early as 1616, but the most notable accession of -inhabitants (Armenians, Georgians and Persians) took place in 1715. Its -importance as a fortress dates from 1736, but the fortress is no longer -kept in repair. - - - - -KIZYL-KUM, a desert of Western Asia, stretching S.E. of the Aral Lake -between the river Syr-darya on the N.E. and the river Amu-darya on the -S.W. It measures some 370 by 220 m., and is in part covered with -drift-sand or dunes, many of which are advancing slowly but steadily -towards the S.W. In character they resemble those of the neighbouring -Kara-kum desert (see KARA-KUM). On the whole the Kizyl-kum slopes S.W. -towards the Aral Lake, where its altitude is only about 160 ft. as -compared with 2000 in the S.E. In the vicinity of that lake the surface -is covered with Aralo-Caspian deposits; but in the S.E., as it ascends -towards the foothills of the Tian-shan system, it is braided with deep -accumulations of fertile loess. - - - - -KJERULF, HALFDAN (1815-1868), Norwegian musical composer, the son of a -high government official, was born at Christiania on the 15th of -September 1815. His early education was at Christiania University, for a -legal career, and not till he was nearly 26--on the death of his -father--was he able to devote himself entirely to music. As a fact, he -actually started on his career as a music teacher and composer of songs -before ever having seriously studied music at all, and not for ten years -did he attract any particular notice. Then, however, his Government paid -for a year's instruction for him at Leipzig. For many years after his -return to Norway Kjerulf tried in vain to establish serial classical -concerts, while he himself was working with Bjornson and other writers -at the composition of lyrical songs. His fame rests almost entirely on -his beautiful and manly national part-songs and solos; but his -pianoforte music is equally charming and simple. Kjerulf died at -Grefsen, on the 11th of August 1868. - - - - -KJERULF, THEODOR (1825-1888), Norwegian geologist, was born at -Christiania on the 30th of March 1825. He was educated in the university -at Christiania, and subsequently studied at Heidelberg, working in -Bunsen's laboratory. In 1858 he became professor of geology in the -university of his native city, and he was afterwards placed in charge of -the geological survey of the country, then established mainly through -his influence. His contributions to the geology of Norway were numerous -and important, especially in reference to the southern portion of the -country, and to the structure and relations of the Archaean and -Palaeozoic rocks, and the glacial phenomena. His principal results were -embodied in his work _Udsigt over det sydlige Norges Geologi_ (1879). He -was author also of some poetical works. He died at Christiania on the -25th of October 1888. - - - - -KLADNO, a mining town of Bohemia, Austria, 18 m. W.N.W. of Prague by -rail. Pop. (1900), 18,600, mostly Czech. It is situated in a region very -rich in iron-mines and coal-fields and possesses some of the largest -iron and steel works in Bohemia. Near it is the mining town of -Buschtehrad (pop. 3510), situated in the centre of very extensive -coal-fields. Buschtehrad was originally the name of the castle only. -This was from the 15th century to 1630 the property of the lords of -Kolovrat, and came by devious inheritance through the grand-dukes of -Tuscany, to the emperor Francis Joseph. The name Buschtehrad was first -given to the railway, and then to the town, which had been called Buckow -since its foundation in 1700. There is another castle of Buschtehrad -near Horic. Kladno, which for centuries had been a village of no -importance, was sold in 1705 by the grand-duchess Anna Maria of Tuscany -to the cloister in Brewnow, to which it still belongs. The mining -industry began in 1842. - - - - -KLAFSKY, KATHARINA (1855-1896), Hungarian operatic singer, was born at -Szt Janos, Wieselburg, of humble parents. Being employed at Vienna as a -nurserymaid, her fine soprano voice led to her being engaged as a chorus -singer, and she was given good lessons in music. By 1882 she became -well-known in Wagnerian roles at the Leipzig theatre, and she increased -her reputation at other German musical centres. In 1892 she appeared in -London, and had a great success in Wagner's operas, notably as -Brunnhilde and as Isolde, her dramatic as well as vocal gifts being of -an exceptional order. She sang in America in 1895, but died of brain -disease in 1896. - - A _Life_, by L. Ordemann, was published in 1903 (Leipzig). - - - - -KLAGENFURT (Slovene, _Celovec_), the capital of the Austrian duchy of -Carinthia, 212 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 24,314. It is -picturesquely situated on the river Glan, which is in communication with -the Worther-see by the 3 m. long Lend canal. Among the more noteworthy -buildings are the parish church of St Aegidius (1709), with a tower 298 -ft. in height; the cathedral of SS Peter and Paul (1582-1593, burnt -1723, restored 1725); the churches of the Benedictines (1613), of the -Capuchins (1646), and of the order of St Elizabeth (1710). To these must -be added the palace of the prince-bishop of Gurk, the _burg_ or castle, -existing in its present form since 1777; and the _Landhaus_ or house of -assembly, dating from the end of the 14th century, and containing a -museum of natural history, and collection of minerals, antiquities, -seals, paintings and sculptures. The most interesting public monument is -the great _Lindwurm_ or Dragon, standing in the principal square (1590). -The industrial establishments comprise white lead factories, machine and -iron foundries, and commerce is active, especially in the mineral -products of the region. - -Upon the Zollfeld to the north of the city once stood the ancient Roman -town of Virunum. During the Middle Ages Klagenfurt became the property -of the crown, but by a patent of Maximilian I. of the 24th of April -1518, it was conceded to the Carinthian estates, and has since then -taken the place of St Veit as capital of Carinthia. In 1535, 1636, 1723 -and 1796 Klagenfurt suffered from destructive fires, and in 1690 from -the effects of an earthquake. On the 29th of March 1797 the French took -the city, and upon the following day it was occupied by Napoleon as his -headquarters. - - - - -KLAJ (latinized CLAJUS), JOHANN (1616-1656), German poet, was born at -Meissen in Saxony. After studying theology at Wittenberg he went to -Nuremberg as a "candidate for holy orders," and there, in conjunction -with Georg Philipp Harsdorffer, founded in 1644 the literary society -known as the Pegnitz order. In 1647 he received an appointment as master -in the Sebaldus school in Nuremberg, and in 1650 became preacher at -Kitzingen, where he died in 1656. Klaj's poems consist of dramas, -written in stilted language and redundant with adventures, among which -are _Hollen- und Himmelfahrt Christi_ (Nuremberg, 1644), and _Herodes, -der Kindermorder_ (Nuremberg, 1645), and a poem, written jointly with -Harsdorffer, _Pegnesische Schafergedicht_ (1644), which gives in -allegorical form the story of his settlement in Nuremberg. - - See Tittmann, _Die Nurnberger Dichterschule_ (Gottingen, 1847). - - - - -KLAMATH, a small tribe of North American Indians of Lutuamian stock. -They ranged around the Klamath river and lakes, and are now on the -Klamath reservation, southern Oregon. - - See A. S. Gatschet, "Klamath Indians of Oregon," _Contributions to - North American Ethnology_, vol. ii. (Washington, 1890). - - - - -KLAPKA, GEORG (1820-1892), Hungarian soldier, was born at Temesvar on -the 7th of April 1820, and entered the Austrian army in 1838. He was -still a subaltern when the Hungarian revolution of 1848 broke out, and -he offered his services to the patriot party. He served in important -staff appointments during the earlier part of the war which followed; -then, early in 1849, he was ordered to replace General Meszaros, who had -been defeated at Kaschau, and as general commanding an army corps he -had a conspicuous share in the victories of Kapolna, Isaszeg, Waitzen, -Nagy Sarlo and Komarom. Then, as the fortune of war turned against the -Hungarians, Klapka, after serving for a short time as minister of war, -took command at Komarom, from which fortress he conducted a number of -successful expeditions until the capitulation of Vilagos in August put -an end to the war in the open field. He then brilliantly defended -Komarom for two months, and finally surrendered on honourable terms. -Klapka left the country at once, and lived thenceforward for many years -in exile, at first in England and afterwards chiefly in Switzerland. He -continued by every means in his power to work for the independence of -Hungary, especially at moments of European war, such as 1854, 1859 and -1866, at which an appeal to arms seemed to him to promise success. After -the war of 1866 (in which as a Prussian major-general he organized a -Hungarian corps in Silesia) Klapka was permitted by the Austrian -government to return to his native country, and in 1867 was elected a -member of the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies, in which he belonged to the -Deak party. In 1877 he made an attempt to reorganize the Turkish army in -view of the war with Russia. General Klapka died at Budapest on the 17th -of May 1892. A memorial was erected to his memory at Komarom in 1896. - - He wrote _Memoiren_ (Leipzig, 1850); _Der Nationalkrieg in Ungarn_, - &c. (Leipzig, 1851); a history of the Crimean War, _Der Krieg im - Orient ... bis Ende Juli 1855_ (Geneva, 1855); and _Aus meinen - Erinnerungen_ (translated from the Hungarian, Zurich, 1887). - - - - -KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS (1783-1835), German Orientalist and traveller, -was born in Berlin on the 11th of October 1783, the son of the chemist -Martin Heinrich Klaproth (q.v.). He devoted his energies in quite early -life to the study of Asiatic languages, and published in 1802 his -_Asiatisches Magazin_ (Weimar, 1802-1803). He was in consequence called -to St Petersburg and given an appointment in the academy there. In 1805 -he was a member of Count Golovkin's embassy to China. On his return he -was despatched by the academy to the Caucasus on an ethnographical and -linguistic exploration (1807-1808), and was afterwards employed for -several years in connexion with the academy's Oriental publications. In -1812 he moved to Berlin; but in 1815 he settled in Paris, and in 1816 -Humboldt procured him from the king of Prussia the title and salary of -professor of Asiatic languages and literature, with permission to remain -in Paris as long as was requisite for the publication of his works. He -died in that city on the 28th of August 1835. - - The principal feature of Klaproth's erudition was the vastness of the - field which it embraced. His great work _Asia polyglotta_ (Paris, 1823 - and 1831, with _Sprachatlas_) not only served as a _resume_ of all - that was known on the subject, but formed a new departure for the - classification of the Eastern languages, more especially those of the - Russian Empire. To a great extent, however, his work is now - superseded. The _Itinerary of a Chinese Traveller_ (1821), a series of - documents in the military archives of St Petersburg purporting to be - the travels of George Ludwig von ----, and a similar series obtained - from him in the London foreign office, are all regarded as spurious. - - Klaproth's other works include: _Reise in den Kaukasus und Georgien in - den Jahren 1807 und 1808_ (Halle, 1812-1814; French translation, - Paris, 1823); _Geographisch-historische Beschreibung des ostlichen - Kaukasus_ (Weimar, 1814); _Tableaux historiques de l'Asie_ (Paris, - 1826); _Memoires relatifs a l'Asie_ (Paris, 1824-1828); _Tableau - historique, geographique, ethnographique et politique de Caucase_ - (Paris, 1827); and _Vocabulaire et grammaire de la langue georgienne_ - (Paris, 1827). - - - - -KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH (1743-1817), German chemist, was born at -Wernigerode on the 1st of December 1743. During a large portion of his -life he followed the profession of an apothecary. After acting as -assistant in pharmacies at Quedlinburg, Hanover, Berlin and Danzig -successively he came to Berlin on the death of Valentin Rose the elder -in 1771 as manager of his business, and in 1780 he started an -establishment on his own account in the same city, where from 1782 he -was pharmaceutical assessor of the Ober-Collegium Medicum. In 1787 he -was appointed lecturer in chemistry to the Royal Artillery, and when the -university was founded in 1810 he was selected to be the professor of -chemistry. He died in Berlin on the 1st of January 1817. Klaproth was -the leading chemist of his time in Germany. An exact and conscientious -worker, he did much to improve and systematize the processes of -analytical chemistry and mineralogy, and his appreciation of the value -of quantitative methods led him to become one of the earliest adherents -of the Lavoisierian doctrines outside France. He was the first to -discover uranium, zirconium and titanium, and to characterize them as -distinct elements, though he did not obtain any of them in the pure -metallic state; and he elucidated the composition of numerous substances -till then imperfectly known, including compounds of the then newly -recognized elements: tellurium, strontium, cerium and chromium. - - His papers, over 200 in number, were collected by himself in _Beitrage - zur chemischen Kenntniss der Mineralkorper_ (5 vols., 1795-1810) and - _Chemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts_ (1815). He also published - a _Chemisches Worterbuch_ (1807-1810), and edited a revised edition of - F. A. C. Gren's _Handbuch der Chemie_ (1806). - - - - -KLEBER, JEAN BAPTISTE (1753-1800), French general, was born on the 9th -of March 1753, at Strassburg, where his father was a builder. He was -trained, partly at Paris, for the profession of architect, but his -opportune assistance to two German nobles in a tavern brawl obtained for -him a nomination to the military school of Munich. Thence he obtained a -commission in the Austrian army, but resigned it in 1783 on finding his -humble birth in the way of his promotion. On returning to France he was -appointed inspector of public buildings at Belfort, where he studied -fortification and military science. In 1792 he enlisted in the Haut-Rhin -volunteers, and was from his military knowledge at once elected adjutant -and soon afterwards lieutenant-colonel. At the defence of Mainz he so -distinguished himself that though disgraced along with the rest of the -garrison and imprisoned, he was promptly reinstated, and in August 1793 -promoted general of brigade. He won considerable distinction in the -Vendean war, and two months later was made a general of division. In -these operations began his intimacy with Marceau, with whom he defeated -the Royalists at Le Mans and Savenay. For openly expressing his opinion -that lenient measures ought to be pursued towards the Vendeans he was -recalled; but in April 1794 he was once more reinstated and sent to the -Army of the Sambre-and-Meuse. He displayed his skill and bravery in the -numerous actions around Charleroi, and especially in the crowning -victory of Fleurus, after which in the winter of 1794-95 he besieged -Mainz. In 1795 and again in 1796 he held the chief command of an army -temporarily, but declined a permanent appointment as commander-in-chief. -On the 13th of October 1795 he fought a brilliant rearguard action at -the bridge of Neuwied, and in the offensive campaign of 1796 he was -Jourdan's most active and successful lieutenant. Having, after the -retreat to the Rhine (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS), declined the chief -command, he withdrew into private life early in 1798. He accepted a -division in the expedition to Egypt under Bonaparte, but was wounded in -the head at Alexandria in the first engagement, which prevented his -taking any further part in the campaign of the Pyramids, and caused him -to be appointed governor of Alexandria. In the Syrian campaign of 1799, -however, he commanded the vanguard, took El-Arish, Gaza and Jaffa, and -won the great victory of Mount Tabor on the 15th of April 1799. When -Napoleon returned to France towards the end of 1799 he left Kleber in -command of the French forces. In this capacity, seeing no hope of -bringing his army back to France or of consolidating his conquests, he -made the convention of El-Arish. But when Lord Keith, the British -admiral, refused to ratify the terms, he attacked the Turks at -Heliopolis, though with but 10,000 men against 60,000, and utterly -defeated them on the 20th of March 1800. He then retook Cairo, which had -revolted from the French. Shortly after these victories he was -assassinated at Cairo by a fanatic on the 14th of June 1800, the same -day on which his friend and comrade Desaix fell at Marengo. Kleber was -undoubtedly one of the greatest generals of the French revolutionary -epoch. Though he distrusted his powers and declined the responsibility -of supreme command, there is nothing in his career to show that he would -have been unequal to it. As a second in command he was not excelled by -any general of his time. His conduct of affairs in Egypt at a time when -the treasury was empty and the troops were discontented for want of pay, -shows that his powers as an administrator were little--if at -all--inferior to those he possessed as a general. - - Ernouf, the grandson of Jourdan's chief of staff, published in 1867 a - valuable biography of Kleber. See also Reynaud, _Life of Merlin de - Thionville_; Ney, Memoirs; Dumas, _Souvenirs_; Las Casas, _Memorial de - Ste Helene_; J. Charavaray, _Les Generaux morts pour la patrie_; - General Pajol, _Kleber_; lives of Marceau and Desaix; M. F. Rousseau, - _Kleber et Menou en Egypte_ (Paris, 1900). - - - - -KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD (1810-1876), German writer of Jewish origin, was -born at Miskolcz, in Hungary. He was educated at the gymnasium in Pest, -and studied medicine in Vienna and Berlin. After travelling in Italy and -Greece, he settled as a man of letters in Berlin, where he remained -until his death on the 2nd of August 1876. He was the author of many -dramatic works, among others the historical tragedies _Maria von Medici_ -(1841); _Luines_ (1842); _Zenobia_ (1847); _Moreto_ (1859); _Maria_ -(1860); _Strafford_ (1862) and _Heliodora_ (1867); and the comedies _Die -Herzogin_ (1848); _Ein Schutzling_ (1850); and _Voltaire_ (1862). The -tendency of Klein as a dramatist was to become bombastic and obscure, -but many of his characters are vigorously conceived, and in nearly all -his tragedies there are passages of brilliant rhetoric. He is chiefly -known as the author of the elaborate though uncompleted _Geschichte des -Dramas_ (1865-1876), in which he undertook to record the history of the -drama from the earliest times. He died when about to enter upon the -Elizabethan period, to the treatment of which he had looked forward as -the chief part of his task. The work, which is in thirteen bulky -volumes, gives proof of immense learning, but is marred by -eccentricities of style and judgment. - - Klein's _Dramatische Werke_ were collected in 7 vols. (1871-1872). - - - - -KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH WILHELM VON (1777-1811), German poet, dramatist -and novelist, was born at Frankfort-on-Oder on the 18th of October 1777. -After a scanty education, he entered the Prussian army in 1792, served -in the Rhine campaign of 1796 and retired from the service in 1799 with -the rank of lieutenant. He next studied law and philosophy at the -university of Frankfort-on-Oder, and in 1800 received a subordinate post -in the ministry of finance at Berlin. In the following year his roving, -restless spirit got the better of him, and procuring a lengthened leave -of absence he visited Paris and then settled in Switzerland. Here he -found congenial friends in Heinrich Zschokke (q.v.) and Ludwig Friedrich -August Wieland (1777-1819), son of the poet; and to them he read his -first drama, a gloomy tragedy, _Die Familie Schroffenstein_ (1803), -originally entitled _Die Familie Ghonorez_. In the autumn of 1802 Kleist -returned to Germany; he visited Goethe, Schiller and Wieland in Weimar, -stayed for a while in Leipzig and Dresden, again proceeded to Paris, and -returning in 1804 to his post in Berlin was transferred to the -_Domanenkammer_ (department for the administration of crown lands) at -Konigsberg. On a journey to Dresden in 1807 Kleist was arrested by the -French as a spy, and being sent to France was kept for six months a -close prisoner at Chalons-sur-Marne. On regaining his liberty he -proceeded to Dresden, where in conjunction with Adam Heinrich Muller -(1779-1829) he published in 1808 the journal _Phobus_. In 1809 he went -to Prague, and ultimately settled in Berlin, where he edited (1810-1811) -the _Berliner Abendblatter_. Captivated by the intellectual and musical -accomplishments of a certain Frau Henriette Vogel, Kleist, who was -himself more disheartened and embittered than ever, agreed to do her -bidding and die with her, carrying out this resolution by first shooting -the lady and then himself on the shore of the Wannsee near Potsdam, on -the 21st of November 1811. Kleist's whole life was filled by a restless -striving after ideal and illusory happiness, and this is largely -reflected in his work. He was by far the most important North German -dramatist of the Romantic movement, and no other of the Romanticists -approaches him in the energy with which he expresses patriotic -indignation. - - His first tragedy, _Die Familie Schroffenstein_, has been already - referred to; the material for the second, _Penthesilea_ (1808), queen - of the Amazons, is taken from a Greek source and presents a picture of - wild passion. More successful than either of these was his romantic - play, _Das Kathchen von Heilbronn, oder Die Feuerprobe_ (1808), a - poetic drama full of medieval bustle and mystery, which has retained - its popularity. In comedy, Kleist made a name with _Der zerbrochene - Krug_ (1811), while _Amphitryon_ (1808), an adaptation of Moliere's - comedy, is of less importance. Of Kleist's other dramas, _Die - Hermannschlacht_ (1809) is a dramatic treatment of an historical - subject and is full of references to the political conditions of his - own times. In it he gives vent to his hatred of his country's - oppressors. This, together with the drama _Prinz Friedrich von - Homburg_, the latter accounted Kleist's best work, was first published - by Ludwig Tieck in _Kleists hinterlassene Schriften_ (1821). _Robert - Guiskard_, a drama conceived on a grand plan, was left a fragment. - Kleist was also a master in the art of narrative, and of his - _Gesammelte Erzahlungen_ (1810-1811), _Michael Kohlhaas_, in which the - famous Brandenburg horse dealer in Luther's day (see KOHLHASE) is - immortalized, is one of the best German stories of its time. He also - wrote some patriotic lyrics. His _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published - by Ludwig Tieck (3 vols. 1826) and by Julian Schmidt (new ed. 1874); - also by F. Muncker (4 vols. 1882); by T. Zolling (4 vols. 1885); by K. - Siegen, (4 vols. 1895); and in a critical edition by E. Schmidt (5 - vols. 1904-1905). His _Ausgewahlte Dramen_ were published by K. Siegen - (Leipzig, 1877); and his letters were first published by E. von Bulow, - _Heinrich von Kleists Leben und Briefe_ (1848). - - See further A. Wilbrandt, _Heinrich von Kleist_ (1863); O. Brahm, - _Heinrich von Kleist_ (1884); R. Bonafous, _Henri de Kleist, sa vie et - ses oeuvres_ (1894); H. Conrad, _Heinrich von Kleist als Mensch und - Dichter_ (1896); G. Minde-Pouet, _Heinrich von Kleist, seine Sprache - und sein Stil_ (1897); R. Steig, _Heinrich von Kleists Berliner - Kampfe_ (1901); F. Servaes, _Heinrich von Kleist_ (1902); S. - Wukadinowic, _Kleist-Studien_ (1904); S. Rahmer, _H. von Kleist als - Mensch und Dichter_ (1909). - - - - -KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON (1715-1759), German poet, was born at -Zeblin, near Koslin in Pomerania, on the 7th of March 1715. After -attending the Jesuit school in Deutschkrona and the gymnasium in Danzig, -he proceeded in 1731 to the university of Konigsberg, where he studied -law and mathematics. On the completion of his studies, he entered the -Danish army, in which he became an officer in 1736. Recalled to Prussia -by Frederick II. in 1740, he was appointed lieutenant in a regiment -stationed at Potsdam, where he became acquainted with J. W. L. Gleim -(q.v.), who interested him in poetry. After distinguishing himself at -the battle of Mollwitz (April 10, 1741) and the siege of Neisse (1741), -he was promoted captain in 1749 and major in 1756. Quartered during the -winter of 1757-1758 in Leipzig, he found relief from his irksome -military duties in the society of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (q.v.). -Shortly afterwards in the battle of Kunersdorf, on the 12th of August -1759, he was mortally wounded while leading the attack, and died at -Frankfort-on-Oder on the 24th of August following. - -Kleist's chief work is a poem in hexameters, _Der Fruhling_ (1749), for -which Thomson's _Seasons_ largely supplied ideas. In his description of -the beauties of nature Kleist shows real poetical genius, an almost -modern sentiment and fine taste. He also wrote some charming odes, -idylls and elegies, and a small epic poem _Cissides und Paches_ (1759), -the subject being two Thessalian friends who die an heroic death for -their country in a battle against the Athenians. - - Kleist published in 1756 the first collection of his _Gedichte_, which - was followed by a second in 1758. After his death his friend Karl - Wilhelm Ramler (q.v.) published an edition of _Kleists samtliche - Werke_ in 2 vols. (1760). A critical edition was published by A. - Sauer, in 3 vols. (1880-1882). Cf. further, A. Chuquet, _De Ewaldi - Kleistii vita et scriptis_ (Paris, 1887), and H. Prohle, _Friedrich - der Grosse und die deutsche Literatur_ (1872). - - - - -KLERKSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 118 m. S.W. of Johannesburg and 192 -m. N.E. of Kimberley by rail. Pop. (1904), 4276 of whom 2203 were -whites. The town, built on the banks of the Schoonspruit 10 m. above its -junction with the Vaal, possesses several fine public buildings. In the -neighbourhood are gold-mines, the reef appearing to form the western -boundary of the Witwatersrand basin. Diamonds (green in colour) and coal -are also found in the district. Klerksdorp was one of the villages -founded by the first Boers who crossed the Vaal, dating from 1838. The -modern town, which is on the side of the _spruit_ opposite the old -village, was founded in 1888. - - - - -KLESL (or KHLESL), MELCHIOR (1552-1630), Austrian statesman and -ecclesiastic, was the son of a Protestant baker, and was born in Vienna. -Under the influence of the Jesuits he was converted to Roman -Catholicism, and having finished his education at the universities of -Vienna and Ingolstadt, he was made chancellor of the university of -Vienna; and as official and vicar-general of the bishop of Passau he -exhibited the zeal of a convert in forwarding the progress of the -counter-reformation in Austria. He became bishop of Vienna in 1598; but -more important was his association with the archduke Matthias which -began about the same time. Both before and after 1612, when Matthias -succeeded his brother Rudolph II. as emperor, Klesl was the originator -and director of his policy, although he stoutly opposed the concessions -to the Hungarian Protestants in 1606. He assisted to secure the election -of Matthias to the imperial throne, and sought, but without success, to -strengthen the new emperor's position by making peace between the -Catholics and the Protestants. When during the short reign of Matthias -the question of the imperial succession demanded prompt attention, the -bishop, although quite as anxious as his opponents to retain the empire -in the house of Habsburg and to preserve the dominance of the Roman -Catholic Church, advised that this question should be shelved until some -arrangement with the Protestant princes had been reached. This counsel -was displeasing to the archduke Maximilian and to Ferdinand, afterwards -the emperor Ferdinand II. who believed that Klesl was hostile to the -candidature of the latter prince. It was, however, impossible to shake -his influence with the emperor; and in June 1618, a few months before -the death of Matthias, he was seized by order of the archdukes and -imprisoned at Ambras in Tirol. In 1622 Klesl, who had been a cardinal -since 1615, was transferred to Rome by order of Pope Gregory XV., and -was released from imprisonment. In 1627 Ferdinand II. allowed him to -return to his episcopal duties in Vienna, where he died on the 18th of -September 1630. - - See J. Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall, _Khlesls Leben_ (Vienna, - 1847-1851); A. Kerschbaumer, _Kardinal Klesl_ (Vienna, 1865); and - _Klesls Briefe an Rudolfs II. Obersthofmeister A. Freiherr von - Dietrichstein_, edited by V. Bibl. (Vienna, 1900). - - - - -KLINGER, FRIEDRICH MAXIMILIAN VON (1752-1831), German dramatist and -novelist, was born of humble parentage at Frankfort-on-Main, on the 17th -of February 1752. His father died when he was a child, and his early -years were a hard struggle. He was enabled, however, in 1774 to enter -the university of Giessen, where he studied law; and Goethe, with whom -he had been acquainted since childhood, helped him in many ways. In 1775 -Klinger gained with his tragedy _Die Zwillinge_ a prize offered by the -Hamburg theatre, under the auspices of the actress Sophie Charlotte -Ackermann (1714-1792) and her son the famous actor and playwright, -Friedrich Ludwig Schroder (1744-1816). In 1776 Klinger was appointed -_Theaterdichter_ to the "Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft" and held -this post for two years. In 1778 he entered the Austrian military -service and took part in the Bavarian war of succession. In 1780 he went -to St Petersburg, became an officer in the Russian army, was ennobled -and attached to the Grand Duke Paul, whom he accompanied on a journey to -Italy and France. In 1785 he was appointed director of the corps of -cadets, and having married a natural daughter of the empress Catharine, -was made praeses of the Academy of Knights in 1799. In 1803 Klinger was -nominated by the emperor Alexander curator of the university of Dorpat, -an office he held until 1817; in 1811 he became lieutenant-general. He -then gradually gave up his official posts, and after living for many -years in honourable retirement, died at Dorpat on the 25th of February -1831. - -Klinger was a man of vigorous moral character and full of fine feeling, -though the bitter experiences and deprivations of his youth are largely -reflected in his dramas. It was one of his earliest works, _Sturm und -Drang_ (1776), which gave its name to this literary epoch. In addition -to this tragedy and _Die Zwillinge_ (1776), the chief plays of his early -period of passionate fervour and restless "storm and stress" are _Die -neue Arria_ (1776), _Simsone Grisaldo_ (1776) and _Stilpo und seine -Kinder_ (1780). To a later period belongs the fine double tragedy of -_Medea in Korinth_ and _Medea auf dem Kaukasos_ (1791). In Russia he -devoted himself mainly to the writing of philosophical romances, of -which the best known are _Fausts Leben, Taten und Hollenfahrt_ (1791), -_Geschichte Giafars des Barmeciden_ (1792) and _Geschichte Raphaels de -Aquillas_ (1793). This series was closed in 1803 with _Betrachtungen und -Gedanken uber verschiedene Gegenstande der Welt und der Literatur_. In -these works Klinger gives calm and dignified expression to the leading -ideas which the period of _Sturm und Drang_ had bequeathed to German -classical literature. - - Klinger's works were published in twelve volumes (1809-1815), also - 1832-1833 and 1842. The most recent edition is in eight volumes - (1878-1880); but none of these is complete. A selection will be found - in A. Sauer, _Sturmer und Dranger_, vol. i. (1883). See E. Schmidt, - _Lenz und Klinger_ (1878); M. Rieger, _Klinger in der Sturm- und - Drangperiode_ (1880); and _Klinger in seiner Reife_ (1896). - - - - -KLINGER, MAX (1857- ), German painter, etcher and sculptor, was born at -Plagwitz near Leipzig. He attended the classes at the Carlsruhe art -school in 1874, and went in the following year to Berlin, where in 1878 -he created a sensation at the Academy exhibition with two series of -pen-and-ink drawings--the "Series upon the Theme of Christ" and -"Fantasies upon the Finding of a Glove." The daring originality of these -imaginative and eccentric works caused an outburst of indignation, and -the artist was voted insane; nevertheless the "Glove" series was bought -by the Berlin National Gallery. His painting of "The Judgment of Paris" -caused a similar storm of indignant protest in 1887, owing to its -rejection of all conventional attributes and the naive directness of the -conception. His vivid and somewhat morbid imagination, with its leaning -towards the gruesome and disagreeable, and the Goyaesque turn of his -mind, found their best expression in his "cycles" of etchings: -"Deliverances of Sacrificial Victims told in Ovid," "A Brahms Phantasy," -"Eve and the Future," "A Life," and "Of Death"; but in his use of the -needle he does not aim at the technical excellence of the great masters; -it supplies him merely with means of expressing his ideas. After 1886 -Klinger devoted himself more exclusively to painting and sculpture. In -his painting he aims neither at classic beauty nor modern truth, but at -grim impressiveness not without a touch of mysticism. His "Pieta" at the -Dresden Gallery, the frescoes at the Leipzig University, and the "Christ -in Olympus," at the Modern Gallery in Vienna, are characteristic -examples of his art. The Leipzig Museum contains his sculptured "Salome" -and "Cassandra." In sculpture he favours the use of varicoloured -materials in the manner of the Greek chryselephantine sculpture. His -"Beethoven" is a notable instance of his work in this direction. - - - - -KLIPSPRINGER, the Boer name of a small African mountain-antelope -(_Oreotragus saltator_), ranging from the Cape through East Africa to -Somaliland and Abyssinia, and characterized by its blunt rounded hoofs, -thick pithy hair and gold-spangled colouring. The klipspringer -represents a genus by itself, the various local forms not being worthy -of more than racial distinction. The activity of these antelopes is -marvellous. - - - - -KLONDIKE, a district in Yukon Territory, north-western Canada, -approximately in 64 deg. N. and 140 deg. W. The limits are rather -indefinite, but the district includes the country to the south of the -Klondike River, which comes into the Yukon from the east and has several -tributaries, as well as Indian River, a second branch of the Yukon, -flowing into it some distance above the Klondike. The richer -gold-bearing gravels are found along the creeks tributary to these two -rivers within an area of about 800 sq. m. The Klondike district is a -dissected peneplain with low ridges of rounded forms rising to 4250 ft. -above the sea at the Dome which forms its centre. All of the -gold-bearing creeks rise not far from the Dome and radiate in various -directions toward the Klondike and Indian rivers, the most productive -being Bonanza with its tributary Eldorado, Hunker, Dominion and Gold -Run. Of these, Eldorado, for the two or three miles in which it was -gold-bearing, was much the richest, and for its length probably -surpassed any other known placer deposit. Rich gravel was discovered on -Bonanza Creek in 1896, and a wild rush to this almost inaccessible -region followed, a population of 30,000 coming in within the next three -or four years with a rapidly increasing output of gold, reaching in 1900 -the climax of $22,000,000. Since then the production has steadily -declined, until in 1906 it fell to $5,600,000. The richest gravels were -worked out before 1910, and most of the population had left the Klondike -for Alaska and other regions; so that Dawson, which for a time was a -bustling city of more than 10,000, dwindled to about 3000 inhabitants. -As the ground was almost all frozen, the mines were worked by a thawing -process, first by setting fires, afterwards by using steam, new methods -being introduced to meet the unusual conditions. Later dredges and -hydraulic mining were resorted to with success. - -The Klondike, in spite of its isolated position, brought together miners -and adventurers from all parts of the world, and it is greatly to the -credit of the Canadian government and of the mounted police, who were -entrusted with the keeping of order, that life and property were as safe -as elsewhere and that no lawless methods were adopted by the miners as -in placer mining camps in the western United States. The region was at -first difficult of access, but can now be reached with perfect comfort -in summer, travelling by well-appointed steamers on the Pacific and the -Yukon River. Owing to its perpetually frozen soil, summer roads were -excessively bad in earlier days, but good wagon roads have since been -constructed to all the important mining centres. Dawson itself has all -the resources of a civilized city in spite of being founded on a frozen -peat-bog; and is supplied with ordinary market vegetables from farms -just across the river. During the winter, when for some time the sun -does not appear above the hills, the cold is intense, though usually -without wind, but the well-chinked log houses can be kept comfortably -warm. When winter travel is necessary dog teams and sledges are -generally made use of, except on the stage route south to White Horse, -where horses are used. A telegraph line connects Dawson with British -Columbia, but the difficulties in keeping it in order are so great over -the long intervening wilderness that communication is often broken. Gold -is practically the only economic product of the Klondike, though small -amounts of tin ore occur, and lignite coal has been mined lower down on -the Yukon. The source of the gold seems to have been small stringers of -quartz in the siliceous and sericitic schists which form the bed rock of -much of the region, and no important quartz veins have been discovered; -so that unlike most other placer regions the Klondike has not developed -lode mines to continue the production of gold when the gravels are -exhausted. - - - - -KLOPP, ONNO (1822-1903), German historian, was born at Leer on the 9th -of October 1822, and was educated at the universities of Bonn, Berlin -and Gottingen. For a few years he was a teacher at Leer and at -Osnabruck; but in 1858 he settled at Hanover, where he became intimate -with King George V., who made him his _Archivrat_. Thoroughly disliking -Prussia, he was in hearty accord with George in resisting her aggressive -policy; and after the annexation of Hanover in 1866 he accompanied the -exiled king to Hietzing. He became a Roman Catholic in 1874. He died at -Penzing, near Vienna, on the 9th of August 1903. Klopp is best known as -the author of _Der Fall des Hauses Stuart_ (Vienna, 1875-1888), the -fullest existing account of the later Stuarts. - - His _Der Konig Friedrich II. und seine Politik_ (Schaffhausen, 1867) - and _Geschichte Ostfrieslands_ (Hanover, 1854-1858) show his dislike - of Prussia. His other works include _Der dreissigjahrige Krieg bis zum - Tode Gustav Adolfs_ (Paderborn, 1891-1896); a revised edition of his - _Tilly im dreissigjahrigen Kriege_ (Stuttgart, 1861); a life of George - V., _Konig Georg V._ (Hanover, 1878); _Phillipp Melanchthon_ (Berlin, - 1897). He edited _Corrispondenza epistolare tra Leopoldo I. imperatore - ed il P. Marco l'Aviano capuccino_ (Gratz, 1888). Klopp also wrote - much in defence of George V. and his claim to Hanover, including the - _Offizieller Bericht uber die Kriegsereignisse zwischen Hannover und - Preussen im Juni 1866_ (Vienna, 1867), and he edited the works of - Leibnitz in eleven volumes (1861-1884). - - See W. Klopp, _Onno Klopp: ein Lebenslauf_ (Wehberg, 1907). - - - - -KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH (1724-1803), German poet, was born at -Quedlinburg, on the 2nd of July 1724, the eldest son of a lawyer, a man -of sterling character and of a deeply religious mind. Both in his -birthplace and on the estate of Friedeburg on the Saale, which his father -later rented, young Klopstock passed a happy childhood; and more -attention having been given to his physical than to his mental -development he grew up a strong healthy boy and was an excellent horseman -and skater. In his thirteenth year Klopstock returned to Quedlinburg -where he attended the gymnasium, and in 1739 proceeded to the famous -classical school of Schulpforta. Here he soon became an adept in Greek -and Latin versification, and wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in -German. His original intention of making the emperor Henry I. ("The -Fowler") the hero of an epic, was, under the influence of Milton's -_Paradise Lost_, with which he became acquainted through Bodmer's -translation, abandoned in favour of the religious epic. While yet at -school, he had already drafted the plan of _Der Messias_, upon which his -fame mainly rests. On the 21st of September 1745 he delivered on quitting -school a remarkable "leaving oration" on epic poetry--_Abschiedsrede uber -die epische Poesie, kultur- und literargeschichtlich erlautert_--and next -proceeded to Jena as a student of theology, where he elaborated the first -three cantos of the _Messias_ in prose. The life at this university being -uncongenial to him, he removed in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, and here -joined the circle of young men of letters who contributed to the _Bremer -Beitrage_. In this periodical the first three cantos of the _Messias_ in -hexameters were anonymously published in 1748. A new era in German -literature had commenced, and the name of the author soon became known. -In Leipzig he also wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is _An -meine Freunde_ (1747), afterwards recast as _Wingolf_ (1767). He left the -university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family of a relative -at Langensalza. Here unrequited love for a cousin (the "Fanny" of his -odes) disturbed his peace of mind. Gladly therefore he accepted in 1750 -an invitation from Jakob Bodmer (q.v.), the translator of _Paradise -Lost_, to visit him in Zurich. Here Klopstock was at first treated with -every kindness and respect and rapidly recovered his spirits. Bodmer, -however, was disappointed to find in the young poet of the _Messias_ a -man of strong worldly interests, and a coolness sprang up between the two -friends. - -At this juncture Klopstock received from Frederick V. of Denmark, on the -recommendation of his minister Count von Bernstorff (1712-1772), an -invitation to settle at Copenhagen, with an annuity of 400 talers, with -a view to the completion of the _Messias_. The offer was accepted; on -his way to the Danish capital Klopstock met at Hamburg the lady who in -1754 became his wife, Margareta (Meta) Moller, (the "Cidli" of his -odes), an enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short; -she died in 1758, leaving him almost broken-hearted. His grief at her -loss finds pathetic expression in the 15th canto of the _Messias_. The -poet subsequently published his wife's writings, _Hinterlassene Werke -von Margareta Klopstock_ (1759), which give evidence of a tender, -sensitive and deeply religious spirit. Klopstock now relapsed into -melancholy; new ideas failed him, and his poetry became more and more -vague and unintelligible. He still continued to live and work at -Copenhagen, and next, following Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg (q.v.), -turned his attention to northern mythology, which he conceived should -replace classical subjects in a new school of German poetry. In 1770, on -the dismissal by King Christian VII. of Count Bernstorff from office, he -retired with the latter to Hamburg, but retained his pension together -with the rank of councillor of legation. Here, in 1773, he issued the -last five cantos of the _Messias_. In the following year he published -his strange scheme for the regeneration of German letters, _Die -Gelehrtenrepublik_ (1774). In 1775 he travelled south, and making the -acquaintance of Goethe on the way, spent a year at the court of the -margrave of Baden at Karlsruhe. Thence, in 1776, with the title of -_Hofrat_ and a pension from the margrave, which he retained together -with that from the king of Denmark, he returned to Hamburg where he -spent the remainder of his life. His latter years he passed, as had -always been his inclination, in retirement, only occasionally relieved -by association with his most intimate friends, busied with philological -studies, and hardly interesting himself in the new developments of -German literature. The American War of Independence and the Revolution -in France aroused him, however, to enthusiasm. The French Republic sent -him the diploma of honorary citizenship; but, horrified at the terrible -scenes the Revolution had enacted in the place of liberty, he returned -it. When 67 years of age he contracted a second marriage with Johanna -Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow and a niece of his late wife, who for -many years had been one of his most intimate friends. He died at Hamburg -on the 14th of March 1803, mourned by all Germany, and was buried with -great pomp and ceremony by the side of his first wife in the churchyard -of the village of Ottensen. - - Klopstock's nature was best attuned to lyrical poetry, and in it his - deep, noble character found its truest expression. He was less suited - for epic and dramatic representation; for, wrapt up in himself, a - stranger to the outer world, without historical culture, and without - even any interest in the events of his time, he was lacking in the art - of plastic representation such as a great epic requires. Thus the - _Messias_, despite the magnificent passages which especially the - earlier cantos contain, cannot satisfy the demands such a theme must - necessarily make. The subject matter, the Redemption, presented - serious difficulties to adequate epic treatment. The Gospel story was - too scanty, and what might have been imported from without and - interwoven with it was rejected by the author as profane. He had - accordingly to resort to Christian mythology; and here again, - circumscribed by the dogmas of the Church, he was in danger of - trespassing on the fundamental truths of the Christian faith. The - personality of Christ could scarcely be treated in an individual form, - still less could angels and devils--and in the case of God Himself it - was impossible. The result was that, despite the groundwork--the - Gospels, the _Acts of the Apostles_, the _Revelation of St John_, and - the model ready to hand in Milton's _Paradise Lost_--material elements - are largely wanting and the actors in the poem, Divine and human, lack - plastic form. That the poem took twenty-five years to complete could - not but be detrimental to its unity of design; the original enthusiasm - was not sustained until the end, and the earlier cantos are far - superior to the later. Thus the intense public interest the work - aroused in its commencement had almost vanished before its completion. - It was translated into seventeen languages and led to numerous - imitations. In his odes Klopstock had more scope for his peculiar - talent. Among the best are _An Fanny_; _Der Zurchersee_; _Die tote - Klarissa_; _An Cidli_; _Die beiden Musen_; _Der Rheinwein_; _Die - fruhen Graber_; _Mein Vaterland_. His religious odes mostly take the - form of hymns, of which the most beautiful is _Die Fruhlingsfeier_. - His dramas, in some of which, notably _Hermanns Schlacht_ (1769) and - _Hermann und die Fursten_ (1784), he celebrated the deeds of the - ancient German hero Arminius, and in others, _Der Tod Adams_ (1757) - and _Salomo_ (1764), took his materials from the Old Testament, are - essentially lyrical in character and deficient in action. In addition - to _Die Gelehrtenrepublik_, he was also the author of _Fragmente uber - Sprache und Dichtkunst_ (1779) and _Grammatische Gesprache_ (1794), - works in which he made important contributions to philology and to the - history of German poetry. - - Klopstock's _Werke_ first appeared in seven quarto volumes - (1798-1809). At the same time a more complete edition in twelve octavo - volumes was published (1798-1817), to which six additional volumes - were added in 1830. More recent editions were published in 1844-1845, - 1854-1855, 1879 (ed. by R. Boxberger), 1884 (ed. by R. Hamel) and 1893 - (a selection edited by F. Muncker). A critical edition of the _Odes_ - was published by F. Muncker and J. Pawel in 1889; a commentary on - these by H. Duntzer (1860; 2nd ed., 1878). For Klopstock's - correspondence see K. Schmidt, _Klopstock und seine Freunde_ (1810); - C. A. H. Clodius, _Klopstocks Nachlass_ (1821); J. M. Lappenberg, - _Briefe von und an Klopstock_ (1867). Cf. further K. F. Cramer, - _Klopstock, er und uber ihn_ (1780-1792); J. G. Gruber, _Klopstocks - Leben_ (1832); R. Hamel, _Klopstock-Studien_ (1879-1880); F. Muncker, - _F. G. Klopstock_, the most authoritative biography, (1888); E. - Bailly, _Etude sur la vie et les oeuvres de Klopstock_ (Paris, 1888). - - - - -KLOSTERNEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 5(1/2) m. N.W. of -Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 11,595. It is situated on the right bank of -the Danube, at the foot of the Kahlenberg, and is divided by a small -stream into an upper and a lower town. As an important pioneer station -Klosterneuburg has various military buildings and stores, and among the -schools it possesses an academy of wine and fruit cultivation. - -On a hill rising directly from the banks of the Danube stand the -magnificent buildings (erected 1730-1834) of the Augustine canonry, -founded in 1106 by Margrave Leopold the Holy. This foundation is the -oldest and richest of the kind in Austria; it owns much of the land -upon which the north-western suburbs of Vienna stand. Among the points -of interest within it are the old chapel of 1318, with Leopold's tomb -and the altar of Verdun, dating from the 12th century, the treasury and -relic-chamber, the library with 30,000 volumes and many MSS., the -picture gallery, the collection of coins, the theological hall, and the -wine-cellar, containing an immense tun like that at Heidelberg. The -inhabitants of Klosterneuburg are mainly occupied in making wine, of -excellent quality. There is a large cement factory outside the town. In -Roman times the castle of Citium stood in the region of Klosterneuburg. -The town was founded by Charlemagne, and received its charter as a town -in 1298. - - - - -KLOTZ, REINHOLD (1807-1870), German classical scholar, was born near -Chemnitz in Saxony on the 13th of March 1807. In 1849 he was appointed -professor in the university of Leipzig in succession to Gottfried -Hermann, and held this post till his death on the 10th of August 1870. -Klotz was a man of unwearied industry, and devoted special attention to -Latin literature. - - He was the author of editions of several classical authors, of which - the most important were: the complete works of Cicero (2nd ed., - 1869-1874); Clement of Alexandria (1831-1834); Euripides (1841-1867), - in continuation of Pflugk's edition, but unfinished; Terence - (1838-1840), with the commentaries of Donatus and Eugraphius. Mention - should also be made of: _Handworterbuch der lateinischen Sprache_ (5th - ed., 1874); _Romische Litteraturgeschichte_ (1847), of which only the - introductory volume appeared; an edition of the treatise _De Graecae - linguae particulis_ (1835-1842) of Matthaeus Deverius (Devares), a - learned Corfiote (c. 1500-1570), and corrector of the Greek MSS. in - the Vatican; the posthumous _Index Ciceronianus_ (1872) and _Handbuch - der lateinischen Stilistik_ (1874). From 1831-1855 Klotz was editor of - the _Neue Jahrbucher fur Philologie_ (Leipzig). During the troubled - times of 1848 and the following years he showed himself a strong - conservative. - - A memoir by his son Richard will be found in the _Jahrbucher_ for - 1871, pp. 154-163. - - - - -KNARESBOROUGH, a market town in the Ripon parliamentary division of the -West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 16(1/2) m. W. by N. from York by a -branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), -4979. Its situation is most picturesque, on the steep left bank of the -river Nidd, which here follows a well-wooded valley, hemmed in by -limestone cliffs. The church of St John the Baptist is Early English, -but has numerous Decorated and Perpendicular additions; it is a -cruciform building containing several interesting monuments. -Knaresborough Castle was probably founded in 1070 by Serlo de Burgh. Its -remains, however, are of the 14th century, and include a massive keep -rising finely from a cliff above the Nidd. After the battle of Marston -Moor it was taken by Fairfax, and in 1648 it was ordered to be -dismantled. To the south of the castle is St Robert's chapel, an -excavation in the rock constructed into an ecclesiastical edifice in the -reign of Richard I. Several of the excavations in the limestone, which -is extensively quarried, are incorporated in dwelling-houses. A little -farther down the river is St Robert's cave, which is supposed to have -been the residence of the hermit, and in 1744 was the scene of the -murder of Daniel Clarke by Eugene Aram, whose story is told in Lytton's -well-known novel. Opposite the castle is the Dropping Well, the waters -of which are impregnated with lime and have petrifying power, this -action causing the curious and beautiful incrustations formed where the -water falls over a slight cliff. The Knaresborough free grammar school -was founded in 1616. There is a large agricultural trade, and linen and -leather manufactures and the quarries also employ a considerable number -of persons. - -Knaresborough (_Canardesburg_, _Cnarreburc_, _Cknareburg_), which -belonged to the Crown before the Conquest, formed part of William the -Conqueror's grant to his follower Serlo de Burgh. Being forfeited by his -grandson Eustace FitzJohn in the reign of Stephen, Knaresborough was -granted to Robert de Stuteville, from whose descendants it passed -through marriage to Hugh de Morville, one of the murderers of Thomas -Becket, who with his three accomplices remained in hiding in the castle -for a whole year. During the 13th and 14th centuries the castle and -lordship changed hands very frequently; they were granted successively -to Hubert de Burgh, whose son forfeited them after the battle of -Evesham, to Richard, earl of Cornwall, whose son Edmund died without -issue; to Piers Gaveston, and lastly to John of Gaunt, duke of -Lancaster, and so to the Crown as parcel of the duchy of Lancaster. In -1317 John de Lilleburn, who was holding the castle of Knaresborough for -Thomas duke of Lancaster against the king, surrendered under conditions -to William de Ros of Hamelak, but before leaving the castle managed to -destroy all the records of the liberties and privileges of the town -which were kept in the castle. In 1368 an inquisition was taken to -ascertain these privileges, and the jurors found that the burgesses held -"all the soil of their borough yielding 7s. 4d. yearly and doing suit at -the king's court." In the reign of Henry VIII. Knaresborough is said by -Leland to be "no great thing and meanely builded but the market there is -quik." During the civil wars Knaresborough was held for some time by the -Royalists, but they were obliged to surrender, and the castle was among -those ordered to be destroyed by parliament in 1646. A market on -Wednesday and a fortnightly fair on the same day from the Feast of St -Mark to that of St Andrew are claimed under a charter of Charles II. -confirming earlier charters. Lead ore was found and worked on -Knaresborough Common in the 16th century. From 1555 to 1867 the town -returned two members to parliament, but in the latter year the number -was reduced to one, and in 1885 the representation was merged in that of -the West Riding. - - - - -KNAVE (O.E. _cnafa_, cognate with Ger. _Knabe_, boy), originally a male -child, a boy (Chaucer, _Canterbury Tales_: "Clerk's Tale," I. 388). Like -Lat. _puer_, the word was early used as a name for any boy or lad -employed as a servant, and so of male servants in general (Chaucer: -"Pardoner's Tale," 1. 204). The current use of the word for a man who is -dishonest and crafty, a rogue, was however an early usage, and is found -in Layamon (c. 1205). In playing-cards the lowest court card of each -suit, the "jack," representing a medieval servant, is called the -"knave." (See also VALET.) - - - - -KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON (1744-1834), German poet and translator, was -born at the castle of Wallerstein in Franconia on the 30th of November -1744. After having studied law for a short while at Halle, he entered -the regiment of the crown prince of Prussia in Potsdam and was attached -to it as officer for ten years. Disappointed in his military career, -owing to the slowness of promotion, he retired in 1774, and accepting -the post of tutor to Prince Konstantin of Weimar, accompanied him and -his elder brother, the hereditary prince, on a tour to Paris. On this -journey he visited Goethe in Frankfort-on-Main, and introduced him to -the hereditary prince, Charles Augustus. This meeting is memorable as -being the immediate cause of Goethe's later intimate connexion with the -Weimar court. After Knebel's return and the premature death of his pupil -he was pensioned, receiving the rank of major. In 1798 he married the -singer Luise von Rudorf, and retired to Ilmenau; but in 1805 he removed -to Jena, where he lived until his death on the 23rd of February 1834. -Knebel's _Sammlung kleiner Gedichte_ (1815), issued anonymously, and -_Distichen_ (1827) contain many graceful sonnets, but it is as a -translator that he is best known. His translation of the elegies of -Propertius, _Elegien des Properz_ (1798), and that of Lucretius' _De -rerum natura_ (2 vols., 1831) are deservedly praised. Since their first -acquaintance Knebel and Goethe were intimate friends, and not the least -interesting of Knebel's writings is his correspondence with the eminent -poet, _Briefwechsel mit Goethe_ (ed. G. E. Guhrauer, 2 vols., 1851). - - Knebel's _Literarischer Nachlass und Briefwechsel_ was edited by K. A. - Varnhagen von Ense and T. Mundt in 3 vols. (1835; 2nd ed., 1840). See - Hugo von Knebel-Doberitz, _Karl Ludwig von Knebel_ (1890). - - - - -KNEE (O.E. _cneow_, a word common to Indo-European languages, cf. Ger. -_Knie_, Fr. _genou_, Span, _hinojo_, Lat. _genu_, Gr. [Greek: gonu], -Sansk. _janu_), in human anatomy, the articulation of the upper and -lower parts of the leg, the joint between the femur and the tibia (see -JOINTS). The word is also used of articulation resembling the knee-joint -in shape or position in other animals; it thus is applied to the carpal -articulation of the fore leg of a horse, answering to the ankle in man, -or to the tarsal articulation or heel of a bird's foot. - - - - -KNELLER, SIR GODFREY (1648-1723), a portrait painter whose celebrity -belongs chiefly to England, was born in Lubeck in the duchy of Holstein, -of an ancient family, on the 8th of August 1648. He was at first -intended for the army, and was sent to Leyden to learn mathematics and -fortification. Showing, however, a marked preference for the fine arts, -he studied in the school of Rembrandt, and under Ferdinand Bol in -Amsterdam. In 1672 he removed to Italy, directing his chief attention to -Titian and the Caracci; Carlo Maratta gave him some guidance and -encouragement. In Rome, and more especially in Venice, Kneller earned -considerable reputation by historical paintings as well as portraits. He -next went to Hamburg, painting with still increasing success. In 1674 he -came to England at the invitation of the duke of Monmouth, was -introduced to Charles II., and painted that sovereign, much to his -satisfaction, several times. Charles also sent him to Paris, to take the -portrait of Louis XIV. When Sir Peter Lely died in 1680, Kneller, who -produced in England little or nothing in the historical department, -remained without a rival in the ranks of portrait painting; there was no -native-born competition worth speaking of. Charles appointed him court -painter; and he continued to hold the same post into the days of George -I. Under William III. (1692) he was made a knight, under George I. -(1715) a baronet, and by order of the emperor Leopold I. a knight of the -Roman Empire. Not only his court favour but his general fame likewise -was large: he was lauded by Dryden, Addison, Steele, Prior, Tickell and -Pope. Kneller's gains also were very considerable; aided by habits of -frugality which approached stinginess, he left property yielding an -annual income of L2000. His industry was maintained till the last. His -studio had at first been in Covent Garden, but in his closing years he -lived in Kneller Hall, Twickenham. He died of fever, the date being -generally given as the 7th of November 1723, though some accounts say -1726. He was buried in Twickenham church, and has a monument in -Westminster Abbey. An elder brother, John Zachary Kneller, an ornamental -painter, had accompanied Godfrey to England, and had died in 1702. The -style of Sir Godfrey Kneller as a portrait painter represented the -decline of that art as practised by Vandyck; Lely marks the first grade -of descent, and Kneller the second. His works have much freedom, and are -well drawn and coloured; but they are mostly slight in manner, and to a -great extent monotonous, this arising partly from the habit which he had -of lengthening the oval of all his heads. The colouring may be called -brilliant rather than true. He indulged much in the common-places of -allegory; and, though he had a quality of dignified elegance not -unallied with simplicity, genuine simple nature is seldom to be traced -in his works. His fame has greatly declined, and could not but do so -after the advent of Reynolds. Among Kneller's principal paintings are -the "Forty-three Celebrities of the Kit-Cat Club," and the "Ten Beauties -of the Court of William III.," now at Hampton Court; these were painted -by order of the queen; they match, but match unequally, the "Beauties of -the Court of Charles II.," painted by Lely. He executed altogether the -likenesses of ten sovereigns, and fourteen of his works appear in the -National Portrait Gallery. It is said that Kneller's own favourite -performance was the portrait of the "Converted Chinese" in Windsor -Castle. His later works are confined almost entirely to England, not -more than two or three specimens having gone abroad after he had settled -here. (W. M. R.) - - - - -KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN (c. 1650-c. 1720), Dutch colonist of New -Netherland (New York), was a native of Wyhe (Wie), Overyssel, Holland. -Before 1683 he settled near what is now Albany, New York, and there in -1704 he bought through Harme Gansevoort one-fourth of the land in -Dutchess county near Red Hook, which had been patented in 1688 to Peter -Schuyler, who in 1722 deeded seven (of thirteen) lots in the upper -fourth of his patent to the seven children of Knickerbocker. The eldest -of these children, Johannes Harmensen, received from the common council -of the city of Albany a grant of 50 acres of meadow and 10 acres of -upland on the south side of Schaghticoke Creek. This Schaghticoke estate -was held by Johannes Harmensen's son Johannes (1723-1802), a colonel in -the Continental Army in the War of Independence, and by his son Harmen -(1779-1855), a lawyer, a federalist representative in Congress in -1809-1811, a member of the New York Assembly in 1816, and a famous -gentleman of the old school, who for his courtly hospitality in his -manor was called "the prince of Schaghticoke" and whose name was -borrowed by Washington Irving for use in his (Diedrich) _Knickerbocker's -History of New York_ (1809). Largely owing to this book, the name -"Knickerbockers" has passed into current use as a designation of the -early Dutch settlers in New York and their descendants. The son of -Johannes, David Buel Knickerbacker (1833-1894), who returned to the -earlier spelling of the family name, graduated at Trinity College in -1853 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1856, was a rector for -many years at Minneapolis, Minnesota, and in 1883 was consecrated -Protestant Episcopal bishop of Indiana. - - See the series of articles by W. B. Van Alstyne on "The Knickerbocker - Family," beginning in vol. xxix., No. 1 (Jan. 1908) of the _New York - Genealogical and Biographical Record_. - - - - -KNIFE (O.E. _cnif_, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic -languages, cf. Du. _knijf_, Ger. _Kneif_, a shoemaker's knife, Swed. -_knif_; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the -root of "nip," formerly "knip"; Fr. _canif_ is also of Teutonic origin), -a small cutting instrument, with the blade either fixed to the handle or -fastened with a hinge so as to clasp into the handle (see CUTLERY). For -the knives chipped from flint by prehistoric man see ARCHAEOLOGY and -FLINT IMPLEMENTS. - - - - -KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR VON (1752-1796), German author, -was born on the family estate of Bredenbeck near Hanover on the 16th of -October 1752. After studying law at Gottingen he was attached -successively to the courts of Hesse-Cassel and Weimar as -gentleman-in-waiting. Retiring from court service in 1777, he lived a -private life with his family in Frankfort-on-Main, Hanau, Heidelberg and -Hanover until 1791, when he was appointed _Oberhauptmann_ (civil -administrator) in Bremen, where he died on the 6th of May 1796. Knigge, -under the name "Philo," was one of the most active members of the -_Illuminati_, a mutual moral and intellectual improvement society -founded by Adam Weishaupt (1748-1830) at Ingolstadt, and which later -became affiliated to the Freemasons. Knigge is known as the author of -several novels, among which _Der Roman meines Lebens_ (1781-1787; new -ed., 1805) and _Die Reise nach Braunschweig_ (1792), the latter a rather -coarsely comic story, are best remembered. His chief literary -achievement was, however, _Uber den Umgang mit Menschen_ (1788), in -which he lays down rules to be observed for a peaceful, happy and useful -life; it has been often reprinted. - - Knigge's _Schriften_ were published in 12 volumes (1804-1806). See K. - Goedeke, _Adolf, Freiherr von Knigge_ (1844); and H. Klencke, _Aus - einer alten Kiste_ (_Briefe, Handschriften und Dokumente aus dem - Nachlasse Knigges_) (1853). - - - - -KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873), English publisher and author, the son of a -bookseller and printer at Windsor, was born on the 15th of March 1791. -He was apprenticed to his father, but on the completion of his -indentures he took up journalism and interested himself in several -newspaper speculations. In 1823, in conjunction with friends he had made -as publisher (1820-1821) of _The Etonian_, he started _Knight's -Quarterly Magazine_, to which W. M. Praed, Derwent Coleridge and -Macaulay contributed. The venture was brought to a close with its sixth -number, but it initiated for Knight a career as publisher and author -which extended over forty years. In 1827 Knight was compelled to give up -his publishing business, and became the superintendent of the -publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, for -which he projected and edited _The British Almanack and Companion_, -begun in 1828. In 1829 he resumed business on his own account with the -publication of _The Library of Entertaining Knowledge_, writing several -volumes of the series himself. In 1832 and 1833 he started _The Penny -Magazine_ and _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, both of which had a large -circulation. _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, however, on account of the heavy -excise duty, was only completed in 1844 at a great pecuniary sacrifice. -Besides many illustrated editions of standard works, including in 1842 -_The Pictorial Shakespeare_, which had appeared in parts (1838-1841), -Knight published a variety of illustrated works, such as _Old England_ -and _The Land we Live in_. He also undertook the series known as _Weekly -Volumes_. He himself contributed the first volume, a biography of -William Caxton. Many famous books, Miss Martineau's _Tales_, Mrs -Jameson's _Early Italian Painters_ and G. H. Lewes's _Biographical -History of Philosophy_, appeared for the first time in this series. In -1853 he became editor of _The English Cyclopaedia_, which was -practically only a revision of _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, and at about the -same time he began his _Popular History of England_ (8 vols., -1856-1862). In 1864 he withdrew from the business of publisher, but he -continued to write nearly to the close of his long life, publishing _The -Shadows of the Old Booksellers_ (1865), an autobiography under the title -_Passages of a Working Life during Half a Century_ (2 vols., 1864-1865), -and an historical novel, _Begg'd at Court_ (1867). He died at -Addlestone, Surrey, on the 9th of March 1873. - - See A. A. Clowes, _Knight, a Sketch_ (1892); and F. Espinasse, in _The - Critic_ (May 1860). - - - - -KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845- ), American artist, was born at -Philadelphia, Penn., in 1845. He was a pupil at the Ecole des -Beaux-Arts, Paris, under Gleyre, and later worked in the private studio -of Meissonier. After 1872 he lived in France, having a house and studio -at Poissy on the Seine. He painted peasant women out of doors with great -popular success. He was awarded the silver medal and cross of the Legion -of Honour, Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889, and was made a knight of -the Royal Order of St Michael of Bavaria, Munich, 1893, receiving the -gold medal of honour from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, -Philadelphia, 1893. His son, Ashton Knight, is also known as a landscape -painter. - - - - -KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843-1908), English landscape painter, was born at -Sevenoaks, Kent; he started as a schoolmaster, but painting was his -hobby, and he subsequently devoted himself to it. In 1861 he had his -first picture hung at the Academy. He was essentially an open-air -painter, constantly going on sketching tours in the most picturesque -spots of England, and all his pictures were painted out of doors. He -died at Dover on the 2nd of January 1908. The Chantrey trustees bought -his "December's Bareness Everywhere" for the nation in the following -month. Most of his best pictures had passed into the collection of Mr -Iceton of Putney (including "White Walls of Old England" and "Hereford -Cathedral"), Mr Walter Briggs of Burley in Wharfedale (especially -"Pinner"), and Mr S. M. Phillips of Wrotham (especially two -water-colours of Richmond Bridge). - - - - -KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY. These two words, which are nearly but not quite -synonymous, designate a single subject of inquiry, which presents itself -under three different although connected and in a measure intermingled -aspects. It may be regarded in the first place as a mode or variety of -feudal tenure, in the second place as a personal attribute or dignity, -and in the third place as a scheme of manners or social arrangements. -The first of these aspects is discussed under the headings FEUDALISM and -KNIGHT SERVICE: we are concerned here only with the second and third. -For the more important religious as distinguished from the military -orders of knighthood or chivalry the reader is referred to the headings -ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF; TEUTONIC KNIGHTS; and TEMPLARS. - -"The growth of knighthood" (writes Stubbs) "is a subject on which the -greatest obscurity prevails": and, though J. H. Round has done much to -explain the introduction of the system into England,[1] its actual -origin on the continent of Europe is still obscure in many of its most -important details. - -The words _knight_ and _knighthood_ are merely the modern forms of the -Anglo-Saxon or Old English _cniht_ and _cnihthad_. Of these the primary -signification of the first was a boy or youth, and of the second that -period of life which intervenes between childhood and manhood. But some -time before the middle of the 12th century they had acquired the meaning -they still retain of the French _chevalier_ and _chevalerie_. In a -secondary sense _cniht_ meant a servant or attendant answering to the -German _Knecht_, and in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels a disciple is described -as a _leorning cniht_. In a tertiary sense the word appears to have been -occasionally employed as equivalent to the Latin _miles_--usually -translated by _thegn_--which in the earlier middle ages was used as the -designation of the domestic as well as of the martial officers or -retainers of sovereigns and princes or great personages.[2] Sharon -Turner suggests that _cniht_ from meaning an attendant simply may have -come to mean more especially a military attendant, and that in this -sense it may have gradually superseded the word thegn.[3] But the word -thegn itself, that is, when it was used as the description of an -attendant of the king, appears to have meant more especially a military -attendant. As Stubbs says "the thegn seems to be primarily the warrior -gesith"--the gesithas forming the chosen band of companions (_comites_) -of the German chiefs (_principes_) noticed by Tacitus--"he is probably -the gesith who had a particular military duty in his master's service"; -and he adds that from the reign of Athelstan "the gesith is lost sight -of except very occasionally, the more important class having become -thegns, and the lesser sort sinking into the rank of mere servants of -the king."[4] It is pretty clear, therefore, that the word cniht could -never have superseded the word thegn in the sense of a military -attendant, at all events of the king. But besides the king, the -ealdormen, bishops and king's thegns themselves had their thegns, and to -these it is more than probable that the name of _cniht_ was applied. - -Around the Anglo-Saxon magnates were collected a crowd of retainers and -dependants of all ranks and conditions; and there is evidence enough to -show that among them were some called _cnihtas_ who were not always the -humblest or least considerable of their number.[5] The testimony of -Domesday also establishes the existence in the reign of Edward the -Confessor of what Stubbs describes as a "large class" of landholders who -had commended themselves to some lord, and he regards it as doubtful -whether their tenure had not already assumed a really feudal character. -But in any event it is manifest that their condition was in many -respects similar to that of a vast number of unquestionably feudal and -military tenants who made their appearance after the Norman Conquest. If -consequently the former were called _cnihtas_ under the Anglo-Saxon -regime, it seems sufficiently probable that the appellation should have -been continued to the latter--practically their successors--under the -Anglo-Norman regime. And if the designation of knights was first applied -to the military tenants of the earls, bishops and barons--who although -they held their lands of mesne lords owed their services to the -king--the extension of that designation to the whole body of military -tenants need not have been a very violent or prolonged process. -Assuming, however, that _knight_ was originally used to describe the -military tenant of a noble person, as _cniht_ had sometimes been used to -describe the thegn of a noble person, it would, to begin with, have -defined rather his social status than the nature of his services. But -those whom the English called _knights_ the Normans called _chevaliers_, -by which term the nature of their services was defined, while their -social status was left out of consideration. And at first _chevalier_ in -its general and honorary signification seems to have been rendered not -by _knight_ but by _rider_, as may be inferred from the Anglo-Saxon -Chronicle, wherein it is recorded under the year 1085 that William the -Conqueror "dubbade his sunu Henric to ridere."[6] But, as E. A. Freeman -says, "no such title is heard of in the earlier days of England. The -thegn, the ealdorman, the king himself, fought on foot; the horse might -bear him to the field, but when the fighting itself came he stood on -his native earth to receive the onslaught of her enemies."[7] In this -perhaps we may behold one of the most ancient of British insular -prejudices, for on the Continent the importance of cavalry in warfare -was already abundantly understood. It was by means of their horsemen -that the Austrasian Franks established their superiority over their -neighbours, and in time created the Western Empire anew, while from the -word _caballarius_, which occurs in the _Capitularies_ in the reign of -Charlemagne, came the words for knight in all the Romance languages.[8] -In Germany the chevalier was called _Ritter_, but neither _rider_ nor -_chevalier_ prevailed against _knight_ in England. And it was long after -_knighthood_ had acquired its present meaning with us that _chivalry_ -was incorporated into our language. It may be remarked too in passing -that in official Latin, not only in England but all over Europe, the -word _miles_ held its own against both _eques_ and _caballarius_. - - - Origin of Medieval Knighthood. - -Concerning the origin of knighthood or chivalry as it existed in the -middle ages--implying as it did a formal assumption of and initiation -into the profession of arms--nothing beyond more or less probable -conjecture is possible. The medieval knights had nothing to do in the -way of derivation with the "equites" of Rome, the knights of King -Arthur's Round Table, or the Paladins of Charlemagne. But there are -grounds for believing that some of the rudiments of chivalry are to be -detected in early Teutonic customs, and that they may have made some -advance among the Franks of Gaul. We know from Tacitus that the German -tribes in his day were wont to celebrate the admission of their young -men into the ranks of their warriors with much circumstance and -ceremony. The people of the district to which the candidate belonged -were called together; his qualifications for the privileges about to be -conferred upon him were inquired into; and, if he were deemed fitted and -worthy to receive them, his chief, his father, or one of his near -kinsmen presented him with a shield and a lance. Again, among the Franks -we find Charlemagne girding his son Louis the Pious, and Louis the Pious -girding his son Charles the Bald with the sword, when they arrived at -manhood.[9] It seems certain here that some ceremony was observed which -was deemed worthy of record not for its novelty, but as a thing of -recognized importance. It does not follow that a similar ceremony -extended to personages less exalted than the sons of kings and emperors. -But if it did we must naturally suppose that it applied in the first -instance to the mounted warriors who formed the most formidable portion -of the warlike array of the Franks. It was among the Franks indeed, and -possibly through their experiences in war with the Saracens, that -cavalry first acquired the pre-eminent place which it long maintained in -every European country. In early society, where the army is not a paid -force but the armed nation, the cavalry must necessarily consist of the -noble and wealthy, and cavalry and chivalry, as Freeman observes,[10] -will be the same. Since then we discover in the _Capitularies_ of -Charlemagne actual mention of "caballarii" as a class of warriors, it -may reasonably be concluded that formal investiture with arms applied to -the "caballarii" if it was a usage extending beyond the sovereign and -his heir-apparent. "But," as Hallam says, "he who fought on horseback -and had been invested with peculiar arms in a solemn manner wanted -nothing more to render him a knight;" and so he concludes, in view of -the verbal identity of "chevalier" and "caballarius," that "we may refer -chivalry in a general sense to the age of Charlemagne."[11] Yet, if the -"caballarii" of the _Capitularies_ are really the precursors of the -later knights, it remains a difficulty that the Latin name for a knight -is "miles," although "caballarius" became in various forms the -vernacular designation. - - - Knighthood in England. - -Before it was known that the chronicle ascribed to Ingulf of Croyland is -really a fiction of the 13th or 14th century, the knighting of Heward or -Hereward by Brand, abbot of Burgh (now Peterborough), was accepted from -Selden to Hallam as an historical fact, and knighthood was supposed, not -only to have been known among the Anglo-Saxons, but to have had a -distinctively religious character which was contemned by the Norman -invaders. The genuine evidence at our command altogether fails to -support this view. When William of Malmesbury describes the knighting of -Athelstan by his grandfather Alfred the Great, that is, his investiture -"with a purple garment set with gems and a Saxon sword with a golden -sheath," there is no hint of any religious observance. In spite of the -silence of our records, Dr Stubbs thinks that kings so well acquainted -with foreign usages as Ethelred, Canute and Edward the Confessor could -hardly have failed to introduce into England the institution of chivalry -then springing up in every country of Europe; and he is supported in -this opinion by the circumstance that it is nowhere mentioned as a -Norman innovation. Yet the fact that Harold received knighthood from -William of Normandy makes it clear either that Harold was not yet a -knight, which in the case of so tried a warrior would imply that -"dubbing to knighthood" was not yet known in England even under Edward -the Confessor, or, as Freeman thinks, that in the middle of the 11th -century the custom had grown in Normandy into "something of a more -special meaning" than it bore in England. - -Regarded as a method of military organization, the feudal system of -tenures was always far better adapted to the purposes of defensive than -of offensive warfare. Against invasion it furnished a permanent -provision both in men-at-arms and strongholds; nor was it unsuited for -the campaigns of neighbouring counts and barons which lasted for only a -few weeks, and extended over only a few leagues. But when kings and -kingdoms were in conflict, and distant and prolonged expeditions became -necessary, it was speedily discovered that the unassisted resources of -feudalism were altogether inadequate. It became therefore the manifest -interest of both parties that personal services should be commuted into -pecuniary payments. Then there grew up all over Europe a system of -fining the knights who failed to respond to the sovereign's call or to -stay their full time in the field; and in England this fine developed, -from the reign of Henry II. to that of Edward II., into a regular -war-tax called _escuage_ or _scutage_ (q.v.). In this way funds for war -were placed at the free disposal of sovereigns, and, although the -feudatories and their retainers still formed the most considerable -portion of their armies, the conditions under which they served were -altogether changed. Their military service was now far more the result -of special agreement. In the reign of Edward I., whose warlike -enterprises after he was king were confined within the four seas, this -alteration does not seem to have proceeded very far, and Scotland and -Wales were subjugated by what was in the main, if not exclusively, a -feudal militia raised as of old by writ to the earls and barons and the -sheriffs.[12] But the armies of Edward III., Henry V. and Henry VI. -during the century of intermittent warfare between England and France -were recruited and sustained to a very great extent on the principle of -contract.[13] On the Continent the systematic employment of mercenaries -was both an early and a common practice. - - - The Crusades. - -Besides consideration for the mutual convenience of sovereigns and their -feudatories, there were other causes which materially contributed -towards bringing about those changes in the military system of Europe -which were finally accomplished in the 13th and 14th centuries. During -the Crusades vast armies were set on foot in which feudal rights and -obligations had no place, and it was seen that the volunteers who -flocked to the standards of the various commanders were not less but -even more efficient in the field than the vassals they had hitherto been -accustomed to lead. It was thus established that pay, the love of -enterprise and the prospect of plunder--if we leave zeal for the sacred -cause which they had espoused for the moment out of sight--were quite as -useful for the purpose of enlisting troops and keeping them together as -the tenure of land and the solemnities of homage and fealty. Moreover, -the crusaders who survived the difficulties and dangers of an expedition -to Palestine were seasoned and experienced although frequently -impoverished and landless soldiers, ready to hire themselves to the -highest bidder, and well worth the wages they received. Again, it was -owing to the crusades that the church took the profession of arms under -her peculiar protection, and thenceforward the ceremonies of initiation -into it assumed a religious as well as a martial character. - - - Knighthood independent of Feudalism. - -To distinguished soldiers of the cross the honours and benefits of -knighthood could hardly be refused on the ground that they did not -possess a sufficient property qualification--of which perhaps they had -denuded themselves in order to their equipment for the Holy War. And -thus the conception of knighthood as of something distinct from -feudalism both as a social condition and a personal dignity arose and -rapidly gained ground. It was then that the analogy was first detected -between the order of knighthood and the order of priesthood, and that an -actual union of monachism and chivalry was effected by the establishment -of the religious orders of which the Knights Templars and the Knights -Hospitallers were the most eminent examples. As comprehensive in their -polity as the Benedictines or Franciscans, they gathered their members -from, and soon scattered their possessions over, every country in -Europe. And in their indifference to the distinctions of race and -nationality they merely accommodated themselves to the spirit which had -become characteristic of chivalry itself, already recognized, like the -church, as a universal institution which knit together the whole warrior -caste of Christendom into one great fraternity irrespective alike of -feudal subordination and territorial boundaries. Somewhat later the -adoption of hereditary surnames and armorial bearings marked the -existence of a large and noble class who either from the subdivision of -fiefs or from the effects of the custom of primogeniture were very -insufficiently provided for. To them only two callings were generally -open, that of the churchman and that of the soldier, and the latter as a -rule offered greater attractions than the former in an era of much -licence and little learning. Hence the favourite expedient for men of -birth, although not of fortune, was to attach themselves to some prince -or magnate in whose military service they were sure of an adequate -maintenance and might hope for even a rich reward in the shape of booty -or of ransom.[14] It is probably to this period and these circumstances -that we must look for at all events the rudimentary beginnings of the -military as well as the religious orders of chivalry. Of the existence -of any regularly constituted companionships of the first kind there is -no trustworthy evidence until between two and three centuries after -fraternities of the second kind had been organized. Soon after the -greater crusading societies had been formed similar orders, such as -those of St James of Compostella, Calatrava and Alcantara, were -established to fight the Moors in Spain instead of the Saracens in the -Holy Land. But the members of these orders were not less monks than -knights, their statutes embodied the rules of the cloister, and they -were bound by the ecclesiastical vows of celibacy, poverty and -obedience. From a very early stage in the development of chivalry, -however, we meet with the singular institution of brotherhood in arms; -and from it the ultimate origin if not of the religious fraternities at -any rate of the military companionships is usually derived.[15] By this -institution a relation was created between two or more monks by -voluntary agreement, which was regarded as of far more intimacy and -stringency than any which the mere accident of consanguinity implied. -Brothers in arms were supposed to be partners in all things save the -affections of their "lady-loves." They shared in every danger and in -every success, and each was expected to vindicate the honour of another -as promptly and zealously as his own. The plot of the medieval romance -of _Amis and Amiles_ is built entirely on such a brotherhood. Their -engagements usually lasted through life, but sometimes only for a -specified period or during the continuance of specified circumstances, -and they were always ratified by oath, occasionally reduced to writing -in the shape of a solemn bond and often sanctified by their reception of -the Eucharist together. Romance and tradition speak of strange -rites--the mingling and even the drinking of blood--as having in remote -and rude ages marked the inception of these martial and fraternal -associations.[16] But in later and less barbarous times they were -generally evidenced and celebrated by a formal and reciprocal exchange -of weapons and armour. In warfare it was customary for knights who were -thus allied to appear similarly accoutred and bearing the same badges or -cognisances, to the end that their enemies might not know with which of -them they were in conflict, and that their friends might be unable to -accord more applause to one than to the other for his prowess in the -field. It seems likely enough therefore that there should grow up bodies -of knights banded together by engagements of fidelity, although free -from monastic obligations; wearing a uniform or livery, and naming -themselves after some special symbol or some patron saint of their -adoption. And such bodies placed under the command of a sovereign or -grand master, regulated by statutes, and enriched by ecclesiastical -endowments would have been precisely what in after times such orders as -the Garter in England, the Golden Fleece in Burgundy, the Annunziata in -Savoy and the St Michael and Holy Ghost in France actually were.[17] - - - Grades of Knighthood. - -During the 14th and 15th centuries, as well as somewhat earlier and -later, the general arrangements of a European army were always and -everywhere pretty much the same.[18] Under the sovereign the constable -and the marshal or marshals held the chief commands, their authority -being partly joint and partly several. Attendant on them were the -heralds, who were the officers of their military court, wherein offences -committed in the camp and field were tried and adjudged, and among whose -duties it was to carry orders and messages, to deliver challenges and -call truces, and to identify and number the wounded and the slain. The -main divisions of the army were distributed under the royal and other -principal standards, smaller divisions under the banners of some of the -greater nobility or of knights banneret, and smaller divisions still -under the pennons of knights or, as in distinction from knights banneret -they came to be called, knights bachelors. All knights whether bachelors -or bannerets were escorted by their squires. But the banner of the -banneret always implied a more or less extensive command, while every -knight was entitled to bear a pennon and every squire a pencel. All -three flags were of such a size as to be conveniently attached to and -carried on a lance, and were emblazoned with the arms or some portion of -the bearings of their owners. But while the banner was square the -pennon, which resembled it in other respects, was either pointed or -forked at its extremity, and the pencel, which was considerably less -than the others, always terminated in a single tail or streamer.[19] - -If indeed we look at the scale of chivalric subordination from another -point of view, it seems to be more properly divisible into four than -into three stages, of which two may be called provisional and two final. -The bachelor and the banneret were both equally knights, only the one -was of greater distinction and authority than the other. In like manner -the squire and the page were both in training for knighthood, but the -first had advanced further in the process than the second. It is true -that the squire was a combatant while the page was not, and that many -squires voluntarily served as squires all their lives owing to the -insufficiency of their fortunes to support the costs and charges of -knighthood. But in the ordinary course of a chivalrous education the -successive conditions of page and squire were passed through in boyhood -and youth, and the condition of knighthood was reached in early manhood. -Every feudal court and castle was in fact a school of chivalry, and -although princes and great personages were rarely actually pages or -squires, the moral and physical discipline through which they passed was -not in any important particular different from that to which less -exalted candidates for knighthood were subjected.[20] The page, or, as -he was more anciently and more correctly called, the "valet" or -"damoiseau," commenced his service and instruction when he was between -seven and eight years old, and the initial phase continued for seven or -eight years longer. He acted as the constant personal attendant of both -his master and mistress. He waited on them in their hall and accompanied -them in the chase, served the lady in her bower and followed the lord to -the camp.[21] From the chaplain and his mistress and her damsels he -learnt the rudiments of religion, of rectitude and of love,[22] from his -master and his squires the elements of military exercise, to cast a -spear or dart, to sustain a shield, and to march with the measured tread -of a soldier; and from his master and his huntsmen and falconers the -"mysteries of the woods and rivers," or in other words the rules and -practices of hunting and hawking. When he was between fifteen and -sixteen he became a squire. But no sudden or great alteration was made -in his mode of life. He continued to wait at dinner with the pages, -although in a manner more dignified according to the notions of the age. -He not only served but carved and helped the dishes, proffered the first -or principal cup of wine to his master and his guests, and carried to -them the basin, ewer or napkin when they washed their hands before and -after meat. He assisted in clearing the hall for dancing or minstrelsy, -and laid the tables for chess or draughts, and he also shared in the -pastimes for which he had made preparation. He brought his master the -"vin de coucher" at night, and made his early refection ready for him in -the morning. But his military exercises and athletic sports occupied an -always increasing portion of the day. He accustomed himself to ride the -"great horse," to tilt at the quintain, to wield the sword and -battle-axe, to swim and climb, to run and leap, and to bear the weight -and overcome the embarrassments of armour. He inured himself to the -vicissitudes of heat and cold, and voluntarily suffered the pains or -inconveniences of hunger and thirst, fatigue and sleeplessness. It was -then too that he chose his "lady-love," whom he was expected to regard -with an adoration at once earnest, respectful, and the more meritorious -if concealed. And when it was considered that he had made sufficient -advancement in his military accomplishments, he took his sword to the -priest, who laid it on the altar, blessed it, and returned it to -him.[23] Afterwards he either remained with his early master, relegating -most of his domestic duties to his younger companions, or he entered the -service of some valiant and adventurous lord or knight of his own -selection. He now became a "squire of the body," and truly an "armiger" -or "scutifer," for he bore the shield and armour of his leader to the -field, and, what was a task of no small difficulty and hazard, cased and -secured him in his panoply of war before assisting him to mount his -courser or charger. It was his function also to display and guard in -battle the banner of the baron or banneret or the pennon of the knight -he served, to raise him from the ground if he were unhorsed, to supply -him with another or his own horse if his was disabled or killed, to -receive and keep any prisoners he might take, to fight by his side if he -was unequally matched, to rescue him if captured, to bear him to a place -of safety if wounded, and to bury him honourably when dead. And after he -had worthily and bravely, borne himself for six or seven years as a -squire, the time came when it was fitting that he should be made a -knight. This, at least, was the current theory; but it is specially -dangerous in medieval history to assume too much correspondence between -theory and fact. In many castles, and perhaps in most, the discipline -followed simply a natural and unwritten code of "fagging" and seniority, -as in public schools or on board men-of-war some hundred years or so -ago. - - - Modes of conferring Knighthood. - -Two modes of conferring knighthood appear to have prevailed from a very -early period in all countries where chivalry was known. In both of them -the essential portion seems to have been the accolade or stroke of the -sword. But while in the one the accolade constituted the whole or nearly -the whole of the ceremony, in the other it was surrounded with many -additional observances. The former and simpler of these modes was -naturally that used in war: the candidate knelt before "the chief of the -army or some valiant knight," who struck him thrice with the flat of a -sword, pronouncing a brief formula of creation and of exhortation which -varied at the creator's will.[24] - -In this form a number of knights were made before and after almost every -battle between the 11th and the 16th centuries, and its advantages on -the score of both convenience and economy gradually led to its general -adoption both in time of peace and time of war. On extraordinary -occasions indeed the more elaborate ritual continued to be observed. But -recourse was had to it so rarely that in England about the beginning of -the 15th century it came to be exclusively appropriated to a special -king of knighthood. When Segar, garter king of arms, wrote in the reign -of Queen Elizabeth, this had been accomplished with such completeness -that he does not even mention that there were two ways of creating -knights bachelors. "He that is to be made a knight," he says, "is -striken by the prince with a sword drawn upon his back or shoulder, the -prince saying, 'Soys Chevalier,' and in times past was added 'Saint -George.' And when the knight rises the prince sayeth 'Avencez.' This is -the manner of dubbing knights at this present, and that term 'dubbing' -was the old term in this point, not 'creating.' This sort of knights are -by the heralds called knights bachelors." In our days when a knight is -personally made he kneels before the sovereign, who lays a sword drawn, -ordinarily the sword of state, on either of his shoulders and says, -"Rise," calling him by his Christian name with the addition of "Sir" -before it. - -Very different were the solemnities which attended the creation of a -knight when the complete procedure was observed. "The ceremonies and -circumstances at the giving this dignity," says Selden, "in the elder -time were of two kinds especially, which we may call courtly and sacred. -The courtly were the feasts held at the creation, giving of robes, arms, -spurs and the like. The sacred were the holy devotions and what else was -used in the church at or before the receiving of the dignity."[25] But -the leading authority on the subject is an ancient tract written in -French, which will be found at length either in the original or -translated by Segar, Dugdale, Byshe and Nicolas, among other English -writers.[26] Daniel explains his reasons for transcribing it, "tant a -cause du detail que de la naivete du stile et encore plus de la -bisarrerie des ceremonies que se faisoient pourtant alors fort -serieusement," while he adds that these ceremonies were essentially -identical in England, France, Germany, Spain and Italy. - - The process of inauguration was commenced in the evening by the - placing of the candidate under the care of two "esquires of honour - grave and well seen in courtship and nurture and also in the feats of - chivalry," who were to be "governors in all things relating to him." - Under their direction, to begin with, a barber shaved him and cut his - hair. He was then conducted by them to his appointed chamber, where a - bath was prepared hung within and without with linen and covered with - rich cloths, into which after they had undressed him he entered. While - he was in the bath two "ancient and grave knights" attended him "to - inform, instruct and counsel him touching the order and feats of - chivalry," and when they had fulfilled their mission they poured some - of the water of the bath over his shoulders, signing the left shoulder - with the cross, and retired. He was then taken from the bath and put - into a plain bed without hangings, in which he remained until his body - was dry, when the two esquires put on him a white shirt and over that - "a robe of russet with long sleeves having a hood thereto like unto - that of an hermit." Then the "two ancient and grave knights" returned - and led him to the chapel, the esquires going before them "sporting - and dancing" with "the minstrels making melody." And when they had - been served with wines and spices they went away leaving only the - candidate, the esquires, "the priest, the chandler and the watch," who - kept the vigil of arms until sunrise, the candidate passing the night - "bestowing himself in orisons and prayers." At daybreak he confessed - to the priest, heard matins, and communicated in the mass, offering a - taper and a piece of money stuck in it as near the lighted end as - possible, the first "to the honour of God" and the second "to the - honour of the person that makes him a knight." Afterwards he was taken - back to his chamber, and remained in bed until the knights, esquires - and minstrels went to him and aroused him. The knights then dressed - him in distinctive garments, and they then mounted their horses and - rode to the hall where the candidate was to receive knighthood; his - future squire was to ride before him bareheaded bearing his sword by - the point in its scabbard with his spurs hanging from its hilt. And - when everything was prepared the prince or subject who was to knight - him came into the hall, and, the candidate's sword and spurs having - been presented to him, he delivered the right spur to the "most noble - and gentle" knight present, and directed him to fasten it on the - candidate's right heel, which he kneeling on one knee and putting the - candidate's right foot on his knee accordingly did, signing the - candidate's knee with the cross, and in like manner by another "noble - and gentle" knight the left spur was fastened to his left heel. And - then he who was to create the knight took the sword and girded him - with it, and then embracing him he lifted his right hand and smote him - on the neck or shoulder, saying, "Be thou a good knight," and kissed - him. When this was done they all went to the chapel with much music, - and the new knight laying his right hand on the altar promised to - support and defend the church, and ungirding his sword offered it on - the altar. And as he came out from the chapel the master cook awaited - him at the door and claimed his spurs as his fee, and said, "If you - do anything contrary to the order of chivalry (which God forbid), I - shall hack the spurs from your heels."[27] - -The full solemnities for conferring knighthood seem to have been so -largely and so early superseded by the practice of dubbing or giving the -accolade alone that in England it became at last restricted to such -knights as were made at coronations and some other occasions of state. -And to them the particular name of Knights of the Bath was assigned, -while knights made in the ordinary way were called in distinction from -them knights of the sword, as they were also called knights bachelors in -distinction from knights banneret.[28] It is usually supposed that the -first creation of knights of the Bath under that designation was at the -coronation of Henry IV.; and before the order of the Bath as a -companionship or capitular body was instituted the last creation of them -was at the coronation of Charles II. But all knights were also knights -of the spur or "equites aurati," because their spurs were golden or -gilt,--the spurs of squires being of silver or white metal,--and these -became their peculiar badge in popular estimation and proverbial speech. -In the form of their solemn inauguration too, as we have noticed, the -spurs together with the sword were always employed as the leading and -most characteristic ensigns of knighthood.[29] - -With regard to knights banneret, various opinions have been entertained -as to both the nature of their dignity and the qualifications they were -required to possess for receiving it at different periods and in -different countries. On the Continent the distinction which is commonly -but incorrectly made between the nobility and the gentry has never -arisen, and it was unknown here while chivalry existed and heraldry was -understood. Here, as elsewhere in the old time, a nobleman and a -gentleman meant the same thing, namely, a man who under certain -conditions of descent was entitled to armorial bearings. Hence Du Cange -divides the medieval nobility of France and Spain into three classes: -first, barons or ricos hombres; secondly, chevaliers or caballeros; and -thirdly, ecuyers or infanzons; and to the first, who with their several -special titles constituted the greater nobility of either country, he -limits the designation of banneret and the right of leading their -followers to war under a banner, otherwise a "drapeau quarre" or square -flag.[30] Selden shows especially from the parliament rolls that the -term banneret has been occasionally employed in England as equivalent to -baron.[31] In Scotland, even as late as the reign of James VI., lords of -parliament were always created bannerets as well as barons at their -investiture, "part of the ceremony consisting in the display of a -banner, and such 'barones majores' were thereby entitled to the -privilege of having one borne by a retainer before them to the field of -a quadrilateral form."[32] In Scotland, too, lords of parliament and -bannerets were also called bannerents, banrents or baronets, and in -England banneret was often corrupted to baronet. "Even in a patent -passed to Sir Ralph Fane, knight under Edward VI., he is called -'baronettus' for 'bannerettus.'"[33] In this manner it is not improbable -that the title of baronet may have been suggested to the advisers of -James I. when the order of Baronets was originally created by him, for -it was a question whether the recipients of the new dignity should be -designated by that or some other name.[34] But there is no doubt that as -previously used it was merely a corrupt synonym for banneret, and not -the name of any separate dignity. On the Continent, however, there are -several recorded examples of bannerets who had an hereditary claim to -that honour and its attendant privileges on the ground of the nature of -their feudal tenure.[35] And generally, at any rate to commence with, it -seems probable that bannerets were in every country merely the more -important class of feudatories, the "ricos hombres" in contrast to the -knights bachelors, who in France in the time of St Louis were known as -"pauvres hommes." In England all the barons or greater nobility were -entitled to bear banners, and therefore Du Cange's observations would -apply to them as well as to the barons or greater nobility of France and -Spain. But it is clear that from a comparatively early period bannerets -whose claims were founded on personal distinction rather than on feudal -tenure gradually came to the front, and much the same process of -substitution appears to have gone on in their case as that which we have -marked in the case of simple knights. According to the _Sallade_ and the -_Division du Monde_, as cited by Selden, bannerets were clearly in the -beginning feudal tenants of a certain magnitude and importance and -nothing more, and different forms for their creation are given in time -of peace and in time of war.[36] But in the French _Gesta Romanorum_ the -warlike form alone is given, and it is quoted by both Selden and Du -Cange. From the latter a more modern version of it is given by Daniel as -the only one generally in force. - -[Illustration: PLATE I. - -INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD, DRAWN BY -GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION OF HIS LATE MAJESTY -KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND -COMMAND. - -THE ORDER OF THE GARTER. - -(i.) THE GARTER; (ii) THE COLLAR AND GEORGE; (iii.) THE LESSER GEORGE -AND RIBBON; (iv.) STAR. - -_Drawn by William Gibb._ - -_Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] - -The knight bachelor whose services and landed possessions entitled him -to promotion would apply formally to the commander in the field for the -title of banneret. If this were granted, the heralds were called to cut -publicly the tails from his pennon: or the commander, as a special -honour, might cut them off with his own hands.[37] The earliest -contemporary mention of knights banneret is in France, Daniel says, in -the reign of Philip Augustus, and in England, Selden says in the reign -of Edward I. But in neither case is reference made to them in such a -manner as to suggest that the dignity was then regarded as new or even -uncommon, and it seems pretty certain that its existence on one side -could not have long preceded its existence on the other side of the -Channel. Sir Alan Plokenet, Sir Ralph Daubeney and Sir Philip Daubeney -are entered as bannerets on the roll of the garrison of Caermarthen -Castle in 1282, and the roll of Carlaverock records the names and arms -of eighty-five bannerets who accompanied Edward I. in his expedition -into Scotland in 1300. - -What the exact contingent was which bannerets were expected to supply to -the royal host is doubtful.[38] But, however this may be, in the reign -of Edward III. and afterwards bannerets appear as the commanders of a -military force raised by themselves and marshalled under their banners: -their status and their relations both to the crown and to their -followers were mainly the consequences of voluntary contract not of -feudal tenure. It is from the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. also -that the two best descriptions we possess of the actual creation of a -banneret have been transmitted to us.[39] Sir Thomas Smith, writing -towards the end of the 16th century, says, after noticing the conditions -to be observed in the creation of bannerets, "but this order is almost -grown out of use in England";[40] and, during the controversy which -arose between the new order of baronets and the crown early in the 17th -century respecting their precedence, it was alleged without -contradiction in an argument on behalf of the baronets before the privy -council that "there are not bannerets now in being, peradventure never -shall be."[41] Sir Ralph Fane, Sir Francis Bryan and Sir Ralph Sadler -were created bannerets by the Lord Protector Somerset after the battle -of Pinkie in 1547, and the better opinion is that this was the last -occasion on which the dignity was conferred. It has been stated indeed -that Charles I. created Sir John Smith a banneret after the battle of -Edgehill in 1642 for having rescued the royal standard from the enemy. -But of this there is no sufficient proof. It was also supposed that -George III. had created several naval officers bannerets towards the end -of the last century, because he knighted them on board ship under the -royal standard displayed. This, however, is unquestionably an error.[42] - - - Existing Orders of Knighthood. - -On the continent of Europe the degree of knight bachelor disappeared -with the military system which had given rise to it. It is now therefore -peculiar to the British Empire, where, although very frequently -conferred by letters patent, it is yet the only dignity which is still -even occasionally created--as every dignity was formerly created--by -means of a ceremony in which the sovereign and the subject personally -take part. Everywhere else dubbing or the accolade seems to have become -obsolete, and no other species of knighthood, if knighthood it can be -called, is known except that which is dependent on admission to some -particular order. It is a common error to suppose that baronets are -hereditary knights. Baronets are not knights unless they are knighted -like anybody else; and, so far from being knights because they are -baronets, one of the privileges granted to them shortly after the -institution of their dignity was that they, not being knights, and their -successors and their eldest sons and heirs-apparent should, when they -attained their majority, be entitled if they desired to receive -knighthood.[43] It is a maxim of the law indeed that, as Coke says, "the -knight is by creation and not by descent," and, although we hear of such -designations as the "knight of Kerry" or the "knight of Glin," they are -no more than traditional nicknames, and do not by any means imply that -the persons to whom they are applied are knights in a legitimate sense. -Notwithstanding, however, that simple knighthood has gone out of use -abroad, there are innumerable grand crosses, commanders and companions -of a formidable assortment of orders in almost every part of the -world.[44] (See the section on "Orders of Knighthood" below.) - -The United Kingdom has eight orders of knighthood--the Garter, the -Thistle, St Patrick, the Bath, the Star of India, St Michael and St -George, the Indian Empire and the Royal Victorian Order; and, while the -first is undoubtedly the oldest as well as the most illustrious anywhere -existing, a fictitious antiquity has been claimed and is even still -frequently conceded to the second and fourth, although the third, -fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth appear to be as contentedly as they -are unquestionably recent. - - - Order of the Garter. - -It is, however, certain that the "most noble" Order of the Garter at -least was instituted in the middle of the 14th century, when English -chivalry was outwardly brightest and the court most magnificent. But in -what particular year this event occurred is and has been the subject of -much difference of opinion. All the original records of the order until -after 1416 have perished, and consequently the question depends for its -settlement not on direct testimony but on inference from circumstances. -The dates which have been selected vary from 1344 (given by Froissart, -but almost certainly mistaken) to 1351. The evidence may be examined at -length in Nicolas and Beltz; it is indisputable that in the wardrobe -account from September 1347 to January 1349, the 21st and 23rd Edward -III., the issue of certain habits with garters and the motto embroidered -on them is marked for St George's Day; that the letters patent relating -to the preparation of the royal chapel of Windsor are dated in August -1348; and that in the treasury accounts of the prince of Wales there is -an entry in November 1348 of the gift by him of "twenty-four garters to -the knights of the Society of the Garter."[45] But that the order, -although from this manifestly already fully constituted in the autumn of -1348, was not in existence before the summer of 1346 Sir Harris Nicolas -proves pretty conclusively by pointing out that nobody who was not a -knight could under its statutes have been admitted to it, and that -neither the prince of Wales nor several others of the original -companions were knighted until the middle of that year. - -Regarding the occasion there has been almost as much controversy as -regarding the date of its foundation. The "vulgar and more general -story," as Ashmole calls it, is that of the countess of Salisbury's -garter. But commentators are not at one as to which countess of -Salisbury was the heroine of the adventure, whether she was Katherine -Montacute or Joan the Fair Maid of Kent, while Heylyn rejects the legend -as "a vain and idle romance derogatory both to the founder and the -order, first published by Polydor Vergil, a stranger to the affairs of -England, and by him taken upon no better ground than fama vulgi, the -tradition of the common people, too trifling a foundation for so great a -building."[46] - -Another legend is that contained in the preface to the Register or Black -Book of the order, compiled in the reign of Henry VIII., by what -authority supported is unknown, that Richard I., while his forces were -employed against Cyprus and Acre, had been inspired through the -instrumentality of St George with renewed courage and the means of -animating his fatigued soldiers by the device of tying about the legs of -a chosen number of knights a leathern thong or garter, to the end that -being thereby reminded of the honour of their enterprise they might be -encouraged to redoubled efforts for victory. This was supposed to have -been in the mind of Edward III. when he fixed on the garter as the -emblem of the order, and it was stated so to have been by Taylor, master -of the rolls, in his address to Francis I. of France on his investiture -in 1527.[47] According to Ashmole the true account of the matter is that -"King Edward having given forth his own garter as the signal for a -battle which sped fortunately (which with Du Chesne we conceive to be -that of Crecy), the victory, we say, being happily gained, he thence -took occasion to institute this order, and gave the garter (assumed by -him for the symbol of unity and society) preeminence among the ensigns -of it." But, as Sir Harris Nicolas points out--although Ashmole is not -open to the correction--this hypothesis rests for its plausibility on -the assumption that the order was established before the invasion of -France in 1346. And he further observes that "a great variety of -devices and mottoes were used by Edward III.; they were chosen from the -most trivial causes and were of an amorous rather than of a military -character. Nothing," he adds, "is more likely than that in a crowded -assembly a lady should accidentally have dropped her garter; that the -circumstance should have caused a smile in the bystanders; and that on -its being taken up by Edward he should have reproved the levity of his -courtiers by so happy and chivalrous an exclamation, placing the garter -at the same time on his own knee, as 'Dishonoured be he who thinks ill -of it.' Such a circumstance occurring at a time of general festivity, -when devices, mottoes and conceits of all kinds were adopted as -ornaments or badges of the habits worn at jousts and tournaments, would -naturally have been commemorated as other royal expressions seem to have -been by its conversion into a device and motto for the dresses at an -approaching hastilude."[48] Moreover, Sir Harris Nicolas contends that -the order had no loftier immediate origin than a joust or tournament. It -consisted of the king and the Black Prince, and 24 knights divided into -two bands of 12 like the tilters in a hastilude----at the head of the -one being the first, and of the other the second; and to the companions -belonging to each, when the order had superseded the Round Table and had -become a permanent institution, were assigned stalls either on the -sovereign's or the prince's side of St George's Chapel. That Sir Harris -Nicolas is accurate in this conjecture seems probable from the selection -which was made of the "founder knights." As Beltz observes, the fame of -Sir Reginald Cobham, Sir Walter Manny and the earls of Northampton, -Hereford and Suffolk was already established by their warlike exploits, -and they would certainly have been among the original companions had the -order been then regarded as the reward of military merit only. But, -although these eminent warriors were subsequently elected as vacancies -occurred, their admission was postponed to that of several very young -and in actual warfare comparatively unknown knights, whose claims to the -honour may be most rationally explained on the assumption that they had -excelled in the particular feats of arms which preceded the institution -of the order. The original companionship had consisted of the sovereign -and 25 knights, and no change was made in this respect until 1786, when -the sons of George III. and his successors were made eligible -notwithstanding that the chapter might be complete. In 1805 another -alteration was effected by the provision that the lineal descendants of -George II. should be eligible in the same manner, except the Prince of -Wales for the time being, who was declared to be "a constituent part of -the original institution"; and again in 1831 it was further ordained -that the privilege accorded to the lineal descendants of George II. -should extend to the lineal descendants of George I. Although, as Sir -Harris Nicolas observes, nothing is now known of the form of admitting -ladies into the order, the description applied to them in the records -during the 14th and 15th centuries leaves no doubt that they were -regularly received into it. The queen consort, the wives and daughters -of knights, and some other women of exalted position, were designated -"Dames de la Fraternite de St George," and entries of the delivery of -robes and garters to them are found at intervals in the Wardrobe -Accounts from the 50th Edward III. (1376) to the 10th of Henry VII. -(1495), the first being Isabel, countess of Bedford, the daughter of the -one king, and the last being Margaret and Elizabeth, the daughters of -the other king. The effigies of Margaret Byron, wife of Sir Robert -Harcourt, K.G., at Stanton Harcourt, and of Alice Chaucer, wife of -William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, K.G., at Ewelme, which date from -the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV., have garters on their left arms. -(See further under "Orders of Knighthood" below.) - - - Persons empowered to confer Knighthood. - -It has been the general opinion, as expressed by Sainte Palaye and -Mills, that formerly all knights were qualified to confer -knighthood.[49] But it may be questioned whether the privilege was thus -indiscriminately enjoyed even in the earlier days of chivalry. It is -true that as much might be inferred from the testimony of the romance -writers; historical evidence, however, tends to limit the proposition, -and the sounder conclusion appears to be, as Sir Harris Nicolas says, -that the right was always restricted in operation to sovereign princes, -to those acting under their authority or sanction, and to a few other -personages of exalted rank and station.[50] In several of the writs for -distraint of knighthood from Henry III. to Edward III. a distinction is -drawn between those who are to be knighted by the king himself or by the -sheriffs of counties respectively, and bishops and abbots could make -knights in the 11th and 12th centuries.[51] At all periods the -commanders of the royal armies had the power of conferring knighthood; -as late as the reign of Elizabeth it was exercised among others by Sir -Henry Sidney in 1583, and Robert, earl of Essex, in 1595, while under -James I. an ordinance of 1622, confirmed by a proclamation of 1623, for -the registration of knights in the college of arms, is rendered -applicable to all who should receive knighthood from either the king or -any of his lieutenants.[52] Many sovereigns, too, both of England and of -France, have been knighted after their accession to the throne by their -own subjects, as, for instance, Edward III. by Henry, earl of Lancaster, -Edward VI. by the lord protector Somerset, Louis XI. by Philip, duke of -Burgundy, and Francis I. by the Chevalier Bayard. But when in 1543 Henry -VIII. appointed Sir John Wallop to be captain of Guisnes, it was -considered necessary that he should be authorized in express terms to -confer knighthood, which was also done by Edward VI. in his own case -when he received knighthood from the duke of Somerset.[53] But at -present the only subject to whom the right of conferring knighthood -belongs is the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and to him it belongs merely -by long usage and established custom. But, by whomsoever conferred, -knighthood at one time endowed the recipient with the same status and -attributes in every country wherein chivalry was recognized. In the -middle ages it was a common practice for sovereigns and princes to dub -each other knights much as they were afterwards, and are now, in the -habit of exchanging the stars and ribbons of their orders. Henry II. was -knighted by his great-uncle David I. of Scotland, Alexander III. of -Scotland by Henry III., Edward I. when he was prince by Alphonso X. of -Castile, and Ferdinand of Portugal by Edmund of Langley, earl of -Cambridge.[54] And, long after the military importance of knighthood had -practically disappeared, what may be called its cosmopolitan character -was maintained: a knight's title was recognized in all European -countries, and not only in that country in which he had received it. In -modern times, however, by certain regulations, made in 1823, and -repeated and enlarged in 1855, not only is it provided that the -sovereign's permission by royal warrant shall be necessary for the -reception by a British subject of any foreign order of knighthood, but -further that such permission shall not authorize "the assumption of any -style, appellation, rank, precedence, or privilege appertaining to a -knight bachelor of the United Kingdom."[55] - - - Degradation. - -Since knighthood was accorded either by actual investiture or its -equivalent, a counter process of degradation was regarded as necessary -for the purpose of depriving anybody who had once received it of the -rank and condition it implied.[56] The cases in which a knight has been -formally degraded in England are exceedingly few, so few indeed that two -only are mentioned by Segar, writing in 1602, and Dallaway says that -only three were on record in the College of Arms when he wrote in 1793. -The last case was that of Sir Francis Michell in 1621, whose spurs were -hacked from his heels, his sword-belt cut, and his sword broken over his -head by the heralds in Westminster Hall.[57] - -Roughly speaking, the age of chivalry properly so called may be said to -have extended from the beginning of the crusades to the end of the Wars -of the Roses. Even in the way of pageantry and martial exercise it did -not long survive the middle ages. In England tilts and tourneys, in -which her father had so much excelled, were patronized to the last by -Queen Elizabeth, and were even occasionally held until after the death -of Henry, prince of Wales. But on the Continent they were discredited by -the fatal accident which befell Henry II. of France in 1559. The golden -age of chivalry has been variously located. Most writers would place it -in the early 13th century, but Gautier would remove it two or three -generations further back. It may be true that, in the comparative -scarcity of historical evidence, 12th-century romances present a more -favourable picture of chivalry at that earlier time; but even such -historical evidence as we possess, when carefully scrutinized, is enough -to dispel the illusion that there was any period of the middle ages in -which the unselfish championship of "God and the ladies" was anything -but a rare exception. - -It is difficult to describe the true spirit and moral influence of -knighthood, if only because the ages in which it flourished differed so -widely from our own. At its very best, it was always hampered by the -limitations of medieval society. Moreover, many of the noblest precepts -of the knightly code were a legacy from earlier ages, and have survived -the decay of knighthood just as they will survive all transitory human -institutions, forming part of the eternal heritage of the race. Indeed, -the most important of these precepts did not even attain to their -highest development in the middle ages. As a conscious effort to bring -religion into daily life, chivalry was less successful than later -puritanism; while the educated classes of our own day far surpass the -average medieval knight in discipline, self-control and outward or -inward refinement. Freeman's estimate comes far nearer to the historical -facts than Burke's: "The chivalrous spirit is above all things a class -spirit. The good knight is bound to endless fantastic courtesies towards -men and still more towards women of a certain rank; he may treat all -below that rank with any decree of scorn and cruelty. The spirit of -chivalry implies the arbitrary choice of one or two virtues to be -practised in such an exaggerated degree as to become vices, while the -ordinary laws of right and wrong are forgotten. The false code of honour -supplants the laws of the commonwealth, the law of God and the eternal -principles of right. Chivalry again in its military aspect not only -encourages the love of war for its own sake without regard to the cause -for which war is waged, it encourages also an extravagant regard for a -fantastic show of personal daring which cannot in any way advance the -objects of the siege or campaign which is going on. Chivalry in short is -in morals very much what feudalism is in law: each substitutes purely -personal obligations devised in the interests of an exclusive class, for -the more homely duties of an honest man and a good citizen" (_Norman -Conquest_, v. 482). The chivalry from which Burke drew his ideas was, so -far as it existed at all, the product of a far later age. In its own -age, chivalry rested practically, like the highest civilization of -ancient Greece and Rome, on slave labour;[58] and if many of its most -brilliant outward attractions have now faded for ever, this is only -because modern civilization tends so strongly to remove social barriers. -The knightly ages will always enjoy the glory of having formulated a -code of honour which aimed at rendering the upper classes worthy of -their exceptional privileges; yet we must judge chivalry not only by its -formal code but also by its practical fruits. The ideal is well summed -up by F. W. Cornish: "Chivalry taught the world the duty of noble -service willingly rendered. It upheld courage and enterprise in -obedience to rule, it consecrated military prowess to the service of the -Church, glorified the virtues of liberality, good faith, unselfishness -and courtesy, and above all, courtesy to women. Against these may be set -the vices of pride, ostentation, love of bloodshed, contempt of -inferiors, and loose manners. Chivalry was an imperfect discipline, but -it was a discipline, and one fit for the times. It may have existed in -the world too long: it did not come into existence too early; and with -all its shortcomings it exercised a great and wholesome influence in -raising the medieval world from barbarism to civilization" (p. 27). This -was the ideal, but to give the reader a clear view of the actual -features of knightly society in their contrast with that of our own day, -it is necessary to bring out one or two very significant shadows. - -Far too much has been made of the extent to which the knightly code, and -the reverence paid to the Virgin Mary, raised the position of women -(e.g. Gautier, p. 360). As Gautier himself admits, the feudal system -made it difficult to separate the woman's person from her fief: instead -of the freedom of Christian marriage on which the Church in theory -insisted, lands and women were handed over together, as a business -bargain, by parents or guardians. In theory, the knight was the defender -of widows and orphans; but in practice wardships and marriages were -bought and sold as a matter of everyday routine like stocks and shares -in the modern market. Lord Thomas de Berkeley (1245-1321) counted on -this as a regular and considerable source of income (Smyth, _Lives_, i. -157). Late in the 15th century, in spite of the somewhat greater liberty -of that age, we find Stephen Scrope writing nakedly to a familiar -correspondent "for very need [of poverty], I was fain to sell a little -daughter I have for much less than I should have done by possibility," -i.e. than the fair market price (Gairdner, _Paston Letters_, -Introduction, p. clxxvi; cf. ccclxxi). Startling as such words are, it -is perhaps still more startling to find how frequently and naturally, in -the highest society, ladies were degraded by personal violence. The -proofs of this which Schultz and Gautier adduce from the _Chansons de -Geste_ might be multiplied indefinitely. The Knight of La Tour-Landry -(1372) relates, by way of warning to his daughters, a tale of a lady who -so irritated her husband by scolding him in company, that he struck her -to the earth with his fist and kicked her in the face, breaking her -nose. Upon this the good knight moralizes: "And this she had for her -euelle and gret langage, that she was wont to saie to her husbonde. And -therfor the wiff aught to suffre and lete her husbonde haue the wordes, -and to be maister, for that is her worshippe; for it is shame to here -striff betwene hem, and in especial before folke. But y saie not but -whanne thei be allone, but she may tolle hym with goodly wordes, and -counsaile hym to amende yef he do amys" (La Tour, chap. xviii.; cf. -xvii. and xix.). The right of wife-beating was formally recognized by -more than one code of laws, and it was already a forward step when, in -the 13th century, the _Coutumes du Beauvoisis_ provided "que le mari ne -doit battre sa femme que _raisonnablement_" (Gautier, p. 349). This was -a natural consequence not only of the want of self-control which we see -everywhere in the middle ages, but also of the custom of contracting -child-marriages for unsentimental considerations. Between 1288 and 1500 -five marriages are recorded in the direct line of the Berkeley family in -which the ten contracting parties averaged less than eleven years of -age: the marriage contract of another Lord Berkeley was drawn up before -he was six years old. Moreover, the same business considerations which -dictated those early marriages clashed equally with the strict theory of -knighthood. In the same Berkeley family, the lord Maurice IV. was -knighted in 1338 at the age of seven to avoid the possible evils of -wardship, and Thomas V. for the same reason in 1476 at the age of five. -Smyth's record of this great family shows that, from the middle of the -13th century onwards, the lords were not only statesmen and warriors, -but still more distinguished as gentlemen-farmers on a great scale, even -selling fruit from the castle gardens, while their ladies would go round -on tours of inspection from dairy to dairy. The lord Thomas III. -(1326-1361), who was noted as a special lover of tournaments, spent in -two years only L90, or an average of about L15 per tournament; yet he -was then laying money by at the rate of L450 a year, and, a few years -later, at the rate of L1150, or nearly half his income! Indeed, economic -causes contributed much to the decay of romantic chivalry. The old -families had lost heavily from generation to generation, partly by -personal extravagances, but also by gradual alienations of land to the -Church and by the enormous expenses of the crusades. Already, in the -13th century, they were hard pressed by the growing wealth of the -burghers, and even the greatest nobles could scarcely keep up their -state without careful business management. It is not surprising -therefore, to find that at least as early as the middle of the 13th -century the commercial side of knighthood became very prominent. -Although by the code of chivalry no candidate could be knighted before -the age of twenty-one, we have seen how great nobles like the Berkeleys -obtained that honour for their infant heirs in order to avoid possible -pecuniary loss; and French writers of the 14th century complained of -this knighting of infants as a common and serious abuse.[59] Moreover, -after the knight's liability to personal service in war had been -modified in the 12th century by the scutage system, it became necessary -in the first quarter of the 13th to compel landowners to take up the -knighthood which in theory they should have coveted as an honour--a -compulsion which was soon systematically enforced (_Distraint of -Knighthood_, 1278), and became a recognized source of royal income. An -indirect effect of this system[60] was to break down another rule of the -chivalrous code--that none could be dubbed who was not of gentle -birth.[61] This rule, however, had often been broken before; even the -romances of chivalry speak not infrequently of the knighting of serfs or -_jongleurs_;[62] and other causes besides distraint of knighthood tended -to level the old distinctions. While knighthood was avoided by poor -nobles, it was coveted by rich citizens. It is recorded in 1298 as "an -immemorial custom" in Provence that rich burghers enjoyed the honour of -knighthood; and less than a century later we find Sacchetti complaining -that the dignity is open to any rich upstart, however disreputable his -antecedents.[63] Similar causes contributed to the decay of knightly -ideas in warfare. Even in the 12th century, when war was still rather -the pastime of kings and knights than a national effort, the strict -code of chivalry was more honoured in the breach than in the -observance.[64] But when the Hundred Years' War brought a real national -conflict between England and France, when archery became of supreme -importance, and a large proportion even of the cavalry were mercenary -soldiers, then the exigencies of serious warfare swept away much of that -outward display and those class-conventions on which chivalry had always -rested. Simeon Luce (chap. vi.) has shown how much the English successes -in this war were due to strict business methods. Several of the best -commanders (e.g. Sir Robert Knolles and Sir Thomas Dagworth) were of -obscure birth, while on the French side even Du Guesclin had to wait -long for his knighthood because he belonged only to the lesser nobility. -The tournament again, which for two centuries had been under the ban of -the Church, was often almost as definitely discouraged by Edward III. as -it was encouraged by John of France; and while John's father opened the -Crecy campaign by sending Edward a challenge in due form of chivalry, -Edward took advantage of this formal delay to amuse the French king with -negotiations while he withdrew his army by a rapid march from an almost -hopeless position. A couple of quotations from Froissart will illustrate -the extent to which war had now become a mere business. Much as he -admired the French chivalry, he recognized their impotence at Crecy. -"The sharp arrows ran into the men of arms and into their horses, and -many fell, horse and men.... And also among the Englishmen there were -certain rascals that went afoot with great knives, and they went in -among the men of arms, and slew and murdered many as they lay on the -ground, both earls, barons, knights and squires, whereof the king of -England was after displeased, for he had rather they had been taken -prisoners." How far Edward's solicitude was disinterested may be gauged -from Froissart's parallel remark about the battle of Aljubarrota, where, -as at Agincourt, the handful of victors were obliged by a sudden panic -to slay their prisoners. "Lo, behold the great evil adventure that fell -that Saturday. For they slew as many good prisoners as would well have -been worth, one with another, four hundred thousand franks." In 1402 -Lord Thomas de Berkeley bought, as a speculation, 24 Scottish prisoners. -Similar practical considerations forced the nobles of other European -countries either to conform to less sentimental methods of warfare and -to growing conceptions of nationality, or to become mere Ishmaels of the -type which outlived the middle ages in Gotz von Berlichingen and his -compeers. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Froissart is perhaps the source from which we may - gather most of chivalry in its double aspect, good and bad. The - brilliant side comes out most clearly in Joinville, the _Chronique de - Du Guesclin_, and the _Histoire de Bayart_; the darker side appears in - the earlier chronicles of the crusades, and is especially emphasized - by preachers and moralists like Jacques de Vitry, Etienne de Bourbon, - Nicole Bozon and John Gower. John Smyth's _Lives of the Berkeleys_ - (Bristol and Gloucs. Archaeol. Soc, 2 vols.) and the _Book of the - Knight of La Tour-Landry_ (ed. A. de Montaiglon, or in the old English - trans. published by the Early English Text Soc.) throw a very vivid - light on the inner life of noble families. Of modern books, besides - those quoted by their full titles in the notes, the best are A. - Schultz, _Hofisches Leben z. Zeit der Minnesanger_ (Leipzig, 1879); S. - Luce, _Hist. de Du Guesclin et de son Epoque_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1882), - masterly but unfortunately unfinished at the author's death; Leon - Gautier, _La Chevalerie_ (Paris, 1883), written with a strong - apologetic bias, but full and correct in its references; and F. W. - Cornish, _Chivalry_ (London, 1901), too little reference to the more - prosaic historical documents, but candid and without intentional - partiality. (G. G. Co.) - - -ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD - -When orders ceased to be fraternities and became more and more marks of -favour and a means of recognizing meritorious services to the Crown and -country, the term "orders" became loosely applied to the insignia and -decorations themselves. Thus "orders," irrespective of the title or -other specific designation they confer, fall in Great Britain generally -into three main categories, according as the recipients are made -"knights grand cross," "knights commander," or "companions." In some -orders the classes are more numerous, as in the Royal Victorian, for -instance, which has five, numerous foreign orders a like number, some -six, while the Chinese "Dragon" boasts no less than eleven degrees. -Generally speaking, the insignia of the "knights grand cross" consist of -a star worn on the left breast and a badge, usually some form either of -the cross _patee_ or of the Maltese cross, worn suspended from a ribbon -over the shoulder or, in certain cases, on days of high ceremonial from -a collar. The "commanders" wear the badge from a ribbon round the neck, -and the star on the breast; the "companions" have no star and wear the -badge from a narrow ribbon at the button-hole. - -Orders may, again, be grouped according as they are (1) PRIME ORDERS OF -CHRISTENDOM, conferred upon an exclusive class only. Here belong, _inter -alia_, the well-known orders of the _Garter_ (England), _Golden Fleece_ -(Austria and Spain), _Annunziata_ (Italy), _Black Eagle_ (Prussia), _St -Andrew_ (Russia), _Elephant_ (Denmark) and _Seraphim_ (Sweden). Of these -the first three only, which are usually held to rank _inter se_ in the -order given, are historically identified with chivalry. (2) FAMILY -ORDERS, bestowed upon members of the royal or princely class, or upon -humbler individuals according to classes, in respect of "personal" -services rendered to the family. To this category belong such orders as -the Royal Victorian and the Hohenzollern (Prussia). (3) ORDERS OF MERIT, -whether military, civil or joint orders. Such have, as a rule, at least -three, oftener five classes, and here belong such as the _Order of the -Bath_ (British), _Red Eagle_ (Prussia), _Legion of Honour_ (France). -There are also certain orders, such as the recently instituted _Order of -Merit_ (British), and the _Pour le Merite_ (Prussia), which have but one -class, all members being on an equality of rank within the order. - -Of the three great military and religious orders, branches survive of -two, the Teutonic Order (_Der hohe deutsche Ritter Orden_ or _Marianen -Orden_) and the Knights of St John of Jerusalem (_Johanniter Orden_, -_Malteser Orden_), for the history of which and the present state see -TEUTONIC ORDER and ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER OF. - -_Great Britain._--The history and constitution of the "most noble" -_Order of the Garter_ has been treated above. The officers of the order -are five--the prelate, chancellor, registrar, king of arms and -usher--the first, third and fifth having been attached to it from the -commencement, while the fourth was added by Henry V. and the second by -Edward IV. The prelate has always been the bishop of Winchester; the -chancellor was formerly the bishop of Salisbury, but is now the bishop -of Oxford; the registrarship and the deanery of Windsor have been united -since the reign of Charles I.; the king of arms, whose duties were in -the beginning discharged by Windsor herald, is Garter Principal King of -Arms; and the usher is the gentleman usher of the Black Rod. The chapel -of the order is St George's Chapel, Windsor. The insignia of the order -are illustrated on Plate I. - -The "most ancient" _Order of the Thistle_, was founded by James II. in -1687, and dedicated to St Andrew. It consisted of the sovereign and -eight knights companions, and fell into abeyance at the Revolution of -1688. In 1703 it was revived by Queen Anne, when it was ordained to -consist of the sovereign and 12 knights companions, the number being -increased to 16 by statute in 1827. The officers of the order are the -dean, the secretary, Lyon King of Arms and the gentleman usher of the -Green Rod. The chapel, in St Giles's, Edinburgh, was begun in 1909. The -star, badge and ribbon of the order are illustrated on Plate II., figs. -5 and 6. The collar is formed of thistles, alternating with sprigs of -rue, and the motto is _Nemo me impune lacessit_. - -[Illustration: PLATE II. - -THE BATH. (i) STAR; (ii.) GRAND CROSS (Mil.); (iii) STAR; (iv.) GRAND -CROSS (Civ.); THE THISTLE. (v.) STAR; (vi.) BADGE. THE ST. PATRICK. -(vii.) BADGE; (viii.) STAR. THE ST. MICHAEL AND ST. GEORGE. (ix.) STAR; -(x.) GRAND CROSS. - -_Drawn by William Gibb._ - -_Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] - -The "most illustrious" _Order of St Patrick_ was instituted by George -III. in 1788, to consist of the sovereign, the lord lieutenant of -Ireland as grand master and 15 knights companions, enlarged to 22 in -1833. The chancellor of the order is the chief secretary to the lord -lieutenant of Ireland, and the king of arms is Ulster King of Arms; -Black Rod is the usher. The chapel is in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. -The star, badge and ribbon are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 7 and 8. -The collar is formed of alternate roses with red and white leaves, and -gold harps linked by gold knots; the badge is suspended from a harp -surmounted by an imperial jewelled crown. The motto is _Quis separabit_? - -The "most honourable" _Order of the Bath_ was established by George I. -in 1725, to consist of the sovereign, a grand master and 36 knights -companions. This was a pretended revival of an order supposed to have -been created by Henry IV. at his coronation in 1399. But, as has been -shown in the preceding section, no such order existed. Knights of the -Bath, although they were allowed precedence before knights bachelors, -were merely knights bachelors who were knighted with more elaborate -ceremonies than others and on certain great occasions. In 1815 the order -was instituted, in three classes, "to commemorate the auspicious -termination of the long and arduous contest in which the Empire has been -engaged"; and in 1847 the civil knights commanders and companions were -added. Exclusive of the sovereign, royal princes and distinguished -foreigners, the order is limited to 55 military and 27 civil knights -grand cross, 145 military and 108 civil knights commanders, and 705 -military and 298 civil companions. The officers of the order are the -dean (the dean of Westminster), Bath King of Arms, the registrar, and -the usher of the Scarlet Rod. The ribbon and badges of the knights grand -cross (civil and military) and the stars are illustrated on Plate II., -figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4. - -The "most distinguished" _Order of St Michael and St George_ was founded -by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., in 1818, in commemoration -of the British protectorate of the Ionian Islands, "for natives of the -Ionian Islands and of the island of Malta and its dependencies, and for -such other subjects of his majesty as may hold high and confidential -situations in the Mediterranean." By statute of 1832 the lord high -commissioner of the Ionian Islands was to be the grand master, and the -order was directed to consist of 15 knights grand crosses, 20 knights -commanders and 25 cavaliers or companions. After the repudiation of the -British protectorate of the Ionian Islands, the order was placed on a -new basis, and by letters patent of 1868 and 1877 it was extended and -provided for such of "the natural born subjects of the Crown of the -United Kingdom as may have held or shall hold high and confidential -offices within her majesty's colonial possessions, and in reward for -services rendered to the crown in relation to the foreign affairs of the -Empire." It is now (by the enlargement of 1902) limited to 100 knights -grand cross, of whom the first or principal is grand master, exclusive -of extra and honorary members, of 300 knights commanders and 600 -companions. The officers are the prelate, chancellor, registrar, -secretary and officer of arms. The chapel of the order, in St Paul's -Cathedral, was dedicated in 1906. The badge of the knights grand cross -and the ribbon are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 9 and 10. The star of -the knights grand cross is a seven-rayed star of silver with a small ray -of gold between each, in the centre is a red St George's cross bearing a -medallion of St Michael encountering Satan, surrounded by a blue fillet -with the motto _Auspicium melioris aevi_. - -The _Order of St Michael and St George_ ranks between the "most exalted" -_Order of the Star of India_ and the "most eminent" _Order of the Indian -Empire_, of both of which the viceroy of India for the time being is _ex -officio_ grand master. Of these the first was instituted in 1861 and -enlarged in 1876, 1897 and 1903, in three classes, knights grand -commanders, knights commanders and companions, and the second was -established (for "companions" only) in 1878 and enlarged in 1887, 1892, -1897 and 1903, also in the same three classes, in commemoration of -Queen Victoria's assumption of the imperial style and title of the -Empress of India. The badges, stars and ribbons of the knights grand -commanders of the two orders are illustrated on Plate III., figs. 3, 4, -5 and 6. The collar of the _Star of India_ is composed of alternate -links of the lotus flower, red and white roses and palm branches -enamelled on gold, with an imperial crown in the centre; that of the -_Indian Empire_ is composed of elephants, peacocks and Indian roses. - -The _Royal Victorian Order_ was instituted by Queen Victoria on the 25th -of April 1896, and conferred for personal services rendered to her -majesty and her successors on the throne. It consists of the sovereign, -chancellor, secretary and five classes--knights grand commanders, -knights commanders, commanders and members of the fourth and fifth -classes, the distinction between these last divisions lying in the badge -and in the precedence enjoyed by the members. The knights of this order -rank in their respective classes immediately after those of the _Indian -Empire_, and its numbers are unlimited. The badge, star and ribbon of -the knights grand cross are illustrated on Plate III., figs. 1 and 2. - -To the class of orders without the titular appellation "knight" belongs -the _Order of Merit_, founded by King Edward VII. on the occasion of his -coronation. The order is founded on the lines of the Prussian _Ordre -pour le merite_ (see below), yet more comprehensive, including those who -have gained distinction in the military and naval services of the -Empire, and such as have made themselves a great name in the fields of -science, art and literature. The number of British members has been -fixed at twenty-four, with the addition of such foreign persons as the -sovereign shall appoint. The names of the first recipients were: Earl -Roberts, Viscount Wolseley, Viscount Kitchener, Sir Henry Keppel, Sir -Edward Seymour, Lord Lister, Lord Rayleigh, Lord Kelvin, John Morley, W. -E. H. Lecky, G. F. Watts and Sir William Huggins. The only foreign -recipients up to 1910 were Field Marshals Yamagata and Oyama and Admiral -Togo. A lady, Miss Florence Nightingale, received the order in 1907. The -badge is a cross of red and blue enamel surmounted by an imperial crown; -the central blue medallion bears the inscription "For Merit" in gold, -and is surrounded by a wreath of laurel. The badge of the military and -naval members bears two crossed swords in the angles of the cross. The -ribbon is garter blue and crimson and is worn round the neck. - - The _Distinguished Service Order_, an order of military merit, was - founded on the 6th of September 1886 by Queen Victoria, its object - being to recognize the special services of officers in the army and - navy. Its numbers are unlimited, and its designation the letters - D.S.O. It consists of one class only, who take precedence immediately - after the 4th class of the Royal Victorian Order. The badge is a white - and gold cross with a red centre bearing the imperial crown surrounded - by a laurel wreath. The ribbon is red edged with blue. The _Imperial - Service Order_ was likewise instituted on the 26th of June 1902, and - finally revised in 1908, to commemorate King Edward's coronation, and - is specially designed as a recognition of faithful and meritorious - services rendered to the British Crown by the administrative members - of the civil service in various parts of the Empire, and is to consist - of companions only. The numbers are limited to 475, of whom 250 belong - to the home and 225 to the civil services of the colonies and - protectorates (Royal Warrant, June 1909). Women as well as men are - eligible. The members of the order have the distinction of adding the - letters I.S.O. after their names. In precedence the order ranks after - the _Distinguished Service Order_. The badge is a gold medallion - bearing the royal cipher and the words "For Faithful Service" in blue; - for men it rests on a silver star, for women it is surrounded by a - silver wreath. The ribbon is one blue between two crimson stripes. - - In addition to the above, there are two British orders confined to - ladies. The _Royal Order of Victoria and Albert_, which was instituted - in 1862, is a purely court distinction. It consists of four classes, - and it has as designation the letters V.A. The _Imperial Order of the - Crown of India_ is conferred for like purposes as the Order of the - Indian Empire. Its primary object is to recognize the services of - ladies connected with the court of India. The letters C.I. are its - designation. - - The sovereign's permission by royal warrant is necessary before a - British subject can receive a foreign order of knighthood. For other - decorations, see under MEDALS. - -_The Golden Fleece_ (_La Toison d'Or_) ranks historically and in -distinction as one of the great knightly orders of Europe. It is now -divided into two branches, of Austria and Spain. It was founded on the -10th of January, 1429/30 by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, on the -day of his marriage with Isabella of Portugal at Bruges, in her honour -and dedicated to the Virgin and St Andrew. No certain origin can be -given for the name. It seems to have been in dispute even in the early -history of the order. Four different sources have been suggested; the -classical myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts for the golden -fleece, the scriptural story of Gideon, the staple trade of Flanders in -wool, and the fleece of golden hair of Marie de Rambrugge, the duke's -mistress. Motley (_Rise of Dutch Rep._, i. 48) says: "What could be more -practical and more devout than the conception? Did not the Lamb of God, -suspended at each knight's heart, symbolize at once the woollen fabrics -to which so much of Flemish wealth and Burgundian power was owing, and -the gentle humility of Christ which was ever to characterize the order?" -At its constitution the number of the knights was limited to 24, -exclusive of the grand master, the sovereign. The members were to be -_gentilshommes de nom et d'armes et sans reproche_, not knights of any -other order, and vowed to join their sovereign in the defence of the -Catholic faith, the protection of Holy Church, and the upholding of -virtue and good morals. The sovereign undertook to consult the knights -before embarking on a war, all disputes between the knights were to be -settled by the order, at each chapter the deeds of each knight were held -in review, and punishments and admonitions were dealt out to offenders; -to this the sovereign was expressly subject. Thus we find that the -emperor Charles V. accepted humbly the criticism of the knights of the -Fleece on his over-centralization of the government and the wasteful -personal attention to details (E. A. Armstrong, _Charles V._, 1902, ii. -373). The knights could claim as of right to be tried by their fellows -on charges of rebellion, heresy and treason, and Charles V. conferred on -the order exclusive jurisdiction over all crimes committed by the -knights. The arrest of the offender had to be by warrant signed by at -least six knights, and during the process of charge and trial he -remained not in prison but _dans l'aimable compagnie du dit ordre_. It -was in defiance of this right that Alva refused the claim of Counts -Egmont and Horn to be tried by the knights of the Fleece in 1568. During -the 16th century the order frequently acted as a consultative body in -the state; thus in 1539 and 1540 Charles summons the knights with the -council of state and the privy council to decide what steps should be -taken in face of the revolt of Ghent (Armstrong, _op. cit._, i. 302), in -1562 Margaret of Parma, the regent, summons them to Brussels to debate -the dangerous condition of the provinces (Motley, i. 48), and they were -present at the abdication of Charles in the great hall at Brussels in -1555. The history of the order and its subsequent division into the two -branches of Austria and Spain may be briefly summarized. By the marriage -of Mary, only daughter of Charles the Bold of Burgundy to Maximilian, -archduke of Austria, 1477, the grand mastership of the order came to the -house of Habsburg and, with the Netherlands provinces, to Spain in 1504 -on the accession of Philip, Maximilian's son, to Castile. On the -extinction of the Habsburg dynasty in Spain by the death of Charles II. -in 1700 the grand-mastership, which had been filled by the kings of -Spain after the loss of the Netherlands, was claimed by the emperor -Charles VI., and he instituted the order in Vienna in 1713. Protests -were made at various times by Philip V., but the question has never been -finally decided by treaty, and the Austrian and Spanish branches have -continued as independent orders ever since as the principal order of -knighthood in the respective states. It may be noticed that while the -Austrian branch excludes any other than Roman Catholics from the order, -the Spanish Fleece may be granted to Protestants. The badges of the two -branches vary slightly in detail, more particularly in the attachment of -fire-stones (_fusils_ or _furisons_) and steels by which the fleece is -attached to the ribbon of the collar. The Spanish form is given on Plate -IV., fig. 2. The collar is composed of alternate links of furisons and -double steels interlaced to form the letter B for Burgundy. A -magnificent exhibition of relics, portraits of knights and other -objects connected with the order of the Golden Fleece was held at Bruges -in 1907. - - The chief history of the order is Baron de Reiffenberg's _Histoire de - l'Ordre de la Toison d'Or_ (1830); see also an article by Sir J. - Balfour Paul, Lyon King of Arms, in the _Scottish Historical Review_ - (July 1908). - - _Austria-Hungary._--The following are the principal orders other than - that of the Golden Fleece (_supra_). _The Order of St Stephen of - Hungary_, the royal Hungarian order, founded in 1764 by the empress - Maria Theresa, consists of the grand master (the sovereign), 20 - knights grand cross, 30 knights commanders and 50 knights. The badge - is a green enamelled cross with gold borders, suspended from the - Hungarian crown; the red enamelled medallion in the centre of the - cross bears a white patriarchal cross issuing from a coroneted green - mound; on either side of the cross are the letters M.T. in gold, and - the whole is surrounded by a white fillet with the legend _Publicum - Meritorum Praemium_. The ribbon is green with a crimson central - stripe. The collar, only worn by the knights grand cross, is of gold, - and consists of Hungarian crowns linked together alternately by the - monograms of St Stephen, S.S., and the foundress, M.T.; the centre of - the collar is formed by a flying lark encircled by the motto _Stringit - amore_. An illustration of the star of the grand cross is given on - Plate V. fig. 4. _The Order of Leopold_, for civil and military - service, was founded in 1808 by the emperor Francis I. in memory of - his father Leopold II. The three classes take precedence next after - the corresponding classes of the order of St Stephen. The badge is a - red enamelled cross bordered with white and gold and surmounted by the - imperial crown; the red medallion in the centre bears the letters - F.I.A., and on the encircling white fillet is the inscription - _Integritati et Merito_. When conferred for service in war the cross - rests on a green laurel wreath. The ribbon is scarlet with two white - stripes. The collar consists of imperial crowns, the initials F. and - L. and oak wreaths. _The Order of the Iron Crown_, i.e. of Lombardy, - was founded by Napoleon as king of Italy in 1809, and refounded as an - Austrian order of civil and military merit in 1816 by the emperor - Francis I.; the number of knights is limited to 100--20 grand cross, - 30 commanders, 50 knights. The badge consists of the double-headed - imperial eagle with sword and orb; below it is the jewelled iron crown - of Lombardy, and above the imperial crown; on the breast of the eagle - is a gold-bordered blue shield with the letter F. in gold. The - military decoration for war service also bears two green laurel - branches. The ribbon is yellow edged with narrow blue stripes. The - collar is formed of Lombard crowns, oak wreaths and the monogram F. P. - (_Franciscus Primus_). _The Order of Francis Joseph_, for personal - merit of every kind, was founded in 1849 by the emperor Francis Joseph - I. It is of the three usual classes and is unlimited in numbers. The - badge is a black and gold imperial eagle surmounted by the imperial - crown. The eagle bears a red cross with a white medallion, containing - the letters F. J., and to the beaks of the two heads of the eagle is - attached a chain on which is the legend _Viribus Unitis_. The ribbon - is deep red. The _Order of Maria Theresa_ was founded by the empress - Maria Theresa in 1757. It is a purely military order and is given to - officers for personal distinguished conduct in the field. There are - three classes. There were originally only two, grand cross and - knights. The emperor Joseph II. added a commanders' class in 1765. The - badge is a white cross with gold edge, in the centre a red medallion - with a white gold-edged _fesse_, surrounded by a fillet with the - inscription _Fortitudini_. The ribbon is red with a white central - stripe. The _Order of Elizabeth Theresa_, also a military order for - officers, was founded in 1750 by the will of Elizabeth Christina, - widow of the emperor Charles VI. It was renovated in 1771 by her - daughter, the empress Maria Theresa. The order is limited to 21 - knights in three divisions. The badge is an oval star with eight - points, enamelled half red and white, dependent from a gold imperial - crown. The central medallion bears the initials of the founders, with - the encircling inscription _M. Theresa parentis gratiam perennem - voluit_. The ribbon is black. The _Order of the Starry Cross_, for - high-born ladies of the Roman Catholic faith who devote themselves to - good works, spiritual and temporal, was founded in 1668 by the empress - Eleanor, widow of the emperor Ferdinand III. and mother of Leopold I., - to commemorate the recovery of a relic of the true cross from a - dangerous fire in the imperial palace at Vienna. The relic was - supposed to have been peculiarly treasured by the emperor Maximilian - I. and the emperor Frederick III. The patroness of the order must be a - princess of the imperial Austrian house. The badge is the black - double-headed eagle surrounded by a blue-enamelled ornamented border, - with the inscription _Salus et Gloria_ on a white fillet; the eagle - bears a red Greek cross with gold and blue borders. The _Order of - Elizabeth_, also for ladies, was founded in 1898. - - [Illustration: PLATE III. - - ROYAL VICTORIAN ORDER. (i.) GRAND CROSS; (ii.) STAR. ORDER OF THE - INDIAN EMPIRE. (iii.) BADGE OF KNIGHT GRAND COMMANDER; (iv.) STAR. THE - STAR OF INDIA. (v.) STAR; (vi.) BADGE OF KNIGHT GRAND COMMANDER. - - _Drawn by William Gibb._ - - _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] - - _Belgium._--The _Order of Leopold_, for civil and military merit, was - founded in 1832 by Leopold I., with four classes, a fifth being added - in 1838. The badge is a white enamelled cross, with gold borders and - balls, suspended from a royal crown and resting on a green laurel and - oak wreath. In the centre a medallion, surrounded by a red fillet with - the motto of the order, _L'union fait la force_, bears a golden - Belgian lion on a black field. The ribbon is watered red. The _Order - of the Iron Cross_, the badge of which is a black cross with gold - borders, with a gold centre bearing a lion, was instituted by Leopold - II. in 1867 as an order of civil merit. The military cross was - instituted in 1885. There are also the following orders instituted by - Leopold II. for service in the Congo State: the _Order of the African - Star_ (1888), the _Royal Order of the Lion_ (1891) and the _Congo - Star_ (1889). - - _Bulgaria._--The _Order of SS Cyril and Methodius_ was instituted in - 1909 by King Ferdinand to commemorate the elevation of the - principality to the position of an independent kingdom. It now takes - precedence of the _Order of St Alexander_, which was founded by Prince - Alexander in 1881, and reconstituted by Prince Ferdinand in 1888. - There are six classes. The plain white cross, suspended from the - Bulgarian crown, bears the name of the patron saint in old Cyrillic - letters in the centre. - - _Denmark._--The _Order of the Elephant_, one of the chief European - orders of knighthood, was, it is said, founded by Christian I. in - 1462; a still earlier origin has been assigned to it, but its regular - institution was that of Christian V. in 1693. The order, exclusive of - the sovereign and his sons, is limited to 30 knights, who must be of - the Protestant religion. The badge of the order is illustrated on - Plate IV. fig. 5. The ribbon is light watered blue, the collar of - alternate gold elephants with blue housings and towers, the star of - silver with a purple medallion bearing a silver or brilliant cross - surrounded by a silver laurel wreath. The motto is _Magnanime - pretium_. The _Order of the Dannebrog_ is, according to Danish - tradition, of miraculous origin, and was founded by Valdemar II. in - 1219 as a memorial of a victory over the Esthonians, won by the - appearance in the sky of a red banner bearing a white cross. - Historically the order dates from the foundation in 1671 by Christian - V. at the birth of his son Frederick, the statutes being published in - 1693. Originally restricted to 50 knights and granted as a family or - court decoration, it was reconstituted as an unlimited order of merit - in 1808 by Frederick VI.; alterations have been made in 1811 and 1864. - It now consists of three classes--grand cross, commander (two grades), - knight, and of one rank of ordinary members (_Dannebrogs maender_). - The badge of the order is, with variations for the different classes, - a white enamelled Danish cross with red and gold borders, bearing in - the centre the letter W (V) and on the four arms the inscription _Gud - og Kongen_ (For God and King). The ribbon is white with red edging. - -_France._--_The Legion of Honour_, the only order of France, and one -which in its higher grades ranks in estimation with the highest European -orders, was instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte on the 19th of May 1802 (29 -Floreal of the year X.) as a general military and civil order of merit. -All soldiers on whom "swords of honour" had been already conferred were -declared _legionaries ipso facto_, and all citizens after 25 years' -service were declared eligible, whatever their birth, rank or religion. -On admission all were to swear to co-operate so far as in them lay for -the assertion of the principles of liberty and equality. The -organization as laid down by Napoleon in 1804 was as follows: Napoleon -was grand master; a grand council of 7 grand officers administered the -order; the order was divided into 15 "cohorts" of 7 grand officers, 20 -commanders, 30 officers and 350 legionaries, and at the headquarters of -the cohorts, for which the territory of France was separated into 15 -divisions, were maintained hospitals for the support of the sick and -infirm legionaries. Salaries (_traitements_) varying in each rank were -attached to the order. In 1805 the rank of "Grand Eagle" (now Grand -Cross, or _Grand Cordon_) was instituted, taking precedence of the grand -officers. At the Restoration many changes were made, the old military -and religious orders were restored, and the _Legion of Honour_, now -_Ordre Royale de la Legion d'Honneur_, took the lowest rank. The -revolution of July 1830 restored the order to its unique place. The -constitution of the order now rests on the decrees of the 16th of March -and 24th of November 1852, the law of the 25th of July 1873, the decree -of the 29th of December 1892, and the laws of the 16th of April 1895 and -the 28th of January 1897, and a decree of the 26th of June 1900. The -president of the republic is the grand master of the order; the -administration is in the hands of a grand chancellor, who has a council -of the order nominated by the grand master. The chancellery is housed in -the _Palais de la Legion de l'Honneur_, which, burnt during the Commune, -was rebuilt in 1878. The order consists of the five classes of grand -cross (limited to 80), grand officer (200), commander (1000), officers -(4000), and chevalier or knight, in which the number is unlimited. These -limitations in number do not affect the foreign recipients of the order. -Salaries (_traitements_) are attached to the military and naval -recipients of the order when on the active list, viz. 3000 francs for -grand cross, 2000 francs for grand officers, 1000 francs for commanders, -250 francs for chevaliers. The numbers of the recipients of the order -_sans traitement_ are limited through all classes. In ordinary -circumstances twenty years of military, naval or civil service must have -been performed before a candidate can be eligible for the rank of -chevalier, and promotions can only be made after definite service in the -lower rank. Extraordinary service in time of war and extraordinary -services in civil life admit to any rank. Women have been decorated, -notably Rosa Bonheur, Madame Curie and Madame Bartet. The Napoleonic -form of the grand cross and ribbon is illustrated on Plate IV, fig. 6; -the cross from which the drawing was made was given to King Edward VII. -when prince of Wales in 1863. In the present order of the French -Republic the symbolical head of the Republic appears in the centre, and -a laurel wreath replaces the imperial crown; the inscription round the -medallion is _Republique francaise_. Since 1805 there has existed an -institution, _Maison d'education de la Legion d'Honneur_, for the -education of the daughters, granddaughters, sisters and nieces of -members of the Legion of Honour. There are three houses, at Saint Denis, -at Ecouen and Les Loges (see _Dictionnaire de l'administration -francaise_, by M. Block and E. Magnero, 1905, _s.v._ "Decorations"). - - Among the orders swept away at the French Revolution, restored in part - at the Restoration, and finally abolished at the revolution of July - 1830 were the following: The _Order of St Michael_ was founded by - Louis XI. in 1469 for a limited number of knights of noble birth. - Later the numbers were so much increased under Charles IX. that it - became known as _Le Collier a toutes betes_. In 1816 the order was - granted for services in art and science. In view of the low esteem - into which the _Order of St Michael_ had fallen, Henry III. founded in - 1578 the _Order of the Holy Ghost_ (_St Esprit_). The badge of the - order was a white Maltese cross decorated in gold, with the gold - lilies of France at the angles, in the centre a white dove with wings - outstretched, the ribbon was sky blue (_cordon bleu_). The motto of - the order was _Duce et auspice_. The _Order of St Louis_ was founded - by Louis XIV. in 1693 for military merit, and the _Order of Military - Merit_ by Louis XV. in 1759, originally for Protestant officers. - - _Germany._--i. _Anhalt._ The _Order of Albert the Bear_, a family - order or _Hausorden_, was founded in 1836 by the dukes Henry of - Anhalt-Kothen, Leopold Frederick of Anhalt-Dessau and Alexander - Charles of Anhalt-Bernburg. Changes in the constitution have been made - at various dates. It now consists of five classes, grand cross, - commander (2 classes) and knights (2 classes). The badge is a gold - oval bearing in gold a crowned and collared bear on a crenellated - wall; below the ring by which the badge is attached to the ribbon is a - shield with the arms of the house of Anhalt, on the reverse those of - the house of Ascania. Round the oval is the motto _Furchte Gott und - folge seine Befehle_. The ribbon is green with two red stripes. The - grand master alone wears a collar. - - ii. _Baden._ The _Order of Fidelity or Loyalty_ (_Hausorden der - Treue_) was instituted by William, margrave of Baden-Durlach in 1715, - and reconstituted in 1803 by the elector Charles Frederick. There is - now only one class, for princes of the reigning house, foreign - sovereigns and eminent men of the state. The badge is a red enamelled - cross with gold borders and double C's interlaced in the angles; in - the centre a white medallion with red monogram over a green mound - surmounted by the word _Fidelitas_ in black; the cross is suspended - from a ducal crown. The ribbon is orange with silver edging. The - military _Order of Charles Frederick_ was founded in 1807. There are - three classes. The badge is a white cross resting on a green laurel - wreath, the ribbon is red with a yellow stripe bordered with white. - The order is conferred for long and meritorious military service. The - _Order of the Zahringen Lion_ was founded in 1812 in commemoration of - the descent of the reigning house of Baden from the dukes of - Zahringen. It has been reconstituted in 1840 and 1877. It now consists - of five classes. The badge is a green enamel cross with gold clasps in - the angles; in the central medallion an enamelled representation of - the ruined castle of Zahringen. The ribbon is green with two orange - stripes. Since 1896 the _Order of Berthold I._ has been a distinct - order; it was founded in 1877 as a higher class of the _Zahringen - Lion_. - - iii. _Bavaria._ The _Order of St Hubert_, one of the oldest and most - distinguished knightly orders, was founded in 1444 by duke Gerhard V. - of Julich-Berg in honour of a victory over Count Arnold of Egmont at - Ravensberg on the 3rd of November, St Hubert's day. The knights wore a - collar of golden hunting horns, whence the order was also known as the - _Order of the Horn_. Statutes were granted in 1476, but the order fell - into abeyance at the extinction of the dynasty in 1609. It was revived - in 1708 by the elector palatine, John William of Neuberg, and its - constitution was altered at various times, its final form being given - by the elector Maximilian Joseph, first king of Bavaria, in 1808. - Exclusive of the sovereign and princes of the blood, and foreign - sovereigns and princes, it consists of twelve capitular knights of the - rank of count or _Freiherr_. The badge of the order and the ribbon are - illustrated in Plate V. fig. 3. The central medallion represents the - conversion of St Hubert. The collar is composed of gold and blue - enamel figures of the conversion linked by the Gothic monogram I.T.V., - _In Trau Vast_, the motto of the order, alternately red and green. The - _Order of St George_, said to have been founded in the 12th century as - a crusading order and revived by the emperor Maximilian I. in 1494, - dates historically from its institution in 1729 by the elector Charles - Albert, afterwards the emperor Charles VII. It was confirmed by the - elector Charles Theodore in 1778 and by the elector Maximilian Joseph - IV. as the second Bavarian order. Various new statutes have been - granted from 1827 to 1875. The order is divided into two branches, "of - German and foreign languages," and it also has a "spiritual class." - The members of the order must be Roman Catholics. The badge is a blue - enamelled cross with white and gold edging suspended from the mouth of - a gold lion's head; in the angles of the cross are blue lozenges - containing the letters V.I.B.I., _Virgini Immaculatae Bavaria - Immaculata_. The central medallion contains a figure of the Immaculate - Conception. The medallion on the reverse contains a figure of St - George and the Dragon and the corresponding initials J.U.P.F., _Justus - ut Palma Florebit_, the motto of the order. Besides the above Bavaria - possesses the _Military Order of Maximilian Joseph_, 1806, and the - _Civil Orders of Merit of St Michael_, 1693, and of the _Bavarian - Crown_, 1808, and other minor orders and decorations, civil and - military. There are also the two illustrious orders for ladies, the - _Order of Elizabeth_, founded in 1766, and the _Order of Theresa_, in - 1827. The foundations of _St Anne of Munich_ and of _St Anne of - Wurzburg_ for ladies are not properly orders. - - iv. _Brunswick._ The _Order of Henry the Lion_, for military and civil - merit, was founded by Duke William in 1834. There are five classes, - and a cross of merit of two classes. The badge is a blue enamelled - cross dependent from a lion surmounted by the ducal crown; the angles - of the cross are filled by crowned W's and the centre bears the arms - of Brunswick, a crowned pillar and a white horse, between two sickles. - The ribbon is deep red bordered with yellow. - - v. _Hanover._ The _Order of St George_ (one class only) was instituted - by King Ernest Augustus I. in 1839 as the family order of the house of - Hanover; the _Royal Guelphic Order_ (three classes) by George, prince - regent, afterwards George IV. of Great Britain, in 1815; and the - _Order of Ernest Augustus_ by George V. of Hanover in 1865. These - orders have not been conferred since 1866, when Hanover ceased to be a - kingdom, and the _Royal Guelphic Order_, which from its institution - was more British than Hanoverian, not since the death of William IV. - in 1837. The last British grand cross was the late duke of Cambridge. - - vi. _Hesse._ Of the various orders founded by the houses of - Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt the following are still bestowed in - the grand duchy of Hesse. The _Order of Louis_, founded by the grand - duke Louis I. of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1807; there are five classes; the - black, red and gold bordered cross bears the initial L. in the centre, - the ribbon is black with red borders; the _Order of Philip the - Magnanimous_, founded by the grand duke Louis II. in 1840 has five - classes; the white cross of the badge bears the effigy of Philip - surrounded by the motto _Si Deus vobiscum quis contra nos_. The _Order - of the Golden Lion_ was founded in 1770 by the landgrave Frederick II. - of Hesse-Cassel, the knights are 41 in number and take precedence of - the members of the two former orders. The badge is an open oval of - gold with the Hessian lion in the centre. The ribbon is crimson. - - vii. _Mecklenburg._ The grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and - Mecklenburg-Strelitz possess jointly the _Order of the Wendish Crown_, - founded in 1864 by the grand dukes Frederick Francis II. of Schwerin - and Frederick William of Strelitz; there are four classes, with two - divisions of the grand cross, and also an affiliated cross of merit; - the grand cross can be granted to ladies. The badge is a white cross - bearing on a blue centre the Wendish crown, surrounded by the motto, - for the Schwerin knights, _Per aspera ad astra_, for the Strelitz - knights, _Avito viret honore_. The _Order of the Griffin_, founded in - 1884 by Frederick Francis III. of Schwerin, was made common to the - duchies in 1904. - - viii. _Oldenberg._ The _Order of Duke Peter Frederick Louis_, a family - order and order of merit, was founded by the grand duke Paul Frederick - Augustus in memory of his father in 1838. It has two divisions, each - of five classes, of capitular knights and honorary members. The badge - is a white gold bordered cross suspended from a crown, in the centre - the crowned monogram P.F.L. surrounded by the motto _Ein Gott, Ein - Recht, Eine Wahrheit_; the ribbon is dark blue bordered with red. - - ix. _Prussia._ The _Order of the Black Eagle_, one of the most - distinguished of European orders, was founded in 1701 by the elector - of Brandenburg, Frederick I., in memory of his coronation as king of - Prussia. The order consists of one class only and the original - statutes limited the number, exclusive of the princes of the royal - house and foreign members, to 30. But the number has been exceeded. It - is only conferred on those of royal lineage and upon high officers of - state. It confers the nobiliary particle _von_. Only those who have - received the _Order of the Red Eagle_ are eligible. An illustration of - the badge of the order with ribbon is given on Plate IV. fig. 3. The - star of silver bears the black eagle on an orange ground surrounded by - a silver fillet on which is the motto of the order _Suum Cuique_. The - collar is formed of alternate black eagles and a circular medallion - with the motto on a white centre surrounded by the initials F.R. - repeated in green, the whole in a circle of blue with four gold crowns - on the exterior rim. The _Order of the Red Eagle_, the second of the - Prussian orders, was founded originally as the _Order of Sincerity_ - (_L'Ordre de la Sincerite_) in 1705 by George William, hereditary - prince of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. The original constitution and insignia - are now entirely changed, with the exception of the red eagle which - formed the centre of the cross of the badge. The order had almost - fallen into oblivion when it was revived in 1734 by the margrave - George Frederick Charles as the _Order of the Brandenburg Red Eagle_. - It consisted of 30 nobly born knights. The numbers were increased and - a grand cross class added in 1759. On the cession of the principality - to Prussia in 1791 the order was transferred and King Frederick - William raised it to that place in Prussian orders which it has since - maintained. The order was divided into four classes in 1810 and there - are now five classes with numerous subdivisions. It is an order of - civil and military merit. The grand cross resembles the badge of the - Black Eagle, but is white and the eagles in the corners red, the - central medallion bearing the initials W.R. (those of William I.) - surrounded by a blue fillet with the motto _Sincere et Constanter_. - The numerous classes and subdivisions have exceedingly complicated - distinguishing marks, some bearing crossed swords, a crown, or an - oak-leaf surmounting the cross. The ribbon is white with two orange - stripes. - - The _Order for Merit_ (_Ordre pour le Merite_), one of the most highly - prized of European orders of merit, has now two divisions, military - and for science and art. It was originally founded by the electoral - prince Frederick, afterwards Frederick I. of Prussia, in 1667 as the - _Order of Generosity_; it was given its present name and granted for - civil and military distinction by Frederick the Great, 1740. In 1810 - the order was made one for military merit against the enemy in the - field exclusively. In 1840 the class for distinction for science and - art, or peace class (_Friedensklasse_) was founded by Frederick - William IV., for those "who have gained an illustrious name by wide - recognition in the spheres of science and art." The number is limited - to 30 German and 30 foreign members. The _Academy of Sciences and - Arts_ on a vacancy nominates three candidates, from which one is - selected by the king. It is interesting to note that this was the only - distinction which Thomas Carlyle would accept. The badge of the - military order is a blue cross with gold uncrowned eagles in the - angles; on the topmost arm is the initial F., with a crown; on the - other arms the inscription _Pour le Merite_. The ribbon is black with - a silver stripe at the edges. In 1866 a special grand cross was - instituted for the crown prince (afterwards Frederick III.) and Prince - Frederick Charles. It was in 1879 granted to Count von Moltke as a - special distinction. The badge of the class for science or art is a - circular medallion of white, with a gold eagle in the centre - surrounded by a blue border with the inscription _Pour le Merite_; on - the white field the letters [reverse F]F. II. four times repeated, and - four crowns in gold projecting from the rim. The ribbon is the same as - for the military class. The _Order of the Crown_, founded by William - I. in 1861, ranks with the Red Eagle. There are four classes, with - many subdivisions. Other Prussian orders are the _Order of William_, - instituted by William II. in 1896; a Prussian branch of the knights of - St John of Jerusalem, _Johanniter Orden_, in its present form dating - from 1893; and the family _Order of the House of Hohenzollern_, - founded in 1851 by Frederick William IV. There are two divisions, - military and civil, divided into four classes. The military badge is a - white cross with black and gold edging, resting on a green oak and - laurel wreath; the central medallion bears the Prussian Eagle with the - arms of Hohenzollern, and is surrounded by a blue fillet with the - motto _Vom Fels zum Meer_; the civil badge is a black eagle, with the - head encircled with a blue fillet with the motto. There are also for - ladies the _Order of Service_, founded in 1814 by Frederick William - III., in one class, but enlarged in 1850 and in 1865. The decoration - of merit for ladies (_Verdienst-kreuz_), founded in 1870, was raised - to an order in 1907. For the famous military decoration, the _Iron - Cross_, see MEDALS. - - x. _Saxony._--The _Order of the Crown of Rue_ (_Rauten Krone_) was - founded as a family order by Frederick Augustus I. in 1807. It is of - one class only, and the sons and nephews of the sovereign are born - knights of the order. It is granted to foreign ruling princes and - subjects of high rank. The badge is a pale green enamelled cross - resting on a gold crown with eight rue leaves, the centre is white - with the crowned monogram of the founder surrounded by a green circlet - of rue; the star bears in its centre the motto _Providentiae Memor_. - The ribbon is green. Other Saxon orders are the military _Order of St - Henry_, for distinguished service in the field, founded in 1736 in one - class; since 1829 it has had four classes; the ribbon is sky blue with - two yellow stripes, the gold cross bears in the centre the effigy of - the emperor Henry II.; the _Order of Albert_, for civil and military - merit, founded in 1850 by Frederick Augustus II. in memory of Duke - Albert the Bold, the founder of the Albertine line of Saxony, has six - classes; the _Order of Civil Merit_, was founded in 1815. For ladies - there are the _Order of Sidonia_, 1870, in memory of the wife of - Albert the Bold, the mother (_Stamm-Mutter_) of the Albertine line; - and the _Maria Anna Order_, 1906. - - [Illustration: PLATE IV. - - (i.) THE ST. ANDREW (Russia). (ii.) THE GOLDEN FLEECE (Spain). (iii.) - THE BLACK EAGLE (Prussia). (iv.) THE TOWER AND SWORD (Portugal). (v.) - THE ELEPHANT (Denmark). (vi.) THE LEGION OF HONOUR - (France-Napoleonic). (vii.) THE ANNUNZIATA (Italy). - - _Drawn by William Gibb._ - - _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] - - xi. The duchies of _Saxe Altenburg_, _Saxe Coburg Gotha_ and _Saxe - Meiningen_ have in common the family _Order of Ernest_, founded in - 1833 in memory of Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe Gotha and as a revival - of the _Order of German Integrity_ (_Orden der deutschen Redlichkeit_) - founded in 1690. Saxe Coburg Gotha and Saxe Meiningen have also - separate crosses of merit in science and art. - - xii. _Saxe Weimar._--The _Order of the White Falcon_ or _of Vigilance_ - was founded in 1732 and renewed in 1815. - - xiii. _Wurttemberg._--The _Order of the Crown of Wurttemberg_ was - founded in 1818, uniting the former _Order of the Golden Eagle_ and an - order of civil merit. It has five classes. The badge is a white cross - surmounted by the royal crown, in the centre the initial F surrounded - by a crimson fillet on which is the motto _Furchtlos und Treu_; in the - angles of the cross are four golden leopards; the ribbon is crimson - with two black stripes. Besides the military _Order of Merit_ founded - in 1759, and the silver cross of merit, 1900, Wurttemberg has also the - _Order of Frederick_, 1830, and the _Order of Olga_, 1871, which is - granted to ladies as well as men. - - _Greece._--The _Order of the Redeemer_ was founded as such in 1833 by - King Otto, being a conversion of a decoration of honour instituted in - 1829 by the National Assembly at Argos. There are five classes, the - numbers being regulated for each. An illustration of the badge and - ribbon of the grand cross is given on Plate V. fig. 1. - - _Holland._--The _Order of William_, for military merit, was founded in - 1815 by William I.; there are four classes; the badge is a white cross - resting on a green laurel Burgundian cross, in the centre the - Burgundian flint-steel, as in the order of the Golden Fleece. The - motto _Voer Moed, Belied, Trouw_ (For Valour, Devotion, Loyalty), - appears on the arms of the cross. The cross is surmounted by a - jewelled crown; the ribbon is orange with dark blue edging. The _Order - of the Netherlands Lion_, for civil merit, was founded in 1818; there - are four classes. The family _Order of the Golden Lion of Nassau_ - passed in 1890 to the grand duchy of Luxembourg (see under LUXEMBURG). - In 1892 Queen Wilhelmina instituted the _Order of Orange-Nassau_ with - five classes. The _Teutonic Order_ (q.v.), surviving in the Ballarde - (Bailiwick) of Utrecht, was officially established in the Netherlands - by the States General in 1580. It was abolished by Napoleon in 1811 - and was restored in 1815. - - _Italy._--The _Order of the Annunziata_, the highest order of - knighthood of the Italian kingdom, was instituted in 1362 by Amadeus - VI., count of Savoy, as the Order of the Collare or Collar, from the - silver collar made up of love-knots and roses, which was its badge, in - honour of the fifteen joys of the Virgin; hence the number of the - knights was restricted to fifteen, the fifteen chaplains recited - fifteen masses each day, and the clauses of the original statute of - the order were fifteen (Amadeus VIII. added five others in 1434). - Charles III. decreed that the order should be called the Annunziata, - and made some other alterations in 1518. His son and successor, - Emmanuel Philibert, made further modifications in the statute and the - costume. The church of the order was originally the Carthusian - monastery of Pierre-chatel in the district of Bugey, but after Charles - Emmanuel I. had given Bugey and Bresse to France in 1601 the church of - the order was transferred to the Camaldolese monastery near Turin. - That religious order having been suppressed at the time of the French - Revolution, King Charles Albert decreed in 1840 that the Carthusian - church of Collegno should be the chapel of the order. The knights of - the Annunziata have the title of "cousins of the king," and enjoy - precedence over all the other officials of the state. The costume of - the order is of white satin embroidered in silk, with a purple velvet - cloak adorned with roses and gold embroidery, but it is now never - worn; in the collar the motto _Fert_ is inserted, on the meaning of - which there is great uncertainty,[65] and from it hangs a pendant - enclosing a medallion representing the Annunciation (see Plate IV. - fig. 7). An account of the order is given in Count Luigi Cibrario's - _Ordini Cavallereschi_ (Turin, 1846) with coloured plates of the - costume and badges. - - The _Order of St Maurice and St Lazarus_ (SS Maurizio e Lazzaro), is a - combination of two ancient orders. The Order of St Maurice was - originally founded by Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, in 1434, when he - retired to the hermitage of Ripaille, and consisted of a group of - half-a-dozen councillors who were to advise him on such affairs of - state as he continued to control. When he became pope as Felix V. the - order practically ceased to exist. It was re-established at the - instance of Emmanuel Philibert by Pope Pius V. in 1572 as a military - and religious order, and the following year it was united to that of - St Lazarus by Gregory XIII. The latter order had been founded as a - military and religious community at the time of the Latin kingdom of - Jerusalem with the object of assisting lepers, many of whom were among - its members. Popes, princes and nobles endowed it with estates and - privileges, including that of administering and succeeding to the - property of lepers, which eventually led to grave abuses. With the - advance of the Saracens the knights of St Lazarus, when driven from - the Holy Land and Egypt, migrated to France (1291) and Naples (1311), - where they founded leper hospitals. The order in Naples, which alone - was afterwards recognized as the legitimate descendant of the - Jerusalem community, was empowered to seize and confine anyone - suspected of leprosy, a permission which led to the establishment of a - regular inquisitorial system of blackmail. In the 15th and 16th - centuries dissensions broke out among the knights, and the order - declined in credit and wealth, until finally the grand master, - Giannotto Castiglioni, resigned his position in favour of Emmanuel - Philibert, duke of Savoy, in 1571. Two years later the orders of St - Lazarus and St Maurice were incorporated into one community, the - members of which were to devote themselves to the defence of the Holy - See and to fight its enemies as well as to continue assisting lepers. - The galleys of the order subsequently took part in various expeditions - against the Turks and the Barbary pirates. Leprosy, which had almost - disappeared in the 17th century, broke out once more in the 18th, and - in 1773 a hospital was established by the order at Aosta, made famous - by Xavier de Maistre's tale, _Le Lepreux de la cite d'Aoste_. The - statutes were published in 1816, by which date the order had lost its - military character; it was reformed first by Charles Albert (1831), - and later by Victor Emmanuel II., king of Italy (1868). The knighthood - of St Maurice and St Lazarus is now a dignity conferred by the king of - Italy (the grand master) on persons distinguished in the public - service, science, art and letters, trade, and above all in charitable - works, to which its income is devoted. There are five classes. The - badge of the combined order is composed of the white cross with - trefoil termination of St Lazarus resting on the green cross of St - Maurice; both crosses are bordered gold. The first four classes wear - the badge suspended from a royal crown. The ribbon is dark green. - - See L. Cibrario, _Descrizione storica degli Ordini Cavallereschi_, - vol. i. (Turin, 1846); _Calendario Reale_, an annual publication - issued in Rome. - - The military _Order of Savoy_ was founded in 1815 by Victor Emmanuel - of Sardinia; badge modified 1855 and 1857. It has now five classes. - The badge is a white cross, the arms of which expand and terminate in - an obtuse angle; round the cross is a green laurel and oak wreath; the - central medallion is red, bearing in gold two crossed swords, the - initials of the founder and the date 1855. The ribbon is red with a - central stripe of blue. The _Civil Order of Savoy_, founded in 1831 by - Charles Albert of Sardinia, is of one class, and in statutes of 1868 - is limited to 60 members. The badge is the plain Savoy cross in blue, - with silver medallion, the ribbon is blue with white borders. The - _Order of the Crown of Italy_ was founded in 1868 by Victor Emmanuel - II. in commemoration of the union of Italy into a kingdom. There are - five classes. - - _Luxemburg._--The _Order of the Golden Lion_ was founded as a family - order of the house of Nassau by William III. of the Netherlands and - Adolphus of Nassau jointly. On the death of William in 1890 it passed - to the grand duke of Luxemburg; it has only one class. The _Order of - Adolphus of Nassau_, for civil and military merit, in four classes, - was founded in 1858, and the _Order of the Oak Crown_ as a general - order of merit, in five classes, in 1841, modified 1858. - - _Monaco._--The _Order of St Charles_, five classes, was founded in - 1858 by Prince Charles III. and remodelled in 1863. It is a general - order of merit. - - _Montenegro._--The _Order of St Peter_, founded in 1852, is a family - order, in one class, and only given to members of the princely family; - the _Order of Danilo_, or of the _Independence of Montenegro_, is a - general order of merit, in four classes, with subdivisions, also - founded in 1852. - - _Norway._--The _Order of St Olaf_ was founded in 1847 by Oscar I. in - honour of St Olaf, the founder of Christianity in Norway, as a general - order of merit, military and civil. There are three classes, the last - two being, in 1873 and 1890, subdivided into two grades each. The - badge and ribbon is illustrated on Plate V, fig. 5. The reverse bears - the motto _Ret og Sandhed_ (Right and Truth). The _Order of the - Norwegian Lion_, founded in 1904 by Oscar II., has only one class; - foreigners on whom the order is conferred must be sovereigns or heads - of states or members of reigning houses. - - _Papal._--The arrangement and constitution of the papal orders was - remodelled by a brief of Pius X. in 1905. The _Order of Christ_, the - supreme pontifical order, is of one class only; for the history of - this ancient order see _Portugal_ (_infra_). The badge and ribbon is - the same as the older Portuguese form. The _Order of Pius_ was founded - in 1847 by Pius IX.; there are now three classes; the badge is an - eight-pointed blue star with golden flames between the rays, a white - centre bears the founder's name; the ribbon is blue with two red - stripes at each border. The _Order of St Gregory the Great_, founded - in 1831, is in two divisions, civil and military, each having three - classes. The _Order of St Sylvester_ was originally founded as the - _Order of the Golden Spur_ by Paul IV. in 1559 as a military body, - though tradition assigns it to Constantine the Great and Pope - Sylvester. It was reorganized as an order of merit by Gregory XVI. in - 1841. In 1905 the order was divided into three classes, and a separate - order, that of the _Golden Spur_ or _Golden Legion_ (_Militia Aurata_) - was established, in one class, with the numbers limited to a hundred. - The cross _Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice_, instituted by Leo XIII. in - 1888 is a decoration, not an order. There remains the venerable _Order - of the Holy Sepulchre_, of which tradition assigns the foundation to - Godfrey de Bouillon. It was, however, probably founded as a military - order for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre by Alexander VI. in - 1496. The right to nominate to the order was shared with the pope as - grand master by the guardian of the _Patres Minores_ in Jerusalem, - later by the Franciscans, and then by the Latin patriarch in - Jerusalem. In 1905 the latter was nominated grand master, but the pope - reserves the joint right of nomination. The badge of the order is a - red Jerusalem cross with red Latin crosses in the angles. - - _Portugal._--The _Order of Christ_ was founded on the abolition of the - Templars by Dionysius or Diniz of Portugal and in 1318 in conjunction - with Pope John XXII., both having the right to nominate to the order. - The papal branch survives as a distinct order. In 1522 it was formed - as a distinct Portuguese order and the grand mastership vested in the - crown of Portugal. In 1789 its original religious aspect was - abandoned, and with the exception that its members must be of the - Roman Catholic faith, it is entirely secularized. There are three - classes. The original badge of the order was a long red cross with - expanded flat ends bearing a small cross in white; the ribbon is red. - The modern badge is a blue enamelled cross resting on a green laurel - wreath; the central medallion, in white, contains the old red and - white cross. The older form is worn with the collar by the - grand-crosses. The _Order of the Tower and Sword_ was founded in 1808 - in Brazil by the regent, afterwards king John VI. of Portugal, as a - revival of the old _Order of the Sword_, said to have been founded by - Alfonso V. in 1459. It was remodelled in 1832 under its present name - and constitution as a general order of military and civil merit. There - are five classes. The badge of the order and ribbon is illustrated on - Plate IV. fig 4. The _Order of St Benedict of Aviz_ (earlier of - _Evora_), founded in 1162 as a religious military order, was - secularized in 1789 as an order of military merit, in four classes. - The badge is a green cross _fleury_; the ribbon is green. The _Order - of St James of the Sword_, or James of Compostella, is a branch of the - Spanish order of that name (see under SPAIN). It also was secularized - in 1789, and in 1862 was constituted an order of merit for science, - literature and art, in five classes. The badge is the lily-hilted - sword of St James, enamelled red with gold borders; the ribbon is - violet. In 1789 these three orders were granted a common badge uniting - the three separate crosses in a gold medallion; the joint ribbon is - red, green and violet, and to the separate crosses was added a red - sacred heart and small white cross. There are also the _Order of Our - Lady of Villa Vicosa_ (1819), for both sexes, and the _Order of St - Isabella_, 1801, for ladies. - - _Rumania._--The _Order of the Star of Rumania_ was founded in 1877, - and the _Order of the Crown of Rumania_ in 1881, both in five classes, - for civil and military merit; the ribbon of the first is red with blue - borders, of the second light blue with two silver stripes. - - _Russia._--The _Order of St Andrew_ was founded in 1698 by Peter the - Great. It is the chief order of the empire, and admission carries with - it according to the statutes of 1720 the orders of _St Anne_, - _Alexander Nevsky_, and the _White Eagle_; there is only one class. - The badge and ribbon is illustrated in Plate IV. fig 5. The collar is - composed of three members alternately, the imperial eagle bearing on a - red medallion a figure of St George slaying the Dragon, the badge of - the grand duchy of Moskow, the cipher of the emperor Paul I. in gold - on a blue ground, surmounted by the imperial crown, and surrounded by - a trophy of weapons and green and white flags, and a circular red and - gold star with a blue St Andrew's cross. The _Order of St Catherine_, - for ladies, ranks next to the St Andrew. It was founded under the name - of the _Order of Rescue_ by Peter the Great in 1714 in honour of the - empress Catherine and the part she had taken in rescuing him at the - battle of the Pruth in 1711. There are two classes. The grand cross is - only for members of the imperial house and ladies of the highest - nobility. The second class was added in 1797. The badge of the order - is a cross of diamonds bearing in a medallion the effigy of St - Catherine. The ribbon is red with the motto _For Love and Fatherland_ - in silver letters. The _Order of St Alexander Nevsky_ was founded in - 1725 by the empress Catherine I. There is only one class. The badge is - a red enamelled cross with gold eagles in the angles, bearing in a - medallion the mounted effigy of St Alexander Nevsky. The ribbon is - red. The _Order of the White Eagle_ was founded in 1713 by Augustus - II. of Poland and was adopted as a Russian order in 1831; there is one - class. The _Order of St Anne_ was founded by Charles Frederick, duke - of Holstein-Gottorp in 1735 in honour of his wife, Anna Petrovna, - daughter of Peter the Great. It was adopted as a Russian order in 1797 - by their grandson, the emperor Paul. There are four classes. Other - orders are those of _St Vladimir_, founded by Catherine II., 1782, - four classes, and of _St Stanislaus_, founded originally as a Polish - order by Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski in 1765, and adopted as a - Russian order in 1831. - - The military _Order of St George_ was founded by the empress Catherine - II. in 1769 for military service on land and sea, with four classes; a - fifth class for non-commissioned officers and men, the _St George's - Cross_, was added in 1807. The badge is a white cross with gold - borders, with a red central medallion on which is the figure of St - George slaying the dragon. The ribbon is orange with three black - stripes. - - _Servia._--The _Order of the White Eagle_, the principal order, was - founded by Milan I. in 1882, statutes 1883, in five classes; the - ribbon is blue and red; the _Order of St Sava_, founded 1883, also in - five classes, is an order of merit for science and art; the _Order of - the Star of Karageorgevitch_, four classes, was founded by Peter I. in - 1904. The orders of _Milosch the Great_, founded by Alexander I. in - 1898 and of _Takovo_, founded originally by Michael Obrenovitch in - 1863, reconstituted in 1883, are since the dynastic revolution of 1903 - no longer bestowed. The _Order of St Lazarus_ is not a general order, - the cross and collar being only worn by the king. - - _Spain._--The Spanish branch of the _Order of the Golden Fleece_ has - been treated above. The three most ancient orders of Spain--of _St - James of Compostella_, or _St James of the Sword_, of _Alcantara_ and - of _Calatrava_--still exist as orders of merit, the first in three - classes, the last two as orders of military merit in one class. They - were all originally founded as military religious orders, like the - crusading Templars and the Hospitallers, but to fight for the true - faith against the Moors in Spain. The present badges of the orders - represent the crosses that the knights wore on their mantles. That of - St James of Compostella is the red lily-hilted sword of St James; the - ribbon is also red. The other two orders wear the cross - _fleury_--_Alcantara_ red, _Calatrava_ green, with corresponding - ribbons. A short history of these orders may be here given. Tradition - gives the foundation of the _Order of Knights of St James of - Compostella_ to Ramiro II., king of Leon, in the 10th century, to - commemorate a victory over the Moors, but, historically the order - dates from the confirmation in 1175 by Pope Alexander III. It gained - great reputation in the wars against the Moors and became very - wealthy. In 1493 the grand-mastership was annexed by Ferdinand the - Catholic, and was vested permanently in the crown of Spain by Pope - Adrian VI. in 1522. - - The _Order of Knights of Alcantara_, instituted about 1156 by the - brothers Don Suarez and Don Gomez de Barrientos for protection against - the Moors. In 1177 they were confirmed as a religious order of - knighthood under Benedictine rule by Pope Alexander III. Until about - 1213 they were known as the Knights of San Julian del Pereyro; but - when the defence of Alcantara, newly wrested from the Moors by - Alphonso IX. of Castile, was entrusted to them they took their name - from that city. For a considerable time they were in some degree - subject to the grand master of the kindred order of Calatrava. - Ultimately, however, they asserted their independence by electing a - grand master of their own, the first holder of the office being Don - Diego Sanche. During the rule of thirty-seven successive grand - masters, similarly chosen, the influence and wealth of the order - gradually increased until the Knights of Alcantara were almost as - powerful as the sovereign. In 1494-1495 Juan de Zuniga was prevailed - upon to resign the grand-mastership to Ferdinand, who thereupon vested - it in his own person as king; and this arrangement was ratified by a - bull of Pope Alexander VI., and was declared permanent by Pope Adrian - VI. in 1523. The yearly income of Zuniga at the time of his - resignation amounted to 150,000 ducats. In 1540 Pope Paul III. - released the knights from the strictness of Benedictine rule by giving - them permission to marry, though second marriage was forbidden. The - three vows were henceforth _obedientia_, _castitas conjugalis_ and - _conversio morum_. In modern times the history of the order has been - somewhat chequered. When Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain in - 1808, he deprived the knights of their revenues, which were only - partially recovered on the restoration of Ferdinand VII. in 1814. The - order ceased to exist as a spiritual body in 1835. - - The _Order of Knights of Calatrava_ was founded in 1158 by Don Sancho - III. of Castile, who presented the town of Calatrava, newly wrested - from the Moors, to them to guard. In 1164 Pope Alexander III. granted - confirmation as a religious military order under Cistercian rule. In - 1197 Calatrava fell into the hands of the Moors and the order removed - to the castle of Salvatierra, but recovered their town in 1212. In - 1489 Ferdinand seized the grand-mastership, and it was finally vested - in the crown of Spain in 1523. The order became a military order of - merit in 1808 and was reorganized in 1874. The _Royal and Illustrious - Order of Charles III._ was founded in 1771 by Charles III., in two - classes; altered in 1804, it was abolished by Joseph Bonaparte in - 1809, together with all the Spanish orders except the Golden Fleece, - and the _Royal Order of the Knights of Spain_ was established. In 1814 - Ferdinand VII. revived the order, and in 1847 it received its present - constitution, viz. of three classes (the commanders in two divisions). - The badge of the order is a blue and white cross suspended from a - green laurel wreath, in the angles are golden lilies, and the oval - centre bears a figure of the Virgin in a golden glory. The ribbon is - blue and white. The _Order of Isabella the Catholic_ was founded in - 1815 under the patronage of St Isabella, wife of Diniz of Portugal; - originally instituted to reward loyalty in defence of the Spanish - possessions in America, it is now a general order of merit, in three - classes. The badge is a red rayed cross with gold rays in the angles, - in the centre a representation of the pillars of Hercules; the cross - is attached to the yellow and white ribbon by a green laurel wreath. - Other Spanish orders are the _Maria Louisa_, 1792, for noble ladies; - the military and naval orders of merit of _St Ferdinand_, founded by - the Cortes in 1811, five classes; of _St Ermenegild_ (_Hermenegildo_), - 1814, three classes, of _Military Merit_ and _Naval Merit_, 1866, and - of _Maria Christina_, 1890; the _Order of Beneficencia_ for civil - merit, 1856; that of _Alfonso XII._ for merit in science, literature - and art, 1902, and the _Civil Order of Alfonso XII._, 1902. - - [Illustration: PLATE V. - - (i) THE REDEEMER (Greece). (ii) THE ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS OF ST. JOHN - OF JERUSALEM (English Branch, Badge of the Sovereign and Patron). - (iii) THE ST. HUBERT (Bavaria). (iv) THE ST. STEPHEN (Hungary). (v). - THE ST. OLAF (Norway). (vi). THE SERAPHIM (Sweden). - - _Drawn by William Gibb._ - - _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] - - _Sweden._--The _Order of the Seraphim_ (the "Blue Ribbon"). Tradition - attributes the foundation of this most illustrious order of knighthood - to Magnus I. in 1280, more certainty attaches to the fact that the - order was in existence in 1336. In its modern form the order dates - from its reconstitution in 1748 by Frederick I., modified by statutes - of 1798 and 1814. Exclusive of the sovereign and the princes of the - blood, the order is limited to 23 Swedish and 8 foreign members. The - native members must be already members of the _Order of the Sword_ or - the _Pole Star_. There is a prelate of the order which is administered - by a chapter; the chapel of the knights is in the Riddar Holmskyrka at - Stockholm. The badge and ribbon of the grand cross is illustrated on - Plate V. fig. 6. The collar is formed of alternate gold seraphim and - blue enamelled patriarchal crosses. The motto is _Iesus Hominum - Salvator_. The _Order of the Sword_ (the "Yellow Ribbon"), the - principal Swedish military order, was founded, it is said, by Gustavus - I. Vasa in 1522, and was re-established by Frederick I., with the - _Seraphim_ and the _Pole Star_ in 1748; modifications have been made - in 1798, 1814 and 1889. There are five classes, with subdivisions. The - badge is a white cross, in the angles gold crowns, the points of the - cross joined by gold swords entwined with gold and blue belts, in the - blue centre an upright sword with the three crowns in gold, the whole - surmounted by the royal crown. The ribbon is yellow with blue edging. - The _Order of the Pole Star_ (_Polar Star_, _North Star_, the "Black - Ribbon"), founded in 1748 for civil merit, has since 1844 three - classes. The white cross bears a five-pointed silver star on a blue - medallion. The ribbon is black. The _Order of Vasa_ (the "Green - Ribbon"), founded by Gustavus III. in 1772 as an order of merit for - services rendered to the national industries and manufactures, has - three classes, with subdivisions. The white cross badge bears on a - blue centre the charge of the house of Vasa, a gold sheaf shaped like - a vase with two handles. The ribbon is green. The _Order of Charles - XIII._, founded in 1811, is granted to Freemasons of high degree. It - is thus quite unique. - - _Turkey._--The _Nischan-i-Imtiaz_, or _Order of Privilege_, was - founded by Abdul Hamid II. in 1879 as a general order of merit in one - class; the _Nischan-el-Iftikhar_, or _Order of Glory_, also one class, - founded 1831 by Mahmoud II.; the _Nischan-i-Mejidi_, the _Mejidieh_, - was founded as a civil and military order of merit in 1851 by Abdul - Medjid. There are five classes; the badge is a silver sun of seven - clustered rays, with crescent and star between each cluster; on a gold - centre is the sultan's name in black Turkish lettering, surrounded by - a red fillet inscribed with the words _Zeal_, _Devotion_, _Loyalty_; - it is suspended from a red crescent and star; the ribbon is red with - green borders. The khedive of Egypt has authority, delegated by the - sultan, to grant this order. The _Nischan-i-Osmanie_, the _Osmanieh_, - for civil and military merit, was founded by Abdul Aziz in 1862; it - has four classes. The badge is a gold sun with seven gold-bordered - green rays; the red centre bears the crescent, and it is also - suspended from a gold crescent and star; the ribbon is green bordered - with red. The _Nischan-i-Schefakat of Compassion or Benevolence_, was - instituted for ladies, in three classes, in 1878 by the sultan in - honour of the work done for the non-combatant victims of the - Russo-Turkish war of 1877 in connexion with the Turkish Compassionate - Fund started by the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts. She was one of the - first to receive the order. There are also the family order, for - Turkish princes, the _Hanedani-Ali-Osman_, founded in 1893, and the - _Ertogroul_, in 1903. - - _Non-European Orders._--Of the various states of Central and South - America, Nicaragua has the _American Order of San Juan_ or _Grey - Town_, founded in 1857, in three classes; and Venezuela that of the - _Bust of Bolivar_, 1854, five classes; the ribbon is yellow, blue and - red. Mexico has abolished its former orders, the _Mexican Eagle_, - 1865, and _Our Lady of Guadalupe_, 1853; as has Brazil those of the - _Southern Cross_, 1822, _Dom Pedro I._, 1826, _the Rose_, 1829, and - the Brazilian branches of the Portuguese orders of _Christ_, _St - Benedict of Aviz_ and _St James_. The republican _Order of Columbus_, - founded in 1890, was abolished in 1891. - - _China._--There are no orders for natives, and such distinctions as - are conferred by the different coloured buttons of the mandarins, the - grades indicated by the number of peacocks' feathers, the gift of the - yellow jacket and the like, are rather insignia of rank or personal - marks of honour than orders, whether of knighthood or merit, in the - European sense. For foreigners, however, the emperor in 1882 - established the sole order, that of the _Imperial Double Dragon_, in - five classes, the first three of which are further divided into three - grades each, making eleven grades in all. The recipients eligible for - the various classes are graded, from the first grade of the first - class for reigning sovereigns down to the fifth class for merchants - and manufacturers. The insignia of the order are unique in shape and - decoration. Of the three grades of the first class the badge is a - rectangular gold and yellow enamel plaque, decorated with two upright - blue dragons, with details in green and white, between the heads for - the first grade a pearl, for the second a ruby, for the third a coral, - set in green, white and gold circles. The size of the plaque varies - for the different classes. The badges of the other four classes are - round plaques, the first three with indented edges, the last plain; in - the second class the dragons are in silver on a yellow and gold - ground, the jewel is a cut coral; the grades differ in the colour, - shape, &c., of the borders and indentations; in the third class the - dragons are gold, the ground green, the jewel a sapphire; in the - fourth the silver dragons are on a blue ground, the jewel a lapis - lazuli; in the fifth green dragons on a silver ground, the jewel a - pearl. The ribbons, decorated with embroidered dragons, differ for the - various grades and classes. - - _Japan._--The Japanese orders have all been instituted by the emperor - Mutsu Hito. In design and workmanship the insignia of the orders are - beautiful examples of the art of the native enamellers. The _Order of - the Chrysanthemum_ (_Kikkwa Daijasho_), founded in 1877, has only one - class. It is but rarely conferred on others than members of the royal - house or foreign rulers or princes. The badge of the order may be - described as follows: From a centre of red enamel representing the sun - issue 32 white gold-bordered rays in four sharply projecting groups, - between the angles of which are four yellow conventional chrysanthemum - flowers with green leaves forming a circle on which the rays rest; the - whole is suspended from a larger yellow chrysanthemum. The ribbon is - deep red bordered with purple. The collar, which may be granted with - the order or later, is composed of four members repeated, two gold - chrysanthemums, one with green leaves, the other surrounded by a - wreath of palm, and two elaborate arabesque designs. The _Order of the - Paulownia Sun_ (_Tokwa Daijasho_), founded in 1888, in one class, may - be in a sense regarded as the highest class of the _Rising Sun_ - (_Kiokujitsasho_) founded in eight classes, in 1875. The badge of both - orders is essentially the same, viz. the red sun with white and gold - rays; in the former the lilac flowers of the Paulownia tree, the - flower of the Tycoon's arms, take a prominent part. The ribbon of the - first order is deep red with white edging, of the second scarlet with - white central stripe. The last two classes of the _Rising Sun_ wear a - decoration formed of the Paulownia flower and leaves. The _Order of - the Mirror_ or _Happy Sacred Treasure_ (_Zaihosho_) was founded in - 1888, with eight classes. The cross of white and gold clustered rays - bears in a blue centre a silver star-shaped mirror. The ribbon is pale - blue with orange stripes. There is also an order for ladies, that of - the _Crown_, founded in five classes in 1888. The military order of - Japan is the _Order of the Golden Kite_, founded in 1890, in seven - classes. The badge has an elaborate design; it consists of a star of - purple, red, yellow, gold and silver rays, on which are displayed old - Japanese weapons, banners and shields in various coloured enamels, the - whole surmounted by a golden kite with outstretched wings. The ribbon - is green with white stripes. - - _Persia._--The _Order of the Sun and Lion_, founded by Fath 'Ali Shah - in 1808, has five classes. There is also the _Nischan-i-Aftab_, for - ladies, founded in 1873. - - _Siam._--The _Sacred Order_, or the _Nine Precious Stones_, was - founded in 1869, in one class only, for the Buddhist princes of the - royal house. The _Order of the White Elephant_, founded in 1861, is in - five classes. This is the principal general order. The badge is a - striking example of Oriental design adapted to a European conventional - form. The circular plaque is formed of a triple circle of lotus leaves - in gold, red and green, within a blue circlet with pearls a richly - caparisoned white elephant on a gold ground, the whole surmounted by - the jewelled gold pagoda crown of Siam; the collar is formed of - alternate white elephants, red, blue and white royal monograms and - gold pagoda crowns. The ribbon is red with green borders and small - blue and white stripes. Other orders are the _Siamese Crown_ (_Mongkut - Siam_), five classes, founded 1869; the family _Order of - Chulah-Chon-Clao_, three classes, 1873; and the _Maha Charkrkri_, - 1884, only for princes and princesses of the reigning family. - (C. We.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Feudal England_, pp. 225 sqq. - - [2] Du Cange, _Gloss._, _s.v._ "Miles." - - [3] _History of England_, iii. 12. - - [4] Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, i. 156. - - [5] _Ibid._ i. 156, 366; Turner, iii. 125-129. - - [6] Ingram's edition, p. 290. - - [7] _Comparative Politics_, p. 74. - - [8] Baluze, _Capitularia Regum Francorum_, ii. 794, 1069. - - [9] Du Cange, _Gloss._, _s.v._ "Arma." - - [10] Freeman, _Comparative Politics_, p. 73. - - [11] Hallam, _Middle Ages_, iii. 392. - - [12] Stubbs, _Const. Hist._ ii. 278; also compare Grosse, _Military - Antiquities_, i. 65 seq. - - [13] There has been a general tendency to ignore the extent to which - the armies of Edward III. were raised by compulsory levies even after - the system of raising troops by free contract had begun. Luce (ch. - vi.) points out how much England relied at this time on what would - now be called conscription: and his remarks are entirely borne out by - the Norwich documents published by Mr W. Hudson (Norf, and Norwich - Archaeological Soc. xiv. 263 sqq.), by a Lynn corporation document of - 18th Edw. III. (Hist. MSS. Commission Report XI. Appendix pt. iii. p. - 189), and by Smyth's _Lives of the Berkeleys_, i. 312, 319, 320. - - [14] J. B. de Lacurne de Sainte Palaye, _Memoires sur l'Ancienne - Chevalerie_, i. 363, 364 (ed. 1781). - - [15] Du Cange, _Dissertation sur Joinville_, xxi.; Sainte Palaye, - _Memoires_, i. 272; G. F. Beltz, _Memorials of the Order of the - Garter_ (1841,) p. xxvii. - - [16] Du Cange, _Dissertation_, xxi., and _Lancelot du Lac_, among - other romances. - - [17] Anstis, _Register of the Order of the Garter_, i. 63. - - [18] Grose, _Military Antiq._ i. 207 seq.; Stubbs, _Const. Hist._ ii. - 276 seq., and iii. 278 seq. - - [19] Grose's _Military Antiquities_, ii. 256. - - [20] Sainte Palaye, _Memoires_, i. 36; Froissart, bk. iii. ch. 9. - - [21] Sainte Palaye, _Memoires_, pt. i. and Mills, _History of - Chivalry_, vol. i. ch. 2. - - [22] See the long sermon in the romance of _Petit Jehan de Saintre_, - pt. i. ch. v., and compare the theory there set forth with the actual - behaviour of the chief personages. Even Gautier, while he contends - that chivalry did much to refine morality, is compelled to admit the - prevailing immorality to which medieval romances testify, and the - extraordinary free behaviour of the unmarried ladies. No doubt these - romances, taken alone, might give as unfair an idea as modern French - novels give of Parisian morals, but we have abundant other evidence - for placing the moral standard of the age of chivalry definitely - below that of educated society in the present day. - - [23] Sainte Palaye, _Memoires_, i. 11 seq.: "C'est peut-etre a cette - ceremonie et non a celles de la chevalerie qu'on doit rapporter ce - qui se lit dans nos historiens de la premiere et de la seconde race - au sujet des premieres armes que les Rois et les Princes remettoient - avec solemnite au ieunes Princes leurs enfans." - - [24] There are several obscure points as to the relation of the - longer and shorter ceremonies, as well as the origin and original - relation of their several parts. There is nothing to show whence came - "dubbing" or the "accolade." It seems certain that the word "dub" - means to strike, and the usage is as old as the knighting of Henry by - William the Conqueror (_supra_, pp. 851, 852). So, too, in the Empire - a dubbed knight is "ritter geschlagen." The "accolade" may - etymologically refer to the embrace, accompanied by a blow with the - hand, characteristic of the longer form of knighting. The derivation - of "adouber," corresponding to "dub," from "adoptare," which is given - by Du Cange, and would connect the ceremony with "adoptio per arma," - is certainly inaccurate. The investiture with arms, which formed a - part of the longer form of knighting, and which we have seen to rest - on very ancient usage, may originally have had a distinct meaning. We - have observed that Lanfranc invested Henry I. with arms, while - William "dubbed him to rider." If there was a difference in the - meaning of the two ceremonies, the difficulty as to the knighting of - Earl Harold (_supra_, p. 852) is at least partly removed. - - [25] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, 639. - - [26] Daniel, _Histoire de la Milice Francoise_, i. 99-104; Byshe's - Upton, _De Studio Militari_, pp. 21-24; Dugdale, _Warwickshire_, ii. - 708-710; Segar, Honor _Civil and Military_, pp. 69 seq. and Nicolas, - _Orders of Knighthood_, vol. ii. (_Order of the Bath_) pp. 19 seq.... - It is given as "the order and manner of creating Knights of the Bath - in time of peace according to the custom of England," and - consequently dates from a period when the full ceremony of creating - knights bachelors generally had gone out of fashion. But as Ashmole, - speaking of Knights of the Bath, says, "if the ceremonies and - circumstances of their creation be well considered, it will appear - that this king [Henry IV.] did not institute but rather restore the - ancient manner of making knights, and consequently that the Knights - of the Bath are in truth no other than knights bachelors, that is to - say, such as are created with those ceremonies wherewith knights - bachelors were formerly created." (Ashmole, _Order of the Garter_, p. - 15). See also Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 678, and the - _Archaeological Journal_, v. 258 seq. - - [27] As may be gathered from Selden, Favyn, La Colombiers, Menestrier - and Sainte Palaye, there were several differences of detail in the - ceremony at different times and in different places. But in the main - it was everywhere the same both in its military and its - ecclesiastical elements. In the _Pontificale Romanum_, the old _Ordo - Romanus_ and the manual or Common Prayer Book in use in England - before the Reformation forms for the blessing or consecration of new - knights are included, and of these the first and the last are quoted - by Selden. - - [28] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 678; Ashmole, _Order of the - Garter_, p. 15; Favyn, _Theatre d'Honneur_, ii. 1035. - - [29] "If we sum up the principal ensigns of knighthood, ancient and - modern, we shall find they have been or are a horse, gold ring, - shield and lance, a belt and sword, gilt spurs and a gold chain or - collar."--Ashmole, _Order of the Garter_, pp. 12, 13. - - [30] On the banner see Grose, _Military Antiquities_, ii. 257; and - Nicolas, _British Orders of Knighthood_, vol. i. p. xxxvii. - - [31] _Titles of Honor_, pp. 356 and 608. See also Hallam, _Middle - Ages_, iii. 126 seq. and Stubbs, _Const. Hist._ iii. 440 seq. - - [32] Riddell's _Law and Practice in Scottish Peerages_, p. 578; also - Nisbet's _System of Heraldry_, ii. 49 and Selden's _Titles of Honor_, - p. 702. - - [33] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, pp. 608 and 657. - - [34] See "Project concerninge the conferinge of the title of vidom," - wherein it is said that "the title of vidom (vicedominus) was an - ancient title used in this kingdom of England both before and since - the Norman Conquest" (_State Papers_, James I. Domestic Series, - lxiii. 150 B, probable date April 1611). - - [35] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, pp. 452 seq. - - [36] _Ibid._ pp. 449 seq. - - [37] Du Cange, _Dissertation_, ix.; Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. - 452; Daniel, _Milice Francoise_, i. 86 (Paris, 1721). - - [38] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 656; Grose, _Military - Antiquities_, ii. 206. - - [39] Froissart, Bk. I. ch. 241 and Bk. II. ch. 53. The recipients - were Sir John Chandos and Sir Thos. Trivet. - - [40] _Commonwealth of England_ (ed. 1640), p. 48. - - [41] _State Papers_, Domestic Series, James the First, lxvii. 119. - - [42] "Thursday, June 24th: His Majesty was pleased to confer the - honour of knights banneret on the following flag officers and - commanders under the royal standard, who kneeling kissed hands on the - occasion: Admirals Pye and Sprye; Captains Knight, Bickerton and - Vernon," _Gentleman's Magazine_ (1773) xliii. 299. Sir Harris Nicolas - remarks on these and the other cases (_British Orders of Knighthood_, - vol. xliii.) and Sir William Fitzherbert published anonymously a - pamphlet on the subject, _A Short Inquiry into the Nature of the - Titles conferred at Portsmouth_, &c., which is very scarce, but is to - be found under the name of "Fitzherbert" in the catalogue of the - British Museum Library. - - [43] "Sir Henry Ferrers, Baronet, was indicted by the name of Sir - Henry Ferrers, Knight, for the murther of one Stone whom one - Nightingale feloniously murthered, and that the said Sir Henry was - present aiding and abetting, &c. Upon this indictment Sir Henry - Ferrers being arraigned said he never was knighted, which being - confessed, the indictment was held not to be sufficient, wherefore he - was indicted de novo by the name of Sir Henry Ferrers, Baronet." - Brydall, _Jus Imaginis apud Anglos, or the Law of England relating to - the Nobility and Gentry_ (London, 1675), p. 20. Cf. _Patent Rolls_, - 10 Jac. I., pt. x. No. 18; Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 687. - - [44] Louis XIV. introduced the practice of dividing the members of - military orders into several degrees when he established the order of - St Louis in 1693. - - [45] G. F. Beltz, _Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter_ - (1841), p. 385. - - [46] Heylyn, _Cosmographie and History of the Whole World_, bk. i. p. - 286. - - [47] Beltz, _Memorials_, p. xlvi. - - [48] _Orders of Knighthood_, vol. i. p. lxxxiii. - - [49] Memoires, i. 67, i. 22; _History of Chivalry_; Gibbon, _Decline - and Fall_, vii. 200. - - [50] _Orders of Knighthood_, vol. i. p. xi. - - [51] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 638. - - [52] Harleian MS. 6063; Hargrave MS. 325. - - [53] _Patent Rolls_, 35th Hen. VIII., pt. xvi., No. 24; Burnet, - _Hist. of Reformation_, i. 15. - - [54] Spelman, "De milite dissertatio," _Posthumous Works_, p. 181. - - [55] _London Gazette_, December 6, 1823, and May 15, 1855. - - [56] On the Continent very elaborate ceremonies, partly heraldic and - partly religious, were observed in the degradation of a knight, which - are described by Sainte Palaye, _Memoires_, i. 316 seq., and after - him by Mills, _History of Chivalry_, i. 60 seq. Cf. _Titles of - Honor_, p. 653. - - [57] Dallaway's _Heraldry_, p. 303. - - [58] Even in 13th century England more than half the population were - serfs, and as such had no claim to the privileges of Magna Carta; - disputes between a serf and his lord were decided in the latter's - court, although the king's courts attempted to protect the serf's - life and limb and necessary implements of work. By French feudal law, - the villein had no appeal from his lord save to God (Pierre de - Fontaines, _Conseil_, ch. xxi. art. 8); and, though common sense and - natural good feeling set bounds in most cases to the tyranny of the - nobles, yet there was scarcely any injustice too gross to be - possible. "How mad are they who exult when sons are born to their - lords!" wrote Cardinal Jacques de Vitry early in the 13th century - (_Exempla_, p. 64, Folk Lore Soc. 1890). - - [59] Sainte Palaye, ii. 90. - - [60] Medley, _English Constitutional History_ (2nd ed., pp. 291, - 466), suggests that Edward might have deliberately calculated this - degradation of the older feudal ideal. - - [61] Being made to "ride the barriers" was the penalty for anybody - who attempted to take part in a tournament without the qualification - of name and arms. Guillim (_Display of Heraldry_, p. 66) and Nisbet - (_System of Heraldry_, ii. 147) speak of this subject as concerning - England and Scotland. See also Ashmole's _Order of the Garter_, p. - 284. But in England knighthood has always been conferred to a great - extent independently of these considerations. At almost every period - there have been men of obscure and illegitimate birth who have been - knighted. Ashmole cites authorities for the contention that - knighthood ennobles, insomuch that whosoever is a knight it - necessarily follows that he is also a gentleman; "for, when a king - gives the dignity to an ignoble person whose merit he would thereby - recompense, he is understood to have conferred whatsoever is - requisite for the completing of that which he bestows." By the common - law, if a villein were made a knight he was thereby enfranchised and - accounted a gentleman, and if a person under age and in wardship were - knighted both his minority and wardship terminated. (_Order of the - Garter_, p. 43; Nicolas, _British Orders of Knighthood_, i. 5.) - - [62] Gautier, pp. 21, 249. - - [63] Du Cange, _s.v. miles_ (ed. Didot, t. iv. p. 402); Sacchetti, - _Novella_, cliii. All the medieval _orders_ of knighthood, however, - insisted in their statutes on the noble birth of the candidate. - - [64] Lecoy de la Marche (_Chaire francaise au moyen age_, 2nd ed., p. - 387) gives many instances to prove that "al chevalerie, au xiii^e - siecle, est deja sur son declin." But already about 1160 Peter of - Blois had written, "The so-called order of knighthood is nowadays - mere disorder" (_ordo militum nunc est, ordinem non tenere_. Ep. - xciv.: the whole letter should be read); and, half a century earlier - still, Guibert of Nogent gives an equally unflattering picture of - contemporary chivalry in his _De vita sua_ (Migne, _Pat. Lat._, tom. - clvi.). - - [65] It has been taken as the Latin word meaning "he bears" or as - representing the initials of the legend _Fortitudo Ejus Rhodum - Tenuit_, with an allusion to a defence of the island of Rhodes by an - ancient count of Savoy. - - - - -KNIGHT-SERVICE, the dominant and distinctive tenure of land under the -feudal system. It is associated in its origin with that development in -warfare which made the mailed horseman, armed with lance and sword, the -most important factor in battle. Till within recent years it was -believed that knight-service was developed out of the liability, under -the English system, of every five hides to provide one soldier in war. -It is now held that, on the contrary, it was a novel system which was -introduced after the Conquest by the Normans, who relied essentially on -their mounted knights, while the English fought on foot. They were -already familiar with the principle of knight-service, the knight's fee, -as it came to be termed in England, being represented in Normandy by the -_fief du haubert_, so termed from the hauberk or coat of mail (_lorica_) -which was worn by the knight. Allusion is made to this in the coronation -charter of Henry I. (1100), which speaks of those holding by -knight-service as _milites qui per loricam terras suas deserviunt_. - -The Conqueror, it is now held, divided the lay lands of England among -his followers, to be held by the service of a fixed number of knights in -his host, and imposed the same service on most of the great -ecclesiastical bodies which retained their landed endowments. No record -evidence exists of this action on his part, and the quota of -knight-service exacted was not determined by the area or value of the -lands granted (or retained), but was based upon the _unit_ of the feudal -host, the _constabularia_ of ten knights. Of the tenants-in-chief or -barons (i.e. those who held directly of the crown), the principal were -called on to find one or more of these units, while of the lesser ones -some were called on for five knights, that is, half a _constabularia_. -The same system was adopted in Ireland when that country was conquered -under Henry II. The baron who had been enfeoffed by his sovereign on -these terms could provide the knights required either by hiring them for -pay or, more conveniently when wealth was mainly represented by land, by -a process of subenfeoffment, analogous to that by which he himself had -been enfeoffed. That is to say, he could assign to an under-tenant a -certain portion of his fief to be held by the service of finding one or -more knights. The land so held would then be described as consisting of -one or more knights' fees, but the knight's fee had not, as was formerly -supposed, any fixed area. This process could be carried farther till -there was a chain of mesne lords between the tenant-in-chief and the -actual holder of the land; but the liability for performance of the -knight-service was always carefully defined. - -The primary obligation incumbent on every knight was service in the -field, when called upon, for forty days a year, with specified armour -and arms. There was, however, a standing dispute as to whether he could -be called upon to perform this service outside the realm, nor was the -question of his expenses free from difficulty. In addition to this -primary duty he had, in numerous cases at least, to perform that of -"castle ward" at his lord's chief castle for a fixed number of days in -the year. On certain baronies also was incumbent the duty of providing -knights for the guard of royal castles, such as Windsor, Rockingham and -Dover. Under the feudal system the tenant by knight-service had also the -same pecuniary obligations to his lord as had his lord to the king. -These consisted of (1) "relief," which he paid on succeeding to his -lands; (2) "wardship," that is, the profits from his lands during a -minority; (3) "marriage," that is, the right of giving in marriage, -unless bought off, his heiress, his heir (if a minor) and his widow; and -also of the three "aids" (see Aids). - -The chief sources of information for the extent and development of -knight-service are the returns (_cartae_) of the barons (i.e. the -tenants-in-chief) in 1166, informing the king, at his request, of the -names of their tenants by knight-service with the number of fees they -held, supplemented by the payments for "scutage" (see SCUTAGE) recorded -on the pipe rolls, by the later returns printed in the _Testa de -Nevill_, and by the still later ones collected in _Feudal Aids_. In the -returns made in 1166 some of the barons appear as having enfeoffed more -and some less than the number of knights they had to find. In the latter -case they described the balance as being chargeable on their "demesne," -that is, on the portion of their fief which remained in their own hands. -These returns further prove that lands had already been granted for the -service of a fraction of a knight, such service being in practice -already commuted for a proportionate money payment; and they show that -the total number of knights with which land held by military service was -charged was not, as was formerly supposed, sixty thousand, but, -probably, somewhere between five and six thousand. Similar returns were -made for Normandy, and are valuable for the light they throw on its -system of knight-service. - -The principle of commuting for money the obligation of military service -struck at the root of the whole system, and so complete was the change -of conception that "tenure by knight-service of a mesne lord becomes, -first in fact and then in law, tenure by escuage (i.e. scutage)." By the -time of Henry III., as Bracton states, the test of tenure was scutage; -liability, however small, to scutage payment made the tenure military. - -The disintegration of the system was carried farther in the latter half -of the 13th century as a consequence of changes in warfare, which were -increasing the importance of foot soldiers and making the service of a -knight for forty days of less value to the king. The barons, instead of -paying scutage, compounded for their service by the payment of lump -sums, and, by a process which is still obscure, the nominal quotas of -knight-service due from each had, by the time of Edward I., been largely -reduced. The knight's fee, however, remained a knight's fee, and the -pecuniary incidents of military tenure, especially wardship, marriage, -and fines on alienation, long continued to be a source of revenue to the -crown. But at the Restoration (1660) tenure by knight-service was -abolished by law (12 Car. II. c. 24), and with it these vexatious -exactions were abolished. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The returns of 1166 are preserved in the _Liber Niger_ - (13th cent.), edited by Hearne, and the _Liber Rubeus_ or _Red Book of - the Exchequer_ (13 cent.), edited by H. Hall for the Rolls Series in - 1896. The later returns are in _Testa de Nevill_ (Record Commission, - 1807) and in the Record Office volumes of _Feudal Aids_, arranged - under counties. For the financial side of knight-service the early - pipe rolls have been printed by the Record Commission and the Pipe - Roll Society, and abstracts of later ones will be found in _The Red - Book of the Exchequer_, which may be studied on the whole question; - but the editor's view must be received with caution and checked by J. - H. Round's _Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer_ (for private - circulation). The _Baronia Anglica_ of Madox may also be consulted. - The existing theory on knight-service was enunciated by Mr Round in - _English Historical Review_, vi., vii., and reissued by him in his - _Feudal England_ (1895). It is accepted by Pollock and Maitland - (_History of English Law_), who discuss the question at length; by Mr - J. F. Baldwin in his _Scutage and Knight-service in England_ - (University of Chicago Press, 1897), a valuable monograph with - bibliography; and by Petit-Dutaillis, in his _Studies supplementary to - Stubbs' Constitutional History_ (Manchester University Series, 1908). - (J. H. R.) - - - - -KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE, a semi-military secret society in the -United States in the Middle West, 1861-1864, the purpose of which was to -bring the Civil War to a close and restore the "Union as it was." There -is some evidence that before the Civil War there was a Democratic secret -organization of the same name, with its principal membership in the -Southern States. After the outbreak of the Civil War many of the -Democrats of the Middle West, who were opposed to the war policy of the -Republicans, organized the Knights of the Golden Circle, pledging -themselves to exert their influence to bring about peace. In 1863, owing -to the disclosure of some of its secrets, the organization took the name -of Order of American Knights, and in 1864 this became the Sons of -Liberty. The total membership of this order probably reached 250,000 to -300,000, principally in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, -Kentucky and south-western Pennsylvania. Fernando Wood of New York seems -to have been the chief officer and in 1864 Clement L. Vallandigham -became the second in command. The great importance of the Knights of the -Golden Circle and its successors was due to its opposition to the war -policy of the Republican administration. The plan was to overthrow the -Lincoln government in the elections and give to the Democrats the -control of the state and Federal governments, which would then make -peace and invite the Southern States to come back into the Union on the -old footing. In order to obstruct and embarrass the Republican -administration the members of the order held peace meetings to influence -public opinion against the continuance of the war; purchased arms to be -used in uprisings, which were to place the peace party in control of the -Federal government, or failing in that to establish a north-western -confederacy; and took measures to set free the Confederate prisoners in -the north and bring the war to a forced close. All these plans failed at -the critical moment, and the most effective work done by the order was -in encouraging desertion from the Federal armies, preventing -enlistments, and resisting the draft. Wholesale arrests of leaders and -numerous seizures of arms by the United States authorities resulted in a -general collapse of the order late in 1864. Three of the leaders were -sentenced to death by military commissions, but sentence was suspended -until 1866, when they were released under the decision of the United -States Supreme Court in the famous case _Ex parte Milligan_. - - AUTHORITIES.--_An Authentic Exposition of the Knights of the Golden - Circle_ (Indianapolis, 1863); J. F. Rhodes, _History of the United - States from the Compromise of 1850_ (New York, 1905) vol. v.; E. - McPherson, _Political History of the Rebellion_ (Washington, 1876); - and W. D. Foulke, _Life of O. P. Morton_ (2 vols., New York, 1899). - (W. L. F.) - - - - -KNIPPERDOLLINCK (or KNIPPERDOLLING), BERNT (BEREND or BERNHARDT) (c. -1490-1536), German divine, was a prosperous cloth-merchant at Munster -when in 1524 he joined Melchior Rinck and Melchior Hofman in a business -journey to Stockholm, which developed into an abortive religious errand. -Knipperdollinck, a man of fine presence and glib tongue, noted from his -youth for eccentricity, had the ear of the Munster populace when in 1527 -he helped to break the prison of Tonies Kruse, in the teeth of the -bishop and the civic authorities. For this he made his peace with the -latter; but, venturing on another business journey, he was arrested, -imprisoned for a year, and released on payment of a high fine--in regard -of which treatment he began an action before the Imperial Chamber. -Though his aims were political rather than religious, he attached -himself to the reforming movement of Bernhardt Rothmann, once (1529) -chaplain of St Mauritz, outside Munster, now (1532) pastor of the city -church of St Lamberti. A new bishop directed a mandate (April 17, 1532) -against Rothmann, which had the effect of alienating the moderates in -Munster from the democrats. Knipperdollinck was a leader of the latter -in the surprise (December 26, 1532) which made prisoners of the -negotiating nobles at Telgte, in the territory of Munster. In the end, -Munster was by charter from Philip of Hesse (February 14, 1533) -constituted an evangelical city. Knipperdollinck was made a burgomaster -in February 1534. Anabaptism had already (September 8, 1533) been -proclaimed at Munster by a journeyman smith; and, before this, Heinrich -Roll, a refugee, had brought Rothmann (May 1533) to a rejection of -infant baptism. From the 1st of January 1534 Roll preached Anabaptist -doctrines in a city pulpit; a few days later, two Dutch emissaries of -Jan Matthysz, or Matthyssen, the master-baker and Anabaptist prophet of -Haarlem, came on a mission to Munster. They were followed (January 13) -by Jan Beukelsz (or Bockelszoon, or Buchholdt), better known as John of -Leiden. It was his second visit to Munster; he came now as an apostle of -Matthysz. He was twenty-five, with a winning personality, great gifts as -an organizer, and plenty of ambition. Knipperdollinck, whose daughter -Clara was ultimately enrolled among the wives of John of Leiden, came -under his influence. Matthysz himself came to Munster (1534) and lived -in Knipperdollinck's house, which became the centre of the new movement -to substitute Munster for Strassburg (Melchior Hofmann's choice) as the -New Jerusalem. On the death of Matthysz, in a foolish raid (April 5, -1534), John became supreme. Knipperdollinck, with one attempt at revolt, -when he claimed the kingship for himself, was his subservient henchman, -wheedling the Munster democracy into subjection to the fantastic rule of -the "king of the earth." He was made second in command, and executioner -of the refractory. He fell in with the polygamy innovation, the protest -of his wife being visited with a penance. In the military measures for -resisting the siege of Munster he took no leading part. On the fall of -the city (June 25, 1535) he hid in a dwelling in the city wall, but was -betrayed by his landlady. After six months' incarceration, his trial, -along with his comrades, took place on the 19th of January, and his -execution, with fearful tortures, on the 22nd of January 1536. -Knipperdollinck attempted to strangle himself, but was forced to endure -the worst. His body, like those of the others, was hung in a cage on the -tower of St Lamberti, where the cages are still to be seen. An alleged -portrait, from an engraving of 1607, is reproduced in the appendix to A. -Ross's Pansebeia, 1655. - - See L. Keller, _Geschichte der Wiedertaufer und ihres Reichs zu - Munster_ (1880); C. A. Cornelius, _Historische Arbeiten_ (1899); E. - Belfort Bax, _Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists_ (1903). (A. Go.*) - - - - -KNITTING (from O.E. _cnyttan_, to knit; cf. Ger. _Knutten_; the root is -seen in "knot"), the art of forming a single thread or strand of yarn -into a texture or fabric of a loop structure, by employing needles or -wires. "Crochet" work is an analogous art in its simplest form. It -consists of forming a single thread into a single chain of loops. All -warp knit fabrics are built on this structure. Knitting may be said to -be divided into two principles, viz. (1) hand knitting and (2) -frame-work knitting (see HOSIERY). In hand knitting, the wires, pins or -needles used are of different lengths or gauges, according to the class -of work wanted to be produced. They are made of steel, bone, wood or -ivory. Some are headed to prevent the loops from slipping over the ends. -Flat or selvedged work can only be produced on them. Others are pointed -at both ends, and by employing three or more a circular or -circular-shaped fabric can be made. In hand knitting each loop is formed -and thrown off individually and in rotation and is left hanging on the -new loop formed. The cotton, wool and silk fibres are the principal -materials from which knitting yarns are manufactured, wool being the -most important and most largely used. "Lamb's-wool," "wheeling," -"fingering" and worsted yarns are all produced from the wool fibre, but -may differ in size or fineness and quality. Those yarns are largely used -in the production of knitted underwear. Hand knitting is to-day -principally practised as a domestic art, but in some of the remote parts -of Scotland and Ireland it is prosecuted as an industry to some extent. -In the Shetland Islands the wool of the native sheep is spun, and used -in its natural colour, being manufactured into shawls, scarfs, ladies' -jackets, &c. The principal trade of other districts is hose and -half-hose, made from the wool of the sheep native to the district. The -formation of the stitches in knitting may be varied in a great many -ways, by "purling" (knitting or throwing loops to back and front in rib -form), "slipping" loops, taking up and casting off and working in -various coloured yarns to form stripes, patterns, &c. The articles may -be shaped according to the manner in which the wires and yarns are -manipulated. - - - - -KNOBKERRIE (from the Taal or South African Dutch, _knopkirie_, derived -from Du. _knop_, a knob or button, and _kerrie_, a Bushman or Hottentot -word for stick), a strong, short stick with a rounded knob or head used -by the natives of South Africa in warfare and the chase. It is employed -at close quarters, or as a missile, and in time of peace serves as a -walking-stick. The name has been extended to similar weapons used by the -natives of Australia, the Pacific islands, and other places. - - - - -KNOLLES, RICHARD (c. 1545-1610), English historian, was a native of -Northamptonshire, and was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford. He became -a fellow of his college, and at some date subsequent to 1571 left Oxford -to become master of a school at Sandwich, Kent, where he died in 1610. -In 1603 Knolles published his _Generall Historie of the Turkes_, of -which several editions subsequently appeared, among them a good one -edited by Sir Paul Rycaut (1700), who brought the history down to 1699. -It was dedicated to King James I., and Knolles availed himself largely -of Jean Jacques Boissard's _Vitae et Icones Sultanorum Turcicorum_ -(Frankfort, 1596). Although now entirely superseded, it has considerable -merits as regards style and arrangement. Knolles published a translation -of J. Bodin's _De Republica_ in 1606, but the _Grammatica Latina, Graeca -et Hebraica_, attributed to him by Anthony Wood and others, is the work -of the Rev. Hanserd Knollys (c. 1599-1691), a Baptist minister. - - See the _Athenaeum_, August 6, 1881. - - - - -KNOLLES (or KNOLLYS), SIR ROBERT (c. 1325-1407), English soldier, -belonged to a Cheshire family. In early life he served in Brittany, and -he was one of the English survivors who were taken prisoners by the -French after the famous "combat of the thirty" in March 1351. He was, -however, quickly released and was among the soldiers of fortune who took -advantage of the distracted state of Brittany, at this time the scene of -a savage civil war, to win fame and wealth at the expense of the -wretched inhabitants. After a time he transferred his operations to -Normandy, when he served under the allied standards of England and of -Charles II. of Navarre. He led the "great company" in their work of -devastation along the valley of the Loire, fighting at this time for his -own hand and for booty, and winning a terrible reputation by his -ravages. After the conclusion of the treaty of Bretigny in 1360 Knolles -returned to Brittany and took part in the struggle for the possession of -the duchy between John of Montfort (Duke John IV.) and Charles of Blois, -gaining great fame by his conduct in the fight at Auray (September -1364), where Du Guesclin was captured and Charles of Blois was slain. -In 1367 he marched with the Black Prince into Spain and fought at the -battle of Najera; in 1369 he was with the prince in Aquitaine. In 1370 -he was placed by Edward III. at the head of an expedition which invaded -France and marched on Paris, but after exacting large sums of money as -ransom a mutiny broke up the army, and its leader was forced to take -refuge in his Breton castle of Derval and to appease the disappointed -English king with a large monetary gift. Emerging from his retreat -Knolles again assisted John of Montfort in Brittany, where he acted as -John's representative; later he led a force into Aquitaine, and he was -one of the leaders of the fleet sent against the Spaniards in 1377. In -1380 he served in France under Thomas of Woodstock, afterwards duke of -Gloucester, distinguishing himself by his valour at the siege of Nantes; -and in 1381 he went with Richard II. to meet Wat Tyler at Smithfield. He -died at Sculthorpe in Norfolk on the 15th of August 1407. Sir Robert -devoted much of his great wealth to charitable objects. He built a -college and an almshouse at Pontefract, his wife's birthplace, where the -almshouse still exists; he restored the churches of Sculthorpe and -Harpley; and he helped to found an English hospital in Rome. Knolles won -an immense reputation by his skill and valour in the field, and ranks as -one of the foremost captains of his age. French writers call him -Canolles, or Canole. - - - - -KNOLLYS, the name of an English family descended from Sir Thomas Knollys -(d. 1435), lord mayor of London. The first distinguished member of the -family was Sir Francis Knollys (c. 1514-1596), English statesman, son of -Robert Knollys, or Knolles (d. 1521), a courtier in the service and -favour of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. Robert had also a younger son, -Henry, who took part in public life during the reign of Elizabeth and -who died in 1583. - -Francis Knollys, who entered the service of Henry VIII. before 1540, -became a member of parliament in 1542 and was knighted in 1547 while -serving with the English army in Scotland. A strong and somewhat -aggressive supporter of the reformed doctrines, he retired to Germany -soon after Mary became queen, returning to England to become a privy -councillor, vice-chamberlain of the royal household and a member of -parliament under Queen Elizabeth, whose cousin Catherine (d. 1569), -daughter of William Carey and niece of Anne Boleyn, was his wife. After -serving as governor of Plymouth, Knollys was sent in 1566 to Ireland, -his mission being to obtain for the queen confidential reports about the -conduct of the lord-deputy Sir Henry Sidney. Approving of Sidney's -actions he came back to England, and in 1568 was sent to Carlisle to -take charge of Mary Queen of Scots, who had just fled from Scotland; -afterwards he was in charge of the queen at Bolton Castle and then at -Tutbury Castle. He discussed religious questions with his prisoner, -although the extreme Protestant views which he put before her did not -meet with Elizabeth's approval, and he gave up the position of guardian -just after his wife's death in January 1569. In 1584 he introduced into -the House of Commons, where since 1572 he had represented Oxfordshire, -the bill legalizing the national association for Elizabeth's defence, -and he was treasurer of the royal household from 1572 until his death on -the 19th of July 1596. His monument may still be seen in the church of -Rotherfield Grays, Oxfordshire. Knollys was repeatedly free and frank in -his objections to Elizabeth's tortuous foreign policy; but, possibly -owing to his relationship to the queen, he did not lose her favour, and -he was one of her commissioners on such important occasions as the -trials of Mary Queen of Scots, of Philip Howard earl of Arundel, and of -Anthony Babington. An active and lifelong Puritan, his attacks on the -bishops were not lacking in vigour, and he was also very hostile to -heretics. He received many grants of land from the queen, and was chief -steward of the city of Oxford and a knight of the garter. - -Sir Francis's eldest son Henry (d. 1583), and his sons Edward (d. c. -1580), Robert (d. 1625), Richard (d. 1596), Francis (d. c. 1648), and -Thomas, were all courtiers and served the queen in parliament or in the -field. His daughter Lettice (1540-1634) married Walter Devereux, earl of -Essex, and then Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester; she was the mother of -Elizabeth's favourite, the 2nd earl of Essex. - - Some of Knollys's letters are in T. Wright's _Queen Elizabeth and her - Times_ (1838) and the _Burghley Papers_, edited by S. Haynes (1740); - and a few of his manuscripts are still in existence. A speech which - Knollys delivered in parliament against some claims made by the - bishops was printed in 1608 and again in W. Stoughton's _Assertion for - True and Christian Church Policie_ (London, 1642). - -Sir Francis Knollys's second son William (c. 1547-1632) served as a -member of parliament and a soldier during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, -being knighted in 1586. His eldest brother Henry, having died without -sons in 1583, William inherited his father's estates in Oxfordshire, -becoming in 1596 a privy councillor and comptroller of the royal -household; in 1602 he was made treasurer of the household. Sir William -enjoyed the favour of the new king James I., whom he had visited in -Scotland in 1585, and was made Baron Knollys in 1603 and Viscount -Wallingford in 1616. But in this latter year his fortunes suffered a -temporary reverse. Through his second wife Elizabeth (1586-1658), -daughter of Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk, Knollys was related to -Frances, countess of Somerset, and when this lady was tried for the -murder of Sir Thomas Overbury her relatives were regarded with -suspicion; consequently Lord Wallingford resigned the treasurership of -the household and two years later the mastership of the court of wards, -an office which he had held since 1614. However, he regained the royal -favour, and was created earl of Banbury in 1626. He died in London on -the 25th of May 1632. - -His wife, who was nearly forty years her husband's junior, was the -mother of two sons, Edward (1627-1645) and Nicholas (1631-1674), whose -paternity has given rise to much dispute. Neither is mentioned in the -earl's will, but in 1641 the law courts decided that Edward was earl of -Banbury, and when he was killed in June 1645 his brother Nicholas took -the title. In the Convention Parliament of 1660 some objection was taken -to the earl sitting in the House of Lords, and in 1661 he was not -summoned to parliament; he had not succeeded in obtaining his writ of -summons when he died on the 14th of March 1674. - -Nicholas's son Charles (1662-1740), the 4th earl, had not been summoned -to parliament when in 1692 he killed Captain Philip Lawson in a duel. -This raised the question of his rank in a new form. Was he, or was he -not, entitled to trial by the peers? The House of Lords declared that he -was not a peer and therefore not so entitled, but the court of king's -bench released him from his imprisonment on the ground that he was the -earl of Banbury and not Charles Knollys a commoner. Nevertheless the -House of Lords refused to move from its position, and Knollys had not -received a writ of summons when he died in April 1740. His son Charles -(1703-1771), vicar of Burford, Oxfordshire, and his grandsons, William -(1726-1776) and Thomas Woods (1727-1793), were successively titular -earls of Banbury, but they took no steps to prove their title. However, -in 1806 Thomas Woods's son William (1763-1824), who attained the rank of -general in the British army, asked for a writ of summons as earl of -Banbury, but in 1813 the House of Lords decided against the claim. -Several peers, including the great Lord Erskine, protested against this -decision, but General Knollys himself accepted it and ceased to call -himself earl of Banbury. He died in Paris on the 20th of March 1834. His -eldest son, Sir William Thomas Knollys (1797-1883), entered the army and -served with the Guards during the Peninsular War. Remaining in the army -after the conclusion of the peace of 1815 he won a good reputation and -rose high in his profession. From 1855 to 1860 he was in charge of the -military camp at Aldershot, then in its infancy, and in 1861 he was made -president of the council of military education. From 1862 to 1877 he was -comptroller of the household of the prince of Wales, afterwards King -Edward VII. From 1877 until his death on the 23rd of June 1883 he was -gentleman usher of the black rod; he was also a privy councillor and -colonel of the Scots Guards. His son Francis (b. 1837), private -secretary to Edward VII. and George V., was created Baron Knollys in -1902; another son, Sir Henry Knollys (b. 1840), became private secretary -to King Edward's daughter Maud, queen of Norway. - - See Sir N. H. Nicolas, _Treatise on the Law of Adulterine Bastardy_ - 1833); and G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887), vol. i. - - - - -KNOT, a Limicoline bird very abundant at certain seasons on the shores -of Britain and many countries of the northern hemisphere. Camden in the -edition of his _Britannia_ published in 1607 (p. 408) inserted a passage -not found in the earlier issues of that work, connecting the name with -that of King Canute, and this account of its origin has been usually -received. But no other evidence in its favour is forthcoming, and -Camden's statement is merely the expression of an opinion,[1] so that -there is perhaps ground for believing him to have been mistaken, and -that the clue afforded by Sir Thomas Browne, who (c. 1672) wrote the -name "Gnatts or Knots," may be the true one.[2] Still the statement was -so determinedly repeated by successive authors that Linnaeus followed -them in calling the species _Tringa canutus_, and so it remains with -nearly all modern ornithologists.[3] Rather larger than a snipe, but -with a shorter bill and legs, the knot visits the coasts of some parts -of Europe, Asia and North America at times in vast flocks; and, though -in temperate climates a good many remain throughout the winter, these -are nothing in proportion to those that arrive towards the end of -spring, in England generally about the 15th of May, and after staying a -few days pass northward to their summer quarters, while early in autumn -the young of the year throng to the same places in still greater -numbers, being followed a little later by their parents. In winter the -plumage is ashy-grey above (save the rump, which is white) and white -beneath. In summer the feathers of the back are black, broadly margined -with light orange-red, mixed with white, those of the rump white, more -or less tinged with red, and the lower parts are of a nearly uniform -deep bay or chestnut. The birds which winter in temperate climates -seldom attain the brilliancy of colour exhibited by those which arrive -from the south; the luxuriance generated by the heat of a tropical sun -seems needed to develop the full richness of hue. The young when they -come from their birthplace are clothed in ashy-grey above, each feather -banded with dull black and ochreous, while the breast is more or less -deeply tinged with warm buff. Much curiosity has long existed among -zoologists as to the egg of the knot, of which not a single identified -or authenticated specimen is known to exist in collections. The species -was found breeding abundantly on the North Georgian (now commonly called -the Parry) Islands by Parry's Arctic expedition, as well as soon after -on Melville Peninsula by Captain Lyons, and again during the voyage of -Sir George Nares on the northern coast of Grinnell Land and the shores -of Smith Sound, where Major Feilden obtained examples of the newly -hatched young (_Ibis_, 1877, p. 407), and observed that the parents fed -largely on the buds of _Saxifraga oppositifolia_. These are the only -localities in which this species is known to breed, for on none of the -arctic lands lying to the north of Europe or Asia has it been -unquestionably observed.[4] In winter its wanderings are very extensive, -as it is recorded from Surinam, Brazil, Walfisch Bay in South Africa, -China, Queensland and New Zealand. Formerly this species was extensively -netted in England, and the birds fattened for the table, where they were -esteemed a great delicacy, as witness the entries in the Northumberland -and Le Strange Household Books; and the British Museum contains an old -treatise on the subject: "The maner of kepyng of knotts, after Sir -William Askew and my Lady, given to my Lord Darcy, 25 Hen. VIII." (_MSS. -Sloane_, 1592, 8 _cat._ 663). (A. N.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] His words are simply "_Knotts_, i. _Canuti aues_, vt opinor e - Dania enim aduolare creduntur." In the margin the name is spelt - "Cnotts," and he possibly thought it had to do with a well-known - story of that king. Knots undoubtedly frequent the sea-shore, where - Canute is said on one occasion to have taken up his station, but they - generally retreat, and that nimbly, before the advancing surf, which - he is said in the story not to have done. - - [2] In this connexion we may compare the French _maringouin_, - ordinarily a gnat or mosquito, but also, among the French Creoles of - America, a small shore-bird, either a _Tringa_ or an _Aegialitis_, - according to Descourtilz (_Voyage_, ii. 249). See also Littre's - _Dictionnaire_, _s.v._ - - [3] There are few of the _Limicolae_, to which group the knot - belongs, that present greater changes of plumage according to age or - season, and hence before these phases were understood the species - became encumbered with many synonyms, as _Tringa cinerea_, - _ferruginea_, _grisea_, _islandica_, _naevia_ and so forth. The - confusion thus caused was mainly cleared away by Montagu and - Temminck. - - [4] The _Tringa canutus_ of Payer's expedition seems more likely to - have been _T. maritima_, which species is not named among the birds - of Franz Josef Land, though it can hardly fail to occur there. - - - - -KNOT (O.E. _cnotta_, from a Teutonic stem _knutt_; cf. "knit," and Ger. -_knoten_), an intertwined loop of rope, cord, string or other flexible -material, used to fasten two such ropes, &c., to one another, or to -another object. (For the various forms which such "knots" may take see -below.) The word is also used for the distance-marks on a log-line, and -hence as the equivalent of a nautical mile (see LOG), and for any hard -mass, resembling a knot drawn tight, especially one formed in the trunk -of a tree at the place of insertion of a branch. Knots in wood are the -remains of dead branches which have become buried in the wood of the -trunk or branch on which they were borne. When a branch dies down or is -broken off, the dead stump becomes grown over by a healing tissue, and, -as the stem which bears it increases in thickness, gradually buried in -the newer wood. When a section is made of the stem the dead stump -appears in the section as a knot; thus in a board it forms a circular -piece of wood, liable to fall out and leave a "knot-hole." "Knot" or -"knob" is an architectural term for a bunch of flowers, leaves or other -ornamentation carved on a corbel or on a boss. The word is also applied -figuratively to any intricate problem, hard to disentangle, a use -stereotyped in the proverbial "Gordian knot," which, according to the -tradition, was cut by Alexander the Great (see GORDIUM). - -[Illustration: FIG 1.] - -[Illustration: FIG 2.] - -Knots, Bends, Hitches, Splices and Seizings are all ways of fastening -cords or ropes, either to some other object such as a spar, or a ring, -or to one another. The "knot" is formed to make a knob on a rope, -generally at the extremity, and by untwisting the strands at the end and -weaving them together. But it may be made by turning the rope on itself -through a loop, as for instance, the "overhand knot" (fig. 1). A "bend" -(from the same root as "bind"), and a "hitch" (an O.E. word), are ways -of fastening or tying ropes together, as in the "Carrick bend" (fig. -21), or round spars as the Studding Sail Halyard Bend (fig. 19), and the -Timber Hitch (fig. 20). A "splice" (from the same root as "split") is -made by untwisting two rope ends and weaving them together. A "seizing" -(Fr. _saisir_) is made by fastening two spars to one another by a rope, -or two ropes by a third, or by using one rope to make a loop on -another--as for example the Racking Seizing (fig. 41), the Round Seizing -(fig. 40), and the Midshipman's Hitch (fig. 29). The use of the words is -often arbitrary. There is, for instance, no difference in principle -between the Fisherman's Bend (fig. 18) and the Timber Hitch (fig. 20). -Speaking generally, the Knot and the Seizing are meant to be permanent, -and must be unwoven in order to be unfastened, while the Bend and Hitch -can be undone at once by pulling the ropes in the reverse direction from -that in which they are meant to hold. Yet the Reef Knot (figs. 3 and 4) -can be cast loose with ease, and is wholly different in principle, for -instance, from the Diamond Knot (figs. 42 and 43). These various forms -of fastening are employed in many kinds of industry, as for example in -scaffolding, as well as in seamanship. The governing principle is that -the strain which pulls against them shall draw them tighter. The -ordinary "knots and splices" are described in every book on seamanship. - - _Overhand Knot_ (fig. 1).--Used at the end of ropes to prevent their - unreeving and as the commencement of other knots. Take the end _a_ - round the end _b_. - - _Figure-of-Eight Knot_ (fig. 2).--Used only to prevent ropes from - unreeving; it forms a large knob. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.] - - _Reef Knot_ (figs. 3, 4).--Form an overhand knot as above. Then take - the end _a_ over the end _b_ and through the bight. If the end _a_ - were taken under the end _b_, a _granny_ would be formed. This knot is - so named from being used in tying the reef-points of a sail. - - [Illustration: FIG. 5.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 7.] - - _Bowline_ (figs. 5-7).--Lay the end _a_ of a rope over the standing - part _b_. Form with _b_ a bight _c_ over _a_. Take _a_ round behind - _b_ and down through the bight _c_. This is a most useful knot - employed to form a loop which will not slip. _Running bowlines_ are - formed by making a bowline round its own standing part above _b_. It - is the most common and convenient temporary running noose. - - [Illustration: FIG. 8.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 9.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 10.] - - _Bowline on a Bight_ (figs. 8, 9).--The first part is made similar to - the above with the double part of the rope; then the bight _a_ is - pulled through sufficiently to allow it to be bent over past _d_ and - come up in the position shown in fig. 9. It makes a more comfortable - sling for a man than a single bight. - - _Half-Hitch_ (fig. 10).--Pass the end _a_ of the rope round the - standing part _b_ and through the bight. - - _Two Half-Hitches_ (fig. 11).--The half-hitch repeated; this is - commonly used, and is capable of resisting to the full strength of the - rope. A stop from _a_ to the standing part will prevent it jamming. - - [Illustration: FIG. 11.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 12.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 13.] - - _Clove Hitch_ (figs. 12, 13).--Pass the end _a_ round a spar and cross - it over _b_. Pass it round the spar again and put the end _a_ through - the second bight. - - _Blackwall Hitch_ (fig. 14).--Form a bight at the end of a rope, and - put the hook of a tackle through the bight so that the end of the rope - may be jammed between the standing part and the back of the hook. - - _Double Blackwall Hitch_ (fig. 15).--Pass the end _a_ twice round the - hook and under the standing part _b_ at the last cross. - - [Illustration: FIG. 14.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 15.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 16.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 17.] - - _Cat's-paw_ (fig. 16).--Twist up two parts of a lanyard in opposite - directions and hook the tackle in the eyes _i_, _i_. A piece of wood - should be placed between the parts at _g_. A large lanyard should be - clove-hitched round a large toggle and a strap passed round it below - the toggle. - - _Marling-spike Hitch_ (fig. 17).--Lay the end _a_ over _c_; fold the - loop over on the standing part _b_; then pass the marline-spike - through, over both parts of the bight and under the part _b_. Used for - tightening each turn of a seizing. - - [Illustration: FIG. 18.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 19.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 20.] - - _Fisherman's Bend_ (fig. 18).--Take two turns round a spar, then a - half-hitch round the standing part and between the spar and the turns, - lastly a half-hitch round the standing part. - - _Studding-sail Halyard Bend_ (fig. 19).--Similar to the above, except - that the end is tucked under the first round turn; this is more snug. - A _magnus hitch_ has two round turns and one on the other side of the - standing part with the end through the bight. - - _Timber Hitch_ (fig. 20).--Take the end _a_ of a rope round a spar, - then round the standing part _b_, then several times round its own - part _c_, against the lay of the rope. - - [Illustration: FIG. 21.] - - _Carrick Bend_ (fig. 21).--Lay the end of one hawser over its own part - to form a bight as _e'_, _b_; pass the end of another hawser up - through that bight near _b_, going out over the first end at _c_, - crossing under the first long part and over its end at _d_, then under - both long parts, forming the loops, and above the first short part at - _b_, terminating at the end _e"_, in the opposite direction - vertically and horizontally to the other end. The ends should be - securely stopped to their respective standing parts, and also a stop - put on the becket or extreme end to prevent it catching a pipe or - chock; in that form this is the best quick means of uniting two large - hawsers, since they cannot jam. When large hawsers have to work - through small pipes, good security may be obtained either by passing - ten or twelve taut racking turns with a suitable strand and securing - each end to a standing part of the hawser, or by taking half as many - round turns taut, crossing the ends between the hawsers over the - seizing and reef-knotting the ends. This should be repeated in three - places and the extreme ends well stopped. Connecting hawsers by - bowline knots is very objectionable, as the bend is large and the - knots jam. - - _Sheet Bend_ (fig. 22).--Pass the end of one rope through the bight of - another, round both parts of the other, and under its own standing - part. Used for bending small sheets to the clews of sails, which - present bights ready for the hitch. An ordinary net is composed of a - series of sheet bends. A _weaver's knot_ is made like a sheet bend. - - _Single Wall Knot_ (fig. 23).--Unlay the end of a rope, and with the - strand a form a bight. Take the next strand _b_ round the end of _a_. - Take the last strand _c_ round the end of _b_ and through the bight - made by _a_. Haul the ends taut. - - _Single Wall Crowned_ (fig. 24).--Form a single wall, and lay one of - the ends, _a_, over the knot. Lay _b_ over _a_, and _c_ over _b_ and - through the bight of _a_. Haul the ends taut. - - [Illustration: FIG. 22.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 23.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 24.] - - _Double Wall and Double Crown_ (fig. 25).--Form a single wall crowned; - then let the ends follow their own parts round until all the parts - appear double. Put the ends down through the knot. - - _Matthew Walker_ (figs. 26, 27).--Unlay the end of a rope. Take the - first strand round the rope and through its own bight; the second - strand round the rope, through the bight of the first, and through its - own bight; the third through all three bights. Haul the ends taut. - - [Illustration: FIG. 25.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 26.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 27.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 28.] - - _Inside Clinch_ (fig. 28).--The end is bent close round the standing - part till it forms a circle and a half, when it is securely seized at - _a_, _b_ and _c_, thus making a running eye; when taut round anything - it jams the end. It is used for securing hemp cables to anchors, the - standing parts of topsail sheets, and for many other purposes. If the - eye were formed outside the bight an _outside clinch_ would be made, - depending entirely on the seizings, but more ready for slipping. - - _Midshipman's Hitch_ (fig. 29).--Take two round turns inside the - bight, the same as a half-hitch repeated; stop up the end or let - another half-hitch be taken or held by hand. Used for hooking a tackle - for a temporary purpose. - - [Illustration: FIG. 29.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 30.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 31.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 32.] - - _Turk's Head_ (fig. 30).--With fine line (very dry) make a clove hitch - round the rope; cross the bights twice, passing an end the reverse way - (up or down) each time; then keeping the whole spread flat, let each - end follow its own part round and round till it is too tight to - receive any more. Used as an ornament variously on side-ropes and - foot-ropes of jibbooms. It may also be made with three ends, two - formed by the same piece of line secured through the rope and one - single piece. Form with them a diamond knot; then each end crossed - over its neighbour follows its own part as above. - - _Spanish Windlass_ (fig. 31).--An iron bar and two marling-spikes are - taken; two parts of a seizing are twisted like a cat's-paw (fig. 16), - passed round the bar, and hove round till sufficiently taut. In - heaving shrouds together to form an eye two round turns are taken with - a strand and the two ends hove upon. When a lever is placed between - the parts of a long lashing or frapping and hove round, we have what - is also called a Spanish windlass. - - _Slings_ (fig. 32).--This is simply the bight of a rope turned up over - its own part; it is frequently made of chain, when a shackle (bow up) - takes the place of the bight at _s_ and another at _y_, connecting the - two ends with the part which goes round the mast-head. Used to sling - lower yards. For boat's yards it should be a grummet with a thimble - seized in at _y_. As the tendency of all yards is to cant forward with - the weight of the sail, the part marked by an arrow should be the - fore-side--easily illustrated by a round ruler and a piece of twine. - - _Sprit-Sail Sheet Knot_ (fig. 33).--This knot consists of a double - wall and double crown made by the two ends, consequently with six - strands, with the ends turned down. Used formerly in the clews of - sails, now as an excellent stopper, a lashing or shackle being placed - at _s_ and a lanyard round the head at _l_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 33.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 34.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 35.] - - _Turning in a Dead-Eye Cutter-Stay fashion_ (fig. 34).--A bend is made - in the stay or shroud round its own part and hove together with a bar - and strand; two or three seizings diminishing in size (one round and - one or two either round or flat) are hove on taut and snug, the end - being at the side of the fellow part. The dead-eye is put in and the - eye driven down with a commander. - - _Turning in a Dead-Eye end up_ (fig. 35).--The shroud is measured - round the dead-eye and marked where a throat-seizing is hove on; the - dead-eye is then forced into its place, or it may be put in first. The - end beyond _a_ is taken up taut and secured with a round seizing; - higher still the end is secured by another seizing. As it is important - that the lay should always be kept in the rope as much as possible, - these eyes should be formed conformably, either right-handed or - left-handed. It is easily seen which way a rope would naturally kink - by putting a little extra twist into it. A shroud whose dead-eye is - turned in end up will bear a fairer strain, but is more dependent on - the seizings; the under turns of the throat are the first to break and - the others the first to slip. With the cutter-stay fashion the - standing part of the shroud gives way under the nip of the eye. A rope - will afford the greatest resistance to strain when secured round large - thimbles with a straight end and a sufficient number of flat or - racking seizings. To splice shrouds round dead-eyes is objectionable - on account of opening the strands and admitting water, thus hastening - decay. In small vessels, especially yachts, it is admissible on the - score of neatness; in that case a round seizing is placed between the - dead-eye and the splice. The dead-eyes should be in diameter 1(1/2) - times the circumference of a hemp shroud and thrice that of wire; the - lanyard should be half the nominal size of hemp and the same size as - wire: thus, hemp-shroud 12 in., wire 6 in., dead-eye 18 in., lanyard 6 - in. - - [Illustration: FIG. 36.] - - _Short Splice_ (fig. 36).--The most common description of splice is - when a rope is lengthened by another of the same size, or nearly so. - Fig. 36 represents a splice of this kind: the strands have been - unlaid, married and passed through with the assistance of a - marling-spike, over one strand and under the next, twice each way. The - ends are then cut off close. To render the splice neater the strands - should have been halved before turning them in a second time, the - upper half of each strand only being turned in; then all are cut off - smooth. _Eye Splice._--Unlay the strands and place them upon the same - rope spread at such a distance as to give the size of the eye; enter - the centre strand (unlaid) under a strand of the rope (as above), and - the other two in a similar manner on their respective sides of the - first; taper each end and pass them through again. If neatness is - desired, reduce the ends and pass them through once more; cut off - smooth and serve the part disturbed tightly with suitable hard line. - Uses too numerous to mention. _Cut Splice._--Made in a similar manner - to an eye splice, but of two pieces of rope, therefore with two - splices. Used for mast-head pendants, jib-guys, breast backstays, and - even odd shrouds, to keep the eyes of the rigging lower by one part. - It is not so strong as two separate eyes. _Horseshoe Splice._--Made - similar to the above, but one part much shorter than the other, or - another piece of rope is spliced across an eye, forming a horseshoe - with two long legs. Used for back-ropes on dolphin striker, back stays - (one on each side) and cutter's runner pendants. _Long Splice._--The - strands must be unlaid about three times as much as for a short splice - and married--care being taken to preserve the lay or shape of each. - Unlay one of the strands still further and follow up the vacant space - with the corresponding strand of the other part, fitting it firmly - into the rope till only a few inches remain. Treat the other side in a - similar manner. There will then appear two long strands in the centre - and a long and a short one on each side. The splice is practically - divided into three distinct parts; at each the strands are divided and - the corresponding halves knotted (as shown on the top of fig. 38) and - turned in twice. The half strand may, if desired, be still further - reduced before the halves are turned in for the second time. This and - all other splices should be well stretched and hammered into shape - before the ends are cut off. The long splice alone is adapted to - running ropes. - - [Illustration: FIG. 37.] - - _Shroud Knot_ (fig. 37).--Pass a stop at such distance from each end - of the broken shroud as to afford sufficient length of strands, when - it is unlaid, to form a single wall knot on each side after the parts - have been married; it will then appear as represented in the figure, - the strands having been well tarred and hove taut separately. The part - _a_ provides the knot on the opposite side and the ends _b_, _b_; the - part _c_ provides the knot and the ends _d_, _d_. After the knot has - been well stretched the ends are tapered, laid smoothly between the - strands of the shroud, and firmly served over. This knot is used when - shrouds or stays are broken. _French Shroud Knot._--Marry the parts - with a similar amount of and as before; stop one set of strands taut - up on the shroud (to keep the parts together), and turn the ends back - on their own part, forming bights. Make a single wall knot with the - other three strands round the said bights and shroud; haul the knot - taut first and stretch the whole; then heave down the bights close: it - will look like the ordinary shroud knot. It is very liable to slip. If - the ends by which the wall knot is made after being hove were passed - through the bights, it would make the knot stronger. The ends would be - tapered and served. - - [Illustration: FIG. 38.] - - _Flemish Eye_ (fig. 38).--Secure a spar or toggle twice the - circumference of the rope intended to be rove through the eye; unlay - the rope which is to form the eye about three times its circumference, - at which part place a strong whipping. Point the rope vertically under - the eye, and bind it taut up by the core if it is four-stranded rope, - otherwise by a few yarns. While doing so arrange six or twelve pieces - of spun-yarn at equal distances on the wood and exactly halve the - number of yarns that have been unlaid. If it is a small rope, select - two or three yarns from each side near the centre; cross them over the - top at _a_, and half-knot them tightly. So continue till all are - expended and drawn down tightly on the opposite side to that from - which they came, being thoroughly intermixed. Tie the pieces of - spun-yarn which were placed under the eye tightly round various parts, - to keep the eye in shape when taken off the spar, till they are - replaced by turns of marline hove on as taut as possible, the hitches - forming a central line outside the eye. Heave on a good seizing of - spun-yarn close below the spar, and another between six and twelve - inches below the first; it may then be parcelled and served; the eye - is served over twice, and well tarred each time. As large ropes are - composed of so many yarns, a greater number must be knotted over the - toggle each time; a 4-in. rope has 132 yarns, which would require 22 - knottings of six each time; a 10-in. rope has 834 yarns, therefore, if - ten are taken from each side every time, about twice that number of - hitches will be required; sometimes only half the yarns are hitched, - the others being merely passed over. The chief use of these eyes has - been to form the collars of stays, the whole stay in each case having - to be rove through it--a very inconvenient device. It is almost - superseded for that purpose by a leg spliced in the stay and lashing - eyes abaft the mast, for which it is commonly used at present. This - eye is not always called by the same name, but the weight of evidence - is in favour of calling it a Flemish eye. _Ropemaker's Eye_, which - also has alternative names, is formed by taking out of a rope one - strand longer by 6 in. or a foot than the required eye, then placing - the ends of the two strands a similar distance below the disturbance - of the one strand, that is, at the size of the eye; the single strand - is led back through the vacant space it left till it arrives at the - neck of the eye, with a similar length of spare end to the other two - strands. They are all seized together, scraped, tapered, marled and - served. The principal merit is neatness. _Mouse on a Stay._--Formed by - turns of coarse spun-yarn hove taut round the stay, over parcelling at - the requisite distance from the eye to form the collar; assistance is - given by a padding of short yarns distributed equally round the rope, - which, after being firmly secured, especially at what is to be the - under part, are turned back over the first layer and seized down - again, thus making a shoulder; sometimes it is formed with parcelling - only. In either case it is finished by marling, followed by serving or - grafting. The use is to prevent the Flemish eye in the end of the stay - from slipping up any farther. - - _Rolling Hitch_ (fig. 39).--Two round turns are taken round a spar or - large rope in the direction in which it is to be hauled and one - half-hitch on the other side of the hauling part. This is very - useful, as it can be put on and off quickly. - - [Illustration: FIG. 39.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 40.] - - _Round Seizing_ (fig. 40).--So named when the rope it secures does not - cross another and there are three sets of turns. The size of the - seizing line is about one-sixth (nominal) that of the ropes to be - secured, but varies according to the number of turns to be taken. An - eye is spliced in the line and the end rove through it, embracing both - parts. If either part is to be spread open, commence farthest from - that part; place tarred canvas under the seizing; pass the line round - as many times (with much slack) as it is intended to have under-turns; - and pass the end back through them all and through the eye. Secure the - eye from rendering round by the ends of its splice; heave the turns on - with a marling-spike (see fig. 17), perhaps seven or nine; haul the - end through taut, and commence again the riding turns in the hollows - of the first. If the end is not taken back through the eye, but pushed - up between the last two turns (as is sometimes recommended), the - riders must be passed the opposite way in order to follow the - direction of the under-turns, which are always one more in number than - the riders. When the riders are complete, the end is forced between - the last lower turns and two cross turns are taken, the end coming up - where it went down, when a wall knot is made with the strands and the - ends cut close; or the end may be taken once round the shroud. _Throat - Seizing._--Two ropes or parts of ropes are laid on each other parallel - and receive a seizing similar to that shown in figure 35--that is with - upper and riding but no cross turns. As the two parts of rope are - intended to turn up at right angles to the direction in which they - were secured, the seizing should be of stouter line and short, not - exceeding seven lower and six riding turns. The end is better secured - with a turn round the standing part. Used for turning in dead-eyes and - variously. _Flat Seizing._--Commenced similarly to the above, but it - has neither riding nor cross turns. - - [Illustration: FIG. 41.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 42.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 43.] - - _Racking Seizing_ (fig. 41).--A running eye having been spliced round - one part of the rope, the line is passed entirely round the other - part, crossed back round the first part, and so on for ten to twenty - turns, according to the expected strain, every turn being hove as - tight as possible; after which round turns are passed to fill the - spaces at the back of each rope, by taking the end _a_ over both parts - into the hollow at _b_, returning at _c_, and going over to _d_. When - it reaches e a turn may be taken round that rope only, the end rove - under it, and a half-hitch taken, which will form a clove-hitch; knot - the end and cut it close. When the shrouds are wire (which is half the - size of hemp) and the end turned up round a dead-eye of any kind, wire - seizings are preferable. It appears very undesirable to have wire - rigging combined with plates or screws for setting it up, as in case - of accident--such as that of the mast going over the side, a shot or - collision breaking the ironwork--the seamen are powerless. - - _Diamond Knot_ (figs. 42, 43).--The rope must be unlaid as far as the - centre if the knot is required there, and the strands handled with - great care to keep the lay in them. Three bights are turned up as in - fig. 42, and the end of _a_ is taken over _b_ and up the bight _c_. - The end of _b_ is taken over _c_ and up through _a_. The end _c_ is - taken over a and through _b_. When hauled taut and the strands are - laid up again it will appear as in fig. 43. Any number of knots may be - made on the same rope. They were used on man-ropes, the foot-ropes on - the jibboom, and similar places, where it was necessary to give a good - hold for the hands or feet. Turk's heads are now generally used. - _Double Diamond._--Made by the ends of a single diamond following - their own part till the knot is repeated. Used at the upper end of a - side rope as an ornamental stopper-knot. - - _Stropping-Blocks._--There are various modes of securing blocks to - ropes; the most simple is to splice an eye at the end of the rope a - little longer than the block and pass a round seizing to keep it in - place; such is the case with jib-pendants. As a general rule, the - parts of a strop combined should possess greater strength than the - parts of the fall which act against it. The shell of an ordinary block - should be about three times the circumference of the rope which is to - reeve through it, as a 9-in. block for a 3-in. rope; but small ropes - require larger blocks in proportion, as a 4-in. block for a 1-in. - rope. When the work to be done is very important the blocks are much - larger: brace-blocks are more than five times the nominal size of the - brace. Leading-blocks and sheaves in racks are generally smaller than - the blocks through which the ropes pass farther away, which appears to - be a mistake, as more power is lost by friction. A clump-block should - be double the nominal size of the rope. A single strop may be made by - joining the ends of a rope of sufficient length to go round the block - and thimble by a common short splice, which rests on the crown of the - block (the opposite end to the thimble) and is stretched into place by - a jigger; a strand is then passed twice round the space between the - block and the thimble and hove taut by a Spanish windlass to cramp the - parts together ready for the reception of a small round seizing. The - cramping or pinching into shape is sometimes done by machinery - invented by a rigger in Portsmouth dockyard. The strop may be made the - required length by a long splice, but it would not possess any - advantage. - - [Illustration: FIG. 44.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 45.] - - _Grummet-Strop_ (fig. 44).--Made by unlaying a piece of rope of the - desired size about a foot more than three times the length required - for the strop. Place the centre of the rope round the block and - thimble; mark with chalk where the parts cross; take one strand out of - the rope; bring the two chalk marks together; and cross the strand in - the lay on both sides, continuing round and round till the two ends - meet the third time; they are then halved, and the upper halves - half-knotted and passed over and under the next strands, exactly as - one part of a long splice. A piece of worn or well-stretched rope will - better retain its shape, upon which success entirely depends. The - object is neatness, and if three or multiples of three strops are to - be made it is economical. - - _Double Strop_ (fig. 45).--Made with one piece of rope, the splice - being brought as usual to the crown of the block _t_, the bights - fitting into scores some inches apart, converging to the upper part, - above which the thimble receives the bights _a_, _a_; and the four - parts of the strop are secured at _s_, _s_ by a round seizing doubly - crossed. If the block be not then on the right slew (the shell - horizontal or vertical) a union thimble is used with another strop, - which produces the desired effect; thus the fore and main - brace-blocks, being very large and thin, are required (for appearance) - to lie horizontally; a single strop round the yard vertically has a - union thimble between it and the double strop round the block. The - double strop is used for large blocks; it gives more support to the - shell than the single strop and admits of smaller rope being used. - Wire rope is much used for block-strops; the fitting is similar. Metal - blocks are also used in fixed positions; durability is their chief - recommendation. Great care should be taken that they do not chafe the - ropes which pass by them as well as those which reeve through. - - _Selvagee Strop._--Twine, rope-yarn or rope is warped round two or - more pegs placed at the desired distance apart, till it assumes the - requisite size and strength; the two ends are then knotted or spliced. - Temporary firm seizings are applied in several places to bind the - parts together before the rope or twine is removed from the pegs, - after which it is marled with suitable material. A large strop should - be warped round four or six pegs in order to give it the shape in - which it is to be used. This description of strop is much stronger and - more supple than rope of similar size. Twine strops (covered with - duck) are used for boats' blocks and in similar places requiring - neatness. Rope-yarn and spun-yarn strops are used for attaching - luff-tackles to shrouds and for many similar purposes. To bring to a - shroud or hawser, the centre of the strop is passed round the rope and - each part crossed three or four times before hooking the "luff"; a - spun-yarn stop above the centre will prevent slipping and is very - necessary with wire rope. As an instance of a large selvagee - block-strop being used--when the "Melville" was hove down at Chusan - (China), the main-purchase-block was double stropped with a selvagee - containing 28 parts of 3-in. rope; that would produce 112 parts in - the neck, equal to a breaking strain of 280 tons, which is more than - four parts of a 19-in cable. The estimated strain it bore was 80 tons. - - _Stoppers_ for ordinary running ropes are made by splicing a piece of - rope to a bolt or to a hook and thimble, unlaying 3 or 4 ft., tapering - it by cutting away some of the yarns, and marling it down securely, - with a good whipping also on the end. It is used by taking a - half-hitch round the rope which is to be hauled upon, dogging the end - up in the lay and holding it by hand. The rope can come through it - when hauled, but cannot go back. - - [Illustration: FIG. 46.] - - _Whipping and Pointing._--The end of every working rope should at - least be whipped to prevent it fagging out; in ships of war and yachts - they are invariably pointed. Whipping is done by placing the end of a - piece of twine or knittle-stuff on a rope about an inch from the end, - taking three or four turns taut over it (working towards the end); the - twine is then laid on the rope again lengthways contrary to the first, - leaving a slack bight of twine; and taut turns are repeatedly passed - round the rope, over the first end and over the bight, till there are - in all six to ten turns; then haul the bight taut through between the - turns and cut it close. To point a rope, place a good whipping a few - inches from the end, according to size; open out the end entirely; - select all the outer yarns and twist them into knittles either singly - or two or three together; scrape down and taper the central part, - marling it firmly. Turn every alternate knittle and secure the - remainder down by a turn of twine or a smooth yarn hitched close up, - which acts as the weft in weaving. The knittles are then reversed and - another turn of the weft taken, and this is continued till far enough - to look well. At the last turn the ends of the knittles which are laid - back are led forward over and under the weft and hauled through - tightly, making it present a circle of small bights, level with which - the core is cut off smoothly. Hawsers and large ropes have a becket - formed in their ends during the process of pointing. A piece of 1 to - 1(1/2) in. rope about 1(1/2) to 2 ft. long is spliced into the core by - each end while it is open: from four to seven yarns (equal to a - strand) are taken at a time and twisted up; open the ends of the - becket only sufficient to marry them close in; turn in the twisted - yarns between the strands (as splicing) three times, and stop it above - and below. Both ends are treated alike; when the pointing is completed - a loop a few inches in length will protrude from the end of the rope, - which is very useful for reeving it. A hauling line or reeving line - should only be rove through the becket as a fair lead. _Grafting_ is - very similar to pointing, and frequently done the whole length of a - rope, as a side-rope. Pieces of white line more than double the length - of the rope, sufficient in number to encircle it, are made up in hanks - called foxes; the centre of each is made fast by twine and the weaving - process continued as in pointing. Block-strops are sometimes so - covered; but, as it causes decay, a small wove mat which can be taken - off occasionally is preferable. - - _Sheep-Shank_ (fig. 46).--Formed by making a long bight in a - topgallant back-stay, or any rope which it is desirable to shorten, - and taking a half-hitch near each bend, as at _a_, _a_. Rope-yarn - stops at _b_, _b_ are desirable to keep it in place till the strain is - brought on it. Wire rope cannot be so treated, and it is injurious to - hemp rope that is large and stiff. - - _Knotting Yarns_ (fig. 47).--This operation becomes necessary when, a - comparatively short piece of junk is to be made into spun-yarn, or - large rope into small, which is called twice laid. The end of each - yarn is divided, rubbed smooth and married (as for splicing). Two of - the divided parts, as _c_, _c_ and _d_, _d_, are passed in opposite - directions round all the other parts and knotted. The ends e and f - remain passive. The figure is drawn open, but the forks of A and B - should be pressed close together, the knot hauled taut and the ends - cut off. - - [Illustration: FIG. 47.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 48.] - - _Butt Slings_ (fig. 48).--Made of 4-in. rope, each pair being 26 ft. - in length, with an eye spliced in one end, through which the other is - rove before being placed over one end of the cask; the rope is then - passed round the opposite side of the cask and two half-hitches made - with the end, forming another running eye, both of which are beaten - down taut as the tackle receives the weight. Slings for smaller casks - requiring care should be of this description, though of smaller rope, - as the cask cannot possibly slip out. _Bale Slings_ are made by - splicing the ends of about 3 fathoms of 3-in. rope together, which - then looks like a long strop, similar to the double strop represented - in fig. 45--the bights _t_ being placed under the cask or bale and one - of the bights _a_, _a_ rove through the other and attached to the - whip or tackle. - - For a complete treatise on the subject the reader may be referred to - _The Book of Knots, being a Complete Treatise on the Art of Cordage, - illustrated by 172 Diagrams, showing the Manner of making every Knot, - Tie and Splice_, by Tom Bowling (London, 1890). - - -_Mathematical Theory of Knots._ - -In the scientific sense a knot is an endless physical line which cannot -be deformed into a circle. A physical line is flexible and inextensible, -and cannot be cut--so that no lap of it can be drawn through another. - -The founder of the theory of knots is undoubtedly Johann Benedict -Listing (1808-1882). In his "Vorstudien zur Topologie" (_Gottinger -Studien_, 1847), a work in many respects of startling originality, a few -pages only are devoted to the subject.[1] He treats knots from the -elementary notion of twisting one physical line (or thread) round -another, and shows that from the projection of a knot on a surface we -can thus obtain a notion of the relative situation of its coils. He -distinguishes "reduced" from "reducible" forms, the number of crossings -in the reduced knot being the smallest possible. The simplest form of -reduced knot is of two species, as in figs. 49 and 50. Listing points -out that these are formed, the first by right-handed the second by -left-handed twisting. In fact, if three half-twists be given to a long -strip of paper, and the ends be then pasted together, the two edges -become one line, which is the knot in question. We may free it by -slitting the paper along its middle line; and then we have the juggler's -trick of putting a knot on an endless unknotted band. One of the above -forms cannot be deformed into the other. The one is, in Listing's -language, the "perversion" of the other, i.e. its image in a plane -mirror. He gives a method of symbolizing reduced knots, but shows that -in this method the same knot may, in certain cases, be represented by -different symbols. It is clear that the brief notice he published -contains a mere sketch of his investigations. - -The most extensive dissertation on the properties of knots is that of -Peter Guthrie Tait (_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._, xxviii. 145, where the -substance of a number of papers in the _Proceedings_ of the same society -is reproduced). It was for the most part written in ignorance of the -work of Listing, and was suggested by an inquiry concerning vortex -atoms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.] - - Tait starts with the almost self-evident proposition that, if any - plane closed curve have double points only, in passing continuously - along the curve from one of these to the same again an even number of - double points has been passed through. Hence the crossings may be - taken alternately over and under. On this he bases a scheme for the - representation of knots of every kind, and employs it to find all the - distinct forms of knots which have, in their simplest projections, 3, - 4, 5, 6 and 7 crossings only. Their numbers are shown to be 1, 1, 2, 4 - and 8. The unique knot of three crossings has been already given as - drawn by Listing. The unique knot of four crossings merits a few - words, because its properties lead to a very singular conclusion. It - can be deformed into any of the four forms--figs. 51 and 52 and their - perversions. Knots which can be deformed into their own perversion - Tait calls "amphicheiral" (from the Greek [Greek: amphi], on both - sides, around, [Greek: cheir], hand), and he has shown that there is - at least one knot of this kind for every even number of crossings. He - shows also that "links" (in which two endless physical lines are - linked together) possess a similar property; and he then points out - that there is a third mode of making a complex figure of endless - physical lines, without either knotting or linking. This may be called - "lacing" or "locking." Its nature is obvious from fig. 53, in which it - will be seen that no one of the three lines is knotted, no two are - linked, and yet the three are inseparably fastened together. - - The rest of Tait's paper deals chiefly with numerical characteristics - of knots, such as their "knottiness," "beknottedness" and - "knotfulness." He also shows that any knot, however complex, can be - fully represented by three closed plane curves, none of which has - double points and no two of which intersect. It may be stated here - that the notion of beknottedness is founded on a remark of Gauss, who - in 1833 considered the problem of the number of inter-linkings of two - closed circuits, and expressed it by the electro-dynamic measure of - the work required to carry a unit magnetic pole round one of the - interlinked curves, while a unit electric current is kept circulating - in the other. This original suggestion has been developed at - considerable length by Otto Boeddicker (_Erweiterung der Gauss'schen - Theorie der Verschlingungen_ (Stuttgart, 1876). This author treats - also of the connexion of knots with Riemann's surfaces. - - [Illustration: FIG. 53.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 54.] - - It is to be noticed that, although every knot in which the crossings - are alternately over and under is irreducible, the converse is not - generally true. This is obvious at once from fig. 54, which is merely - the three-crossing knot with a doubled string--what Listing calls - "paradromic." - - Christian Felix Klein, in the _Mathematische Annalen_, ix. 478, has - proved the remarkable proposition that knots cannot exist in space of - four dimensions. (P. G. T.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] See P. G. Tait "On Listing's _Topologie_," _Phil. Mag._, xvii. - 30. - - - - -KNOUT (from the French transliteration of a Russian word of Scandinavian -origin; cf. A.-S. _cnotta_, Eng. knot), the whip used in Russia for -flogging criminals and political offenders. It is said to have been -introduced under Ivan III. (1462-1505). The knout had different forms. -One was a lash of raw hide, 16 in. long, attached to a wooden handle, 9 -in. long. The lash ended in a metal ring, to which was attached a second -lash as long, ending also in a ring, to which in turn was attached a few -inches of hard leather ending in a beak-like hook. Another kind -consisted of many thongs of skin plaited and interwoven with wire, -ending in loose wired ends, like the cat-o'-nine tails. The victim was -tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped, receiving the -specified number of strokes on the back. A sentence of 100 or 120 lashes -was equivalent to a death sentence; but few lived to receive so many. -The executioner was usually a criminal who had to pass through a -probation and regular training; being let off his own penalties in -return for his services. Peter the Great is traditionally accused of -knouting his son Alexis to death, and there is little doubt that the boy -was actually beaten till he died, whoever was the executioner. The -emperor Nicholas I. abolished the earlier forms of knout and substituted -the pleti, a three-thonged lash. Ostensibly the knout has been abolished -throughout Russia and reserved for the penal settlements. - - - - -KNOWLES, SIR JAMES (1831-1908), English architect and editor, was born -in London in 1831, and was educated, with a view to following his -father's profession, as an architect at University College and in Italy. -His literary tastes also brought him at an early age into the field of -authorship. In 1860 he published _The Story of King Arthur_. In 1867 he -was introduced to Tennyson, whose house, Aldworth, on Blackdown, he -designed; this led to a close friendship, Knowles assisting Tennyson in -business matters, and among other things helping to design scenery for -_The Cup_, when Irving produced that play in 1880. Knowles became -intimate with a number of the most interesting men of the day, and in -1869, with Tennyson's co-operation, he started the Metaphysical Society, -the object of which was to attempt some intellectual _rapprochement_ -between religion and science by getting the leading representatives of -faith and unfaith to meet and exchange views. - - The members from first to last were as follows: Dean Stanley, Seeley, - Roden Noel, Martineau, W. B. Carpenter, Hinton, Huxley, Pritchard, - Hutton, Ward, Bagehot, Froude, Tennyson, Tyndall, Alfred Barry, Lord - Arthur Russell, Gladstone, Manning, Knowles, Lord Avebury, Dean - Alford, Alex. Grant, Bishop Thirlwall, F. Harrison, Father Dalgairns, - Sir G. Grove, Shadworth Hodgson, H. Sidgwick, E. Lushington, Bishop - Ellicott, Mark Pattison, duke of Argyll, Ruskin, Robert Lowe, Grant - Duff, Greg, A. C. Fraser, Henry Acland, Maurice, Archbishop Thomson, - Mozley, Dean Church, Bishop Magee, Croom Robertson, FitzJames Stephen, - Sylvester, J. C. Bucknill, Andrew Clark, W. K. Clifford, St George - Mivart, M. Boulton, Lord Selborne, John Morley, Leslie Stephen, F. - Pollock, Gasquet, C. B. Upton, William Gull, Robert Clarke, A. J. - Balfour, James Sully and A. Barratt. - -Papers were read and discussed at the various meetings on such subjects -as the ultimate grounds of belief in the objective and moral sciences, -the immortality of the soul, &c. An interesting description of one of -the meetings was given by Magee (then bishop of Peterborough) in a -letter of 13th of February 1873:-- - - "Archbishop Manning in the chair was flanked by two Protestant bishops - right and left; on my right was Hutton, editor of the _Spectator_, an - Arian; then came Father Dalgairns, a very able Roman Catholic priest; - opposite him Lord A. Russell, a Deist; then two Scotch metaphysical - writers, Freethinkers; then Knowles, the very broad editor of the - _Contemporary_; then, dressed as a layman and looking like a country - squire, was Ward, formerly Rev. Ward, and earliest of the perverts to - Rome; then Greg, author of _The Creed of Christendom_, a Deist; then - Froude, the historian, once a deacon in our Church, now a Deist; then - Roden Noel, an actual Atheist and red republican, and looking very - like one! Lastly Ruskin, who read a paper on miracles, which we - discussed for an hour and a half! Nothing could be calmer, fairer, or - even, on the whole, more reverent then the discussion. In my opinion, - we, the Christians, had much the best of it. Dalgairns, the priest, - was very masterly; Manning, clever and precise and weighty; Froude, - very acute, and so was Greg. We only wanted a Jew and a Mahommedan to - make our Religious Museum complete" (_Life_, i. 284). - -The last meeting of the society was held on 16th May 1880. Huxley said -that it died "of too much love"; Tennyson, "because after ten years of -strenuous effort no one had succeeded in even defining metaphysics." -According to Dean Stanley, "We all meant the same thing if we only knew -it." The society formed the nucleus of the distinguished list of -contributors who supported Knowles in his capacity as an editor. In 1870 -he became editor of the _Contemporary Review_, but left it in 1877 and -founded the _Nineteenth Century_ (to the title of which, in 1901, were -added the words _And After_). Both periodicals became very influential -under him, and formed the type of the new sort of monthly review which -came to occupy the place formerly held by the quarterlies. In 1904 he -received the honour of knighthood. He died at Brighton on the 13th of -February 1908. - - - - -KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN (1784-1862), Irish dramatist and actor, was born -in Cork, on the 12th of May 1784. His father was the lexicographer, -James Knowles (1759-1840), cousin-german of Richard Brinsley Sheridan. -The family removed to London in 1793, and at the age of fourteen Knowles -published a ballad entitled _The Welsh Harper_, which, set to music, was -very popular. The boy's talents secured him the friendship of Hazlitt, -who introduced him to Lamb and Coleridge. He served for some time in the -Wiltshire and afterwards in the Tower Hamlets militia, leaving the -service to become pupil of Dr Robert Willan (1757-1812). He obtained the -degree of M.D., and was appointed vaccinator to the Jennerian Society. -Although, however, Dr Willan generously offered him a share in his -practice, he resolved to forsake medicine for the stage, making his -first appearance probably at Bath, and playing Hamlet at the Crow -Theatre, Dublin. At Wexford he married, in October 1809, Maria -Charteris, an actress from the Edinburgh Theatre. In 1810 he wrote -_Leo_, in which Edmund Kean acted with great success; another play, -_Brian Boroihme_, written for the Belfast Theatre in the next year, also -drew crowded houses, but his earnings were so small that he was obliged -to become assistant to his father at the Belfast Academical Institution. -In 1817 he removed from Belfast to Glasgow, where, besides conducting a -flourishing school, he continued to write for the stage. His first -important success was _Caius Gracchus_, produced at Belfast in 1815; and -his _Virginius_, written for Edmund Kean, was first performed in 1820 at -Covent Garden. In _William Tell_ (1825) Macready found one of his -favourite parts. His best-known play, _The Hunchback_, was produced at -Covent Garden in 1832; _The Wife_ was brought out at the same theatre in -1833; and _The Love Chase_ in 1837. In his later years he forsook the -stage for the pulpit, and as a Baptist preacher attracted large -audiences at Exeter Hall and elsewhere. He published two polemical -works--the _Rock of Rome_ and the _Idol Demolished by its own -Priests_--in both of which he combated the special doctrines of the -Roman Catholic Church. Knowles was for some years in the receipt of an -annual pension of L200, bestowed by Sir Robert Peel. He died at Torquay -on the 30th of November 1862. - - A full list of the works of Knowles and of the various notices of him - will be found in the _Life_ (1872), privately printed by his son, - Richard Brinsley Knowles (1820-1882), who was well known as a - journalist. - - - - -KNOW NOTHING (or AMERICAN) PARTY, in United States history, a political -party of great importance in the decade before 1860. Its principle was -political proscription of naturalized citizens and of Roman Catholics. -Distrust of alien immigrants, because of presumptive attachment to -European institutions, has always been more or less widely diffused, and -race antagonisms have been recurrently of political moment; while -anti-Catholic sentiment went back to colonial sectarianism. These were -the elements of the political "nativism"--i.e. hostility to foreign -influence in politics--of 1830-1860. In these years Irish immigration -became increasingly preponderant; and that of Catholics was even more -so. The geographical segregation and the clannishness of foreign voters -in the cities gave them a power that Whigs and Democrats alike (the -latter more successfully) strove to control, to the great aggravation of -naturalization and election frauds. "No one can deny that ignorant -foreign suffrage had grown to be an evil of immense proportions" (J. F. -Rhodes). In labour disputes, political feuds and social clannishness, -the alien elements--especially the Irish and German--displayed their -power, and at times gave offence by their hostile criticism of American -institutions.[1] In immigration centres like Boston, Philadelphia and -New York, the Catholic Church, very largely foreign in membership and -proclaiming a foreign allegiance of disputed extent, was really "the -symbol and strength of foreign influence" (Scisco); many regarded it as -a transplanted foreign institution, un-American in organization and -ideas.[2] Thus it became involved in politics. The decade 1830-1840 was -marked by anti-Catholic (anti-Irish) riots in various cities and by -party organization of nativists in many places in local elections. Thus -arose the American-Republican (later the Native-American) Party, whose -national career begun practically in 1845, and which in Louisiana in -1841 first received a state organization. New York City in 1844 and -Boston in 1845 were carried by the nativists, but their success was due -to Whig support, which was not continued,[3] and the national -organization was by 1847--in which year it endorsed the Whig nominee for -the presidency--practically dead. Though some Whig leaders had strong -nativist leanings, and though the party secured a few representatives in -Congress, it accomplished little at this time in national politics. In -the early 'fifties nativism was revivified by an unparalleled inflow of -aliens. Catholics, moreover, had combated the Native-Americans -defiantly. In 1852 both Whigs and Democrats were forced to defend their -presidential nominees against charges of anti-Catholic sentiment. In -1853-1854 there was a wide-spread "anti-popery" propaganda and riots -against Catholics in various cities. Meanwhile the Know Nothing Party -had sprung from nativist secret societies, whose relations remain -obscure.[4] Its organization was secret; and hence its name--for a -member, when interrogated, always answered that he knew nothing about -it. Selecting candidates secretly from among those nominated by the -other parties, and giving them no public endorsement, the Know Nothings, -as soon as they gained the balance of power, could shatter at will Whig -and Democratic calculations. Their power was evident by 1852--from which -time, accordingly, "Know Nothingism" is most properly dated. The charges -they brought against naturalization abuses were only too well founded; -and those against election frauds not less so--though, unfortunately, -the Know Nothings themselves followed scandalous election methods in -some cities. The proposed proscription of the foreign-born knew no -exceptions: many wished never to concede to them all the rights of -natives, nor to their children unless educated in the public schools. As -for Catholics, the real animus of Know Nothingism was against -_political_ Romanism; therefore, secondarily, against papal allegiance -and episcopal church administration (in place of administration by lay -trustees, as was earlier common practice in the United States); and, -primarily, against public aid to Catholic schools, and the alleged greed -(i.e. the power and success) of the Irish in politics. The times were -propitious for the success of an aggressive third party; for the Whigs -were broken by the death of Clay and Webster and the crushing defeat of -1852, and both the Whig and Democratic parties were disintegrating on -the slavery issue. But the Know Nothings lacked aggression. In entering -national politics the party abandoned its mysteries, without making -compensatory gains; when it was compelled to publish a platform of -principles, factions arose in its ranks; moreover, to draw recruits the -faster from Whigs and Democrats, it "straddled" the slavery question, -and this, although a temporary success, ultimately meant ruin. In 1854, -however, Know Nothing gains were remarkable.[5] Thereafter the -organization spread like wildfire in the South, in which section there -were almost no aliens, and the Whig dissolution was far advanced. The -Virginia election of May 1855 proved conclusively, however, that Know -Nothingism was no stronger against the Democrats than was the Whig party -it had absorbed; it was the same organization under a new name. In the -North it was even clearer that slavery must be faced. Know Nothing -evasion probably helped the South,[6] but neither Republicans nor -Democrats would endure the evasion; Douglas and Seward, and later -(1855-1856) their parties, denounced it. In the North-West the Know -Nothings were swept into the anti-slavery movement in 1854 without -retaining their organization. In the state campaigns of 1855 professions -were measured to the latitude. The national platform of 1856 (adopted by -a secret grand council), besides including anti-alien and anti-Catholic -planks, offered sops to the North, the South and the "doughfaces" on the -slavery issue. Millard Fillmore was nominated for the presidency. The -anti-slavery delegates of eight Northern states bolted the convention, -and eight months later the Republican wave swept the Know Nothings out -of the North.[7] The national field being thus lost, the state councils -became supreme, and local opportunism fostered variation and weakness. -By 1859 the party was confined almost entirely to the border states. The -Constitutional Union--the "Do Nothing"--Party of 1860 was mainly -composed of Know Nothing remnants.[8] The year 1860 practically marked, -also, the disappearance of the party as a local power.[9] - -Except in city politics nativism had no vitality; in state and national -politics it really had no excuse. Race antipathies gave it local -cohesive power in the North; various causes, already mentioned, advanced -it in the South; and as a device to win offices it was of wide-spread -attraction. Its only real contribution to government was the proof that -nativism is not Americanism. Public opinion has never accepted its -estimate of the alien nor of Catholic citizens. Some of its anti-Church -principles, however--as the non-support of denominational schools--have -been generally accepted; others--as the refusal to exclude the -(Protestant) Bible from public schools--have been generally rejected; -others--as the taxation of all Church property--remain disputed. - - See L. D. Scisco, _Political Nativism in New York State_ (doctoral - thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1901); L. F. Schmeckebier, - _Know Nothing Party in Maryland_ (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, - 1899); G. H. Haynes, "A Know Nothing Legislature" (Mass., 1855), in - _American Historical Assoc. Report_, pt. 1 (1896); J. B. McMaster, - _With the Fathers_, including "The Riotous Career of the Know - Nothings" (New York, 1896); H. F. Desmond, _The Know Nothing Party_ - (Washington, 1905). - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] E.g. for some extraordinary "reform" programmes among German - immigrants see Schmeckebier (as below), pp. 48-50. - - [2] "The actual offence of the Catholic Church was its non-conformity - to American methods of church administration and popular education" - (Scisco). - - [3] The Whigs bargained aid in New York city for "American" support - in the state, and charged that the latter was not given. Millard - Fillmore attributed the Whig loss of the state (see LIBERTY PARTY) to - the disaffection of Catholic Whigs angered by the alliance with the - nativists. - - [4] The Order of United Americans and the Order of the Star Spangled - Banner, established in New York respectively in 1845 and 1850, were - the most important sources of its membership. - - [5] This year "American Party" became the official name. Its strength - in Congress was almost thirty-fold that of 1852. It elected - governors, legislatures, or both, in four New England states, and in - Maryland, Kentucky and California; minor officers elsewhere; and - almost won six Southern states. - - [6] For it delayed anti-slavery organization in the North, and - presumably discouraged immigration, which was a source of strength to - the North rather than to the South. - - [7] They carried only Maryland. The popular vote in the North was - under one-seventh, in the South above three-sevenths, of the total - vote cast. - - [8] Note the presidential vote. Seward's loss of the Republican - nomination was partly due to Know Nothing hostility. - - [9] Its firmest hold was in Maryland. Its rule in Baltimore - (1854-1860) was marked by disgraceful riots and abuses. - - - - -KNOX, HENRY (1750-1806), American general, was born in Boston, -Massachusetts, of Scottish-Irish parentage, on the 25th of July 1750. He -was prominent in the colonial militia and tried to keep the Boston crowd -and the British soldiers from the clash known as the Boston massacre -(1770). In 1771 he opened the "London Book-Store" in Boston. He had read -much of tactics and strategy, joined the American army at the outbreak -of the War of Independence, and fought at Bunker Hill, planned the -defences of the camps of the army before Boston, and brought from Lake -George and border forts much-needed artillery. At Trenton he crossed the -river before the main body, and in the attack rendered such good service -that he was made brigadier-general and chief of artillery in the -Continental army on the following day. He was present at Princeton; was -chiefly responsible for the mistake in attacking the "Chew House" at -Germantown; urged New York as the objective of the campaign of 1778; -served with efficiency at Monmouth and at Yorktown; and after the -surrender of Cornwallis was promoted major-general, and served as a -commissioner on the exchange of prisoners. His services throughout the -war were of great value to the American cause; he was one of General -Washington's most trusted advisers, and he brought the artillery to a -high degree of efficiency. From December 1783 until June 1784 he was the -senior officer of the United States army. In April 1783 he had drafted a -scheme of a society to be formed by the American officers and the French -officers who had served in America during the war, and to be called the -"Cincinnati"; of this society he was the first secretary-general -(1783-1799) and in 1805 became vice-president-general. In 1785-1794 Knox -was secretary of war, being the first man to hold this position after -the organization of the Federal government in 1789. He urged -ineffectually a national militia system, to enroll all citizens over 18 -and under 60 in the "advanced corps," the "main corps" or the "reserve," -and for this and his close friendship with Washington was bitterly -assailed by the Republicans. In 1793 he had begun to build his house, -Montpelier, at Thomaston, Maine, where he speculated unsuccessfully in -the holdings of the Eastern Land Association; and he lived there until -his death on the 25th of October 1806. - - See F. S. Drake, _Memoir of General Henry Knox_ (Boston, 1873); and - Noah Brooks, _Henry Knox_ (New York, 1900) in the "American Men of - Energy" series. - - - - -KNOX, JOHN (c. 1505-1572), Scottish reformer and historian. Of his early -life very little is certainly known, in spite of the fact that his -_History of the Reformation_ and his private letters, especially the -latter, are often vividly autobiographical. Even the year of his birth, -usually given as 1505, is matter of dispute. Beza, in his _Icones_, -published in 1580, makes it 1515; Sir Peter Young (tutor to James VI. of -Scotland), writing to Beza from Edinburgh in 1579, says 1513; and a -strong case has been made out for holding that the generally accepted -date is due to an error in transcription (see Dr Hay Fleming in the -_Bookman_, Sept. 1905). But Knox seems to have been reticent about his -early life, even to his contemporaries. What is known is that he was a -son of William Knox, who lived in or near the town of Haddington, that -his mother's name was Sinclair, and that his forefathers on both sides -had fought under the banner of the Bothwells. William Knox was "simple," -not "gentle"--perhaps a prosperous East Lothian peasant. But he sent his -son John to school (no doubt the well-known grammar school of -Haddington), and thereafter to the university, where, like his -contemporary George Buchanan, he sat "at the feet" of John Major. Major -was a native of Haddington, who had recently returned to Scotland from -Paris with a great academical reputation. He retained to the last, as -his _History of Greater Britain_ shows, the repugnance characteristic of -the university of Paris to the tyranny of kings and nobles; but like it, -he was now alarmed by the revolt of Luther, and ceased to urge its -ancient protest against the supremacy of the pope. He exchanged his -"regency" or professorship in Glasgow University for one in that of St -Andrews in 1523. If Knox's college time was later than that date (as it -must have been, if he was born near 1515), it was no doubt spent, as -Beza narrates, at St Andrews, and probably exclusively there. But in -Major's last Glasgow session a "Joannes Knox" (not an uncommon name, -however, at that time in the west of Scotland) matriculated there; and -if this were the future reformer, he may thereafter either have followed -his master to St Andrews or returned from Glasgow straight to -Haddington. But till twenty years after that date his career has not -been again traced. Then he reappears in his native district as a priest -without a university degree (Sir John Knox) and a notary of the diocese -of St Andrews. In 1543 he certainly signed himself "minister of the -sacred altar" under the archbishop of St Andrews. But in 1546 he was -carrying a two-handed sword in defence of the reformer George Wishart, -on the day when the latter was arrested by the archbishop's order. Knox -would have resisted, though the arrest was by his feudal superior, Lord -Bothwell; but Wishart himself commanded his submission, with the words -"One is sufficient for a sacrifice," and was handed over for trial at St -Andrews. And next year the archbishop himself had been murdered, and -Knox was preaching in St Andrews a fully developed Protestantism. - -Knox gives us no information as to how this startling change in himself -was brought about. During those twenty years Scotland had been slowly -tending to freedom in religious profession, and to friendship with -England rather than with France. The Scottish hierarchy, by this time -corrupt and even profligate, saw the twofold danger and met it firmly. -James V., the "Commons' King" had put himself into the hands of the -Beatons, who in 1528 burned Patrick Hamilton. On James's death there was -a slight reaction, but the cardinal-archbishop took possession of the -weak regent Arran, and in 1546 burned George Wishart. England had by -this time rejected the pope's supremacy. In Scotland by a recent statute -it was death even to argue against it; and Knox after Wishart's -execution was fleeing from place to place, when, hearing that certain -gentlemen of Fife had slain the cardinal and were in possession of his -castle of St Andrews, he gladly joined himself to them. In St Andrews he -taught "John's Gospel" and a certain catechism--probably that which -Wishart had got from "Helvetia" and translated; but his teaching was -supposed to be private and tutorial and for the benefit of his friends' -"bairns." The men about him however--among them Sir David Lindsay of the -Mount, "Lyon King" and poet--saw his capacity for greater things, and, -on his at first refusing "to run where God had not called him," planned -a solemn appeal to Knox from the pulpit to accept "the public office and -charge of preaching." At the close of it the speaker (in Knox's own -narrative) "said to those that were present, 'Was not this your charge -to me? And do ye not approve this vocation?' They answered, 'It was, and -we approve it.' Whereat the said Johnne, abashed, burst forth in most -abundant tears and withdrew himself to his chamber," remaining there in -"heaviness" for days, until he came forth resolved and prepared. Knox is -probably not wrong in regarding this strange incident as the spring of -his own public life. The St Andrews invitation was really one to danger -and death; John Rough, who spoke it, died a few years after in the -flames at Smithfield. But it was a call which many in that ardent dawn -were ready to accept, and it had now at length found, or made, a -statesman and leader of men. For what to the others was chiefly a -promise of personal salvation became for the indomitable will of Knox an -assurance also of victory, even in this world, over embattled forces of -ancient wrong. It is certain at least that from this date he never -changed and scarcely even varied his public course. And looking back -upon that course afterwards, he records with much complacency how his -earliest St Andrews sermon built up a whole fabric of aggressive -Protestantism upon Puritan theory, so that his startled hearers -muttered, "Others sned (snipped) the branches; this man strikes at the -root." - -Meantime the system attacked was safe for other thirteen years. In June -1547 St Andrews yielded to the French fleet, and the prisoners, -including Knox, were thrown into the galleys on the Loire, to remain in -irons and under the lash for at least nineteen months. Released at last -(apparently through the influence of the young English king, Edward -VI.), Knox was appointed one of the licensed preachers of the new faith -for England, and stationed in the great garrison of Berwick, and -afterwards at Newcastle. In 1551 he seems to have been made a royal -chaplain; in 1552 he was certainly offered an English bishopric, which -he declined; and during most of this year he used his influence, as -preacher at court and in London, to make the new English settlement more -Protestant. To him at least is due the Prayer-book rubric which explains -that, when kneeling at the sacrament is ordered, "no adoration is -intended or ought to be done." While in Northumberland Knox had been -betrothed to Margaret Bowes, one of the fifteen children of Richard -Bowes, the captain of Norham Castle. Her mother, Elizabeth, co-heiress -of Aske in Yorkshire, was the earliest of that little band of -women-friends whose correspondence with Knox on religious matters throws -an unexpected light on his discriminating tenderness of heart. But now -Mary Tudor succeeded her brother, and Knox in March 1554 escaped into -five years' exile abroad, leaving Mrs. Bowes a fine treatise on -"Affliction," and sending back to England two editions of a more acrid -"Faithful Admonition" on the crisis there. He first drifted to -Frankfort, where the English congregation divided as English Protestants -have always done, and the party opposed to Knox got rid of him at last -by a complaint to the authorities of treason against the emperor Charles -V. as well as Philip and Mary. At Geneva he found a more congenial -pastorate. Christopher Goodman (c. 1520-1603) and he, with other exiles, -began there the Puritan tradition, and prepared the earlier English -version of the Bible, "the household book of the English-speaking -nations" during the great age of Elizabeth. Here, and afterwards at -Dieppe (where he preached in French), Knox kept in communication with -the other Reformers, studied Greek and Hebrew in the interest of -theology, and having brought his wife and her mother from England in -1555 lived for years a peaceful life. - -But even here Knox was preparing for Scotland, and facing the -difficulties of the future, theoretical as well as practical. In his -first year abroad he consulted Calvin and Bullinger as to the right of -the civil "authority" to prescribe religion to his subjects--in -particular, whether the godly should obey "a magistrate who enforces -idolatry and condemns true religion," and whom should they join "in the -case of a religious nobility resisting an idolatrous sovereign." In -August 1555 be visited his native country and found the queen-mother, -Mary of Lorraine, acting as regent in place of the real "sovereign," the -youthful and better-known Mary, now being brought up at the court of -France. Scripture-reading and the new views had spread widely, and the -regent was disposed to wink at this in the case of the "religious -nobility." Knox was accordingly allowed to preach privately for six -months throughout the south of Scotland, and was listened to with an -enthusiasm which made him break out, "O sweet were the death which -should follow such forty days in Edinburgh as here I have had three!" -Before leaving he even addressed a letter to the regent, urging her to -favour the Evangel. She accepted it jocularly as a "pasquil," and Knox -on his departure was condemned and burned in effigy. But he left behind -him a "Wholesome Counsel" to Scottish heads of families, reminding them -that within their own houses they were "bishop and kings," and -recommending the institution of something like the early apostolic -worship in private congregations. Of the Protestant barons Knox, though -in exile, seems to have been henceforward the chief adviser; and before -the end of 1557 they, under the name of the "Lords of the Congregation," -had entered into the first of the religious "bands" or "covenants" -afterwards famous in Scotland. In 1558 he published his "Appellation" to -the nobles, estates and commonalty against the sentence of death -recently pronounced upon him, and along with it a stirring appeal "To -his beloved brethren, the Commonalty of Scotland," urging that the care -of religion fell to them also as being "God's creatures, created and -formed in His own image," and having a right to defend their conscience -against persecution. About this time, indeed, there was in Scotland a -remarkable approximation to that solution of the toleration difficulty -which later ages have approved; for the regent was understood to favour -the demand of the "congregation" that at least the penal statutes -against heretics "be suspended and abrogated," and "that it be lawful to -us to use ourselves in matters of religion and conscience as we must -answer to God." It was a consummation too ideal for that early date; and -next year the regent, whose daughter was now queen of France and there -mixed up with the persecuting policy of the Guises, forbade the reformed -preaching in Scotland. A rupture ensued at once, and Knox appeared in -Edinburgh on the 2nd of May 1559 "even in the brunt of the battle." He -was promptly "blown to the horn" at the Cross there as an outlaw, but -escaped to Dundee, and commenced public preaching in the chief towns of -central Scotland. At Perth and at St Andrews his sermons were followed -by the destruction of the monasteries, institutions disliked in that age -in Scotland alike by the devout and the profane. But while he notes that -in Perth the act was that of "the rascal multitude," he was glad to -claim in St Andrews the support of the civic "authority"; and indeed the -burghs, which were throughout Europe generally in favour of freedom, -soon became in Scotland a main support of the Reformation. Edinburgh was -still doubtful, and the queen regent held the castle; but a truce -between her and the lords for six months to the 1st of January 1560 was -arranged on the footing that every man there "may have freedom to use -his own conscience to the day foresaid"--a freedom interpreted to let -Knox and his brethren preach publicly and incessantly. - -Scotland, like its capital, was divided. Both parties lapsed from the -freedom-of-conscience solution to which each when unsuccessful appealed; -both betook themselves to arms; and the immediate future of the little -kingdom was to be decided by its external alliances. Knox now took a -leading part in the great transaction by which the friendship of France -was exchanged for that of England. He had one serious difficulty. Before -Elizabeth's accession to the English crown, and after the queen mother -in Scotland had disappointed his hopes, he had published a treatise -against what he called "The Monstrous Regiment (regimen or government) -of Women"; though the despotism of that despotic age was scarcely -appreciably worse when it happened to be in female hands. Elizabeth -never forgave him; but Cecil corresponded with the Scottish lords, and -their answer in July 1559, in Knox's handwriting, assures England not -only of their own constancy, but of "a charge and commandment to our -posterity, that the amity and league between you and us, contracted and -begun in Christ Jesus, may by them be kept inviolated for ever." The -league was promised by England; but the army of France was first in the -field, and towards the end of the year drove the forces of the -"congregation" from Leith into Edinburgh, and then out of it in a -midnight rout to Stirling--"that dark and dolorous night," as Knox long -afterwards said, "wherein all ye, my lords, with shame and fear left -this town," and from which only a memorable sermon by their great -preacher roused the despairing multitude into new hope. Their leaders -renounced allegiance to the regent; she ended her not unkindly, but as -Knox calls it "unhappy," life in the castle of Edinburgh; the English -troops, after the usual Elizabethan delays and evasions, joined their -Scots allies; and the French embarked from Leith. On the 6th of July -1560 a treaty was at last made, nominally between Elizabeth and the -queen of France and Scotland; while Cecil instructed his mistress's -plenipotentiaries to agree "that the government of Scotland be granted -to the nation of the land." The revolution was in the meantime complete; -and Knox, who takes credit for having done much to end the enmity with -England which was so long thought necessary for Scotland's independence, -was strangely enough destined, beyond all other men, to leave the stamp -of a more inward independence upon his country and its history. - -At the first meeting of the Estates, in August 1560, the Protestants -were invited to present a confession of their faith. Knox and three -others drafted it, and were present when it was offered and read to the -parliament. The statute-book says it was "by the estates of Scotland -ratified and approved, as wholesome and sound doctrine grounded upon the -infallible truth of God's word." The Scots confession, though of course -drawn up independently, is in substantial accord with the others then -springing up in the countries of the Reformation, but is Calvinist -rather than Lutheran. It remained for two centuries the authorized -Scottish creed, though in the first instance the faith of only a -fragment of the people. Yet its approval became the basis for three acts -passed a week later; the first of which, abolishing the pope's authority -and jurisdiction in Scotland, may perhaps have been consistent with -toleration, as the second, rescinding old statutes which had established -and enforced that and other catholic tenets, undoubtedly was. But the -third, inflicting heavy penalties, with death on a third conviction, on -those who should celebrate mass or even be present at it, showed that -the reformer and his friends had crossed the line, and that their -position could no longer be described as, in Knox's words, "requiring -nothing but the liberty of conscience, and our religion and fact to be -tried by the word of God." He was prepared indeed to fall back upon -that, in the event of the Estates at any time refusing sanction to -either church or creed, as their sovereign in Paris promptly refused it. -But the parliament of 1560 gave no express sanction to the Reformed -Church, and Knox did not wait until it should do so. Already "in our -towns and places reformed," as the Confession puts it, there were local -or "particular kirks," and these grew and spread and were provincially -united, till, in the last month of this memorable year, the first -General Assembly of their representatives met, and became the "universal -kirk," or "the whole church convened." It had before it the plan for -church government and maintenance, drafted in August at the same time -with the Confession, under the name of _The Book of Discipline_, and by -the same framers. Knox was even more clearly in this case the chief -author, and he had by this time come to desire a much more rigid -Presbyterianism than he had sketched in his "Wholesome Counsel" of 1555. -In planning it he seems to have used his acquaintance with the -"Ordonnances" of the Genevan Church under Calvin, and with the "Forma" -of the German Church in London under John Laski (or A. Lasco). Starting -with "truth" contained in Scripture as the church's foundation, and the -Word and Sacraments as means of building it up, it provides ministers -and elders to be elected by the congregations, with a subordinate class -of "readers," and by their means sermons and prayers each "Sunday" in -every parish. In large towns these were to be also on other days, with a -weekly meeting for conference or "prophesying." The "plantation" of new -churches is to go on everywhere under the guidance of higher church -officers called superintendents. All are to help their brethren, "for no -man may be permitted to live as best pleaseth him within the Church of -God." And above all things the young and the ignorant are to be -instructed, the former by a regular gradation or ladder of parish or -elementary schools, secondary schools and universities. Even the poor -were to be fed by the Church's hands; and behind its moral influence, -and a discipline over both poor and rich, was to be not only the -coercive authority of the civil power but its money. Knox had from the -first proclaimed that "the teinds (tithes of yearly fruits) by God's law -do not appertain of necessity to the kirkmen." And this book now demands -that out of them "must not only the ministers be sustained, but also the -poor and schools." But Knox broadens his plan so as to claim also the -property which had been really gifted to the Church by princes and -nobles--given by them indeed, as he held, without any moral right and to -the injury of the people, yet so as to be Church patrimony. From all -such property, whether land or the sheaves and fruits of land, and also -from the personal property of burghers in the towns, Knox now held that -the state should authorize the kirk to claim the salaries of the -ministers, and the salaries of teachers in the schools and universities, -but above all, the relief of the poor--not only of the absolutely -"indigent" but of "your poor brethren, the labourers and handworkers of -the ground." For the danger now was that some gentlemen were already -cruel in exactions of their tenants, "requiring of them whatever before -they paid to the Church, so that the papistical tyranny shall only be -changed into the tyranny of the lords or of the laird." The danger -foreseen alike to the new Church, and to the commonalty and poor, began -to be fulfilled a month later, when the lords, some of whom had already -acquired, as others were about to acquire, much of the Church property, -declined to make any of it over for Knox's magnificent scheme. It was, -they said, "a devout imagination." Seven years afterwards, however, when -the contest with the Crown was ended, the kirk was expressly -acknowledged as the only Church in Scotland, and jurisdiction given it -over all who should attempt to be outsiders; while the preaching of the -Evangel and the planting of congregations went on in all the accessible -parts of Scotland. Gradually too stipends for most Scottish parishes -were assigned to the ministers out of the yearly _teinds_; and the -Church received--what it retained even down to recent times--the -administration both of the public schools and of the Poor Law of -Scotland. But the victorious rush of 1560 was already somewhat stayed, -and the very next year raised the question whether the transfer of -intolerance to the side of the new faith was as wise as it had at first -seemed to be successful. - -Mary Queen of Scots had been for a short time also queen of France, and -in 1561 returned to her native land, a young widow on whom the eyes of -Europe were fixed. Knox's objections to the "regiment of women" were -theoretical, and in the present case he hoped at first for the best, -favouring rather his queen's marriage with the heir of the house of -Hamilton. Mary had put herself into the hands of her half-brother, Lord -James Stuart afterwards earl of Moray, the only man who could perhaps -have pulled her through. A proclamation now continued the "state of -religion" begun the previous year; but mass was celebrated in the -queen's household, and Lord James himself defended it with his sword -against Protestant intrusion. Knox publicly protested; and Moray, who -probably understood and liked both parties, brought the preacher to the -presence of his queen. There is nothing revealed to us by "the broad -clear light of that wonderful book,"[1] _The History of the Reformation -in Scotland_, more remarkable than the four Dialogues or interviews, -which, though recorded only by Knox, bear the strongest stamp of truth, -and do almost more justice to his opponent than to himself. Mary took -the aggressive and very soon raised the real question. "Ye have taught -the people to receive another religion than their princes can allow; and -how can that doctrine be of God, seeing that God commands subjects to -obey their princes?" The point was made keener by the fact that Knox's -own Confession of Faith (like all those of that age, in which an -unbalanced monarchical power culminated) had held kings to be appointed -"for maintenance of the true religion," and suppression of the false; -and the reformer now fell back on his more fundamental principle, that -"right religion took neither original nor authority from worldly -princes, but from the Eternal God alone." All through this dialogue too, -as in another at Lochleven two years afterwards, Knox was driven to -axioms, not of religion but of constitutionalism, which Buchanan and he -may have learned from their teacher Major, but which were not to be -accepted till a later age. "'Think ye,' quoth she, 'that subjects, -having power, may resist their princes?' 'If their princes exceed their -bounds, Madam, they may be resisted and even deposed,'" Knox replied. -But these dialectics, creditable to both parties, had little effect upon -the general situation. Knox had gone too far in intolerance, and Moray -and Maitland of Lethington gradually withdrew their support. The court -and parliament, guided by them, declined to press the queen or to pass -the Book of Discipline; and meantime the negotiations as to the queen's -marriage with a Spanish, a French or an Austrian prince revealed the -real difficulty and peril of the situation. Her marriage to a great -Catholic prince would be ruinous to Scotland, probably also to England, -and perhaps to all Protestantism. Knox had already by letter formally -broken with the earl of Moray, "committing you to your own wit, and to -the conducting of those who better please you"; and now, in one of his -greatest sermons before the assembled lords, he drove at the heart of -the situation--the risk of a Catholic marriage. The queen sent for him -for the last time and burst into passionate tears as she asked, "What -have you to do with my marriage? Or what are you within this -commonwealth?" "A subject born within the same," was the answer of the -son of the East Lothian peasant; and the Scottish nobility, while -thinking him overbold, refused to find him guilty of any crime, even -when, later on, he had "convocated the lieges" to Edinburgh to meet a -crown prosecution. In 1564 a change came. Mary had wearied of her -guiding statesmen, Moray and the more pliant Maitland; the Italian -secretary David Rizzio, through whom she had corresponded with the pope, -now more and more usurped their place; and a weak fancy for her handsome -cousin, Henry Darnley, brought about a sudden marriage in 1565 and swept -the opposing Protestant lords into exile. Darnley, though a Catholic, -thought it well to go to Knox's preaching; but was so unfortunate as to -hear a very long sermon, with allusions not only to "babes and women" as -rulers, but to Ahab who did not control his strong-minded wife. Mary and -the lords still in her council ordered Knox not to preach while she was -in Edinburgh, and he was absent or silent during the weeks in which the -queen's growing distaste for her husband, and advancement of Rizzio over -the nobility remaining in Edinburgh, brought about the conspiracy by -Darnley, Morton and Ruthven. Knox does not seem to have known beforehand -of Rizzio's "slaughter," which had been intended to be a semi-judicial -act; but soon after it he records that "that vile knave Davie was justly -punished, for abusing of the commonwealth, and for other villainy which -we list not to express." The immediate effect however of what Knox thus -approved was to bring his cause to its lowest ebb, and on the very day -when Mary rode from Holyrood to her army, he sat down and penned the -prayer, "Lord Jesus, put an end to this my miserable life, for justice -and truth are not to be found among the sons of men!" He added a short -autobiographic fragment, whose mingled self-abasement and exultation are -not unworthy of its striking title--"John Knox, with deliberate mind, to -his God." During the rest of the year he was hidden in Ayrshire or -elsewhere, and throughout 1566 he was forbidden to preach when the court -was in Edinburgh. But he was influential at the December Assembly in the -capital where a greater tragedy was now preparing, for Mary's -infatuation for Bothwell was visible to all. At the Assembly's request, -however, Knox undertook a long visit to England, where his two sons by -his first wife were being educated, and were afterwards to be Fellows of -St John's, Cambridge, the younger becoming a parish clergyman. It was -thus during the reformer's absence that the murder of Darnley, the -abduction and subsequent marriage of Mary, the flight of Bothwell, and -the imprisonment in Lochleven of the queen, unrolled themselves before -the eyes of Scotland. Knox returned in time to guide the Assembly which -sat on the 25th of June 1567 in dealing with this unparalleled crisis, -and to wind up the revolution by preaching at Stirling on the 9th of -July 1567, after Mary's abdication, at the coronation of the infant -king. - -His main work was now really done; for the parliament of 1567 made Moray -regent, and Knox was only too glad to have his old friend back in power, -though they seem to have differed on the question whether the queen -should be allowed to pass into retirement without trial for her -husband's death, as they had differed all along on the question of -tolerating her private religion. Knox's victory had not come too early, -for his physical strength soon began to fail. But Mary's escape in 1568 -resulted only in her defeat at Langside, and in a long imprisonment and -death in England. In Scotland the regent's assassination in 1570 opened -a miserable civil war, but it made no permanent change. The massacre of -St Bartholomew rather united English and Scottish Protestantism; and -Knox in St Giles' pulpit, challenging the French ambassador to report -his words, denounced God's vengeance on the crowned murderer and his -posterity. When open war broke out between Edinburgh Castle, held by -Mary's friends, and the town, held for her son, both parties agreed that -the reformer, who had already had a stroke of paralysis, should remove -to St Andrews. While there he wrote his will, and published his last -book, in the preface to which he says, "I heartily take my good-night of -the faithful of both realms ... for as the world is weary of me, so am I -of it." And when he now merely signs his name, it is "John Knox, with my -dead hand and glad heart." In the autumn of 1572 he returned to -Edinburgh to die, probably in the picturesque house in the "throat of -the Bow," which for generations has been called by his name. With him -were his wife and three young daughters; for though he had lost Margaret -Bowes at the close of his year of triumph 1560, he had four years after -married Margaret Stewart, a daughter of his friend Lord Ochiltree. She -was a bride of only seventeen and was related to the royal house; yet, -as his Catholic biographer put it, "by sorcery and witchcraft he did so -allure that poor gentlewoman that she could not live without him." But -lords, ladies and burghers also crowded around his bed, and his -colleague and his servant have severally transmitted to us the words in -which his weakness daily strove with pain, rising on the day before his -death into a solemn exultation--yet characteristically, not so much on -his own account as for "the troubled Church of God." He died on the 24th -of November 1572, and at his funeral in St Giles' Churchyard the new -Regent Morton, speaking under the hostile guns of the castle, expressed -the first surprise of those around as they looked back on that stormy -life, that one who had "neither flattered nor feared any flesh" had now -"ended his days in peace and honour." Knox himself had a short time -before put in writing a larger claim for the historic future, "What I -have been to my country, though this unthankful age will not know, yet -the ages to come will be compelled to bear witness to the truth." - -Knox was a rather small man, with a well-knit body; he had a powerful -face, with dark blue eyes under a ridge of eyebrow, high cheek-bones, -and a long black beard which latterly turned grey. This description, -taken from a letter in 1579 by his junior contemporary Sir Peter Young, -is very like Beza's fine engraving of him in the _Icones_--an engraving -probably founded on a portrait which was to be sent by Young to Beza -along with the letter. The portrait, which was unfortunately adopted by -Carlyle, has neither pedigree nor probability. After his two years in -the French galleys, if not before, Knox suffered permanently from gravel -and dyspepsia, and he confesses that his nature "was for the most part -oppressed with melancholy." Yet he was always a hard worker; as sole -minister of Edinburgh studying for two sermons on Sunday and three -during the week, besides having innumerable cares of churches at home -and abroad. He was undoubtedly sincere in his religious faith, and most -disinterested in his devotion to it and to the good of his countrymen. -But like too many of them, he was self-conscious, self-willed and -dogmatic; and his transformation in middle life, while it immensely -enriched his sympathies as well as his energies, left him unable to put -himself in the place of those who retained the views which he had -himself held. All his training too, university, priestly and in foreign -parts, tended to make him logical overmuch. But this was mitigated by a -strong sense of humour (not always sarcastic, though sometimes savagely -so), and by tenderness, best seen in his epistolary friendships with -women; and it was quite overborne by an instinct and passion for great -practical affairs. Hence it was that Knox as a statesman so often struck -successfully at the centre of the complex motives of his time, leaving -it to later critics to reconcile his theories of action. But hence too -he more than once took doubtful shortcuts to some of his most important -ends; giving the ministry within the new Church more power over laymen -than Protestant principles would suggest, and binding the masses outside -who were not members of it, equally with their countrymen who were, to -join in its worship, submit to its jurisdiction, and contribute to its -support. And hence also his style (which contemporaries called -anglicized and modern), though it occasionally rises into liturgical -beauty, and often flashes into vivid historical portraiture, is -generally kept close to the harsh necessities of the few years in which -he had to work for the future. That work was indeed chiefly done by the -living voice; and in speaking, this "one man," as Elizabeth's very -critical ambassador wrote from Edinburgh, was "able in one hour to put -more life in us than five hundred trumpets continually blustering in our -ears." But even his eloquence was constraining and constructive--a -personal call for immediate and universal co-operation; and that -personal influence survives to this day in the institutions of his -people, and perhaps still more in their character. His countrymen indeed -have always believed that to Knox more than to any other man Scotland -owes her political and religious individuality. And since his 19th -century biography by Dr Thomas McCrie, or at least since his recognition -in the following generation by Thomas Carlyle, the same view has taken -its place in literature. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Knox's books, pamphlets, public documents and letters - are collected into the great edition in six volumes of _Knox's Works_, - by David Laing (Edinburgh, 1846-1864), with introductions, appendices - and notes. Of his books the chief are the following: 1.--_The History - of the Reformation in Scotland_, incorporating the Confession and the - Book of Discipline. Begun by Knox as a party manifesto in 1560, it was - continued and revised by himself in 1566 as so to form four books, - with a fifth book apparently written after his death from materials - left by him. It was partly printed in London in 1586 by Vautrollier, - but was suppressed by authority and published by David Buchanan, with - a _Life_, in 1664. 2.--_On Predestination: an Answer to an Anabaptist_ - (London, 1591). 3.--_On Prayer_ (1554). 4.--_On Affliction_ (1556). - 5.--_Epistles_, and _Admonition_, both to English Brethren in 1554. - 6.--_The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of - Women_ (1558). 7.--_An Answer to a Scottish Jesuit_ (1572). - - Knox's life is more or less touched upon by all the Scottish histories - and Church histories which include his period, as well as in the mass - of literature as to Queen Mary. Dr Laing's edition of the _Works_ - contains important biographical material. But among the many express - biographies two especially should be consulted--those by Thomas McCrie - (Edinburgh, 1811; revised and enlarged in 1813, the later editions - containing valuable notes by the author); and by P. Hume Brown - (Edinburgh, 1895). _John Knox and the Reformation_, by Andrew Lang - (London, 1905), is not so much a biography as a collection of - materials, bearing upon many parts of the life, but nearly all on the - unfavourable side. (A. T. I.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] John Hill Burton (_Hist. of Scotland_, iii. 339). Mr Burton's - view (differing from that of Professor Hume Brown) was that the - dialogues--the earlier of them at least--must have been spoken in the - French tongue, in which Knox had recently preached for a year. - - - - -KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE (1853- ), American lawyer and political leader, -was born in Brownsville, Pennsylvania, on the 4th of May 1853. He -graduated from Mount Union College (Ohio) in 1872, and was admitted to -the Pennsylvania bar in 1875. He settled in Pittsburg, where he -continued in private practice, with the exception of two years' service -(1876-1877) as assistant United States district attorney, acquiring a -large practice as a corporation lawyer. In April 1901 he became -attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet of President -McKinley, and retained this position after the accession of President -Roosevelt until June 1904, when he was appointed by Governor Pennypacker -of Pennsylvania to fill the unexpired term of Matthew S. Quay in the -United States Senate; in 1905 he was re-elected to the Senate for the -full term. In March 1909 he became secretary of state in the cabinet of -President Taft. - - - - -KNOXVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Knox county, Tennessee, U.S.A., -in the E. part of the state, 160 m. E. of Nashville, and about 190 m. -S.E. of Louisville, Kentucky, on the right bank of the Tennessee river, -4 m. below the point where it is formed by the junction of the French -Broad and Holston Rivers. Pop. (1880), 9693; (1890), 22,535; (1900), -32,637, of whom 7359 were negroes and 895 were foreign-born; (1910 -census), 36,346. It is served by the main line and by branches of the -Louisville & Nashville and the Southern railways, by the Knoxville & -Bristol railway (Morristown to Knoxville, 58 m.), by the short Knoxville -& Augusta railroad (Knoxville to Walland, 26 m.), and by passenger and -freight steamboat lines on the Tennessee river, which is here navigable -for the greater part of the year. A steel and concrete street-car bridge -crosses the Tennessee at Knoxville. Knoxville is picturesquely situated -at an elevation of from 850 to 1000 ft. in the valley between the Smoky -Mountains and the Cumberland Mountains, and is one of the healthiest -cities in the United States. There are several beautiful parks, of which -Chilhowie and Fountain City are the largest, and among the public -buildings are a city-hall, Federal building, court-house, the Knoxville -general hospital, the Lincoln memorial hospital, the Margaret McClung -industrial home, a Young Men's Christian Association building and the -Lawson-McGhee public library. A monument to John Sevier stands on the -site of the blockhouse first built there. Knoxville is the seat of -Knoxville College (United Presbyterian, 1875) for negroes, East -Tennessee institute, a secondary school for girls, the Baker-Himel -school for boys, Tennessee Medical College (1889), two commercial -schools and the university of Tennessee. The last, a state -co-educational institution, was chartered as Blount College in 1794 and -as East Tennessee College in 1807, but not opened until 1820--the -present name was adopted in 1879. It had in 1907-1908 106 instructors, -755 students (536 in academic departments), and a library of 25,000 -volumes. With the university is combined the state college of -agriculture and engineering; and a large summer school for teachers is -maintained. At Knoxville are the Eastern State insane asylum, state -asylums for the deaf and dumb (for both white and negro), and a national -cemetery in which more than 3200 soldiers are buried. Knoxville is an -important commercial and industrial centre and does a large jobbing -business. It is near hardwood forests and is an important market for -hardwood mantels. Coal-mines in the vicinity produce more than 2,000,000 -tons annually, and neighbouring quarries furnish the famous Tennessee -marble, which is largely exported. Excellent building and pottery clays -are found near Knoxville. Among the city's industrial establishments are -flour and grist mills, cotton and woollen mills, furniture, desk, office -supplies and sash, door, and blind factories, meat-packing -establishments, clothing factories, iron, steel and boiler works, -foundries and machine shops, stove works and brick and cement works. The -value of the factory product increased from $6,201,840 in 1900 to -$12,432,880 in 1905, or 100.5%, in 1905 the value of the flour and grist -mill products alone being $2,048,509. Just outside the city the Southern -railway maintains large car and repair shops. Knoxville was settled in -1786 by James White (1737-1815), a North Carolina pioneer, and was first -known as "White's Fort"; it was laid out as a town in 1791, and named in -honour of General Henry Knox, then secretary of war in Washington's -cabinet. In 1791 the _Knoxville Gazette_, the first newspaper in -Tennessee (the early issue, printed at Rogersville) began publication. -From 1792 to 1796 Knoxville was the capital of the "Territory South of -the Ohio," and until 1811 and again in 1817 it was the capital of the -state. In 1796 the convention which framed the constitution of the new -state of Tennessee met here, and here later in the same year the first -state legislature was convened. Knoxville was chartered as a city in -1815. In its early years it was several times attacked by the Indians, -but was never captured. During the Civil War there was considerable -Union sentiment in East Tennessee, and in the summer of 1863 the Federal -authorities determined to take possession of Knoxville as well as -Chattanooga and to interrupt railway communications between the -Confederates of the East and West through this region. As the -Confederates had erected only slight defences for the protection of the -city, Burnside, with about 12,000 men, easily gained possession on the -2nd of September 1863. Fortifications were immediately begun for its -defence, and on the 4th of November, Bragg, thinking his position at -Chattanooga impregnable against Grant, Sherman, Thomas and Hooker, -despatched a force of 20,000 men under Longstreet to engage Burnside. -Longstreet arrived in the vicinity on the 16th of November, and on the -following day began a siege, which was continued with numerous assaults -until the 28th, when a desperate but unsuccessful attack was made on -Fort Sanders, and upon the approach of a relief force under Sherman, -Longstreet withdrew on the night of the 4th of December. The Confederate -losses during the siege were 182 killed, 768 wounded and 192 captured or -missing; the Union losses were 92 killed, 394 wounded and 207 captured -or missing. West Knoxville (incorporated in 1888) and North Knoxville -(incorporated in 1889) were annexed to Knoxville in 1898. - - See the sketch by Joshua W. Caldwell in _Historic Towns of the - Southern States_, edited by L. P. Powell (New York, 1900); and W. - Rule, G. F. Mellen and J. Wooldridge, _Standard History of Knoxville_ - (Chicago, 1900). - - - - -KNUCKLE (apparently the diminutive of a word for "bone," found in Ger. -_Knochen_), the joint of a finger, which, when the hand is shut, is -brought into prominence. In mechanical use the word is applied to the -round projecting part of a hinge through which the pin is run, and in -ship-building to an acute angle on some of the timbers. A -"knuckle-duster," said to have originally come from the criminal slang -of the United States, is a brass or metal instrument fitting on to the -hand across the knuckles, with projecting studs and used for inflicting -a brutal blow. - - - - -KNUCKLEBONES (HUCKLEBONES, DIBS, JACKSTONES, CHUCK-STONES, FIVE-STONES), -a game of very ancient origin, played with five small objects, -originally the knucklebones of a sheep, which are thrown up and caught -in various ways. Modern "knucklebones" consist of six points, or knobs, -proceeding from a common base, and are usually of metal. The winner is -he who first completes successfully a prescribed series of throws, -which, while of the same general character, differ widely in detail. The -simplest consists in tossing up one stone, the _jack_, and picking up -one or more from the table while it is in the air; and so on until all -five stones have been picked up. Another consists in tossing up first -one stone, then two, then three and so on, and catching them on the back -of the hand. Different throws have received distinctive names, such as -"riding the elephant," "peas in the pod," and "horses in the stable." - -The origin of knucklebones is closely connected with that of dice, of -which it is probably a primitive form, and is doubtless Asiatic. -Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed the invention of draughts and -knucklebones (_astragaloi_) to Palamedes, who taught them to his Greek -countrymen during the Trojan War. Both the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ -contain allusions to games similar in character to knucklebones, and the -Palamedes tradition, as flattering to the national pride, was generally -accepted throughout Greece, as is indicated by numerous literary and -plastic evidences. Thus Pausanias (_Corinth_ xx.) mentions a temple of -Fortune in which Palamedes made an offering of his newly invented game. -According to a still more ancient tradition, Zeus, perceiving that -Ganymede longed for his playmates upon Mount Ida, gave him Eros for a -companion and golden dibs with which to play, and even condescended -sometimes to join in the game (Apollonius). It is significant, however, -that both Herodotus and Plato ascribe to the game a foreign origin. -Plato (_Phaedrus_) names the Egyptian god Theuth as its inventor, while -Herodotus relates that the Lydians, during a period of famine in the -days of King Atys, originated this game and indeed almost all other -games except chess. There were two methods of playing in ancient times. -The first, and probably the primitive method, consisted in tossing up -and catching the bones on the back of the hand, very much as the game -is played to-day. In the Museum of Naples may be seen a painting -excavated at Pompeii, which represents the goddesses Latona, Niobe, -Phoebe, Aglaia and Hileaera, the last two being engaged in playing at -Knucklebones (see GREEK ART, fig. 42). According to an epigram of -Asclepiodotus, astragals were given as prizes to school-children, and we -are reminded of Plutarch's anecdote of the youthful Alcibiades, who, -when a teamster threatened to drive over some of his knucklebones that -had fallen into the wagon-ruts, boldly threw himself in front of the -advancing team. This simple form of the game was generally played only -by women and children, and was called _pentalitha_ or five-stones. There -were several varieties of it besides the usual toss and catch, one being -called _tropa_, or hole-game, the object having been to toss the bones -into a hole in the earth. Another was the simple and primitive game of -"odd or even." - -The second, probably derivative, form of the game was one of pure -chance, the stones being thrown upon a table, either with the hand or -from a cup, and the values of the sides upon which they fell counted. In -this game the shape of the pastern-bones used for astralagoi, as well as -for the _tali_ of the Romans, with whom knucklebones was also popular, -determined the manner of counting. The pastern-bone of a sheep, goat or -calf has, besides two rounded ends upon which it cannot stand, two broad -and two narrow sides, one of each pair being concave and one convex. The -convex narrow side, called _chios_ or "the dog" counted 1; the convex -broad side 3; the concave broad side 4; and the concave narrow side 6. -Four astragals were used and 35 different scores were possible at a -single throw, many receiving distinctive names such as Aphrodite, Midas, -Solon, Alexander, and, among the Romans, Venus, King, Vulture, &c. The -highest throw in Greece, counting 40, was the Euripides, and was -probably a combination throw, since more than four sixes could not be -thrown at one time. The lowest throw, both in Greece and Rome, was the -Dog. - - See _Cassell's Book of Sports and Pastimes_ (London, 1896); _Games and - Songs of American Children_, by W. W. Newell (1893); and _The Young - Folks' Cyclopaedia of Games and Sports_ (New York, 1899), for the - modern children's game. For the history see _Les Jeux des Anciens_, by - L. Becq de Fouquieres (Paris, 1869); _Das Knochelspiel der Alten_, by - Bolle (Wismar, 1886); _Die Spiele der Griechen und Romer_, by W. - Richter (Leipzig, 1887). - - - - -KNUTSFORD, a market town in the Knutsford parliamentary division of -Cheshire, England; on the London & North-Western and Great Central -railways, 24 m. E.N.E. of Chester, on the Cheshire Lines and London & -North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 5172. It is -pleasantly situated on an elevated ridge, with the fine domains of -Tatton Park and Tabley respectively north and west of it. The meres in -these domains are especially picturesque. Knutsford is noted in modern -times as the scene of Mrs Gaskell's novel _Cranford_. Among several -ancient houses the most interesting are a cottage with the date 1411 -carved on its woodwork, and the Rose and Crown tavern, dated 1641. A -number of curious old customs linger in the town, such as the practice -of working designs in coloured sand, when a wedding takes place, before -the bride's house. In what is probably the oldest Unitarian graveyard in -the kingdom Mrs Gaskell lies buried; and in a churchyard a mile from the -town stood the ancient church, which, though partially rebuilt in the -time of Henry VIII., fell into ruin in 1741. The church of St John, -built in 1744, and enlarged in 1879, was supplemented, in 1880, by St -Cross Church, in Perpendicular style. The town has a grammar school, -founded before the reign of Henry VIII., but reorganized in 1885. Lord -Egerton built the Egerton schools in 1893. The industries comprise -cotton, worsted and leather manufactures; but Knutsford is mainly a -residential town, as many Manchester merchants have settled here, -attracted by the fine climate and surroundings. Knutsford was the -birthplace of Sir Henry Holland, Physician Extraordinary to Queen -Victoria (1788-1873); and his son, the second Sir Henry, who was -secretary of state for the colonies (1887-1892), was raised to the -peerage in 1888 with the title of Baron Knutsford. - -The name Knutsford (_Cunetesford_, _Knotesford_) is said to signify -Cnut's ford, but there is no evidence of a settlement here previous to -Domesday. In 1086 Erthebrand held Knutsford immediately of William -FitzNigel, baron of Halton, who was himself a mesne lord of Hugh Lupus -earl of Chester. In 1292 William de Tabley, lord of both Over and Nether -Knutsford, granted free burgage to his burgesses in both Knutsfords. -This charter is the only one which gives Knutsford a claim to the title -of borough. It provided that the burgesses might elect a bailiff from -amongst themselves every year. The office however carried little real -power with it, and soon lapsed. In the same year as the charter to -Knutsford the king granted to William de Tabley a market every Saturday -at Nether Knutsford, and a three days' fair at the Feast of St Peter and -St Paul. When this charter was confirmed by Edward III. another market -(Friday) and another three days' fair (Feast of St Simon and St Jude) -were added. The Friday market was certainly dropped by 1592, if it was -ever held. May-day revels are still kept up here and attract large -crowds from the neighbourhood. A silk mill was erected here in 1770, and -there was also an attempt to foster the cotton trade, but the lack of -means of communication made the undertaking impossible. - - See Henry Green, _History of Knutsford_ (1859). - - - - -KOALA (_Phascolarctus cinereus_), a stoutly built marsupial, of the -family _Phascolmyidae_, which also contains the wombats. This animal, -which inhabits the south-eastern parts of the Australian continent, is -about 2 ft. in length, and of an ash-grey colour, an excellent climber, -residing generally in lofty eucalyptus trees, the buds and tender shoots -of which form its principal food, though occasionally it descends to the -ground in the night in search of roots. From its shape the koala is -called by the colonists the "native bear"; the term "native sloth" being -also applied to it, from its arboreal habits and slow deliberate -movements. The flesh is highly prized by the natives, and is palatable -to Europeans. The skins are largely imported into England, for the -manufacture of articles in which a cheap and durable fur is required. - - - - -KOBDO, a town of the Chinese Empire, in north-west Mongolia, at the -northern foot of the Mongolian Altai, on the right bank of the Buyantu -River, 13 m. from its entrance into Lake Khara-usu; 500 m. E.S.E. of -Biysk (Russian), and 470 m. W. of Ulyasutai. It is situated amidst a -dreary plain, and consists of a fortress, the residence of the governor -of the Kobdo district, and a small trading town, chiefly peopled by -Chinese and a few Mongols. It is, however, an important centre for trade -between the cattle-breeding nomads and Peking. It was founded by the -Chinese in 1731, and pillaged by the Mussulmans in 1872. The district of -Kobdo occupies the north-western corner of Mongolia, and is peopled -chiefly by Mongols, and also by Kirghiz and a few Soyotes, Uryankhes and -Khotons. It is governed by a Chinese commissioner, who has under him a -special Mongol functionary (Mongol, _dzurgan_). The chief monastery is -at Ulangom. Considerable numbers of sheep (about 1,000,000), sheepskins, -sheep and camel wool are exported to China, while Chinese cottons, brick -tea and various small goods are imported. Leather, velveteen, cotton, -iron and copper goods boxes, &c., are imported from Russia in exchange -for cattle, furs and wool. The absence of a cart road to Biysk hinders -the development of this trade. - - - - -KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ, BARON VON (1803-1882), German -mineralogist, was born at Munich on the 19th of July 1803. He studied -chemistry and mineralogy at Landshut (1820-1823), and in 1826 became -professor of mineralogy in the university of Munich. He introduced some -new methods of mineral analyses, and in 1835 invented the stauroscope -for the study of the optical properties of crystals. He contributed -numerous papers to scientific journals, and described many new minerals. -He died at Munich on the 11th of November, 1882. - - PUBLICATIONS.--_Charakteristik der Mineralien_ (2 vols. 1830-1831); - _Tafeln zur Bestimmung der Mineralien_ &c. (1833; and later editions, - ed. 12, by K. Oebbeke, 1884); _Grundzuge der Mineralogie_ (1838); - _Geschichte der Mineralogie von 1650-1860_ (1864). - - - - -KOCH, ROBERT (1843-1910), German bacteriologist, was born at Klausthal, -Hanover, on the 11th of December 1843. He studied medicine at Gottingen, -and it was while he was practising as a physician at Wollstein that he -began those bacteriological researches that made his name famous. In -1876 he obtained a pure culture of the bacillus of anthrax, announcing a -method of preventive inoculation against that disease seven years later. -He became a member of the Sanitary Commission at Berlin and a professor -at the School of Medicine in 1880, and five years later he was appointed -to a chair in Berlin University and director of the Institute of Health. -In 1882, largely as the result of the improved methods of -bacteriological investigation he was able to elaborate, he discovered -the bacillus of tuberculosis; and in the following year, having been -sent on an official mission to Egypt and India to study the aetiology of -Asiatic cholera, he identified the comma bacillus as the specific -organism of that malady. In 1890 great hopes were aroused by the -announcement that in tuberculin he had prepared an agent which exercised -an inimical influence on the growth of the tubercle bacillus, but the -expectations that were formed of it as a remedy for consumption were not -fulfilled, though it came into considerable vogue as a means of -diagnosing the existence of tuberculosis in animals intended for food. -At the Congress on Tuberculosis held in London in 1901 he maintained -that tuberculosis in man and in cattle is not the same disease, the -practical inference being that the danger to men of infection from milk -and meat is less than from other human subjects suffering from the -disease. This statement, however, was not regarded as properly proved, -and one of its results was the appointment of a British Royal Commission -to study the question. Dr Koch also investigated the nature of -rinderpest in South Africa in 1896, and found means of combating the -disease. In 1897 he went to Bombay at the head of a commission formed to -investigate the bubonic plague, and he subsequently undertook extensive -travels in pursuit of his studies on the origin and treatment of -malaria. He was summoned to South Africa a second time in 1903 to give -expert advice on other cattle diseases, and on his return was elected a -member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1906-1907 he spent eighteen -months in East Africa, investigating sleeping-sickness. He died at -Baden-Baden of heart-disease on the 28th of May 1910. Koch was -undoubtedly one of the greatest bacteriologists ever known, and a great -benefactor of humanity by his discoveries. Honours were showered upon -him, and in 1905 he was awarded the Nobel prize for medicine. - - Among his works may be mentioned: _Weitere Mitteilungen uber ein - Heilmittel gegen Tuberkulose_ (Leipzig, 1891); and _Reiseberichte uber - Rinderpest, Bubonenpest in Indien und Afrika, Tsetse- oder - Surra-Krankheit, Texasfieber, tropische Malaria, Schwarzwasserfieber_ - (Berlin, 1898). From 1886 onwards he edited, with Dr Karl Flugge, the - _Zeitschrift fur Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten_ (published at - Leipzig). See Loeffler, "Robert Koch, zum 60ten Geburtstage" in _Deut. - Medizin. Wochenschr._ (No. 50, 1903). - - - - -KOCH, a tribe of north-eastern India, which has given its name to the -state of Kuch Behar (q.v.). They are probably of Mongolian stock, akin -to the Mech, Kachari, Garo and Tippera tribes, and originally spoke, -like these, a language of the Bodo group. But since one of their chiefs -established a powerful kingdom at Kuch Behar in the 16th century they -have gradually become Hinduized, and now adopt the name of Rajbansi (= -"of royal blood"). In 1901 the number in Eastern Bengal and Assam was -returned at nearly 2(1/2) millions. - - - - -KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE (1793-1871), French novelist, was born at Passy on -the 21st of May 1793. He was a posthumous child, his father, a banker of -Dutch extraction, having been a victim of the Terror. Paul de Kock began -life as a banker's clerk. For the most part he resided on the Boulevard -St Martin, and was one of the most inveterate of Parisians. He died in -Paris on the 27th of April 1871. He began to write for the stage very -early, and composed many operatic libretti. His first novel, _L'Enfant -de ma femme_ (1811), was published at his own expense. In 1820 he began -his long and successful series of novels dealing with Parisian life with -_Georgette, ou la mere du Tabellion_. His period of greatest and most -successful activity was the Restoration and the early days of Louis -Philippe. He was relatively less popular in France itself than abroad, -where he was considered as the special painter of life in Paris. Major -Pendennis's remark that he had read nothing of the novel kind for thirty -years except Paul de Kock, "who certainly made him laugh," is likely to -remain one of the most durable of his testimonials, and may be classed -with the legendary question of a foreign sovereign to a Frenchman who -was paying his respects, "Vous venez de Paris et vous devez savoir des -nouvelles. Comment se porte Paul de Kock?" The disappearance of the -_grisette_ and of the cheap dissipation described by Henri Murger -practically made Paul de Kock obsolete. But to the student of manners -his portraiture of low and middle class life in the first half of the -19th century at Paris still has its value. - -The works of Paul de Kock are very numerous. With the exception of a few -not very felicitous excursions into historical romance and some -miscellaneous works of which his share in _La Grande ville, Paris_ -(1842), is the chief, they are all stories of middle-class Parisian -life, of _guinguettes_ and _cabarets_ and equivocal adventures of one -sort or another. The most famous are _Andre le Savoyard_ (1825) and _Le -Barbier de Paris_ (1826). - - His _Memoires_ were published in 1873. See also Th. Trimm, _La Vie de - Charles Paul de Kock_ (1873). - - - - -KODAIKANAL, a sanatorium of southern India, in the Madura district of -Madras, situated in the Palni hills, about 7000 ft. above sea-level; -pop. (1901), 1912, but the number in the hot season would be much -larger. It is difficult of access, being 44 m. from a railway station, -and the last 11 m. are impracticable for wheeled vehicles. It contains a -government observatory, the appliances of which are specially adapted -for the study of terrestrial magnetism, seismology and solar physics. - - - - -KODAMA, GENTARO, COUNT (1852-1907), Japanese general, was born in -Choshu. He studied military science in Germany, and was appointed -vice-minister of war in 1892. He became governor-general of Formosa in -1900, holding at the same time the portfolio of war. When the conflict -with Russia became imminent in 1903, he gave up his portfolio to become -vice-chief of the general staff, a sacrifice which elicited much public -applause. Throughout the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5) he served as chief -of staff to Field Marshal Oyama, and it was well understood that his -genius guided the strategy of the whole campaign, as that of General -Kawakami had done in the war with China ten years previously. General -Kodama was raised in rapid succession to the ranks of baron, viscount -and count, and his death in 1907 was regarded as a national calamity. - - - - -KODUNGALUR (or CRANGANUR), a town of southern India, in Cochin state, -within the presidency of Madras. Though now a place of little -importance, its historical interest is considerable. Tradition assigns -to it the double honour of having been the first field of St Thomas's -labours (A.D. 52) in India and the seat of Cheraman Perumal's -government. The visit of St Thomas is generally considered mythical; but -it is certain that the Syrian Church was firmly established here before -the 9th century (Burnell), and probably the Jews' settlement was still -earlier. The latter, in fact, claim to hold grants dated A.D. 378. The -cruelty of the Portuguese drove most of the Jews to Cochin. Up to 1314, -when the Vypin harbour was formed, the only opening in the Cochin -backwater, and outlet for the Periyar, was at Kodungalur, which must -then have been the best harbour on the coast. In 1502 the Syrian -Christians invoked the protection of the Portuguese. In 1523 the latter -built their first fort there, and in 1565 enlarged it. In 1661 the Dutch -took the fort, the possession of which for the next forty years was -contested between this nation, the zamorin, and the raja of Kodungalur. -In 1776 Tippoo seized the stronghold. The Dutch recaptured it two years -later, and, having ceded it to Tippoo in 1784, sold it to the Travancore -raja, and again in 1789 to Tippoo, who destroyed it in the following -year. The country round Kodungalur now forms an autonomous principality, -tributary to the raja of Cochin. - - - - -KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD (1774-1851), German palaeontologist, was -born at Brunswick in 1774, and was educated at Gottingen. In 1807 he -became assistant keeper, and in 1813 he was appointed keeper, of the -department of natural history in the British Museum, and afterwards of -geology and mineralogy, retaining the post until the close of his life. -He described many fossils in the British Museum in a classic work -entitled _Icones fossilium sectiles_ (1820-1825). He died in London on -the 6th of September 1851. - - - - -KOESFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on -the Berkel, 38 m. by rail N.N.W. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905), 8449. It has -three Roman Catholic churches, one of which--the Gymnasial Kirche--is -used by the Protestant community. Here are the ruins of the Ludgeri -Castle, formerly the residence of the bishops of Munster, and also the -castle of Varlar, the residence of the princes of Salm-Horstmar. The -leading industries include the making of linen goods and machinery. - - - - -KOHAT, a town and district of British India, in the Peshawar division of -the North-West Frontier Province. The town is 37 m. south of Peshawar by -the Kohat Pass, along which a military road was opened in 1901. The -population in 1901 was 30,762, including 12,670 in the cantonment, which -is garrisoned by artillery, cavalry and infantry. In the Tirah campaign -of 1897-98 Kohat was the starting-point of Sir William Lockhart's -expedition against the Orakzais and Afridis. It is the military base for -the southern Afridi frontier as Peshawar is for the northern frontier of -the same tribe, and it lies in the heart of the Pathan country. - -The DISTRICT OF KOHAT has an area of 2973 sq. m. It consists chiefly of -a bare and intricate mountain region east of the Indus, deeply scored -with river valleys and ravines, but enclosing a few scattered patches of -cultivated lowland. The eastern or Khattak country especially comprises -a perfect labyrinth of ranges, which fall, however, into two principal -groups, to the north and south of the Teri Toi river. The Miranzai -valley, in the extreme west, appears by comparison a rich and fertile -tract. In its small but carefully tilled glens, the plane, palm, fig and -many orchard trees flourish luxuriantly; while a brushwood of wild -olive, mimosa and other thorny bushes clothes the rugged ravines upon -the upper slopes. Occasional grassy glades upon their sides form -favourite pasture grounds for the Waziri tribes. The Teri Toi, rising on -the eastern limit of Upper Miranzai, runs due eastward to the Indus, -which it joins 12 m. N. of Makhad, dividing the district into two main -portions. The drainage from the northern half flows southward into the -Teri Toi itself, and northward into the parallel stream of the Kohat -Toi. That of the southern tract falls northwards also into the Teri Toi, -and southwards towards the Kurram and the Indus. The frontier mountains, -continuations of the Safed Koh system, attain in places a considerable -elevation, the two principal peaks, Dupa Sir and Mazi Garh, just beyond -the British frontier, being 8260 and 7940 ft. above the sea -respectively. The Waziri hills, on the south, extend like a wedge -between the boundaries of Bannu and Kohat, with a general elevation of -less than 4000 ft. The salt-mines are situated in the low line of hills -crossing the valley of the Teri Toi, and extending along both banks of -that river. The deposit has a width of a quarter of a mile, with a -thickness of 1000 ft.; it sometimes forms hills 200 ft. in height, -almost entirely composed of solid rock-salt, and may probably rank as -one of the largest veins of its kind in the world. The most extensive -exposure occurs at Bahadur Khel, on the south bank of the Teri Toi. The -annual output is about 16,000 tons, yielding a revenue of L40,000. -Petroleum springs exude from a rock at Panoba, 23 m. east of Kohat; and -sulphur abounds in the northern range. In 1901 the population was -217,865, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The frontier tribes -on the Kohat border are the Afridis, Orakzais, Zaimukhts and Turis. All -these are described under their separate names. A railway runs from -Kushalgarh through Kohat to Thal, and the river Indus has been bridged -at Kushalgarh. - - - - -KOHAT PASS, a mountain pass in the North-West Frontier Province of -India, connecting Kohat with Peshawar. From the north side the defile -commences at 4(1/2) m. S.W. of Fort Mackeson, whence it is about 12 or -13 m. to the Kohat entrance. The pass varies from 400 yds. to 1(1/4) m. -in width, and its summit is some 600 to 700 ft. above the plain. It is -inhabited by the Adam Khel Afridis, and nearly all British relations -with that tribe have been concerned with this pass, which is the only -connexion between two British districts without crossing and recrossing -the Indus (see AFRIDI). It is now traversed by a cart-road. - - - - -KOHISTAN, a tract of country on the Peshawar border of the North-West -Frontier Province of India. Kohistan means the "country of the hills" -and corresponds to the English word highlands; but it is specially -applied to a district, which is very little known, to the south and west -of Chilas, between the Kagan valley and the river Indus. It comprises an -area of over 1000 sq. m., and is bounded on the N.W. by the river Indus, -on the N.E. by Chilas, and on the S. by Kagan, the Chor Glen and Allai. -It consists roughly of two main valleys running east and west, and -separated from each other by a mountain range over 16,000 ft. high. Like -the mountains of Chilas, those in Kohistan are snow-bound and rocky -wastes from their crests downwards to 12,000 ft. Below this the hills -are covered with fine forest and grass to 5000 or 6000 ft., and in the -valleys, especially near the Indus, are fertile basins under -cultivation. The Kohistanis are Mahommedans, but not of Pathan race, and -appear to be closely allied to the Chilasis. They are a well-built, -brave but quiet people who carry on a trade with British districts, and -have never given the government much trouble. There is little doubt that -the Kohistanis are, like the Kafirs of Kafiristan, the remnants of old -races driven by Mahommedan invasions from the valleys and plains into -the higher mountains. The majority have been converted to Islam within -the last 200 years. The total population is about 16,000. - -An important district also known as Kohistan lies to the north of Kabul -in Afghanistan, extending to the Hindu Kush. The Kohistani Tajiks proved -to be the most powerful and the best organized clans that opposed the -British occupation of Kabul in 1879-80. Part of their country is highly -cultivated, abounding in fruit, and includes many important villages. It -is here that the remains of an ancient city have been lately discovered -by the amir's officials, which may prove to be the great city of -Alexander's founding, known to be to the north of Kabul, but which had -hitherto escaped identification. - -The name of Kohistan is also applied to a tract of barren and hilly -country on the east border of Karachi district, Sind. - - - - -KOHL. (1) The name of the cosmetic used from the earliest times in the -East by women to darken the eyelids, in order to increase the lustre of -the eyes. It is usually composed of finely powdered antimony, but smoke -black obtained from burnt almond-shells or frankincense is also used. -The Arabic word _kohl_, from which has been derived "alcohol," is -derived from _kahala_, to stain. (2) "Kohl" or "kohl-rabi" (cole-rape, -from Lat. _caulis_, cabbage) is a kind of cabbage (q.v.), with a -turnip-shaped top, cultivated chiefly as food for cattle. - - - - -KOHLHASE, HANS, a German historical figure about whose personality some -controversy exists. He is chiefly known as the hero of Heinrich von -Kleist's novel, _Michael Kohlhaas_. He was a merchant, and not, as some -have supposed, a horsedealer, and he lived at Kolln in Brandenburg. In -October 1532, so the story runs, whilst proceeding to the fair at -Leipzig, he was attacked and his horses were taken from him by the -servants of a Saxon nobleman, one Gunter von Zaschwitz. In consequence -of the delay the merchant suffered some loss of business at the fair and -on his return he refused to pay the small sum which Zaschwitz demanded -as a condition of returning the horses. Instead Kohlhase asked for a -substantial amount of money as compensation for his loss, and failing to -secure this he invoked the aid of his sovereign, the elector of -Brandenburg. Finding however that it was impossible to recover his -horses, he paid Zaschwitz the sum required for them, but reserved to -himself the right to take further action. Then unable to obtain redress -in the courts of law, the merchant, in a _Fehdebrief_, threw down a -challenge, not only to his aggressor, but to the whole of Saxony. Acts -of lawlessness were soon attributed to him, and after an attempt to -settle the feud had failed, the elector of Saxony, John Frederick I., -set a price upon the head of the angry merchant. Kohlhase now sought -revenge in earnest. Gathering around him a band of criminals and of -desperadoes he spread terror throughout the whole of Saxony; travellers -were robbed, villages were burned and towns were plundered. For some -time the authorities were practically powerless to stop these outrages, -but in March 1540 Kohlhase and his principal associate, Georg -Nagelschmidt, were seized, and on the 22nd of the month they were broken -on the wheel in Berlin. - - The life and fate of Kohlhase are dealt with in several dramas. See - Burkhardt, _Der historische Hans Kohlhase und H. von Kleists Michael - Kohlhaas_ (Leipzig, 1864). - - - - -KOKOMO, a city and the county-seat of Howard county, Indiana, U.S.A., on -the Wildcat River, about 50 m. N. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890), 8261; -(1900), 10,609 of whom 499 were foreign-born and 359 negroes; (1910 -census), 17,010. It is served by the Lake Erie & Western, the Pittsburg -Cincinnati Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo St Louis & Western -railways, and by two interurban electric lines. Kokomo is a centre of -trade in agricultural products, and has various manufactures, including -flint, plate and opalescent glass, &c. The total value of the factory -product increased from $2,062,156 in 1900 to $3,651,105 in 1905, or -77.1%; and in 1905 the glass product was valued at $864,567, or 23.7% of -the total. Kokomo was settled about 1840 and became a city (under a -state law) in 1865. - - - - -KOKO-NOR (or KUKU-NOR) (_Tsing-hai_ of the Chinese, and _Tso-ngombo_ of -the Tanguts), a lake of Central Asia, situated at an altitude of 9975 -ft., in the extreme N.E. of Tibet, 30 m. from the W. frontier of the -Chinese province of Kan-suh, in 100 deg. E. and 37 deg. N. It lies -amongst the eastern ranges of the Kuen-lun, having the Nan-shan -Mountains to the north, and the southern Koko-nor range (10,000 ft.) on -the south. It measures 66 m. by 40 m., and contains half a dozen -islands, on one of which is a Buddhist (i.e. Lamaist) monastery, to -which pilgrims resort. The water is salt, though an abundance of fish -live in it, and it often remains frozen for three months together in -winter. The surface is at times subject to considerable variations of -level. The lake is entered on the west by the river Buhain-gol. The -nomads who dwell round its shores are Tanguts. - - - - -KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAI IVANOVICH VON (1818-1893), Russian mineralogist and -major-general in the Russian army, was born at Ust-Kamenogork in Tomsk, -on the 5th of December 1818 (O.S.). He was educated at the military -school of mines in St Petersburg. At the age of twenty-two he was -selected to accompany R. I. Murchison and De Verneuil, and afterwards De -Keyserling, in their geological survey of the Russian Empire. -Subsequently he devoted his attention mainly to the study of mineralogy -and mining, and was appointed director of the Institute of Mines. In -1865 he became director of the Imperial Mineralogical Society of St -Petersburg. He contributed numerous papers on euclase, zircon, epidote, -orthite, monazite and other mineralogical subjects to the St Petersburg -and Vienna academies of science, to Poggendorf's _Annalen_, Leonhard and -Brown's _Jahrbuch_, &c. He also issued as separate works _Materialen zur -Mineralogie Russlands_ (10 vols., 1853-1891), and _Vorlesungen uber -Mineralogie_ (1865). He died in St Petersburg on the 3rd of January 1893 -(O.S.). - - - - -KOKSTAD, a town of South Africa, the capital of Griqualand East, 236 m. -by rail S.W. of Durban, 110 m. N. by W. of Port Shepstone, and 150 m. N. -of Port St John, Pondoland. Pop. (1904), 2903, of whom a third were -Griquas. The town is built on the outer slopes of the Drakensberg and is -4270 ft. above the sea. Behind it Mount Currie rises to a height of 7297 -ft. An excellent water supply is derived from the mountains. The town is -well laid out, and possesses several handsome public buildings. It is -the centre of a thriving agricultural district and has a considerable -trade in wool, grain, cattle and horses with Basutoland, Pondoland and -the neighbouring regions of Natal. The town is named after the Griqua -chief Adam Kok, who founded it in 1869. In 1879 it came into the -possession of Cape Colony and was granted municipal government in 1893. -It is the residence of the Headman of the Griqua nation. (See KAFFRARIA -and GRIQUALAND.) - - - - -KOLA, a peninsula of northern Russia, lying between the Arctic Ocean on -the N. and the White Sea on the S. It forms part of the region of -Lapland and belongs administratively to the government of Archangel. The -Arctic coast, known as the Murman coast (Murman being a corruption of -Norman), is 260 m. long, and being subject to the influence of the North -Atlantic drift, is free from ice all the year round. It is a rocky -coast, built of granite, and rising to 650 ft., and is broken by several -excellent bays. On one of these, Kola Bay, the Russian government -founded in 1895 the naval harbour of Alexandrovsk. From May to August a -productive fishery is carried on along this coast. Inland the peninsula -rises up to a plateau, 1000 ft. in general elevation, and crossed by -several ranges of low mountains, which go up to over 3000 ft. in -altitude. The lower slopes of these mountains are clothed with forest up -to 1300 ft., and in places thickly studded with lakes, some of them of -very considerable extent, e.g. Imandra (330 sq. m.), Ump-jaur, -Nuorti-jarvi, Guolle-jaur or Kola Lake, and Lu-jaur. From these issue -streams of appreciable magnitude, such as the Tuloma, Voronya, Yovkyok -or Yokanka, and Ponoi, all flowing into the Arctic, and the Varsuga and -Umba, into the White Sea. The area of the peninsula is estimated at -50,000 sq. m. - - See A. O. Kihlmann and Palmen, _Die Expedition nach der Halbinsel - Kola_ (1887-1892) (Helsingfors); A. O. Kihlmann, _Bericht einer - naturwissenschaftlichen Reise durch Russisch-Lappland_ (Helsingfors, - 1890); and W. Ramsay, _Geologische Beobachtungen auf der Halbinsel - Kola_ (Helsingfors, 1899). - - - - -KOLABA (or COLABA), a district of British India, in the southern -division of Bombay. Area, 2131 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 605,566, showing an -increase of 2% in the decade. The headquarters are at Alibagh. Lying -between the Western Ghats and the sea, Kolaba district abounds in hills, -some being spurs running at right angles to the main range, while others -are isolated peaks or lofty detached ridges. The sea frontage, of about -20 m., is throughout the greater part of its length fringed by a belt of -coco-nut and betel-nut palms. Behind this belt lies a stretch of flat -country devoted to rice cultivation. In many places along the banks of -the salt-water creeks there are extensive tracts of salt marshland, some -of them reclaimed, some still subject to tidal inundation, and others -set apart for the manufacture of salt. The district is traversed by a -few small streams. Tidal inlets, of which the principal are the Nagothna -on the north, the Roha or Chaul in the west, and the Bankot creek in the -south, run inland for 30 or 40 m., forming highways for a brisk trade in -rice, salt, firewood, and dried fish. Near the coast especially, the -district is well supplied with reservoirs. The Western Ghats have two -remarkable peaks--Raigarh, where Sivaji built his capital, and -Miradongar. There are extensive teak and black wood forests, the value -of which is increased by their proximity to Bombay. The Great Indian -Peninsula railway crosses part of the district, and communication with -Bombay is maintained by a steam ferry. Owing to its nearness to that -city, the district has suffered severely from plague. Kolaba district -takes its name from a little island off Alibagh, which was one of the -strongholds of Angria, the Mahratta pirate of the 18th century. The same -island has given its name to Kolaba Point, the spur of Bombay Island -running south that protects the entrance to the harbour. On Kolaba Point -are the terminus of the Bombay & Baroda railway, barracks for a European -regiment, lunatic asylum and observatory. - - - - -KOLAR, a town and district of India, in the state of Mysore. The town is -43 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901), 12,210. Although of ancient -foundation, it has been almost completely modernized. Industries include -the weaving of blankets and the breeding of turkeys for export. - -The DISTRICT OF KOLAR has an area of 3180 sq. m. It occupies the portion -of the Mysore table-land immediately bordering the Eastern Ghats. The -principal watershed lies in the north-west, around the hill of Nandidrug -(4810 ft.), from which rivers radiate in all directions; and the whole -country is broken by numerous hill ranges. The chief rivers are the -Palar, the South Pinakini or Pennar, the North Pinakini, and the -Papagani, which are industriously utilized for irrigation by means of -anicuts and tanks. The rocks of the district are mostly syenite or -granite, with a small admixture of mica and feldspar. The soil in the -valleys consists of a fertile loam; and in the higher levels sand and -gravel are found. The hills are covered with scrub, jungle and -brushwood. In 1901 the population was 723,600, showing an increase of -22% in the decade. The district is traversed by the Bangalore line of -the Madras railway, with a branch 10 m. long, known as the Kolar -Goldfields railway. Gold prospecting in this region began in 1876, and -the industry is now settled on a secure basis. Here are situated the -mines of the Mysore, Champion Reef, Ooregum, and Nandidrug companies. To -the end of 1904 the total value of gold produced was 21 millions -sterling, and there had been paid in dividends 9 millions, and in -royalty to the Mysore state one million. The municipality called the -Kolar Gold Fields had in 1901 a population of 38,204; it has suffered -severely from plague. Electricity from the falls of the Cauvery (93 m. -distant) is utilized as the motive power in the mines. Sugar manufacture -and silk and cotton weaving are the other principal industries in the -district. The chief historical interest of modern times centres round -the hill fort of Nandidrug, which was stormed by the British in 1791, -after a bombardment of 21 days. - - - - -KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN (1818-1884), German chemist, was born on -the 27th of September 1818 at Elliehausen, near Gottingen, where in 1838 -he began to study chemistry under F. Wohler. In 1842 he became assistant -to R. W. von Bunsen at Marburg, and three years later to Lyon Playfair -at London. From 1847 to 1851 he was engaged at Brunswick in editing the -_Dictionary of Chemistry_ started by Liebig, but in the latter year he -went to Marburg as successor to Bunsen in the chair of chemistry. In -1865 he was called to Leipzig in the same capacity, and he died in that -city on the 25th of November 1884. Kolbe had an important share in the -great development of chemical theory that occurred about the middle of -the 19th century, especially in regard to the constitution of organic -compounds, which he viewed as derivatives of inorganic ones, formed from -the latter--in some cases directly--by simple processes of substitution. -Unable to accept Berzelius's doctrine of the unalterability of organic -radicals, he also gave a new interpretation to the meaning of copulae -under the influence of his fellow-worker Edward Frankland's conception -of definite atomic saturation-capacities, and thus contributed in an -important degree to the subsequent establishment of the structure -theory. Kolbe was a very successful teacher, a ready and vigorous -writer, and a brilliant experimentalist whose work revealed the nature -of many compounds the composition of which had not previously been -understood. He published a _Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie_ in 1854, -smaller textbooks of organic and inorganic chemistry in 1877-1883, and -_Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der theoretischen Chemie_ in 1881. From -1870 he was editor of the _Journal fur praktische Chemie_, in which many -trenchant criticisms of contemporary chemists and their doctrines -appeared from his pen. - - - - -KOLBERG (or COLBERG), a town of Germany, and seaport of the Prussian -province of Pomerania, on the right bank of the Persante, which falls -into the Baltic about a mile below the town, and at the junction of the -railway lines to Belgard and Gollnow. Pop. (1905), 22,804. It has a -handsome market-place with a statue of Frederick William III.; and there -are extensive suburbs, of which the most important is Munde. The -principal buildings are the huge red-brick church of St Mary, with five -aisles, one of the most remarkable churches in Pomerania, dating from -the 14th century; the council-house (Rathaus), erected after the plans -of Ernst F. Zwirner; and the citadel. Kolberg also possesses four other -churches, a theatre, a gymnasium, a school of navigation, and an -exchange. Its bathing establishments are largely frequented and attract -a considerable number of summer visitors. It has a harbour at the mouth -of the Persante, where there is a lighthouse. Woollen cloth, machinery -and spirits are manufactured; there is an extensive salt-mine in the -neighbouring Zillenberg; the salmon and lamprey fisheries are important; -and a fair amount of commercial activity is maintained. In 1903 a -monument was erected to the memory of Gneisenau and the patriot, Joachim -Christian Nettelbeck (1738-1824), through whose efforts the town was -saved from the French in 1806-7. - -Originally a Slavonic fort, Kolberg is one of the oldest places of -Pomerania. At an early date it became the seat of a bishop, and although -it soon lost this distinction it obtained municipal privileges in 1255. -From about 1276 it ranked as the most important place in the episcopal -principality of Kamin, and from 1284 it was a member of the Hanseatic -League. During the Thirty Years' War it was captured by the Swedes in -1631, passing by the treaty of Westphalia to the elector of Brandenburg, -Frederick William I., who strengthened its fortifications. The town was -a centre of conflict during the Seven Years' War. In 1758 and again in -1760 the Russians besieged Kolberg in vain, but in 1762 they succeeded -in capturing it. Soon restored to Brandenburg, it was vigorously -attacked by the French in 1806 and 1807, but it was saved by the long -resistance of its inhabitants. In 1887 the fortifications of the town -were razed, and it has since become a fashionable watering-place, -receiving annually nearly 15,000 visitors. - - See Riemann, _Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg_ (Kolberg, 1873); Stoewer, - _Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg_ (Kolberg, 1897); Schonlein, _Geschichte - der Belagerungen Kolbergs in den Jahren 1758, 1760, 1761 und 1807_ - (Kolberg, 1878); and Kempin, _Fuhrer durch Bad Kolberg_ (Kolberg, - 1899). - - - - -KOLCSEY, FERENCZ (1790-1838), Hungarian poet, critic and orator, was -born at Szodemeter, in Transylvania, on the 8th of August 1790. In his -fifteenth year he made the acquaintance of Kazinczy and zealously -adopted his linguistic reforms. In 1809 Kolcsey went to Pest and became -a "notary to the royal board." Law proved distasteful, and at Cseke in -Szatmar county he devoted his time to aesthetical study, poetry, -criticism, and the defence of the theories of Kazinczy. Kolcsey's early -metrical pieces contributed to the _Transylvanian Museum_ did not -attract much attention, whilst his severe criticisms of Csokonai, Kis, -and especially Berzsenyi, published in 1817, rendered him very -unpopular. From 1821 to 1826 he published many separate poems of great -beauty in the _Aurora_, _Hebe_, _Aspasia_, and other magazines of polite -literature. He joined Paul Szemere in a new periodical, styled _Elet es -literatura_ ("Life and Literature"), which appeared from 1826 to 1829, -in 4 vols., and gained for Kolcsey the highest reputation as a critical -writer. From 1832 to 1835 he sat in the Hungarian Diet, where his -extreme liberal views and his singular eloquence soon rendered him -famous as a parliamentary leader. Elected on the 17th of November 1830 a -member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, he took part in its first -grand meeting; in 1832, he delivered his famous oration on Kazinczy, and -in 1836 that on his former opponent Daniel Berzsenyi. When in 1838 Baron -Wesselenyi was unjustly thrown into prison upon a charge of treason, -Kolcsey eloquently though unsuccessfully conducted his defence; and he -died about a week afterwards (August 24) from internal inflammation. His -collected works, in 6 vols., were published at Pest, 1840-1848, and his -journal of the diet of 1832-1836 appeared in 1848. A monument erected to -the memory of Kolcsey was unveiled at Szatmar-Nemeti on the 25th of -September 1864. - - See G. Steinacker, _Ungarische Lyriker_ (Leipzig, and Pest, 1874); F. - Toldy, _Magyar Koltok elete_ (2 vols., Pest, 1871); J. Ferenczy and J. - Danielik, _Magyar Irok_ (2 vols., Pest, 1856-1858). - - - - -KOLDING, a town of Denmark in the _amt_ (county) of Vejle, on the east -coast of Jutland, on the Koldingfjord, an inlet of the Little Belt, 9 -m. N. of the German frontier. Pop. (1901), 12,516. It is on the Eastern -railway of Jutland. The harbour throughout has a depth of over 20 ft. A -little to the north-west is the splendid remnant of the royal castle -Koldinghuus, formerly called Oernsborg or Arensborg. It was begun by -Duke Abel in 1248; in 1808 it was burned. The large square tower was -built by Christian IV. (1588-1648), and was surmounted by colossal -statues, of which one is still standing. It contains an antiquarian and -historical museum (1892). The name of Kolding occurs in the 10th -century, but its earliest known town-rights date from 1321. In 1644 it -was the scene of a Danish victory over the Swedes, and on the 22nd of -April 1849 of a Danish defeat by the troops of Schleswig-Holstein. A -comprehensive view of the Little Belt with its islands, and over the -mainland, is obtained from the Skamlingsbank, a slight elevation 8(1/2) -m. S.E., where an obelisk (1863) commemorates the effort made to -preserve the Danish language in Schleswig. - - - - -KOLGUEV, KOLGUEFF or KALGUYEV, an island off the north-west of Russia in -Europe, belonging to the government of Archangel. It lies about 50 m. -from the nearest point of the mainland, and is of roughly oval form, 54 -m. in length from N.N.E. to S.S.W. and 39 m. in extreme breadth. It lies -in a shallow sea, and is quite low, the highest point being 250 ft. -above the sea. Peat-bogs and grass lands cover the greater part of the -surface; there are several considerable streams and a large number of -small lakes. The island is of recent geological formation; it consists -almost wholly of disintegrated sandstone or clay (which rises at the -north-west into cliffs up to 60 ft. high), with scattered masses of -granite. Vegetation is scanty, but bears, foxes and other Arctic -animals, geese, swans, &c., provide means of livelihood for a few -Samoyed hunters. - - - - -KOLHAPUR, a native state of India, within the Deccan division of Bombay. -It is the fourth in importance of the Mahratta principalities, the other -three being Baroda, Gwalior and Indore; and it is the principal state -under the political control of the government of Bombay. Together with -its _jagirs_ or feudatories, it covers an area of 3165 sq. m. In 1901 -the population was 910,011. The estimated revenue is L300,000. Kolhapur -stretches from the heart of the Western Ghats eastwards into the plain -of the Deccan. Along the spurs of the main chain of the Ghats lie wild -and picturesque hill slopes and valleys, producing little but timber, -and till recently covered with rich forests. The centre of the state is -crossed by several lines of low hills running at right angles from the -main range. In the east the country becomes more open and presents the -unpicturesque uniformity of a well-cultivated and treeless plain, broken -only by an occasional river. Among the western hills are the ancient -Mahratta strongholds of Panhala, Vishalgarh, Bavda and Rungna. The -rivers, though navigable during the rains by boats of 2 tons burthen, -are all fordable during the hot months. Iron ore is found in the hills, -and smelting was formerly carried on to a considerable extent; but now -the Kolhapur mineral cannot compete with that imported from Europe. -There are several good stone quarries. The principal agricultural -products are rice, millets, sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, safflower and -vegetables. - -The rajas of Kolhapur trace their descent from Raja Ram, a younger son -of Sivaji the Great, the founder of the Mahratta power. The prevalence -of piracy caused the British government to send expeditions against -Kolhapur in 1765 and 1792; and in the early years of the 19th century -the misgovernment of the chief compelled the British to resort to -military operations, and ultimately to appoint an officer to manage the -state. In recent years the state has been conspicuously well governed, -on the pattern of British administration. The raja Shahu Chhatrapati, -G.C.S.I. (who is entitled to a salute of 21 guns) was born in 1874, and -ten years later succeeded to the throne by adoption. The principal -institutions are the Rajaram college, the high school, a technical -school, an agricultural school, and training-schools for both masters -and mistresses. The state railway from Miraj junction to Kolhapur town -is worked by the Southern Mahratta company. In recent years the state -has suffered from both famine and plague. - -The town of KOLHAPUR, or KARVIR, is the terminus of a branch of the -Southern Mahratta railway, 30 m. from the main line. Pop. (1901), -54,373. Besides a number of handsome modern public buildings, the town -has many evidences of antiquity. Originally it appears to have been an -important religious centre, and numerous Buddhist remains have been -discovered in the neighbourhood. - - - - -KOLIN, or NEU-KOLIN (also _Kollin_; Czech, _Novy Kolin_), a town of -Bohemia, Austria, 40 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,025, -mostly Czech. It is situated on the Elbe, and amongst its noteworthy -buildings may be specially mentioned the beautiful early Gothic church -of St Bartholomew, erected during the latter half of the 14th century. -The industries of the town include sugar-refining, steam mills, brewing, -and the manufacture of starch, syrup, spirits, potash and tin ware. The -neighbourhood is known for the excellence of its fruit and vegetables. -Kolin is chiefly famous on account of the battle here on the 18th of -June 1757, when the Prussians under Frederick the Great were defeated by -the Austrians under Daun (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR). The result was the -raising of the siege of Prague and the evacuation of Bohemia by the -Prussians. Kolin was colonized in the 13th century by German settlers -and made a royal city. In 1421 it was captured by the men of Prague, and -the German inhabitants who refused to accept "the four articles" were -expelled. In 1427 the town declared against Prague, was besieged by -Prokop the Great, and surrendered to him upon conditions at the close of -the year. - - - - -KOLIS, a caste or tribe of Western India, of uncertain origin. Possibly -the name is derived from the Turki _kuleh_ a slave; and, according to -one theory, this name has been passed on to the familiar word "cooly" -for an agricultural labourer. They form the main part of the inferior -agricultural population of Gujarat, where they were formerly notorious -as robbers; but they also extend into the Konkan and the Deccan. In 1901 -the number of Kolis in all India was returned as nearly 3(3/4) millions; -but this total includes a distinct weaving caste of Kolis or Koris in -northern India. - - - - -KOLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON (1817-1905), Swiss anatomist and -physiologist, was born at Zurich on the 6th of July 1817. His father and -his mother were both Zurich people, and he in due time married a lady -from Aargau, so that Switzerland can claim him as wholly her own, though -he lived the greater part of his life in Germany. His early education -was carried on in Zurich, and he entered the university there in 1836. -After two years, however, he moved to the university of Bonn, and later -to that of Berlin, becoming at the latter place the pupil of Johannes -Muller and of F. G. J. Henle. He graduated in philosophy at Zurich in -1841, and in medicine at Heidelberg in 1842. The first academic post -which he held was that of prosector of anatomy under Henle; but his -tenure of this office was brief, for in 1844 his native city called him -back to its university to occupy a chair as professor extraordinary of -physiology and comparative anatomy. His stay here too, however, was -brief, for in 1847 the university of Wurzburg, attracted by his rising -fame, offered him the post of professor of physiology and of -microscopical and comparative anatomy. He accepted the appointment, and -at Wurzburg he remained thenceforth, refusing all offers tempting him to -leave the quiet academic life of the Bavarian town, where he died on the -2nd of November 1905. - -Kolliker's name will ever be associated with that of the tool with which -during his long life he so assiduously and successfully worked, the -microscope. The time at which he began his studies coincided with that -of the revival of the microscopic investigation of living beings. Two -centuries earlier the great Italian Malpighi had started, and with his -own hand had carried far the study by the help of the microscope of the -minute structure of animals and plants. After Malpighi this branch of -knowledge, though continually progressing, made no remarkable bounds -forward until the second quarter of the 19th century, when the -improvement of the compound microscope on the one hand, and the -promulgation by Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden of the "cell -theory" on the other, inaugurated a new era of microscopic -investigation. Into this new learning Kolliker threw himself with all -the zeal of youth, wisely initiated into it by his great teacher Henle, -whose sober and exact mode of inquiry went far at the time to give the -new learning a right direction and to counteract the somewhat fantastic -views which, under the name of the cell theory, were tending to be -prominent. Henle's labours were for the most part limited to the -microscopic investigation of the minute structure of the tissues of man -and of the higher animals, the latter being studied by him mainly with -the view of illustrating the former. But Kolliker had another teacher -besides Henle, the even greater Johannes Muller, whose active mind was -sweeping over the whole animal kingdom, striving to pierce the secrets -of the structure of living creatures of all sorts, and keeping steadily -in view the wide biological problems of function and of origin, which -the facts of structure might serve to solve. We may probably trace to -the influence of these two great teachers, strengthened by the spirit of -the times, the threefold character of Kolliker's long-continued and -varied labours. In all of them, or in almost all of them, the microscope -was the instrument of inquiry, but the problem to be solved by means of -the instrument belonged now to one branch of biology, now to another. - -At Zurich, and afterwards at Wurzburg, the title of the chair which he -held laid upon him the duty of teaching comparative anatomy, and very -many of the numerous memoirs which he published, including the very -first paper which he wrote, and which appeared in 1841 before he -graduated, "On the Nature of the so-called Seminal Animalcules," were -directed towards elucidating, by help of the microscope, the structure -of animals of the most varied kinds--that is to say, were zoological in -character. Notable among these were his papers on the Medusae and allied -creatures. His activity in this direction led him to make zoological -excursions to the Mediterranean Sea and to the coasts of Scotland, as -well as to undertake, conjointly with his friend C. T. E. von Siebold, -the editorship of the _Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie_, -which, founded in 1848, continued under his hands to be one of the most -important zoological periodicals. - -At the time when Kolliker was beginning his career the influence of Karl -Ernst von Baer's embryological teaching was already being widely felt, -men were learning to recognize the importance to morphological and -zoological studies of a knowledge of the development of animals; and -Kolliker plunged with enthusiasm into the relatively new line of -inquiry. His earlier efforts were directed to the invertebrata, and his -memoir on the development of cephalopods, which appeared in 1844, is a -classical work; but he soon passed on to the vertebrata, and studied not -only the amphibian embryo and the chick, but also the mammalian embryo. -He was among the first, if not the very first, to introduce into this -branch of biological inquiry the newer microscopic technique--the -methods of hardening, section-cutting and staining. By doing so, not -only was he enabled to make rapid progress himself, but he also placed -in the hands of others the means of a like advance. The remarkable -strides forward which embryology made during the middle and during the -latter half of the 19th century will always be associated with his name. -His _Lectures on Development_, published in 1861, at once became a -standard work. - -But neither zoology nor embryology furnished Kolliker's chief claim to -fame. If he did much for these branches of science, he did still more -for histology, the knowledge of the minute structure of the animal -tissues. This he made emphatically his own. It may indeed be said that -there is no fragment of the body of man and of the higher animals on -which he did not leave his mark, and in more places than one his mark -was a mark of fundamental importance. Among his earlier results may be -mentioned the demonstration in 1847 that smooth or unstriated muscle is -made up of distinct units, of nucleated muscle-cells. In this work he -followed in the footsteps of his master Henle. A few years before this -men were doubting whether arteries were muscular, and no solid -histological basis as yet existed for those views as to the action of -the nervous system on the circulation, which were soon to be put -forward, and which had such a great influence on the progress of -physiology. By the above discovery Kolliker completed that basis. - -Even to enumerate, certainly to dwell on, all his contributions to -histology would be impossible here: smooth muscle, striated muscle, -skin, bone, teeth, blood-vessels and viscera were all investigated by -him; and he touched none of them without striking out some new truths. -The results at which he arrived were recorded partly in separate -memoirs, partly in his great textbook on microscopical anatomy, which -first saw the light in 1850, and by which he advanced histology no less -than by his own researches. In the case of almost every tissue our -present knowledge contains something great or small which we owe to -Kolliker; but it is on the nervous system that his name is written in -largest letters. So early as 1845, while still at Zurich, he supplied -what was as yet still lacking, the clear proof that nerve-fibres are -continuous with nerve-cells, and so furnished the absolutely necessary -basis for all sound speculations as to the actions of the central -nervous system. From that time onward he continually laboured, and -always fruitfully, at the histology of the nervous system, and more -especially at the difficult problems presented by the intricate patterns -in which fibres and cells are woven together in the brain and spinal -cord. In his old age, at a time when he had fully earned the right to -fold his arms, and to rest and be thankful, he still enriched -neurological science with results of the highest value. From his early -days a master of method, he saw at a glance the value of the new Golgi -method for the investigation of the central nervous system, and, to the -great benefit of science, took up once more in his old age, with the aid -of a new means, the studies for which he had done so much in his youth. -It may truly be said that much of that exact knowledge of the inner -structure of the brain, which is rendering possible new and faithful -conceptions of its working, came from his hands. - -Lastly, Kolliker was in his earlier years professor of physiology as -well as of anatomy; and not only did his histological labours almost -always carry physiological lessons, but he also enriched physiology with -the results of direct researches of an experimental kind, notably those -on curare and some other poisons. In fact, we have to go back to the -science of centuries ago to find a man of science of so many-sided an -activity as he. His life constituted in a certain sense a protest -against that specialized differentiation which, however much it may -under certain aspects be regretted, seems to be one of the necessities -of modern development. In Johannes Muller's days no one thought of -parting anatomy and physiology; nowadays no one thinks of joining them -together. Kolliker did in his work join them together, and indeed said -himself that he thought they ought never to be kept apart. - -Naturally a man of so much accomplishment was not left without honours. -Formerly known simply as Kolliker, the title "von" was added to his -name. He was made a member of the learned societies of many countries; -in England, which he visited more than once, and where he became well -known, the Royal Society made him a fellow in 1860, and in 1897 gave him -its highest token of esteem, the Copley medal. (M. F.) - - - - -KOLLONTAJ, HUGO (1750-1812), Polish politician and writer, was born in -1750 at Niecislawice in Sandomir, and educated at Pinczow and Cracow. -After taking orders he went (1770) to Rome, where he obtained the degree -of doctor of theology and common law, and devoted himself -enthusiastically to the study of the fine arts, especially of -architecture and painting. At Rome too he obtained a canonry attached to -Cracow cathedral, and on his return to Poland in 1755 threw himself -heart and soul into the question of educational reform. His efforts were -impeded by the obstruction of the clergy of Cracow, who regarded him as -an adventurer; but he succeeded in reforming the university after his -own mind, and was its rector for three years (1782-1785). Kollontaj next -turned his attention to politics. In 1786 he was appointed -_referendarius_ of Lithuania, and during the Four Years' Diet -(1788-1792) displayed an amazing and many-sided activity as one of the -reformers of the constitution. He grouped around him all the leading -writers, publicists and progressive young men of the day; declaimed -against prejudices; stimulated the timid; inspired the lukewarm with -enthusiasm; and never rested till the constitution of the 3rd of May -1791 had been carried through. In June 1791 Kollontaj was appointed -vice-chancellor. On the triumph of the reactionaries and the fall of the -national party, he secretly placed in the king's hands his adhesion to -the triumphant Confederation of Targowica, a false step, much blamed at -the time, but due not to personal ambition but to a desire to save -something from the wreck of the constitution. He then emigrated to -Dresden. On the outbreak of Kosciuszko's insurrection he returned to -Poland, and as member of the national government and minister of finance -took a leading part in affairs. But his radicalism had now become of a -disruptive quality, and he quarrelled with and even thwarted Kosciuszko -because the dictator would not admit that the Polish republic could only -be saved by the methods of Jacobinism. On the other hand, the more -conservative section of the Poles regarded Kollontaj as "a second -Robespierre," and he is even suspected of complicity in the outrages of -the 17th and 18th of June 1794, when the Warsaw mob massacred the -political prisoners. On the collapse of the insurrection Kollontaj -emigrated to Austria, where from 1795 to 1802 he was detained as a -prisoner. He was finally released through the mediation of Prince Adam -Czartoryski, and returned to Poland utterly discredited. The remainder -of his life was a ceaseless struggle against privation and prejudice. He -died at Warsaw on the 28th of February 1812. - - Of his numerous works the most notable are: _Political Speeches as - Vice-Chancellor_ (Pol.) (in 6 vols., Warsaw, 1791); _On the Erection - and Fall of the Constitution of May_ (Pol.) (Leipzig, 1793; Paris, - 1868); _Correspondence with T. Czacki_ (Pol.) (Cracow, 1854); _Letters - written during Emigration, 1792-1794_ (Pol.) (Posen, 1872). - - See Ignacz Badeni, _Necrology of Hugo Kollontaj_ (Pol.) (Cracow, - 1819); Henryk Schmitt, _Review of the Life and Works of Kollontaj_ - (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1860); Wojciek Grochowski, "Life of Kollontaj" (Pol.) - in _Tygod Illus._ (Warsaw, 1861). (R. N. B.) - - - - -KOLOMEA (Polish, _Kolomyja_), a town of Austria, in Galicia, 122 m. S. -of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900), 34,188, of which half were Jews. It is -situated on the Pruth, and has an active trade in agricultural products. -To the N.E. of Kolomea, near the Dniester, lies the village of -Czernelica, with ruins of a strongly fortified castle, which served as -the residence of John Sobieski during his campaigns against the Turks. -Kolomea is a very old town and is mentioned already in 1240, but the -assertion that it was a Roman settlement under the name of _Colonia_ is -not proved. It was the principal town of the Polish province of Pokutia, -and it suffered severely during the 15th and 16th centuries from the -attacks of the Moldavians and the Tatars. - - - - -KOLOMNA, a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow, situated on the -railway between Moscow and Ryazan, 72 m. S.E. of Moscow, at the -confluence of the Moskva river with the Kolomenka. Pop. (1897), 20,970. -It is an old town, mentioned in the annals in 1177, and until the 14th -century was the capital of the Ryazan principality. It suffered greatly -from the invasions of the Tatars in the 13th century, who destroyed it -four times, as well as from the wars of the 17th century; but it always -recovered and has never lost its commercial importance. During the 19th -century it became a centre for the manufacture of silks, cottons, ropes -and leather. Here too are railway workshops, where locomotives and -wagons are made. Kolomna carries on an active trade in grain, cattle, -tallow, skins, salt and timber. It has several old churches of great -archaeological interest, including two of the 14th century, one being -the cathedral. One gate (restored in 1895) of the fortifications of the -Kreml still survives. - - - - -KOLOZSVAR (Ger. _Klausenburg_; Rum. _Cluj_), a town of Hungary, in -Transylvania, the capital of the county of Kolozs, and formerly the -capital of the whole of Transylvania, 248 m. E.S.E. of Budapest by rail. -Pop. (1900), 46,670. It is situated in a picturesque valley on the banks -of the Little Szamos, and comprises the inner town (formerly surrounded -with walls) and five suburbs. The greater part of the town lies on the -right bank of the river, while on the other side is the so-called Bridge -Suburb and the citadel (erected in 1715). Upon the slopes of the citadel -hill there is a gipsy quarter. With the exception of the old quarter, -Kolozsvar is generally well laid out, and contains many broad and fine -streets, several of which diverge at right angles from the principal -square. In this square is situated the Gothic church of St Michael -(1396-1432); in front is a bronze equestrian statue of King Matthias -Corvinus by the Hungarian sculptor Fadrusz (1902). Other noteworthy -buildings are the Reformed church, built by Matthias Corvinus in 1486 -and ceded to the Calvinists by Bethlen Gabor in 1622; the house in which -Matthias Corvinus was born (1443), which contains an ethnographical -museum; the county and town halls, a museum, and the university -buildings. A feature of Kolozsvar is the large number of handsome -mansions belonging to the Transylvanian nobles, who reside here during -the winter. It is the seat of a Unitarian bishop, and of the -superintendent of the Calvinists for the Transylvanian circle. Kolozsvar -is the literary and scientific centre of Transylvania, and is the seat -of numerous literary and scientific associations. It contains a -university (founded in 1872), with four faculties--theology, philosophy, -law and medicine--frequented by about 1900 students in 1905; and amongst -its other educational establishments are a seminary for Unitarian -priests, an agricultural college, two training schools for teachers, a -commercial academy, and several secondary schools for boys and girls. -The industry comprises establishments for the manufacture of woollen and -linen cloth, paper, sugar, candles, soap, earthenwares, as well as -breweries and distilleries. - -Kolozsvar is believed to occupy the site of a Roman settlement named -_Napoca_. Colonized by Saxons in 1178, it then received its German name -of _Klausenburg_, from the old word Klause, signifying a "mountain -pass." Between the years 1545 and 1570 large numbers of the Saxon -population left the town in consequence of the introduction of Unitarian -doctrines. In 1798 the town was to a great extent destroyed by fire. As -capital of Transylvania and the seat of the Transylvanian diets, -Kolozsvar from 1830 to 1848 became the centre of the Hungarian national -movement in the grand principality; and in December 1848 it was taken -and garrisoned by the Hungarians under General Bem. - - - - -KOLPINO, one of the chief iron-works of the crown in Russia, in the -government of St Petersburg, 16 m. S.E. of the city of St Petersburg, on -the railway to Moscow, and on the Izhora river. Pop. (1897), 8076. A -sacred image of St Nicholas in the Trinity church is visited by numerous -pilgrims on the 22nd of May every year. Here is an iron-foundry of the -Russian admiralty. - - - - -KOLS, a generic name applied by Hindus to the Munda, Ho and Oraon tribes -of Bengal. The Mundas are an aboriginal tribe of Dravidian physical -type, inhabiting the Chota Nagpur division, and numbering 438,000 in -1901. The majority of them are animists in religion, but Christianity is -making rapid strides among them. The village community in its primitive -form still exists among the Mundas; the discontent due to the oppression -of their landlords led to the Munda rising of 1899, and to the remedy of -the alleged grievances by a new settlement of the district. The Hos, who -are closely akin to the Mundas, also inhabit the Chota Nagpur division; -in 1901 they numbered 386,000. They were formerly a very pugnacious -race, who successfully defended their territory against all comers until -they were subdued by the British in the early part of the 19th century, -being known as the Larka (or fighting) Kols. They are still great -sportsmen, using the bow and arrow. Like the Mundas they are animists, -but they show little inclination for Christianity. Both Mundas and Hos -speak dialects of the obscure linguistic family known as Munda or Kol. - - See _Imp. Gazetteer of India_, vols. xiii., xviii. (Oxford, 1908). - - - - -KOLYVAN. (1) A town of West Siberia, in the government of Tomsk, on the -Chaus river, 5 m. from the Ob and 120 m. S.S.W. of the city of Tomsk. It -is a wealthy town, the merchants carrying on a considerable export trade -in cattle, hides, tallow, corn and fish. It was founded in 1713 under -the name of Chausky Ostrog, and has grown rapidly. Pop. (1897), 11,703. -(2) KOLYVANSKIY ZAVOD, another town of the same government, in the -district of Biysk, Altai region, on the Byelaya river, 192 m. S.E. of -Barnaul; altitude, 1290 ft. It is renowned for its stone-cutting -factory, where marble, jasper, various porphyries and breccias are -worked into vases, columns, &c. Pop., 5000. (3) Old name of Reval -(q.v.). - - - - -KOMAROM (Ger., _Komorn_), the capital of the county of Komarom, Hungary, -65 m. W.N.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 16,816. It is situated at -the eastern extremity of the island Csallokoz or Grosse Schutt, at the -confluence of the Waag with the Danube. Just below Komarom the two arms -into which the Danube separates below Pressburg, forming the Grosse -Schutt island, unite again. Since 1896 the market-town of Uj-Szony, -which lies on the opposite bank of the Danube, has been incorporated -with Komarom. The town is celebrated chiefly for its fortifications, -which form the centre of the inland fortifications of the -Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A brisk trade in cereals, timber, wine and -fish is carried on. Komarom is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, -having received its charter in 1265. The fortifications were begun by -Matthias Corvinus, and were enlarged and strengthened during the Turkish -wars (1526-64). New forts were constructed in 1663 and were greatly -enlarged between 1805 and 1809. In 1543, 1594, 1598 and 1663 it was -beleaguered by the Turks. It was raised to the dignity of a royal free -town in 1751. During the revolutionary war of 1848-49 Komarom was a -principal point of military operations, and was long unsuccessfully -besieged by the Austrians, who on the 11th of July 1849 were defeated -there by General Gorgei, and on the 3rd of August by General Klapka. On -the 27th of September the fortress capitulated to the Austrians upon -honourable terms, and on the 3rd and 4th of October was evacuated by the -Hungarian troops. The treasure of the Austrian national bank was removed -here from Vienna in 1866, when that city was threatened by the -Prussians. - - - - -KOMATI, a river of south-eastern Africa. It rises at an elevation of -about 5000 ft. in the Ermelo district of the Transvaal, 11 m. W. of the -source of the Vaal, and flowing in a general N. and E. direction reaches -the Indian Ocean at Delagoa Bay, after a course of some 500 miles. In -its upper valley near Steynsdorp are gold-fields, but the reefs are -almost entirely of low grade ore. The river descends the Drakensberg by -a pass 30 m. S. of Barberton, and at the eastern border of Swaziland is -deflected northward, keeping a course parallel to the Lebombo mountains. -Just W. of 32 deg. E. and in 25 deg. 25' S. it is joined by one of the -many rivers of South Africa named Crocodile. This tributary rises, as -the Elands river, in the Bergendal (6437 ft.) near the upper waters of -the Komati, and flows E. across the high veld, being turned northward as -it reaches the Drakensberg escarpment. The fall to the low veld is over -2000 ft. in 30 m., and across the country between the Drakensberg and -the Lebombo (100 m.) there is a further fall of 3000 ft. A mile below -the junction of the Crocodile and Komati, the united stream, which from -this point is also known as the Manhissa, passes to the coast plain -through a cleft 626 ft. high in the Lebombo known as Komati Poort, where -are some picturesque falls. At Komati Poort, which marks the frontier -between British and Portuguese territory, the river is less than 60 m. -from its mouth in a direct line, but in crossing the plain it makes a -wide sweep of 200 m., first N. and then S., forming lagoon-like expanses -and backwaters and receiving from the north several tributaries. In -flood time there is a connexion northward through the swamps with the -basin of the Limpopo. The Komati enters the sea 15 m. N. of Lourenco -Marques. It is navigable from its mouth, where the water is from 12 to -18 ft. deep, to the foot of the Lebombo. - -The railway from Lourenco Marques to Pretoria traverses the plain in a -direct line, and at mile 45 reaches the Komati. It follows the south -bank of the river and enters the high country at Komati Poort. At a -small town with the same name, 2 m. W. of the Poort, on the 23rd of -September 1900, during the war with England, 3000 Boers crossed the -frontier and surrendered to the Portuguese authorities. From the Poort -westward the railway skirts the south bank of the Crocodile river -throughout its length. - - - - -KOMOTAU (Czech, _Chomutov_), a town of Bohemia, Austria 79 m. N.N.W. of -Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,925, almost exclusively German. It has -an old Gothic church, and its town-hall was formerly a commandery of the -Teutonic knights. The industrial establishments comprise manufactories -of woollen cloth, linen and paper, dyeing houses, breweries, -distilleries, vinegar works and the central workshops of the Buschtehrad -railway. Lignite is worked in the neighbourhood. Komotau was originally -a Czech market-place, but in 1252 it came into the possession of the -Teutonic Order and was completely Germanized. In 1396 it received a town -charter; and in 1416 the knights sold both town and lordship to -Wenceslaus IV. On the 16th of March 1421, the town was stormed by the -Taborites, sacked and burned. After several changes of ownership, -Komotau came in 1588 to Popel of Lobkovic, who established the Jesuits -here, which led to trouble between the Protestant burghers and the -over-lord. In 1594 the lordship fell to the crown, and in 1605 the town -purchased its freedom and was created a royal city. - - - - -KOMURA, JUTARO, COUNT (1855- ), Japanese statesman, was born in Hiuga. -He graduated at Harvard in 1877, and entered the foreign office in Tokyo -in 1884. He served as charge d'affaires in Peking, as Japanese minister -in Seoul, in Washington, in St Petersburg, and in Peking (during the -Boxer trouble), earning in every post a high reputation for diplomatic -ability. In 1901 he received the portfolio of foreign affairs, and held -it throughout the course of the negotiations with Russia and the -subsequent war (1904-5), being finally appointed by his sovereign to -meet the Russian plenipotentiaries at Portsmouth, and subsequently the -Chinese representatives in Peking, on which occasions the Portsmouth -treaty of September 1905 and the Peking treaty of November in the same -year were concluded. For these services, and for negotiating the second -Anglo-Japanese alliance, he received the Japanese title of count and was -made a K.C.B. by King Edward VII. He resigned his portfolio in 1906 and -became privy councillor, from which post he was transferred to the -embassy in London, but he returned to Tokyo in 1908 and resumed the -portfolio of foreign affairs in the second Katsura cabinet. - - - - -KONARAK or KANARAK, a ruined temple in India, in the Puri district of -Orissa, which has been described as for its size "the most richly -ornamented building--externally at least--in the whole world." It was -erected in the middle of the 13th century, and was dedicated to the -sun-god. It consisted of a tower, probably once over 180 ft. high, with -a porch in front 140 ft. high, sculptured with figures of lions, -elephants, horses, &c. - - - - -KONG, the name of a town, district and range of hills in the N.W. of the -Ivory Coast colony, French West Africa. The hills are part of the band -of high ground separating the inner plains of West Africa from the coast -regions. In maps of the first half of the 19th century the range is -shown as part of a great mountain chain supposed to run east and west -across Africa, and is thus made to appear a continuation of the -Mountains of the Moon, or the snow-clad heights of Ruwenzori. The -culminating point of the Kong system is the Pic des Kommono, 4757 ft. -high. In general the summits of the hills are below 2000 ft. and not -more than 700 ft. above the level of the country. The "circle of Kong," -one of the administrative divisions of the Ivory Coast colony, covers -46,000 sq. m. and has a population of some 400,000. The inhabitants are -negroes, chiefly Bambara and Mandingo. About a fourth of the population -profess Mahommedanism; the remainder are spirit worshippers. The town of -Kong, situated in 9 deg. N., 4 deg. 20' W., is not now of great -importance. Probably Rene Caillie, who spent some time in the western -part of the country in 1827, was the first European to visit Kong. In -1888 Captain L. G. Binger induced the native chiefs to place themselves -under the protection of France, and in 1893 the protectorate was -attached to the Ivory Coast colony. For a time Kong was overrun by the -armies of Samory (see SENEGAL), but the capture of that chief in 1898 -was followed by the peaceful development of the district by France (see -IVORY COAST). - - - - -KONGSBERG, a mining town of Norway in Buskerud _amt_ (county), on the -Laagen, 500 ft. above the sea, and 61 m. W.S.W. of Christiania by rail. -Pop. (1900), 5585. With the exception of the church and the town-house, -the buildings are mostly of wood. The origin and whole industry of the -town are connected with the government silver-mines in the -neighbourhood. Their first discovery was made by a peasant in 1623, -since which time they have been worked with varying success. During the -18th century Kongsberg was more important than now, and contained double -its present population. Within the town are situated the smelting-works, -the mint, and a Government weapon factory. Three miles below the Laagen -forms a fine fall of 140 ft. (Labrofos). The neighbouring Jonksnut (2950 -ft.) commands extensive views of the Telemark. A driving-road from -Kongsberg follows a favourite route for travellers through this -district, connecting with routes to Sand and Odde on the west coast. - - - - -KONIA. (1) A vilayet in Asia Minor which includes the whole, or parts -of, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Phrygia, Lycaonia, Cilicia and Cappadocia. It -was formed in 1864 by adding to the old eyalet of Karamania the western -half of Adana, and part of south-eastern Anadoli. It is divided into -five sanjaks: Adalia, Buldur, Hamid-abad, Konia and Nigdeh. The -population (990,000 Moslems and 80,000 Christians) is for the most part -agricultural and pastoral. The only industries are carpet-weaving and -the manufacture of cotton and silk stuffs. There are mines of chrome, -mercury, cinnabar, argentiferous lead and rock salt. The principal -exports are salt, minerals, opium, cotton, cereals, wool and livestock; -and the imports cloth-goods, coffee, rice and petroleum. The vilayet is -now traversed by the Anatolian railway, and contains the railhead of the -Ottoman line from Smyrna. - -(2) The chief town [anc. _Iconium_ (q.v.)], altitude 3320 ft., situated -at the S.W. edge of the vast central plain of Asia Minor, amidst -luxuriant orchards famous in the middle ages for their yellow plums and -apricots and watered by streams from the hills. Pop. 45,000, including -5000 Christians. There are interesting remains of Seljuk buildings, all -showing strong traces of Persian influence in their decorative details. -The principal ruin is that of the palace of Kilij Arslan II., which -contained a famous hall. The most important mosques are the great -_Tekke_, which contains the tomb of the poet Mevlana Jelal ed-din Rumi, -a mystic (sufi) poet, founder of the order of Mevlevi (whirling) -dervishes, and those of his successors, the "Golden" mosque and those of -Ala ed-Din and Sultan Selim. The walls, largely the work of Ala ed-Din -I., are preserved in great part and notable for the number of ancient -inscriptions built into them. They once had twelve gates and were 30 -ells in height. The climate is good--hot in summer and cold, with snow, -in winter. Konia is connected by railway with Constantinople and is the -starting-point of the extension towards Bagdad. After the capture of -Nicaea by the Crusaders (1097), Konia became the capital of the Seljuk -Sultans of Rum (see SELJUKS and TURKS). It was temporarily occupied by -Godfrey, and again by Frederick Barbarossa, but this scarcely affected -its prosperity. During the reign of Ala ed-Din I. (1219-1236) the city -was thronged with artists, poets, historians, jurists and dervishes, -driven westwards from Persia and Bokhara by the advance of the Mongols, -and there was a brief period of great splendour. After the break up of -the empire of Rum, Konia became a secondary city of the amirate of -Karamania and in part fell to ruin. In 1472 it was annexed to the -Osmanli empire by Mahommed II. In 1832 it was occupied by Ibrahim Pasha -who defeated and captured the Turkish general, Reshid Pasha, not far -from the walls. It had come to fill only part of its ancient circuit, -but of recent years it has revived considerably, and, since the railway -reached it, has acquired a semi-European quarter, with a German hotel, -cafes and Greek shops, &c. - - See W. M. Ramsay, _Historical Geography of Asia Minor_ (1890); _St - Paul the Traveller_ (1895); G. Le Strange, _Lands of the E. Caliphate_ - (1905). (D. G. H.) - - - - -KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS (1591-1646), Polish soldier, was the most -illustrious member of an ancient Polish family which rendered great -services to the Republic. Educated at the academy of Cracow, he learned -the science of war under the great Jan Chodkiewicz, whom he accompanied -on his Muscovite campaigns, and under the equally great Stanislaus -Zolkiewski, whose daughter Catherine he married. On the death of his -first wife he wedded, in 1619, Christina Lubomirska. In 1619 he took -part in the expedition against the Turks which terminated so -disastrously at Cecora, and after a valiant resistance was captured and -sent to Constantinople, where he remained a close prisoner for three -years. On his return he was appointed commander of all the forces of the -Republic, and at the head of an army of 25,000 men routed 60,000 Tatars -at Martynow, following up this success with fresh victories, for which -he received the thanks of the diet and the palatinate of Sandomeria from -the king. In 1625 he was appointed guardian of the Ukraine against the -Tatars, but in 1626 was transferred to Prussia to check the victorious -advance of Gustavus Adolphus. Swedish historians have too often ignored -the fact that Koniecpolski's superior strategy neutralized all the -efforts of the Swedish king, whom he defeated again and again, notably -at Homerstein (April 1627) and at Trzciand (April 1629). But for the -most part the fatal parsimony of his country compelled Koniecpolski to -confine himself to the harassing guerrilla warfare in which he was an -expert. In 1632 he was appointed to the long vacant post of _hetman -wielki koronny_, or commander in chief of Poland, and in that capacity -routed the Tatars at Sasowy Rogi (April 1633) and at Paniawce (April and -October 1633), and the Turks, with terrific loss, at Abazd Basha. To -keep the Cossacks of the Ukraine in order he also built the fortress of -Kudak. As one of the largest proprietors in the Ukraine he suffered -severely from Cossack depredations and offered many concessions to them. -Only after years of conflict, however, did he succeed in reducing these -unruly desperadoes to something like obedience. In 1644 he once more -routed the Tatars at Ockmatow, and again in 1646 at Brody. This was his -last exploit, for he died the same year, to the great grief of -Wladislaus IV., who had already concerted with him the plan for a -campaign on a grand scale against the Turks, and relied principally upon -the Grand Hetman for its success. Though less famous than his -contemporaries Zolkiehwski and Chodkiewicz, Koniecpolski was fully their -equal as a general, and his inexorable severity made him an ideal -lord-marcher. - - See an unfinished biography in the _Tyg. Illus. of Warsaw_ for 1863; - Stanislaw Przylenski, _Memorials of the Koniecpolskis_ (Pol.) - (Lemberg, 1842). (R. N. B.) - - - - -KONIG, KARL RUDOLPH (1832-1901), German physicist, was born at -Konigsberg (Prussia) on the 26th of November 1832, and studied at the -university of his native town, taking the degree of Ph.D. About 1852 he -went to Paris, and became apprentice to the famous violin-maker, J. B. -Vuillaume, and some six years later he started business on his own -account. He called himself a "maker of musical instruments," but the -instruments for which his name is best known are tuning-forks, which -speedily gained a high reputation among physicists for their accuracy -and general excellence. From this business Konig derived his livelihood -for the rest of his life. He was, however, very far from being a mere -tradesman, and even as a manufacturer he regarded the quality of the -articles that left his workshop as a matter of greater solicitude than -the profits they yielded. Acoustical research was his real interest, and -to that he devoted all the time and money he could spare from his -business. An exhibit which he sent to the London Exhibition of 1862 -gained a gold medal, and at the Philadelphia Exposition at 1876 great -admiration was expressed for a tonometric apparatus of his manufacture. -This consisted of about 670 tuning-forks, of as many different pitches, -extending over four octaves, and it afforded a perfect means for -testing, by enumeration of the beats, the number of vibrations producing -any given note and for accurately tuning any musical instrument. An -attempt was made to secure this apparatus for the university of -Pennsylvania, and Konig was induced to leave it behind him in America on -the assurance that it would be purchased; but, ultimately, the money not -being forthcoming, the arrangement fell through, to his great -disappointment and pecuniary loss. Some of the forks he disposed of to -the university of Toronto and the remainder he used as a nucleus for -the construction of a still more elaborate tonometer. While the range of -the old apparatus was only between 128 and 4096 vibrations a second, the -lowest fork of the new one made only 16 vibrations a second, while the -highest gave a sound too shrill to be perceptible by the human ear. -Konig will also be remembered as the inventor and constructor of many -other beautiful pieces of apparatus for the investigation of acoustical -problems, among which may be mentioned his wave-sirens, the first of -which was shown at Philadelphia in 1876. His original work dealt, among -other things, with Wheatstone's sound-figures, the characteristic notes -of the different vowels, manometric flames, &c.; but perhaps the most -important of his researches are those devoted to the phenomena produced -by the interference of two tones, in which he controverted the views of -H. von Helmholtz as to the existence of summation and difference tones. -He died in Paris on the 2nd of October 1901. - - - - -KONIGGRATZ (Czech, _Hradec Kralove_), a town and episcopal see of -Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 9773, mostly -Czech. It is situated in the centre of a very fertile region called the -"Golden Road," and contains many buildings of historical and -architectural interest. The cathedral was founded in 1303 by Elizabeth, -wife of Wenceslaus II; and the church of St John, built in 1710, stands -on the ruins of the old castle. The industries include the manufacture -of musical instruments, machinery, colours, and _carton-pierre_, as well -as gloves and wax candles. The original name of Koniggratz, one of the -oldest settlements in Bohemia, was _Chlumec Dobroslavsky_; the name -_Hradec_, or "the Castle," was given to it when it became the seat of a -count, and _Kralove_, "of the queen" (Ger. _Konigin_), was prefixed when -it became one of the dower towns of the queen of Wenceslaus II., -Elizabeth of Poland, who lived here for thirty years. It remained a -dower town till 1620. Koniggratz was the first of the towns to declare -for the national cause during the Hussite wars. After the battle of the -White Mountain (1620) a large part of the Protestant population left the -place. In 1639 the town was occupied for eight months by the Swedes. -Several churches and convents were pulled down to make way for the -fortifications erected under Joseph II. The fortress was finally -dismantled in 1884. Near Koniggratz took place, on the 3rd of July 1866, -the decisive battle (formerly called Sadowa) of the Austro-Prussian war -(see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR). - - - - -KONIGINHOF (_Dvur Kralove_ in Czech), the seat of a provincial district -and of a provincial law-court, is situated in north-eastern Bohemia on -the left bank of the Elbe, about 160 kilometres from Prague. Brewing, -corn-milling and cotton-weaving are the principal industries. Pop. about -11,000. The city is of very ancient origin. Founded by King Wenceslaus -II. of Bohemia (1278-1305), it was given by him to his wife Elizabeth, -and thus received the name of Dvur Kralove (the court of the queen). -During the Hussite wars, Dvur Kralove was several times taken and -retaken by the contending parties. In a battle fought partly within the -streets of the town, the Austrian army was totally defeated by the -Prussians on the 29th of June 1866. In the 19th century Dvur Kralove -became widely known as the spot where a MS. was found that was long -believed to be one of the oldest written documents in the Czech -language. In 1817 Wenceslas Hanka, afterwards for a long period -librarian of the Bohemian museum, declared that he had found in the -church tower in the town of Dvur Kralove when on a visit there, a very -ancient MS. containing epic and lyric poems. Though Dobrovsky, the -greatest Czech philologist of the time, from the first expressed -suspicions, the MS. known as the Kralodvorsky Rukopis manuscript of -Koniginhof was long accepted as genuine, frequently printed and -translated into most European languages. Doubts as to the genuineness of -the document never, however, ceased, and they became stronger when Hanka -was convicted of having fabricated other false Bohemian documents. A -series of works and articles written by Professors Goll, Gebauer, -Masoryk, and others have recently proved that the MS. is a forgery, and -hardly any Bohemian scholars of the present day believe in its -genuineness. - - The discussion of the authenticity of the MS. of Dvur Kralove lasted - with short interruptions about seventy years, and the Bohemian works - written on the subject would fill a considerable library. Count - Lutzow's _History of Bohemian Literature_ gives a brief account of the - controversy. - - - - -KONIGSBERG (Polish _Krolewiec_), a town of Germany, capital of the -province of East Prussia and a fortress of the first rank. Pop. (1880), -140,800; (1890), 161,666; (1905), 219,862 (including the incorporated -suburbs). It is situated on rising ground, on both sides of the Pregel, -4(1/2) m. from its mouth in the Frische Haff, 397 m. N. E. of Berlin, on -the railway to Eydtkuhnen and at the junction of lines to Pillau, Tilsit -and Kranz. It consists of three parts, which were formerly independent -administrative units, the Altstadt (old town), to the west, Lobenicht to -the east, and the island Kneiphof, together with numerous suburbs, all -embraced in a circuit of 9(1/2) miles. The Pregel, spanned by many -bridges, flows through the town in two branches, which unite below the -Grune Brucke. Its greatest breadth within the town is from 80 to 90 -yards, and it is usually frozen from November to March. Konigsberg does -not retain many marks of antiquity. The Altstadt has long and narrow -streets, but the Kneiphof quarter is roomier. Of the seven market-places -only that in the Altstadt retains something of its former appearance. -Among the more interesting buildings are the Schloss, a long rectangle -begun in 1255 and added to later, with a Gothic tower 277 ft. high and a -chapel built in 1592, in which Frederick I. in 1701 and William I. in -1861 crowned themselves kings of Prussia; and the cathedral, begun in -1333 and restored in 1856, a Gothic building with a tower 164 ft. high, -adjoining which is the tomb of Kant. The Schloss was originally the -residence of the Grand Masters of the Teutonic order and later of the -dukes of Prussia. Behind is the parade-ground, with the statues of -Albert I. and of Frederick William III. by August Kiss, and the grounds -also contain monuments to Frederick I. and William I. To the east is the -Schlossteich, a long narrow ornamental lake covering 12 acres. The -north-west side of the parade-ground is occupied by the new university -buildings, completed in 1865; these and the new exchange on the south -side of the Pregel are the finest architectural features of the town. -The university (Collegium Albertinum) was founded in 1544 by Albert I., -duke of Prussia, as a "purely Lutheran" place of learning. It is chiefly -distinguished for its mathematical and philosophical studies, and -possesses a famous observatory, established in 1811 by Frederick William -Bessel, a library of about 240,000 volumes, a zoological museum, a -botanical garden, laboratories and valuable mathematical and other -scientific collections. Among its famous professors have been Kant (who -was born here in 1724 and to whom a monument was erected in 1864), J. G. -von Herder, Bessel, F. Neumann and J. F. Herbart. It is attended by -about 1000 students and has a teaching staff of over 100. Among other -educational establishments, Konigsberg numbers four classical schools -(gymnasia) and three commercial schools, an academy of painting and a -school of music. The hospitals and benevolent institutions are numerous. -The town is less well equipped with museums and similar institutions, -the most noteworthy being the Prussia museum of antiquities, which is -especially rich in East Prussian finds from the Stone age to the Viking -period. Besides the cathedral the town has fourteen churches. - -Konigsberg is a naval and military fortress of the first order. The -fortifications were begun in 1843 and were only completed in 1905, -although the place was surrounded by walls in early times. The works -consist of an inner wall, brought into connexion with an outlying system -of works, and of twelve detached forts, of which six are on the right -and six on the left bank of the Pregel. Between them lie two great -forts, that of Friedrichsburg on an island in the Pregel and that of the -Kaserne Kronprinz on the east of the town, both within the environing -ramparts. The protected position of its harbour has made Konigsberg one -of the most important commercial cities of Germany. A new channel has -recently been made between it and its port, Pillau, 29 miles distant, on -the outer side of the Frische Haff, so as to admit vessels drawing 20 -feet of water right up to the quays of Konigsberg, and the result has -been to stimulate the trade of the city. It is protected for a long -distance by moles, in which a break has been left in the Fischhauser -Wiek, to permit of freer circulation of the water and to prevent damage -to the mainland. - -The industries of Konigsberg have made great advances within recent -years, notable among them are printing-works and manufactures of -machinery, locomotives, carriages, chemicals, toys, sugar, cellulose, -beer, tobacco and cigars, pianos and amber wares. The principal exports -are cereals and flour, cattle, horses, hemp, flax, timber, sugar and -oilcake. There are two pretty public parks, one in the Hufen, with a -zoological garden attached, another the Luisenwahl which commemorates -the sojourn of Queen Louisa of Prussia in the town in the disastrous -year 1806. - -The Altstadt of Konigsberg grew up around the castle built in 1255 by the -Teutonic Order, on the advice of Ottaker II. King of Bohemia, after whom -the place was named. Its first site was near the fishing village of -Steindamm, but after its destruction by the Prussians in 1263 it was -rebuilt in its present position. It received civic privileges in 1286, the -two other parts of the present town--Lobenicht and Kneiphof--receiving -them a few years later. In 1340 Konigsberg entered the Hanseatic League. -From 1457 it was the residence of the grand master of the Teutonic Order, -and from 1525 till 1618 of the dukes of Prussia. The trade of Konigsberg -was much hindered by the constant shifting and silting up of the channels -leading to its harbour; and the great northern wars did it immense harm, -but before the end of the 17th century it had almost recovered. - -In 1724 the three independent parts were united into a single town by -Frederick William I. - -Konigsberg suffered severely during the war of liberation and was -occupied by the French in 1807. In 1813 the town was the scene of the -deliberations which led to the successful uprising of Prussia against -Napoleon. During the 19th century the opening of a railway system in -East Prussia and Russia gave a new impetus to its commerce, making it -the principal outlet for the Russian staples--grain, seeds, flax and -hemp. It has now regular steam communication with Memel, Stettin, Kiel, -Amsterdam and Hull. - - See Faber, _Die Haupt- und Residenzstadt Konigsberg in Preussen_ - (Konigsberg, 1840); Schubert, _Zur 600-jahrigen Jubelfeier - Konigsbergs_ (Konigsberg, 1855); Beckherrn, _Geschichte der - Befestigungen Konigsbergs_ (Konigsberg, 1890); H. G. Prutz, _Die - konigliche Albertus-Universitat zu Konigsberg im 19 Jahrhundert_ - (Konigsberg, 1894); Armstedt, _Geschichte der koniglichen Haupt- und - Residenzstadt Konigsberg_ (Stuttgart, 1899); M. Schultze, _Konigsberg - und Ostpreussen zu Anfang 1813_ (Berlin, 1901); and Gordak, _Wegweiser - durch Konigsberg_ (Konigsberg, 1904). - - - - -KONIGSBORN, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, -immediately to the N. of the town of Unna, of which it practically forms -a suburb. It has large saltworks, producing annually over 15,000 tons. -The brine springs, in connexion with which there is a hydropathic -establishment, have a temperature of 93 deg. F., and are efficacious in -skin diseases, rheumatism and scrofula. - - See Wegele, _Bad Konigsborn und seine Heilmittel_ (Essen, 1902). - - - - -KONIGSHUTTE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, -situated in the middle of the Upper Silesian coal and iron district, 3 -m. S. of Beuthen and 122 m. by rail S.E. of Breslau. Pop. (1852), 4495; -(1875), 26,040; (1900), 57,919. In 1869 it was incorporated with various -neighbouring villages, and raised to the dignity of a town. It has two -Protestant and three Roman Catholic churches and several schools and -benevolent institutions. The largest iron-works in Silesia is situated -at Konigshutte, and includes puddling works, rolling-mills, and -zinc-works. Founded in 1797, it was formerly in the hands of government, -but is now carried on by a company. There are also manufactures of -bricks and glass and a trade in wood and coal. Nearly one-half of the -population of the town consists of Poles. - - See Mohr, _Geschichte der Stadt Konigshutte_ (Konigshutte, 1890). - - - - - -KONIGSLUTTER, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick, on the -Lutter 36 m. E. of Brunswick by the railway to Eisleben and Magdeburg. -Pop. (1905), 3260. It possesses an Evangelical church, a castle and some -interesting old houses. Its chief manufactures are sugar, machinery, -paper and beer. Near the town are the ruins of a Benedictine abbey -founded in 1135. In its beautiful church, which has not been destroyed, -are the tombs of the emperor Lothair II., his wife Richenza, and of his -son-in-law, Duke Henry the Proud of Saxony and Bavaria. - - - - -KONIGSMARK, MARIA AURORA, COUNTESS OF (1662-1728), mistress of Augustus -the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of Poland, belonged to a noble -Swedish family, and was born on the 8th of May 1662. Having passed some -years at Hamburg, where she attracted attention both by her beauty and -her talents, Aurora went in 1694 to Dresden to make inquiries about her -brother Philipp Christoph, count of Konigsmark, who had suddenly and -mysteriously disappeared from Hanover. Here she was noticed by Augustus, -who made her his mistress; and in October 1696 she gave birth to a son -Maurice, afterwards the famous marshal de Saxe. The elector however -quickly tired of Aurora, who then spent her time in efforts to secure -the position of abbess of Quedlinburg, an office which carried with it -the dignity of a princess of the Empire, and to recover the lost -inheritance of her family in Sweden. She was made coadjutor abbess and -lady-provost (_Propstin_) of Quedlinburg, but lived mainly in Berlin, -Dresden and Hamburg. In 1702 she went on a diplomatic errand to Charles -XII. of Sweden on behalf of Augustus, but her adventurous journey ended -in failure. The countess, who was described by Voltaire as "the most -famous woman of two centuries," died at Quedlinburg on the 16th of -February 1728. - - See F. Cramer, _Denkwurdigkeiten der Grafin M. A. Konigsmark_ - (Leipzig, 1836); and _Biographische Nachrichten von der Grafin M. A. - Konigsmark_ (Quedlinburg, 1833); W. F. Palmblad, _Aurora Konigsmark - und ihre Verwandte_ (Leipzig, 1848-1853); C. L. de Pollnitz, _La Saxe - galante_ (Amsterdam, 1734); and O. J. B. von Corvin-Wiersbitzki, - _Maria Aurora, Grafin von Konigsmark_ (Rudolstadt, 1902). - - - - -KONIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH, COUNT OF (1665-1694), was a member of a -noble Swedish family, and is chiefly known as the lover of Sophia -Dorothea, wife of the English king George I. then electoral prince of -Hanover. Born on the 14th of March 1665, Konigsmark was a brother of the -countess noticed above. After wandering and fighting in various parts of -Europe he entered the service of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover. -Here he made the acquaintance of Sophia Dorothea, and assisted her in -one or two futile attempts to escape from Hanover. Regarded, rightly or -wrongly, as the lover of the princess, he was seized, and disappeared -from history, probably by assassination, on the 1st of July 1694. One -authority states that George I. was accustomed to boast about this deed; -but this statement is doubted, and the Hanoverian court resolutely -opposed all efforts to clear up the mystery. It is not absolutely -certain that Sophia Dorothea was guilty of a criminal intrigue with -Konigsmark, as it is probable that the letters which purport to have -passed between the pair are forgeries. The question of her guilt or -innocence, however, has been and still remains a fruitful and popular -subject for romance and speculation. - - See _Briefwechsel des Grafen Konigsmark und der Prinzessin Sophie - Dorothea von Celle_, edited by W. F. Palmblad (Leipzig, 1847); A. - Kocher, "Die Prinzessin von Ahlden," in the _Historische Zeitschrift_ - (Munich, 1882); and W. H. Wilkins, _The Love of an Uncrowned Queen_ - (London, 1900). - - - - -KONIGSSEE, or Lake of St Bartholomew, a lake of Germany, in the kingdom -of Bavaria, province of Upper Bavaria, about 2(1/2) m. S. from -Berchtesgaden, 1850 ft. above sea-level. It has a length of 5 m., and a -breadth varying from 500 yards to a little over a mile, and attains a -maximum depth of 600 ft. The Konigssee is the most beautiful of all the -lakes in the German Alps, pent in by limestone mountains rising to an -altitude of 6500 ft., the flanks of which descend precipitously to the -green waters below. The lake abounds in trout, and the surrounding -country is rich in game. On a promontory by the side of the lake is a -chapel to which pilgrimages are made on St Bartholomew's Day. Separated -by a narrow strip of land from the Konigssee is the Obersee, a smaller -lake. - - - - -KONIGSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, situated in a -deep valley on the left bank of the Elbe, at the influx of the Biela, in -the centre of Saxon Switzerland, 25 m. S.E. of Dresden by the railway to -Bodenbach and Testchen. It contains a Roman Catholic and a Protestant -church, a monument to the composer Julius Otto, and has some small -manufactures of machinery, celluloid, paper, vinegar and buttons. It is -chiefly remarkable for the huge fortress, lying immediately to the -north-west of the town, which crowns a sandstone rock rising abruptly -from the Elbe to a height of 750 ft. Across the Elbe lies the -Lilienstein, a similar formation, but unfortified. The fortress of -Konigstein was probably a Slav stronghold as early as the 12th century, -but it is not mentioned in chronicles before the year 1241, when it was -a fief of Bohemia. In 1401 it passed to the margraves of Meissen and by -the treaty of Eger in 1459 it was formally ceded by Bohemia to Saxony. -About 1540 the works were strengthened, and the place was used as a -_point d'appui_ against inroads from Bohemia. Hence the phrase -frequently employed by historians that Konigstein is "the key to -Bohemia." As a fact, the main road from Dresden into that country lies -across the hills several miles to the south-west, and the fortress has -exercised little, if any, influence in strategic operations, either -during the middle ages or in modern times. It was further strengthened -under the electors Christian I., John George I. and Frederick Augustus -II. of Saxony, the last of whom completed it in its present form. During -the Prussian invasion of Saxony in 1756 it served as a place of refuge -for the King of Poland, Augustus III., as it did also in 1849, during -the Dresden insurrection of May in that year, to the King of Saxony, -Frederick Augustus II. and his ministers. It was occupied by the -Prussians in 1867, who retained possession of it until the peace of -1871. It is garrisoned by detachments of several Saxon infantry -regiments, and serves as a treasure house for the state and also as a -place of detention for officers sentenced to fortress imprisonment. A -remarkable feature of the place is a well, hewn out of the solid rock to -a depth of 470 ft. - - See Klemm, _Der Konigstein in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1905); - and Gautsch, _Aelteste Geschichte der sachsischen Schweiz_ (Dresden, - 1880). - - - - -KONIGSWINTER, a town and summer resort of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine -province, on the right bank of the Rhine, 24 m. S.S.E. of Cologne by the -railway to Frankfort-on-Main, at the foot of the Siebengebirge. Pop. -(1905), 3944. The romantic Drachenfels (1010 ft.), crowned by the ruins -of a castle built early in the 12th century by the archbishop of -Cologne, rises behind the town. From the summit, to which there is a -funicular railway, there is a magnificent view, celebrated by Byron in -_Childe Harold's Pilgrimage_. A cave in the hill is said to have -sheltered the dragon which was slain by the hero Siegfried. The mountain -is quarried, and from 1267 onward supplied stone (trachyte) for the -building of Cologne cathedral. The castle of Drachenburg, built in 1883, -is on the north side of the hill. Konigswinter has a Roman Catholic and -an Evangelical church, some small manufactures and a little shipping. It -has a monument to the poet, Wolfgang Muller. Near the town are the ruins -of the abbey of Heisterbach. - - - - -KONINCK, LAURENT GUILLAUME DE (1809-1887), Belgian palaeontologist and -chemist, was born at Louvain on the 3rd of May 1809. He studied medicine -in the university of his native town, and in 1831 he became assistant in -the chemical schools. He pursued the study of chemistry in Paris, Berlin -and Giessen, and was subsequently engaged in teaching the science at -Ghent and Liege. In 1856 he was appointed professor of chemistry in the -Liege University, and he retained this post until the close of his life. -About the year 1835 he began to devote his leisure to the investigation -of the Carboniferous fossils around Liege, and ultimately he became -distinguished for his researches on the palaeontology of the Palaeozoic -rocks, and especially for his descriptions of the mollusca, brachiopods, -crustacea and crinoids of the Carboniferous limestone of Belgium. In -recognition of this work the Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1875 -by the Geological Society of London, and in 1876 he was appointed -professor of palaeontology at Liege. He died at Liege on the 16th of -July 1887. - - PUBLICATIONS.--_Elements de chimie inorganique_ (1839); _Description - des animaux fossiles qui se trouvent dans le terrain Carbonifere de - Belgique_ (1842-1844, supp. 1851); _Recherches sur les animaux - fossiles_ (1847, 1873). See _Notice sur L. G. de Koninck_, by E. - Dupont; _Annuaire de l'Acad. roy. de Belgique_ (1891), with portrait - and bibliography. - - - - -KONINCK, PHILIP DE [de Coninck, de Koningh, van Koening] (1619-1688), -Dutch landscape painter, was born in Amsterdam in 1619. Little is known -of his history, except that he was a pupil of Rembrandt, whose influence -is to be seen in all his work. He painted chiefly broad sunny -landscapes, full of space, light and atmosphere. Portraits by him, -somewhat in the manner of Rembrandt, also exist; there are examples of -these in the galleries at Copenhagen and Christiania. Of his landscapes -the principal are "Vue de l'embouchure d'une riviere," at the Hague; a -slightly larger replica is in the National Gallery, London; "Lisiere -d'un bois," and "Paysage" (with figures by A. Vandevelde) at Amsterdam; -and landscapes in Brussels, Florence (Uffizi), Berlin and Cologne. - -Several of his works have been falsely attributed to Rembrandt, and many -more to his namesake and fellow-townsman SALOMON DE KONINCK (1609-1656), -who was also a disciple of Rembrandt; his paintings and etchings consist -mainly of portraits and biblical scenes. - -Both these painters are to be distinguished from DAVID DE KONINCK -(1636-?1687), who is also known as "Rammelaar." He was born in Antwerp. -He studied there under Jan Fyt, and later settled in Rome, where he is -stated to have died in 1687; this is, however, doubtful. His pictures -are chiefly landscapes with animals, and still-life. - - - - -KONITZ, a town of Germany, in the province of West Prussia, at the -junction of railways to Schneidemuhl and Gnesen, 68 m. S.W. of Danzig. -Pop. (1905), 11,014. It is still surrounded by its old fortifications, -has two Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a new town-hall, -handsome public offices, and a prison. It has iron-foundries, saw-mills, -electrical works, and manufactures of bricks. Konitz was the first -fortified post established in Prussia by Hermann Balk, who in 1230 had -been commissioned as _Landmeister_, by the grand-master of the Teutonic -order, to reduce the heathen Prussians. For a long time it continued to -be a place of military importance. - - See Uppenkamp, _Geschichte der Stadt Konitz_ (Konitz, 1873). - - - - -KONKAN, or CONCAN, a maritime tract of Western India, situated within -the limits of the Presidency of Bombay, and extending from the -Portuguese settlement of Goa on the S. to the territory of Daman, -belonging to the same nation, on the N. On the E. it is bounded by the -Western Ghats, and on the W. by the Indian Ocean. This tract comprises -the three British districts of Thana, Ratnagiri and Kolaba, and the -native states of Janjira and Sawantwari. It may be estimated at 300 m. -in length, with an average breadth of about 40. From the mountains on -its eastern frontier, which in one place attain a height of 4700 ft., -the surface, marked by a succession of irregular hilly spurs from the -Ghats, slopes to the westward, where the mean elevation of the coast is -not more than 100 ft. above the level of the sea. Several mountain -streams, but none of any magnitude, traverse the country in the same -direction. One of the most striking characteristics of the climate is -the violence of the monsoon rains--the mean annual fall at Mahabaleshwar -amounting to 239 in. The coast has a straight general outline, but is -much broken into small bays and harbours. This, with the uninterrupted -view along the shore, and the land and sea breezes, which force vessels -steering along the coast to be always within sight of it, rendered this -country from time immemorial the seat of piracy; and so formidable had -the pirates become in the 18th century, that all ships suffered which -did not receive a pass from their chiefs. The Great Mogul maintained a -fleet for the express purpose of checking them, and they were frequently -attacked by the Portuguese. British commerce was protected by occasional -expeditions from Bombay; but the piratical system was not finally -extinguished until 1812. The southern Konkan has given its name to a -dialect of Marathi, which is the vernacular of the Roman Catholics of -Goa. - - - - -KONTAGORA, a province in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria, -on the east bank of the Niger to the north of Nupe and opposite Borgu. -It is bounded W. by the Niger, S. by the province of Nupe, E. by that of -Zaria, and N. by that of Sokoto. It has an area of 14,500 sq. m. and a -population estimated at about 80,000. At the time of the British -occupation of Northern Nigeria the province formed a Fula emirate. -Before the Fula domination, which was established in 1864, the ancient -pagan kingdom of Yauri was the most important of the lesser kingdoms -which occupied this territory. The Fula conquest was made from Nupe on -the south and a tribe of independent and warlike pagans continued to -hold the country between Kontagora and Sokoto on the north. The province -was brought under British domination in 1901 as the result of a military -expedition sent to prevent audacious slave-raiding in British protected -territory and of threats directed against the British military station -of Jebba on the Niger. The town of Kontagora was taken in January of -1901. The emir Ibrahim fled, and was not captured till early in 1902. -The province, after having been held for a time in military occupation, -was organized for administration on the same system as the rest of the -protectorate. In 1903 Ibrahim, after agreeing to take the oath of -allegiance to the British crown and to accept the usual conditions of -appointment, which include the abolition of the slave trade within the -province, was reinstated as emir and the British garrison was withdrawn. -Since then the development of the province has progressed favourably. -Roads have been opened and Kontagora connected by telegraph with -headquarters at Zungeru. British courts of justice have been established -at the British headquarters, and native courts in every district. In -1904 an expedition reduced to submission the hitherto independent tribes -in the northern belt, who had up to that time blocked the road to -Sokoto. Their arms were confiscated and their country organized as a -district of the province under a chief and a British assistant resident. - - - - -KOORINGA [BURRA], a town of Burra county, South Australia on Burra -Creek, 101 m. by rail N. by E. of Adelaide. Pop. (1901), 1994. It is the -centre of a mining and agricultural district in which large areas are -devoted to wheat-growing. The famous Burra Burra copper mine, discovered -by a shepherd in 1844, is close to the town, while silver and lead ore -is also found in the vicinity. - - - - -KOPENICK (COPENICK), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of -Brandenburg, on an island in the Spree, 9 m. S.E. from Berlin by the -railway to Furstenwalde. Pop. (1905), 27,721. It contains a royal -residence, which was built on the site of a palace which belonged to the -great elector, Frederick William. This is surrounded by gardens and -contains a fine banqueting hall and a chapel. Other buildings are a -Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and a teachers' seminary. The -varied industries embrace the manufacture of glass, linoleum, -sealing-wax and ink. In the vicinity is Spindlersfeld, with important -dye-works. - -Kopenick, which dates from the 12th century, received municipal rights -in 1225. Shortly afterwards, it became the bone of contention between -Brandenburg and Meissen, but, at the issue of the feud, remained with -the former, becoming a favourite residence of the electors of -Brandenburg. In the palace the famous court martial was held in 1730, -which condemned the crown-prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the -Great, to death. In 1906 the place derived ephemeral fame from the -daring feat of a cobbler, one Wilhelm Voigt, who, attired as a captain -in the army, accompanied by soldiers, whom his apparent rank deceived, -took the mayor prisoner, on a fictitious charge of having falsified -accounts and absconded with a considerable sum of municipal money. The -"captain of Kopenick" was arrested, tried, and sentenced to a term of -imprisonment. - - See Graf zu Dohna, _Kurfurstliche Schlosser in der Mark Brandenburg_ - (Berlin, 1890). - - - - -KOPISCH, AUGUST (1799-1853), German poet, was born at Breslau on the -26th of May 1799. In 1815 he began the study of painting at the Prague -academy, but an injury to his hand precluded the prospects of any great -success in this profession, and he turned to literature. After a -residence in Dresden Kopisch proceeded, in 1822, to Italy, where, at -Naples, he formed an intimate friendship with the poet August, count of -Platen Hallermund. He was an expert swimmer, a quality which enabled him -in company with Ernst Fries to discover the blue grotto of Capri. In -1828 he settled at Berlin and was granted a pension by Frederick William -IV., who in 1838 conferred upon him the title of professor. He died at -Berlin on the 3rd of February 1853. Kopisch produced some very original -poetry, light in language and in form. He especially treated legends and -popular subjects, and among his _Gedichte_ (Berlin, 1836) are some naive -and humorous little pieces such as _Die Historie von Noah_, _Die -Heinzelmannchen_, _Das grune Tier_ and _Der Scheiderjunge von -Krippstedt_, which became widely popular. He also published a -translation of Dante's _Divine Comedy_ (Berlin, 1840), and under the -title _Agrumi_ (Berlin, 1838) a collection of translations of Italian -folk songs. - - Kopisch's collected works were published in 5 vols. (Berlin, 1856.) - - - - -KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ (1817-1892), German chemist, was born on the -30th of October 1817 at Hanau, where his father, Johann Heinrich Kopp -(1777-1858), a physician, was professor of chemistry, physics and -natural history at the Lyceum. - -After attending the gymnasium of his native town, he studied at Marburg -and Heidelberg, and then, attracted by the fame of Liebig, went in 1839 -to Giessen, where he became a _privatdozent_ in 1841, and professor of -chemistry twelve years later. In 1864 he was called to Heidelberg in the -same capacity, and he remained there till his death on the 20th of -February 1892. Kopp devoted himself especially to physico-chemical -inquiries, and in the history of chemical theory his name is associated -with several of the most important correlations of the physical -properties of substances with their chemical constitution. Much of his -work was concerned with specific volumes, the conception of which he set -forth in a paper published when he was only twenty-two years of age; and -the principles he established have formed the basis of subsequent -investigations in that subject, although his results have in some cases -undergone modification. Another question to which he gave much attention -was the connexion of the boiling-point of compounds, organic ones in -particular, with their composition. In addition to these and other -laborious researches, Kopp was a prolific writer. In 1843-1847 he -published a comprehensive _History of Chemistry_, in four volumes, to -which three supplements were added in 1869-1875. The _Development of -Chemistry in Recent Times_ appeared in 1871-1874, and in 1886 he -published a work in two volumes on _Alchemy in Ancient and Modern -Times_. In addition he wrote (1863) on theoretical and physical -chemistry for the Graham-Otto _Lehrbuch der Chemie_, and for many years -assisted Liebig in editing the _Annalen der Chemie_ and the -_Jahresbericht_. - -He must not be confused with EMIL KOPP (1817-1875), who, born at -Warselnheim, Alsace, became in 1847 professor of toxicology and -chemistry at the Ecole superieure de Pharmacie at Strasburg, in 1849 -professor of physics and chemistry at Lausanne, in 1852 chemist to a -Turkey-red factory near Manchester, in 1868 professor of technology at -Turin, and finally, in 1871, professor of technical chemistry at the -Polytechnic of Zurich, where he died in 1875. - - - - -KOPRULU, or KUPRILI (Bulgarian _Valesa_, Greek _Velissa_), a town of -Macedonia, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Salonica, situated 600 -ft. above sea-level, on the river Vardar, and on the Salonica-Mitrovitza -railway, 25 m. S.E. of Uskub. Pop. (1905), about 22,000. Koprulu has a -flourishing trade in silk; maize and mulberries are cultivated in the -neighbourhood. The Greek and Bulgarian names of the town may be corrupt -forms of the ancient Bylazora, described by Polybius as the chief city -of Paeonia. - - - - -KORA, or CORA, an ancient town of Northern India, in the Fatehpur -district of the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 2806. As the capital of a -Mahommedan province, it gave its name to part of the tract (with -Allahabad) granted by Lord Clive to the titular Mogul emperor, Shah -Alam, in 1765. - - - - -KORAN. The Koran (Kor'an) is the sacred Book of Islam, on which the -religion of more than two hundred millions of Mahommedans is founded, -being regarded by them as the immediate word of God. And since the use -of the Koran in public worship, in schools and otherwise, is much more -extensive than, for example, the reading of the Bible in most Christian -countries, it has been truly described as the most widely-read book in -existence. This circumstance alone is sufficient to give it an urgent -claim on our attention, whether it suit our taste and fall in with our -religious and philosophical views or not. Besides, it is the work of -Mahomet, and as such is fitted to afford a clue to the spiritual -development of that most successful of all prophets and religious -personalities. It must be owned that the first perusal leaves on a -European an impression of chaotic confusion--not that the book is so -very extensive, for it is not quite as large as the New Testament. This -impression can in some degree be modified only by the application of a -critical analysis with the assistance of Arabian tradition. - - - Mahomet's View of Revelation. - -To the faith of the Moslems, as has been said, the Koran is the word of -God, and such also is the claim which the book itself advances. For -except in sur. i.--which is a prayer for men--and some few passages -where Mahomet (vi. 104, 114; xxvii. 93; xlii. 8) or the angels (xix. 65; -xxxvii. 164 sqq.) speak in the first person without the intervention of -the usual imperative "say" (sing. or pl.), the speaker throughout is -God, either in the first person singular or more commonly the plural of -majesty "we." The same mode of address is familiar to us from the -prophets of the Old Testament; the human personality disappears, in the -moment of inspiration, behind the God by whom it is filled. But all the -greatest of the Hebrew prophets fall back speedily upon the unassuming -human "I"; while in the Koran the divine "I" is the stereotyped form of -address. Mahomet, however, really felt himself to be the instrument of -God; this consciousness was no doubt brighter at his first appearance -than it afterwards became, but it never entirely forsook him. -Nevertheless we cannot doubt his good-faith, not even in the cases in -which the moral quality of his actions leaves most to be desired. In -spite of all, the dominant fact remains, that to the end he was zealous -for his God and for the salvation of his people, nay, of the whole of -humanity, and that he never lost the unconquerable certainty of his -divine mission. - -The rationale of revelation is explained in the Koran itself as follows: -In heaven is the original text ("the mother of the book," xliii. 3; "a -concealed book," lv. 77; "a well-guarded tablet," lxxxv. 22). By the -process of "sending down" (_tanzil_), one piece after another was -communicated to the Prophet. The mediator was an angel, who is called -sometimes the "Spirit" (xxvi. 193), sometimes the "holy Spirit" (xvi. -104), and at a later time "Gabriel" (only in ii. 91, 92; lxvi. 4). This -angel dictates the revelation to the Prophet, who repeats it after him, -and afterwards proclaims it to the world (lxxxvii. 6, &c.). It is plain -that we have here a somewhat crude attempt of the Prophet to represent -to himself the more or less unconscious process by which his ideas arose -and gradually took shape in his mind. It is no wonder if in such -confused imagery the details are not always self-consistent. When, for -example, this heavenly archetype is said to be in the hands of "exalted -scribes" (lxxx. 13 sqq.), this seems a transition to a quite different -set of ideas, namely, the books of fate, or the record of all human -actions--conceptions which are actually found in the Koran. It is to be -observed, at all events, that Mahomet's transcendental idea of God, as a -Being exalted altogether above the world, excludes the thought of direct -intercourse between the Prophet and God. - - - Component Parts of the Koran. - -It is an explicit statement of the Koran that the sacred book was -revealed ("sent down") by God, not all at once, but piecemeal and -gradually (xxv. 34). This is evident from the actual composition of the -book, and is confirmed by Moslem tradition. That is to say, Mahomet -issued his revelations in fly-leaves of greater or less extent. A single -piece of this kind was called either, like the entire collection, -_kor'an_, i.e. "recitation," "reading," or, better still, is the -equivalent of Aramaic _geryana_ "lectionary"; or _kitab_, "writing"; or -_sura_, which is perhaps the late-Hebrew _shura_, and means literally -"series." The last became, in the lifetime of Mahomet, the regular -designation of the individual sections as distinguished from the whole -collection; and accordingly it is the name given to the separate -chapters of the existing Koran. These chapters are of very unequal -length. Since many of the shorter ones are undoubtedly complete in -themselves, it is natural to assume that the longer, which are sometimes -very comprehensive, have arisen from the amalgamation of various -originally distinct revelations. This supposition is favoured by the -numerous traditions which give us the circumstances under which this or -that short piece, now incorporated in a larger section, was revealed; -and also by the fact that the connexion of thought in the present suras -often seems to be interrupted. And in reality many pieces of the long -suras have to be severed out as originally independent; even in the -short ones parts are often found which cannot have been there at first. -At the same time we must beware of carrying this sifting operation too -far,--as Noldeke now believes himself to have done in his earlier works, -and as Sprenger also sometimes seems to do. That some suras were of -considerable length from the first is seen, for example, from xii., -which contains a short introduction, then the history of Joseph, and -then a few concluding observations, and is therefore perfectly -homogeneous. In like manner, xx., which is mainly occupied with the -history of Moses, forms a complete whole. The same is true of xviii., -which at first sight seems to fall into several pieces; the history of -the seven sleepers, the grotesque narrative about Moses, and that about -Alexander "the Horned," are all connected together, and the same rhyme -through the whole sura. Even in the separate narrations we may observe -how readily the Koran passes from one subject to another, how little -care is taken to express all the transitions of thought, and how -frequently clauses are omitted, which are almost indispensable. We are -not at liberty, therefore, in every case where the connexion in the -Koran is obscure, to say that it is really broken, and set it down as -the clumsy patchwork of a later hand. Even in the old Arabic poetry such -abrupt transitions are of very frequent occurrence. It is not uncommon -for the Koran, after a new subject has been entered on, to return -gradually or suddenly to the former theme,--a proof that there at least -separation is not to be thought of. In short, however imperfectly the -Koran may have been redacted, in the majority of cases the present suras -are identical with the originals. - -How these revelations actually arose in Mahomet's mind is a question -which it is almost as idle to discuss as it would be to analyse the -workings of the mind of a poet. In his early career, sometimes perhaps -in its later stages also, many revelations must have burst from him in -uncontrollable excitement, so that he could not possibly regard them -otherwise than as divine inspirations. We must bear in mind that he was -no cold systematic thinker, but an Oriental visionary, brought up in -crass superstition, and without intellectual discipline; a man whose -nervous temperament had been powerfully worked on by ascetic -austerities, and who was all the more irritated by the opposition he -encountered, because he had little of the heroic in his nature. Filled -with his religious ideas and visions, he might well fancy he heard the -angel bidding him recite what was said to him. There may have been many -a revelation of this kind which no one ever heard but himself, as he -repeated it to himself in the silence of the night (lxxiii. 4). Indeed -the Koran itself admits that he forgot some revelations (lxxxvii. 7). -But by far the greatest part of the book is undoubtedly the result of -deliberation, touched more or less with emotion, and animated by a -certain rhetorical rather than poetical glow. Many passages are based -upon purely intellectual reflection. It is said that Mahomet -occasionally uttered such a passage immediately after one of those -epileptic fits which not only his followers, but (for a time at least) -he himself also, regarded as tokens of intercourse with the higher -powers. If that is the case, it is impossible to say whether the trick -was in the utterance of the revelation or in the fit itself. - - - The Koran Written. - -How the various pieces of the Koran took literary form is uncertain. -Mahomet himself, so far as we can discover, never wrote down anything. -The question whether he could read and write has been much debated among -Moslems, unfortunately more with dogmatic arguments and spurious -traditions than authentic proofs. At present one is inclined to say that -he was not altogether ignorant of these arts, but that from want of -practice he found it convenient to employ some one else whenever he had -anything to write. After the migration to Medina (A.D. 622) we are told -that short pieces--chiefly legal decisions--were taken down immediately -after they were revealed, by an adherent whom he summoned for the -purpose; so that nothing stood in the way of their publication. Hence it -is probable that in Mecca, where the art of writing was commoner than in -Medina, he had already begun to have his oracles committed to writing. -That even long portions of the Koran existed in written form from an -early date may be pretty safely inferred from various indications; -especially from the fact that in Mecca the Prophet had caused insertions -to be made, and pieces to be erased in his previous revelations. For we -cannot suppose that he knew the longer suras by heart so perfectly that -he was able after a time to lay his finger upon any particular passage. -In some instances, indeed, he may have relied too much on his memory. -For example, he seems to have occasionally dictated the same sura to -different persons in slightly different terms. In such cases, no doubt, -he may have partly intended to introduce improvements; and so long as -the difference was merely in expression, without affecting the sense, it -could occasion no perplexity to his followers. None of them had literary -pedantry enough to question the consistency of the divine revelation on -that ground. In particular instances, however, the difference of reading -was too important to be overlooked. Thus the Koran itself confesses that -the unbelievers cast it up as a reproach to the Prophet that God -sometimes substituted one verse for another (xvi. 103). On one occasion, -when a dispute arose between two of his own followers as to the true -reading of a passage which both had received from the Prophet himself, -Mahomet is said to have explained that the Koran was revealed in seven -forms. In this apparently genuine dictum seven stands, of course, as in -many other cases, for an indefinite but limited number. But one may -imagine what a world of trouble it has cost the Moslem theologians to -explain the saying in accordance with their dogmatic beliefs. A great -number of explanations are current, some of which claim the authority of -the Prophet himself; as, indeed, fictitious utterances of Mahomet play -throughout a conspicuous part in the exegesis of the Koran. One very -favourite, but utterly untenable interpretation is that the "seven -forms," are seven different Arabic dialects. - - - Abrogated Readings. - -When such discrepancies came to the cognizance of Mahomet it was -doubtless his desire that only one of the conflicting texts should be -considered authentic; only he never gave himself much trouble to have -his wish carried into effect. Although in theory he was an upholder of -verbal inspiration, he did not push the doctrine to its extreme -consequences; his practical good sense did not take these things so -strictly as the theologians of later centuries. Sometimes, however, he -did suppress whole sections or verses, enjoining his followers to efface -or forget them, and declaring them to be "abrogated." A very remarkable -case is that of the two verses in liii., when he had recognized three -heathen goddesses as exalted beings, possessing influence with God. This -had occurred in a moment of weakness, in order that by such a promise, -which yet left Allah in his lofty position, he might gain over his -fellow-countrymen. This object he achieved, but soon his conscience -smote him, and he declared these words to have been an inspiration of -Satan. - - - Abrogated Laws. - -So much for abrogated readings; the case is somewhat different when we -come to the abrogation of laws and directions to the Moslems, which -often occurs in the Koran. There is nothing in this at variance with -Mahomet's idea of God. God is to him an absolute despot, who declares a -thing right or wrong from no inherent necessity but by his arbitrary -fiat. This God varies his commands at pleasure, prescribes one law for -the Christians, another for the Jews, and a third for the Moslems; nay, -he even changes his instructions to the Moslems when it pleases him. -Thus, for example, the Koran contains very different directions, suited -to varying circumstances, as to the treatment which idolaters are to -receive at the hands of believers. But Mahomet showed no anxiety to have -these superseded enactments destroyed. Believers could be in no -uncertainty as to which of two contradictory passages remained in force; -and they might still find edification in that which had become obsolete. -That later generations might not so easily distinguish the "abrogated" -from the "abrogating" did not occur to Mahomet, whose vision, naturally -enough, seldom extended to the future of his religious community. -Current events were invariably kept in view in the revelations. In -Medina it called forth the admiration of the Faithful to observe how -often God gave them the answer to a question whose settlement was -urgently required at the moment. The same naivete appears in a remark of -the Caliph Othman about a doubtful case: "If the Apostle of God were -still alive, methinks there had been a Koran passage revealed on this -point." Not unfrequently the divine word was found to coincide with the -advice which Mahomet had received from his most intimate disciples. -"Omar was many a time of a certain opinion," says one tradition, "and -the Koran was then revealed accordingly." - - - Contents of the Koran. - -The contents of the different parts of the Koran are extremely varied. -Many passages consist of theological or moral reflections. We are -reminded of the greatness, the goodness, the righteousness of God as -manifested in Nature, in history, and in revelation through the -prophets, especially through Mahomet. God is magnified as the One, the -All-powerful. Idolatry and all deification of created beings, such as -the worship of Christ as the Son of God, are unsparingly condemned. The -joys of heaven and the pains of hell are depicted in vivid sensuous -imagery, as is also the terror of the whole creation at the advent of -the last day and the judgment of the world. Believers receive general -moral instruction, as well as directions for special circumstances. The -lukewarm are rebuked, the enemies threatened with terrible punishment, -both temporal and eternal. To the sceptical the truth of Islam is held -forth; and a certain, not very cogent, method of demonstration -predominates. In many passages the sacred book falls into a diffuse -preaching style, others seem more like proclamations or general orders. -A great number contain ceremonial or civil laws, or even special -commands to individuals down to such matters as the regulation of -Mahomet's harem. In not a few definite questions are answered which had -actually been propounded to the Prophet by believers or infidels. -Mahomet himself, too, repeatedly receives direct injunctions, and does -not escape an occasional rebuke. One sura (i.) is a prayer, two (cxiii. -cxiv.) are magical formulas. Many suras treat of a single topic, others -embrace several. - - - Narratives. - -From the mass of material comprised in the Koran--and the account we -have given is far from exhaustive--we should select the histories of the -ancient prophets and saints as possessing a peculiar interest. The -purpose of Mahomet is to show from these histories how God in former -times had rewarded the righteous and punished their enemies. For the -most part the old prophets only serve to introduce a little variety in -point of form, for they are almost in every case facsimiles of Mahomet -himself. They preach exactly like him, they have to bring the very same -charges against their opponents, who on their part behave exactly as the -unbelieving inhabitants of Mecca. The Koran even goes so far as to make -Noah contend against the worship of certain false gods, mentioned by -name, who were worshipped by the Arabs of Mahomet's time. In an address -which is put in the mouth of Abraham (xxvi. 75 sqq.), the reader quite -forgets that it is Abraham, and not Mahomet (or God himself), who is -speaking. Other narratives are intended rather for amusement, although -they are always well seasoned with edifying phrases. It is no wonder -that the godless Korrishites thought these stories of the Koran not -nearly so entertaining as those of Rostam and Ispandiar, related by Nadr -the son of Harith, who had learned in the course of his trade journeys -on the Euphrates the heroic mythology of the Persians. But the Prophet -was so exasperated by this rivalry that when Nadr fell into his power -after the battle of Badr, he caused him to be executed; although in all -other cases he readily pardoned his fellow-countrymen. - - - Relation to the Old and New Testaments. - -These histories are chiefly about Scripture characters, especially those -of the Old Testament. But the deviations from the Biblical narratives -are very marked. Many of the alterations are found in the legendary -anecdotes of the Jewish Haggada and the New Testament Apocrypha; but -many more are due perhaps to misconceptions such as only a listener (not -the reader of a book) could fall into. One would suppose that the most -ignorant Jew could never have mistaken Haman, the minister of Ahasuerus, -for the minister of Pharaoh, as happens in the Koran, or identified -Miriam, the sister of Moses, with Mary (= Mariam), the mother of Christ. -So long, however, as we have no closer acquaintance with Arab Judaism -and Christianity, we must always reckon with the possibility that many -of these mistakes were due to adherents of these religions who were his -authorities, or were a naive reproduction of versions already widely -accepted by his contemporaries. In addition to his misconceptions there -are sundry capricious alterations, some of them very grotesque, due to -Mahomet himself. For instance, in his ignorance of everything out of -Arabia, he makes the fertility of Egypt--where rain is almost never seen -and never missed--depend on rain instead of the inundations of the Nile -(xii. 49). - -It is uncertain whether his account of Alexander was borrowed from Jews -or Christians, since the romance of Alexander belonged to the -stereotyped literature of that age. The description of Alexander as "the -Horned" in the Koran is, however, in accordance with the result of -recent researches, to be traced to a Syrian legend dating from A.D. -514-515 (Th. Noldeke, "Beitrage zur Gesch. des Alexanderromanes" in -_Denkschriften Akad. Wien_, vol. xxxviii. No. 5, p. 27, &c.). According -to this, God caused horns to grow on Alexander's head to enable him to -overthrow all things. This detail of the legend is ultimately traceable, -as Hottinger long ago supposed, to the numerous coins on which Alexander -is represented with the ram's horns of Ammon.[1] Besides Jewish and -Christian histories there are a few about old Arabian prophets. In these -he seems to have handled his materials even more freely than in the -others. - -The opinion has already been expressed that Mahomet did not make use of -written sources. Coincidences and divergences alike can always be -accounted for by oral communications from Jews who knew a little and -Christians who knew next to nothing. Even in the rare passages where we -can trace direct resemblances to the text of the Old Testament (cf. xxi. -105 with Ps. xxxvii. 29; i. 5 with Ps. xxvii. 11) or the New (cf. vii. -48 with Luke xvi. 24; xlvi. 19 with Luke xvi. 25), there is nothing more -than might readily have been picked up in conversation with any Jew or -Christian. In Medina, where he had the opportunity of becoming -acquainted with Jews of some culture, he learned some things out of the -Mishna, e.g. v. 35 corresponds almost word for word with Mishna -_Sanhedrin_ iv. 5; compare also ii. 183 with Mishna _Berak'hoth_ i. 2. -That these are only cases of oral communication will be admitted by any -one with the slightest knowledge of the circumstances. Otherwise we -might even conclude that Mahomet had studied the Talmud; e.g. the -regulation as to ablution by rubbing with sand, where water cannot be -obtained (iv. 46), corresponds to a talmudic ordinance (_Berak'hoth_ 15 -a). Of Christianity he can have been able to learn very little, even in -Medina; as may be seen from the absurd travesty of the institution of -the Eucharist in v. 112 sqq. For the rest, it is highly improbable that -before the Koran any real literary production--anything that could be -strictly called a book--existed in the Arabic language. - - - Style. - -In point of style and artistic effect, the different parts of the Koran -are of very unequal value. An unprejudiced and critical reader will -certainly find very few passages where his aesthetic susceptibilities -are thoroughly satisfied. But he will often be struck, especially in the -older pieces, by a wild force of passion, and a vigorous, if not rich, -imagination. Descriptions of heaven and hell, and allusions to God's -working in Nature, not unfrequently show a certain amount of poetic -power. In other places also the style is sometimes lively and -impressive; though it is rarely indeed that we come across such strains -of touching simplicity as in the middle of xciii. The greater part of -the Koran is decidedly prosaic; much of it indeed is stiff in style. Of -course, with such a variety of material, we cannot expect every part to -be equally vivacious, or imaginative, or poetic. A decree about the -right of inheritance, or a point of ritual, must necessarily be -expressed in prose, if it is to be intelligible. No one complains of the -civil laws in Exodus or the sacrificial ritual in Leviticus, because -they want the fire of Isaiah or the tenderness of Deuteronomy. But -Mahomet's mistake consists in persistent and slavish adherence to the -semi-poetic form which he had at first adopted in accordance with his -own taste and that of his hearers. For instance, he employs rhyme in -dealing with the most prosaic subjects, and thus produces the -disagreeable effect of incongruity between style and matter. It has to -be considered, however, that many of those sermonizing pieces which are -so tedious to us, especially when we read two or three in succession -(perhaps in a very inadequate translation), must have had a quite -different effect when recited under the burning sky and on the barren -soil of Mecca. There, thoughts about God's greatness and man's duty, -which are familiar to us from childhood, were all new to the hearers--it -is hearers we have to think of in the first instance, not readers--to -whom, at the same time, every allusion had a meaning which often escapes -our notice. When Mahomet spoke of the goodness of the Lord in creating -the clouds, and bringing them across the cheerless desert, and pouring -them out on the earth to restore its rich vegetation, that must have -been a picture of thrilling interest to the Arabs, who are accustomed to -see from three to five years elapse before a copious shower comes to -clothe the wilderness once more with luxuriant pastures. It requires an -effort for us, under our clouded skies, to realize in some degree the -intensity of that impression. - - - Rhetorical Form and Rhyme. - -The fact that scraps of poetical phraseology are specially numerous in -the earlier suras, enables us to understand why the prosaic mercantile -community of Mecca regarded their eccentric townsman as a "poet," or -even a "possessed poet." Mahomet himself had to disclaim such titles, -because he felt himself to be a divinely inspired prophet; but we too, -from our standpoint, shall fully acquit him of poetic genius. Like many -other predominantly religious characters, he had no appreciation of -poetic beauty; and if we may believe one anecdote related of him, at a -time when every one made verses, he affected ignorance of the most -elementary rules of prosody. Hence the style of the Koran is not -poetical but rhetorical; and the powerful effect which some portions -produce on us is gained by rhetorical means. Accordingly the sacred book -has not even the artistic form of poetry; which, among the Arabs, -includes a stringent metre, as well as rhyme. The Koran is never -metrical, and only a few exceptionally eloquent portions fall into a -sort of spontaneous rhythm. On the other hand, the rhyme is regularly -maintained; although, especially in the later pieces, after a very -slovenly fashion. Rhymed prose was a favourite form of composition among -the Arabs of that day, and Mahomet adopted it; but if it imparts a -certain sprightliness to some passages, it proves on the whole a -burdensome yoke. The Moslems themselves have observed that the tyranny -of the rhyme often makes itself apparent in derangement of the order of -words, and in the choice of verbal forms which would not otherwise have -been employed; e.g. an imperfect instead of a perfect. In one place, to -save the rhyme, he calls Mount Sinai _Sinin_ (xcv. 2) instead of _Sina_ -(xxiii. 20); in another Elijah is called _Ilyasin_ (xxxvii. 130) instead -of _Ilyas_ (vi. 85; xxxvii. 123). The substance even is modified to suit -exigencies of rhyme. Thus the Prophet would scarcely have fixed on the -unusual number of _eight_ angels round the throne of God (lxix. 17) if -the word _thamaniyah_, "eight," had not happened to fall in so well with -the rhyme. And when lv. speaks of _two_ heavenly gardens, each with -_two_ fountains and _two_ kinds of fruit, and again of _two_ similar -gardens, all this is simply because the dual termination (_an_) -corresponds to the syllable that controls the rhyme in that whole sura. -In the later pieces, Mahomet often inserts edifying remarks, entirely -out of keeping with the context, merely to complete his rhyme. In Arabic -it is such an easy thing to accumulate masses of words with the same -termination, that the gross negligence of the rhyme in the Koran is -doubly remarkable. One may say that this is another mark of the -Prophet's want of mental training, and incapacity for introspective -criticism. - - - Stylistic Weaknesses. - - Dogma of the Stylistic Perfection of the Koran. - -On the whole, while many parts of the Koran undoubtedly have -considerable rhetorical power, even over an unbelieving reader, the -book, aesthetically considered, is by no means a first-rate performance. -To begin with what we are most competent to criticize, let us look at -some of the more extended narratives. It has already been noticed how -vehement and abrupt they are where they ought to be characterized by -epic repose. Indispensable links, both in expression and in the sequence -of events, are often omitted, so that to understand these histories is -sometimes far easier for us than for those who heard them first, because -we know most of them from better sources. Along with this, there is a -great deal of superfluous verbiage; and nowhere do we find a steady -advance in the narration. Contrast in these respects the history of -Joseph (xii.) and its glaring improprieties with the admirably conceived -and admirably executed story in Genesis. Similar faults are found in the -non-narrative portions of the Koran. The connexion of ideas is extremely -loose, and even the syntax betrays great awkwardness. Anacolutha are of -frequent occurrence, and cannot be explained as conscious literary -devices. Many sentences begin with a "when" or "on the day when" which -seems to hover in the air, so that the commentators are driven to supply -a "think of this" or some such ellipsis. Again, there is no great -literary skill evinced in the frequent and needless harping on the same -words and phrases; in xviii., for example, "till that" (_hatta idha_) -occurs no fewer than eight times. Mahomet, in short, is not in any sense -a master of style. This opinion will be endorsed by any European who -reads through the book with an impartial spirit and some knowledge of -the language, without taking into account the tiresome effect of its -endless iterations. But in the ears of every pious Moslem such a -judgment will sound almost as shocking as downright atheism or -polytheism. Among the Moslems, the Koran has always been looked on as -the most perfect model of style and language. This feature of it is in -their dogmatic the greatest of all miracles, the incontestable proof of -its divine origin. Such a view on the part of men who knew Arabic -infinitely better than the most accomplished European Arabist will ever -do, may well startle us. In fact, the Koran boldly challenged its -opponents to produce ten suras, or even a single one, like those of the -sacred book, and they never did so. That, to be sure, on calm -reflection, is not so very surprising. Revelations of the kind which -Mahomet uttered, no unbeliever could produce without making himself a -laughing-stock. However little real originality there is in Mahomet's -doctrines, as against his own countrymen he was thoroughly original, -even in the form of his oracles. To compose such revelations at will was -beyond the power of the most expert literary artist; it would have -required either a prophet or a shameless impostor. And if such a -character appeared _after_ Mahomet, still he could never be anything but -an imitator, like the false prophets who arose about the time of his -death and afterwards. That the adversaries should produce any sample -whatsoever of poetry or rhetoric equal to the Koran is not at all what -the Prophet demands. In that case he would have been put to shame, even -in the eyes of many of his own followers, by the first poem that came to -hand. Nevertheless, it is on a false interpretation of this challenge -that the dogma of the incomparable excellence of the style and diction -of the Koran is based. The rest has been accomplished by dogmatic -prejudice, which is quite capable of working other miracles besides -turning a defective literary production into an unrivalled masterpiece -in the eyes of believers. This view once accepted, the next step was to -find everywhere evidence of the perfection of the style and language. -And if here and there, as one can scarcely doubt, there was among the -old Moslems a lover of poetry who had his difficulties about this dogma, -he had to beware of uttering an opinion which might have cost him his -head. We know of at least one rationalistic theologian who defined the -dogma in such a way that we can see he did not believe it (Shahrastani, -p. 39). The truth is, it would have been a miracle indeed if the style -of the Koran had been perfect. For although there was at that time a -recognized poetical style, already degenerating to mannerism, a -developed prose style did not exist. All beginnings are difficult; and -it can never be esteemed a serious charge against Mahomet that his book, -the first prose work of a high order in the language, testifies to the -awkwardness of the beginner. And further, we must always remember that -entertainment and aesthetic effect were at most subsidiary objects. The -great aim was persuasion and conversion; and, say what we will, that aim -has been realized on the most imposing scale. - - - Foreign words. - -Mahomet repeatedly calls attention to the fact that the Koran is not -written, like other sacred books, in a strange language, but in Arabic, -and therefore is intelligible to all. At that time, along with foreign -ideas, many foreign words had crept into the language; especially -Aramaic terms for religious conceptions of Jewish or Christian origin. -Some of these had already passed into general use, while others were -confined to a more limited circle. Mahomet, who could not fully express -his new ideas in the common language of his countrymen, but had -frequently to find out new terms for himself, made free use of such -Jewish and Christian words, as was done, though perhaps to a smaller -extent, by certain thinkers and poets of that age who had more or less -risen above the level of heathenism. In Mahomet's case this is the less -wonderful because he was indebted to the instruction of Jews and -Christians, whose Arabic--as the Koran pretty clearly intimates with -regard to one of them--was very defective. On the other hand, it is yet -more remarkable that several of such borrowed words in the Koran have a -sense which they do not possess in the original language. It is not -necessary that this phenomenon should in every case be due to the same -cause. Just as the prophet often misunderstood traditional traits of the -sacred history, he may, as an unlearned man, likewise have often -employed foreign expressions wrongly. Other remarkable senses of words -were possibly already acclimatized in the language of Arabian Jews or -Christians. Thus, _forqan_ means really "redemption," but Mahomet uses -it for "revelation." The widespread opinion that this sense first -asserted itself in reference to the Arab root [Arabic word] (_faraqa_), -"sever," or "decide," is open to considerable doubt. There is, for -instance, no difficulty in deriving the Arab meaning of "revelation" -from the common Aramaic "salvation," and this transference must have -taken place in a community for which salvation formed the central object -of faith, i.e. either amongst those Jews who looked to the coming of a -Messiah or more probably, among Christians, since Christianity is in a -very peculiar sense the religion of salvation. _Milla_ is properly -"word" (= Aramaic _melltha_), but in the Koran "religion." It is -actually used of the religion of the Jews and Christians (once), of the -heathen (5 times), but mostly (8 times) of the religion of Abraham, -which Mahomet in the Medina period places on the same level with Islam. -Although of the Aramaic dialects none employs the term _Melltha_ in the -sense of religion, it appears that the prophet found such a use. -_Illiyun_, which Mahomet uses of a heavenly book (Sura 83; 18, 19), is -clearly the Hebrew _elyon_, "high" or "exalted." It is, however, -doubtful in what sense this word appeared to him, either as a name of -God, as in the Old Testament it often occurs and regularly without the -article, or actually as the epithet of a heavenly book, although this -use cannot be substantiated from Jewish literature. So again the word -_mathani_ is, as Geiger has conjectured, the regular plural of the -Aramaic _mathnitha_, which is the same as the Hebrew _Mishnah_, and -denotes in Jewish usage a legal decision of some of the ancient Rabbins. -But in the Koran Mahomet appears to have understood it in the sense of -"saying" or "sentence" (cf. xxxix. 24). On the other hand, it is by no -means certain that by "the Seven Mathani" (xv. 87) the seven verses of -Sura i. are meant. Words of undoubtedly Christian origin are less -frequent in the Koran. It is an interesting fact that of these a few -have come over from the Abyssinian; such as _hawariyun_ "apostles," -_maida_ "table," _munafig_ "doubter, sceptic," _ragun_ "cursed," -_mihrab_ "temple"; the first three of these make their first appearance -in suras of the Medina period. The word _shaitan_ "Satan," which was -likewise borrowed, at least in the first instance, from the Abyssinian, -had probably been already introduced into the language. Sprenger has -rightly observed that Mahomet makes a certain parade of these foreign -terms, as of other peculiarly constructed expressions; in this he -followed a favourite practice of contemporary poets. It is the tendency -of the imperfectly educated to delight in out-of-the-way expressions, -and on such minds they readily produce a remarkably solemn and -mysterious impression. This was exactly the kind of effect that Mahomet -desired, and to secure it he seems even to have invented a few odd -vocables, as _ghislin_ (lxix. 36), _sijjin_ (lxxxiii. 7, 8), _tasnim_ -(lxxxiii. 27), and _salsabil_ (lxxvi. 18). But, of course, the necessity -of enabling his hearers to understand ideas which they must have found -sufficiently novel in themselves, imposed tolerably narrow limits on -such eccentricities. - - - Date of the Several Parts. - -The constituents of our present Koran belong partly to the Mecca -period[2] (before A.D. 622), partly to the period commencing with the -migration to Medina (from the autumn of 622 to 8th June 632). Mahomet's -position in Medina was entirely different from that which he had -occupied in his native town. In the former he was from the first the -leader of a powerful party, and gradually became the autocratic ruler of -Arabia; in the latter he was only the despised preacher of a small -congregation. This difference, as was to be expected, appears in the -Koran. The Medina pieces, whether entire suras or isolated passages -interpolated in Meccan suras, are accordingly pretty broadly distinct, -as to their contents, from those issued in Mecca. In the great majority -of cases there can be no doubt whatever whether a piece first saw the -light in Mecca or in Medina; and for the most part the internal evidence -is borne out by Moslem tradition. And since the revelations given in -Medina frequently take notice of events about which we have fairly -accurate information, and whose dates are at least approximately known, -we are often in a position to fix their date with at any rate -considerable certainty; here again tradition renders valuable -assistance. Even with regard to the Medina passages, however, a great -deal remains uncertain, partly because the allusions to historical -events and circumstances are generally rather obscure, partly because -traditions about the occasion of the revelation of the various pieces -are often fluctuating, and often rest on misunderstanding or arbitrary -conjecture. An important criterion for judging the period during which -individual Meccan suras, interpolated in Medina revelations, arose -(e.g. _Sur._ xvi. 124, vi. 162) is provided by the Ibrahim legend, the -great importance of which, as throwing light on the evolution of -Mahomet's doctrine in its relation to older revealed religions, has been -convincingly set forth by Dr Snouck Hurgronje in his dissertation for -the doctor's degree and in later essays.[3] According to this, Ibrahim, -after the controversy with the Jews, first of all became Mahomet's -special forerunner in Medina, then the first Moslem, and finally the -founder of the Ka'ba. But at all events it is far easier to arrange in -some sort of chronological order the Medina suras than those composed in -Mecca. There is, indeed, one tradition which professes to furnish a -chronological list of all the suras. But not to mention that it occurs -in several divergent forms, and that it takes no account of the fact -that our present suras are partly composed of pieces of different dates, -it contains so many suspicious or undoubtedly false statements, that it -is impossible to attach any great importance to it. Besides, it is a -priori unlikely that a contemporary of Mahomet should have drawn up such -a list; and if any one had made the attempt he would have found it -almost impossible to obtain reliable information as to the order of the -earlier Meccan suras. We have in this list no genuine tradition, but -rather the lucubrations of an undoubtedly conscientious Moslem critic, -who may have lived about a century after the Flight. - - - The Meccan Suras. - -Among the revelations put forth in Mecca there is a considerable number -of (for the most part) short suras, which strike every attentive reader -as being the oldest. They are in an altogether different strain from -many others, and in their whole composition they show least resemblance -to the Medina pieces. It is no doubt conceivable--as Sprenger -supposes--that Mahomet might have returned at intervals to his earlier -manner; but since this group possesses a remarkable similarity of style, -and since the gradual formation of a different style is on the whole an -unmistakable fact, the assumption has little probability; and we shall -therefore abide by the opinion that these form a distinct group. At the -opposite extreme from them stands another cluster, showing quite obvious -affinities with the style of the Medina suras, which must therefore be -assigned to the later part of the Prophet's work in Mecca. Between these -two groups stand a number of other Meccan suras, which in every respect -mark the transition from the first period to the third. It need hardly -be said that the three periods--which were first distinguished by -Professor Weil--are not separated by sharp lines of division. With -regard to some suras, it may be doubtful whether they ought to be -reckoned amongst the middle group, or with one or other of the extremes. -And it is altogether impossible, within these groups, to establish even -a probable chronological arrangement of the individual revelations. In -default of clear allusions to well-known events, or events whose date -can be determined, we might indeed endeavour to trace the psychological -development of the Prophet by means of the Koran, and arrange its parts -accordingly. But in such an undertaking one is always apt to take -subjective assumptions or mere fancies for established data. Good -traditions about the origin of the Meccan revelations are not very -numerous. In fact the whole history of Mahomet previous to the Flight is -so imperfectly related that we are not even sure in what year he -appeared as a prophet. Probably it was in A.D. 610; it may have been -somewhat earlier, but scarcely later. If, as one tradition says, xxx. 1 -seq. ("The Romans are overcome in the nearest neighbouring land") refers -to the defeat of the Byzantines by the Persians, not far from Damascus, -about the spring of 614, it would follow that the third group, to which -this passage belongs, covers the greater part of the Meccan period. And -it is not in itself unlikely that the passionate vehemence which -characterizes the first group was of short duration. Nor is the -assumption contradicted by the tolerably well attested, though far from -incontestable statement, that when Omar was converted (A.D. 615 or 616), -xx., which belongs to the second group, already existed in writing. But -the reference of xxx. 1 seq. to this particular battle is by no means so -certain that positive conclusions can be drawn from it. It is the same -with other allusions in the Meccan suras to occurrences whose chronology -can be partially ascertained. It is better, therefore, to rest satisfied -with a merely relative determination of the order of even the three -great clusters of Meccan revelations. - - - Oldest Meccan Suras. - -In the pieces of the first period the convulsive excitement of the -Prophet often expresses itself with the utmost vehemence. He is so -carried away by his emotion that he cannot choose his words; they seem -rather to burst from him. Many of these pieces remind us of the oracles -of the old heathen soothsayers, whose style is known to us from -imitations, although we have perhaps not a single genuine specimen. Like -those other oracles, the suras of this period, which are never very -long, are composed of short sentences with tolerably pure but rapidly -changing rhymes. The oaths, too, with which many of them begin were -largely used by the soothsayers. Some of these oaths are very uncouth -and hard to understand, some of them perhaps were not meant to be -understood, for indeed all sorts of strange things are met with in these -chapters. Here and there Mahomet speaks of visions, and appears even to -see angels before him in bodily form. There are some intensely vivid -descriptions of the resurrection and the last day which must have -exercised a demonic power over men who were quite unfamiliar with such -pictures. Other pieces paint in glowing colours the joys of heaven and -the pains of hell. However, the suras of this period are not all so wild -as these; and those which are conceived in a calmer mood appear to be -the oldest. Yet, one must repeat, it is exceedingly difficult to make -out any strict chronological sequence. For instance, it is by no means -certain whether the beginning of xcvi. is really, what a widely -circulated tradition calls it, the oldest part of the whole Koran. That -tradition goes back to the Prophet's favourite wife Ayesha; but as she -was not born at the time when the revelation is said to have been made, -it can only contain at the best what Mahomet told her years afterwards, -from his own not very clear recollection, with or without fictitious -additions, and this woman is little trustworthy. Moreover, there are -other pieces mentioned by others as the oldest. In any case xcvi. 1 sqq. -is certainly very early. According to the traditional view, which -appears to be correct, it treats of a vision in which the Prophet -receives an injunction to recite a revelation conveyed to him by the -angel. It is interesting to observe that here already two things are -brought forward as proofs of the omnipotence and care of God: one is the -creation of man out of a seminal drop--an idea to which Mahomet often -recurs; the other is the then recently introduced art of writing, which -the Prophet instinctively seizes on as a means of propagating his -doctrines. It was only after Mahomet encountered obstinate resistance -that the tone of the revelations became thoroughly passionate. In such -cases he was not slow to utter terrible threats against those who -ridiculed the preaching of the unity of God, of the resurrection, and of -the judgment. His own uncle Abu Lahab had rudely repelled him, and in a -brief special sura (cxi.) he and his wife are consigned to hell. The -suras of this period form almost exclusively the concluding portions of -the present text. One is disposed to assume, however, that they were at -one time more numerous, and that many of them were lost at an early -period. - -Since Mahomet's strength lay in his enthusiastic and fiery imagination -rather than in the wealth of ideas and clearness of abstract thought on -which exact reasoning depends, it follows that the older suras, in which -the former qualities have free scope, must be more attractive to us than -the later. In the suras of the second period the imaginative glow -perceptibly diminishes; there is still fire and animation, but the tone -becomes gradually more prosaic. As the feverish restlessness subsides, -the periods are drawn out, and the revelations as a whole become longer. -The truth of the new doctrine is proved by accumulated instances of -God's working in nature and in history; the objections of opponents, -whether advanced in good faith or in jest, are controverted by -arguments; but the demonstration is often confused or even weak. The -histories of the earlier prophets, which had occasionally been briefly -touched on in the first period, are now related, sometimes at great -length. On the whole, the charm of the style is passing away. - - - The Fatiha. - -There is one piece of the Koran, belonging to the beginning of this -period, if not to the close of the former, which claims particular -notice. This is Sura i., the Lord's Prayer of the Moslems, a vigorous -hymn of praise to God, the Lord of both worlds, which ends in a petition -for aid and true guidance (_huda_). The words of this sura, which is -known as _al-fatiha_ ("the opening one"), are as follows:-- - - (1) In the name of God, the compassionate compassioner. (2) Praise be - [literally "is"] to God, the Lord of the worlds, (3) the compassionate - compassioner, (4) the Sovereign of the day of judgment. (5) Thee do we - worship and of Thee do we beg assistance. (6) Direct us in the right - way; (7) in the way of those to whom Thou hast been gracious, on whom - there is no wrath, and who go not astray. - -The thoughts are so simple as to need no explanation; and yet the prayer -is full of meaning. It is true that there is not a single original idea -of Mahomet's in it. Of the seven verses of the sura no less than five -(verses 1, 2, 3, 4, 6) have an extremely suspicious relationship with -the stereotyped formulae of Jewish and Christian liturgies. Verse 6 -agrees, word for word, with Ps. xxvii. 11. On the other hand, the -question must remain open whether Mahomet only gave free renderings of -the several borrowed formulae, or whether in actually composing them he -kept existing models. The designation of God as the "Compassioner," -_Rahman_, is simply the Jewish _Rahmana_, which was a favourite name for -God in the Talmudic period. The word had long before Mahomet's time been -used for God in southern Arabia (cf. e.g. the Sabaean Inscriptions, -Glaser, 554, line 32; 618, line 2). - -Mahomet seems for a while to have entertained the thought of adopting -_al-Rahman_ as a proper name of God, in place of _Allah_, which was -already used by the heathens.[4] This purpose he ultimately -relinquished, but it is just in the suras of the second period that the -use of _Rahman_ is specially frequent. If, for this reason, it is to a -certain extent certain that Sura i. belongs to this period, yet we can -neither prove that it belongs to the beginning of the Mecca period nor -that the present introductory formula "In the name of God," &c., -belonged to it from the first. It may therefore even be doubted whether -Mahomet at the outset looked upon the latter as revealed. Tradition, of -course, knows in this connexion no doubt, and looks upon the Fatiha -precisely as the most exalted portion of the Koran. Every Moslem who -says his five prayers regularly--as the most of them do--repeats it not -less than twenty times a day. - - - Latest Meccan Suras. - -The suras of the third Meccan period, which form a fairly large part of -our present Koran, are almost entirely prosaic. Some of the revelations -are of considerable extent, and the single verses also are much longer -than in the older suras. Only now and then a gleam of poetic power -flashes out. A sermonizing tone predominates. The suras are very -edifying for one who is already reconciled to their import, but to us at -least they do not seem very well fitted to carry conviction to the minds -of unbelievers. That impression, however, is not correct, for in reality -the demonstrations of these longer Meccan suras appear to have been -peculiarly influential for the propagation of Islam. Mahomet's mission -was not to Europeans, but to a people who, though quick-witted and -receptive, were not accustomed to logical thinking, while they had -outgrown their ancient religion. - - - Medinan Suras. - -When we reach the Medina period it becomes, as has been indicated, much -easier to understand the revelations in their historical relations, -since our knowledge of the history of Mahomet in Medina is tolerably -complete. In many cases the historical occasion is perfectly clear, in -others we can at least recognize the general situation from which they -arose, and thus approximately fix their time. There still remains, -however, a remnant, of which we can only say that it belongs to Medina. - -The style of this period bears a fairly close resemblance to that of the -latest Meccan period. It is for the most part pure prose, enriched by -occasional rhetorical embellishments. Yet even here there are many -bright and impressive passages, especially in those sections which may -be regarded as proclamations to the army of the faithful. For the -Moslems Mahomet has many different messages. At one time it is a summons -to do battle for the faith; at another, a series of reflections on -recently experienced success or misfortune, or a rebuke for their weak -faith; or an exhortation to virtue, and so on. He often addresses -himself to the "doubters," some of whom vacillate between faith and -unbelief, others make a pretence of faith, while others scarcely take -the trouble even to do that. They are no consolidated party, but to -Mahomet they are all equally vexatious, because, as soon as danger has -to be encountered, or a contribution is levied, they all alike fall -away. There are frequent outbursts, ever increasing in bitterness, -against the Jews, who were very numerous in Medina and its neighbourhood -when Mahomet arrived. He has much less to say against the Christians, -with whom he never came closely in contact; and as for the idolaters, -there was little occasion in Medina to have many words with them. A part -of the Medina pieces consists of formal laws belonging to the -ceremonial, civil and criminal codes; or directions about certain -temporary complications. The most objectionable parts of the whole Koran -are those which treat of Mahomet's relations with women. The laws and -regulations were generally very concise revelations, but most of them -have been amalgamated with other pieces of similar or dissimilar import, -and are now found in very long suras. - -Such is an imperfect sketch of the composition and the internal history -of the Koran, but it is probably sufficient to show that the book is a -very heterogeneous collection. If only those passages had been preserved -which had a permanent value for the theology, the ethics, or the -jurisprudence of the Moslems, a few fragments would have been amply -sufficient. Fortunately for knowledge, respect for the sacredness of the -letter has led to the collection of all the revelations that could -possibly be collected--the "abrogating" along with the "abrogated," -passages referring to passing circumstances as well as those of lasting -importance. Every one who takes up the book in the proper religious -frame of mind, like most of the Moslems, reads pieces directed against -long-obsolete absurd customs of Mecca just as devoutly as the weightiest -moral precepts--perhaps even more devoutly, because he does not -understand them so well. - - - Mysterious Letters. - - At the head of twenty-nine of the suras stand certain initial letters, - from which no clear sense can be obtained. Thus, before ii. iii. xxxi. - xxxii. we find [Arabic word] (_Alif Lam Mim_), before xl.-xlvi. - [Arabic word] (_Ha Mim_). Noldeke at one time suggested that these - initials did not belong to Mahomet's text, but might be the monograms - of possessors of codices, which, through negligence on the part of the - editors, were incorporated in the final form of the Koran; he now - deems it more probable that they are to be traced to the Prophet - himself, as Sprenger, Loth and others suppose. One cannot indeed admit - the truth of Loth's statement that in the proper opening words of - these suras we may generally find an allusion to the accompanying - initials; but it can scarcely be accidental that the first verse of - the great majority of them (in iii. it is the second verse) contains - the word "book," "revelation," or some equivalent. They usually begin - with: "This is the book," or "Revelation ('down sending') of the - book," or something similar. Of suras which commence in this way only - a few (xviii. xxiv. xxv. xxxix.) want the initials, while only xxix. - and xxx. have the initials and begin differently. These few exceptions - may easily have proceeded from ancient corruptions; at all events they - cannot neutralize the evidence of the greater number. Mahomet seems to - have meant these letters for a mystic reference to the archetypal text - in heaven. To a man who regarded the art of writing, of which at the - best he had but a slight knowledge, as something supernatural, and who - lived amongst illiterate people, an A B C may well have seemed more - significant than to us who have been initiated into the mysteries of - this art from our childhood. The Prophet himself can hardly have - attached any particular meaning to these symbols: they served their - purpose if they conveyed an impression of solemnity and enigmatical - obscurity. In fact, the Koran admits that it contains many things - which neither can be, nor were intended to be, understood (iii. 5). To - regard these letters as ciphers is a precarious hypothesis, for the - simple reason that cryptography is not to be looked for in the very - infancy of Arabic writing. If they are actually ciphers, the - multiplicity of possible explanations at once precludes the hope of a - plausible interpretation. None of the efforts in this direction, - whether by Moslem scholars or by Europeans, has led to convincing - results. This remark applies even to the ingenious conjecture of - Sprenger, that the letters [Arabic word] (_Kaf He Ye Ain Sad_) before - xix. (which treats of John and Jesus, and, according to tradition, was - sent to the Christian king of Abyssinia) stand for _Jesus Nazarenus - Rex Judaeorum_. Sprenger arrives at this explanation by a very - artificial method; and besides, Mahomet was not so simple as the - Moslem traditionalists, who imagined that the Abyssinians could read a - piece of the Arabic Koran. It need hardly be said that the Moslems - have from of old applied themselves with great assiduity to the - decipherment of these initials, and have sometimes found the deepest - mysteries in them. Generally, however, they are content with the - prudent conclusion that God alone knows the meaning of these letters. - - - Transmission of the Koran. - - Zaid's First Koran. - -It is probable (see above) that Mahomet had already caused revelations -to be written down at Mecca, and that this began from the moment when he -felt certain that he was the transmitter of the actual text of a -heavenly book to mankind. It is even true that he may at some time or -another have formed the intention of collecting these revelations. The -idea of a heavenly model would in itself have suggested such a course -and, only in an inferior degree to this, the necessity of setting a new -and uncorrupted document of the divine will over against the sacred -scriptures of the Jews and Christians, the people of the Book, as the -Koran calls them. In any case, when Mahomet died, the separate pieces of -the Koran, notwithstanding their theoretical sacredness, existed only in -scattered copies; they were consequently in great danger of being -partially or entirely destroyed. Many Moslems knew large portions by -heart, but certainly no one knew the whole; and a merely oral -propagation would have left the door open to all kinds of deliberate and -inadvertent alterations. But now, after the death of the Prophet, most -of the Arabs revolted against his successor, and had to be reduced to -submission by force. Especially sanguinary was the struggle against the -prophet Maslama (Mubarrad, _Kamil_ 443, 5), commonly known by the -derisive diminutive Mosailima. At that time (A.D. 633) many of the most -devoted Moslems fell, the very men who knew most Koran pieces by heart. -Omar then began to fear that the Koran might be entirely forgotten, and -he induced the Caliph Abu Bekr to undertake the collection of all its -parts. The Caliph laid the duty on Zaid ibn Thabit, a native of Medina, -then about twenty-two years of age, who had often acted as amanuensis to -the Prophet, in whose service he is even said to have learned the Jewish -letters. The account of this collection of the Koran has reached us in -several substantially identical forms, and goes back to Zaid himself. -According to it, he collected the revelations from copies written on -flat stones, pieces of leather, ribs of palm-leaves (not palm-leaves -themselves), and such-like material, but chiefly "from the breasts of -men," i.e. from their memory. From these he wrote a fair copy, which he -gave to Abu Bekr, from whom it came to his successor Omar, who again -bequeathed it to his daughter Hafsa, one of the widows of the Prophet. -This redaction, commonly called _al-sohof_ ("the leaves"), had from the -first no canonical authority; and its internal arrangement can only be -conjectured. - - - Othman's Koran. - -The Moslems were as far as ever from possessing a uniform text of the -Koran. The bravest of their warriors sometimes knew deplorably little -about it; distinction on _that_ field they cheerfully accorded to pious -men like Ibn Mas'ud. It was inevitable, however, that discrepancies -should emerge between the texts of professed scholars, and as these men -in their several localities were authorities on the reading of the -Koran, quarrels began to break out between the levies from different -districts about the true form of the sacred book. During a campaign in -A.H. 30 (A.D. 650-651), Hodhaifa, the victor in the great and decisive -battle of Nehaveand (see CALIPHATE; and PERSIA: _History_) perceived -that such disputes might become dangerous, and therefore urged on the -caliph Othman the necessity for a universally binding text. The matter -was entrusted to Zaid, who had made the former collection, with three -leading Koreishites. These brought together as many copies as they could -lay their hands on, and prepared an edition which was to be canonical -for all Moslems. To prevent any further disputes, they burned all the -other codices except that of Hafsa, which, however, was soon afterwards -destroyed by Merwan the governor of Medina. The destruction of the -earlier codices was an irreparable loss to criticism; but, for the -essentially political object of putting an end to controversies by -admitting only one form of the common book of religion and of law, this -measure was necessary. - -The result of these labours is in our hands; as to how they were -conducted we have no trustworthy information, tradition being here too -much under the influence of dogmatic presuppositions. The critical -methods of a modern scientific commission will not be expected of an age -when the highest literary education for an Arab consisted in ability to -read and write. It now appears highly probable that this second -redaction took this simple form: Zaid read off from the codex which he -had previously written, and his associates, simultaneously or -successively, wrote one copy each to his dictation. These three -manuscripts will therefore be those which the caliph, according to -trustworthy tradition, sent in the first instance as standard copies to -Damascus, Basra and Kufa to the warriors of the provinces of which these -were the capitals, while he retained one at Medina. Be that as it may, -it is impossible now to distinguish in the present form of the book what -belongs to the first redaction from what is due to the second. - -In the arrangement of the separate sections, a classification according -to contents was impracticable because of the variety of subjects often -dealt with in one sura. A chronological arrangement was out of the -question, because the chronology of the older pieces must have been -imperfectly known, and because in some cases passages of different dates -had been joined together. Indeed, systematic principles of this kind -were altogether disregarded at that period. The pieces were accordingly -arranged in indiscriminate order, the only rule observed being to place -the long suras first and the shorter towards the end, and even that was -far from strictly adhered to. The two magic formulae, suras cxiii., -cxiv. owe their position at the end of the collection to their peculiar -contents, which differ from all the other suras; they are protecting -spells for the faithful. Similarly it is by reason of its contents that -sura i. stands at the beginning: not only because it is in praise of -Allah, as Psalm i. is in praise of the righteous man, but because it -gives classical expression to important articles of the faith. These are -the only special traces of design. The combination of pieces of -different origin may proceed partly from the possessors of the codices -from which Zaid compiled his first complete copy, partly from Zaid -himself. The individual suras are separated simply by the -superscription: "In the name of God, the compassionate Compassioner," -which is wanting only in the ninth. The additional headings found in our -texts (the name of the suras, the number of verses, &c.) were not in the -original codices, and form no integral part of the Koran. - -It is said that Othman directed Zaid and his associates, in cases of -disagreement, to follow the Koreish dialect; but, though well attested, -this account can scarcely be correct. The extremely primitive writing of -those days was quite incapable of rendering such minute differences as -can have existed between the pronunciation of Mecca and that of Medina. - - - The Koran not complete. - -Othman's Koran was not complete. Some passages are evidently -fragmentary; and a few detached pieces are still extant which were -originally parts of the Koran, although they have been omitted by Zaid. -Amongst these are some which there is no reason to suppose Mahomet -desired to suppress. Zaid may easily have overlooked a few stray -fragments, but that he purposely omitted anything which he believed to -belong to the Koran is very unlikely. It has been conjectured that in -deference to his superiors he kept out of the book the names of -Mahomet's enemies, if they or their families came afterwards to be -respected. But it must be remembered that it was never Mahomet's -practice to refer explicitly to contemporary persons and affairs in the -Koran. Only a single friend, his adopted son Zaid (xxxiii. 37), and a -single enemy, his uncle Abu Lahab (cxi.)--and these for very special -reasons--are mentioned by name; and the name of the latter has been left -in the Koran with a fearful curse annexed to it, although his son had -embraced Islam before the death of Mahomet, and his descendants belonged -to the noblest families. So, on the other hand, there is no single verse -or clause which can be plausibly made out to be an interpolation by Zaid -at the instance of Abu Bekr, Omar, or Othman. Slight clerical errors -there may have been, but the Koran of Othman contains none but genuine -elements--though sometimes in very strange order. All efforts of -European scholars to prove the existence of later interpolations in the -Koran have failed. - -Of the four exemplars of Othman's Koran, one was kept in Medina, and one -was sent to each of the three metropolitan cities, Kufa, Basra, and -Damascus. It can still be pretty clearly shown in detail that these four -codices deviated from one another in points of orthography, in the -insertion or omission of a wa ("and") and such-like minutiae; but these -variations nowhere affect the sense. All later manuscripts are derived -from these four originals. - - - Other Editions. - -At the same time, the other forms of the Koran did not at once become -extinct. In particular we have some information about the codex of Ubay -ibn Ka'b. If the list which gives the order of its suras is correct, it -must have contained substantially the same materials as our text; in -that case Ubay ibn Ka'b must have used the original collection of Zaid. -The same is true of the codex of Ibn Mas'ud, of which we have also a -catalogue. It appears that the principle of putting the longer suras -before the shorter was more consistently carried out by him than by -Zaid. He omits i. and the magical formulae of cxiii., cxiv. Ubay, on the -other hand, had embodied two additional short prayers, which we may -regard as Mahomet's. One can easily understand that differences of -opinion may have existed as to whether and how far formularies of this -kind belonged to the Koran. Some of the divergent readings of both these -texts have been preserved as well as a considerable number of other -ancient variants. Most of them are decidedly inferior to the received -readings, but some are quite as good, and a few deserve preference. - - - Ibn Mas'ud. - -The only man who appears to have seriously opposed the general -introduction of Othman's text is Ibn Mas'ud. He was one of the oldest -disciples of the Prophet, and had often rendered him personal service; -but he was a man of contracted views, although he is one of the pillars -of Moslem theology. His opposition had no effect. Now when we consider -that at that time there were many Moslems who had heard the Koran from -the mouth of the Prophet, that other measures of the imbecile Othman met -with the most vehement resistance on the part of the bigoted champions -of the faith, that these were still further incited against him by some -of his ambitious old comrades until at last they murdered him, and -finally that in the civil wars after his death the several parties were -glad of any pretext for branding their opponents as infidels;--when we -consider all this, we must regard it as a strong testimony in favour of -Othman's Koran that no party found fault with his conduct in this -matter, or repudiated the text formed by Zaid, who was one of the most -devoted adherents of Othman and his family, and that even among the -Shiites criticism of the caliph's action is only met with as a rare -exception. - - - Later History of the Text. - - But this redaction is not the close of the textual history of the - Koran. The ancient Arabic alphabet was very imperfect; it not only - wanted marks for the short and in part even for the long vowels, but - it often expressed several consonants by the same sign, e.g. one and - the same character could mean B, T, Th at the beginning and N and J - (I) in the middle of words. Hence there were many words which could - be read in very different ways. This variety of possible readings was - at first very great, and many readers seem to have actually made it - their object to discover pronunciations which were new, provided they - were at all appropriate to the ambiguous text. There was also a - dialectic licence in grammatical forms, which had not as yet been - greatly restricted. An effort was made by many to establish a more - refined pronunciation for the Koran than was usual in common life or - in secular literature. The various schools of "readers" differed very - widely from one another; although for the most part there was no - important divergence as to the sense of words. A few of them gradually - rose to special authority, and the rest disappeared. Seven readers are - generally reckoned chief authorities, but for practical purposes this - number was continually reduced in process of time; so that at present - only two "reading-styles" are in actual use,--the common style of - Hafs, and that of Nafi'; which prevails in Africa to the west of - Egypt. There is, however, a very comprehensive massoretic literature - in which a number of other styles are indicated. The invention of - vowel-signs of diacritic points to distinguish similarly formed - consonants, and of other orthographic signs, soon put a stop to - arbitrary conjectures on the part of the readers. Many zealots - objected to the introduction of these innovations in the sacred text, - but theological consistency had to yield to practical necessity. In - accurate codices, indeed, all such additions, as well as the titles of - the sura, &c., are written in coloured ink, while the black characters - profess to represent exactly the original of Othman. But there is - probably no copy quite faithful in this respect. Moreover, the right - recitation of the Koran is an art which even people of Arab tongue can - only learn with great difficulty. In addition to the nuances of - pronunciation already alluded to, there is a semi-musical modulation. - In these matters also the various schools differ. - - - Manuscripts. - - In European libraries, besides innumerable modern manuscripts of the - Koran, there are also codices, or fragments, of high antiquity, some - of them probably dating from the 1st century of the Flight. For the - restoration of the text, however, the works of ancient scholars on its - readings and modes of writing are more important than the manuscripts; - which, however elegantly they may be written and ornamented, proceed - from irresponsible copyists. The original, written by Othman himself, - has indeed been exhibited in various parts of the Mahommedan world. - The library of the India Office contains one such manuscript, bearing - the subscription: "Written by 'Othman the son of 'Affan." These, of - course, are barefaced forgeries, although of very ancient date; so are - those which profess to be from the hand of 'Ali, one of which is - preserved in the same library. In recent times the Koran has been - often printed and lithographed, both in the East and the West. In - Mahommedan countries lithography alone is employed. - - - Commentators. - - Shortly after Mahomet's death certain individuals applied themselves - to the exposition of the Koran. Much of it was obscure from the - beginning, other sections were unintelligible apart from a knowledge - of the circumstances of their origin. Unfortunately, those who took - possession of this field were not very honourable. Ibn 'Abbas, a - cousin of Mahomet, and the chief source of the traditional exegesis of - the Koran, has, on theological and other grounds, given currency to a - number of falsehoods; and at least some of his pupils have emulated - his example. These earliest expositions dealt more with the sense and - connexion of whole verses than with the separate words. Afterwards, as - the knowledge of the old language declined, and the study of philology - arose, more attention began to be paid to the explanation of vocables. - A good many fragments of this older theological and philological - exegesis have survived from the first two centuries of the Flight, - although we have no complete commentary of this period. The great - commentary of Tabari, A.D. 839-923, of which for the last few years we - have possessed an Oriental edition in 30 parts (Cairo A.H. 1321 = A.D. - 1903), is very full when it comes to speak of canonical law, as well - as in its accounts of the occasions of the several revelations; for, - as in his great historical work, he faithfully records a large number - of traditions with the channels by which they have come down to us - (genealogical trees, _isnad_). In other respects the hopes based upon - this commentary have not been fulfilled. - - - Translations. - - Another very famous commentary is that of Zamakhshari (A.D. - 1075-1144), edited by Nassau-Lees, Calcutta, 1859; but this scholar, - with his great insight and still greater subtlety, is too apt to read - his own scholastic ideas into the Koran. The favourite commentary of - Baidawi (d. A.D. 1286), edited by Fleischer (Leipzig, 1846-1848), is - little more than an abridgment of Zamakhshari's. Thousands of - commentaries on the Koran, some of them of prodigious size, have been - written by Moslems; and even the number of those still extant in - manuscript is by no means small. Although these works all contain much - that is useless or false, yet they are invaluable aids to our - understanding of the sacred book. An unbiased European can, no doubt, - see many things at a glance more clearly than a good Moslem who is - under the influence of religious prejudice; but we should still be - helpless without the exegetical literature of the Mahommedans. Even - the Arabian Moslems would only understand the Koran very dimly and - imperfectly if they did not give special attention to the study of its - interpretation. The advantage of being in a language commonly - understood, which the holy book claims for itself, has vanished in - the course of thirteen centuries. According to the dominant view, - however, the ritual use of the Koran is not in the least concerned - with the sacred words being understood, but solely with their being - quite properly recited. Nevertheless, a great deal remains to be - accomplished by European scholarship for the correct interpretation of - the Koran. We want, for example, an exhaustive classification and - discussion of all the Jewish elements in the Koran; a praiseworthy - beginning was made in Geiger's youthful essay _Was hat Mohamed aus dem - Judenthum aufgenommen?_ (Bonn, 1833; the "second revised edition," - Leipzig, 1902, is only a reprint). We want especially a thorough - commentary, executed with the methods and resources of modern science. - No European language, it would seem, can even boast of a translation - which completely satisfies modern requirements. The best are in - English; where we have the extremely paraphrastic, but for its time - admirable translation of George Sale (repeatedly printed), that of - Rodwell (1861), which seeks to give the pieces in chronological order, - and that of Palmer (1880), who wisely follows the traditional - arrangements. The introduction which accompanies Palmer's translation - is not in all respects abreast of the most recent scholarship. - Considerable extracts from the Koran are well translated in E. W. - Lane's _Selections from the Kur-an_. Not much can be said in praise of - the complete translations into the German language, neither of that of - Ullmann, which has appeared in several editions, nor of that of - Henning (Leipzig) and Grigull (Halle), all of them shallow amateurs - who have no notion of the difficulties to be met with in the task, and - are almost entirely dependent on Sale. Friedrich Ruckert's excellent - version (published by August Muller, Frankfort-on-Maine, 1888) gives - only selections. M. Klamroth's translation of the fifty oldest suras, - _Die funfzig altesten Suren_ (Hamburg, 1890) attempts successfully to - reproduce the rhymed form of the originals. The publication of the - translation of the Koran by the great Leipzig Arabic scholar, H. L. - Fleischer (d. 1888) has so far unfortunately been delayed. (For modern - editions, commentaries, &c., see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION: _Bibliography_). - - Besides commentaries on the whole Koran, or on special parts and - topics, the Moslems possess a whole literature bearing on their sacred - book. There are works on the spelling and right pronunciation of the - Koran, works on the beauty of its language, on the number of its - verses, words and letters, &c.; nay, there are even works which would - nowadays be called "historical and critical introductions." Moreover, - the origin of Arabic philology is intimately connected with the - recitation and exegesis of the Koran. To exhibit the importance of the - sacred book for the whole mental life of the Moslems would be simply - to write the history of that life itself; for there is no department - in which its all-pervading, but unfortunately not always salutary, - influence has not been felt. - - - Eternity of the Koran. - - The unbounded reverence of the Moslems for the Koran reaches its - climax in the dogma that this book, as the divine word, i.e. thought, - is immanent in God, and consequently _eternal_ and _uncreated_. This - dogma, which was doubtless due to the influence of the Christian - doctrine of the eternal Word of God, has been accepted by almost all - Mahommedans since the beginning of the 3rd century. Some theologians - did indeed protest against it with great energy; it was in fact too - preposterous to declare that a book composed of unstable words and - letters, and full of variants, was absolutely divine. But what were - the distinctions and sophisms of the theologians for, if they could - not remove such contradictions, and convict their opponents of heresy? - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following works may be especially consulted: Weil, - _Einleitung in den Koran_ (2nd ed., 1878); Th. Noldeke, _Geschichte - des Qoran's_ (Gottingen, 1860; 2nd ed. by Friedrich Schwally, 1908); - the Lives of Mahomet by William Muir and Aloys Sprenger (vols. - i.-iii., Berlin, 1861-1865; 2nd ed., 1869); C. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het - mekkaansche Feest_ (Leiden, 1880), _De Islam_ (de Gids, 1886, ii. - 257-273, 454-498, iii. 90-134); "Une nouvelle biographie de Mohammed," - _Revue de l'histoire des religions_, tome 29, p. 48 f., 149 sqq.; - Leone Caetani, _Annali dell'Islam_, i. (Milan, 1905), ii.(Milan, - 1907); Frants Buhl, _Muhammeds Liv_ (Copenhagen, 1903). - (Th. N.; Fr. Sy.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Reproductions of such Ptolemaic and Lysimachan coins are to be - found in J. J. Bernouilli, _Die erhaltenen Darstellungen Alexanders - d. Gr._ (Munich, 1905), Tab. VIII.; also in Theodor Schreiber, - "Studien uber das Bildniss Alexanders des Gr." in the _Abh. Sachs. - Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_, Bd. xxi. (1903), Tab. XIII. - - [2] For the schemes of Noldeke and Grimm see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. - - [3] See Bibliography at end. - - [4] Since in Arabic also the root [Arabic word] signifies "to have - pity," the Arabs must have at once perceived the force of the new - name. While the foreign word _Rahman_ is, in accordance with its - origin, everywhere in the Koran to be understood as "Merciful," there - is some doubt as to _Rahim_. The close connexion of the two - expressions, it is true, makes it probable that Mahomet only added - the adjective _Rahim_ to the substantive _Rahman_ in order to - strengthen the conception. But the genuine Arab meaning of _Rahim_ is - "gracious," and thus, the old Mahommedan Arab papyri render this word - by [Greek: philanthropos]. - - - - -KORAT, the capital of the provincial division (_Monton_) of Nakawn Racha -Sema, or "the frontier country," in Siam; in 102 deg. 5' E., 14 deg. 59' -N. Pop. about 7000, mixed Cambodian and Siamese. It is the headquarters -of a high commissioner and of an army division. It is the terminus of a -railway from Bangkok, 170 m. distant, and the distributing centre for -the whole of the plateau district which forms the eastern part of Siam. -There are copper mines of reputed wealth in the neighbourhood. It is the -centre of a silk-growing district and is the headquarters of the -government sericultural department, instituted in 1904 with the -assistance of Japanese experts for the purpose of improving the quality -of Siamese silk. The government is that of an ordinary provincial -division of Siam. A French vice-consul resides here. Since the founding -of Ayuthia in the 14th century, Korat has been tributary to, or part -of, Siam, with occasional lapses into independence or temporary -subjection to Cambodia. Before that period it was probably part of -Cambodia, as appears from the nature of the ruins still to be seen in -its neighbourhood. In 1896 the last vestige of its tributary condition -vanished with the introduction of the present system of Siamese rural -administration. - - - - -KORDOFAN, a country of north-east Africa, forming a _mudiria_ (province) -of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It lies mainly between 12 deg. and 16 deg. -W. and 29 deg. and 32(1/2) deg. E., and has an area of about 130,000 sq. -m., being bounded W. by Darfur, N. by the Bayuda steppes, E. by the -White Nile mudiria and S. by the country of the Shilluks and other negro -tribes, forming part of the Upper Nile mudiria. - -The greater part of Kordofan consists of undulating plains, riverless, -barren, monotonous, with an average altitude of 1500 ft. Thickets and -small acacias dot the steppes, which, green during the _kharif_ or rainy -season, at other times present a dull brown burnt-up aspect. In the -west, isolated peaks, such as Jebel Abu Senum and Jebel Kordofan, rise -from 150 to 600 ft. above the plain. North-west are the mountain groups -of Kaja and Katul (2000 to 3000 ft.), in the east are the Jebel Daier -and Jebel Tagale (Togale), ragged granitic ranges with precipitous -sides. In the south are flat, fertile and thickly wooded plains, which -give place to jungle at the foot of the hills of Dar Nuba, the district -forming the south-east part of Kordofan. Dar Nuba is well-watered, the -scenery is diversified and pretty, affording a welcome contrast to that -of the rest of the country. Some of the Nuba hills exceed 3000 ft. in -height. The south-western part of the country, a vast and almost level -plain, is known as Dar Homr. A granitic sand with abundance of mica and -feldspar forms the upper stratum throughout the greater part of -Kordofan; but an admixture of clay, which is observable in the north, -becomes strongly marked in the south, where there are also stretches of -black vegetable mould. Beneath there appears to be an unbroken surface -of mica schist. Though there are no perennial rivers, there are -watercourses (_khors_ or _wadis_) in the rainy season; the chief being -the Khor Abu Habl, which traverses the south-central region. In Dar Homr -the Wadi el Ghalla and the Khor Shalango drain towards the Homr affluent -of the Bahr el Ghazal. During the rainy season there is a considerable -body of water in these channels, but owing partly to rapid evaporation -and partly to the porous character of the soil the surface of the -country dries rapidly. The water which has found its way through the -granitic sand flows over the surface of the mica schist and settles in -the hollows, and by sinking wells to the solid rock a supply of water -can generally be obtained. It is estimated that (apart from those in a -few areas where the sand stratum is thin and water is reached at the -depth of a few feet) there are about 900 of these wells. They are narrow -shafts going down usually 30 to 50 ft., but some are over 200 ft. deep. -The water is raised by rope and bucket at the cost of enormous labour, -and in few cases is any available for irrigation. The very cattle are -trained to go a long time without drinking. Entire villages migrate -after the harvest to the neighbourhood of some plentiful well. In a few -localities the surface depressions hold water for the greater part of -the year but there is only one permanent lake--Keilat, which is some -four miles by two. As there is no highland area draining into Kordofan, -the underground reservoirs are dependent on the local rainfall, and a -large number of the wells are dry during many months. The rainy season -lasts from mid-June to the end of September, rain usually falling every -three or four days in brief but violent showers. In general the climate -is healthy except in the rainy season, when large tracts are converted -into swamps and fever is very prevalent. In the _shita_ or cold weather -(October to February inclusive) there is a cold wind from the north. The -seif or hot weather lasts from March to mid-June; the temperature rarely -exceeds 105 deg. F. - - The chief constituent of the low scrub which covers the northern part - of the country is the grey gum acacia (_hashob_). In the south the red - gum acacias (_talh_) are abundant. In Dar Hamid, in the N.W. of - Kordofan, date, dom and other palms grow. The basbab or calabash tree, - known in the eastern Sudan as the _tebeldi_ and locally _Homr_, is - fairly common and being naturally hollow the trees collect water, - which the natives regularly tap. Another common source of water supply - is a small kind of water melon which grows wild and is also - cultivated. In the dense jungles of the south are immense creepers, - some of them rubber-vines. The cotton plant is also found. The fauna - includes the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe, lion, leopard, - cheetah, roan-antelope, hartebeeste, kudu and many other kinds of - antelope, wart-hog, hares, quail, partridge, jungle-fowl, bustard and - guinea-fowl. Nearly all the kinds of game mentioned are found chiefly - in the western and southern districts. The ril or addra gazelle found - in N. and N.W. Kordofan are not known elsewhere in the eastern Sudan. - Reptiles, sand-flies and mosquitoes are common. Ostriches are found in - the northern steppes. The chief wealth of the people consists in the - gum obtained from the grey acacias, in oxen, camels and ostrich - feathers. The finest cattle are of the humped variety, the bulls of - the Baggara being trained to the saddle and to carry burdens. There - are large herds of camel, the camel-owning Arabs usually owning also - large numbers of sheep and goats. Dukhn, a species of millet which can - grow in the arid northern districts is there the chief grain crop, its - place in the south being taken by durra. Dukhn is, however, the only - crop cultivated in Dar Homr. From this grain a beer called _merissa_ - is brewed. Barley and cotton are cultivated in some districts. A - little gold dust is obtained, but the old gold and other mines in the - Tagale country have been, apparently, worked out. Iron is found in - many districts and is smelted in a few places. In the absence of fuel - the industry is necessarily a small one. There are large beds of - hematite some 60 m. N.W. and the same distance N.E. of El Obeid. - -_Inhabitants._--The population of Kordofan was officially estimated in -1903 to be 550,000. The inhabitants are roughly divisible into two -types--Arabs in the plains and Nubas in the hills. Many of the villagers -of the plains are however of very mixed blood--Arab, Egyptian, Turkish, -Levantine and Negro. It is said that some village communities are -descended from the original negro inhabitants. They all speak Arabic. -The most important village tribe is the Gowama, who own most of the -gum-producing country. Other large tribes are the Dar Hamid and the -Bederia--the last-named living round El Obeid. The nomad Arabs are of -two classes, camel owners (_Siat El Ilbil_) and cattle owners -(_Baggara_), the first-named dwelling in the dry northern regions, the -Baggara in southern Kordofan. Of the camel-owning tribes the chief are -the Hamar and the Kabbabish. Many of the Hamar have settled down in -villages. The Baggara are great hunters, and formerly were noted slave -raiders. They possess many horses, but when journeying place their -baggage on their oxen. They use a stabbing spear, small throwing spears, -and a broad-bladed short sword. Some of the richer men possess suits of -chain armour. The principal Baggara tribes are the Hawazma, Meseria, -Kenana, Habbania, and Homr. The Homr are said to have entered Kordofan -from Wadai about the end of the 18th century and to have come from North -Africa. They speak a purer Arabic than the riverain tribes. The Nubas -are split into many tribes, each under a _mek_ or king, who is not -uncommonly of Arab descent. The Nubas have their own language, though -the inhabitants of each hill have usually a different dialect. They are -a primitive race, very black, of small build but distinctive negro -features. They have feuds with one another and with the Baggara. During -the _mahdia_ they maintained their independence. The Nubas appear to -have been the aboriginal inhabitants of the country and are believed to -be the original stock of the Nubians of the Nile Valley (see NUBIA). In -the northern hills are communities of black people with woolly hair but -of non-negro features. They speak Arabic and are called Nuba Arabs. Some -of the southern hills are occupied by Arab-speaking negroes, escaped -slaves and their descendants, who called themselves after the tribe they -formerly served and who have little intercourse with the Nubas. - -The capital, El Obeid (q.v.), is centrally situated. On it converge -various trade routes, notably from Darfur and from Dueim, a town on the -White Nile 125 m. above Khartum, which served as port for the province. -Thence was despatched the gum for the Omdurman market. But the railway -from Khartum to El Obeid, via Sennar, built in 1909-1911, crosses the -Nile some 60 m. farther south above Abba Island. Nahud (pop. about -10,000), 165 m. W.S.W. of El Obeid, is a commercial centre which has -sprung into importance since the fall of the dervishes. All the trade -with Darfur passes through the town, the chief commerce being in cattle, -feathers, ivory and cotton goods. Trade is largely in the hands of -Greeks, Syrians, Danagla and Jaalin. Taiara, on the route between El -Obeid and the Nile, was destroyed by the dervishes but has been rebuilt -and is a thriving mart for the gum trade. El Odoaiya or Eddaiya is the -headquarters of the Homr country. It and Baraka in the Muglad district -are on the trade road between Nahud and Shakka in Darfur. - -Bara is a small town some 50 m. N.N.E. of Obeid. Talodi and Tendek are -government stations in the Nuba country. The Nubas have no large towns. -They live in villages on the hillsides or summits. The usual habitation -built both by Arabs and Nubas is the tukl, a conical-shaped hut made of -stone, mud, wattle and daub or straw. The Nuba tukls are the better -built. In the chief towns houses are built of mud bricks with flat -roofs. - -_History._--Of the early history of Kordofan there is little record. It -never formed an independent state. About the beginning of the 16th -century Funj from Sennar settled in the country; towards the end of that -century Kordofan was conquered by Suleiman Solon, sultan of Darfur. -About 1775 it was conquered by the Funj, and there followed a -considerable immigration of Arab tribes into the country. The Sennari -however suffered a decisive defeat in 1784 and thereafter under Darfur -viceroys the country enjoyed prosperity. In 1821 Kordofan was conquered -by Mahommed Bey the defterdar, son-in-law of Mehemet Ali, pasha of -Egypt. It remained under Egyptian rule till 1882 when Mahommed Ahmed, -the mahdi, raised the country to revolt. It was in Kordofan that Hicks -Pasha and his army, sent to crush the revolt, were annihilated (Nov. -1883). The Baggara of Kordofan from that time onward were the chief -supporters of the mahdi, and his successor, the khalifa Abdullah, was a -Baggara. In Kordofan in 1899 the khalifa met his death, the country -having already passed into the hands of the new Sudan government. The -chief difficulty experienced by the administration was to habituate the -Arabs and Nubas, both naturally warlike, to a state of peace. In -consequence of the anti-slave raiding measures adopted, the Arabs of -Talodi in May 1906 treacherously massacred the mamur of that place and -40 men of the Sudanese regiment. The promptness with which this -disturbance was suppressed averted what otherwise might have been a -serious rising. (See SUDAN: _Anglo-Egyptian_, S "History.") - - See _The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, - 1905); H. A. MacMichael, _Notes on the History of Kordofan before the - Egyptian Conquest_ (Cairo, 1907); John Petherick, _Egypt, the Sudan, - and Central Africa_ (London, 1861); Ignaz Pallme, _Beschreibung von - Kordofan_ (Stuttgart, 1843; trans. _Travels in Kordofan_, London, - 1844); Major H. G. Prout, _General Report on Province of Kordofan_ - (Cairo, 1877); Ernst Marno, _Reise in der egypt. Equat. Provinz_ - (Vienna, 1879); papers (with maps) by Capt. W. Lloyd in the _Geog. - Journ._ (June 1907 and March 1910); and the bibliography given under - SUDAN: _Anglo-Egyptian_. - - - - -KOREA, or COREA (CH'AO HSIEN, DAI HAN). Its mainland portion consists of -a peninsula stretching southwards from Manchuria, with an estimated -length of about 600 m., an extreme breadth of 135 m., and a coast-line -of 1740 m. It extends from 34 deg. 18' to 43 deg. N., and from 124 deg. -36' to 130 deg. 47' E. Its northern boundary is marked by the Tumen and -Yalu rivers; the eastern boundary by the Sea of Japan; the southern -boundary by Korea Strait; and the western boundary by the Yalu and the -Yellow Sea. For 11 m. along the Tumen river the north frontier is -conterminous with Russia (Siberia); otherwise Korea has China -(Manchuria) on its land frontier. Nearly the whole surface of the -country is mountainous. (For map, see JAPAN.) - -The south and west coasts are fringed by about 200 islands (exclusive of -islets), two-thirds of which are inhabited; 100 of them are from 100 to -2000 ft. in height, and many consist of bold bare masses of volcanic -rock. The most important are Quelpart and the Nan Hau group. The latter, -36 m. from the eastern end of Quelpart, possesses the deep, -well-sheltered and roomy harbour of Port Hamilton, which lies between -the north points of the large and well-cultivated islands of Sun-ho-dan -and So-dan, which have a population of 2000. Aitan, between their -south-east points, completes this noble harbour. The east coast of Korea -is steep and rock-bound, with deep water and a tidal rise and fall of 1 -to 2 ft. The west coast is often low and shelving, and abounds in -mud-banks, and the tidal rise and fall is from 20 to 36 ft. Korean -harbours, except two or three which are closed by drift ice for some -weeks in winter, are ice-free. Among them are Port Shestakov, Port -Lazarev, and Won-san (Gensan), in Broughton Bay;[1] Fusan, Ma-san-po, at -the mouth of the Nak-tong, on the south coast; Mok-po, Chin-nampo, near -the mouth of the Tai-dong; and Chemulpo, near the mouth of the Han, the -port of the capital and the sea terminus of the first Korean railway on -the west coast. - -Korea is distinctly mountainous, and has no plains deserving the name. -In the north there are mountain groups with definite centres, the most -notable being Paik-tu San or Pei-shan (8700 ft.) which contains the -sources of the Yalu and Tumen. From these groups a lofty range runs -southwards, dividing the empire into two unequal parts. On its east, -between it and the coast, which it follows at a moderate distance, is a -fertile strip difficult of access, and on the west it throws off so many -lateral ranges and spurs as to break up the country into a chaos of -corrugated and precipitous hills and steep-sided valleys, each with a -rapid perennial stream. Farther south this axial range, which includes -the Diamond Mountain group, falls away towards the sea in treeless spurs -and small and often infertile levels. The northern groups and the -Diamond Mountain are heavily timbered, but the hills are covered mainly -with coarse, sour grass and oak and chestnut scrub. The rivers are -shallow and rocky, and are usually only navigable for a few miles from -the sea. Among the exceptions are the Yalu (Amnok), Tumen, Tai-dong, -Naktong, Mok-po, and Han. The last, rising in Kang-won-do, 30 m. from -the east coast, cuts Korea nearly in half, reaching the sea on the west -coast near Chemulpo; and, in spite of many serious rapids, is a valuable -highway for commerce for over 150 miles. - - _Geology._--The geology of Korea is very imperfectly known. - Crystalline schists occupy a large part of the country, forming all - the higher mountain ranges. They are always strongly folded and it is - in them that the mineral wealth of Korea is situated. Towards the - Manchurian frontier they are covered unconformably by some 1600 ft. of - sandstones, clay-slates and limestones, which contain Cambrian fossils - and are the equivalents of a part of the Sinian system of China. - Carboniferous beds, consisting chiefly of slates, sandstones and - conglomerates, are found in the south-eastern provinces. They contain - a few seams of coal, but the most important coal-bearing deposits of - the country belong to the Tertiary period. Recent eruptive and - volcanic rocks are met with in the interior of Korea and also in the - island of Quelpart. The principal mountain in the latter, Hal-la-san - (or Mount Auckland), according to Chinese stories, was in eruption in - the year 1007. With this possible exception there are no active - volcanoes in Korea, and the region has also been remarkably free from - earthquakes throughout historic times. - - _Climate._--The climate is superb for nine months of the year, and the - three months of rain, heat and damp are not injurious to health. - Koreans suffer from malaria, but Europeans and their children are - fairly free from climatic maladies, and enjoy robust health. The - summer mean temperature of Seoul is about 75 deg. F., that of winter - about 33 deg.; the average rainfall, 36.3 in. in the year, and of the - rainy season 21.86 in. The rains come in July and August on the west - and north-east coasts, and from April to July on the south coast, the - approximate mean annual rainfall of these localities being 30, 35 and - 42 in. respectively. These averages are based on the observations of - seven years only. - - _Flora._--The plants and animals await study and classification. Among - the indigenous trees are the _Abies excelsa_, _Abies microsperma_, - _Pinus sinensis_, _Pinus pinea_, three species of oak, five of maple, - lime, birch, juniper, mountain ash, walnut, Spanish chestnut, hazel, - willow, hornbeam, hawthorn, plum, pear, peach, _Rhus vernicifera_, (?) - _Rhus semipinnata_, _Acanthopanax ricinifolia_, _Zelkawa_, _Thuja - orientalis_, _Elaeagnus_, _Sophora Japonica_, &c. Azaleas and - rhododendrons are widely distributed, as well as other flowering - shrubs and creepers, _Ampelopsis Veitchii_ being universal. Liliaceous - plants and cruciferae are numerous. The native fruits, except walnuts - and chestnuts, are worthless. The persimmon attains perfection, and - experiment has proved the suitability of the climate to many foreign - fruits. The indigenous economic plants are few, and are of no - commercial value, excepting wild _ginseng_, bamboo, which is applied - to countless uses, and "tak-pul" (_Hibiscus Manihot_), used in the - manufacture of paper. - - _Fauna._--The tiger takes the first place among wild animals. He is of - great size, his skin is magnificent, and he is so widely distributed - as to be a peril to man and beast. Tiger-hunting is a profession with - special privileges. Leopards are numerous, and have even been shot - within the walls of Seoul. There are deer (at least five species), - boars, bears, antelopes, beavers, otters, badgers, tiger-cats, marten, - an inferior sable, striped squirrels, &c. Among birds there are black - eagles, peregrines (largely used in hawking), and, specially protected - by law, turkey bustards, three varieties of pheasants, swans, geese, - common and spectacled teal, mallards, mandarin ducks white and pink - ibis, cranes, storks, egrets, herons, curlews, pigeons, doves, - nightjars, common and blue magpies, rooks, crows, orioles, halcyon and - blue kingfishers, jays, nut-hatches, redstarts, snipe, grey shrikes, - hawks, kites, &c. But, pending further observations, it is not - possible to say which of the smaller birds actually breed in Korea and - which only make it a halting-place in their annual migrations. - -_Area and Population._--The estimated area is 82,000 sq. m.--somewhat -under that of Great Britain. The first complete census was taken in -1897, and returned the population in round numbers at 17,000,000, -females being in the majority. It was subsequently, however, estimated -at a maximum of 12,000,000. There is a foreign population of about -65,000, of whom 60,000 are Japanese. It is estimated that little more -than half the arable land is under cultivation, and that the soil could -support an additional 7,000,000. The native population is absolutely -homogeneous. Northern Korea, with its severe climate, is thinly peopled, -while the rich and warm provinces of the south and west are populous. A -large majority of the people are engaged in agriculture. There is little -emigration, except into Russian and Chinese territory, but some Koreans -have emigrated to Hawaii and Mexico. - -The capital is the inland city of Seoul, with a population of nearly -200,000. Among other towns, Songdo (Kaisong), the capital from about 910 -to 1392, is a walled city of the first rank, 25 m. N.W. of Seoul, with a -population of 60,000. It possesses the stately remains of the palace of -the Korean kings of the Wang dynasty, is a great centre of the grain -trade and the sole centre of the _ginseng_ manufacture, makes wooden -shoes, coarse pottery and fine matting, and manufactures with sesamum -oil the stout oiled paper for which Korea is famous. Phyong-yang, a city -on the Tai-dong, had a population of 60,000 before the war of 1894, in -which it was nearly destroyed; but it fast regained its population. It -lies on rocky heights above a region of stoneless alluvium on the east, -and with the largest and richest plain in Korea on the west. It has five -coal-mines within ten miles, and the district is rich in iron, silk, -cotton, and grain. It has easy communication with the sea (its port -being Chin-nampo), and is important historically and commercially. -Auriferous quartz is worked by a foreign company in its neighbourhood. -Near the city is the illustrated standard of land measurement cut by -Ki-tze in 1124 B.C. - -With the exceptions of Kang-hwa, Chong-ju, Tung-nai, Fusan, and Won-san, -it is very doubtful if any other Korean towns reach a population of -15,000. The provincial capitals and many other cities are walled. Most -of the larger towns are in the warm and fertile southern provinces. One -is very much like another, and nearly all their streets are replicas of -the better alleys of Seoul. The actual antiquities of Korea are dolmens, -sepulchral pottery, and Korean and Japanese fortifications. - -_Race._--The origin of the Korean people is unknown. They are of the -Mongol family; their language belongs to the so-called Turanian group, -is polysyllabic, possesses an alphabet of 11 vowels and 14 consonants, -and a script named _En-mun_. Literature of the higher class and official -and upper class correspondence are exclusively in Chinese characters, -but since 1895 official documents have contained an admixture of -_En-mun_. The Koreans are distinct from both Chinese and Japanese in -physiognomy, though dark straight hair, dark oblique eyes, and a tinge -of bronze in the skin are always present. The cheek-bones are high; the -nose inclined to flatness; the mouth thin-lipped and refined among -patricians, and wide and full-lipped among plebeians; the ears are -small, and the brow fairly well developed. The expression indicates -quick intelligence rather than force and mental calibre. The male height -averages 5 ft. 4(1/2) in. The hands and feet are small and well-formed. -The physique is good, and porters carry on journeys from 100 to 200 lb. -Men marry at from 18 to 20 years, girls at 16, and have large families, -in which a strumous taint is nearly universal. Women are secluded and -occupy a very inferior position. The Koreans are rigid monogamists, but -concubinage has a recognized status. - -_Production and Industries._ i. _Minerals._--Extensive coal-fields, -producing coal of fair quality, as yet undeveloped, occur in Hwang-hai -Do and elsewhere. Iron is abundant, especially in Phyong-an Do, and rich -copper ore, silver and galena are found. Crystal is a noted product of -Korea, and talc of good quality is also present. In 1885 the rudest -process of "placer" washing produced an export of gold dust amounting to -L120,000; quartz-mining methods were subsequently introduced, and the -annual declared value of gold produced rose to about L450,000; but much -is believed to have been sent out of the country clandestinely. The -reefs were left untouched till 1897, when an American company, which had -obtained a concession in Phyong-an Do in 1895, introduced the latest -mining appliances, and raised the declared export of 1898 to L240,047, -believed to represent a yield for that year of L600,000. Russian, -German, English, French and Japanese applicants subsequently obtained -concessions. The _concessionnaires_ regard Korean labour as docile and -intelligent. The privilege of owning mines in Korea was extended to -aliens under the Mining Regulations of 1906. - -ii. _Agriculture._--Korean soil consists largely of light sandy loam, -disintegrated lava, and rich, stoneless alluvium, from 3 to 10 ft. deep. -The rainfall is abundant during the necessitous months of the year, -facilities for the irrigation of the rice crop are ample, and drought -and floods are seldom known. Land is held from the proprietors on the -terms of receiving seed from them and returning half the produce, the -landlord paying the taxes. Any Korean can become a landowner by -reclaiming and cultivating unoccupied crown land for three years free of -taxation, after which he pays taxes annually. Good land produces two -crops a year. The implements used are two makes of iron-shod wooden -ploughs; a large shovel, worked by three or five men, one working the -handle, the others jerking the blade by ropes attached to it; a short -sharp-pointed hoe, a bamboo rake, and a wooden barrow, all of rude -construction. Rice is threshed by beating the ears on a log; other -grains, with flails on mud threshing-floors. Winnowing is performed by -throwing up the grain on windy days. Rice is hulled and grain coarsely -ground in stone querns or by water pestles. There are provincial -horse-breeding stations, where pony stallions, from 10 to 12 hands high, -are bred for carrying burdens. Magnificent red bulls are bred by the -farmers for ploughing and other farming operations, and for the -transport of goods. Sheep and goats are bred on the imperial farms, but -only for sacrifice. Small, hairy, black pigs, and fowls, are universal. -The cultivation does not compare in neatness and thoroughness with that -of China and Japan. There are no trustworthy estimates of the yield of -any given measurement of land. The farmers put the average yield of rice -at thirty-fold, and of other grain at twenty-fold. Korea produces all -cereals and root crops except the tropical, along with cotton, tobacco, -a species of the Rhea plant used for making grass-cloth, and the -_Brousonettia papyrifera_. The articles chiefly cultivated are rice, -millet, beans, _ginseng_ (at Songdo), cotton, hemp, oil-seeds, bearded -wheat, oats, barley, sorghum, and sweet and Irish potatoes. Korean -agriculture suffers from infamous roads, the want of the exchange of -seed, and the insecurity of the gains of labour. It occupies about -three-fourths of the population. - -iii. _Other Industries._--The industries of Korea, apart from supplying -the actual necessaries of a poor population, are few and rarely -collective. They consist chiefly in the manufacture of sea-salt, of -varied and admirable paper, thin and poor silk, horse-hair crinoline for -hats, fine split bamboo blinds, hats and mats, coarse pottery, hemp -cloth for mourners, brass bowls and grass-cloth. Won-san and Fusan are -large fishing centres, and salt fish and fish manure are important -exports; but the prolific fishing-grounds are worked chiefly by Japanese -labour and capital. Paper and _ginseng_ are the only manufactured -articles on the list of Korean exports. The arts are nil. - -_Commerce._--A commercial treaty was concluded with Japan in 1876, and -treaties with the European countries and the United States of America -were concluded subsequently. An imperial edict of the 20th of May 1904 -annulled all Korean treaties with Russia. After the opening of certain -Korean ports to foreign trade, the customs were placed under the -management of European commissioners nominated by Sir Robert Hart from -Peking. The ports and other towns open are Seoul, Chemulpo, Fusan, -Won-san, Chin-nampo, Mok-po, Kun-san, Ma-san-po, Song-chin, Wiju, -Yong-ampo, and Phyong-yang. The value of foreign trade of the open ports -has fluctuated considerably, but has shown a tendency to increase on the -whole. For example, in 1884 imports were valued at L170,113 and exports -at L95,377. By 1890 imports had risen to L790,261, and thereafter -fluctuated greatly, standing at only L473,598 in 1893, but at L1,017,238 -in 1897, and L1,382,352 in 1901, but under abnormal conditions in 1904 -this last amount was nearly doubled. Exports in 1890 were valued at -L591,746; they also fluctuated greatly, falling to L316,072 in 1893, but -standing at L863,828 in 1901, and having a further increase in some -subsequent years. These figures exclude the value of gold dust. The -principal imports are cotton goods, railway materials, mining supplies -and metals, tobacco, kerosene, timber, and clothing. Japanese cotton -yarns are imported to be woven into a strong cloth on Korean hand-looms. -Beans and peas, rice, cowhides, and ginseng are the chief exports, apart -from gold. - - _Communications._--Under Japanese auspices a railway from Chemulpo to - Seoul was completed in 1900. This became a branch of the longer line - from Fusan to Seoul (286 m.), the concession for which was granted in - 1898. This line was pushed forward rapidly on the outbreak of the - Russo-Japanese War, and the whole was opened early in 1905. A railway - from Seoul to Wiju was planned under French engineers, but the work - was started by the Korean government. This line also, however, was - taken over by the Japanese military authorities, and the first trains - ran through early in 1905, in which year Japan obtained control of the - whole of the Korean internal communications. The main roads centring - in Seoul are seldom fit even for the passage of ox-carts, and the - secondary roads are bad bridle-tracks, frequently degenerating into - "rock ladders." Some improvements, however, have been effected under - Japanese direction. The inland transit of goods is almost entirely on - the backs of bulls carrying from 450 to 600 lb., on ponies carrying - 200 lb., and on men carrying from 100 to 150 lb., bringing the average - cost up to a fraction over 8d. per mile per ton. The corvee exists, - with its usual hardships. Bridges are made of posts, carrying a - framework either covered with timber or with pine branches and earth. - They are removed at the beginning of the rainy season, and are not - replaced for three months. The larger rivers are unbridged, but there - are numerous government ferries. The infamous roads and the risks - during the bridgeless season greatly hamper trade. Japanese steamers - ply on the Han between Chemulpo and Seoul. - - A postal system, established in 1894-1895, has been gradually - extended. There are postage stamps of four values. The Japanese, under - the agreement of 1905, took over the postal, telegraphic and telephone - services. Korea is connected with the Chinese and Japanese telegraph - systems by a Japanese line from Chemulpo via Seoul to Fusan, and by a - line acquired by the empire between Seoul and Wiju. The state has also - lines from Seoul to the open ports, &c. Korea has regular steam - communication with ports in Japan, the Gulf of Pechili, Shanghai, &c. - Her own mercantile marine is considerable. - -_Government._--From 1895, when China renounced her claims to suzerainty, -to 1910 the king (since 1897 emperor) was in theory an independent -sovereign, Japan in 1904 guaranteeing the welfare and dignity of the -imperial house. Under a treaty signed at Seoul on the 17th of November -1905, Japan directed the external relations of Korea, and Japanese -diplomatic and consular representatives took charge of Korean subjects -and interests in foreign countries. Japan undertook the maintenance of -existing treaties between Korea and foreign powers; and Korea agreed -that her future foreign treaties should be concluded through the medium -of Japan. A resident-general represented Japan at Seoul, to direct -diplomatic affairs, the first being the Marquis Ito. Under a further -convention of July 1907, the resident-general's powers were enormously -increased. In administrative reforms the Korean government followed his -guidance; laws could not be enacted nor administrative measures -undertaken without his consent; the appointment and dismissal of high -officials, and the engagement of foreigners in government employ, were -subject to his pleasure. Each department of state has a Japanese -vice-minister, and a large proportion of Japanese officials were -introduced into these departments as well as Japanese chiefs of the -bureaus of police and customs. By a treaty dated August 22nd 1910, which -came into effect seven days later the emperor of Korea made "complete -and permanent cession to the emperor of Japan of all rights of -sovereignty over the whole of Korea." The entire direction of the -administration was then taken over by the Japanese resident-general, who -was given the title of governor-general. The jurisdiction of the -consular courts was abolished but Japan guaranteed the continuance of -the existing Korean tariff for ten years. - - _Local Administration._--Korea for administrative purposes is divided - into provinces and prefectures or magistracies. Japanese reforms in - this department have been complete. Each provincial government has a - Japanese secretary, police inspector and clerks. The secretary may - represent the governor in his absence. - - _Law._--A criminal code, scarcely equalled for barbarity, though twice - mitigated by royal edict since 1785, remained in force in its main - provisions till 1895. Subsequently, a mixed commission of revision - carried out some good work. Elaborate legal machinery was devised, - though its provisions were constantly violated by the imperial will - and the gross corruption of officials. Five classes of law courts were - established, and provision was made for appeals in both civil and - criminal cases. Abuses in legal administration and in tax-collecting - were the chief grievances which led to local insurrections. Oppression - by the throne and the official and noble classes prevailed - extensively; but the weak protected themselves by the use of the - _Kyei_, or principle of association, which developed among Koreans - into powerful trading gilds, trades-unions, mutual benefit - associations, money-lending gilds, &c. Nearly all traders, porters and - artisans were members of gilds, powerfully bound together and strong - by combined action and mutual helpfulness in time of need. Under the - Japanese regime the judiciary and the executive were rigidly - separated. The law courts, including the court of cassation, three - courts of appeal, eight local courts, and 115 district courts, were - put under Japanese judges, and the codification of the laws was - undertaken. The prison system was also reformed. - - _Finance and Money._--Until 1904 the finances of Korea were completely - disorganized; the currency was chaotic, and the budget was an official - formality making little or no attempt at accuracy. By agreement of the - 22nd of August 1904, Korea accepted a Japanese financial adviser, and - valuable reforms were quickly entered upon under the direction of the - first Japanese official, Mr T. Megata. He had to contend against - corrupt officialdom, indiscriminate expenditure, and absence of - organization in the collection of revenue, apart from the confusion - with regard to the currency. This last was nominally on a silver - standard. The coins chiefly in use were (i) copper _cash_, which were - strung in hundreds on strings of straw, and, as about 9lb. weight was - equal to one shilling, were excessively cumbrous, but were - nevertheless valued at their face value; (ii) nickel coins, which, - being profitable to mint, were issued in enormous quantities, quickly - depreciated, and were moreover extensively forged. The Dai Ichi Ginko - (First Bank of Japan), which has a branch in Seoul and agencies in - other towns, was made the government central treasury, and its notes - were recognized as legal tender in Korea. The currency of Korea being - thus fixed, the first step was to reorganize the nickel coinage. From - the 1st of August 1905 the old nickels paid into the treasury were - remitted and the issue carefully regulated; so also with the cash, - which was retained as a subsidiary coinage, while a supplementary - coinage was issued of silver 10-sen pieces and bronze 1-sen and - half-sen pieces. To aid the free circulation of money and facilitate - trade, the government grants subsidies for the establishment of - co-operative warehouse companies with bonded warehouses. Regulations - have also been promulgated with respect to promissory notes, which - have long existed in Korea. They took the form of a piece of paper - about an inch broad and five to eight inches long, on which was - written the sum, the date of payment and the name of the payer and - payee, with their seals; the paper was then torn down its length, and - one half given to each party. The debtor was obliged to pay the amount - of the debt to any person who presented the missing half of the bill. - The readiness with which they were accepted led to over-issue, and, - consequently, financial crises. The new regulations require the - amount of the notes to be expressed in yen, not to be payable in old - nickel coins or cash. The notes can only be issued by members of a - note association, a body constituted under government regulations, - whose members must uphold the credit and validity of their notes. The - notes must also be made payable to a definite person and require - endorsement, safeguards which were previously lacking. Administrative - reform was also taken in hand; the large number of superfluous and - badly paid officials was considerably reduced, and the status and - salary of all existing government officials considerably improved. An - endeavour was made to publish an annual budget, in which the revenue - and expenditure should accurately represent the sums actually received - and expended. Regulations were framed for the purpose of establishing - adequate supervision over the revenue and expenditure for the - abolition of irregular taxation and extortions, as well as the - practice of farming out the collection of the revenue to individuals, - and, generally, to adapt the whole collection and expenditure of the - national revenue to modern ideas of public finance. Down to 1910 the - sum expended by Japan on Korean reforms was estimated to approach - fifteen millions sterling. Among reforms not specifically referred to - may be mentioned the improvement of coastwise navigation, the - provision of posts, roads, railways, public buildings, hospitals and - sanitary works, and the official advancement of industries. - - _Religion._--Buddhism, which swayed Korea from the 10th to the 14th - century, has been discredited for three centuries, and its priests are - ignorant, immoral and despised. Confucianism is the official cult, and - all officials offer sacrifices and homage at stated seasons in the - Confucian temples. Confucian ethics are the basis of morality and - social order. Ancestor-worship is universal. The popular cult is, - however, the propitiation of demons, a modification of the Shamanism - of northern Asia. The belief in demons, mostly malignant, keeps the - Koreans in constant terror, and much of their substance is spent on - propitiations. Sorceresses and blind sorcerers are the intermediaries. - At the close of the 19th century the fees annually paid to these - persons were estimated at L150,000; there were in Seoul 1000 - sorceresses, and very large sums are paid to the male sorcerers and - geomancers. - - Putting aside the temporary Christian work of a Jesuit chaplain to the - Japanese Christian General Konishe, in 1594 during the Japanese - invasion, as well as that on a larger scale by students who received - the evangel in the Roman form from Peking in 1792, and had made 4000 - converts by the end of 1793, the first serious attempt at the - conversion of Korea was made by the French _Societe des Missions - Etrangeres_ in 1835. In spite of frequent persecutions, there were - 16,500 converts in 1857 and 20,000 in 1866, in which year the French - bishops and priests were martyred by order of the emperor's father, - and several thousand native Christians were beheaded, banished or - imprisoned. This mission in 1900 had about 30 missionaries and 40,000 - converts. In 1884 and 1885, toleration being established, Protestant - missionaries of the American Presbyterian and Methodist Episcopal - Churches entered Korea, and were followed by a large number of agents - of other denominations. An English bishop, clergy, doctors and nursing - sisters arrived in 1890. Hospitals, orphanages, schools and an - admirable college in Seoul have been founded, along with tri-lingual - (Chinese, Korean and English) printing-presses; religious, historical - and scientific works and much of the Bible have been translated into - _En-mun_, and periodicals of an enlightened nature in the Korean - script are also circulated. The progress of Protestant missions was - very slow for some years, but from 1895 converts multiplied. - - _Education._--The "Royal Examinations" in Chinese literature held in - Seoul up to 1894, which were the entrance to official position, being - abolished, the desire for a purely Chinese education diminished. In - Seoul there were established an imperial English school with two - foreign teachers, a reorganized Confucian college, a normal college - under a very efficient foreign principal, Japanese, Chinese, Russian - and French schools, chiefly linguistic, several Korean primary - schools, mission boarding-schools, and the _Pai Chai_ College - connected with the American Methodist Episcopal Church, under imperial - patronage, and subsidized by government, in which a liberal education - of a high class was given and _En-mun_ receives much attention. The - Koreans are expert linguists, and the government made liberal grants - to the linguistic schools. In the primary schools boys learn - arithmetic, and geography and Korean history are taught, with the - outlines of the governmental systems of other civilized countries. The - education department has been entirely reorganized under the Japanese - regime, Japanese models being followed. - -_History._--By both Korean and Chinese tradition Ki-tze--a councillor of -the last sovereign of the 3rd Chinese dynasty, a sage, and the reputed -author of parts of the famous Chinese classic, the _Shu-King_--is -represented as entering Korea in 1122 B.C. with several thousand Chinese -emigrants, who made him their king. The peninsula was then peopled by -savages living in caves and subterranean holes. By both learned and -popular belief in Korea Ki-tze is recognized as the founder of Korean -social order, and is greatly reverenced. He called the new kingdom -_Ch'ao-Hsien_, pacified and policed its borders, and introduced laws -and Chinese etiquette and polity. Korean ancient history is far from -satisfying the rigid demands of modern criticism, but it appears that -Ki-tze's dynasty ruled the peninsula until the 4th century B.C., from -which period until the 10th century A.D. civil wars and foreign -aggressions are prominent. Nevertheless, Hiaksai, which with Korai and -Shinra then constituted Korea, was a centre of literary culture in the -4th century, through which the Chinese classics and the art of writing -reached the other two kingdoms. Buddhism, a forceful civilizing element, -reached Hiaksai in A.D. 384, and from it the sutras and images of -northern Buddhism were carried to Japan, as well as Chinese letters and -ethics. Internecine wars were terminated about 913 by Wang the Founder, -who unified the peninsula under the name Korai, made Song-do its -capital, and endowed Buddhism as the state religion. In the 11th century -Korea was stripped of her territory west of the Yalu by a warlike horde -of Tungus stock, since which time her frontiers have been stationary. -The Wang dynasty perished in 1392, an important epoch in the peninsula, -when Ni Taijo, or Litan, the founder of the present dynasty, ascended -the throne, after his country had suffered severely from Jenghiz and -Khublai Khan. He tendered his homage to the first Ming emperor of China, -received from him his investiture as sovereign, and accepted from him -the Chinese calendar and chronology, in itself a declaration of fealty. -He revived the name _Ch'ao-Hsien_, changed the capital from Song-do to -Seoul, organized an administrative system, which with some modifications -continued till 1895, and exists partially still, carried out vigorous -reforms, disestablished Buddhism, made merit in Chinese literary -examinations the basis of appointment to office, made Confucianism the -state religion, abolished human sacrifices and the burying of old men -alive, and introduced that Confucian system of education, polity, and -social order which has dominated Korea for five centuries. Either this -king or an immediate successor introduced the present national costume, -the dress worn by the Chinese before the Manchu conquest. The early -heirs of this vigorous and capable monarch used their power, like him, -for the good of the people; but later decay set in, and Japanese -buccaneers ravaged the coasts, though for two centuries under Chinese -protection Korea was free from actual foreign invasion. In 1592 occurred -the epoch-making invasion of Korea by a Japanese army of 300,000 men, by -order of the great regent Hideyoshi. China came to the rescue with -60,000 men, and six years of a gigantic and bloody war followed, in -which Japan used firearms for the first time against a foreign foe. -Seoul and several of the oldest cities were captured, and in some -instances destroyed, the country was desolated, and the art treasures -and the artists were carried to Japan. The Japanese troops were recalled -in 1598 at Hideyoshi's death. The port and fishing privileges of Fusan -remained in Japanese possession, a heavy tribute was exacted, and until -1790 the Korean king stood in humiliating relations towards Japan. Korea -never recovered from the effects of this invasion, which bequeathed to -all Koreans an intense hatred of the Japanese. - -In 1866, 1867, and 1871 French and American punitive expeditions -attacked parts of Korea in which French missionaries and American -adventurers had been put to death, and inflicted much loss of life, but -retired without securing any diplomatic successes, and Korea continued -to preserve her complete isolation. The first indirect step towards -breaking it down had been taken in 1860, when Russia obtained from China -the cession of the Usuri province, thus bringing a European power down -to the Tumen. A large emigration of famine-stricken Koreans and -persecuted Christians into Russian territory followed. The emigrants -were very kindly received, and many of them became thrifty and -prosperous farmers. In 1876 Japan, with the consent of China, wrung a -treaty from Korea by which Fusan was fully opened to Japanese settlement -and trade, and Won-san (Gensan) and Inchiun (Chemulpo) were opened to -her in 1880. In 1882 China promulgated her "Trade and Frontier -Regulations," and America negotiated a commercial treaty, followed by -Germany and Great Britain in 1883, Italy and Russia in 1884, France in -1886, and Austria in 1892. A "Trade Convention" was also concluded with -Russia. Seoul was opened in 1884 to foreign residence, and the provinces -to foreign travel, and the diplomatic agents of the contracting powers -obtained a recognized status at the capital. These treaties terminated -the absolute isolation which Korea had effectually preserved. During the -negotiations, although under Chinese suzerainty, she was treated with as -an independent state. Between 1897 and 1899, under diplomatic pressure, -a number of ports were opened to foreign trade and residence. From 1882 -to 1894 the chief event in the newly opened kingdom was a plot by the -Tai-won-Kun, the father of the emperor, to seize on power, which led to -an attack on the Japanese legation, the members of which were compelled -to fight their way, and that not bloodlessly, to the sea. Japan secured -ample compensation; and the Chinese resident, aided by Chinese troops, -deported the Tai-won-Kun to Tientsin. In 1884 at an official banquet the -leaders of the progressive party assassinated six leading Korean -statesmen, and the intrigues in Korea of the banished or escaped -conspirators created difficulties which were very slow to subside. In -spite of a constant struggle for ascendancy between the queen and the -returned Tai-won-Kun, the next decade was one of quiet. China, always -esteemed in Korea, consolidated her influence under the new conditions -through a powerful resident; prosperity advanced, and certain reforms -were projected by foreign "advisers." In May 1894 a more important -insurrectionary rising than usual led the king to ask armed aid from -China. She landed 2000 troops on the 10th of June, having previously, in -accordance with treaty provisions, notified Japan of her intention. Soon -after this Japan had 12,000 troops in Korea, and occupied the capital -and the treaty ports. Then Japan made three sensible proposals for -Korean reform, to be undertaken jointly by herself and China. China -replied that Korea must be left to reform herself, and that the -withdrawal of the Japanese troops must precede negotiations. Japan -rejected this suggestion, and on the 23rd of July attacked and occupied -the royal palace. After some further negotiations and fights by land and -sea between Japan and China war was declared formally by Japan, and -Korea was for some time the battle-ground of the belligerents. The -Japanese victories resulted for Korea in the solemn renunciation of -Chinese suzerainty by the Korean king, the substitution of Japanese for -Chinese influence, the introduction of many important reforms under -Japanese advisers, and of checks on the absolutism of the throne. -Everything promised well. The finances flourished under the capable -control of Mr (afterwards Sir) M'Leavy Brown, C.M.G. Large and judicious -retrenchments were carried out in most of the government departments. A -measure of judicial and prison reform was granted. Taxation was placed -on an equable basis. The pressure of the trade gilds was relaxed. Postal -and educational systems were introduced. An approach to a constitution -was made. The distinction between patrician and plebeian, domestic -slavery, and beating and slicing to death were abolished. The age for -marriage of both sexes was raised. Chinese literary examinations ceased -to be a passport to office. Classes previously degraded were -enfranchised, and the alliance between two essentially corrupt systems -of government was severed. For about eighteen months all the departments -were practically under Japanese control. On the 8th of October 1895 the -Tai-won-Kun, with Korean troops, aided by Japanese troops under the -orders of Viscount Miura, the Japanese minister, captured the palace, -assassinated the queen, and made a prisoner of the king, who, however, -four months later, escaped to the Russian legation, where he remained -till the spring of 1897. Japanese influence waned. The engagements of -the advisers were not renewed. A strong retrograde movement set in. -Reforms were dropped. The king, with the checks upon his absolutism -removed, reverted to the worst traditions of his dynasty, and the -control and arrangements of finance were upset by Russia. - -At the close of 1897 the king assumed the title of emperor, and changed -the official designation of the empire to _Dai Han_--Great Han. By 1898 -the imperial will, working under partially new conditions, produced -continual chaos, and by 1900 succeeded in practically overriding all -constitutional restraints. Meanwhile Russian intrigue was constantly -active. At last Japan resorted to arms, and her success against Russia -in the war of 1904-5 enabled her to resume her influence over Korea. On -the 23rd of February 1904 an agreement was determined whereby Japan -resumed her position as administrative adviser to Korea, guaranteed the -integrity of the country, and bound herself to maintain the imperial -house in its position. Her interests were recognized by Russia in the -treaty of peace (September 5, 1905), and by Great Britain in the -Anglo-Japanese agreement of the 12th of August 1905. The Koreans did not -accept the restoration of Japanese influence without demur. In August -1905 disturbances arose owing to an attempt by some merchants to obtain -special assistance from the treasury on the pretext of embarrassment -caused by Japanese financial reforms; these disturbances spread to some -of the provinces, and the Japanese were compelled to make a show of -force. Prolonged negotiations were necessary to the completion of the -treaty of the 17th of November 1905, whereby Japan obtained the control -of Korea's foreign affairs and relations, and the confirmation of -previous agreements, the far-reaching results of which have been -indicated. Nor was opposition to Japanese reforms confined to popular -demonstration. In 1907 a Korean delegacy, headed by Prince Yong, a -member of the imperial family, was sent out to lay before the Hague -conference of that year, and before all the principal governments, a -protest against the treatment of Korea by Japan. While this was of -course fruitless from the Korean point of view, it indicated that the -Japanese must take strong measures to suppress the intrigues of the -Korean court. - -At the instigation of the Korean ministry the emperor abdicated on the -19th of July 1907, handing over the crown to his son. Somewhat serious -_emeutes_ followed in Seoul and elsewhere, and the Japanese proposals -for a new convention, increasing the powers of the resident general, had -to be presented to the cabinet under a strong guard. The convention was -signed on the 25th of July. One of the reforms immediately undertaken -was the disbanding of the Korean standing army, which led to an -insurrection and an intermittent guerrilla warfare which, owing to the -nature of the country, was not easy to subdue. Under the direction of -Prince Ito (q.v.) the work of reform was vigorously prosecuted. In July -1909, General Teranchi, Japanese minister of war, became -resident-general, with the mission to bring about annexation. This was -effected peacefully in August 1910, the emperor of Korea by formal -treaty surrendering his country and crown. (See JAPAN.) - - AUTHORITIES.--The first Asiatic notice of Korea is by Khordadbeh, an - Arab geographer of the 9th century A.D., in his _Book of Roads and - Provinces_, quoted by Baron Richthofen in his great work on _China_, - p. 575. The earliest European source of information is a narrative by - H. Hamel, a Dutchman, who was shipwrecked on the coast of Quelpart in - 1654, and held in captivity in Korea for thirteen years. The amount of - papers on Korea scattered through English, German, French and Russian - magazines, and the proceedings of geographical societies, is very - great, and for the last three centuries Japanese writers have - contributed largely to the sum of general knowledge of the peninsula. - The list which follows includes some of the more recent works which - illustrate the history, manners and customs, and awakening of Korea: - _British Foreign Office Reports on Korean Trade, Annual Series_ - (London); _Bibliographie koreanne_ (3 vols., Paris, 1897); Mrs. I. L. - Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (2 vols., London, 1897); M. von - Brandt, _Ostasiatische Fragen_ (Leipzig, 1897); A. E. J. Cavendish and - H. E. Goold Adams, _Korea, and the Sacred White Mountain_ (London, - 1894); Stewart Culin, _Korean Games_ (Philadelphia, 1895); Curzon, - _Problems of the Far East_ (London, 1896); Dallet, _Histoire de - l'eglise de Koree_ (2 vols., Paris, 1874); J. S. Gale, _Korean - Sketches_ (Edinburgh, 1898); W. E. Griffis, _The Hermit Nation_ (8th - and revised edition, New York, 1907); H. Hamel, _Relation du naufrage - d'un vaisseau Halindois, &c., traduite du Flamond par M. Minutoli_ - (Paris, 1670); Okoji Hidemoto, _Der Feldzug der Japanir gegen Korea im - Jahre 1597; translated from Japanese by Professor von Pfizmaier_ (2 - vols., Vienna, 1875); M. Jametel, "La Koree: ses ressources, son - avenir commercial," _L'Economiste francaise_ (Paris, July 1881); - Percival Lowell, _Choson: The Land of the Morning Calm_ (London, - Boston, 1886); L. J. Miln, _Quaint Korea_ (Harper, New York, 1895); - V. de Laguerie, _La Koree independante, russe ou japonaise?_ (Paris, - 1898); J. Ross, _Korea: Its History, Manners and Customs_ (Paisley, - 1880); W. H. Wilkinson, _The Korean Government: Constitutional Changes - in Korea during the period 23rd July 1894--30th June 1896_ (Shanghai, - 1896); A. Hamilton, _Korea_ (London, 1903); C. J. D. Taylor, _Koreans - at Home_ (London, 1904); E. Boudaret, _En Coree_ (Paris, 1904); - Laurent-Cremazy, _Le Code penal de la Coree_ (Paris, 1904); G. T. - Ladd, _In Korea with Marquis Ito_ (London, 1908); Dictionaries and - vocabularies by W. F. Myers (English secretary of Legation at Peking), - the French missionaries, and others, were superseded in 1898 by a - large and learned volume by the Rev J. S. Gale, a Presbyterian - missionary, who devoted some years to the work. On geology, see C. - Gottsche, "Geologische Skizze von Korea," _Sitz. preuss. Akad. Wiss._ - (Berlin, Jahrg. 1886, pp. 857-873, Pl. viii.). A summary of this - paper, with a reproduction of the map, is given by L. Pervinquiere in - _Rev. sci._ Paris, 5th series, vol. i. (1904), pp. 545-552. - (I. L. B.; O. J. R. H.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Named after William Robert Broughton (1762-1821), an English - navigator who explored these seas in 1795-1798. - - - - -KOREA, a tributary state of India, transferred from Bengal to the -Central Provinces in 1905; area, 1631 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 35,113, or -only 22 persons per sq. m.; estimated revenue, L1200. It consists of an -elevated table-land, with hills rising to above 3000 ft. Such traffic as -there is is carried by means of pack-bullocks. - - - - -KORESHAN ECCLESIA, THE, or CHURCH ARCHTRIUMPHANT, a communistic body, -founded by Cyrus R. Teed, a medical practitioner, who was born at Utica, -New York, in 1839. Teed was regarded by his adherents as "the new -Messiah now in the World," and many other extravagant views both in -science and economics are held by them. Two communities were founded: in -Chicago (1886) and at Estero, in Lee county, Florida (1894), where in -1903 the Chicago community removed. Their name is derived from Koresh, -the Hebrew form of Cyrus, and they have a journal, _The Flaming Sword_. - - - - -KORIN, OGATA (c. 1657-1716), Japanese painter and lacquerer, was born at -Koto, the son of a wealthy merchant who had a taste for the arts and is -said to have given his son some elementary instruction therein. Korin -also studied under Soken Yamamoto, Kano, Tsunenobu and Gukei Sumiyoshi; -and he was greatly influenced by his predecessors Koyetsu and Sotatsu. -On arriving at maturity, however, he broke away from all tradition, and -developed a very original and quite distinctive style of his own, both -in painting and in the decoration of lacquer. The characteristic of this -is a bold impressionism, which is expressed in few and simple highly -idealized forms, with an absolute disregard either of realism or of the -usual conventions. In lacquer Korin's use of white metals arid of -mother-of-pearl is notable; but herein he followed Koyetsu. Korin died -on the 2nd of June 1716, at the age of fifty-nine. His chief pupils were -Kagei Tatebashi and Shiko Watanable; but the present knowledge and -appreciation of his work are largely due to the efforts of Hoitsu Sakai, -who brought about a revival of Korin's style. - - See A. Morrison, _The Painters of Japan_ (1902); S. Tajima, - _Masterpieces selected from the Korin School_ (1903); S. Hoitsu, _The - 100 Designs by Korin_ (1815) and _More Designs by Korin_ (1826). - (E. F. S.) - - - - -KORKUS, an aboriginal tribe of India, dwelling on the Satpura hills in -the Central Provinces. They are of interest as being the westernmost -representatives of the Munda family of speech. They are rapidly becoming -hinduized, as may be gathered from the figures of the census of 1901, -which show 140,000 Korkus by race, but only 88,000 speakers of the Korku -language. - - - - -KORMOCZBANYA (German, _Kremnitz_), an old mining town, in the county of -Bars, in Hungary, 158 m. N. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 4299. It -is situated in a deep valley in the Hungarian Ore Mountains region. -Among its principal buildings are the castle, several Roman Catholic -(from the 13th and 14th centuries) and Lutheran churches, a Franciscan -monastery (founded 1634), the town-hall, and the mint where the -celebrated Kremnitz gold ducats were formerly struck. The bulk of the -inhabitants find employment in connexion with the gold and silver mines. -By means of a tunnel 9 m. in length, constructed in 1851-1852, the water -is drained off from the mines into the river Gran. According to -tradition, Kormoczbanya was founded in the 8th century by Saxons. The -place is mentioned in documents in 1317, and became a royal free town -in 1328, being therefore one of the oldest free towns in Hungary. - - - - -KORNER, KARL THEODOR (1791-1813), German poet and patriot, often called -the German "Tyrtaeus," was born at Dresden on the 23rd of September -1791. His father, Christian Gottfried Korner (1756-1831), a -distinguished Saxon jurist, was Schiller's most intimate friend. He was -educated at the Kreuzschule in Dresden and entered at the age of -seventeen the mining academy at Freiburg in Saxony, where he remained -two years. Here he occupied himself less with science than with verse, a -collection of which appeared under the title _Knospen_ in 1810. In this -year he went to the university of Leipzig, in order to study law; but he -became involved in a serious conflict with the police and was obliged to -continue his studies in Berlin. In August 1811 Korner went to Vienna, -where he devoted himself entirely to literary pursuits; he became -engaged to the actress Antonie Adamberger, and, after the success of -several plays produced in 1812, he was appointed poet to the -Hofburgtheater. When the German nation rose against the French yoke, in -1813, Korner gave up all his prospects at Vienna and joined Lutzow's -famous corps of volunteers at Breslau. On his march to Leipzig he passed -through Dresden, where he issued his spirited _Aufruf an die Sachsen_, -in which he called upon his countrymen to rise against their oppressors. -He became lieutenant towards the end of April, and took part in a -skirmish at Kitzen near Leipzig on the 7th of June, when he was severely -wounded. After being nursed by friends at Leipzig and Carlsbad, he -rejoined his corps and fell in an engagement outside a wood near -Gadebusch in Mecklenburg on the 26th of August 1813. He was buried by -his comrades under an oak close to the village of Wobbelin, where there -is a monument to him. - -The abiding interest in Korner is patriotic and political rather than -literary. His fame as a poet rests upon his patriotic lyrics, which were -published by his father under the title _Leier und Schwert_ in 1814. -These songs, which fired the poet's comrades to deeds of heroism in -1813, bear eloquent testimony to the intensity of the national feeling -against Napoleon, but judged as literature they contain more bombast -than poetry. Among the best known are "Lutzow's wilde verwegene Jagd," -"Gebet wahrend der Schlacht" (set to music by Weber) and "Das -Schwertlied." This last was written immediately before his death, and -the last stanza added on the fatal morning. As a dramatist Korner was -remarkably prolific, but his comedies hardly touch the level of -Kotzebue's and his tragedies, of which the best is _Zriny_ (1814), are -rhetorical imitations of Schiller's. - - His works have passed through many editions. Among the more recent - are: _Samtliche Werke_ (Stuttgart, 1890), edited by Adolf Stern; by H. - Zimmer (2 vols., Leipzig, 1893) and by E. Goetze (Berlin, 1900). The - most valuable contributions to our knowledge of the poet have been - furnished by E. Peschel, the founder and director of the Korner Museum - in Dresden, in _Theodor Korners Tagebuch und Kriegslieder, aus dem - Jahre 1813_ (Freiburg, 1893) and, in conjunction with E. Wildenow, - _Theodor Korner und die Seinen_ (Leipzig, 1898). - - - - -KORNEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 9 m. N.W. of Vienna by -rail. Pop. (1900), 8298. It is situated on the left bank of the Danube, -opposite Klosterneuburg. It is a steamship station and an important -emporium of the salt and corn trade. The industry comprises the -manufacture of coarse textiles, pasteboard, &c. Its charter as a town -dates from 1298, and it was a much frequented market in the preceding -century. At the beginning of the 15th century it was surrounded by -walls, and in 1450 a fortress was erected. It was frequently involved in -the conflict between the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus and the -emperor Frederick William III., and also during the Thirty Years' War. - - - - -KOROCHA, a town of central Russia, in the government of Kursk, 75 m. -S.S.E. of the city of Kursk, on the Korocha river. Pop. (1897), 14,405. -Its inhabitants live by gardening, exporting large quantities of dried -cherries, by making candles and leather, and by trade; the merchants -purchase cattle, grain and salt in the south and send them to Moscow. -Founded in 1638, Korocha was formerly a small fort intended to check the -Tatar invasions. - - - - -KORSOR, a seaport of Denmark, in the _amt_ (county) of the island of -Zealand, 69 m. by rail W.S.W. of Copenhagen, on the east shore of the -Great Belt. Pop. (1901), 6054. The harbour, which is formed by a bay of -the Baltic, has a depth throughout of 20 ft. It is the point of -departure and arrival of the steam ferry to Nyborg on Funen, lying on -the Hamburg, Schleswig, Fredericia and Copenhagen route. There is also -regular communication by water with Kiel. The chief exports are fish, -cereals, bacon; imports, petroleum and coal. A market town since the -14th century, Korsor has ruins of an old fortified castle, on the south -side of the channel, dating from the 14th and 17th centuries. - - - - -KORTCHA (Slavonic, _Goritza_ or _Koritza_), a city of Albania, European -Turkey, in the vilayet of Iannina, in a wide plain watered by the Devol -and Dunavitza rivers, and surrounded by mountains on every side except -the north, where Lake Malik constitutes the boundary. Pop. (1905), about -10,000, including Greeks, Albanians and Slavs. Kortcha is the see of an -Orthodox Greek metropolitan, whose large cathedral is richly decorated -in the interior with paintings and statues. The Kortcha school for -girls, conducted by American missionaries, is the only educational -establishment in which the Turkish government permits the use of -Albanian as the language of instruction. The local trade is chiefly -agricultural. - - - - -KORYAKS, a Mongoloid people of north-eastern Siberia, inhabiting the -coast-lands of the Bering Sea to the south of the Anadyr basin and the -country to the immediate north of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the -southernmost limit of their range being Tigilsk. They are akin to the -Chukchis, whom they closely resemble in physique and in manner of life. -Thus they are divided into the settled fishing tribes and the nomad -reindeer breeders and hunters. The former are described as being more -morally and physically degraded even than the Chukchis, and hopelessly -poor. The Koryaks of the interior, on the other hand, still own enormous -reindeer herds, to which they are so attached that they refuse to part -with an animal to a stranger at any price. They are in disposition -brave, intelligent and self-reliant, and recognize no master. They have -ever tenaciously resisted Russian aggression, and in their fights with -the Cossacks have proved themselves recklessly brave. When outnumbered -they would kill their women and children, set fire to their homes, and -die fighting. Families usually gather in groups of sixes or sevens, -forming miniature states, in which the nominal chief has no -predominating authority, but all are equal. The Koryaks are polygamous, -earning their wives by working for their fathers-in-law. The women and -children are treated well, and Koryak courtesy and hospitality are -proverbial. The chief wedding ceremony is a forcible abduction of the -bride. They kill the aged and infirm, in the belief that thus to save -them from protracted sufferings is the highest proof of affection. The -victims choose their mode of death, and young Koryaks practise the art -of giving the fatal blow quickly and mercifully. Infanticide was -formerly common, and one of twins was always sacrificed. They burn their -dead. The prevailing religion is Shamanism; sacrifices are made to evil -spirits, the heads of the victims being placed on stones facing east. - - See G. Kennan, _Tent Life in Siberia_ (1871); "Uber die Koriaken u. - ihnen nahe verwandten Tchouktchen," in _Bul. Acad. Sc. St. - Petersburg_, xii. 99. - - - - -KOSCIUSCO, the highest mountain in Australia, in the range of the -Australian Alps, towards the south-eastern extremity of New South Wales. -Its height is 7328 ft. An adjacent peak to the south, Mueller's Peak, -long considered the highest in the continent, is 7268 ft. high. A -meteorological station was established on Kosciusco in 1897. - - - - -KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ ANDRZEJ BONAWENTURA (1746-1817), Polish soldier and -statesman, the son of Ludwik Kosciuszko, sword-bearer of the palatinate -of Brzesc, and Tekla Ratomska, was born in the village of -Mereczowszczyno. After being educated at home he entered the corps of -cadets at Warsaw, where his unusual ability and energy attracted the -notice of Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski, by whose influence in 1769 he -was sent abroad at the expense of the state to complete his military -education. In Germany, Italy and France he studied diligently, -completing his course at Brest, where he learnt fortification and naval -tactics, returning to Poland in 1774 with the rank of captain of -artillery. While engaged in teaching the daughters of the Grand Hetman, -Sosnowski of Sosnowica, drawing and mathematics, he fell in love with -the youngest of them, Ludwika, and not venturing to hope for the consent -of her father, the lovers resolved to fly and be married privately. -Before they could accomplish their design, however, the wooer was -attacked by Sosnowski's retainers, but defended himself valiantly till, -covered with wounds, he was ejected from the house. This was in 1776. -Equally unfortunate was Kosciuszko's wooing of Tekla Zurowska in 1791, -the father of the lady in this case also refusing his consent. - -In the interval between these amorous episodes Kosciuszko won his spurs -in the New World. In 1776 he entered the army of the United States as a -volunteer, and brilliantly distinguished himself, especially during the -operations about New York and at Yorktown. Washington promoted -Kosciuszko to the rank of a colonel of artillery and made him his -adjutant. His humanity and charm of manner made him moreover one the -most popular of the American officers. In 1783 Kosciuszko was rewarded -for his services and his devotion to the cause of American independence -with the thanks of Congress, the privilege of American citizenship, a -considerable annual pension with landed estates, and the rank of -brigadier-general, which he retained in the Polish service. - -In the war following upon the proclamation of the constitution of the -3rd of May 1791 and the formation of the reactionary Confederation of -Targowica (see POLAND: _History_), Kosciuszko took a leading part. As -the commander of a division under Prince Joseph Poniatowski he -distinguished himself at the battle of Zielence in 1792, and at Dubienka -(July 18) with 4000 men and 10 guns defended the line of the Bug for -five days against the Russians with 18,000 men and 60 guns, subsequently -retiring upon Warsaw unmolested. When the king acceded to the -Targowicians, Kosciuszko with many other Polish generals threw up his -commission and retired to Leipzig, which speedily became the centre of -the Polish emigration. In January 1793, provided with letters of -introduction from the French agent Perandier, Kosciuszko went on a -political mission to Paris to induce the revolutionary government to -espouse the cause of Poland. In return for assistance he promised to -make the future government of Poland as close a copy of the French -government as possible; but the Jacobins, already intent on detaching -Prussia from the anti-French coalition, had no serious intention of -fighting Poland's battles. The fact that Kosciuszko's visit synchronized -with the execution of Louis XVI. subsequently gave the enemies of Poland -a plausible pretext for accusing her of Jacobinism, and thus prejudicing -Europe against her. On his return to Leipzig Kosciuszko was invited by -the Polish insurgents to take the command of the national armies, with -dictatorial power. He hesitated at first, well aware that a rising in -the circumstances was premature. "I will have nothing to do with Cossack -raiding," he replied; "if war we have, it must be a regular war." He -also insisted that the war must be conducted on the model of the -American War of Independence, and settled down in the neighbourhood of -Cracow to await events. When, however, he heard that the insurrection -had already broken out, and that the Russian armies were concentrating -to crush it, Kosciuszko hesitated no longer, but hastened to Cracow, -which he reached on the 23rd of March 1794. On the following day his -arms were consecrated according to ancient custom at the church of the -Capucins, by way of giving the insurrection a religious sanction -incompatible with Jacobinism. The same day, amidst a vast concourse of -people in the market-place, Kosciuszko took an oath of fidelity to the -Polish nation; swore to wage war against the enemies of his country; but -protested at the same time that he would fight only for the independence -and territorial integrity of Poland. - -The insurrection had from the first a purely popular character. We find -none of the great historic names of Poland in the lists of the original -confederates. For the most part the confederates of Kosciuszko were -small squires, traders, peasants and men of low degree generally. Yet -the comparatively few gentlemen who joined the movement sacrificed -everything to it. Thus, to take but a single instance, Karol Prozor sold -the whole of his ancestral estates and thus contributed 1,000,000 -thalers to the cause. From the 24th of March to the 1st of April -Kosciuszko remained at Cracow organizing his forces. On the 3rd of April -at Raclawice, with 4000 regulars, and 2000 peasants armed only with -scythes and pikes, and next to no artillery, he defeated the Russians, -who had 5000 veterans and 30 guns. This victory had an immense moral -effect, and brought into the Polish camp crowds of waverers to what had -at first seemed a desperate cause. For the next two months Kosciuszko -remained on the defensive near Sandomir. He durst not risk another -engagement with the only army which Poland so far possessed, and he had -neither money, officers nor artillery. The country, harried incessantly -during the last two years, was in a pitiable condition. There was -nothing to feed the troops in the very provinces they occupied, and -provisions had to be imported from Galicia. Money could only be obtained -by such desperate expedients as the melting of the plate of the churches -and monasteries, which was brought in to Kosciuszko's camp at Pinczow -and subsequently coined at Warsaw, minus the royal effigy, with the -inscription: "Freedom, Integrity and Independence of the Republic, -1794." Moreover, Poland was unprepared. Most of the regular troops were -incorporated in the Russian army, from which it was very difficult to -break away, and until these soldiers came in Kosciuszko had principally -to depend on the valour of his scythemen. But in the month of April the -whole situation improved. On the 17th of that month the 2000 Polish -troops in Warsaw expelled the Russian garrison after days of street -fighting, chiefly through the ability of General Mokronowski, and a -provisional government was formed. Five days later Jakob Jasinski drove -the Russians from Wilna. - -By this time Kosciuszko's forces had risen to 14,000, of whom 10,000 -were regulars, and he was thus able to resume the offensive. He had -carefully avoided doing anything to provoke Austria or Prussia. The -former was described in his manifestoes as a potential friend; the -latter he never alluded to as an enemy. "Remember," he wrote, "that the -only war we have upon our hands is war to the death against the -Muscovite tyranny." Nevertheless Austria remained suspicious and -obstructive; and the Prussians, while professing neutrality, very -speedily effected a junction with the Russian forces. This Kosciuszko, -misled by the treacherous assurances of Frederick William's ministers, -never anticipated, when on the 4th of June he marched against General -Denisov. He encountered the enemy on the 5th of June at Szczekociny, and -then discovered that his 14,000 men had to do not merely with a Russian -division but with the combined forces of Russia and Prussia, numbering -25,000 men. Nevertheless, the Poles acquitted themselves manfully, and -at dusk retreated in perfect order upon Warsaw unpursued. Yet their -losses had been terrible, and of the six Polish generals present three, -whose loss proved to be irreparable, were slain, and two of the others -were seriously wounded. A week later another Polish division was -defeated at Kholm; Cracow was taken by the Prussians on the 22nd of -June; and the mob at Warsaw broke upon the gaols and murdered the -political prisoners in cold blood. Kosciuszko summarily punished the -ringleaders of the massacres and had 10,000 of the rank and file drafted -into his camp, which measures had a quieting effect. But now dissensions -broke out among the members of the Polish government, and it required -all the tact of Kosciuszko to restore order amidst this chaos of -suspicions and recriminations. At this very time too he had need of all -his ability and resource to meet the external foes of Poland. On the 9th -of July Warsaw was invested by Frederick William of Prussia with an army -of 25,000 men and 179 guns, and the Russian general Fersen with 16,000 -men and 74 guns, while a third force of 11,000 occupied the right bank -of the Vistula. Kosciuszko for the defence of the city and its outlying -fortifications could dispose of 35,000 men, of whom 10,000 were -regulars. But the position, defended by 200 inferior guns, was a strong -one, and the valour of the Poles and the engineering skill of -Kosciuszko, who was now in his element, frustrated all the efforts of -the enemy. Two unsuccessful assaults were made upon the Polish positions -on the 26th of August and the 1st of September, and on the 6th the -Prussians, alarmed by the progress of the Polish arms in Great Poland, -where Jan Henryk Dabrowski captured the Prussian fortress of Bydogoszcz -and compelled General Schwerin with his 20,000 men to retire upon -Kalisz, raised the siege. Elsewhere, indeed, after a brief triumph the -Poles were everywhere worsted, and Suvarov, after driving them before -him out of Lithuania was advancing by forced marches upon Warsaw. Even -now, however, the situation was not desperate, for the Polish forces -were still numerically superior to the Russian. But the Polish generals -proved unequal to carrying out the plans of the dictator; they allowed -themselves to be beaten in detail, and could not prevent the junction of -Suvarov and Fersen. Kosciuszko himself, relying on the support of -Poninski's division 4 m. away, attacked Fersen at Maciejowice on the -10th of October. But Poninski never appeared, and after a bloody -encounter the Polish army of 7000 was almost annihilated by the 16,000 -Russians; and Kosciuszko, seriously wounded and insensible, was made a -prisoner on the field of battle. The long credited story that he cried -"Finis Poloniae!" as he fell is a fiction. - -Kosciuszko was conveyed to Russia, where he remained till the accession -of Paul in 1796. On his return on the 19th of December 1796 he paid a -second visit to America, and lived at Philadelphia till May 1798, when -he went to Paris, where the First Consul earnestly invited his -co-operation against the Allies. But he refused to draw his sword unless -Napoleon undertook to give the restoration of Poland a leading place in -his plans; and to this, as he no doubt foresaw, Bonaparte would not -consent. Again and again he received offers of high commands in the -French army, but he kept aloof from public life in his house at -Berville, near Paris, where the emperor Alexander visited him in 1814. -At the Congress of Vienna his importunities on behalf of Poland finally -wearied Alexander, who preferred to follow the counsels of Czartoryski; -and Kosciuszko retired to Solothurn, where he lived with his friend -Zeltner. Shortly before his death, on the 2nd of April 1817, he -emancipated his serfs, insisting only on the maintenance of schools on -the liberated estates. His remains were carried to Cracow and buried in -the cathedral; while the people, reviving an ancient custom, raised a -huge mound to his memory near the city. - -Kosciuszko was essentially a democrat, but a democrat of the school of -Jefferson and Lafayette. He maintained that the republic could only be -regenerated on the basis of absolute liberty and equality before the -law; but in this respect he was far in advance of his age, and the -aristocratic prejudices of his countrymen compelled him to resort to -half measures. He wrote _Manoeuvres of Horse Artillery_ (New York, 1808) -and a description of the campaign of 1792 (in vol. xvi. of E. -Raczynski's _Sketch of the Poles and Poland_ (Posen, 1843). - - See Jozef Zajaczek, _History of the Revolution of_ 1794 (Pol.) - (Lemberg, 1881); Leonard Jakob Borejko Chodzko, _Biographie du general - Kosciuszko_ (Fontainebleau, 1837); Karol Falkenstein, _Thaddaus - Kosciuszko_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1834; French ed., Paris, 1839); Antoni - Choloniewski, _Tadeusz Kosciuszko_ (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1902); Franciszek - Rychlicki, _T. Kosciuszko and the Partition of Poland_ (Pol.) (Cracow, - 1875). (R. N. B.) - - - - -KOSEN, a village and summer resort of Germany, in the Prussian province -of Saxony, 33 m. by rail S. by W. of Halle, on the Saale. Pop. (1905), -2990. The town has a mineral spring, which is used for bathing, being -efficacious for rheumatism and other complaints. Kosen, which became a -town in 1869, has large mill-works; it has a trade in wood and wine. On -the adjacent Rudelsburg, where there is a ruined castle, the German -students have erected a monument to their comrades who fell in the -Franco-German War of 1870-71. Hereon are also memorials to Bismarck and -to the emperor William I. The town is famous as the central -meeting-place of the German students' corps, which hold an annual -congress here every Whitsuntide. - - See Techow, _Fuhrer durch Kosen und Umgegend_ (Kosen, 1889); and - Rosenberg, _Kosen_ (Naumburg, 1877). - - - - -KOSHER, or KASHER (Hebrew clean, right, or fit), the Jewish term for any -food or vessels for food made ritually fit for use, in contradistinction -to those _pasul_, unfit, and _terefah_, forbidden. Thus the vessels used -at the Passover are "kosher," as are also new metal vessels bought from -a Gentile after they have been washed in a ritual bath. But the term is -specially used of meat slaughtered in accordance with the law of Moses. -The _schochat_ or butcher must be a devout Jew and of high moral -character, and be duly licensed by the chief rabbi. The -slaughtering--the object of which is to insure the complete bleeding of -the body, the Jews being forbidden to eat blood--is done by severing the -windpipe with a long and razor-sharp knife by one continuous stroke -backwards and forwards. No unnecessary force is permitted, and no -stoppage must occur during the operation. The knife is then carefully -examined, and if there be the slightest flaw in its blade the meat -cannot be eaten, as the cut would not have been clean, the uneven blade -causing a thrill to pass through the beast and thus driving the blood -again through the arteries. After this every portion of the animal is -thoroughly examined, for if there is any organic disease the devout Jew -cannot taste the meat. In order to soften meat before it is salted, so -as to allow the salt to extract the blood more freely, the meat is -soaked in water for about half an hour. It is then covered with salt for -about an hour and afterwards washed three times. Kosher meat is labelled -with the name of the slaughterer and the date of killing. - - - - -KOSLIN, or COSLIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of -Pomerania, at the foot of the Gollenberg (450 ft.), 5 m. from the -Baltic, and 105 m. N.E. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (1905), 21,474. The -town has two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a gymnasium, a -cadet academy and a deaf and dumb asylum. In the large market place is -the statue of the Prussian king Frederick William I., erected in 1824, -and there is a war memorial on the Friedrich Wilhelm Platz. The -industries include the manufacture of soap, tobacco, machinery, paper, -bricks and tiles, beer and other goods. Koslin was built about 1188 by -the Saxons, and raised to the rank of a town in 1266. In 1532 it -accepted the doctrines of the Reformation. It was severely tried in the -Thirty Years' War and in the Seven Years' War, and in 1720 it was burned -down. On the Gollenberg stands a monument to the memory of the -Pomeranians who fell in the war of 1813-15. - - - - -KOSSOVO, or Kosovo, a vilayet of European Turkey, comprising the sanjak -of Uskub in Macedonia, and the sanjaks of Prizren and Novibazar (q.v.) -in northern Albania. Pop. (1905), about 1,100,000; area, 12,700 sq. m. -For an account of the physical features of Kossovo, see ALBANIA and -MACEDONIA. The inhabitants are chiefly Albanians and Slavs, with smaller -communities of Greeks, Turks, Vlachs and gipsies. A few good roads -traverse the vilayet (see USKUB), and the railway from Salonica -northward bifurcates at Uskub, the capital, one branch going to -Mitrovitza in Albania, the other to Nish in Servia. Despite the -undoubted mineral wealth of the vilayet, the only mines working in 1907 -were two chrome mines, at Orasha and Verbeshtitza. In the volume of its -agricultural trade, however, Kossovo is unsurpassed by any Turkish -province. The exports, worth about L950,000, include livestock, large -quantities of grain and fruit, tobacco, vegetables, opium, hemp and -skins. Rice is cultivated for local consumption, and sericulture is a -growing industry, encouraged by the Administration of the Ottoman Debt. -The yearly value of the imports is approximately L1,200,000; these -include machinery and other manufactured goods, metals, groceries, -chemical products and petroleum, which is used in the flour-mills and -factories on account of the prohibitive price of coal. There is -practically no trade with Adriatic ports; two-thirds of both exports and -imports pass through Salonica, the remainder going by rail into Servia. -The chief towns, Uskub (32,000), Prizren (30,000), Koprulu (22,000), -Ishtib [Slav. _Stip_] (21,000), Novibazar (12,000) and Prishtina -(11,000) are described in separate articles. - -In the middle ages the vilayet formed part of the Servian Empire, its -northern districts are still known to the Serbs as Old Servia (_Stara -Srbiya_). The plain of Kossovo (Kossovopolje, "Field of Blackbirds"), a -long valley lying west of Prishtina and watered by the Sibnitza, a -tributary of the Servian Ibar, is famous in Balkan history and legend as -the scene of the battle of Kossovo (1389), in which the power of Servia -was destroyed by the Turks. (See SERVIA: _History_.) - - - - -KOSSUTH, FERENCZ LAJOS AKOS (1841- ), Hungarian statesman, the son of -Lajos Kossuth, was born on the 16th of November 1841, and educated at -the Paris Polytechnic and the London University, where in 1859 he won a -prize for political economy. After working as a civil engineer on the -Dean Forest railway he went (1861) to Italy, where he resided for the -next thirty-three years, taking a considerable part in the railway -construction of the peninsula, and at the same time keeping alive the -Hungarian independence question by a whole series of pamphlets and -newspaper articles. At Cesena in 1876 he married Emily Hoggins. In 1885 -he was decorated for his services by the Italian government. His last -great engineering work was the construction of the steel bridges for the -Nile. In 1894 he escorted his father's remains to Hungary, and the -following year resolved to settle in his native land and took the oath -of allegiance. As early as 1867 he had been twice elected a member of -the Hungarian diet, but on both occasions refused to accept the mandate. -On the 10th of April 1895 he was returned for Tapolca and in 1896 for -Cegled, and from that time took an active part in Hungarian politics. In -the autumn of 1898 he became the leader of the obstructionists or -"Independence Party," against the successive Szell, Khuen-Hadervary, -Szapary and Stephen Tisza administrations (1898-1904), exercising great -influence not only in parliament but upon the public at large through -his articles in the _Egyetertes_. The elections of 1905 having sent his -party back with a large majority, he was received in audience by the -king and helped to construct the Wekerle ministry, of which he was one -of the most distinguished members. - - See Sturm, _The Almanack of the Hungarian Diet_ (1905-1910), art. - "Kossuth" (Hung.) (Budapest, 1905). - - - - -KOSSUTH, LAJOS [Louis] (1802-1894), Hungarian patriot, was born at -Monok, a small town in the county of Zemplin, on the 19th of September -1802. His father, who was descended from an old untitled noble family -and possessed a small estate, was by profession an advocate. Louis, who -was the eldest of four children, received from his mother a strict -religious training. His education was completed at the Calvinist college -of Sarospatak and at the university of Budapest. At the age of nineteen -he returned home and began practice with his father. His talents and -amiability soon won him great popularity, especially among the peasants. -He was also appointed steward to the countess Szapary, a widow with -large estates, and as her representative had a seat in the county -assembly. This position he lost owing to a quarrel with his patroness, -and he was accused of appropriating money to pay a gambling debt. His -fault cannot have been very serious, for he was shortly afterwards (he -had in the meantime settled in Pesth) appointed by Count Hunyady to be -his deputy at the National Diet in Pressburg (1825-1827, and again in -1832). It was a time when, under able leaders, a great national party -was beginning the struggle for reform against the stagnant Austrian -government. As deputy he had no vote, and he naturally took little share -in the debates, but it was part of his duty to send written reports of -the proceedings to his patron, since the government, with a -well-grounded fear of all that might stir popular feeling, refused to -allow any published reports. Kossuth's letters were so excellent that -they were circulated in MS. among the Liberal magnates, and soon -developed into an organized parliamentary gazette (_Orszagyulesi -tudositasok_), of which he was editor. At once his name and influence -spread. In order to increase the circulation, he ventured on -lithographing the letters. This brought them under the official censure, -and was forbidden. He continued the paper in MS., and when the -government refused to allow it to be circulated through the post sent it -out by hand. In 1836 the Diet was dissolved. Kossuth continued the -agitation by reporting in letter form the debates of the county -assemblies, to which he thereby gave a political importance which they -had not had when each was ignorant of the proceedings of the others. The -fact that he embellished with his own great literary ability the -speeches of the Liberals and Reformers only added to the influence of -his news-letters. The government in vain attempted to suppress the -letters, and other means having failed, he was in May 1837, with -Weszelenyi and several others, arrested on a charge of high treason. -After spending a year in prison at Ofen, he was tried and condemned to -four more years' imprisonment. His confinement was strict and injured -his health, but he was allowed the use of books. He greatly increased -his political information, and also acquired, from the study of the -Bible and Shakespeare, a wonderful knowledge of English. His arrest had -caused great indignation. The Diet, which met in 1839, supported the -agitation for the release of the prisoners, and refused to pass any -government measures; Metternich long remained obdurate, but the danger -of war in 1840 obliged him to give way. Immediately after his release -Kossuth married Teresa Meszleny, a Catholic, who during his prison days -had shown great interest in him. Henceforward she strongly urged him on -in his political career; and it was the refusal of the Roman priests to -bless their union that first prompted Kossuth to take up the defence of -mixed marriages. - -He had now become a popular leader. As soon as his health was restored -he was appointed (January 1841) editor of the _Pesti Hirlap_, the newly -founded organ of the party. Strangely enough, the government did not -refuse its consent. The success of the paper was unprecedented. The -circulation soon reached what was then the immense figure of 7000. The -attempts of the government to counteract his influence by founding a -rival paper, the _Vilag_, only increased his importance and added to the -political excitement. The warning of the great reformer Szechenyi that -by his appeal to the passions of the people he was leading the nation to -revolution was neglected. Kossuth, indeed, was not content with -advocating those reforms--the abolition of entail, the abolition of -feudal burdens, taxation of the nobles--which were demanded by all the -Liberals. By insisting on the superiority of the Magyars to the Slavonic -inhabitants of Hungary, by his violent attacks on Austria (he already -discussed the possibility of a breach with Austria), he raised the -national pride to a dangerous pitch. At last, in 1844, the government -succeeded in breaking his connexion with the paper. The proprietor, in -obedience to orders from Vienna (this seems the most probable account), -took advantage of a dispute about salary to dismiss him. He then applied -for permission to start a paper of his own. In a personal interview -Metternich offered to take him into the government service. The offer -was refused, and for three years he was without a regular position. He -continued the agitation with the object of attaining both the political -and commercial independence of Hungary. He adopted the economic -principles of List, and founded a society, the "Vedegylet," the members -of which were to consume none but home produce. He advocated the -creation of a Hungarian port at Fiume. With the autumn of 1847 the great -opportunity of his life came. Supported by the influence of Louis -Batthyany, after a keenly fought struggle he was elected member for -Budapest in the new Diet. "Now that I am a deputy, I will cease to be an -agitator," he said. He at once became chief leader of the Extreme -Liberals. Deak was absent. Batthyany, Szechenyi, Szemere, Eotvos, his -rivals, saw how his intense personal ambition and egoism led him always -to assume the chief place, and to use his parliamentary position to -establish himself as leader of the nation; but before his eloquence and -energy all apprehensions were useless. His eloquence was of that nature, -in its impassioned appeals to the strongest emotions, that it required -for its full effect the highest themes and the most dramatic situations. -In a time of rest, though he could never have been obscure, he would -never have attained the highest power. It was therefore a necessity of -his nature, perhaps unconsciously, always to drive things to a crisis. -The crisis came, and he used it to the full. - -On the 3rd of March 1848, as soon as the news of the revolution in -Paris had arrived, in a speech of surpassing power he demanded -parliamentary government for Hungary and constitutional government for -the rest of Austria. He appealed to the hope of the Habsburgs, "our -beloved Archduke Francis Joseph," to perpetuate the ancient glory of the -dynasty by meeting half-way the aspirations of a free people. He at once -became the leader of the European revolution; his speech was read aloud -in the streets of Vienna to the mob by which Metternich was overthrown -(March 13), and when a deputation from the Diet visited Vienna to -receive the assent of the emperor to their petition it was Kossuth who -received the chief ovation. Batthyany, who formed the first responsible -ministry, could not refuse to admit Kossuth, but he gave him the -ministry of finance, probably because that seemed to open to him fewest -prospects of engrossing popularity. If that was the object, it was in -vain. With wonderful energy he began developing the internal resources -of the country: he established a separate Hungarian coinage--as always, -using every means to increase the national self-consciousness; and it -was characteristic that on the new Hungarian notes which he issued his -own name was the most prominent inscription; hence the name of _Kossuth -Notes_, which was long celebrated. A new paper was started, to which was -given the name of _Kossuth Hirlapia_, so that from the first it was -Kossuth rather than the Palatine or the president of the ministry whose -name was in the minds of the people associated with the new government. -Much more was this the case when, in the summer, the dangers from the -Croats, Serbs and the reaction at Vienna increased. In a great speech of -11th July he asked that the nation should arm in self-defence, and -demanded 200,000 men; amid a scene of wild enthusiasm this was granted -by acclamation. When Jellachich was marching on Pesth he went from town -to town rousing the people to the defence of the country, and the -popular force of the _Honved_ was his creation. When Batthyany resigned -he was appointed with Szemere to carry on the government provisionally, -and at the end of September he was made President of the Committee of -National Defence. From this time he was in fact, if not in name, the -dictator. With marvellous energy he kept in his own hands the direction -of the whole government. Not a soldier himself, he had to control and -direct the movements of armies; can we be surprised if he failed, or if -he was unable to keep control over the generals or to establish that -military co-operation so essential to success? Especially it was Gorgei -(q.v.) whose great abilities he was the first to recognize, who refused -obedience; the two men were in truth the very opposite to one another: -the one all feeling, enthusiasm, sensibility; the other cold, stoical, -reckless of life. Twice Kossuth deposed him from the command; twice he -had to restore him. It would have been well if Kossuth had had something -more of Gorgei's calculated ruthlessness, for, as has been truly said, -the revolutionary power he had seized could only be held by -revolutionary means; but he was by nature soft-hearted and always -merciful; though often audacious, he lacked decision in dealing with -men. It has been said that he showed a want of personal courage; this is -not improbable, the excess of feeling which made him so great an orator -could hardly be combined with the coolness in danger required of a -soldier; but no one was able, as he was, to infuse courage into others. -During all the terrible winter which followed, his energy and spirit -never failed him. It was he who overcame the reluctance of the army to -march to the relief of Vienna; after the defeat of Schwechat, at which -he was present, he sent Bem to carry on the war in Transylvania. At the -end of the year, when the Austrians were approaching Pesth, he asked for -the mediation of Mr Stiles, the American envoy. Windischgratz, however, -refused all terms, and the Diet and government fled to Debrecszin, -Kossuth taking with him the regalia of St Stephen, the sacred Palladium -of the Hungarian nation. Immediately after the accession of the Emperor -Francis Joseph all the concessions of March had been revoked and Kossuth -with his colleagues outlawed. In April 1849, when the Hungarians had won -many successes, after sounding the army, he issued the celebrated -declaration of Hungarian independence, in which he declared that "the -house of Habsburg-Lorraine, perjured in the sight of God and man, had -forfeited the Hungarian throne." It was a step characteristic of his -love for extreme and dramatic action, but it added to the dissensions -between him and those who wished only for autonomy under the old -dynasty, and his enemies did not scruple to accuse him of aiming at the -crown himself. For the time the future form of government was left -undecided, but Kossuth was appointed responsible governor. The hopes of -ultimate success were frustrated by the intervention of Russia; all -appeals to the western powers were vain, and on the 11th of August -Kossuth abdicated in favour of Gorgei, on the ground that in the last -extremity the general alone could save the nation. How Gorgei used his -authority to surrender is well known; the capitulation was indeed -inevitable, but a greater man than Kossuth would not have avoided the -last duty of conducting the negotiations so as to get the best terms. - -With the capitulation of Villagos Kossuth's career was at an end. A -solitary fugitive, he crossed the Turkish frontier. He was hospitably -received by the Turkish authorities, who, supported by Great Britain, -refused, notwithstanding the threats of the allied emperors, to -surrender him and the other fugitives to the merciless vengeance of the -Austrians. In January 1849 he was removed from Widdin, where he had been -kept in honourable confinement, to Shumla, and thence to Katahia in Asia -Minor. Here he was joined by his children, who had been confined at -Pressburg; his wife (a price had been set on her head) had joined him -earlier, having escaped in disguise. In September 1851 he was liberated -and embarked on an American man-of-war. He first landed at Marseilles, -where he received an enthusiastic welcome from the people, but the -prince-president refused to allow him to cross France. On the 23rd of -October he landed at Southampton and spent three weeks in England, where -he was the object of extraordinary enthusiasm, equalled only by that -with which Garibaldi was received ten years later. Addresses were -presented to him at Southampton, Birmingham and other towns; he was -officially entertained by the lord mayor of London; at each place he -pleaded the cause of his unhappy country. Speaking in English, he -displayed an eloquence and command of the language scarcely excelled by -the greatest orators in their own tongue. The agitation had no immediate -effect, but the indignation which he aroused against Russian policy had -much to do with the strong anti-Russian feeling which made the Crimean -War possible. - -From England he went to the United States of America: there his -reception was equally enthusiastic, if less dignified; an element of -charlatanism appeared in his words and acts which soon destroyed his -real influence. Other Hungarian exiles protested against the claim he -appeared to make that he was the one national hero of the revolution. -Count Casimir Batthyany attacked him in _The Times_, and Szemere, who -had been prime minister under him, published a bitter criticism of his -acts and character, accusing him of arrogance, cowardice and duplicity. -He soon returned to England, where he lived for eight years in close -connexion with Mazzini, by whom, with some misgiving, he was persuaded -to join the Revolutionary Committee. Quarrels of a kind only too common -among exiles followed; the Hungarians were especially offended by his -claim still to be called governor. He watched with anxiety every -opportunity of once more freeing his country from Austria. An attempt to -organize a Hungarian legion during the Crimean War was stopped; but in -1859 he entered into negotiations with Napoleon, left England for Italy, -and began the organization of a Hungarian legion, which was to make a -descent on the coast of Dalmatia. The Peace of Villafranca made this -impossible. From that time he resided in Italy; he refused to follow the -other Hungarian patriots, who, under the lead of Deak, accepted the -composition of 1867; for him there could be no reconciliation with the -house of Habsburg, nor would he accept less than full independence and a -republic. He would not avail himself of the amnesty, and, though elected -to the Diet of 1867, never took his seat. He never lost the affections -of his countrymen, but he refrained from an attempt to give practical -effect to his opinions, nor did he allow his name to become a new cause -of dissension. A law of 1879, which deprived of citizenship all -Hungarians who had voluntarily been absent ten years, was a bitter blow -to him. - -He died in Turin on the 20th of March 1894; his body was taken to Pesth, -where he was buried amid the mourning of the whole nation, Maurus Jokai -delivering the funeral oration. A bronze statue, erected by public -subscription, in the Kerepes cemetery, commemorates Hungary's purest -patriot and greatest orator. - - Many points in Kossuth's career and character will probably always - remain the subject of controversy. His complete works were published - in Hungarian at Budapest in 1880-1895. The fullest account of the - Revolution is given in Helfert, _Geschichte Oesterreichs_ (Leipzig, - 1869, &c.), representing the Austrian view, which may be compared with - that of C. Gracza, _History of the Hungarian War of Independence, - 1848-1849_ (in Hungarian) (Budapest, 1894). See also E. O. S., - _Hungary and its Revolutions, with a Memoir of Louis Kossuth_ (Bohn, - 1854); Horvath, _25 Jahre aus der Geschichte Ungarns, 1823-1848_ - (Leipzig, 1867); Maurice, _Revolutions of 1848-1849_; W. H. Stiles, - _Austria in 1848-1849_ (New York, 1852); Szemere, _Politische - Charakterskizzen: III. Kossuth_ (Hamburg, 1853); Louis Kossuth, - _Memoirs of my Exile_ (London, 1880); Pulszky, _Meine Zeit, mein - Leben_ (Pressburg, 1880); A. Somogyi, _Ludwig Kossuth_ (Berlin, 1894). - (J. W. He.) - - - - -KOSTER (or COSTER), LAURENS (c. 1370-1440), Dutch printer, whose claims -to be considered at least one of the inventors of the art (see -TYPOGRAPHY) have been recognized by many investigators. His real name -was Laurens Janssoen-Koster (i.e. sacristan) being merely the title -which he bore as an official of the great parish church of Haarlem. We -find him mentioned several times between 1417 and 1434 as a member of -the great council, as an assessor (_scabinus_), and as the city -treasurer. He probably perished in the plague that visited Haarlem in -1439-1440; his widow is mentioned in the latter year. His descendants, -through his daughter Lucia, can be traced down to 1724. - - See Peter Scriver, _Beschryvinge der Stad Harlem_ (Haarlem, 1628); - Scheltema, _Levensschets van Laurens d. Koster_ (Haarlem, 1834); Van - der Linde, _De Haarlemsche Costerlegende_ (Hague, 1870). - - - - -KOSTROMA, a government of central Russia, surrounded by those of -Vologda, Vyatka, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Vladimir and Yaroslav, lying mostly -on the left bank of the upper Volga. It has an area of 32,480 sq. m. Its -surface is generally undulating, with hilly tracts on the right bank of -the Volga, and extensive flat and marshy districts in the east. Rocks of -the Permian system predominate, though a small tract belongs to the -Jurassic, and both are overlain by thick deposits of Quaternary clays. -The soil in the east is for the most part sand or a sandy clay; a few -patches, however, are fertile black earth. Forests, yielding excellent -timber for ship-building, and in many cases still untouched, occupy 61% -of the area of the government. The export of timber is greatly -facilitated by the navigable tributaries of the Volga, e.g. the -Kostroma, Unzha, Neya, Vioksa and Vetluga. The climate is severe; frosts -of -22 deg. F. are common in January, and the mean temperature of the -year is only 3 deg. 1 (summer, 64 deg. 5; winter, -13 deg. 3). The -population, which numbered 1,176,000 in 1870 and 1,424,171 in 1897, is -almost entirely Russian. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,596,700. -Out of 20,000,000 acres, 7,861,500 acres belong to private owners, -6,379,500 to the peasant communities, 3,660,800 to the crown, and -1,243,000 to the imperial family. Agriculture is at a low ebb; only -4,000,000 acres are under crops (rye, oats, wheat and barley), and the -yield of corn is insufficient for the wants of the population. Flax and -hops are cultivated to an increasing extent. But market-gardening is of -some importance. Bee-keeping was formerly an important industry. The -chief articles of commerce are timber, fuel, pitch, tar, mushrooms, and -wooden wares for building and household purposes, which are largely -manufactured by the peasantry and exported to the steppe governments of -the lower Volga and the Don. Boat-building is also carried on. Some -other small industries, such as the manufacture of silver and copper -wares, leather goods, bast mats and sacks, lace and felt boots, are -carried on in the villages; but the trade in linen and towelling, -formerly the staple, is declining. There are cotton, flax and linen -mills, engineering and chemical works, distilleries, tanneries and paper -mills. The government of Kostroma is divided into twelve districts, the -chief towns of which, with populations in 1897, are Kostroma (q.v.), -Bui (2626), Chukhloma (2200), Galich (6182), Kineshma (7564), Kologriv -(2566), Makariev (6068), Nerekhta (3002), Soligalich (3420), Varnavin -(1140), Vetluga (5200) and Yurievets (4778). - - - - -KOSTROMA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, -230 m. N.N.E. of Moscow and 57 m. E.N.E. from Yaroslav, on the left bank -of the Volga, at the mouth of the navigable Kostroma, with suburbs on -the opposite side of the Volga. Pop. (1897), 41,268. Its glittering -gilded cupolas make it a conspicuous feature in the landscape as it -climbs up the terraced river bank. It is one of the oldest towns of -Russia, having been founded in 1152. Its fort was often the refuge of -the princes of Moscow during war, but the town was plundered more than -once by the Tatars. The cathedral, built in 1239 and rebuilt in 1773, is -situated in the kreml, or citadel, and is a fine monument of old Russian -architecture. In the centre of the town is a monument to the peasant -Ivan Susanin and the tsar Michael (1851). The former sacrificed his own -life in 1669 by leading the Poles astray in the forests in order to save -the life of his own tsar Michael Fedeorovich. On the opposite bank of -the Volga, close to the water's edge, stands the monastery of Ipatiyev, -founded in 1330, with a cathedral built in 1586, both associated with -the election of Tsar Michael (1669). Kostroma has been renowned since -the 16th century for its linen, which was exported to Holland, and the -manufacture of linen and linen-yarn is still kept up to some extent. The -town has also cotton-mills, tanneries, saw-mills, an iron-foundry and a -machine factory. It carries on an active trade--importing grain, and -exporting linen, linen yarn, leather, and especially timber and wooden -wares. - - - - -KOSZEG (Ger. _Guns_), a town in the county of Vas, in Hungary, 173 m. W. -of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 7422. It is pleasantly situated in the -valley of the Guns, and is dominated towards the west by the peaks of -Altenhaus (2000 ft.) and of the Geschriebene Stein (2900 ft.). It -possesses a castle of Count Esterhazy, a modern Roman Catholic Church in -Gothic style and two convents. It has important cloth factories and a -lively trade in fruit and wine. The town has a special historical -interest for the heroic and successful defence of the fortress by -Nicolas Jurisics against a large army of Sultan Soliman, in July-August -1532, which frustrated the advance of the Turks to Vienna for that year. - -To the south-east of Koszeg, at the confluence of the Guns with the -Raab, is situated the town of Sarvar (pop. 3158), formerly fortified, -where in 1526 the first printing press in Hungary was established. - - - - -KOTAH, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area of -5684 sq. m. The country slopes gently northwards from the high -table-land of Malwa, and is drained by the Chambal with its tributaries, -all flowing in a northerly or north-easterly direction. The Mokandarra -range, from 1200 to 1600 ft. above sea-level, runs from south-east to -north-west. The Mokandarra Pass through these hills, in the -neighbourhood of the highest peak (1671 ft.), has been rendered -memorable by the passage of Colonel Monson's army on its disastrous -retreat in 1804. There are extensive game preserves, chiefly covered -with grass. In addition to the usual Indian grains, wheat, cotton, -poppy, and a little tobacco of good quality are cultivated. The -manufactures are very limited. Cotton fabrics are woven, but are being -rapidly superseded by the cheap products of Bombay and Manchaster. -Articles of wooden furniture are also constructed. The chief articles of -export are opium and grain; salt, cotton and woollen cloth are imported. - -Kotah is an offshoot from Bundi state, having been bestowed upon a -younger son of the Bundi raja by the emperor Shah Jahan in return for -services rendered him when the latter was in rebellion against his -father Jahangir. In 1897 a considerable portion of the area taken to -form Jhalawar (q.v.) in 1838 was restored to Kotah. In 1901 the -population was 544,879, showing a decrease of 24% due to the results of -famine. The estimated revenue is L206,000; tribute, L28,000. The maharao -Umad Singh, was born in 1873, and succeeded in 1889. He was educated at -the Mayo College, Ajmere, and became a major in the British army. A -continuation of the branch line of the Indian Midland railway from Goona -to Baran passes through Kotah, and it is also traversed by a new line, -opened in 1909. The state suffered from drought in 1896-1897, and again -more severely in 1899-1900. - -The town of Kotah is on the right bank of the Chambal. Pop. (1901), -33,679. It is surrounded and also divided into three parts by massive -walls, and contains an old and a new palace of the maharao and a number -of fine temples. Muslins are the chief articles of manufacture, but the -town has no great trade, and this and the unhealthiness of the site may -account for the decrease in population. - - - - -KOTAS (Kotar, Koter, Kohatur, Gauhatar), an aboriginal tribe of the -Nilgiri hills, India. They are a well-made people, of good features, -tall, and of a dull copper colour, but some of them are among the -fairest of the hill tribes. They recognize no caste among themselves, -but are divided into _keris_ (streets), and a man must marry outside his -_keri_. Their villages (of which there are seven) are large, averaging -from thirty to sixty huts. They are agriculturists and herdsmen, and the -only one of the hill tribes who practise industrial arts, being -excellent as carpenters, smiths, tanners and basket-makers. They do -menial work for the Todas, to whom they pay a tribute. They worship -ideal gods, which are not represented by any images. Their language is -an old and rude dialect of Kanarese. In 1901 they numbered 1267. - - - - -KOTKA, a seaport of Finland, in the province of Viborg, 35 m. by rail -from Kuivola junction on the Helsingfors railway, on an island of the -same name at the mouth of the Kymmene river. Pop. (1904), 7628. It is -the chief port for exports from and imports to east Finland and a centre -of the timber trade. - - - - -KOTRI, a town of British India, in Karachi district, Sind, situated on -the right bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901), 7617. Kotri is the junction of -branches of the North-Western railway, serving each bank of the Indus, -which is here crossed by a railway bridge. It was formerly the station -for Hyderabad, which lies across the Indus, and the headquarters of the -Indus steam flotilla, now abolished in consequence of the development of -railway facilities. Besides its importance as a railway centre, however, -Kotri still has a considerable general transit trade by river. - - - - -KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON (1761-1819), German dramatist, -was born on the 3rd of May, 1761, at Weimar. After attending the -gymnasium of his native town, he went in his sixteenth year to the -university of Jena, and afterwards studied about a year in Duisburg. In -1780 he completed his legal course and was admitted an advocate. Through -the influence of Graf Gortz, Prussian ambassador at the Russian court, -he became secretary of the governor-general of St Petersburg. In 1783 he -received the appointment of assessor to the high court of appeal in -Reval, where he married the daughter of a Russian lieutenant-general. He -was ennobled in 1785, and became president of the magistracy of the -province of Esthonia. In Reval he acquired considerable reputation by -his novels, _Die Leiden der Ortenbergischen Familie_ (1785) and -_Geschichte meines Vaters_ (1788), and still more by the plays _Adelheid -von Wulfingen_ (1789), _Menschenhass und Reue_ (1790) and _Die Indianer -in England_ (1790). The good impression produced by these works was, -however, almost effaced by a cynical dramatic satire, _Doktor Bahrdt mit -der eisernen Stirn_, which appeared in 1790 with the name of Knigge on -the title-page. After the death of his first wife Kotzebue retired from -the Russian service, and lived for a time in Paris and Mainz; he then -settled in 1795 on an estate which he had acquired near Reval and gave -himself up to literary work. Within a few years he published six volumes -of miscellaneous sketches and stories (_Die jungsten Kinder meiner -Laune_, 1793-1796) and more than twenty plays, the majority of which -were translated into several European languages. In 1798 he accepted the -office of dramatist to the court theatre in Vienna, but owing to -differences with the actors he was soon obliged to resign. He now -returned to his native town, but as he was not on good terms with -Goethe, and had openly attacked the Romantic school, his position in -Weimar was not a pleasant one. He had thoughts of returning to St -Petersburg, and on his journey thither he was, for some unknown reason, -arrested at the frontier and transported to Siberia. Fortunately he had -written a comedy which flattered the vanity of the emperor Paul I.; he -was consequently speedily brought back, presented with an estate from -the crown lands of Livonia, and made director of the German theatre in -St Petersburg. He returned to Germany when the emperor Paul died, and -again settled in Weimar; he found it, however, as impossible as ever to -gain a footing in literary society, and turned his steps to Berlin, -where in association with Garlieb Merkel (1769-1850) he edited _Der -Freimutige_ (1803-1807) and began his _Almanach dramatischer Spiele_ -(1803-1820). Towards the end of 1806 he was once more in Russia, and in -the security of his estate in Esthonia wrote many satirical articles -against Napoleon in his journals _Die Biene_ and _Die Grille_. As -councillor of state he was attached in 1816 to the department for -foreign affairs in St Petersburg, and in 1817 went to Germany as a kind -of spy in the service of Russia, with a salary of 15,000 roubles. In a -weekly journal (_Literarisches Wochenblatt_) which he published in -Weimar he scoffed at the pretensions of those Germans who demanded free -institutions, and became an object of such general dislike that he was -obliged to move to Mannheim. He was especially detested by the young -enthusiasts for liberty, and one of them, Karl Ludwig Sand, a -theological student, stabbed him, in Mannheim, on the 23rd of March -1819. Sand was executed, and the government made his crime an excuse for -placing the universities under strict supervision. - -Besides his plays, Kotzebue wrote several historical works, which, -however, are too one-sided and prejudiced to have much value. Of more -interest are his autobiographical writings, _Meine Flucht nach Paris im -Winter_ 1790 (1791), _Uber meinen Aufenthalt in Wien_ (1799), _Das -merkwurdigste Jahr meines Lebens_ (1801), _Erinnerungen aus Paris_ -(1804), and _Erinnerungen von meiner Reise aus Liefland nach Rom und -Neapel_ (1805). As a dramatist he was extraordinarily prolific, his -plays numbering over 200; his popularity, not merely on the German, but -on the European stage, was unprecedented. His success, however, was due -less to any conspicuous literary or poetic ability than to an -extraordinary facility in the invention of effective situations; he -possessed, as few German playwrights before or since, the unerring -instinct for the theatre; and his influence on the _technique_ of the -modern drama from Scribe to Sardou and from Bauernfeld to Sudermann is -unmistakable. Kotzebue is to be seen to best advantage in his comedies, -such as _Der Wildfang_, _Die beiden Klingsberg_ and _Die deutschen -Kleinstadter_, which contain admirable genre pictures of German life. -These plays held the stage in Germany long after the once famous -_Menschenhass und Reue_ (known in England as _The Stranger_), _Graf -Benjowsky_, or ambitious exotic tragedies like _Die Sonnenjungfrau_ and -_Die Spanier in Peru_ (which Sheridan adapted as _Pizarro_) were -forgotten. - - Two collections of Kotzebue's dramas were published during his - lifetime: _Schauspiele_ (5 vols., 1797); _Neue Schauspiele_ (23 vols., - 1798-1820). His _Samtliche dramatische Werke_ appeared in 44 vols., in - 1827-1829, and again, under the title _Theater_, in 40 vols., in - 1840-1841. A selection of his plays in 10 vols, appeared at Leipzig in - 1867-1868. Cp. H. Doring, _A. von Kotzebues Leben_ (1830); W. von - Kotzebue, _A. von Kotzebue_ (1881); Ch. Rabany, _Kotzebue, sa vie et - son temps_ (1893); W. Sellier, _Kotzebue in England_ (1901). - - - - -KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON (1787-1846), Russian navigator, second son of the -foregoing, was born at Reval on the 30th of December 1787. After being -educated at the St Petersburg school of cadets, he accompanied -Krusenstern on his voyage of 1803-1806. After his promotion to -lieutenant Kotzebue was placed in command of an expedition, fitted out -at the expense of the imperial chancellor, Count Rumantsoff, in the brig -"Rurick." In this vessel, with only twenty-seven men, Kotzebue set out -on the 30th of July 1815 to find a passage across the Arctic Ocean and -explore the less-known parts of Oceania. Proceeding by Cape Horn, he -discovered the Romanzov, Rurik and Krusenstern Islands, then made for -Kamchatka, and in the middle of July proceeded northward, coasting along -the north-west coast of America, and discovering and naming Kotzebue -Gulf or Sound and Krusenstern Cape. Returning by the coast of Asia, he -again sailed to the south, sojourned for three weeks at the Sandwich -Islands, and on the 1st of January 1817 discovered New Year Island. -After some further cruising in the Pacific he again proceeded north, but -a severe attack of illness compelling him to return to Europe, he -reached the Neva on the 3rd of August 1818, bringing home a large -collection of previously unknown plants and much new ethnological -information. In 1823 Kotzebue, now a captain, was entrusted with the -command of an expedition in two ships of war, the main object of which -was to take reinforcements to Kamchatka. There was, however, a staff of -scientists on board, who collected much valuable information and -material in geography, ethnography and natural history. The expedition, -proceeding by Cape Horn, visited the Radak and Society Islands, and -reached Petropavlovsk in July 1824. Many positions along the coast were -rectified, the Navigator islands visited, and several discoveries made. -The expedition returned by the Marianna, Philippine, New Caledonia and -Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on the 10th of July 1826. There are -English translations of both Kotzebue's narratives: _A Voyage of -Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's Straits for the Purpose of -exploring a North-East Passage, undertaken in the Years 1815-1818_ (3 -vols. 1821), and _A New Voyage Round the World in the Years 1823-1826_ -(1830). Three years after his return from his second voyage, Kotzebue -died at Reval on the 15th of February 1846. - - - - -KOUMISS, milk-wine, or milk brandy, a fermented alcoholic beverage -prepared from milk. It is of very ancient origin, and according to -Herodotus was known to the Scythians. The name is said to be derived -from an ancient Asiatic tribe, the Kumanes or Komans. It is one of the -staple articles of diet of the Siberian and Caucasian races, but of late -years it has also been manufactured on a considerable scale in western -Europe, on account of its valuable medicinal properties. It is generally -made from mares' or camels' milk by a process of fermentation set up by -the addition to the fresh milk of a small quantity of the finished -article. This fermentation, which appears to be of a symbiotic nature, -being dependent on the action of two distinct types of organisms, the -one a fission fungus, the other a true yeast, eventuates in the -conversion of a part of the milk sugar into lactic acid and alcohol. -Koumiss generally contains 1 to 2% of alcohol, 0.5 to 1.5% of lactic -acid, 2 to 4% of milk sugar and 1 to 2% of fat. _Kefir_ is similar to -koumiss, but is usually prepared from cows' milk, and the fermentation -is brought about by the so-called Kefir Grains (derived from a plant). - - - - -KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS (1814-1883), Greek statesman, whose name is -commonly spelt Coumoundouros, was born in 1814. His studies at the -university of Athens were repeatedly interrupted for lack of means, and -he began to earn his living as a clerk. He took part in the Cretan -insurrection of 1841, and in the demonstration of 1843, by which the -Greek constitution was obtained from King Otto, he was secretary to -General Theodoraki Grivas. He then settled down to the bar at Kalamata -in Messenia, where he married a lady belonging to the Mavromichalis -family. He was elected to the chamber in 1851, and four years later his -eloquence and ability had secured the president's chair for him. He -became minister of finance in 1856, and again in 1857 and 1859. He -adhered to the moderate wing of the Liberal party until the revolution -of 1862 and the dethronement of King Otto, when he was minister of -justice in the provincial government. He was twice minister of the -interior under Kanaris, in 1864 and in 1865. In March 1865 he became -prime minister, and he formed several subsequent administrations in the -intervals of the ascendancy of Tricoupi. During the Cretan insurrection -of 1866-68 he made active warlike preparations against Turkey, but was -dismissed by King George, who recognized that Greece could not act -without the support of the Powers. He was again premier at the time of -the outbreak of the insurrection in Thessaly in January 1878, and -supported by Delyanni as minister of foreign affairs he sent an army of -10,000 men to help the insurgents against Turkey. The troops were -recalled on the understanding that Greece should be represented at the -Congress of Berlin. In October 1880 the fall of the Tricoupi ministry -restored him to power, when he resumed his warlike policy, but repeated -appeals to the courts of Europe yielded little practical result, and -Koumoundouros was obliged to reduce his territorial demands and to -accept the limited cessions in Thessaly and Epirus, which were carried -out in July 1881. His ministry was overturned in 1882 by the votes of -the new Thessalian deputies, who were dissatisfied with the -administrative arrangements of the new province, and he died at Athens -on the 9th of March 1883. - - - - -KOUSSO (KOSSO or CUSSO), a drug which consists of the panicles of the -pistillate flowers of _Brayera anthelmintica_, a handsome rosaceous tree -60 ft. high, growing throughout the table-land of Abyssinia, at an -elevation of 3000 to 8000 ft. above the sea-level. The drug as imported -is in the form of cylindrical rolls, about 18 in. in length and 2 in. in -diameter, and comprises the entire inflorescence or panicle kept in form -by a band wound transversely round it. The active principle is koussin -or kosin, C31H38O10, which is soluble in alcohol and alkalis, and may be -given in doses of thirty grains. Kousso is also used in the form of an -unstrained infusion of 1/4 to 1/2 oz. of the coarsely powdered flowers, -which are swallowed with the liquid. It is considered to be an effectual -vermifuge for _Taenia solium_. In its anthelmintic action it is nearly -allied to male fern, but it is much inferior to that drug and is very -rarely used in Great Britain. - - - - -KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE (1850-1891), Russian mathematician, daughter of -General Corvin-Krukovsky, was born at Moscow on the 15th of January -1850. As a young girl she was fired by the aspiration after intellectual -liberty that animated so many young Russian women at that period, and -drove them to study at foreign universities, since their own were closed -to them. This led her, in 1868, to contract one of those conventional -marriages in vogue at the time, with a young student, Waldemar -Kovalevsky, and the two went together to Germany to continue their -studies. In 1869 she went to Heidelberg, where she studied under H. von -Helmholtz, G. R. Kirchhoff, L. Konigsberger and P. du Bois-Reymond, and -from 1871-1874 read privately with Karl Weierstrass at Berlin, as the -public lectures were not then open to women. In 1874 the university of -Gottingen granted her a degree _in absentia_, excusing her from the oral -examination on account of the remarkable excellence of the three -dissertations sent in, one of which, on the theory of partial -differential equations, is one of her most remarkable works. Another was -an elucidation of P. S. Laplace's mathematical theory of the form of -Saturn's rings. Soon after this she returned to Russia with her husband, -who was appointed professor of palaeontology at Moscow, where he died in -1883. At this time Madame Kovalevsky was at Stockholm, where Gustaf -Mittag Leffler, also a pupil of Weierstrass, who had been recently -appointed to the chair of mathematics at the newly founded university, -had procured for her a post as lecturer. She discharged her duties so -successfully that in 1884 she was appointed full professor. This post -she held till her death on the 10th of February 1891. In 1888 she -achieved the greatest of her successes, gaining the Prix Bordin offered -by the Paris Academy. The problem set was "to perfect in one important -point the theory of the movement of a solid body round an immovable -point," and her solution added a result of the highest interest to those -transmitted to us by Leonhard Euler and J. L. Lagrange. So remarkable -was this work that the value of the prize was doubled as a recognition -of unusual merit. Unfortunately Madame Kovalevsky did not live to reap -the full reward of her labours, for she died just as she had attained -the height of her fame and had won recognition even in her own country -by election to membership of the St Petersburg Academy of Science. - - See E. de Kerbedz, "Sophie de Kowalevski," _Benidiconti del circolo - mathematico di Palermo_ (1891); the obituary notice by G. Mittag - Leffler in the _Acta mathematica_, vol. xvi.; and J. C. Poggendorff, - _Biographisch-literarisches Handworterbuch_. - - - - -KOVNO (in Lithuanian _Kauna_), a government of north-western Russia, -bounded N. by the governments of Courland and Vitebsk, S.E. by that of -Vilna, and S. and S.W. by Suwalki and the province of East Prussia, a -narrow strip touching the Baltic near Memel. It has an area of 15,687 -sq. m. The level uniformity of its surface is broken only by two low -ridges which nowhere rise above 800 ft. The geological character is -varied, the Silurian, Devonian, Jurassic and Tertiary systems being all -represented; the Devonian is that which occurs most frequently, and all -are covered with Quaternary boulder-clays. The soil is either a sandy -clay or a more fertile kind of black earth. The government is drained by -the Niemen, Windau, Courland Aa and Dvina, which have navigable -tributaries. In the flat depressions covered with boulder-clays there -are many lakes and marshes, while forests occupy about 25(1/2)% of the -surface. The climate is comparatively mild, the mean temperature at the -city of Kovno being 44 deg.F. The population was 1,156,040 in 1870, and -1,553,244 in 1897. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,683,600. It is -varied, consisting of Lithuanians proper and Zhmuds (together 74%), Jews -(14%), Germans (2(1/2)%), Poles (9%), with Letts and Russians; 76.6% are -Roman Catholics, 13.7% Jews, 4.5% Protestants, and 5% belong to the -Greek Church. Of the total 788,102 were women in 1897 and 147,878 were -classed as urban. The principal occupation of the inhabitants is -agriculture, 63% of the surface being under crops; both grain (wheat, -rye, oats and barley) and potatoes are exported. Flax is cultivated and -the linseed exported. Dairying flourishes, and horse and cattle breeding -are attracting attention. Fishing is important, and the navigation on -the rivers is brisk. A variety of petty domestic industries are carried -on by the Jews, but only to a slight extent in the villages. As many as -18,000 to 24,000 men are compelled every year to migrate in search of -work. The factories consist principally of distilleries, tobacco and -steam flour-mills, and hardware manufactories. Trade, especially the -transit trade, is brisk, from the situation of the government on the -Prussian frontier, the custom-houses of Yerburg and Tauroggen being -amongst the most important in Russia. The chief towns of the seven -districts into which the government is divided, with their populations -in 1897, are Kovno (q.v.), Novo-Alexandrovsk (6370), Ponevyezh (13,044), -Rosieny (7455), Shavli (15,914), Telshi (6215) and Vilkemir (13,509). - -The territory which now constitutes the government of Kovno was formerly -known as Samogitia and formed part of Lithuania. During the 13th, 14th -and 15th centuries the Livonian and Teutonic Knights continually invaded -and plundered it, especially the western part, which was peopled with -Zhmuds. In 1569 it was annexed, along with the rest of the principality -of Lithuania, to Poland; and it suffered very much from the wars of -Russia with Sweden and Poland, and from the invasion of Charles XII. in -1701. In 1795 the principality of Lithuania was annexed to Russia, and -until 1872, when the government of Kovno was constituted, the territory -now forming it was a part of the government of Vilna. - - - - -KOVNO, a town and fortress of Russia, capital of the government of the -same name, stands at the confluence of the Niemen with the Viliya, 550 -m. S.W. of St Petersburg by rail, and 55 m. from the Prussian frontier. -Pop. (1863), 23,937; (1903), 73,743, nearly one-half being Jews. It -consists of a cramped Old Town and a New Town stretching up the side of -the Niemen. It is a first-class fortress, being surrounded at a mean -distance of 2(1/2) m. by a girdle of forts, eleven in number. The town -lies for the most part in the fork and is guarded by three forts in the -direction of Vilna, one covers the Vilna bridge, while the southern -approaches are protected by seven. Kovno commands and bars the railway -Vilna-Eydtkuhnen. Its factories produce nails, wire-work and other metal -goods, mead and bone-meal. It is an important entrepot for timber, -cereals, flax, flour, spirits, bone-meal, fish, coal and building-stone -passing from and to Prussia. The city possesses some 15th-century -churches. It was founded in the 11th century; and from 1384 to 1398 -belonged to the Teutonic Knights. Tsar Alexis of Russia plundered and -burnt it in 1655. Here the Russians defeated the Poles on the 26th of -June 1831. - - - - -KOVROV, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir, 40 m. N.E. of -the city of Vladimir by the railway from Moscow to Nizhniy-Novgorod, and -on the Klyazma River. It has railway-carriage works, cotton mills, steam -flour mills, tallow works and quarries of limestone, and carries on an -active trade in the export of wooden wares and in the import of grain, -salt and fish, brought from the Volga governments. Pop. (1890), 6600; -(1900), 16,806. - - - - -KOWTOW, or KOTOU, the Chinese ceremonial act of prostration as a sign of -homage, submission, or worship. The word is formed from _ko_, knock, and -_tou_, head. To the emperor, the "kowtow" is performed by kneeling three -times, each act accompanied by touching the ground with the forehead. - - - - -KOZLOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, on the Lyesnoi -Voronezh River, 45 m. W.N.W. of the city of Tambov by rail. Pop. (1900), -41,555. Kozlov had its origin in a small monastery, founded in the -forest in 1627; nine years later, an earthwork was raised close by, for -the protection of the Russian frontier against the Tatars. Situated in a -very fertile country, on the highway to Astrakhan and at the head of -water communication with the Don, the town soon became a centre of -trade; as the junction of the railways leading to the Sea of Azov, to -Tsaritsyn on the lower Volga, to Saratov and to Orel, its importance has -recently been still further increased. Its export of cattle, grain, -meat, eggs (22,000,000), tallow, hides, &c., is steadily growing, and it -possesses factories, flour mills, tallow works, distilleries, tanneries -and glue works. - - - - -KRAAL, also spelt _craal_, _kraul_, &c. (South African Dutch, derived -possibly from a native African word, but probably from the Spanish -_corral_, Portuguese _curral_, an enclosure for horses, cattle and the -like), in South and Central Africa, a native village surrounded by a -palisade, mud wall or other fencing roughly circular in form; by -transference, the community living within the enclosure. Folds for -animals and enclosures made specially for defensive purposes are also -called kraals. - - - - -KRAFFT (or KRAFT), ADAM (c. 1455-1507), German sculptor, of the -Nuremberg school, was born, probably at Nuremberg, about the middle of -the 15th century, and died, some say in the hospital, at Schwabach, -about 1507. He seems to have emerged as sculptor about 1490, the date of -the seven reliefs of scenes from the life of Christ, which, like almost -every other specimen of his work, are at Nuremberg. The date of his last -work, an Entombment, with fifteen life-size figures, in the Holzschuher -chapel of the St John's cemetery, is 1507. Besides these, Krafft's chief -works are several monumental reliefs in the various churches of -Nuremberg; he produced the great Schreyer monument (1492) for St -Sebald's at Nuremberg, a skilful though mannered piece of sculpture -opposite the Rathaus, with realistic figures in the costume of the time, -carved in a way more suited to wood than stone, and too pictorial in -effect; Christ bearing the Cross, above the altar of the same church; -and various works made for public and private buildings, as the relief -over the door of the Wagehaus, a St George and the Dragon, several -Madonnas, and some purely decorative pieces, as coats of arms. His -masterpiece is perhaps the magnificent tabernacle, 62 ft. high, in the -church of St Laurence (1493-1500). He also made the great tabernacle for -the Host, 80 ft. high, covered with statuettes, in Ulm Cathedral, and -the very spirited "Stations of the Cross" on the road to the Nuremberg -cemetery. - - See _Adam Krafft und seine Schule_, by Friedrich Wanderer (1869); - _Adam Krafft und die Kunstler seiner Zeit_, by Berthold Daun (1897); - Albert Gumbel in _Repertorium fur Kunstwissenschaft_, Bd. xxv. Heft 5, - 1902. - - - - -KRAGUYEVATS (also written KRAGUIEVATZ and KRAGUJEVAC), the capital of -the Kraguyevats department of Servia; situated 59 m. S.S.W. of Belgrade, -in a valley of the Shumadia, or "forest-land," and on the Lepenitsa, a -small stream flowing north-east to join the Morava. On the opposite bank -stands the picturesque hamlet of Obilichevo, with a large powder -factory. Kraguyevats itself is the main arsenal of Servia, and -possesses an iron-foundry and a steam flour-mill. It is the seat of the -district prefecture, of a tribunal, of a fine library, and of a large -garrison. It boasts the finest college building and the finest modern -cathedral (in Byzantine style) in Servia. In the first years of Servia's -autonomy under Prince Milosh, it was the residence of the prince and the -seat of government (1818-1839). Even later, between 1868 and 1880, the -national assembly (_Narodna Skupshtina_) usually met there. In 1885 it -was connected by a branch line (Kraguyevats-Lapovo) with the principal -railway (Belgrade-Nish), and thenceforward the prosperity of the town -steadily increased. Pop. (1900), 14,160. - - - - -KRAKATOA (KRAKATAO, KRAKATAU), a small volcanic island in Sunda Strait, -between the islands of Java and Sumatra, celebrated for its eruption in -1883, one of the most stupendous ever recorded. At some early period a -large volcano rose in the centre of the tract where the Sunda Strait now -runs. Long before any European had visited these waters an explosion -took place by which the mountain was so completely blown away that only -the outer portions of its base were left as a broken ring of islands. -Subsequent eruptions gradually built up a new series of small cones -within the great crater ring. Of these the most important rose to a -height of 2623 ft. above the sea and formed the peak of the volcanic -island of Krakatoa. But compared with the great neighbouring volcanoes -of Java and Sumatra, the islets of the Sunda Strait were comparatively -unknown. Krakatoa was uninhabited, and no satisfactory map or chart of -it had been made. In 1680 it appears to have been in eruption, when -great earthquakes took place and large quantities of pumice were -ejected. But the effects of this disturbance had been so concealed by -the subsequent spread of tropical vegetation that the very occurrence of -the eruption had sometimes been called in question. At last, about 1877, -earthquakes began to occur frequently in the Sunda Strait and continued -for the next few years. In 1883 the manifestations of subterranean -commotion became more decided, for in May Krakatoa broke out in -eruption. For some time the efforts of the volcano appear to have -consisted mainly in the discharge of pumice and dust, with the usual -accompaniment of detonations and earthquakes. But on the 26th of August -a succession of paroxysmal explosions began which lasted till the -morning of the 28th. The four most violent took place on the morning of -the 27th. The whole of the northern and lower portion of the island of -Krakatoa, lying within the original crater ring of prehistoric times, -was blown away; the northern part of the cone of Rakata almost entirely -disappeared, leaving a vertical cliff which laid bare the inner -structure of that volcano. Instead of the volcanic island which had -previously existed, and rose from 300 to 1400 ft. above the sea, there -was now left a submarine cavity, the bottom of which was here and there -more than 1000 ft. below the sea-level. This prodigious evisceration was -the result of successive violent explosions of the superheated vapour -absorbed in the molten magma within the crust of the earth. The vigour -and repetition of these explosions, it has been suggested, may have been -caused by sudden inrushes of the water of the ocean as the throat of the -volcano was cleared and the crater ring was lowered and ruptured. The -access of large bodies of cold water to the top of the column of molten -lava would probably give rise at once to some minor explosions, and then -to a chilling of the surface of the lava and a consequent temporary -diminution or even cessation of the volcanic eructations. But until the -pent-up water-vapour in the lava below had found relief it would only -gather strength until it was able to burst through the chilled crust and -overlying water, and to hurl a vast mass of cooled lava, pumice and dust -into the air. - -The amount of material discharged during the two days of paroxysmal -energy was enormous, though there are no satisfactory data for even -approximately estimating it. A large cavity was formed where the island -had previously stood, and the sea-bottom around this crater was covered -with a wide and thick sheet of fragmentary materials. Some of the -surrounding islands received such a thick accumulation of ejected stones -and dust as to bury their forests and greatly to increase the area of -the land. So much was the sea filled up that a number of new islands -rose above its level. But a vast body of the fine dust was carried far -and wide by aerial currents, while the floating pumice was transported -for many hundreds of miles on the surface of the ocean. At Batavia, 100 -m. from the centre of eruption, the sky was darkened by the quantity of -ashes borne across it, and lamps had to be used in the houses at midday. -The darkness even reached as far as Bandong, a distance of nearly 150 -miles. It was computed that the column of stones, dust and ashes -projected from the volcano shot up into the air for a height of 17 m. or -more. The finer particles coming into the higher layers of the -atmosphere were diffused over a large part of the surface of the earth, -and showed their presence by the brilliant sunset glows to which they -gave rise. Within the tropics they were at first borne along by -air-currents at an estimated rate of about 73 m. an hour from east to -west, until within a period of six weeks they were diffused over nearly -the whole space between the latitudes 30 deg. N. and 45 deg. S. -Eventually they spread northwards and southwards and were carried over -North and South America, Europe, Asia, South Africa and Australasia. In -the Old World they spread from the north of Scandinavia to the Cape of -Good Hope. - -Another remarkable result of this eruption was the world-wide -disturbance of the atmosphere. The culminating paroxysm on the morning -of the 27th of August gave rise to an atmospheric wave or oscillation, -which, travelling outwards from the volcano as a centre, became a great -circle at 180 deg. from its point of origin, whence it continued -travelling onwards and contracting till it reached a node at the -antipodes to Krakatoa. It was then reflected or reproduced, travelling -backwards again to the volcano, whence it once more returned in its -original direction. "In this manner its repetition was observed not -fewer than seven times at many of the stations, four passages having -been those of the wave travelling from Krakatoa, and three those of the -wave travelling from its antipodes, subsequently to which its traces -were lost" (Sir R. Strachey). - -The actual sounds of the volcanic explosions were heard over a vast -area, especially towards the west. Thus they were noticed at Rodriguez, -nearly 3000 English miles away, at Bangkok (1413 m.), in the Philippine -Islands (about 1450 m.), in Ceylon (2058 m.) and in West and South -Australia (from 1300 to 2250 m.). On no other occasion have sound-waves -ever been perceived at anything like the extreme distances to which the -detonations of Krakatoa reached. - -Not less manifest and far more serious were the effects of the -successive explosions of the volcano upon the waters of the ocean. A -succession of waves was generated which appear to have been of two -kinds, long waves with periods of more than an hour, and shorter but -higher waves, with irregular and much briefer intervals. The greatest -disturbance, probably resulting from a combination of both kinds of -waves, reached a height of about 50 ft. The destruction caused by the -rush of such a body of sea-water along the coasts and low islands was -enormous. All vessels lying in harbour or near the shore were stranded, -the towns, villages and settlements close to the sea were either at -once, or by successive inundations, entirely destroyed, and more than -36,000 human beings perished. The sea-waves travelled to vast distances -from the centre of propagation. The long wave reached Cape Horn (7818 -geographical miles) and possibly the English Channel (11,040 m.). The -shorter waves reached Ceylon and perhaps Mauritius (2900 m.). - - See R. D. M. Verbeek, _Krakatau_ (Batavia, 1886); "The Eruption of - Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena," _Report of the Krakatoa Committee - of the Royal Society_ (London, 1888). - - - - -KRAKEN, in Norwegian folk-lore, a sea-monster, believed to haunt the -coasts of Norway. It was described in 1752 by the Norwegian bishop -Pontoppidan as having a back about a mile and a half round and a body -which showed above the sea like an island, and its arms were long enough -to enclose the largest ship. The further assertion that the kraken -darkened the water around it by an excretion suggests that the myth was -based on the appearance of some gigantic cuttle-fish. - - See J. Gibson, _Monsters of the Sea_ (1887); A. S. Packard, "Colossal - Cuttle-fishes," _American Naturalist_ (Salem, 1873), vol. vii.; A. E. - Verrill, "The Colossal Cephalopods of the Western Atlantic," in - _American Naturalist_ (Salem, 1875), vol. ix.; and "Gigantic Squids," - in _Trans. of Connecticut Academy_ (1879), vol. v. - - - - -KRALYEVO (sometimes written KRALJEVO or KRALIEVO), a city of Servia, and -capital of a department bearing the same name. Kralyevo is built beside -the river Ibar, 4 m. W. of its confluence with the Servian Morava; and -in the midst of an upland valley, between the Kotlenik Mountains, on the -north, and the Stolovi Mountains, on the south. Formerly known as -Karanovats, Kralyevo received its present name, signifying "the King's -Town," from King Milan (1868-1889), who also made it a bishopric, -instead of Chachak, 22 m. W. by N. Kralyevo is a garrison town, with a -prefecture, court of first instance, and an agricultural school. But by -far its most interesting feature is the Coronation church belonging to -Jicha monastery. Here six or seven kings are said to have been crowned. -The church is Byzantine in style, and has been partially restored; but -the main tower dates from the year 1210, when it was founded by St Sava, -the patron saint of Servia. Pop. (1900), about 3600. - -The famous monastery of Studenitsa, 24 m. S. by W. of Kralyevo, stands -high up among the south-western mountains, overlooking the Studenitsa, a -tributary of the Ibar. It consists of a group of old-fashioned timber -and plaster buildings, a tall belfry, and a diminutive church of white -marble, founded in 1190 by King Stephen Nemanya, who himself turned monk -and was canonized as St Simeon. The carvings round the north, south and -west doors have been partially defaced by the Turks. The inner walls are -decorated with Byzantine frescoes, among which only a painting of the -Last Supper, and the portraits of five saints, remain unrestored. The -dome and narthex are modern additions. Besides the silver shrine of St -Simeon, many gold and silver ornaments, church vessels and old -manuscripts, there are a set of vestments and a reliquary, believed by -the monks to have been the property of St Sava. - - - - -KRANTZ (or CRANTZ), ALBERT (c. 1450-1517), German historian, was a -native of Hamburg. He studied law, theology and history at Rostock and -Cologne, and after travelling through western and southern Europe was -appointed professor, first of philosophy and subsequently of theology, -in the university of Rostock, of which he was rector in 1482. In 1493 he -returned to Hamburg as theological lecturer, canon and prebendary in the -cathedral. By the senate of Hamburg he was employed on more than one -diplomatic mission abroad, and in 1500 he was chosen by the king of -Denmark and the duke of Holstein as arbiter in their dispute regarding -the province of Dithmarschen. As dean of the cathedral chapter, to which -office he was appointed in 1508, Krantz applied himself with zeal to the -reform of ecclesiastical abuses, but, though opposed to various -corruptions connected with church discipline, he had little sympathy -with the drastic measures of Wycliffe or Huss. With Luther's protest -against the abuse of Indulgences he was in general sympathy, but with -the reformer's later attitude he could not agree. When, on his -death-bed, he heard of the ninety-five theses, he is said, on good -authority, to have exclaimed: "Brother, Brother, go into thy cell and -say, God have mercy upon me!" Krantz died on the 7th of December 1517. - - Krantz was the author of a number of historical works which for the - period when they were written are characterized by exceptional - impartiality and research. The principal of these are _Chronica - regnorum aquilonarium Daniae, Sueciae, et Norvagiae_ (Strassburg, - 1546); _Vandalia, sive Historia de Vandalorum vera origine_, &c. - (Cologne, 1518); _Saxonia_ (1520); and _Metropolis, sive Historia de - ecclesiis sub Carolo Magno in Saxonia_ (Basel, 1548). See life by N. - Wilckens (Hamburg, 1722). - - - - -KRASNOVODSK, a seaport of Russian Transcaspia, on the N. shore of -Balkhan or Krasnovodsk Bay, on the S. side of the Caspian Sea, opposite -to Baku, and at 69 ft. below sea-level. Pop. (1897), 6359. It is -defended by a fort. Here begins the Transcaspian railway to Merv and -Bokhara. There is a fishing industry, and salt and sulphur are -obtained. Krasnovodsk, which is the capital of the Transcaspian -province, was founded in 1869. - - - - -KRASNOYARSK, a town of Eastern Siberia, capital of the government of -Yeniseisk, on the left bank of the Yenisei River, at its confluence with -the Kacha, and on the highway from Moscow to Irkutsk, 670 m. by rail -N.W. from the latter. Pop. (1900), 33,337. It has a municipal museum and -a railway technical school. It was founded by Cossacks in 1628, and -during the early years of its existence it was more than once besieged -by the Tatars and the Kirghiz. Its commercial importance depends -entirely upon the gold-washings of the Yeniseisk district. Brick-making, -soap-boiling, tanning and iron-founding are carried on. The climate is -very cold, but dry. The Yenisei River is frozen here for 160 days in the -year. - - - - -KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS (1812-1887), Polish novelist and -miscellaneous writer, was born at Warsaw on the 28th of July 1812, of an -aristocratic family. He showed a precocious talent for authorship, -beginning his literary career with a volume of sketches from society as -early as 1829, and for more than half a century scarcely ever -intermitting his literary production, except during a period of -imprisonment upon a charge of complicity in the insurrection of 1831. He -narrowly escaped being sent to Siberia, but, rescued by the intercession -of powerful friends, he settled upon his landed property near Grodno, -and devoted himself to literature with such industry that a mere -selection from his fiction alone, reprinted at Lemberg from 1871 to -1875, occupies 102 volumes. He was thus the most conspicuous literary -figure of his day in Poland. His extreme fertility was suggestive of -haste and carelessness, but he declared that the contrivance of his plot -gave him three times as much trouble as the composition of his novel. -Apart from his gifts as a story-teller, he did not possess extraordinary -mental powers; the "profound thoughts" culled from his writings by his -admiring biographer Bohdanowicz are for the most part mere truisms. His -copious invention is nevertheless combined with real truth to nature, -especially evinced in the beautiful little story of _Jermola the Potter_ -(1857), from which George Eliot appears to have derived the idea of -_Silas Marner_, though she can only have known it at second hand. -Compared with the exquisite art of _Silas Marner_, _Jermola_ appears -rude and unskilful, but it is not on this account the less touching in -its fidelity to the tenderest elements of human nature. Kraszewski's -literary activity falls into two well-marked epochs, the earlier when, -residing upon his estate, he produced romances like _Jermola_, _Ulana_ -(1843), _Kordecki_ (1852), devoid of any special tendency, and that -after 1863, when the suspicions of the Russian government compelled him -to settle in Dresden. To this period belong several political novels -published under the pseudonym of _Boleslawita_, historical fictions such -as _Countess Cosel_, and the "culture" romances _Morituri_ (1874-1875) -and _Resurrecturi_ (1876), by which he is perhaps best known out of his -own country. In 1884 he was accused of plotting against the German -government and sentenced to seven years' imprisonment in a fortress, but -was released in 1886, and withdrew to Geneva, where he died on the 19th -of March 1887. His remains were brought to Poland and interred at -Cracow. Kraszewski was also a poet and dramatist; his most celebrated -poem is his epic _Anafielas_ (3 vols., 1840-1843) on the history of -Lithuania. He was indefatigable as literary critic, editor and -translator, wrote several historical works, and was conspicuous as a -restorer of the study of national archaeology in Poland. Among his most -valuable works were _Litwa_ (Warsaw, 2 vols., 1847-1850), a collection -of Lithuanian antiquities; and an aesthetic history of Poland (Posen, 3 -vols., 1873-1875). (R. G.) - - - - -KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1781-1832), German philosopher, was -born at Eisenberg on the 4th of May 1781, and died at Munich on the 27th -of September 1832. Educated at first at Eisenberg, he proceeded to Jena, -where he studied philosophy under Hegel and Fichte and became -_privatdozent_ in 1802. In the same year, with characteristic -imprudence, he married a wife without dowry. Two years after, lack of -pupils compelled him to move to Rudolstadt and later to Dresden, where -he gave lessons in music. In 1805 his ideal of a universal world-society -led him to join the Freemasons, whose principles seemed to tend in the -direction he desired. He published two books on Freemasonry, _Die drei -altesten Kunsturkunden der Freimaurerbruderschaft_ and _Hohere -Vergeistigung der echt uberlieferten Grundsymbole der Freimaurerei_, but -his opinions drew upon him the opposition of the Masons. He lived for a -time in Berlin and became a _privatdozent_, but was unable to obtain a -professorship. He therefore proceeded to Gottingen and afterwards to -Munich, where he died of apoplexy at the very moment when the influence -of Franz von Baader had at last obtained a position for him. - -One of the so-called "Philosophers of Identity," Krause endeavoured to -reconcile the ideas of a God known by Faith or Conscience and the world -as known to sense. God, intuitively known by Conscience, is not a -personality (which implies limitations), but an all-inclusive essence -(_Wesen_), which contains the Universe within itself. This system he -called _Panentheism_, a combination of Theism and Pantheism. His theory -of the world and of humanity is universal and idealistic. The world -itself and mankind, its highest component, constitute an organism -(_Gliedbau_), and the universe is therefore a divine organism -(_Wesengliedbau_). The process of development is the formation of higher -unities, and the last stage is the identification of the world with God. -The form which this development takes, according to Krause, is Right or -the Perfect Law. Right is not the sum of the conditions of external -liberty but of absolute liberty, and embraces all the existence of -nature, reason and humanity. It is the mode, or rationale, of all -progress from the lower to the highest unity or identification. By its -operation the reality of nature and reason rises into the reality of -humanity. God is the reality which transcends and includes both nature -and humanity. Right is, therefore, at once the dynamic and the safeguard -of progress. Ideal society results from the widening of the organic -operation of this principle from the individual man to small groups of -men, and finally to mankind as a whole. The differences disappear as the -inherent identity of structure predominates in an ever-increasing -degree, and in the final unity Man is merged in God. - -The comparatively small area of Krause's influence was due partly to the -overshadowing brilliance of Hegel, and partly to two intrinsic defects. -The spirit of his thought is mystical and by no means easy to follow, -and this difficulty is accentuated, even to German readers, by the use -of artificial terminology. He makes use of germanized foreign terms -which are unintelligible to the ordinary man. His principal works are -(beside those quoted above): _Entwurf des Systems der Philosophie_ -(1804); _System der Sittenlehre_ (1810); _Das Urbild der Menschheit_ -(1811); and _Vorlesungen uber das System der Philosophie_ (1828). He -left behind him at his death a mass of unpublished notes, part of which -has been collected and published by his disciples, H. Ahrens -(1808-1874), Leonhardi, Tiberghien and others. - - See H. S. Lindemann, _Uebersichtliche Darstellung des Lebens ... - Krauses_ (1839); P. Hohlfeld, _Die Krausesche Philosophie_ (1879); A. - Procksch, _Krause, ein Lebensbild nach seinen Briefen_ (1880); R. - Eucken, _Zur Erinnerung an Krause_ (1881); B. Martin, _Krauses Leben - und Bedeutung_ (1881), and Histories of Philosophy by Zeller, - Windelband and Hoffding. - - - - -KRAWANG, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East Indies, bounded -E. and S. by Charibon and the Preanger, W. by Batavia, and N. by the -Java Sea, and comprising a few insignificant islands. The natives are -Sundanese, but contain a large admixture of Middle Javanese and -Bantamers in the north, where they established colonies in the 17th -century. Like the residency of Batavia, the northern half of Krawang is -flat and occasionally marshy, while the southern half is mountainous and -volcanic. Warm and cold mineral, salt and sulphur springs occur in the -hills. Salt is extracted by the government, though in smaller quantities -now than formerly. The principal products are rice, coffee, sugar, -vanilla, indigo and nutmeg. Fishing is practised along the coast and -forest culture in the hills, while the industries also include the -manufacture of coarse linen, sacks and leather tanning. Gold and silver -were formerly thought to be hidden in the Parang mountain in the -Gandasoli district south-west of Purwakarta, and mining was begun by the -Dutch East India Company in 1722. The largest part of the residency -consists of private lands, and only the Purwakarta and Krawang divisions -forming the middle and north-west sections come directly under -government control. The remainder of the residency is divided between -the Pamanukan-Chiasem lands occupying the whole eastern half of the -residency and the Tegalwaru lands in the south-western corner. The -former is owned by a company and forms the largest estate in Java. The -Tegalwaru is chiefly owned by Chinese proprietors. Purwakarta is the -capital of the residency. Subang and Pamanukan both lie at the junction -of several roads near the borders of Cheribon and are the chief centres -of activity in the east of the residency. - - - - -KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL, FREIHERR (1735-1804), Austrian soldier. Entering -the Austrian army at the age of nineteen, he arrived somewhat rapidly at -the grade of major, but it was many years before he had any opportunity -of distinguishing himself. In 1784 he suppressed a rising in -Transylvania, and in the Turkish wars he took an active part at Porczeny -and the Vulcan Pass. Made major-general in 1790, three years later he -commanded the advanced guard of the Allies operating in France. He -distinguished himself at Famars, Charleroi, Fleurus, Weissenberg, and -indeed at almost every encounter with the troops of the French Republic. -In the celebrated campaign of 1796 on the Rhine and Danube he did -conspicuous service as a corps commander. At Wetzlar he defeated Kleber, -and at Amberg and Wurzburg he was largely responsible for the victory of -the archduke Charles. In the following year he was less successful, -being twice defeated on the Lahn and the Main. Kray commanded in Italy -in 1799, and reconquered from the French the plain of Lombardy. For his -victories of Verona, Mantua, Legnago and Magnano he was promoted -_Feldzeugmeister_, and he ended the campaign by further victories at -Novi and Fossano. Next year he commanded on the Rhine against Moreau. -(For the events of this memorable campaign see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY -WARS.) As a consequence of the defeats he underwent at Biberach, -Messkirch, &c., Kray was driven into Ulm, but by a skilful march round -Moreau's flank succeeded in escaping to Bohemia. He was relieved of his -command by the Austrian government, and passed his remaining years in -retirement. He died in 1804. Kray was one of the best representatives of -the old Austrian army. Tied to an obsolete system and unable from habit -to realize the changed conditions of warfare, he failed, but his enemies -held him in the highest respect as a brave, skilful and chivalrous -opponent. It was he who at Altenkirchen cared for the dying Marceau, and -the white uniforms of Kray and his staff mingled with the blue of the -French in the funeral procession of the young general of the Republic. - - - - -KREMENCHUG, a town of south-west Russia, in the government of Poltava, -on the left bank of the Dnieper (which periodically overflows its -banks), 73 m. S.W. of the city of Poltava, on the Kharkov-Nikolayev -railway. Pop. (1887), 31,000; (1897, with Kryukov suburb), 58,648. The -most notable public buildings are the cathedral (built in 1808), the -arsenal and the town-hall. The town is supposed to have been founded in -1571. From its situation at the southern terminus of the navigable -course of the Dnieper, and on the highway from Moscow to Odessa, it -early acquired great commercial importance, and by 1655 it was a wealthy -town. From 1765 to 1789 it was the capital of "New Russia." It has a -suburb, Kryukov, on the right bank of the Dnieper, united with the town -by a railway bridge. Nearly all commercial transactions in salt with -White Russia are effected at Kremenchug. The town is also the centre of -the tallow trade with Warsaw; considerable quantities of timber are -floated down to this place. Nearly all the trade in the brandy -manufactured in the government of Kharkov, and destined for the -governments of Ekaterinoslav and Taurida, is concentrated here, as also -is the trade in linseed between the districts situated on the left -affluents of the Dnieper and the southern ports. Other articles of -commerce are rye, rye-flour, wheat, oats and buckwheat, which are sent -partly up the Dnieper to Pinsk, partly by land to Odessa and Berislav, -but principally to Ekaterinoslav, on light boats floated down during the -spring floods. The Dnieper is crossed at Kremenchug by a tubular bridge -1081 yds. long; there is also a bridge of boats. The manufactures -consist of carriages, agricultural machinery, tobacco, steam -flour-mills, steam saw-mills and forges. - - - - -KREMENETS (Polish, _Krzemieniec_), a town of south-west Russia, in the -government of Volhynia, 130 m. W. of Zhitomir, and 25 m. E. of Brody -railway station (Austrian Galicia). Pop. (1900), 16,534. It is situated -in a gorge of the Kremenets Hills. The Jews, who are numerous, carry on -a brisk trade in tobacco and grain exported to Galicia and Odessa. The -picturesque ruins of an old castle on a crag close by the town are -usually known as the castle of Queen Bona, i.e. Bona Sforza (wife of -Sigismund I. of Poland); it was built, however, in the 8th or 9th -century. The Mongols vainly besieged it in 1241 and 1255. From that time -Kremenets was under the dominion alternately of Lithuania and Poland, -till 1648, when it was taken by the Zaporogian Cossacks. From 1805 to -1832 its Polish lyceum was the centre of superior instruction for the -western provinces of Little Russia; but after the Polish insurrection of -1831 the lyceum was transferred to Kiev, and is now the university of -that town. - - - - -KREMS, a town of Austria, in lower Austria, 40 m. W.N.W. of Vienna by -rail. Pop. (1900), 12,657. It is situated at the confluence of the Krems -with the Danube. The manufactures comprise steel goods, mustard and -vinegar, and a special kind of white lead (_Kremser Weiss_) is prepared -from deposits in the neighbourhood. The trade is mainly in these -products and in wine and saffron. The Danube harbour of Krems is at the -adjoining town of Stein (pop., 4299). - - - - -KREMSIER, (Czech, _Kromeriz_), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 37 m. E. -by N. of Brunn by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,991, mostly Czech. It is -situated on the March, in the fertile region of the Hanna, and not far -from the confluence of these two rivers. It is the summer residence of -the bishop of Olmutz, whose palace, surrounded by a fine park and -gardens, and containing a picture gallery, library and various -collections, forms the chief object of interest. Its industries include -the manufacture of machinery and iron-founding, brewing and -corn-milling, and there is a considerable trade in corn, cattle, fruit -and manufactures. In 1131 Kremsier was the seat of a bishopric. It -suffered considerably during the Hussite war; and in 1643 it was taken -and burned by the Swedes. After the rising of 1848 the Austrian -parliament met in the palace at Kremsier from November 1848 till March -1849. In August 1885 a meeting took place here between the Austrian and -the Russian emperors. - - - - -KREUTZER, KONRADIN (1780-1849), German musical composer, was born on the -22nd of November 1780 in Messkirch in Baden, and died on the 14th of -December 1849 in Riga. He owes his fame almost exclusively to one opera, -_Das Nachtlager von Granada_ (1834), which kept the stage for half a -century in spite of the changes in musical taste. It was written in the -style of Weber, and is remarkable especially for its flow of genuine -melody and depth of feeling. The same qualities are found in Kreutzer's -part-songs for men's voices, which at one time were extremely popular in -Germany, and are still listened to with pleasure. Amongst these "Der Tag -des Herrn" ("The Lord's Day") may be named as the most excellent. -Kreutzer was a prolific composer, and wrote a number of operas for the -theatre at Vienna, which have disappeared from the stage and are not -likely to be revived. He was from 1812 to 1816 Kapellmeister to the king -of Wurttemberg, and in 1840 became conductor of the opera at Cologne. -His daughter, Cecilia Kreutzer, was a singer of some renown. - - - - -KREUTZER, RUDOLPH (1766-1831), French violinist, of German extraction, -was born at Versailles, his father being a musician in the royal chapel. -Rudolph gradually became famous as a violinist, playing with great -success at various continental capitals. It was to him that in 1803 -Beethoven dedicated his famous violin sonata (_op._ 47) known as the -"Kreutzer." Apart, however, from his fame as a violinist, Kreutzer was -also a prolific composer; he wrote twenty-nine operas, many of which -were successfully produced, besides nineteen violin concertos and -chamber music. He died at Geneva in 1831. - - - - -KREUZBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on -the Stober, 24 m. N.N.E. of Oppeln. Pop. (1905), 10,919. It has an -Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a gymnasium and a teacher's -seminary. Here are flour-mills, distilleries, iron-works, breweries, and -manufactories of sugar and of machinery. Kreuzburg, which became a town -in 1252, was the birthplace of the novelist Gustav Freytag. - - - - -KREUZNACH (_Creuznach_), a town and watering-place of Germany, in the -Prussian Rhine province, situated on the Nahe, a tributary of the Rhine, -9 m. by rail S. of Bingerbruck. Pop. (1900), 21,321. It consists of the -old town on the right bank of the river, the new town on the left, and -the Bade Insel (bath island), connected by a fine stone bridge. The town -has two Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium, a -commercial school and a hospital. There is a collection of Roman and -medieval antiquities, among which is preserved a fine Roman mosaic -discovered in 1893. On the Bade Insel is the Kurhaus (1872) and also the -chief spring, the Elisabethquelle, impregnated with iodine and bromine, -and prescribed for scrofulous, bronchial and rheumatic disorders. The -chief industries are marble-polishing and the manufacture of leather, -glass and tobacco. Vines are cultivated on the neighbouring hills, and -there is a trade in wine and corn. - -The earliest mention of the springs of Kreuznach occurs in 1478, but it -was only in the early part of the 19th century that Dr Prieger, to whom -there is a statue in the town, brought them into prominence. Now the -annual number of visitors amounts to several thousands. Kreuznach was -evidently a Roman town, as the ruins of a Roman fortification, the -Heidenmauer, and various antiquities have been found in its immediate -neighbourhood. In the 9th century it was known as Cruciniacum, and it -had a palace of the Carolingian kings. In 1065 the emperor Henry IV. -presented it to the bishopric of Spires; in the 13th century it obtained -civic privileges and passed to the counts of Sponheim; in 1416 it became -part of the Palatinate. The town was ceded to Prussia in 1814. In 1689 -the French reduced the strong castle of Kauzenberg to the ruin which now -stands on a hill above Kreuznach. - - See Schneegans, _Historisch-topographische Beschreibung Kreuznachs und - seiner Umgebung_ (7th ed., 1904); Engelmann, _Kreuznach und seine - Heilquellen_ (8th ed., 1890); and Stabel, _Das Solbad Kreuznach fur - Arzte dargestellt_ (Kreuznach, 1887). - - - - -KRIEGSPIEL (KRIEGSSPIEL), the original German name, still used to some -extent in England, for the War Game (q.v.). - - - - -KRIEMHILD (_Grimhild_), the heroine of the Nibelungenlied and wife of -the hero Siegfried. The name (from O. H. Ger. _grima_, a mask or helm, -and _hiltja_ or _hilta_, war) means "the masked warrior woman," and has -been taken to prove her to have been originally a mythical, daemonic -figure, an impersonation of the powers of darkness and of death. In the -north, indeed, the name _Grimhildr_ continued to have a purely mythical -character and to be applied only to daemonic beings; but in Germany, the -original home of the Nibelungen myth, it certainly lost all trace of -this significance, and in the _Nibelungenlied_ Kriemhild is no more than -a beautiful princess, the daughter of King Dancrat and Queen Uote, and -sister of the Burgundian kings Gunther, Giselher and Gernot, the masters -of the Nibelungen hoard. As she appears in the Nibelungen legend, -however, Kriemhild would seem to have an historical origin, as the wife -of Attila, king of the Huns, as well as sister of the Nibelung kings. -According to Jordanes (c. 49), who takes his information from the -contemporary and trustworthy account of Priscus, Attila died of a -violent hemorrhage at night, as he lay beside a girl named Ildico (i.e. -O. H. Ger. Hildiko). The story got abroad that he had perished by the -hand of a woman in revenge for her relations slain by him; according to -some (e.g. Saxo Poeta and the Quedlinburg chronicle) it was her father -whom she revenged; but when the treacherous overthrow of the Burgundians -by Attila had become a theme for epic poets, she figured as a Burgundian -princess, and her act as done in revenge for her brothers. Now the name -Hildiko is the diminutive of Hilda or Hild, which again--in accordance -with a custom common enough--may have been used as an abbreviation of -Grimhild (cf. _Hildr_ for _Brynhildr_). It has been suggested (Symons, -_Heldensage_, p. 55) that when the legend of the overthrow of the -Burgundians, which took place in 437, became attached to that of the -death of Attila (453), Hild, the supposed sister of the Burgundian -kings, was identified with the daemonic Grimhild, the sister of the -mythical Nibelung brothers, and thus helped the process by which the -Nibelung myth became fused with the historical story of the fall of the -Burgundian kingdom. The older story, according to which Grimhild slays -her husband Attila in revenge for her brothers, is preserved in the -Norse tradition, though Grimhild's part is played by Gudrun, a change -probably due to the fact, mentioned above, that the name Grimhild still -retained in the north its sinister significance. The name of Grimhild is -transferred to Gudrun's mother, the "wise wife," a semi-daemonic figure, -who brews the potion that makes Sigurd forget his love for Brunhild and -his plighted troth. In the _Nibelungenlied_, however, the primitive -supremacy of the blood-tie has given place to the more modern idea of -the supremacy of the passion of love, and Kriemhild marries Attila -(Etzel) in order to compass the death of her brothers, in revenge for -the murder of Siegfried. Theodor Abeling, who is disposed to reject or -minimize the mythical origins, further suggests a confusion of the story -of Attila's wife Ildico with that of the murder of Sigimund the -Burgundian by the sons of Chrothildis, wife of Clovis. (See -NIBELUNGENLIED.) - - See B. Symons, _Germanische Heldensage_ (Strassburg, 1905); F. Zarnke, - _Das Nibelungenlied_, p. ii. (Leipzig, 1875); T. Abeling, _Einleitung - in das Nibelungenlied_ (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1909). (W. A. P.) - - - - -KRILOFF (or KRUILOV), IVAN ANDREEVICH (1768-1844), the great national -fabulist of Russia, was born on the 14th of February 1768, at Moscow, -but his early years were spent at Orenburg and Tver. His father, a -distinguished military officer, died in 1779; and young Kriloff was left -with no richer patrimony than a chest of old books, to be brought up by -the exertions of a heroic mother. In the course of a few years his -mother removed to St Petersburg, in the hope of securing a government -pension; and there Kriloff obtained a post in the civil service, but he -gave it up immediately after his mother's death in 1788. Already in 1783 -he had sold to a bookseller a comedy of his own composition, and by this -means had procured for himself the works of Moliere, Racine, Boileau; -and now, probably under the influence of these writers, he produced -_Philomela_ and _Cleopatra_, which gave him access to the dramatic -circle of Knyazhin. Several attempts he made to start a literary -magazine met with little success; but, together with his plays, they -served to make the author known in society. For about four years -(1797-1801) Kriloff lived at the country seats of Prince Sergius -Galitzin, and when the prince was appointed military governor of Livonia -he accompanied him as official secretary. Of the years which follow his -resignation of this post little is known, the common opinion being that -he wandered from town to town under the influence of a passion for -card-playing. Before long he found his place as a fabulist, the first -collection of his _Fables_, 23 in number, appearing in 1809. From 1812 -to 1841 he held a congenial appointment in the Imperial Public -Library--first as assistant, and then as head of the Russian books -department. He died on the 21st of November 1844. His statue in the -Summer Garden is one of the finest monuments in St Petersburg. - -Honours were showered upon Kriloff while he yet lived: the Academy of -Sciences admitted him a member in 1811, and bestowed upon him its gold -medal; in 1838 a great festival was held under imperial sanction to -celebrate the jubilee of his first appearance as an author; and the -emperor assigned him a handsome pension. Before his death about 77,000 -copies of his Fables had found sale in Russia; and his wisdom and humour -had become the common possession of the many. He was at once poet and -sage. His fables for the most part struck root in some actual event, and -they told at once by their grip and by their beauty. Though he began as -a translator and imitator he soon showed himself a master of invention, -who found abundant material in the life of his native land. To the -Russian ear his verse is of matchless quality; while word and phrase are -direct, simple and eminently idiomatic, colour and cadence vary with the -theme. - - A collected edition of Kriloff's works appeared at St Petersburg, - 1844. Of the numerous editions of his _Fables_, which have been often - translated, may be mentioned that illustrated by Trutovski, 1872. The - author's life has been written in Russian by Pletneff, by Lebanoff and - by Grot, _Liter, zhizn Kruilova_. "Materials" for his life are - published in vol. vi. of the _Sbornik Statei_ of the literary - department of the Academy of Sciences. W. R. S. Ralston prefixed an - excellent sketch to his English prose version of the _Fables_ (1868; - 2nd ed. 1871). Another translation, by T. H. Harrison, appeared in - 1883. - - - - -KRISHNA (the Dark One), an incarnation of Vishnu, or rather the form in -which Vishnu himself is the most popular object of worship throughout -northern India. In origin, Krishna, like Rama, was undoubtedly a deified -hero of the Kshatriya caste. In the older framework of the _Mahabharata_ -he appears as a great chieftain and ally of the Pandava brothers; and it -is only in the interpolated episode of the _Bhagavad-gita_ that he is -identified with Vishnu and becomes the revealer of the doctrine of -_bhakti_ or religious devotion. Of still later date are the popular -developments of the modern cult of Krishna associated with Radha, as -found in the _Vishnu Purana_. Here he is represented as the son of a -king saved from a slaughter of the innocents, brought up by a cowherd, -sporting with the milkmaids, and performing miraculous feats in his -childhood. The scene is laid in the neighbourhood of Muttra, on the -right bank of the Jumna, where the whole country to the present day is -holy ground. Another place associated with incidents of his later life -is Dwarka, the westernmost point in the peninsula of Kathiawar. The two -most famous preachers of Krishna-worship and founders of sects in his -honour were Vallabha and Chaitanya, both born towards the close of the -15th century. The followers of the former are now found chiefly in -Rajputana and Gujarat. They are known as Vallabhacharyas, and their -_gosains_ or high priests as maharajas, to whom semi-divine honours are -paid. The licentious practices of this sect were exposed in a lawsuit -before the high court at Bombay in 1862. Chaitanya was the Vaishnav -reformer of Bengal, with his home at Nadiya. A third influential -Krishna-preacher of the 19th century was Swami Narayan, who was -encountered by Bishop Heber in Gujarat, where his followers at this day -are numerous and wealthy. Among the names of Krishna are _Gopal_, the -cowherd; _Gopinath_, the lord of the milkmaids; and _Mathuranath_, the -lord of Muttra. His legitimate consort was Rukmini, daughter of the king -of Berar; but Radha is always associated with him in his temples. (See -HINDUISM.) - - - - -KRISHNAGAR, a town of British India, headquarters of Nadia district in -Bengal, situated on the left bank of the river Jalangi and connected -with Ranaghat, on the Eastern Bengal railway, by a light railway. Pop. -(1901), 24,547. It is the residence of the raja of Nadia and contains a -government college. Coloured clay figures are manufactured. - - - - -KRISTIANSTAD (CHRISTIANSTAD), a port of Sweden, chief town of the -district (_lan_) of Kristianstad, on a peninsula in Lake Sjovik, an -expansion of the river Helge, 10 m. from the Baltic. Pop. (1900), -10,318. Its harbour, custom-house, &c., are at Ahus at the mouth of the -river. It is among the first twelve manufacturing towns of Sweden as -regards value of output, having engineering works, flour-mills, -distilleries, weaving mills and sugar factories. Granite and wood-pulp -are exported, and coal and grain imported. The town is the seat of the -court of appeal for the provinces of Skane and Blekinge. It was founded -and fortified in 1614 by Christian IV. of Denmark, who built the fine -ornate church. The town was ceded to Sweden in 1658, retaken by -Christian V. in 1676, and again acquired by Sweden in 1678. - - - - -KRIVOY ROG, a town of south Russia, in the government of Kherson, on the -Ingulets River, near the station of the same name on the Ekaterinoslav -railway, 113 m. S.W. of the city of Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1900), about -10,000. It is the centre of a district very rich in minerals, obtained -from a narrow stretch of crystalline schists underlying the Tertiary -deposits. Iron ores (60 to 70% of iron), copper ores, colours, brown -coal, graphite, slate, and lithographic stone are obtained--nearly -2,000,000 tons of iron ore annually. - - - - -KROCHMAL, NAHMAN (1785-1840), Jewish scholar, was born at Brody in -Galicia in 1785. He was one of the pioneers in the revival of Jewish -learning which followed on the age of Moses Mendelssohn. His chief work -was the _Moreh Nebuche hazeman_ ("Guide for the Perplexed of the Age"), -a title imitated from that of the 12th-century "Guide for the Perplexed" -of Maimonides (q.v.). This book was not published till after the -author's death, when it was edited by Zunz (1851). The book is a -philosophy of Jewish history, and has a double importance. On the one -side it was a critical examination of the Rabbinic literature and much -influenced subsequent investigators. On the other side, Krochmal, in the -words of N. Slouschz, "was the first Jewish scholar who views Judaism, -not as a distinct and independent entity, but as a part of the whole of -civilization." Krochmal, under Hegelian influences, regarded the -nationality of Israel as consisting in its religious genius, its -spiritual gifts. Thus Krochmal may be called the originator of the idea -of the mission of the Jewish people, "cultural Zionism" as it has more -recently been termed. He died at Tarnopol in 1840. - - See S. Schechter, _Studies in Judaism_ (1896), pp. 56 seq.; N. - Slouschz, _Renascence of Hebrew Literature_ (1909), pp. 63 seq. - (I. A.) - - - - -KRONENBERG, a town of Germany in the Prussian Rhine Province, 6 m. S.W. -from Elberfeld, with which it is connected by railway and by an electric -tramway line. Pop. (1905), 11,340. It is a scattered community, -consisting of an agglomeration of seventy-three different hamlets. It -has a Roman Catholic and two Protestant churches, a handsome modern -town-hall and considerable industries, consisting mainly of steel and -iron manufactures. - - - - -KRONSTADT or CRONSTADT, a strongly fortified seaport town of Russia, the -chief naval station of the Russian fleet in the northern seas, and the -seat of the Russian admiralty. Pop. (1867), 45,115; (1897), 59,539. It -is situated on the island of Kotlin, near the head of the Gulf of -Finland, 20 m. W. of St Petersburg, of which it is the chief port, in 59 -deg. 59' 30" N. and 29 deg. 46' 30" E. Kronstadt, always strong, has -been thoroughly refortified on modern principles. The old "three-decker" -forts, five in number, which formerly constituted the principal defences -of the place, and defied the Anglo-French fleets during the Crimean War, -are now of secondary importance. From the plans of Todleben a new fort, -Constantine, and four batteries were constructed (1856-1871) to defend -the principal approach, and seven batteries to cover the shallower -northern channel. All these modern fortifications are low and thickly -armoured earthworks, powerfully armed with heavy Krupp guns in turrets. -The town itself is surrounded with an _enceinte_. The island of Kotlin, -or Kettle (Finn., _Retusari_, or Rat Island) in general outline forms an -elongated triangle, 7(1/2) m. in length by about 1 in breadth, with its -base towards St Petersburg. The eastern or broad end is occupied by the -town of Kronstadt, and shoals extend for a mile and a half from the -western point of the island to the rock on which the Tolbaaken -lighthouse is built. The island thus divides the seaward approach to St -Petersburg into two channels; that on the northern side is obstructed by -shoals which extend across it from Kotlin to Lisynos on the Finnish -mainland, and is only passable by vessels drawing less than 15 ft. of -water; the southern channel, the highway to the capital, is narrowed by -a spit which projects from opposite Oranienbaum on the Russian -mainland, and, lying close to Kronstadt, has been strongly guarded by -batteries. The approach to the capital has been greatly facilitated by -the construction in 1875-1885 of a canal, 23 ft. deep, through the -shallows. The town of Kronstadt is built on level ground, and is thus -exposed to inundations, from one of which it suffered in 1824. On the -south side of the town there are three harbours--the large western or -merchant harbour, the western flank of which is formed by a great mole -joining the fortifications which traverse the breadth of the island on -this side; the middle harbour, used chiefly for fitting out and -repairing vessels; and the eastern or war harbour for vessels of the -Russian navy. The Peter and Catherine canals, communicating with the -merchant and middle harbours, traverse the town. Between them stood the -old Italian palace of Prince Menshikov, the site of which is now -occupied by the pilot school. Among other public buildings are the naval -hospital, the British seaman's hospital (established in 1867), the civic -hospital, admiralty (founded 1785), arsenal, dockyards and foundries, -school of marine engineering, the cathedral of St Andrew, and the -English church. The port is ice-bound for 140 to 160 days in the year, -from the beginning of December till April. A very large proportion of -the inhabitants are sailors, and large numbers of artisans are employed -in the dockyards. Kronstadt was founded in 1710 by Peter the Great, who -took the island of Kotlin from the Swedes in 1703, when the first -fortifications were constructed. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) - - - - -KROONSTAD, a town of Orange River Colony, 127 m. by rail N.E. of -Bloemfontein and 130 m. S.W. of Johannesburg. Pop. (1904), 7191, of whom -3708 were whites. Kroonstad lies 4489 ft. above the sea and is built on -the banks of the Valsch River, a perennial tributary of the Vaal. It is -a busy town, being the centre of a rich agricultural district and of the -diamond and coal-mining industry of the north-western parts of the -colony. It is also a favourite residential place and resort of visitors -from Johannesburg. It enjoys a healthy climate, affords opportunities -for boating rare in South Africa, and boasts a golf-links. The principal -building is the Dutch Reformed church in the centre of the market -square. - -On the capture of Bloemfontein by the British during the Anglo-Boer War -of 1899-1902 Kroonstad was chosen by the Orange Free State Boers as the -capital of the state, a dignity it held from the 13th of March to the -11th of May 1900. On the following day the town was occupied by Lord -Roberts. The linking of the town in 1906 with the Natal system made the -route via Kroonstad the shortest railway connexion between Cape Town and -Durban. Another line goes N.W. from Kroonstad to Klerksdorp, passing (17 -miles) the Lace diamond mine and (45 miles) the coal mines at -Vierfontein. - - - - -KROPOTKIN, PETER ALEXEIVICH, PRINCE (1842- ), Russian geographer, -author and revolutionary, was born at Moscow in 1842. His father, Prince -Alexei Petrovich Kropotkin, belonged to the old Russian nobility; his -mother, the daughter of a general in the Russian army, had remarkable -literary and liberal tastes. At the age of fifteen Prince Peter -Kropotkin, who had been designed by his father for the army, entered the -Corps of Pages at St Petersburg (1857). Only a hundred and fifty -boys--mostly children of the nobility belonging to the court--were -educated in this privileged corps, which combined the character of a -military school endowed with special rights and of a Court institution -attached to the imperial household. Here he remained till 1862, reading -widely on his own account, and giving special attention to the works of -the French encyclopaedists and to modern French history. Before he left -Moscow Prince Kropotkin had developed an interest in the condition of -the Russian peasantry, and this interest increased as he grew older. The -years 1857-1861 witnessed a rich growth in the intellectual forces of -Russia, and Kropotkin came under the influence of the new -Liberal-revolutionary literature, which indeed largely expressed his own -aspirations. In 1862 he was promoted from the Corps of Pages to the -army. The members of the corps had the prescriptive right of choosing -the regiment to which they would be attached. Kropotkin had never -wished for a military career, but, as he had not the means to enter the -St Petersburg University, he elected to join a Siberian Cossack regiment -in the recently annexed Amur district, where there were prospects of -administrative work. For some time he was aide de camp to the governor -of Transbaikalia at Chita, subsequently being appointed attache for -Cossack affairs to the governor-general of East Siberia at Irkutsk. -Opportunities for administrative work, however, were scanty, and in 1864 -Kropotkin accepted charge of a geographical survey expedition, crossing -North Manchuria from Transbaikalia to the Amur, and shortly afterwards -was attached to another expedition which proceeded up the Sungari River -into the heart of Manchuria. Both these expeditions yielded most -valuable geographical results. The impossibility of obtaining any real -administrative reforms in Siberia now induced Kropotkin to devote -himself almost entirely to scientific exploration, in which he continued -to be highly successful. In 1867 he quitted the army and returned to St -Petersburg, where he entered the university, becoming at the same time -secretary to the physical geography section of the Russian Geographical -Society. In 1873 he published an important contribution to science, a -map and paper in which he proved that the existing maps of Asia entirely -misrepresented the physical formation of the country, the main -structural lines being in fact from south-west to north-east, not from -north to south, or from east to west as had been previously supposed. In -1871 he explored the glacial deposits of Finland and Sweden for the -Russian Geographical Society, and while engaged in this work was offered -the secretaryship of that society. But by this time he had determined -that it was his duty not to work at fresh discoveries but to aid in -diffusing existing knowledge among the people at large, and he -accordingly refused the offer, and returned to St Petersburg, where he -joined the revolutionary party. In 1872 he visited Switzerland, and -became a member of the International Workingmen's Association at Geneva. -The socialism of this body was not, however, advanced enough for his -views, and after studying the programme of the more violent Jura -Federation at Neuchatel and spending some time in the company of the -leading members, he definitely adopted the creed of anarchism (q.v.) -and, on returning to Russia, took an active part in spreading the -nihilist propaganda. In 1874 he was arrested and imprisoned, but escaped -in 1876 and went to England, removing after a short stay to Switzerland, -where he joined the Jura Federation. In 1877 he went to Paris, where he -helped to start the socialist movement, returning to Switzerland in -1878, where he edited for the Jura Federation a revolutionary newspaper, -_Le Revolte_, subsequently also publishing various revolutionary -pamphlets. Shortly after the assassination of the tsar Alexander II. -(1881) Kropotkin was expelled from Switzerland by the Swiss government, -and after a short stay at Thonon (Savoy) went to London, where he -remained for nearly a year, returning to Thonon towards the end of 1882. -Shortly afterwards he was arrested by the French government, and, after -a trial at Lyons, sentenced by a police-court magistrate (under a -special law passed on the fall of the Commune) to five years' -imprisonment, on the ground that he had belonged to the International -Workingmen's Association (1883). In 1886 however, as the result of -repeated agitation on his behalf in the French Chamber, he was released, -and settled near London. - -Prince Kropotkin's authority as a writer on Russia is universally -acknowledged, and he has contributed largely to the _Encyclopaedia -Britannica_. Among his other works may be named _Paroles d'un revolte_ -(1884); _La Conquete du pain_ (1888); _L'Anarchie: sa philosophie, son -ideal_ (1896); _The State, its Part in History_ (1898); _Fields, -Factories and Workshops_ (1899); _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_ (1900); -_Mutual Aid, a Factor of Evolution_ (1902); _Modern Science and -Anarchism_ (Philadelphia, 1903); _The Desiccation of Asia_ (1904); The -Orography of Asia (1904); and _Russian Literature_ (1905). - - - - -KROTOSCHIN (in Polish, _Krotoszyn_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian -province of Posen, 32 m. S.E. of Posen. Pop. (1900), 12,373. It has -three churches, a synagogue, steam saw-mills, and a steam brewery, and -carries on trade in grain and seeds. The castle of Krotoschin is the -chief place of a mediatized principality which was formed in 1819 out of -the domains of the Prussian crown and was granted to the prince of Thurn -and Taxis in compensation for the relinquishment by him of the monopoly -of the Prussian postal system, formerly held by his family. - - - - -KRUDENER, BARBARA JULIANA, BARONESS VON (1764-1824), Russian religious -mystic and author, was born at Riga in Livonia on the 11th of November -1764. Her father, Otto Hermann von Vietinghoff, who had fought as a -colonel in Catherine II.'s wars, was one of the two councillors for -Livonia and a man of immense wealth; her mother, _nee_ Countess Anna -Ulrica von Munnich, was a grand-daughter of the celebrated field -marshal. Juliana, as she was usually called, was one of a numerous -family. Her education, according to her own account, consisted of -lessons in French spelling, deportment and sewing; and at the age of -eighteen (Sept. 29, 1782) she was married to Baron Burckhard Alexis -Constantin von Krudener, a widower sixteen years her senior. The baron, -a diplomatist of distinction, was cold and reserved; the baroness was -frivolous, pleasure-loving, and possessed of an insatiable thirst for -attention and flattery; and the strained relations due to this -incompatibility of temper were embittered by her limitless extravagance, -which constantly involved herself and her husband in financial -difficulties. At first indeed all went well. On the 31st of January 1784 -a son was born to them, named Paul after the grand-duke Paul (afterwards -emperor), who acted as god-father. The same year Baron Krudener became -ambassador at Venice,[1] where he remained until transferred to -Copenhagen in 1786. - -In 1787 the birth of a daughter (Juliette) aggravated the nervous -disorders from which the baroness had for some time been suffering, and -it was decided that she must go to the south for her health; she -accordingly left, with her infant daughter and her step-daughter Sophie. -In 1789 she was at Paris when the states general met; a year later, at -Montpellier, she met a young cavalry captain, Charles Louis de -Fregeville, and a passionate attachment sprang up between them. They -returned together to Copenhagen, where the baroness told her husband -that her heart could no longer be his. The baron was coldly kind; he -refused to hear of a divorce and attempted to arrange a _modus vivendi_, -which was facilitated by the departure of De Fregeville for the war. All -was useless; Juliana refused to remain at Copenhagen, and, setting out -on her travels, visited Riga, St Petersburg--where her father had become -a senator[2]--Berlin, Leipzig and Switzerland. In 1798 her husband -became ambassador at Berlin, and she joined him there. But the stiff -court society of Prussia was irksome to her; money difficulties -continued; and by way of climax, the murder of the tsar Paul, in whose -favour Baron Krudener had stood high, made the position of the -ambassador extremely precarious. The baroness seized the occasion to -leave for the baths of Teplitz, whence she wrote to her husband that the -doctors had ordered her to winter in the south. He died on the 14th of -June 1802, without ever having seen her again. - -Meanwhile the baroness had been revelling in the intellectual society of -Coppet and of Paris. She was now thirty-six; her charms were fading, but -her passion for admiration survived. She had tried the effect of the -shawl dance, in imitation of Emma, Lady Hamilton; she now sought fame in -literature, and in 1803, after consulting Chateaubriand and other -writers of distinction, published her _Valerie_, a sentimental romance, -of which under a thin veil of anonymity she herself was the heroine. In -January 1804 she returned to Livonia. - -At Riga occurred her "conversion." A gentleman of her acquaintance when -about to salute her fell dying at her feet. The shock overset her not -too well balanced mind; she sought for consolation, and found it in the -ministrations of her shoemaker, an ardent disciple of the Moravian -Brethren. Though she had "found peace," however, the disorder of her -nerves continued, and she was ordered by her doctor to the baths of -Wiesbaden. At Konigsberg she had an interview with Queen Louise, and, -more important still, with one Adam Muller, a rough peasant, to whom the -Lord had revealed a prophetic mission to King Frederick William III. -"Chiliasm" was in the air. Napoleon was evidently Antichrist; and the -"latter days" were about to be accomplished. Under the influence of the -pietistic movement the belief was widely spread, in royal courts, in -country parsonages, in peasants' hovels: a man would be raised up "from -the north ... from the rising of the sun" (Isa. xli. 25); Antichrist -would be overthrown, and Christ would come to reign a thousand years -upon the earth. The interview determined the direction of the baroness's -religious development. A short visit to the Moravians at Herrenhut -followed; then she went, via Dresden, to Karlsruhe, to sit at the feet -of Heinrich Jung-Stilling (q.v.), the high priest of occultist pietism, -whose influence was supreme at the court of Baden and infected those of -Stockholm and St Petersburg.[3] By him she was instructed in the -chiliastic faith and in the mysteries of the supernatural world. Then, -hearing that a certain pastor in the Vosges, Jean Frederic Fontaines, -was prophesying and working miracles, she determined to go to him. On -the 5th of June 1801, accordingly, she arrived at the Protestant -parsonage of Sainte Marie-aux-Mines, accompanied by her daughter -Juliette, her step-daughter Sophie and a Russian valet. - -This remained for two years her headquarters. Fontaines, half-charlatan, -half-dupe, had introduced into his household a prophetess named Marie -Gottliebin Kummer,[4] whose visions, carefully calculated for her own -purposes, became the oracle of the divine mysteries for the baroness. -Under this influence she believed more firmly than ever in the -approaching millennium and her own mission to proclaim it. Her rank, her -reckless charities, and her exuberant eloquence produced a great effect -on the simple country folk; and when, in 1809, it was decided to found a -colony of the "elect" in order to wait for "the coming of the Lord," -many wretched peasants sold or distributed all they possessed and -followed the baroness and Fontaines into Wurttemberg, where the -settlement was established at Catharinenplaisir and the chateau of -Bonnigheim, only to be dispersed (May 1) by an unsympathetic -government.[5] Further wanderings followed: to Lichtenthal near Baden; -to Karlsruhe and the congenial society of pietistic princesses; to Riga, -where she was present at the death-bed of her mother (Jan. 24, 1811); -then back to Karlsruhe. The influence of Fontaines, to whom she had been -"spiritually married" (Madame Fontaines being content with the part of -Martha in the household, so long as the baroness's funds lasted), had -now waned, and she had fallen under that of Johann Kaspar Wegelin -(1766-1833), a pious linen-draper of Strassburg, who taught her the -sweetness of "complete annihilation of the will and mystic death." Her -preaching and her indiscriminate charities now began to attract curious -crowds from afar; and her appearance everywhere was accompanied by an -epidemic of visions and prophesyings, which culminated in the appearance -in 1811 of the comet, a sure sign of the approaching end. In 1812 she -was at Strassburg, whence she paid more than one visit to J. F. Oberlin -(q.v.), the famous pastor of Waldbach in Steinthal (Ban de la Roche), -and where she had the glory of converting her host, Adrien de -Lazay-Marnesia, the prefect. In 1813 she was at Geneva, where she -established the faith of a band of young pietists in revolt against the -Calvinist Church authorities--notably Henri Louis Empeytaz, afterwards -destined to be the companion of her crowning evangelistic triumph. In -September 1814 she was again at Waldbach, where Empeytaz had preceded -her; and at Strassburg, where the party was joined by Franz Karl von -Berckheim, who afterwards married Juliette.[6] At the end of the year -she returned with her daughters and Empeytaz to Baden, a fateful -migration. - -The empress Elizabeth of Russia was now at Karlsruhe; and she and the -pietist ladies of her entourage hoped that the emperor Alexander might -find at the hands of Madame de Krudener the peace which an interview -with Jung-Stilling had failed to bring him. The baroness herself wrote -urgent letters to Roxane de Stourdza, sister of the tsar's Rumanian -secretary, begging her to procure an interview. There seemed to be no -result; but the correspondence paved the way for the opportunity which a -strange chance was to give her of realizing her ambition. In the spring -of 1815 the baroness was settled at Schluchtern, a piece of Baden -territory _enclave_ in Wurttemberg, busy persuading the peasants to sell -all and fly from the wrath to come. Near this, at Heilbronn, the emperor -Alexander established his headquarters on the 4th of June. That very -night the baroness sought and obtained an interview. To the tsar, who -had been brooding alone over an open Bible, her sudden arrival seemed an -answer to his prayers; for three hours the prophetess preached her -strange gospel, while the most powerful man in Europe sat, his face -buried in his hands, sobbing like a child; until at last he declared -that he had "found peace." At the tsar's request she followed him to -Heidelberg and later to Paris, where she was lodged at the Hotel -Montchenu, next door to the imperial headquarters in the Elysee Palace. -A private door connected the establishments, and every evening the -emperor went to take part in the prayer-meetings conducted by the -baroness and Empeytaz. Chiliasm seemed to have found an entrance into -the high councils of Europe, and the baroness von Krudener had become a -political force to be reckoned with. Admission to her religious -gatherings was sought by a crowd of people celebrated in the -intellectual and social world; Chateaubriand came, and Benjamin -Constant, Madame Recamier, the duchesse de Bourbon, and Madame de Duras. -The fame of the wonderful conversion, moreover, attracted other members -of the chiliastic fraternity, among them Fontaines, who brought with him -the prophetess Marie Kummer. - -In this religious forcing-house the idea of the Holy Alliance germinated -and grew to rapid maturity. On the 26th of September the portentous -proclamation, which was to herald the opening of a new age of peace and -goodwill on earth, was signed by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria and -Prussia (see HOLY ALLIANCE; and EUROPE: _History_). Its authorship has -ever been a matter of dispute. Madame de Krudener herself claimed that -she had suggested the idea, and that Alexander had submitted the draft -for her approval. This is probably correct, though the tsar later, when -he had recovered his mental equilibrium, reproved her for her -indiscretion in talking of the matter. His eyes, indeed, had begun to be -opened before he left Paris, and Marie Kummer was the unintentional -cause. At the very first seance the prophetess, whose revelations had -been praised by the baroness in extravagant terms, had the evil -inspiration to announce in her trance to the emperor that it was God's -will that he should endow the religious colony to which she belonged! -Alexander merely remarked that he had received too many such revelations -before to be impressed. The baroness's influence was shaken but not -destroyed, and before he left Paris Alexander gave her a passport to -Russia. She was not, however, destined to see him again. - -She left Paris on the 22nd of October 1815, intending to travel to St -Petersburg by way of Switzerland. The tsar, however, offended by her -indiscretions and sensible of the ridicule which his relations with her -had brought upon him, showed little disposition to hurry her arrival. -She remained in Switzerland, where she presently fell under the -influence of an unscrupulous adventurer named J. G. Kellner. For months -Empeytaz, an honest enthusiast, struggled to save her from this man's -clutches, but in vain. Kellner too well knew how to flatter the -baroness's inordinate vanity: the author of the Holy Alliance could be -none other than the "woman clothed with the sun" of Rev. xii. 1. She -wandered with Kellner from place to place, proclaiming her mission, -working miracles, persuading her converts to sell all and follow her. -Crowds of beggars and rapscallions of every description gathered -wherever she went, supported by the charities squandered from the common -fund. She became a nuisance to the authorities and a menace to the -peace; Wurttemberg had expelled her, and the example was followed by -every Swiss canton she entered in turn. At last, in August 1817, she set -out for her estate in Livonia, accompanied by Kellner and a remnant of -the elect. - -The emperor Alexander having opened the Crimea to German and Swiss -chiliasts in search of a land of promise, the baroness's son-in-law -Berckheim and his wife now proceeded thither to help establish the new -colonies. In November 1820 the baroness at last went herself to St -Petersburg, where Berckheim was lying ill. She was there when the news -arrived of Ypsilanti's invasion of the Danubian principalities, which -opened the war of Greek independence. She at once proclaimed the divine -mission of the tsar to take up arms on behalf of Christendom. Alexander, -however, had long since exchanged her influence for that of Metternich, -and he was far from anxious to be forced into even a holy war. To the -baroness's overtures he replied in a long and polite letter, the gist of -which was that she must leave St Petersburg at once. In 1823 the death -of Kellner, whom to the last she regarded as a saint, was a severe blow -to her. Her health was failing, but she allowed herself to be persuaded -by Princess Galitzin to accompany her to the Crimea, where she had -established a Swiss colony. Here, at Karasu Bazar, she died on the 25th -of December 1824. - -Sainte-Beuve said of Madame de Krudener: "Elle avait un immense besoin -que le monde s'occupat d'elle...; l'amour propre, toujours l'amour -propre...!" A kindlier epitaph might, perhaps, be written in her own -words, uttered after the revelation of the misery of the Crimean -colonists had at last opened her eyes: "The good that I have done will -endure; the evil that I have done (for how often have I not mistaken for -the voice of God that which was no more than the result of my -imagination and my pride) the mercy of God will blot out." - - Much information about Madame de Krudener, coloured by the author's - views, is to be found in H. L. Empeytaz's _Notice sur Alexandre, - empereur de Russie_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1840). The _Vie de Madame de - Krudener_ (2 vols., Paris, 1849), by the Swiss banker and Philhellene - J. G. Eynard, was long the standard life and contains much material, - but is far from authoritative. In English appeared the _Life and - Letters of Madame de Krudener_, by Clarence Ford (London, 1893). The - most authoritative study, based on a wealth of original research, is - E. Muhlenbeck's _Etude sur les origines de la Sainte-Alliance_ (Paris, - 1909), in which numerous references are given. (W. A. P.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] A portrait of Madame de Krudener and her son as "Venus disarming - Cupid," by Angelica Kauffmann, of this period, is in the Louvre. - - [2] He died while she was there in 1792. - - [3] The consorts of Alexander I. of Russia and of Gustavus Adolphus - IV. of Sweden were princesses of Baden. - - [4] She had been condemned some years previously in Wurttemberg to - the pillory and three years' imprisonment as a "swindler" - (_Betrugerin_), on her own confession. Her curious history is given - in detail by M. Muhlenbeck. - - [5] In 1809 it was obviously inconvenient to have people proclaiming - Napoleon as "the Beast." - - [6] Berckheim had been French commissioner of police in Mainz and had - abandoned his post in 1813. - - - - -KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT (1770-1842), German philosopher and author, was -born at Radis in Prussia on the 22nd of June 1770, and died at Leipzig -on the 12th of January 1842. He studied at Wittenberg under Reinhard and -Jehnichen, at Jena under Reinhold, and at Gottingen. From 1801 to 1804 -he was professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, after which he -succeeded Kant in the chair of logic and metaphysics at the university -of Konigsberg. From 1809 till his death he was professor of philosophy -at Leipzig. He was a prolific writer on a great variety of subjects, in -all of which he excelled as a popularizer rather than as an original -thinker. In philosophy his method was psychological; he attempted to -explain the Ego by examining the nature of its reflection upon the facts -of consciousness. Being is known to us only through its presentation in -consciousness; consciousness only in its relation to Being. Both Being -and Consciousness, however, are immediately known to us, as also the -relation existing between them. By this Transcendental Synthesis he -proposed to reconcile Realism and Idealism, and to destroy the -traditional difficulty between transcendental, or pure, thought and -"things in themselves." Apart from the intrinsic value of his work, it -is admitted that it had the effect of promoting the study of philosophy -and of stimulating freedom of thought in religion and politics. His -principal works are: _Briefe uber den neuesten Idealismus_ (1801); -_Versuch uber die Principien der philosophischen Erkenntniss_ (1801); -_Fundamentalphilosophie_ (1803); _System der theoretischen Philosophie_ -(1806-1810), _System der praktischen Philosophie_ (1817-1819); _Handbuch -der Philosophie_ (1820; 3rd ed., 1828); _Logik oder Denklehre_ (1827); -_Geschichte der Philos. alter Zeit_ (1815; 2nd ed., 1825); _Allgemeines -Handworterbuch der philosophischen Wissenschaften_ (1827-1834; 2nd ed., -1832-1838); _Universal-philosophische Vorlesungen fur Gebildete -beiderlei Geschlechts_. His work _Beitrage zur Geschichte der Philos. -des XIX. Jahrh._ (1835-1837) contains interesting criticisms of Hegel -and Schelling. - - See also his autobiography, _Meine Lebensreise_ (Leipzig, 2nd ed., - 1840). - - - - -KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS (1825-1904), president of the -Transvaal Republic, was born in Colesberg, Cape Colony, on the 10th of -October 1825. His father was Caspar Jan Hendrick Kruger, who was born in -1796, and whose wife bore the name of Steyn. In his ancestry on both -sides occur Huguenot names. The founder of the Kruger family appears to -have been a German named Jacob Kruger, who in 1713 was sent with others -by the Dutch East India Company to the Cape. At the age of ten Paul -Kruger--as he afterwards came to be known--accompanied his parents in -the migration, known as the Great Trek, from the Cape Colony to the -territories north of the Orange in the years 1835-1840. From boyhood his -life was one of adventure. Brought up on the borderland between -civilization and barbarism, constantly trekking, fighting and hunting, -his education was necessarily of the most primitive character. He learnt -to read and to write, and was taught the narrowest form of Dutch -Presbyterianism. His literature was almost confined to the Bible, and -the Old Testament was preferred to the New. It is related of Kruger, as -indeed it has been said of Piet Retief and others of the early Boer -leaders, that he believed himself the object of special Divine guidance. -At about the age of twenty-five he is said to have disappeared into the -veldt, where he remained alone for several days, under the influence of -deep religious fervour. During this sojourn in the wilderness Kruger -stated that he had been especially favoured by God, who had communed -with and inspired him. Throughout his life he professed this faith in -God's will and guidance, and much of his influence over his followers is -attributable to their belief in his sincerity and in his enjoyment of -Divine favour. The Dutch Reformed Church in the Transvaal, pervaded by a -spirit and faith not unlike those which distinguished the Covenanters, -was divided in the early days into three sects. Of these the narrowest, -most puritanical, and most bigoted was the Dopper sect, to which Kruger -belonged. His Dopper following was always unswerving in its support, and -at all critical times in the internal quarrels of the state rallied -round him. The charge of hypocrisy, frequently made against Kruger--if -by this charge is meant the mere juggling with religion for purely -political ends--does not appear entirely just. The subordination of -reason to a sense of superstitious fanaticism is the keynote of his -character, and largely the explanation of his life. Where faith is so -profound as to believe the Divine guidance _all_, and the individual -intelligence _nil_, a man is able to persuade himself that any course he -chooses to take is the one he is directed to take. Where bigotry is so -blind, reason is but dust in the balance. At the same time there were -incidents in Kruger's life which but ill conform to any Biblical -standard he might choose to adopt or feel imposed upon him. Even van -Oordt, his eloquent historian and apologist, is cognisant of this fact. - -When the lad, who had already taken part in fights with the Matabele and -the Zulus, was fourteen his family settled north of the Vaal and were -among the founders of the Transvaal state. At the age of seventeen Paul -found himself an assistant field cornet, at twenty he was field cornet, -and at twenty-seven held a command in an expedition against the Bechuana -chief Sechele--the expedition in which David Livingstone's mission-house -was destroyed. - -In 1853 he took part in another expedition against Montsioa. When not -fighting natives in those early days Kruger was engaged in distant -hunting excursions which took him as far north as the Zambezi. In 1852 -the Transvaal secured the recognition of its independence from Great -Britain in the Sand River convention. For many years after this date the -condition of the country was one bordering upon anarchy, and into the -faction strife which was continually going on Kruger freely entered. In -1856-1857 he joined M. W. Pretorius in his attempt to abolish the -district governments in the Transvaal and to overthrow the Orange Free -State government and compel a federation between the two countries. The -raid into the Free State failed; the blackest incident in connexion with -it was the attempt of the Pretorius and Kruger party to induce the -Basuto to harass the Free State forces behind, while they were attacking -them in front. - -From this time forward Kruger's life is so intimately bound up with the -history of his country, and even in later years of South Africa, that a -study of that history is essential to an understanding of it (see -TRANSVAAL and SOUTH AFRICA). In 1864, when the faction fighting ended -and Pretorius was president, Kruger was elected commandant-general of -the forces of the Transvaal. In 1870 a boundary dispute arose with the -British government, which was settled by the Keate award (1871). The -decision caused so much discontent in the Transvaal that it brought -about the downfall of President Pretorius and his party; and Thomas -Francois Burgers, an educated Dutch minister, resident in Cape Colony, -was elected to succeed him. During the term of Burgers' presidency -Kruger appeared to great disadvantage. Instead of loyally supporting the -president in the difficult task of building up a stable state, he did -everything in his power to undermine his authority, going so far as to -urge the Boers to pay no taxes while Burgers was in office. The faction -of which he was a prominent member was chiefly responsible for bringing -about that _impasse_ in the government of the country which drew such -bitter protest from Burgers and terminated in the annexation by the -British in April 1877. At this period of Transvaal history it is -impossible to trace any true patriotism in the action of the majority of -the inhabitants. The one idea of Kruger and his faction was to oust -Burgers from office on any pretext, and, if possible, to put Kruger in -his place. When the downfall of Burgers was assured and annexation -offered itself as the alternative resulting from his downfall, it is -true that Kruger opposed it. But matters had gone too far. Annexation -became an accomplished fact, and Kruger accepted paid office under the -British government. He continued, however, so openly to agitate for the -retrocession of the country, being a member of two deputations which -went to England endeavouring to get the annexation annulled, that in -1878 Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the British administrator, dismissed him -from his service. In 1880 the Boer rebellion occurred, and Kruger was -one of the famous triumvirate, of which General Piet Joubert and -Pretorius were the other members, who, after Majuba, negotiated the -terms of peace on which the Pretoria convention of August 1881 was -drafted. In 1883 he was elected president of the Transvaal, receiving -3431 votes as against 1171 recorded for Joubert. - -In November 1883 President Kruger again visited England, this time for -the purpose of getting another convention. The visit was successful, the -London convention, which for years was a subject of controversy, being -granted by Lord Derby in 1884 on behalf of the British government. The -government of the Transvaal being once more in the hands of the Boers, -the country rapidly drifted towards that state of national bankruptcy -from which it had only been saved by annexation in 1877. In 1886, the -year in which the Rand mines were discovered, President Kruger was by no -means a popular man even among his own followers; as an administrator of -internal affairs he had shown himself grossly incompetent, and it was -only the specious success of his negotiations with the British -government which had retained him any measure of support. In 1888 he was -elected president for a second term of office. In 1889 Dr. Leyds, a -young Hollander, was appointed state secretary, and the system of state -monopolies around which so much corruption grew up was soon in full -course of development. The principle of government monopoly in trade -being thus established, President Kruger now turned his attention to the -further securing of Boer political monopoly. The Uitlanders were -increasing in numbers, as well as providing the state with a revenue. In -1890, 1891, 1892, and 1894 the franchise laws (which at the time of the -convention were on a liberal basis) were so modified that all Uitlanders -were practically excluded altogether. In 1893 Kruger had to face a third -presidential election, and on this occasion the opposition he had raised -among the burgers, largely by the favouritism he displayed to the -Hollander party, was so strong that it was fully anticipated that his -more liberal opponent, General Joubert, would be elected. Before the -election was decided Kruger took care to conciliate the volksraad -members, as well as to see that at all the volksraad elections, which -occurred shortly before the presidential election, his supporters were -returned, or, if not returned, that his opponents were objected to on -some trivial pretext, and by this means prevented from actually sitting -in the volksraad until the presidential election was over. The Hollander -and _concessionnaire_ influence, which had become a strong power in the -state, was all in favour of President Kruger. In spite of these facts -Kruger's position was insecure. "General Joubert was, without any doubt -whatever, elected by a very considerable majority."[1] But the figures -as announced gave Kruger a majority of about 700 votes. General Joubert -accused the government of tampering with the returns, and appealed to -the volksraad. The appeal, however, was fruitless, and Kruger retained -office. The action taken by President Kruger at this election, and his -previous actions in ousting President Burgers and in absolutely -excluding the Uitlanders from the franchise, all show that at any cost, -in his opinion, the government must remain a close corporation, and that -while he lived he must remain at the head of it. - -From 1877 onward Kruger's external policy was consistently anti-British, -and on every side--in Bechuanaland, in Rhodesia, in Zululand--he -attempted to enlarge the frontiers of the Transvaal at the expense of -Great Britain. In these disputes he usually gained something, and it was -not until 1895 that he was definitely defeated in his endeavours to -obtain a seaport. His internal policy was blind, reckless and -unscrupulous, and inevitably led to disaster. It may be summed up in his -own words when replying to a deputation of Uitlanders, who desired to -obtain the legalization of the use of the English language in the -Transvaal. "This," said Kruger, "is my country; these are my laws. Those -who do not like to obey my laws can leave my country." This rejection of -the advances of the Uitlanders--by whose aid he could have built up a -free and stable republic--led to his downfall, though the failure of the -Jameson Raid in the first days of 1896 gave him a signal opportunity to -secure the safety of his country by the grant of real reforms. But the -Raid taught him no lesson of this kind, and despite the intervention of -the British government the Uitlanders' grievances were not remedied. - -In 1898 Kruger was elected president of the Transvaal for the fourth and -last time. In 1899 relations between the Transvaal and Great Britain had -become so strained, by reason of the oppression of the foreign -population, that a conference was arranged at Bloemfontein between Sir -Alfred (afterwards Lord) Milner, the high commissioner, and President -Kruger. Kruger was true to his principles. At every juncture in his life -his object had been to gain for himself and his own narrow policy -everything that he could, while conceding nothing in return. It was for -this reason that he invariably failed to come to any arrangement with -Sir John Brand while the latter was president of the Free State. In -1889, the very year following President Brand's death, he was able to -make a treaty with President Reitz, his successor, which bound each of -the Boer republics to assist the other in case its independence was -menaced, unless the quarrel could be shown to be an unjust one on the -part of the state so menaced. In effect it bound the Free State to share -all the hazardous risk of the reckless anti-British Transvaal policy, -without the Free State itself receiving anything in return. Kruger thus -achieved one of the objects of his life. With such a history of apparent -success, it is not to be wondered at that the Transvaal president came -to Bloemfontein to meet Sir Alfred Milner in no mood for concession. It -is true that he made an ostensible offer on the franchise question, but -that proposal was made dependent on so many conditions that it was a -palpable sham. Every proposition which Sir Alfred Milner made was met by -the objection that it threatened the independence of the Transvaal. This -retort was President Kruger's rallying cry whenever he found himself in -the least degree pressed, either from within or without the state. To -admit Uitlanders to the franchise, to no matter how moderate a degree, -would destroy the independence of the state. In October 1899, after a -long and fruitless correspondence with the British government, war with -Great Britain was ushered in by an ultimatum from the Transvaal. -Immediately after the ultimatum Natal and the Cape Colony were invaded -by the Boers both of the Transvaal and the Free State. Yet one of the -most memorable utterances made by Kruger at the Bloemfontein conference -was couched in the following terms: "We follow out what God says, -'Accursed be he that removeth his neighbour's landmark.' As long as your -Excellency lives you will see that we shall never be the attacking party -on another man's land." The course of the war that followed is described -under TRANSVAAL. In 1900, Bloemfontein and Pretoria having been occupied -by British troops, Kruger, too old to go on commando, with the consent -of his executive proceeded to Europe, where he endeavoured to induce the -European powers to intervene on his behalf, but without success. - -From this time he ceased to have any political influence. He took up his -residence at Utrecht, where he dictated a record of his career, -published in 1902 under the title of _The Memoirs of Paul Kruger_. He -died on the 14th of July 1904 at Clarens, near Vevey, on the shores of -the Lake of Geneva, whither he had gone for the sake of his health. He -was buried at Pretoria on the following 16th of December, Dingaan's Day, -the anniversary of the day in 1838 when the Boers crushed the Zulu king -Dingaan--a fight in which Kruger, then a lad of thirteen, had taken -part. Kruger was thrice married, and had a large family. His second wife -died in 1891. When he went to Europe he left his third wife in Lord -Roberts's custody at Pretoria, but she gradually failed, and died there -(July 1901). It was in her grave that the body of her husband was laid. -It is recorded that when a statue to President Kruger at Pretoria was -erected, it was by Mrs. Kruger's wish that the hat was left open at the -top, in order that the rain-water might collect there for the birds to -drink. - - See J. F. van Oordt, _P. Kruger en de opkomst d. Zuid-Afrikaansche - Republiek_ (Amsterdam, 1898); the _Memoirs_ already mentioned; F. R. - Statham, _Paul Kruger and his Times_ (1898); and, among works with a - wider scope, G. M. Theal, _History of South Africa_ (for events down - to 1872 only); Sir J. P. Fitzpatrick, _The Transvaal from Within_ - (1899); _The Times History of the War in South Africa_ (1900-9); and - A. P. Hillier, _South African Studies_ (1900). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, in _The Transvaal from Within_, ch. iii. - - - - -KRUGERSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 21 m. N.W. of Johannesburg by -rail. Pop. (1904), 20,073, of whom 6946 were whites. It is built on the -Witwatersrand at an elevation of 5709 ft. above the sea, and is a mining -centre of some importance. It is also the starting-point of a railway to -Zeerust and Mafeking. Krugersdorp was founded in 1887 at the time of the -discovery of gold on the Rand and is named after President Kruger. -Within the municipal area is the Paardekraal monument erected to -commemorate the victory gained by the Boers under Andries Pretorius in -1838 over the Zulu king Dingaan, and on the 16th of December each year, -kept as a public holiday, large numbers of Boers assemble at the -monument to celebrate the event. Here in December 1880 a great meeting -of Boers resolved again to proclaim the independence of the Transvaal. -The formal proclamation was made on Dingaan's Day, and after the defeat -of the British at Majuba Hill in 1881 that victory was also commemorated -at Paardekraal on the 16th of December. The monument, which was damaged -during the war of 1899-1902, was restored by the British authorities. -It was at Doornkop, near Krugersdorp, that Dr L. S. Jameson and his -"raiders" surrendered to Commandant Piet Cronje on the 2nd of January -1896 (see TRANSVAAL: _History_). At Sterkfontein, 8 m. N.W. of -Krugersdorp, are limestone caves containing beautiful stalactites. - - - - -KRUMAU (in Czech, _Krumlov_), is a town in Bohemia situated on the banks -of the Moldau (Vitava). It has about 8000 inhabitants, partly of Czech, -partly of German nationality. Krumau is principally celebrated because -its ancient castle was long the stronghold of the Rosenberg family, -known also as _pani z ruze_, the lords of the rose. Henry II. of -Rosenberg (d. 1310) was the first member of the family to reside at -Krumau. His son Peter I. (d. 1349) raised the place to the rank of a -city. The last two members of the family were two brothers, William, -created prince of Ursini-Rosenberg in 1556 (d. 1592), and Peter Vok, who -played a very large part in Bohemian history. Their librarian was -Wenceslas Brezan, who has left a valuable work on the annals of the -Rosenberg family. Peter Vok of Rosenberg, a strong adherent of the -Utraquist party, sold Krumau shortly before his death (1611), because -the Jesuits had established themselves in the neighbourhood. - -The lordship, one of the most extensive in the monarchy, was bought by -the emperor Rudolph II. for his natural son, Julius of Austria. In 1622 -the emperor Ferdinand II. presented the lordship to his minister, Hans -Ulrich von Eggenberg, and in 1625 raised it to the rank of an hereditary -duchy in his favour. From the Eggenberg family Krumau passed in 1719 to -Prince Adam Franz Karl of Schwarzenberg, who was created duke of Krumau -in 1723. The head of the Schwarzenberg family bears the title of duke of -Krumau. The castle, one of the largest and finest in Bohemia, preserves -much of its ancient character. - - See W. Brezan, _Zivot Vilema z Rosenberka_ (Life of William of - Rosenberg), 1847; also _Zivot Petra Voka z Rosenberka_ (Life of Peter - Vok of Rosenberg), 1880. - - - - -KRUMBACHER, CARL (1856-1909), German Byzantine scholar, was born at -Kurnach in Bavaria on the 23rd of September 1856. He was educated at the -universities of Munich and Leipzig, and held the professorship of the -middle age and modern Greek language and literature in the former from -1897 to his death. His greatest work is his _Geschichte der -byzantinischen Litteratur_ (from Justinian to the fall of the Eastern -Empire, 1453), a second edition of which was published in 1897, with the -collaboration of A. Ehrhard (section on theology) and H. Gelzer (general -sketch of Byzantine history, A.D. 395-1453). The value of the work is -greatly enhanced by the elaborate bibliographies contained in the body -of the work and in a special supplement. Krumbacher also founded the -_Byzantinische Zeitschrift_ (1892) and the _Byzantinisches Archiv_ -(1898). He travelled extensively and the results of a journey to Greece -appeared in his _Griechische Reise_ (1886). Other works by him are: -_Casia_ (1897), a treatise on a 9th-century Byzantine poetess, with the -fragments; _Michael Glykas_ (1894); "Die griechische Litteratur des -Mittelalters" in P. Hinneberg's _Die Kultur der Gegenwart_, i. 8 (1905); -_Das Problem der neugriechischen Schriftsprache_ (1902), in which he -strongly opposed the efforts of the purists to introduce the classical -style into modern Greek literature, and _Populare Aufsatze_ (1909). - - - - -KRUMEN (KROOMEN, KROOBOYS, KRUS, or CROOS), a negro people of the West -Coast of Africa. They dwell in villages scattered along the coast of -Liberia from below Monrovia nearly to Cape Palmas. The name has been -wrongly derived from the English word "crew," with reference to the fact -that Krumen were the first West African people to take service in -European vessels. It is probably from Kraoh, the primitive name of one -of their tribes. Under Krumen are now grouped many kindred tribes, the -Grebo, Basa, Nifu, &c., who collectively number some 40,000. The Krus -proper live in the narrow strip of coast between the Sino river and Cape -Palmas, where are their five chief villages, Kruber, Little Kru, Settra -Kru, Nana Kru and King William's Town. They are traditionally from the -interior, but have long been noted as skilful seamen and daring -fishermen. They are a stout, muscular, broad-chested race, probably the -most robust of African peoples. They have true negro features--skin of a -blue-black hue and woolly and abundant hair. The women are of a lighter -shade than negro women generally, and in several respects come much -nearer to a European standard. Morally as well as physically the Krumen -are one of the most remarkable races in Africa. They are honest, brave, -proud, so passionately fond of freedom that they will starve or drown -themselves to escape capture, and have never trafficked in slaves. -Politically the Krus are divided into small commonwealths, each with an -hereditary chief whose duty is simply to represent the people in their -dealings with strangers. The real government is vested in the elders, -who wear as insignia iron rings on their legs. Their president, the head -fetish-man, guards the national symbols, and his house is sanctuary for -offenders till their guilt is proved. Personal property is held in -common by each family. Land also is communal, but the rights of the -actual cultivator cease only when he fails to farm it. - -At 14 or 15 the Kru "boys" eagerly contract themselves for voyages of -twelve or eighteen months. Generally they prefer work near at home, and -are to be found on almost every ship trading on the Guinea coast. As -soon as they have saved enough to buy a wife they return home and settle -down. Krumen ornament their faces with tribal marks--black or blue lines -on the forehead and from ear to ear. They tattoo their arms and mutilate -the incisor teeth. As a race they are singularly intelligent, and -exhibit their enterprise in numerous settlements along the coast. Sierra -Leone, Grand Bassa and Monrovia all have their Kru towns. Dr Bleek -classifies the Kru language with the Mandingo family, and in this he is -followed by Dr R. G. Latham; Dr Kolle, who published a Kru grammar -(1854), considers it as distinct. - - See A. de Quatrefages and E. T. Hamy, _Crania ethnica_, ix. 363 - (1878-1879); Schlagintweit-Sakunlunski, in the _Sitzungsberichte_ of - the academy at Munich (1875); Nicholas, in _Bull. de la Soc. - d'Anthrop._ (Paris, 1872); J. Buttikofer, _Reisebilder aus Liberia_ - (Leiden, 1890); Sir H. H. Johnston, _Liberia_ (London, 1906). - - - - -KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1767-1845), German theologian, was born on -the 13th of July 1767 at Tecklenburg, Westphalia. Having studied -theology at Lingen and Halle, he became successively rector of the -grammar school at Mors (1793), professor of theology at Duisburg (1800), -preacher at Crefeld, and afterwards at Kettwig, _Consistorialrath_ and -superintendent in Bernburg, and, after declining an invitation to the -university of Bonn, pastor of the Ansgariuskirche in Bremen (1824). He -died at Bremen on the 14th of April 1845. He was the author of many -religious works, but is best known by his _Parabeln_ (1805; 9th ed. -1876; Eng. trans. 1844). - - A. W. Moller published his life and letters in 1849. - -His brother GOTTFRIED DANIEL KRUMMACHER (1774-1837), who studied -theology at Duisburg and became pastor successively in Barl (1798), -Wulfrath (1801) and Elberfeld (1816), was the leader of the "pietists" -of Wupperthal, and published several volumes of sermons, including one -entitled _Die Wanderungen Israels durch d. Wuste nach Kanaan_ (1834). - -FRIEDRICH WILHELM KRUMMACHER (1796-1868), son of Friedrich Adolf, -studied theology at Halle and Jena, and became pastor successively at -Frankfort (1819), Ruhrort (1823), Gemarke, near Barmen in the Wupperthal -(1825), and Elberfeld (1834). In 1847 he received an appointment to the -Trinity Church in Berlin, and in 1853 he became court chaplain at -Potsdam. He was an influential promoter of the Evangelical Alliance. His -best-known works are _Elias der Thisbiter_ (1828-1833; 6th ed. 1874; -Eng. trans. 1838); _Elisa_ (1837) and _Das Passionsbuch, der leidende -Christus_ (1854, in _English The Suffering Saviour_, 1870). His -_Autobiography_ was published in 1869 (Eng. trans. 1871). - -EMIL WILHELM KRUMMACHER (1798-1886), another son, was born at Mors in -1798. In 1841 he became pastor in Duisburg. He wrote, amongst other -works, _Herzensmanna aus Luthers Werken_ (1852). His son Hermann -(1828-1890), who was appointed _Consistorialrath_ in Stettin in 1877, -was the author of _Deutsches Leben in Nordamerika_ (1874). - - - - -KRUPP, ALFRED (1812-1887), German metallurgist, was born at Essen on the -26th of April 1812. His father, Friedrich Krupp (1787-1826), had -purchased a small forge in that town about 1810, and devoted himself to -the problem of manufacturing cast steel; but though that product was put -on the market by him in 1815, it commanded but little sale, and the firm -was far from prosperous. After his death the works were carried on by -his widow, and Alfred, as the eldest son, found himself obliged, a boy -of fourteen, to leave school and undertake their direction. For many -years his efforts met with little success, and the concern, which in -1845 employed only 122 workmen, did scarcely more than pay its way. But -in 1847 Krupp made a 3 pdr. muzzle-loading gun of cast steel, and at the -Great Exhibition of London in 1851 he exhibited a solid flawless ingot -of cast steel weighing 2 tons. This exhibit caused a sensation in the -industrial world, and the Essen works sprang into fame. Another -successful invention, the manufacture of weldless steel tires for -railway vehicles, was introduced soon afterwards. The profits derived -from these and other steel manufactures were devoted to the expansion of -the works and to the development of the artillery with which the name of -Krupp is especially associated (see ORDNANCE). The model settlement, -which is one of the best-known features of the Krupp works, was started -in the 'sixties, when difficulty began to be found in housing the -increasing number of workmen; and now there are various "colonies," -practically separate villages, dotted about to the south and south-west -of the town, with schools, libraries, recreation grounds, clubs, stores, -&c. The policy also was adopted of acquiring iron and coal mines, so -that the firm might have command of supplies of the raw material -required for its operations. Alfred Krupp, who was known as the "Cannon -King," died at Essen on the 14th of July 1887, and was succeeded by his -only son, Friedrich Alfred Krupp (1854-1902), who was born at Essen on -the 17th of February 1854. The latter devoted himself to the financial -rather than to the technical side of the business, and under him it -again underwent enormous expansion. Among other things he in 1896 leased -the "Germania" ship-building yard at Kiel, and in 1902 it passed into -the complete ownership of the firm. In the latter year, which was also -the year of his death, on the 22nd of November, the total number of men -employed at Essen and its associated works was over 40,000. His elder -daughter Bertha, who succeeded him, was married in October 1906 to Dr -Gustav von Bohlen und Halbach, who on that occasion received the right -to bear the name Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach. The enormous increase in -the German navy involved further expansion in the operations of the -Krupp firm as manufacturers of the armour plates and guns required for -the new ships, and in 1908 its capital, then standing at L9,000,000, was -augmented by L2,500,000. - - - - -KRUSENSTERN, ADAM IVAN (1770-1846), Russian navigator, hydrographer and -admiral, was born at Haggud in Esthonia on the 19th of November 1770. In -1785 he entered the corps of naval cadets, after leaving which, in 1788, -with the grade of midshipman, he served in the war against Sweden. -Having been appointed to serve in the British fleet for several years -(1793-1799), he visited America, India and China. After publishing a -paper pointing out the advantages of direct communication between Russia -and China by Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, he was appointed by -the emperor Alexander I. to make a voyage to the east coast of Asia to -endeavour to carry out the project. Two English ships were bought, in -which the expedition left Kronstadt in August 1803 and proceeded by Cape -Horn and the Sandwich Islands to Kamchatka, and thence to Japan. -Returning to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope, after an extended series -of explorations, Krusenstern reached Kronstadt in August 1806, his being -the first Russian expedition to circumnavigate the world. The emperor -conferred several honours upon him, and he ultimately became admiral. As -director of the Russian naval school Krusenstern did much useful work. -He was also a member of the scientific committee of the marine -department, and his contrivance for counteracting the influence of the -iron in vessels on the compass was adopted in the navy. He died at Reval -on the 24th of August 1846. - - Krusenstern's _Voyage Round the World in 1803-1806_ was published at - St Petersburg in 1810-1814, in 3 vols., with folio atlas of 104 plates - and maps (Eng. ed., 2 vols. 1813; French ed., 2 vols., and atlas of 30 - plates, 1820). His narrative contains a good many important - discoveries and rectifications, especially in the region of Japan, and - the contributions made by the various savants were of much scientific - importance. A valuable work is his _Atlas de l'Ocean Pacifique_, with - its accompanying _Recueil des memoires hydrographiques_ (St - Petersburg, 1824-1827). See _Memoir_ by his daughter, Madame Charlotte - Bernhardi, translated by Sir John Ross (1856). - - - - -KRUSHEVATS (or KRUSEVAC), a town of Servia, lying in a fertile region of -hills and dales near the right bank of the Servian Morava. Pop. (1900), -about 10,000. Krushevats is the capital of a department bearing the same -name, and has an active trade in tobacco, hemp, flax, grain and -livestock, for the sale of which it possesses about a dozen markets. It -was in Krushevats that the last Servian tsar, Lazar, assembled his army -to march against the Turks, and lose his empire, at Kosovo, in 1389. The -site of his palace is marked by a ruined enclosure containing a fragment -of the tower of Queen Militsa, whither, according to legend, tidings of -the defeat were brought her by crows from the battlefield. Within the -enclosure stands a church, dating from the reign of Stephen Dushan -(1336-1356), with beautiful rose windows and with imperial peacocks, -dragons and eagles sculptured on the walls. Several old Turkish houses -were left at the beginning of the 20th century, besides an ancient -Turkish fountain and bath. - - - - -KSHATTRIYA, one of the four original Indian castes, the other three -being the Brahman, the Vaisya and the Sudra. The Kshattriya was the -warrior caste, and their function was to protect the people and abstain -from sensual pleasures. On the rise of Brahmin ascendancy the -Kshattriyas were repressed, and their consequent revolt gave rise to -Buddhism and Jainism, the founders of both these religions belonging to -the Kshattriya caste. Though, according to tradition, the Kshattriyas -were all exterminated by Parasurama, the rank is now conceded to the -modern Rajputs, and also to the ruling families of native states. (See -CASTE.) - - - - -KUBAN, a river of southern Russia, rising on the W. slope of the Elbruz, -in the Caucasus, at an altitude of 13,930 ft., races down the N. face of -the Caucasus as a mountain-torrent, but upon getting down to the -lower-lying steppe country S. of Stavropol it turns, at 1075 ft. -altitude, towards the N.W., and eventually, assuming a westerly course, -enters the Gulf of Kyzyl-tash, on the Black Sea, in the vicinity of the -Straits of Kerch. Its lower course lies for some distance through -marshes, where in times of overflow its breadth increases from the -normal 700 ft. to over half a mile. Its total length is 500 m., the area -of its basin 21,480 sq. m. It is navigable for steamers for 73 m., as -far as the confluence of its tributary, the Laba (200 m. long). This, -like its other affluents, the Byelaya (155 m.), Urup, and Great and -Little Zelenchuk, joins it from the left. The Kuban is the ancient -Hypanis and Vardanes and the Pshishche of the Circassians. - - - - -KUBAN, a province of Russian Caucasia, having the Sea of Azov on the W., -the territory of Don Cossacks on the N., the government of Stavropol and -the province of Terek on the E., and the government of Kutais and the -Black Sea district on the S. and S.W. It thus contains the low and -marshy lowlands on the Sea of Azov, the western portion of the fertile -steppes of northern Caucasia, and the northern slopes of the Caucasus -range from its north-west extremity to the Elbruz. The area is 36,370 -sq. m. On the south the province includes the parallel ranges of the -Black Mountains (Kara-dagh), 3000 to 6000 ft. high, which are -intersected by gorges that grow deeper and wider as the main range is -approached. Owing to a relatively wet climate and numerous streams, -these mountains are densely clothed with woods, under the shadow of -which a thick undergrowth of rhododendrons, "Caucasian palms" (_Buxus -sempervirens_), ivy, clematis, &c., develops, so as to render the -forests almost impassable. These cover altogether nearly 20% of the -aggregate area. Wide, treeless plains, from 1000 to 2000 ft. high, -stretch north of the Kuban, and are profusely watered by that river and -its many tributaries--the Little and Great Zelenchuk, Urup, Laba, -Byelaya, Pshish--mountain torrents that rush through narrow gorges from -the Caucasus range. In its lower course the Kuban forms a wide, low -delta, covered with rushes, haunted by wild boar, and very unhealthy. -The same characteristics mark the low plains on the east of the Sea of -Azov, dotted over with numerous semi-stagnant lakes. Malaria is the -enemy of these regions, and is especially deadly on the Taman Peninsula, -as also along the left bank of the lower and middle Kuban. - -There is considerable mineral wealth. Coal is found on the Kuban and its -tributaries, but its extraction is still insignificant (less than 10,000 -tons per annum). Petroleum wells exist in the district of Maikop, but -the best are in the Taman Peninsula, where they range over 570 sq. m. -Iron ores, silver and zinc are found; alabaster is extracted, as also -some salt, soda and Epsom salts. The best mineral waters are at Psekup -and Taman, where there are also numbers of mud volcanoes, ranging from -small hillocks to hills 365 ft. high and more. The soil is very fertile -in the plains, parts of which consist of black earth and are being -rapidly populated. - -The population reached 1,928,419 in 1897, of whom 1,788,622 were -Russians, 13,926 Armenians, 20,137 Greeks and 20,778 Germans. There were -at the same date 945,873 women, and only 156,486 people lived in towns. -The estimated population in 1906 was 2,275,400. The aborigines were -represented by 100,000 Circassians, 5000 Nogai Tatars and some Ossetes. -The Circassians or Adyghe, who formerly occupied the mountain valleys, -were compelled, after the Russian conquest in 1861, either to settle on -the flat land or to emigrate; those who refused to move voluntarily were -driven across the mountains to the Black Sea coast. Most of them (nearly -200,000) emigrated to Turkey, where they formed the Bashi-bazouks. -Peasants from the interior provinces of Russia occupied the plains of -the Kuban, and they now number over 1,000,000, while the Kuban Cossacks -in 1897 numbered 804,372 (405,428 women). In point of religion 90% of -the population were in 1897 members of the Orthodox Greek Church, 4% -Raskolniks and other Christians and 5.4% Mahommedans, the rest being -Jews. - -Wheat is by far the chief crop (nearly three-quarters of the total area -under crops are under wheat); rye, oats, barley, millet, Indian corn, -some flax and potatoes, as also tobacco, are grown. Agricultural -machinery is largely employed, and the province is a reserve granary for -Russia. Livestock, especially sheep, is kept in large numbers on the -steppes. Bee-keeping is general, and gardening and vine-growing are -spreading rapidly. Fishing in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, as also in -the Kuban, is important. - -Two main lines of railway intersect the province, one running N.W. to -S.E., from Rostov to Vladikavkaz, and another starting from the former -south-westwards to Novorossiysk on the north coast of the Black Sea. The -province is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which, with -their populations in 1897, are Ekaterinodar, capital of the province -(65,697), Anapa (6676), Labinsk (6388), Batalpashinsk (8100), Maikop -(34,191), Temryuk (14,476) and Yeisk (35,446). - -The history of the original settlements of the various native tribes, -and their language and worship before the introduction of Mahommedanism, -remain a blank page in the legends of the Caucasus. The peninsula of -Taman, a land teeming with relics of ancient Greek colonists, has been -occupied successively by the Cimmerians, Sarmatians, Khazars, Mongols -and other nations. The Genoese, who established an extensive trade in -the 13th century, were expelled by the Turks in 1484, and in 1784 Russia -obtained by treaty the entire peninsula and the territory on the right -bank of the Kuban, the latter being granted by Catherine II. in 1792 to -the Cossacks of the Dnieper. Then commenced the bloody struggle with -the Circassians, which continued for more than half a century. Not only -domestic, but even field work, is conducted mostly by the women, who are -remarkable for their physical strength and endurance. The native -mountaineers, known under the general name of Circassians, but locally -distinguished as the Karachai, Abadsikh, Khakuchy, Shapsugh, have -greatly altered their mode of life since the pacification of the -Caucasus, still, however, maintaining Mahommedanism, speaking their -vernacular, and strictly observing the customs of their ancestors. -Exports include wheat, tobacco, leather, wool, petroleum, timber, fish, -salt and live cattle; imports, dry goods, grocery and hardware. Local -industry is limited to a few tanneries, petroleum refineries and spirit -distilleries. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) - - - - -KUBELIK, JAN (1880- ), Bohemian violinist, was born near Prague, of -humble parentage. He learnt the violin from childhood, and appeared in -public at Prague in 1888, subsequently being trained at the -Conservatorium by the famous teacher Ottakar Sevcik. From him he learnt -an extraordinary technique, and from 1898 onwards his genius was -acclaimed at concerts throughout Europe. He first appeared in London in -1900, and in America in 1901, creating a _furore_ everywhere. In 1903 he -married the Countess Czaky Szell. - - - - -KUBERA (or KUVERA), in Hindu mythology, the god of wealth. Originally he -appears as king of the powers of evil, a kind of Pluto. His home is -Alaka in Mount Kailasa, and his garden, the world's treasure-house, is -Chaitraratha, on Mount Mandara. Kubera is half-brother to the demon -Ravana, and was driven from Ceylon by the latter. - - - - -KUBLAI KHAN (or KAAN, as the supreme ruler descended from Jenghiz was -usually distinctively termed in the 13th century) (1216-1294), the most -eminent of the successors of Jenghiz (Chinghiz), and the founder of the -Mongol dynasty in China. He was the second son of Tule, youngest of the -four sons of Jenghiz by his favourite wife. Jenghiz was succeeded in the -khanship by his third son Okkodai, or Ogdai (1229), he by his son Kuyuk -(1246), and Kuyuk by Mangu, eldest son of Tule (1252). Kublai was born -in 1216, and, young as he was, took part with his younger brother Hulagu -(afterwards conqueror of the caliph and founder of the Mongol dynasty in -Persia) in the last campaign of Jenghiz (1226-27). The Mongol poetical -chronicler, Sanang Setzen, records a tradition that Jenghiz himself on -his death-bed discerned young Kublai's promise and predicted his -distinction. - -Northern China, Cathay as it was called, had been partially conquered by -Jenghiz himself, and the conquest had been followed up till the Kin or -"golden" dynasty of Tatars, reigning at K'ai-feng Fu on the Yellow -River, were completely subjugated (1234). But China south of the -Yangtsze-kiang remained many years later subject to the native dynasty -of Sung, reigning at the great city of Lingan, or Kinsai (_King-sz'_, -"capital"), now known as Hang-chow Fu. Operations to subdue this region -had commenced in 1235, but languished till Mangu's accession. Kublai was -then named his brother's lieutenant in Cathay, and operations were -resumed. By what seems a vast and risky strategy, of which the motives -are not quite clear, the first campaign of Kublai was directed to the -subjugation of the remote western province of Yunnan. After the capture -of Tali Fu (well known in recent years as the capital of a Mahommedan -insurgent sultan), Kublai returned north, leaving the war in Yunnan to a -trusted general. Some years later (1257) the khan Mangu himself entered -on a campaign in west China, and died there, before Ho-chow in -Sze-ch'uen (1259). - -Kublai assumed the succession, but it was disputed by his brother -Arikbugha and by his cousin Kaidu, and wars with these retarded the -prosecution of the southern conquest. Doubtless, however, this was -constantly before Kublai as a great task to be accomplished, and its -fulfilment was in his mind when he selected as the future capital of his -empire the Chinese city that we now know as Peking. Here, in 1264, to -the north-east of the old city, which under the name of Yenking had been -an occasional residence of the Kin sovereigns, he founded his new -capital, a great rectangular plot of 18 m. in circuit. The (so-called) -"Tatar city" of modern Peking is the city of Kublai, with about -one-third at the north cut off, but Kublai's walls are also on this -retrenched portion still traceable. - -The new city, officially termed T'ai-tu ("great court"), but known among -the Mongols and western people as Kaan-baligh ("city of the khan") was -finished in 1267. The next year war against the Sung Empire was resumed, -but was long retarded by the strenuous defence of the twin cities of -Siang-yang and Fan-cheng, on opposite sides of the river Han, and -commanding two great lines of approach to the basin of the -Yangtsze-kiang. The siege occupied nearly five years. After this Bayan, -Kublai's best lieutenant, a man of high military genius and noble -character, took command. It was not, however, till 1276 that the Sung -capital surrendered, and Bayan rode into the city (then probably the -greatest in the world) as its conqueror. The young emperor, with his -mother, was sent prisoner to Kaan-baligh; but two younger princes had -been despatched to the south before the fall of the city, and these -successively were proclaimed emperor by the adherents of the native -throne. An attempt to maintain their cause was made in Fu-kien, and -afterwards in the province of Kwang-tung; but in 1279 these efforts were -finally extinguished, and the faithful minister who had inspired them -terminated the struggle by jumping with his young lord into the sea. - -Even under the degenerate Sung dynasty the conquest of southern China -had occupied the Mongols during half a century of intermittent -campaigns. But at last Kublai was ruler of all China, and probably the -sovereign (at least nominally) of a greater population than had ever -acknowledged one man's supremacy. For, though his rule was disputed by -the princes of his house in Turkestan, it was acknowledged by those on -the Volga, whose rule reached to the frontier of Poland, and by the -family of his brother Hulagu, whose dominion extended from the Oxus to -the Arabian desert. For the first time in history the name and character -of an emperor of China were familiar as far west as the Black Sea and -not unknown in Europe. The Chinese seals which Kublai conferred on his -kinsmen reigning at Tabriz are stamped upon their letters to the kings -of France, and survive in the archives of Paris. Adventurers from -Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, Byzantium, even from Venice, served him as -ministers, generals, governors, envoys, astronomers or physicians; -soldiers from all Asia to the Caucasus fought his battles in the south -of China. Once in his old age (1287) Kublai was compelled to take the -field in person against a serious revolt, raised by Nayan, a prince of -his family, who held a vast domain on the borders of Manchuria. Nayan -was taken and executed. The revolt had been stirred up by Kaidu, who -survived his imperial rival, and died in 1301. Kublai himself died in -1294, at the age of seventy-eight. - -Though a great figure in Asiatic history, and far from deserving a niche -in the long gallery of Asiatic tyrants, Kublai misses a record in the -short list of the good rulers. His historical locus was a happy one, -for, whilst he was the first of his race to rise above the innate -barbarism of the Mongols, he retained the force and warlike character of -his ancestors, which vanished utterly in the effeminacy of those who -came after him. He had great intelligence and a keen desire for -knowledge, with apparently a good deal of natural benevolence and -magnanimity. But his love of splendour, and his fruitless expeditions -beyond sea, created enormous demands for money, and he shut his eyes to -the character and methods of those whom he employed to raise it. A -remarkable narrative of the oppressions of one of these, Ahmed of -Fenaket, and of the revolt which they provoked, is given by Marco Polo, -in substantial accordance with the Chinese annals. - -Kublai patronized Chinese literature and culture generally. The great -astronomical instruments which he caused to be made were long preserved -at Peking, but were carried off to Berlin in 1900. Though he put hardly -any Chinese into the first ranks of his administration, he attached many -to his confidence, and was personally popular among them. Had his -endeavour to procure European priests for the instruction of his -people, of which we know through Marco Polo, prospered, the Roman -Catholic church, which gained some ground under his successors, might -have taken stronger root in China. Failing this momentary effort, Kublai -probably saw in the organized force of Tibetan Buddhism the readiest -instrument in the civilization of his countrymen, and that system -received his special countenance. An early act of his reign had been to -constitute a young lama of intelligence and learning the head of the -Lamaite Church, and eventually also prince of Tibet, an act which may be -regarded as a precursory form of the rule of the "grand lamas" of Lassa. -The same ecclesiastic, Mati Dhwaja, was employed by Kublai to devise a -special alphabet for use with the Mongol language. It was chiefly based -on Tibetan forms of Nagari; some coins and inscriptions in it are -extant; but it had no great vogue, and soon perished. Of the splendour -of his court and entertainments, of his palaces, summer and winter, of -his great hunting expeditions, of his revenues and extraordinary paper -currency, of his elaborate system of posts and much else, an account is -given in the book of Marco Polo, who passed many years in Kublai's -service. - -We have alluded to his foreign expeditions, which were almost all -disastrous. Nearly all arose out of a hankering for the nominal -extension of his empire by claiming submission and tribute. Expeditions -against Japan were several times repeated; the last, in 1281, on an -immense scale, met with huge discomfiture. Kublai's preparations to -avenge it were abandoned owing to the intense discontent which they -created. In 1278 he made a claim of submission upon Champa, an ancient -state representing what we now call Cochin China. This eventually led to -an attempt to invade the country through Tongking, and to a war with the -latter state, in which the Mongols had much the worst of it. War with -Burma (or Mien, as the Chinese called it) was provoked in very similar -fashion, but the result was more favourable to Kublai's arms. The -country was overrun as far as the Irrawaddy delta, the ancient capital, -Pagan, with its magnificent temples, destroyed, and the old royal -dynasty overthrown. The last attempt of the kind was against Java, and -occurred in the last year of the old khan's reign. The envoy whom he had -commissioned to claim homage was sent back with ignominy. A great -armament was equipped in the ports of Fu-kien to avenge this insult; but -after some temporary success the force was compelled to re-embark with a -loss of 3000 men. The death of Kublai prevented further action. - -Some other expeditions, in which force was not used, gratified the -khan's vanity by bringing back professions of homage, with presents, and -with the curious reports of foreign countries in which Kublai delighted. -Such expeditions extended to the states of southern India, to eastern -Africa, and even to Madagascar. - -Of Kublai's twelve legitimate sons, Chingkim, the favourite and -designated successor, died in 1284/5; and Timur, the son of Chingkim, -took his place. No great king arose in the dynasty after Kublai. He had -in all nine successors of his house on the throne of Kaan-baligh, but -the long and imbecile reign of the ninth, Toghon Timur, ended (1368) in -disgrace and expulsion and the native dynasty of Ming reigned in their -stead. (H. Y.) - - - - -KUBUS, a tribe inhabiting the central parts of Sumatra. They are nomadic -savages living entirely in the forests in shelters of branches and -leaves built on platforms. It has been suggested that they represent a -Sumatran aboriginal race; but Dr J. G. Garson, reporting on Kubu skulls -and skeletons submitted to him by Mr. H. O. Forbes, declared them -decidedly Malay, though the frizzle in the hair might indicate a certain -mixture of negrito blood (_Jour. Anthrop. Instit._, April 1884). They -are of a rich olive-brown tint, their hair jet black and inclined to -curl, and, though not dwarfs, are below the average height. - - - - -KUCHAN, a fertile and populous district of the province Khorasan in -Persia, bounded N. by the Russian Transcaspian territory, W. by Bujnurd, -S. by Isfarain, and extending in the E. to near Radkan. Its area is -about 3000 sq. m. and its population, principally composed of Zafaranlu -Kurds, descendants of tribes settled there by Shah Abbas I. in the 17th -century, is estimated at 100,000. About 3000 families are nomads and -live in tents. The district produces much grain, 25,000 to 30,000 tons -yearly, and contains two towns, Kuchan and Shirvan (pop. 6000), and many -villages. - -KUCHAN, the capital of the district, has suffered much from the effects -of earthquakes, notably in 1875, 1894 and 1895. The last earthquake laid -the whole town in ruins and caused considerable loss of life. About 8000 -of the survivors removed to a site 7(1/2) m. E. and there built a new -town named Nasseriyeh after Nasr-ud-din Shah, but known better as Kuchan -i jadid, i.e. New Kuchan, and about 1000 remained in the ruined city in -order to be near their vineyards and gardens. The geographical position -of the old town is 37 deg. 8' N., 58 deg. 25' E., elevation 4100 ft. The -new town has been regularly laid out with broad streets and spacious -bazaars, and, situated as it is half-way between Meshed and Askabad on -the cart-road connecting those two places, has much trade. Its -population is estimated at 10,000. There are telegraph and post offices. - - - - -KUCH BEHAR, or COOCH BEHAR, a native state of India, in Bengal, -consisting of a submontane tract, not far from Darjeeling, entirely -surrounded by British territory. Area, 1307 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 566,974; -estimated revenue, L140,000. The state forms a level plain of triangular -shape, intersected by numerous rivers. The greater portion is fertile -and well cultivated, but tracts of jungle are to be seen in the -north-east corner, which abuts upon Assam. The soil is uniform in -character throughout, consisting of a light, friable loam, varying in -depth from 6 in. to 3 ft., superimposed upon a deep bed of sand. The -whole is detritus, washed down by torrents from the neighbouring -Himalayas. The rivers all pass through the state from north to south, to -join the main stream of the Brahmaputra. Some half-dozen are navigable -for small trading boats throughout the year, and are nowhere fordable; -and there are about twenty minor streams which become navigable only -during the rainy season. The streams have a tendency to cut new channels -for themselves after every annual flood, and they communicate with one -another by cross-country watercourses. Rice is grown on three-fourths of -the cultivated area. Jute and tobacco are also largely grown for export. -The only special industries are the weaving of a strong silk obtained -from worms fed on the castor-oil plant, and of a coarse jute cloth used -for screens and bedding. The external trade is chiefly in the hands of -Marwari immigrants from Rajputana. Among other improvements a railway -has been constructed, with the assistance of a loan from the British -government. The earthquake of the 12th of June 1897 caused damage to -public buildings, roads, &c., in the state to the estimated amount of -L100,000. - -The Koch or Rajbansi, from which the name of the state is derived, are a -widely spread tribe, evidently of aboriginal descent, found throughout -all northern Bengal, from Purnea district to the Assam valley. They are -akin to the Indo-Chinese races of the north-east frontier; but they have -now become largely hinduized, especially in their own home, where the -appellation "Koch" has come to be used as a term of reproach. Their -total number in all India was returned in 1901 as nearly 2(1/2) millions. - -As in the case of many other small native states, the royal family of -Kuch Behar lays claim to a divine origin in order to conceal an impure -aboriginal descent. The greatest monarch of the dynasty was Nar Narayan, -the son of Visu Singh, who began to reign about 1550. He conquered the -whole of Kamrup, built temples in Assam, of which ruins still exist -bearing inscriptions with his name, and extended his power southwards -over what is now part of the British districts of Rangpur and Purnea. -His son, Lakshmi Narayan, who succeeded him in Kuch Behar, became -tributary to the Mogul Empire. In 1772 a competitor for the throne, -having been driven out of the country by his rivals, applied for -assistance to Warren Hastings. A detachment of sepoys was accordingly -marched into the state; the Bhutias, whose interference had led to this -intervention, were expelled, and forced to sue for peace through the -mediation of the lama of Tibet. By the treaty made on this occasion, -April 1773, the raja acknowledged subjection to the Company, and made -over to it one-half of his annual revenues. In 1863, on the death of the -raja, leaving a son and heir only ten months old, a British commissioner -was appointed to undertake the direct management of affairs during the -minority of the prince, and many important reforms were successfully -introduced. The maharaja Sir Nripendra Narayan, G.C.I.E., born in 1862, -was educated under British guardianship at Patna and Calcutta, and -became hon. lieutenant-colonel of the 6th Bengal Cavalry. In 1897-98 he -served in the Tirah campaign on the staff of General Yeatman-Biggs, and -received the distinction of a C.B. He was present at the Jubilee in -1887, the Diamond Jubilee of 1897, and King Edward's Coronation in 1902, -and became a well-known figure in London society. In 1878 he married a -daughter of Keshub Chunder Sen, the Brahmo leader. His eldest son was -educated in England. - -The town of Kuch Behar is situated on the river Tursa, and has a railway -station. Pop. (1901), 10,458. It contains a college affiliated to the -Calcutta University. - - - - -KUDU (_koodoo_), the native name for a large species of African antelope -(q.v.), with large corkscrew-like horns in the male, and the body marked -with narrow vertical white lines in both sexes. The female is hornless. -_Strepsiceros capensis_ (or _S. strepsiceros_) is the scientific name of -the true kudu, which ranges from the Cape to Somaliland; but there is -also a much smaller species (_S. imberbis_) in East and North-East -Africa. - -[Illustration: Male Kudu.] - - - - -KUENEN, ABRAHAM (1828-1891), Dutch Protestant theologian, the son of an -apothecary, was born on the 16th of September 1828, at Haarlem, North -Holland. On his father's death it became necessary for him to leave -school and take a humble place in the business. By the generosity of -friends he was educated at the gymnasium at Haarlem and afterwards at the -university of Leiden. He studied theology, and won his doctor's degree by -an edition of thirty-four chapters of Genesis from the Arabic version of -the Samaritan Pentateuch. In 1853 he became professor extraordinarius of -theology at Leiden, and in 1855 full professor. He married a daughter of -W. Muurling, one of the founders of the Groningen school, which made the -first pronounced breach with Calvinistic theology in the Reformed Church -of Holland. Kuenen himself soon became one of the main supports of the -modern theology, of which J. N. Scholten (1811-1885) and Karel Willem -Opzoomer (b. 1821) were the chief founders, and of which Leiden became -the headquarters. His first great work, an historico-critical -introduction to the Old Testament, _Historisch-kritisch onderzoek naar -het onstaan en de verzameling van de boeken des Ouden Verbonds_ (3 vols., -1861-1865; 2nd ed., 1885-1893; German by T. Weber and C. T. Muller, -1885-1894), followed the lines of the dominant school of Heinrich Ewald. -But before long he came under the influence of J. W. Colenso, and learned -to regard the prophetic narrative of Genesis, Exodus, and Numbers as -older than what was by the Germans denominated _Grundschrift_ ("Book of -Origins"). In 1869-1870 he published his book on the religion of Israel, -_De godsdienst van Israel tot den ondergang van der Joodschen Staat_ -(Eng. trans., 1874-1875). This was followed in 1875 by a study of Hebrew -prophecy, _De profeten en de profetie onder Israel_ (Eng. trans., 1877), -largely polemical in its scope, and specially directed against those who -rest theological dogmas on the fulfilment of prophecy. In 1882 Kuenen -went to England to deliver a course of Hibbert lectures, _National -Religions and Universal Religion_; in the following year he presided at -the congress of Orientalists held at Leiden. In 1886 his volume on the -Hexateuch was published in England. He died at Leiden on the 10th of -December 1891. - - Kuenen was also the author of many articles, papers and reviews; a - series on the Hexateuch, which appeared in the _Theologisch - Tijdschrift_, of which in 1866 he became joint editor, is one of the - finest products of modern criticism. His collected works were - translated into German and published by K. Budde in 1894. Several of - his works have been translated into English by Philip Wicksteed. See - the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_. - - - - -KUEN-LUN, or KWEN-LUN, a term used to designate generally the mountain -ranges which run along the northern edge of the great Tibetan plateau in -Central Asia. In a wider application it means the succession of ranges -which extend from the Pamirs on the W. to 113 deg. E., until it strikes -against or merges in the steep escarpments of the S.E. flank of the -Mongolian plateau. In the narrower acceptation it applies only to those -ranges which part the desert of Takla-makan on the N. from the Tibetan -plateau on the S. between the Pamirs and the transverse glen of the -Kara-muren, that is, nearly to the longitude of the town of Cherchen -(about 85(1/2) deg. E.). Although the use of the name is thus restricted -in geographical usage, the mountain system so designated does, as a -fact, extend eastwards as far as the great depression of Tsaidam (say 95 -deg. E.), though it is uncertain whether its direct orographical -continuation eastwards is to be identified with the Astin-tagh, or, as -F. Grenard and K. Bogdanovich believe--and with them Sven Hedin is -inclined to agree--with the parallel ranges of Kalta-alaghan and -Arka-tagh, which lie S. of the Astin-tagh. At any rate the Astin-tagh, -whether it is the principal continuation of the Kuen-lun or only a -subsidiary flanking system, is itself the westward continuation of the -Nan-shan or Southern Mountains, which reach down far into China (to 113 -deg. E.). - -Taken in its widest meaning, the Kuen-lun Mountains thus stretch in a -wavy line for nearly 2500 m. from E. to W., and while in the W. their -constituent ranges are folded and squeezed by lateral compression into a -breadth of some 150-200 m., their summits being forced up to -correspondingly higher altitudes, in the E. they spread out to a breadth -of some 600 m., the ranges being in that quarter less folded, and -consequently both flatter and lower. In the tectonic structure of Asia -the Kuen-lun forms, as it were, the backbone of the continent. In point -of age it is very much older than either the Himalayas to the S. or the -Tian-shan to the N. But although the crests of its component ranges -reach altitudes of 21,500 to 22,000 ft., they are not as a rule -overtopped by individual peaks of commanding and towering elevation, as -the Himalayas are, but run on the whole tolerably uniform and relatively -at little greater altitude than the lofty valleys which separate them -one from another. It is a strikingly marked characteristic of the -northern edge of the Tibetan plateau that its outermost border-range -(e.g. Western Kuen-lun and Astin-tagh) is throughout double; and this -"twinning" of the mountain-ranges, as also of the intermont lake-basins -among the Kuen-lun ranges, is a peculiar feature of the Tibetan plateau. - - The supreme orographic importance of this great Central Asian mountain - system was recognized in a fashion even by the geographers of ancient - Greece. They used to suppose that an immense range of mountains - crossed Asia from west to east on the parallel of the island of - Rhodes, extending through Asia Minor, the Kurdish highlands, the N. of - Persia, the N. of Bactria (Afghanistan), the Hindu-kush, and so on - into China. This long range they supposed to separate the waters which - flow N. to the Arctic from those which flow S. to the Indian Ocean. K. - Ritter (_Asien_, ii.) was the first of modern geographers to recognize - the true character of the Kuen-lun as a border range of the Tibetan - plateau; and Baron von Richthofen (_China_, i. 1876) still further - defined and accentuated the conception of the system by representing - it as a complex arrangement of several parallel ranges, running in - wavy lines from the Pamirs (76 deg. E.) eastwards to 118 deg. E. But - though von Richthofen's general conception of the Kuen-lun system was - broadly sound and in accordance with facts, the details both of his - description and of that of his pupil Wegener[1] require now very - considerable revision, and need even to be in part recast, as a - consequence of explorations and investigations made since they wrote - by, amongst others, the Russian explorers N. M. Przhevalsky, M. V. - Pyevtsov, V. I. Roboroysky, P. K. Kozlov, K. Bogdanovich, V. A. - Obruchev, and (?) Skassi; by the Englishmen A. D. Carey, A. Dalgleish, - St G. R. Littledale, H. Bower, H. H. P. Deasy and M. S. Wellby; by the - American W. W. Rockhill; the Frenchmen J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins, F. - Grenard, P. G. Bonvalot and Prince Henri d'Orleans; by the Hungarians - L. von Loczy and Count Szechenyi; and above all by the Swede Sven - Hedin. - - _Western Kuen-lun._--On the east the Pamir highlands are fenced off - from the East Turkestan lowlands by the double border-ridge of - Sarik-kol (the Sarik-kol range and the Muztagh or Kashgar range), - which has its eastern foot down in the Tarim basin (4000-4500 ft.) and - its western up on the Pamirs at 10,500 to 13,000 ft. above sea-level, - while its own summits, e.g. the Muztagh-ata (25,780 ft.), shoot up far - above the limits of perpetual snow. This double border-ridge is - continued east of the meridian of Yarkand or Yarkent (77 deg. E.) by a - succession of twin ranges, all running, though under different names, - from the W.N.W. to the E.S.E. According to the investigations of F. - Stoliczka and K. Bogdanovich, the same fossils occur in both sets of - border ranges, in the Sarik-kol and in their eastward continuations, - e.g. corals, _Stromatophorae_, _Bryozoa_, _Atrypa reticularis_, _A. - latilinguis_ and _A. aspera_, _Spirifer verneuili_, &c., and these the - latter geologist assigns to the Devonian epoch. These eastward - continuations of the double border-range of the Pamirs are the - constituent ranges of the Kuen-lun proper. The names given to them are - the Kilian or Kiliang, the Khotan and the Keriya Mountains in the more - northerly range and the Raskem or Raskan, the Sughet and the - Ullugh-tagh Mountains in the more southerly range. Although they all - decrease in altitude from west to east, they nevertheless reach - elevations of 19,000 ft., with individual peaks ascending some - 2000-2500 ft. higher. From the East Turkestan lowlands on the north - the ascent is very steep, and the passes across both sets of ranges - lie at great altitudes; for example, the pass of Sanju-davan in the - lower range is 16,325 ft. above sea-level, and the Kyzyl-davan, - farther east, is 16,900 ft., while the Sughet-davan in the higher - range is 17,825 ft. The latter range is separated from the Karakorum - Mountains by the deeply trenched gorge of the Raskem or Yarkand-darya, - while the deep glen of the Kara-kash or Khotan-darya intervenes - between the upper (Sughet Mountains) and the lower (Kilian Mountains) - border-ranges. Altogether this western extremity of the Kuen-lun - system is a very rugged mountainous region, a consequence partly of - the intricacy of the flanking ranges and spurs, partly of the powerful - lateral compression to which they have been subjected, and partly of - the great and abrupt differences in vertical elevation between the - crests of the ranges and the bottoms of the deep, narrow, rugged glens - between them. In the broad orographical disposition of the ranges - there is considerable similarity between north Tibet and west Persia, - in that in both cases the ranges are crowded together in the west, but - spread out wider as they advance towards the east. To the two - principal ranges in this part of the system F. Grenard, who - accompanied J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins on his journey in 1890-1895, gives - the names the Altyn-tagh and Ustun-tagh, though he names no less than - six parallel ranges altogether. Now as Altyn-tagh[2] is an accepted, - though in point of fact erroneous, name for Astin-tagh, it is clear - that Grenard considers the main Kuen-lun ranges to be continued - directly by the Astin-tagh. - - From the transverse breach of the Keriya-darya (about 81(1/2) deg. E.) - to that of the Kara-muren in the longitude of Cherchen (about 85(1/2) - deg. E.) the parallel border-ranges of the Tibetan plateau trend to - the E.N.E., and here occur in the lower or outer range the passes of - Dalai-kurghan-art (14,290 ft.), Choka-davan, i.e. Littledale's Chokur - Pass (9530 ft.) and others at altitudes ranging from 8600 to 11,500 - ft., while in the upper range are the At-to-davan (16,600 ft.), - Yapkak-lik-davan (15,550 ft.), Sarshu-davan (15,680 ft.) and others - not named at 16,590 and 17,300 ft. - - _Middle Kuen-lun._--Between the upper transverse glens of the - Kara-muren (or Mitt River) and the Cherchen-darya stretches the short - range of Tokuz-davan. From it, on the east side of the Cherchen-daryt, - in about 86 deg. E., the component ranges of the middle Kuen-lun begin - to diverge and radiate outwards (i.e. to north and to south) like the - fingers of the outspread human hand. And here at least four principal - ranges or groups of ranges admit of being discriminated, namely the - Astin-tagh, the Chimen-tagh, the Kalta-alaghan and the Arka-tagh, all - belonging to the mountainous country which borders on the north the - actual plateau region of Tibet. Although these several ranges, or - systems of ranges, differ considerably in their orographical - characteristics, the following description will apply generally to the - entire region from the Astin-tagh southwards to the Arka-tagh. The - broad features of the surface configuration are a series of nearly - parallel mountain-ranges, running from W.S.W. E.N.E. to W.N.W. E.S.E., - and separated by high intermont valleys, which are choked with - disintegrated material and divided into a chequered pattern of - self-contained, shallow lacustrine basins. As a rule the crests of the - ranges are worn down by aerial denudation and have the general - appearance of rounded domes. Hard rock (mostly granite and crystalline - schists, with red sandstone in places) appears only in the transverse - glens, which are often choked with their debris in the form either of - gravel-and-shingle or loose blocks of stone or both. The flanks of the - mountains are so deeply buried in disintegrated material that the - difference in vertical altitude between the floors of the valleys and - the summits of the ranges is comparatively small. But as each - successive range, proceeding south, represents a higher step in the - terraced ascent from the desert of Gobi to the plateau of Tibet, the - ranges when viewed from the north frequently appear like veritable - upstanding mountain ranges, and this appearance is accentuated by the - general steepness of the ascent; whereas, when viewed on the other - hand from the south, these several ranges, owing to their long and - gentle slope in that direction, have the appearance of comparatively - gentle swellings of the earth's surface rather than of well-defined - mountain ranges. As a rule, the streams flow alternately east and west - down the intermont latitudinal valleys, until they break through some - transverse glen in the range on the northern side of the valley. In - the western parts of the system they mostly go to feed the Kara-muren - or the Cherchen-darya, while farther east they flow down into some - larger self-contained basin of internal drainage, such as the - Achik-kol, the two lakes Kara-kol, or the Ghaz-kol, and even yet - farther east make their way, some of them into the lakes of the - Tsaidam depression or become lost in its sands or in those of the - Kum-tagh desert on the north, or go to feed the headstreams of the - great rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow River) and the Yangtsze-kiang (Blue - River) in the south. It appears to be a rule that the rivers which - eventually terminate in the deserts of Gobi and Takla-makan grow - increasingly larger in magnitude from east to west. Another law - appears to distinguish the hydrography of at any rate the great - latitudinal valleys of the Arka-tagh and the Chimen valley (north of - the Chimen-tagh): the streams flow close under the foot of the range - that shuts in each individual valley on the north. But in respect of - precipitation there is a very marked difference between the valleys of - the north and those of the south. Whereas both the mountains and - valleys of the Astin-tagh and of the Akato-tagh (the next large range - to the Astin-tagh on the south) are arid and desolate in the extreme, - smitten as it were with the desiccating breath of the desert, those of - the Arka-tagh and beyond are supersaturated with moisture, so that, at - any rate in summer, the surface is in many parts little better than a - quaking quagmire. Throughout vegetation is scanty and faunal life poor - in species, though in some respects certain of the species, e.g. wild - yaks, wild asses (_kulans_), antelopes (_orongo_ and others), marmots, - hares and partridges exist locally in large numbers. The wild camel - approaches the north outliers of the Astin-tagh, but rarely, if ever, - ventures to enter their fastnesses. Bears, wolves, foxes, goats - (_kokmet_), wild sheep (_arkharis_), lizards, earth-rats, and a small - rodent (_teshikan_), with ravens, eagles, wild ducks and wild geese - are the other varieties principally encountered. The vegetation - consists almost entirely of scrubby bushes of several varieties, - including tamarisks and wild briers, of reeds (_kamish_), and of grass - on the _yaylaks_ (pasture-grounds) of the middle ranges. On the - Arka-tagh even the moss, the last surviving representative of the - flora, disappears entirely. In the eastern Astin-tagh a variety of - wild tea (_chay_, mountain tea) is used by the Mongols. Gold is - obtained in very small quantities in a few places in the Astin-tagh - and the Kalta-alaghan. The nomenclature of the numerous ranges in this - part of the Kuen-lun is extremely confusing, owing to different - travellers having applied the same name to different ranges and to - different travellers have applied different names to what is probably - often identically the same range. In this article the nomenclature - adopted is that employed by the latest, and probably the most - thorough, explorer of this part of Central Asia, namely, Sven Hedin. - Nevertheless, owing to the fact that nearly all the longer and more - important crossings of Tibet and its northern montane region have been - made from north to south, or vice versa, that is, transversely across - the ranges, and comparatively few from east to west along the - intermont latitudinal valleys, the identifications between ranges in - the east and ranges in the west are in more than one instance more or - less doubtful. - - The _Astin-tagh_, although it occupies a similar position to the twin - ranges of the Western Kuen-lun, in that it forms the outermost - escarpment or border-ridge on the north of the Tibetan plateau, would - appear in the opinion of the most competent judges (e.g. Grenard, - Bogdanovich, Sven Hedin, Przhevalsky), to be only a branch or - subsidiary range of the main range of the Kuen-lun. It is not however - a single, long, continuous chain, as it is shown, for example, on the - map of the Russian general staff, but consists of two parallel main - ranges, and in the east of three, and even to the N.E. of Tsaidam of - four, parallel main ranges, flanked throughout by several subsidiary - chains, spurs and offshoots. Beyond that it swells out into the vast - _massif_ of Anambaruin-ula, which is traversed by at least three minor - parallel chains. But on the east of the Anambaruin-ula it once more - contracts to two main ranges, the more southerly being that which - Przhevalsky called the Humboldt Range (crossed by a pass at 13,200 - ft.). This branch is probably continued in the range which overhangs - the Koko-nor on the south, namely, the south Koko-nor Range. The - northern branch merges eastwards into the Nan-shan or Southern - Mountains.[3] The passes in the Lower Astin-tagh range from altitudes - of 10,150 to 10,700 ft., and in the Upper Astin-tagh at 11,770 to - 15,680 ft. (Tash-davan), though one pass beside the Charkhlik-su is - only 9660 ft. high. And as the relative altitudes of crest and pass - remain approximately the same as in the Western Kuen-lun, it is - evident how greatly the general elevation of the twin border ridge - decreases towards the east. But there exists a striking difference - between the crests of the Astin-tagh and those of the ranges which - give rise to the gigantic ridge and furrow arrangement on the Tibetan - plateau. "Here in the Astin-tagh the mountains, like those in the - Kuruk-tagh,[4] are indeed severely weathered, but they always consist, - from base to summit, of hard rock, bare and barren, most frequently - piled up in eccentric, rugged masses, denticulated, pinnacled crests - and peaks. On the Tibetan plateau, on the other hand, most of the - ranges are distinguished by their rounded outlines and soft - consistency, and their striking poverty in hard rock, which in the - best cases only crops out near the summits. There too disintegration - has been to a remarkable extent operative. This gives rise to the - great morphological difference, that in the former regions, the - Astin-tagh and the Kuruk-tagh, the products of disintegration are - almost always carried away by the wind, and so disappear; no matter - how powerful or how active the disintegration may be, none of the - loosened material ever succeeds either in gathering amongst the - mountains or in accumulating at their foot. The climate is so arid, - and precipitation so extremely rare, that the fine powdery material - falls a helpless prey to the winds. On the other hand, the - precipitation on the Tibetan plateau is so copious, and so uniformly - distributed, that it is able to retain the loosened material _in - situ_, and causes it to heap itself up in rounded masses on the flanks - of the mountains that are its primitive source of origin, these - projecting in great part like skeletons from the midst of their own - ruins."[5] The twin ranges of the Astin-tagh are fairly equivalent in - point of magnitude and regularity; but while the Lower Range, on the - north, sensibly decreases in altitude towards the east, the Upper - Range, on the south, maintains its general altitude in a remarkable - way, and is gapped by steep, wild, deeply incised transverse glens - directed towards the north, and generally fenced in by dark - precipitous walls of rock. The great valley between the two is "cut up - into a series of self-contained basins, each serving as the gathering - ground of the brooks that run down off the adjacent mountains. Outside - the lower end of each large transverse glen there is a scree of - sedimentary matter. These screes are however very flat and their lower - edges generally reach all the way down to the central part of the - basin, which is occupied by an expanse of yellow clay, perfectly flat - and fairly hard, as well as dry and barren, often cracked into - polygonal cakes and drawn out in the direction of the long axis of the - valley.... But though the great morphological features of this - latitudinal valley forcibly recall the latitudinal valleys of Tibet, - the climatic differences give rise to differences between the basins - corresponding to the differences between the mountain-ranges - themselves. For while the self-contained basins of Tibet generally - possess a salt lake in the middle, into which brooks and streams of - greater or less magnitude gather, often from very considerable - distances, these self-contained basins of the Astin-tagh are very - small in area, and it is extremely seldom that their central parts - receive any water at all, only in fact after copious rain. These - terminal lakes, or more accurately sedimentary plains, are therefore - almost always dry."[6] - - The next parallel range on the south, the _Akato-tagh_, and the valley - which separates it from the Astin-tagh, are equally arid and - waterless. The valley, known by the general name of Kakir, meaning a - "hard, dry, sterile expanse of clay," is chequered with shallow - self-contained basins of the usual type and has remarkably gentle - slopes up to the mountains on both north and south. Its surface - slopes from altitudes of 10,100 to 10,600 ft. in the west, where is - the lake of Uzunshor (9650 ft.) to 9400 ft. in the east, in which - direction it continues as far as the Anambaruin-ula (see below) and - the plain or flat basin of Sartang, a north extension of Tsaidam. This - range of Akato-tagh, the Altun Range of Carey, is the same as that - which on the map of the Russian general staff bears the name - Chimen-tagh. Like the Astin-tagh it stretches towards the E.N.E., and, - like it, appears to be built up of granite and schists, but its crest - is greatly denuded, so that it is a mere crumbling skeleton protruding - above the deep mantle of disintegrated material which masks its - flanks. The slopes on both north and south are extremely gentle, but - that on the south is eight to ten times as long as that on the north. - In the east the range is mostly narrow, and dies away on the edge of - the Tsaidam depression; but in the west it swells out into the lofty - and imposing mass of the Ilve-chimen or Shia-manglay, which is capped - with perpetual snow. This part of the range is crossed by the pass of - Chopur-alik at an altitude of 16,160 ft., but farther east the passes - lie at altitudes of 13,380 to 10,520 ft. The latitudinal valley that - intervenes between the Akato-tagh and the next great range on the - south, the Chimen-tagh, slopes for the most part eastwards, from - 12,500 ft. down to the shallow salt lake of Ghaz-kol or Chimen-koli - (9305 ft.). In the western part of this valley occurs the very - important transverse water-divide of Gulcha-davan (14,150 ft.), which - separates the basin of the Cherchen-darya that goes down into the - Tarim basin from the area that drains down to the Ghaz-kol, which - belongs to the Tsaidam depression. This, the Chimen valley, contains - in places a good deal of drift-sand, which however is stationary in - the mass and heaped up along the northern foot of the Chimen-tagh. - Nevertheless the Akato-tagh is only of secondary importance in the - general Kuen-lun system, being nothing more than a central ridge - running along the broad Kakir valley that separates the Astin-tagh - from the Chimen-tagh. - - The latter range, the _Chimen-tagh_, is identical in its western parts - with the Piazlik-tagh and in the east must be equated with the Tsaidam - chain of Przhevalsky; and it is probably continued westwards by the - range which the Russian explorers call the Moscow Range or the - Achik-tagh, running north of the Achik-kol and, according to - Przhevalsky, connecting on the west with the Tokuz-davan. The - Chimen-tagh rises into imposing summits, some rounded, some pyramidal - in outline, which are capped with snow, though the snow melts in - summer. This range acts as a "breakwater" to the clouds, arresting and - condensing the moisture which is carried northwards by the south - winds. Hence its slopes are not so arid as those of the Akato-tagh and - the Astin-tagh. Snow falls all the year round on the Chimen-tagh, even - in July, and water is abundant everywhere. The southern slope of the - range is gentle but short, the northern slope long and steep. Grass is - able to grow, and animal life is more abundant. The range is crossed - by passes at 13,970, 13,230 and 13,760 ft., and the Piazlik-tagh by a - pass at an altitude of 13,640 ft. - - The next important range, still going south, is the _Kalta-alaghan_, - Carey's Chimen-tagh Range, Przhevalsky's Columbus Range and the range - which is variously designated (e.g. by Pyevtsov) as the Ambal-ashkan, - Kalga-lagan and Ara-tagh. This last is, however, properly the name of - a short secondary range which rises along the middle (_ara_ = middle) - of the valley between the Chimen-tagh and the Kalta-alaghan. Not only - is it of lower elevation than them both, but it dies away towards the - west, the valleys on each side of it meeting round its extremity to - form one broad, open valley, with an altitude of 11,790 to 13,725 ft. - The Ara-tagh is crossed by a pass at an altitude of 14,345 ft. In the - Kalta-alaghan, which is the culminating range of this part of the - Kuen-lun, and is overtopped by towering, snow-clad peaks, the passes - climb to considerably higher altitudes, namely, 14,560, 14,470, 14,430 - and 14,190 ft., while the pass of Avraz-davan ascends to 15,700 ft. - This range appears to be linked on to the Tokuz-davan by the - Muzluk-tagh, in which there are passes at 16,870 and 15,450 ft. It is - possible however that the Muzluk-tagh belongs more intimately to the - Chimen-tagh system, that is, to the Moscow or Achik-kol ranges, Indeed - Bogdanovich considers that the Tokuz-davan, the Muzluk-tagh, the - Moscow Range and the Chimen-tagh form one single closely connected - chain, in which he also places Przhevalsky's isolated peak of Mount - Kreml (15,055 ft.). Sven Hedin, whilst agreeing that this may possibly - be the true conception, inclines to the view that the Achik-kol Range - dies away towards the E., and that the Chimen-tagh and the - Kalta-alaghan merge westwards into the border-ranges that lie north of - the Muzluk-tagh and the Tokuz-davan. Unlike most of the other parallel - ranges of N. Tibet, the Kalta-alaghan does not decrease, but it - increases in elevation towards the east, where, like the Chimen-tagh, - it abuts upon and merges in the ranges that border Tsaidam on the - south. - - Immediately south of the Kalta-alaghan comes a relatively deep - depression, the _Kum-kol valley_, forming a very well-marked feature - in the physical conformation of this region. It is crossed - transversely by a water-divide which separates the basin of the - twin-lakes of Kum-kol (12,700 ft.) from the basin of Tsaidam, some - 3500 ft. lower. The floor of the valley consequently slopes away in - both directions, like the Chimen valley between the Akato-tagh and the - Chimen-tagh; and in so far as it slopes westwards towards the Kum-kol - lakes it differs from nearly all the other great latitudinal valleys - that run parallel with it, because they slope generally towards the - east. Not far from the Kum-kol lakes there is a drift-sand area, - though the dunes are stationary. The upper lake of Kum-kol - (Chon-kum-kol) (12,730 ft.), which contains fresh water, is of small - area (8 sq. m.) and in depth nowhere exceeds 13 ft.; but the lower - lake (Ayak-kum-kol) (12,685 ft.), which is salt, is much bigger (283 - sq. m.) and goes down to depths of 64 and 79 ft. Farther west, lying - between the Muzluk-tagh and the Arka-tagh, is the lake of Achik-kol - (13,940 ft.), 16(1/2) m. broad and 50 m. in circuit. - - The next great parallel range is the lofty and imposing _Arka-tagh_, - the Przhevalsky Range of the Russian geographers, which has its - eastward continuations in the Marco Polo Range (general altitude - 15,750-16,250 ft.) and Gurbu-naiji Mountains of Przhevalsky. The - Arka-tagh[7] is the true backbone of the Kuen-lun system, and in - Central Asia is exceeded in elevation only by the Tang-la, a long way - farther south, this last being probably an eastern wing of the - Karakorum Mountains of the Pamirs region. At the same time the - Arka-tagh is the actual border-range of the Tibetan plateau properly - so-called; to the south of it none of the long succession of lofty - parallel ranges which ridge the Tibetan highlands seems to have any - connexion with the Kuen-lun system. Of great length, the Arka-tagh, - which is a mountain-system rather than a range, varies greatly in - configuration in different parts, sometimes exhibiting a sharply - defined main crest, with several lower flanking ranges, and sometimes - consisting of numerous parallel crests of nearly uniform altitude. - Amongst these it is possible to distinguish in the middle of the - system four predominant ranges, of which the second from the north is - probably the principal range, though the fourth is the highest. The - passes across the first range (north) lie at altitudes of 15,675, - 16,420, 17,320 and 18,300 ft.; across the second at 16,830, 17,020, - 17,070 and 17,220 ft.; across the third at 16,800, 16,660, 17,065, - 17,830 and 17,880 ft.; and across the fourth at 16,540, 16,765, - 16,780, 18,100 and 18,110 ft. The crests of the ranges lie - comparatively little higher than the valleys which separate them, the - altitudes in the latter running at 14,940 to 16,700 ft., if not - higher, and being only 500 to 1000 ft. lower than the crests of the - accompanying ranges. The Arka-tagh ranges do not culminate in lofty - jagged, pinnacled peaks, but in broad rounded, flattened domes, a - characteristic feature of the system throughout. These Arka-tagh - mountains are built up, at all events superficially, of sand and - powdery, finely sifted disintegrated material. Where the hard rock - does crop out on the surface, it is so excessively weathered as to be - with difficulty recognized as rock at all. The culminating summits of - the ranges generally present the appearance of a flat, rounded - swelling, and when they are crowned with glaciers, as many of them - are, these shape themselves into what may be described as a mantle, a - breast-plate, or a flat cap, from which lappets and fringes project at - intervals; nowhere do there exist any of the long, narrow, winding - glacier tongues which are so characteristic of the Alps of Europe. But - not the slightest indication has been discovered that these mountains - were ever panoplied with ice. The process of disintegration and - levelling down has reached such an advanced stage that, if ever there - did exist evidences of former glaciation, they have now become - entirely obliterated, even to the complete pulverization of the - erratic blocks, supposing there were any. The view that meets the eye - southwards from the heights of the Kalta-alaghan is the picture of a - chaos of mountain chains, ridges, crests, peaks, spurs, detached - masses, in fact, montane conformations of every possible description - and in every possible arrangement. Immediately north of the Arka-tagh - the country is studded with three or four exceptionally conspicuous - and imposing detached mountain masses, all capped with snow and some - of them carrying small glaciers. Amongst them are Shapka Monomakha or - the Monk's Cap; the Chulak-akkan, which may however be only Shapka - Monomakha seen from a different point of view; Tomurlik-tagh[8] (i.e. - the Iron Mountain); and farther west, Ullugh-muz-tagh, which, - according to Grenard, reaches an altitude of 24,140 ft. But the - relations in which these detached mountain-masses stand to one another - and to the Arka-tagh behind them have not yet been elucidated. In the - vicinity of the Ullugh-muz-tagh there exist numerous indications of - former volcanic activity, the eminences and summits frequently being - capped with tuff, and smaller fragments of tuff are scattered over - other parts of the Arka-tagh ranges. - - The next succeeding parallel range, the _Koko-shili_, which is - continued eastwards by the Bayan-khara-ula, between the upper - headstreams of the Hwang-ho or Yellow River and the Yangtsze-kiang, - belongs orographically to the plateau of Tibet. - - The succession of ranges which follow one another from the deserts of - Takla-makan and Gobi up to the plateau proper of Tibet rise in steps - or terraces, each range being higher than the range to the north of it - and lower than the range to the south of it. The difference in - altitude between the lowest, most northerly range, the Lower - Astin-tagh, and the most southerly of the Arka-tagh ranges amounts to - nearly 7500 ft. With one exception, namely the climb out of the - Kum-kol valley to the Arka-tagh, the first three steps are - individually the biggest; whereas the Upper Astin-tagh exceeds the - Lower Astin-tagh by an altitude of some 1350 ft., it is itself - exceeded by the Akato-tagh to the extent of 1760 ft. There is also a - considerable rise of 880 ft. from the Akato-tagh to the Chimen-tagh. - But between the Chimen-tagh, the Ara-tagh and the Kalta-alaghan there - is comparatively little difference in point of elevation, namely, 730 - ft. in all. The biggest ascent is that from the Kalta-alaghan to the - Arka-tagh, namely, nearly 1850 ft. The ranges of the Arka-tagh, again, - run at pretty nearly the same absolute general altitudes, namely, - 16,470 to 17,260 ft. When the altitudes of the intermont latitudinal - valleys are compared, the significance orographically of the Chimen - valley and of the Kum-kol valley is strikingly emphasized. Both are - much more deeply excavated than all the other latitudinal valleys that - run parallel to them, the Chimen valley being 875 ft. above the valley - to the north of it, but no less than 2235 ft. below the valley to the - south of it. The case of the Kum-kol valley is altogether exceptional, - for it lies not higher, but 680 ft. lower, than the valley to the - north of it, and consequently the climb up out of it to the first (on - north) of the Arka-tagh valleys amounts to no less than 2900 ft. Hence - these ten parallel ranges of the middle Kuen-lun system may be grouped - in three divisions--(1) the more strictly border ranges of the Upper - and Lower Astin-tagh and the Akato-tagh; (2) the three ranges of - Chimen-tagh, Ara-tagh and Kalta-alaghan, which may be considered as - forming a transitional system between the foregoing and the third - division; (3) the Arka-tagh, which constitute the elevated rampart of - the Tibetan plateau proper. (J. T. Be.) - - The _Nan-shan Highlands_ overlook Tsaidam on the N.E. They embrace a - region 380 m. long and 260 m. wide, entirely occupied with parallel - mountain ranges all running from the N.W. to the S.E. Broad, flat, - longitudinal valleys, at altitudes of 12,000 to 14,000 ft. (9000 to - 10,000 at the south-western border) and dotted with lakes (Koko-nor, - 9970 ft.; Khara-nor, 13,285 ft.), fill up the space between these - mountain ranges. In the S.E. the Nan-shan highlands abut upon the - highlands of the Chinese province of Kan-suh, and near the great - northward bend of the Hwang-ho they meet the escarpments by which the - Great Khingan and the In-shan ranges are continued, and by which the - Mongolian plateau steps down to the lowlands of China. On the N.E. the - Nan-shan highlands have their foot on the Mongolian plateau (average - altitude, 4000 ft.), i.e. in the Ala-shan. On the N.W. they are - fringed by a border range, the Da-sue-shan, a continuation of the - Astin-tagh, which rises to 12,200-13,000 ft. in its passes, and is - pierced by several rivers flowing west to Lake Khala-chi or Khara-nor. - This border-range, which continues on to the 97th meridian, separates - the Nan-shan range from the Pe-shan range. - - On the S.W. the Nan-shan mountains consist of short irregular chains, - separated by broad plains, dotted with lakes, which differ but - slightly in altitude from Tsaidam (8800-9000 ft.). Next a succession - of narrow ranges intervene between this lower border terrace and the - higher terrace (12,000-13,500 ft.). The first mountain range on this - higher terrace is Ritter's range, covered in part with extensive - snow-fields. The passes at both ends of this snow-clad _massif_ lie at - altitudes of 15,990 ft. and 14,680 ft. The next range is Humboldt or - Ama-surgu range, which runs N.W. to S.E. from the Astin-tagh to about - 38 deg. N., and is perhaps continued by the southern Kuku (Koko)-nor - range, which strikes the Hwang-ho with an elevation of 7440 ft. It - includes, in fact, several other parallel ranges--e.g. the Mushketov, - Semenov, Suess, Alexander III., Bain-sarlyk--the mutual relations of - which are, however, not yet definitely settled. - - Small lateral chains of mountains, rising some 2000 ft. above the - general level of that plateau, connect the central Nan-shan with the - next parallel ranges, namely, those of the eastern Nan-shan. The - mutual relations of the latter, as well as the names of the several - constituent chains, are equally unsettled. Thus, one of them is named - indiscriminately Nan-shan, Richthofen Range and Momo-shan. In fact, - the region is dominated by three ranges of nearly equal altitude, all - lifting many of their peaks above the snow-line. Finally, there is a - range of mountains, about 10,000 ft. high, named Lung-shan by - Obruchev, which borders the Kan-chow and Lian-chow valley on the N.E., - and belongs to the Nan-shan system. But the string of oases in Kan-suh - province, which stretches between the towns named, lies on the lower - level of the Mongolian plateau (4000 to 5000 ft.), so that the - Lung-shan ought possibly to be regarded as a continuation of the - Pe-shan mountains of the Gobi. - - Generally speaking, the Nan-shan highlands are a region raised 12,000 - to 14,000 ft. above the sea, and intersected by wild, stony and partly - snow-clad mountains, towering another 4000 to 7000 ft. above its - surface, and arranged in narrow parallel chains all running N.W. to - S.E. The chains of mountains are severally from 8 to 17 m. wide, - seldom as much as 35, while the broad, flat valleys between them - attain widths of 20 to 27 m. As a rule the passes are at an altitude - of 12,000 to 14,000 ft., and the peaks reach 18,000 to 20,000 ft. in - the western portion of the highlands, while in the eastern portion - they may be about 2000 ft. lower. The glaciers also attain a greater - development in the western portion of the Nan-shan, but the valleys - are dry, and the slopes of both the mountains and the valleys, - furrowed by deep ravines, are devoid of vegetation. Good pasture - grounds are only found near the streams. The soil is dry gravel and - clay, upon which bushes of _Ephedra_, _Nitraria_ and _Salsolaceae_ - grow sparsely. In the north-eastern Nan-shan, on the contrary, a - stream runs through each gorge, and both the mountain slopes and the - bottoms of the valleys are covered with vegetation. Forests of - conifers (_Picea obovata_) and deciduous trees--Przhevalsky's poplar, - birch, mountain ash, &c., and a variety of bushes--are common - everywhere. Higher up, in the picturesque gorges, grow rhododendrons, - willows, _Potentilla fruticosa_, _Spriaeae_, _Lonicereae_, &c., and - the rains must evidently be more copious and better distributed. In - the central Nan-shan it is only the north-eastern slopes that bear - forests. In the south, where the Nan-shan enters Kan-suh province, - extensive accumulations of loess make their appearance, and it is only - the northern slopes of the hills that are clothed with trees. - (P. A. K.) - - AUTHORITIES.--An enumeration of the works published before 1890, and a - map of itineraries, will be found in Wegener's _Versuch einer - Orographie des Kuen-lun_ (Marburg, 1891), but his map is only - approximately correct. Of the books published since 1890 the most - important are Sven Hedin's _Scientific Results of a Journey in Central - Asia_, 1899-1902 (Stockholm, 1905-1907, 6 vols.), with an elaborate - atlas and a general map of Tibet on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000; H. H. - P. Deasy's _In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan_ (London, 1901), with a - good map; F. Grenard's vol. (iii.) of J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins's - _Mission scientifique dans la haute Asie, 1890-1895_ (n.p., 1897), - also with a very useful map; W. W. Rockhill's _Diary of a Journey - through Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and 1892_ (Washington, 1894); M. S. - Wellby's _Through Unknown Tibet_ (London, 1898); P. G. Bonvalot's _De - Paris au Tonkin a travers le Tibet inconnu_ (Paris, 1892); St G. R. - Littledale's "A Journey across Tibet," in _Geog. Journal_ (May 1896); - H. Bower's _Diary of a Journey across Tibet_ (London, 1894); the - _Izvestia_ of the Russian Geog. Soc. and _Geog. Journal_, both - _passim_. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] In "Orographie des Kwen-lun," in _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft - fur Erdkunde zu Berlin_ (1891). - - [2] It is used, for instance, on the map of "Inner-Asien" (No. 62) of - _Stieler's Hand-atlas_ (ed. 1905) and in the _Atlas_ of the Russian - General Staff. Etymologically the correct form is Astin-tagh or - Astun-tagh, meaning the Lower or Nearer Mountains. Ustun-tagh, which - appears on Stieler's map as an _alternative_ name for Altyn-tagh, - means Higher or Farther Mountains, and though not used locally of any - specific range, would be appropriately employed to designate the - higher and more southerly of the twin border-ranges of the Tibetan - plateau. - - [3] The Northern Mountains are the Pe-shan in the desert of Gobi (see - GOBI). - - [4] On the opposite or north side of the desert of Lop (desert of - Gobi). - - [5] Sven Hedin, _Scientific Results_, iii. 308. - - [6] _Ibid._ 310-311. - - [7] This is the correct form, Arka-tagh meaning the Farther or - Remoter Mountains. The form Akka-tagh is incorrect. - - [8] The form Tumenlik-tagh is erroneous. - - - - -KUFA, a Moslem city, situated on the shore of the Hindieh canal, about 4 -m. E. by N. of Nejef (32 deg. 4' N., 44 deg. 20' E.), was founded by the -Arabs after the battle of Kadesiya in A.D. 638 as one of the two -capitals of the new territory of Irak, the whole country being divided -into the _sawads_, or districts, of Basra and Kufa. The caliph 'Ali made -it his residence and the capital of his caliphate. After the removal of -the capital to Bagdad, in the middle of the following century, Kufa lost -its importance and began to fall into decay. At the beginning of the -19th century, travellers reported extensive and important ruins as -marking the ancient site. Since that time the ruins have served as -quarries for bricks for the building of Nejef, and at the present time -little remains but holes in the ground, representing excavations for -bricks, with broken fragments of brick and glass strewn over a -considerable area. A mosque still stands on the spot where 'Ali is -reputed to have worshipped. (For history see CALIPHATE.) - - - - -KUHN, FRANZ FELIX ADALBERT (1812-1881), German philologist and -folklorist, was born at Konigsberg in Neumark on the 19th of November -1812. From 1841 he was connected with the Kollnisches Gymnasium at -Berlin, of which he was appointed director in 1870. He died at Berlin on -the 5th of May 1881. Kuhn was the founder of a new school of comparative -mythology, based upon comparative philology. Inspired by Grimm's -_Deutsche Mythologie_, he first devoted himself to German stories and -legends, and published _Markische Sagen und Marchen_ (1842), -_Norddeutsche Sagen, Marchen und Gebrauche_ (1848), and _Sagen, -Gebrauche und Marchen aus Westfalen_ (1859). But it is on his researches -into the language and history of the Indo-Germanic peoples as a whole -that his reputation is founded. His chief works in this connexion are: -_Zur altesten Geschichte der Indogermanischen Volker_ (1845), in which -he endeavoured to give an account of the earliest civilization of the -Indo-Germanic peoples before their separation into different families, -by comparing and analysing the original meaning of the words and stems -common to the different languages; _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des -Gottertranks_ (1859; new ed. by E. Kuhn, under title of _Mythologische -Studien_, 1886); and _Uber Entwicklungsstufen der Mythenbildung_ (1873), -in which he maintained that the origin of myths was to be looked for in -the domain of language, and that their most essential factors were -polyonymy and homonymy. The _Zeitschrift fur vergleichende -Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der Indogermanischen Sprachen_, with -which he was intimately connected, is the standard periodical on the -subject. - - See obituary notice by C. Bruchmann in Bursian's _Biographisches - Jahrbuch_ (1881) and J. Schmidt in the above _Zeitschrift_, xxvi. n.s. - 6. - - - - -KUHNE, WILLY (1837-1900), German physiologist, was born at Hamburg on -the 28th of March 1837. After attending the gymnasium at Luneburg, he -went to Gottingen, where his master in chemistry was F. Wohler and in -physiology R. Wagner. Having graduated in 1856, he studied under various -famous physiologists, including E. Du Bois-Reymond at Berlin, Claude -Bernard in Paris, and K. F. W. Ludwig and E. W. Brucke in Vienna. At the -end of 1863 he was put in charge of the chemical department of the -pathological laboratory at Berlin, under R. von Virchow; in 1868 he was -appointed professor of physiology at Amsterdam; and in 1871 he was -chosen to succeed H. von Helmholtz in the same capacity at Heidelberg, -where he died on the 10th of June 1900. His original work falls into two -main groups--the physiology of muscle and nerve, which occupied the -earlier years of his life, and the chemistry of digestion, which he -began to investigate while at Berlin with Virchow. He was also known for -his researches on vision and the chemical changes occurring in the -retina under the influence of light. The visual purple, described by -Franz Boll in 1876, he attempted to make the basis of a photochemical -theory of vision, but though he was able to establish its importance in -connexion with vision in light of low intensity, its absence from the -retinal area of most distinct vision detracted from the completeness of -the theory and precluded its general acceptance. - - - - -KUKA, or KUKAWA, a town of Bornu, a Mahommedan state of the central -Sudan, incorporated in the British protectorate of Nigeria (see Bornu). -Kuka is situated in 12 deg. 55' N. and 13 deg. 34' E., 4(1/2) m. from -the western shores of Lake Chad, in the midst of an extensive plain. It -is the headquarters of the British administration in Bornu, and was -formerly the residence of the native sovereign, who in Bornu bears the -title of shehu. - -The modern town of Kuka was founded c. 1810 by Sheikh Mahommed al Amin -al Kanemi, the deliverer of Bornu from the Fula invaders. It is supposed -to have received its name from the _kuka_ or monkey bread tree -(_Adansonia digitata_), of which there are extensive plantations in the -neighbourhood. Kuka or Kaoukaou was a common name in the Sudan in the -middle ages. The number of towns of this name gave occasion for much -geographical confusion, but Idrisi writing in the 12th century, and Ibn -Khaldun in the 14th century, both mention two important towns called -Kaou Kaou, of which one would seem to have occupied a position very near -to that of the modern Kuka. Ibn Khaldun speaks of it as the capital of -Bornu and as situated on the meridian of Tripoli. In 1840 the present -town was laid waste by Mahommed Sherif, the sultan of Wadai; and when it -was restored by Sheikh Omar he built two towns separated by more than -half a mile of open country, each town being surrounded by walls of -white clay. It was probably owing to there being two towns that the -plural _Kukawa_ became the ordinary designation of the town in Kano and -throughout the Sudan, though the inhabitants used the singular _Kuka_. -The town became wealthy and populous (containing some 60,000 -inhabitants), being a centre for caravans to Tripoli and a -stopping-place of pilgrims from the Hausa countries going across Africa -to Mecca. The chief building was the great palace of the sheikh. Between -1823 and 1872 Kuka was visited by several English and German travellers. -In 1893 Bornu was seized by the ex-slave Rabah (q.v.), an adventurer -from the Bahr-el-Ghazal, who chose a new capital, Dikwa, Kuka falling -into complete decay. The town was found in ruins in 1902 by the British -expedition which replaced on the throne of Bornu a descendant of the -ancient rulers. In the same year the rebuilding of Kuka was begun and -the town speedily regained part of its former importance. It is now one -of the principal British stations of eastern Bornu. Owing, however, to -the increasing importance of Maidugari, a town 80 m. S.S.W. of Kuka, the -court of the shehu was removed thither in 1908. - - For an account of Kuka before its destruction by Rabah, see the - _Travels_ of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890); and _Sahara und - Sudan_, by Gustav Nachtigal (Berlin, 1879), i. 581-748. - - - - -KU KLUX KLAN, the name of an American secret association of Southern -whites united for self-protection and to oppose the Reconstruction -measures of the United States Congress, 1865-1876. The name is generally -applied not only to the order of Ku Klux Klan, but to other similar -societies that existed at the same time, such as the Knights of the -White Camelia, a larger order than the Klan; the White Brotherhood; the -White League; Pale Faces; Constitutional Union Guards; Black Cavalry; -White Rose; The '76 Association; and hundreds of smaller societies that -sprang up in the South after the Civil War. The object was to protect -the whites during the disorders that followed the Civil War, and to -oppose the policy of the North towards the South, and the result of the -whole movement was a more or less successful revolution against the -Reconstruction and an overthrow of the governments based on negro -suffrage. It may be compared in some degree to such European societies -as the Carbonara, Young Italy, the Tugendbund, the Confreries of France, -the Freemasons in Catholic countries, and the Vehmgericht. - -The most important orders were the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the -White Camelia. The former began in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee, as a -social club of young men. It had an absurd ritual and a strange uniform. -The members accidentally discovered that the fear of it had a great -influence over the lawless but superstitious blacks, and soon the club -expanded into a great federation of regulators, absorbing numerous local -bodies that had been formed in the absence of civil law and partaking of -the nature of the old English neighbourhood police and the ante-bellum -slave patrol. The White Camelia was formed in 1867 in Louisiana and -rapidly spread over the states of the late Confederacy. The period of -organization and development of the Ku Klux movement was from 1865 to -1868; the period of greatest activity was from 1868 to 1870, after which -came the decline. - -The various causes assigned for the origin and development of this -movement were: the absence of stable government in the South for several -years after the Civil War; the corrupt and tyrannical rule of the alien, -renegade and negro, and the belief that it was supported by the Federal -troops which controlled elections and legislative bodies; the -disfranchisement of whites; the spread of ideas of social and political -equality among the negroes; fear of negro insurrections; the arming of -negro militia and the disarming of the whites; outrages upon white women -by black men; the influence of Northern adventurers in the Freedmen's -Bureau (q.v.) and the Union League (q.v.) in alienating the races; the -humiliation of Confederate soldiers after they had been paroled--in -general, the insecurity felt by Southern whites during the decade after -the collapse of the Confederacy. - -In organization the Klan was modelled after the Federal Union. Its -Prescript or constitution, adopted in 1867, and revised in 1868, -provided for the following organization: The entire South was the -Invisible Empire under a Grand Wizard, General N. B. Forrest; each state -was a Realm under a Grand Dragon; several counties formed a Dominion -under a Grand Titan; each county was a Province under a Grand Giant; the -smallest division being a Den under a Grand Cyclops. The staff officers -bore similar titles, relics of the time when the order existed only for -amusement: Genii, Hydras, Furies, Goblins, Night Hawks, Magi, Monks and -Turks. The private members were called Ghouls. The Klan was twice -reorganized, in 1867 and in 1868, each time being more centralized; in -1869 the central organization was disbanded and the order then gradually -declined. The White Camelia with a similar history had a similar -organization, without the queer titles. Its members were called Brothers -and Knights, and its officials Commanders. - -The constitutions and rituals of these secret orders have declarations -of principles, of which the following are characteristic: to protect and -succour the weak and unfortunate, especially the widows and orphans of -Confederate soldiers; to protect members of the white race in life, -honour and property from the encroachments of the blacks; to oppose the -Radical Republican party and the Union League; to defend constitutional -liberty, to prevent usurpation, emancipate the whites, maintain peace -and order, the laws of God, the principles of 1776, and the political -and social supremacy of the white race--in short, to oppose African -influence in government and society, and to prevent any intermingling of -the races. - -During the Reconstruction the people of the South were divided thus: -nearly all native whites (the most prominent of whom were disfranchised) -on one side irrespective of former political faith, and on the other -side the ex-slaves organized and led by a few native and Northern whites -called respectively scalawags and carpet-baggers, who were supported by -the United States government and who controlled the Southern state -governments. The Ku Klux movement in its wider aspects was the effort of -the first class to destroy the control of the second class. To control -the negro the Klan played upon his superstitious fears by having night -patrols, parades and drills of silent horsemen covered with white -sheets, carrying skulls with coals of fire for eyes, sacks of bones to -rattle, and wearing hideous masks. In calling upon dangerous blacks at -night they pretended to be the spirits of dead Confederates, "just from -Hell," and to quench their thirst would pretend to drink gallons of -water which was poured into rubber sacks concealed under their robes. -Mysterious signs and warnings were sent to disorderly negro politicians. -The whites who were responsible for the conduct of the blacks were -warned or driven away by social and business ostracism or by violence. -Nearly all southern whites (except "scalawags"), whether members of the -secret societies or not, in some way took part in the Ku Klux movement. -As the work of the societies succeeded, they gradually passed out of -existence. In some communities they fell into the control of violent men -and became simply bands of outlaws, dangerous even to the former -members; and the anarchical aspects of the movement excited the North to -vigorous condemnation.[1] The United States Congress in 1871-1872 -enacted a series of "Force Laws" intended to break up the secret -societies and to control the Southern elections. Several hundred arrests -were made, and a few convictions were secured. The elections were -controlled for a few years, and violence was checked, but the Ku Klux -movement went on until it accomplished its object by giving protection -to the whites, reducing the blacks to order, replacing the whites in -control of society and state, expelling the worst of the carpet-baggers -and scalawags, and nullifying those laws of Congress which had resulted -in placing the Southern whites under the control of a party composed -principally of ex-slaves. - - AUTHORITIES.--J. C. Lester and D. L. Wilson, _Ku Klux Klan_ (New York, - 1905); W. L. Fleming, _Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama_ (New - York, 1905), and _Documentary History of Reconstruction_ (Cleveland, - 1906); J. W. Garner, _Reconstruction in Mississippi_ (New York, 1901); - W. G. Brown, _Lower South in American History_ (New York, 1901); J. M. - Beard, _Ku Klux Sketches_ (Philadelphia, 1876); J. W. Burgess, - _Reconstruction and the Constitution_ (New York, 1901). (W. L. F.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The judgment of the historian William Garrott Brown, himself a - Southerner, is worth quoting: "That violence was often used cannot be - denied. Negroes were often whipped, and so were carpet-baggers. The - incidents related in such stories as Tourgee's _A Fool's Errand_ all - have their counterparts in the testimony before congressional - committees and courts of law. In some cases, after repeated warnings, - men were dragged from their beds and slain by persons in disguise, - and the courts were unable to find or to convict the murderers. - Survivors of the orders affirm that such work was done in most cases - by persons not connected with them or acting under their authority. - It is impossible to prove or disprove their statements. When such - outrages were committed, not on worthless adventurers, who had no - station in the Northern communities from which they came, but on - cultivated persons who had gone South from genuinely philanthropic - motives--no matter how unwisely or tactlessly they went about their - work--the natural effect was to horrify and enrage the North." - - - - -KUKU KHOTO (Chinese _Kwei-hwa_), a city of the Chinese province of -Shan-si, situated to the north of the Great Wall, in 40 deg. 50' N. and -111 deg. 45' E., about 160 m. W. of Kalgan. It lies in the valley of a -small river which joins the Hwang-ho 50 m. to the south. There are two -distinct walled towns in Kuku Khoto, at an interval of a mile and a -half; the one is the seat of the civil governor and is surrounded by the -trading town, and the other is the seat of the military governor, and -stands in the open country. In the first or old town more especially -there are strong traces of western Asiatic influence; the houses are not -in the Chinese style, being built all round with brick or stone and -having flat roofs, while a large number of the people are still -Mahommedans and, there is little doubt, descended from western settlers. -The town at the same time is a great seat of Buddhism--the lamaseries -containing, it is said, no less than 20,000 persons devoted to a -religious life. As the southern terminus of the routes across the desert -of Gobi from Ulyasutai and the Tian Shan, Kuku Khoto is a great mart for -the exchange of flour, millet and manufactured goods for the raw -products of Mongolia. A Catholic and a Protestant mission are maintained -in the town. Lieut. Watts-Jones, R.E., was murdered at Kwei-hwa during -the Boxer outbreak in 1900. - - Early notices of Kuku Khoto will be found in Gerbillon (1688-1698, in - Du Halde (vol. ii., Eng. ed.), and in Astley's _Collection_ (vol. iv.) - - - - -KULJA (Chinese, _Ili-ho_), a territory in north-west China; bounded, -according to the treaty of St Petersburg of 1881, on the W. by the -Semiryechensk province of Russian Turkestan, on the N. by the Boro-khoro -Mountains, and on the S. by the mountains Khan-tengri, Muz-art, Terskei, -Eshik-bashi and Narat. It comprises the valleys of the Tekez (middle and -lower portion), Kunghez, the Ili as far as the Russian frontier and its -tributary, the Kash, with the slopes of the mountains turned towards -these rivers. Its area occupies about 19,000 sq. m. (Grum-Grzimailo). -The valley of the Kash is about 160 m. long, and is cultivated in its -lower parts, while the Boro-khoro Mountains are snow-clad in their -eastern portion, and fall with very steep slopes to the valley. The -Avral Mountains, which separate the Kash from the Kunghez, are lower, -but rocky, naked and difficult of access. The valley of the Kunghez is -about 120 m. long; the river flows first in a gorge, then amidst -thickets of rushes, and very small portions of its valley are fit for -cultivation. The Narat Mountains in the south are also very wild, but -are covered with forests of deciduous trees (apple tree, apricot tree, -birch, poplar, &c.) and pine trees. The Tekez flows in the mountains, -and pierces narrow gorges. The mountains which separate it from the -Kunghez are also snow-clad, while those to the south of it reach 24,000 -ft. of altitude in Khan-tengri, and are covered with snow and -glaciers--the only pass through them being the Muzart. Forests and -alpine meadows cover their northern slopes. Agriculture was formerly -developed on the Tekez, as is testified by old irrigation canals. The -Ili is formed by the junction of the Kunghez with the Tekez, and for 120 -m. it flows through Kulja, its valley reaching a width of 50 m. at -Horgos-koljat. This valley is famed for its fertility, and is admirably -irrigated by canals, part of which, however, fell into decay after -55,000 of the inhabitants migrated to Russian territory in 1881. The -climate of this part of the valley is, of course, continental--frosts of --22 deg. F. and heats of 170 deg. F. being experienced--but snow lasts -only for one and a half months, and the summer heat is tempered by the -proximity of the high mountains. Apricots, peaches, pears and some vines -are grown, as also some cotton-trees near the town of Kulja, where the -average yearly temperature is 48 deg. 5 F. (January 15 deg., July 77 -deg.). Barley is grown up to an altitude of 6500 ft. - -The population may number about 125,000, of whom 75,000 are settled and -about 50,000 nomads (Grum-Grzimailo). The Taranchis from East Turkestan -represent about 40% of the population; about 40,000 of them left Kulja -when the Russian troops evacuated the territory, and the Chinese -government sent some 8000 families from different towns of Kashgaria to -take their place. There are, besides, about 20,000 Sibos and Solons, -3500 Kara-kidans, a few Dungans, and more than 10,000 Chinese. The -nomads are represented by about 18,000 Kalmucks, and the remainder by -Kirghiz. Agriculture is insufficient to satisfy the needs of the -population, and food is imported from Semiryechensk. Excellent beds of -coal are found in different places, especially about Kulja, but the -fairly rich copper ores and silver ores have ceased to be worked. - -The chief towns are Suidun, capital of the province, and Kulja. The -latter (Old Kulja) is on the Ili river. It is one of the chief cities of -the region, owing to the importance of its bazaars, and is the seat of -the Russian consul and a telegraph station. The walled town is nearly -square, each side being about a mile in length; and the walls are not -only 30 ft. high but broad enough on the top to serve as a carriage -drive. Two broad streets cut the enclosed area into four nearly equal -sections. Since 1870 a Russian suburb has been laid out on a wide scale. -The houses of Kulja are almost all clay-built and flat-roofed, and -except in the special Chinese quarter in the eastern end of the town -only a few public buildings show the influence of Chinese architecture. -Of these the most noteworthy are the Taranchi and Dungan mosques, both -with turned-up roofs, and the latter with a pagoda-looking minaret. The -population is mainly Mahommedan, and there are only two Buddhist -pagodas. A small Chinese Roman Catholic church has maintained its -existence through all the vicissitudes of modern times. Paper and -vermicelli are manufactured with rude appliances in the town. The -outskirts are richly cultivated with wheat, barley, lucerne and poppies. -Schuyler estimated the population, which includes Taranchis, Dungans, -Sarts, Chinese, Kalmucks and Russians, at 10,000 in 1873; it has since -increased. - -New Kulja, Manchu Kulja, or Ili, which lies lower down the valley on the -same side of the stream, has been a pile of ruins since the terrible -massacre of all its inhabitants by the insurgent Dungans in 1868. It was -previously the seat of the Chinese government for the province, with a -large penal establishment and strong garrison; its population was about -70,000. - -_History._--Two centuries B.C. the region was occupied by the fair and -blue-eyed Ussuns, who were driven away in the 6th century of our era by -the northern Huns. Later the Kulja territory became a dependency of -Dzungaria. The Uighurs, and in the 12th century the Kara-Khitai, took -possession of it in turn. Jenghiz Khan conquered Kulja in the 13th -century, and the Mongol Khans resided in the valley of the Ili. It is -supposed (Grum-Grzimailo) that the Oirads conquered it at the end of the -16th or the beginning of the 17th century; they kept it till 1755, when -the Chinese annexed it. During the insurrection of 1864 the Dungans and -the Taranchis formed here the Taranchi sultanate, and this led to the -occupation of Kulja by the Russians in 1871. Ten years later the -territory was restored to China. - - - - -KULM (CULM). (1) A town of Germany, in the province of West Prussia, 33 -m. by rail N.W. of Thorn, on an elevation above the plain, and 1 m. E. -of the Vistula. Pop. (1905), 11,665. It is surrounded by old walls, -dating from the 13th century, and contains some interesting buildings, -notably its churches, of which two are Roman Catholic and two -Protestant, and its medieval town-hall. The cadet school, founded here -in 1776 by Frederick the Great, was removed to Koslin in 1890. There are -large oil mills, also iron foundries and machine shops, as well as an -important trade in agricultural produce, including fruit and vegetables. -Kulm gives name to the oldest bishopric in Prussia, although the bishop -resides at Pelplin. It was presented about 1220 by Duke Conrad of -Masovia to the bishop of Prussia. Frederick II. pledged it in 1226 to -the Teutonic order, to whom it owes its early development. By the second -peace of Thorn in 1466 it passed to Poland, and it was annexed to -Prussia in 1772. It joined the Hanseatic League, and used to carry on -very extensive manufactures of cloth. - -(2) A village of Bohemia about 3 m. N.E. of Teplitz, at the foot of the -Erzgebirge, celebrated as the scene of a battle in which the French were -defeated by the Austrians, Prussians and Russians on the 29th and 30th -of August 1813 (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). - - - - -KULMBACH, or CULMBACH, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of -Upper Franconia, picturesquely situated on the Weisser Main, and the -Munich-Bamberg-Hof railway, 11 m. N.W. from Bayreuth. Pop. (1900), 9428. -It contains a Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches, a museum and -several schools. The town has several linen manufactories and a large -cotton spinnery, but is chiefly famed for its many extensive breweries, -which mainly produce a black beer, not unlike English porter, which is -largely exported. Connected with these are malting and bottling works. -On a rocky eminence, 1300 ft. in height, to the south-east of the town -stands the former fortress of Plassenburg, during the 14th and 15th -centuries the residence of the margraves of Bayreuth, called also -margraves of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. It was dismantled in 1807, and is now -used as a prison. Kulmbach and Plassenburg belonged to the dukes of -Meran, and then to the counts of Orlamunde, from whom they passed in the -14th century to the Hohenzollerns, burgraves of Nuremberg, and thus to -the margraves of Bayreuth. - - See F. Stein, _Kulmbach und die Plassenburg in alter und neuer Zeit_ - (Kulmbach, 1903); Huther, _Kulmbach und Umgebung_ (Kulmbach, 1886); - and C. Meyer, _Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Kulmbach_ (Munich, - 1895). - - - - -KULMSEE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of West Prussia, on -a lake, 14 m. by rail N. of Thorn and at the junction of railways to -Bromberg and Marienburg. Pop. (1900), 8987. It has a fine Roman Catholic -cathedral, which was built in the 13th, and restored in the 15th -century, and an Evangelical church. Until 1823 the town was the seat of -the bishops of Kulm. - - - - -KULP, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Erivan, 60 -m. W.S.W. from the town of Erivan and 2 m. S. of the Aras river. Pop. -(1897), 3074. Close by is the Kulp salt mountain, about 1000 ft. high, -consisting of beds of clay intermingled with thick deposits of rock -salt, which has been worked from time immemorial. Regular galleries are -cut in the transparent, horizontal salt layers, from which cubes of -about 70 lb. weight are extracted, to the amount of 27,500 tons every -year. - - - - -KULU, a subdivision of Kangra district, Punjab, British India, which -nominally includes the two Himalayan cantons or _waziris_ of Lahul and -Spiti. The _tahsil_ of Kulu has an area of 1054 sq. m., of which only 60 -sq. m. are cultivated; pop. (1901), 68,954. The Sainj, which joins the -Beas at Largi, divides the tract into two portions, Kulu proper and -Soraj. Kulu proper, north of the Sainj, together with inner Soraj, forms -a great basin or depression in the midst of the Himalayan system, having -the narrow gorge of the Beas at Largi as the only outlet for its waters. -North and east the Bara Bangahal and mid-Himalayan ranges rise to a mean -elevation of 18,000 ft., while southward the Jalori and Dhaoladhar -ridges attain a height of 11,000 ft. The higher villages stand 9000 ft. -above the sea; and even the cultivated tracts have probably an average -elevation of 5000 ft. The houses consist of four-storeyed chalets in -little groups, huddled closely together on the ledges or slopes of the -valleys, picturesquely built with projecting eaves and carved wooden -verandas. The Beas, which, with its tributaries, drains the entire -basin, rises at the crest of the Rohtang pass, 13,326 ft. above the sea, -and has an average fall of 125 ft. per mile. Its course presents a -succession of magnificent scenery, including cataracts, gorges, -precipitous cliffs, and mountains clad with forests of deodar, towering -above the tiers of pine on the lower rocky ledges. It is crossed by -several suspension bridges. Great mineral wealth exists, but the -difficulty of transport and labour prevents its development. Hot springs -occur at three localities, much resorted to as places of pilgrimage. The -character of the hillmen resembles that of most other mountaineers in -its mixture of simplicity, independence and superstition. Tibetan -polyandry still prevails in Soraj, but has almost died out elsewhere. -The temples are dedicated rather to local deities than to the greater -gods of the Hindu pantheon. Kulu is an ancient Rajput principality, -which was conquered by Ranjit Singh about 1812. Its hereditary ruler, -with the title of rai, is now recognized by the British government as -_jagirdar_ of Rupi. - - - - -KUM, a small province in Persia, between Teheran on the N. and Kashan on -the S. It is divided into seven _buluk_ (districts): (1) Humeh, with -town; (2) Kumrud; (3) Vazkerud; (4) Kinar Rud Khaneh; (5) Kuhistan; (6) -Jasb; (7) Ardahal; has a population of 45,000 to 50,000, and pays a -yearly revenue of about L8000. The province produces much grain and a -fine quality of cotton with a very long staple. - -KUM, the capital, in 34 deg. 39' N. and 50 deg. 55' E., on the Anarbar -river, which rises near Khunsar, has an elevation of 3100 ft. It owes -much of its importance to the fact that it contains the tomb of Imam -Reza's sister Fatmeh, who died there A.D. 816, and large numbers of -pilgrims visit the city during six or seven months of the year. The -fixed population is between 25,000 and 30,000. A carriage road 92 m. in -length, constructed in 1890-1893, connects the city with Teheran. It has -post and telegraph offices. - - See _Eastern Persian Irak_, R. G. S. suppl. (London, 1896). - - - - -KUMAIT IBN ZAID (679-743), Arabian poet, was born in the reign of the -first Omayyad caliph and lived in the reigns of nine others. He was, -however, a strong supporter of the house of Hashim and an enemy of the -South Arabians. He was imprisoned by the caliph Hisham for his verse in -praise of the Hashimites, but escaped by the help of his wife and was -pardoned by the intercession of the caliph's son Maslama. Taking part in -a rebellion, he was killed by the troops of Khalid ul-Qasri. - - His poems, the _Hashimiyyat_, have been edited by J. Horovitz (Leiden, - 1904). An account of him is contained in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_, xv. - 113-130. (G. W. T.) - - - - -KUMAON, or KUMAUN, an administrative division of British India, in the -United Provinces, with headquarters at Naini Tal. It consists of a large -Himalayan tract, together with two submontane strips called the Tarai -and the Bhabhar; area 13,725 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,207,030, showing an -increase of less than 2% in the decade. The submontane strips were up to -1850 an almost impenetrable forest, given up to wild animals; but since -then the numerous clearings have attracted a large population from the -hills, who cultivate the rich soil during the hot and cold seasons, -returning to the hills in the rains. The rest of Kumaon is a maze of -mountains, some of which are among the loftiest known. In a tract not -more than 140 m. in length and 40 m. in breadth there are over thirty -peaks rising to elevations exceeding 18,000 ft. (see HIMALAYA). The -rivers rise chiefly in the southern slope of the Tibetan watershed north -of the loftiest peaks, amongst which they make their way down valleys of -rapid declivity and extraordinary depth. The principal are the Sarda -(Kali), the Pindar and Kailganga, whose waters join the Alaknanda. The -valuable timber of the yet uncleared forest tracts is now under official -supervision. The chief trees are the chir, or three-leaved Himalayan -pine, the cypress, fir, alder, sal or iron-wood, and _saindan_. -Limestone, sandstone, slate, gneiss and granite constitute the principal -geological formations. Mines of iron, copper, gypsum, lead and asbestos -exist; but they are not thoroughly worked. Except in the submontane -strips and deep valleys the climate is mild. The rainfall of the outer -Himalayan range, which is first struck by the monsoon, is double that of -the central hills, in the average proportion of 80 in. to 40. No winter -passes without snow on the higher ridges, and in some years it is -universal throughout the mountain tract. Frosts, especially in the -valleys, are often severe. Kumaon is occasionally visited by epidemic -cholera. Leprosy is most prevalent in the east of the district. Goitre -and cretinism afflict a small proportion of the inhabitants. The hill -fevers at times exhibit the rapid and malignant features of plague. - -In 1891 the division was composed of the three districts of Kumaon, -Garhwal and the Tarai; but the two districts of Kumaon and the Tarai -were subsequently redistributed and renamed after their headquarters, -Naini Tal and Almora. Kumaon proper constituted an old Rajput -principality, which became extinct at the beginning of the 19th century. -The country was annexed after the Gurkha war of 1815, and was governed -for seventy years on the non-regulation system by three most successful -administrators--Mr Traill, Mr J. H. Batten and Sir Henry Ramsay. - - - - -KUMASI, or COOMASSIE, the capital of Ashanti, British West Africa, in 6 -deg. 34' 50" N., 2 deg. 12' W., 168 m. by rail N. of Sekondi and 120 m. -by road N.N.W. of Cape Coast. Pop. (1906), 6280; including suburbs, over -12,000. Kumasi is situated on a low rocky eminence, from which it -extends across a valley to the hill opposite. It lies in a clearing of -the dense forest which covers the greater part of Ashanti, and occupies -an area about 1(1/2) m. in length and over 3 m. in circumference. The -land immediately around the town, once marshy, has been drained. On the -north-west is the small river Dah, one of the headstreams of the Prah. -The name Kum-asi, more correctly Kum-ase (under the okum tree) was given -to the town because of the number of those trees in its streets. The -most imposing building in Kumasi is the fort, built in 1896. It is the -residence of the chief commissioner and is capable of holding a garrison -of several hundred men. There are also officers' quarters and -cantonments outside the fort, European and native hospitals, and -stations of the Basel and Wesleyan missions. The native houses are built -with red clay in the style universal throughout Ashanti. They are -somewhat richly ornamented, and those of the better class are enclosed -in compounds within which are several separate buildings. Near the -railway station are the leading mercantile houses. The principal Ashanti -chiefs own large houses, built in European style, and these are leased -to strangers. - -Before its destruction by the British in 1874 the city presented a -handsome appearance and bore many marks of a comparatively high state of -culture. The king's palace, built of red sandstone, had been modelled, -it is believed, on Dutch buildings at Elmina. It was blown up by Sir -Garnet (subsequently Viscount) Wolseley's forces on the 6th of February -1874, and but scanty vestiges of it remain. The town was only partially -rebuilt on the withdrawal of the British troops, and it is difficult -from the meagre accounts of early travellers to obtain an adequate idea -of the capital of the Ashanti kingdom when at the height of its -prosperity (middle of the 18th to middle of the 19th century). The -streets were numerous, broad and regular; the main avenue was 70 yds. -wide. A large market-place existed on the south-east, and behind it in a -grove of trees was the Spirit House. This was the place of execution. Of -its population before the British occupation there is no trustworthy -information. It appears not to have exceeded 20,000 in the first quarter -of the 19th century. This is owing partly to the fact that the -commercial capital of Ashanti, and the meeting-place of several caravan -routes from the north and east, was Kintampo, a town farther north. The -decline of Kumasi after 1874 was marked. A new royal palace was built, -but it was of clay, not brick, and within the limits of the former town -were wide stretches of grass-grown country. In 1896 the town again -suffered at the hands of the British, when several of the largest and -most ancient houses in the royal and priestly suburb of Bantama were -destroyed by fire. In the revolt of 1900 Kumasi was once more injured. -The railway from the coast, which passes through the Tarkwa and Obuassi -gold-fields, reached Kumasi in September 1903. Many merchants at the -Gold Coast ports thereupon opened branches in Kumasi. A marked revival -in trade followed, leading to the rapid expansion of the town. By 1906 -Kumasi had supplanted the coast towns and had become the distributing -centre for the whole of Ashanti. - - - - -KUMISHAH, a district and town in the province of Isfahan, Persia. The -district, which has a length of 50 and a breadth of 16 m., and contains -about 40 villages, produces much grain. The town is situated on the high -road from Isfahan to Shiraz, 52 m. S. of the former. It was a -flourishing city several miles in circuit when it was destroyed by the -Afghans in 1722, but is now a decayed place, with crumbled walls and -mouldering towers and a population of barely 15,000. It has post and -telegraph offices. South of the city and extending to the village -Maksudbeggi, 16 m. away, is a level plain, which in 1835 (February 28) -was the scene of a battle in which the army (2000 men, 16 guns) of -Mahommed Shah, commanded by Sir H. Lindsay-Bethune, routed the much -superior combined forces (6000 men) of the shah's two rebellious uncles, -Firman-Firma and Shuja es Saltana. - - - - -KUMQUAT (_Citrus japonica_), a much-branched shrub from 8 to 12 ft. -high, the branches sometimes bearing small thorns, with dark green -glossy leaves and pure white orange-like flowers standing singly or -clustered in the leaf-axils. The bright orange-yellow fruit is round or -ellipsoidal, about 1 in. in diameter, with a thick minutely tuberculate -rind, the inner lining of which is sweet, and a watery acidulous pulp. -It has long been cultivated in China and Japan, and was introduced to -Europe in 1846 by Mr Fortune, collector for the London Horticultural -Society, and shortly after into North America. It is much hardier than -most plants of the orange tribe, and succeeds well when grafted on the -wild species, _Citrus trifoliata_. It is largely used by the Chinese as -a sweetmeat preserved in sugar. - - - - -KUMTA, or COOMPTA, a sea-coast town of British India, in the North -Kanara district of Bombay, 40 m. S. of Karwar. Pop. (1901), 10,818. It -has an open roadstead, with a considerable trade. Carving in sandal-wood -is a speciality. The commercial importance of Kumta has declined since -the opening of the Southern Mahratta railway system. - - - - -KUMYKS, a people of Turkish stock in Caucasia, occupying the Kumyk -plateau in north Daghestan and south Terek, and the lands bordering the -Caspian. It is supposed that Ptolemy knew them under the name of Kami -and Kamaks. Various explorers see in them descendants of the Khazars. A. -Vambery supposes that they settled in their present quarters during the -flourishing period of the Khazar kingdom in the 8th century. It is -certain that some Kabardians also settled later. The Russians built -forts in their territory in 1559 and under Peter I. Having long been -more civilized than the surrounding Caucasian mountaineers, the Kumyks -have always enjoyed some respect among them. The upper terraces of the -Kumyk plateau, which the Kumyks occupy, leaving its lower parts to the -Nogai Tatars, are very fertile. - - - - -KUNAR, a river and valley of Afghanistan, on the north-west frontier of -British India. The Kunar valley (Khoaspes in the classics) is the -southern section of that great river system which reaches from the Hindu -Kush to the Kabul river near Jalalabad, and which, under the names of -Yarkhun, Chitral, Kashkar, &c., is more extensive than the Kabul basin -itself. The lower reaches of the Kunar are wide and comparatively -shallow, the river meandering in a multitude of channels through a broad -and fairly open valley, well cultivated and fertile, with large -flourishing villages and a mixed population of Mohmand and other tribes -of Afghan origin. Here the hills to the eastward are comparatively low, -though they shut in the valley closely. Beyond them are the Bajour -uplands. To the west are the great mountains of Kafiristan, called -Kashmund, snow-capped, and running to 14,000 ft. of altitude. Amongst -them are many wild but beautiful valleys occupied by Kafirs, who are -rapidly submitting to Afghan rule. From 20 to 30 miles up the river on -its left bank, under the Bajour hills, are thick clusters of villages, -amongst which are the ancient towns of Kunar and Pashat. The chief -tributary from the Kafiristan hills is the Pechdara, which joins the -river close to Chagan Sarai. It is a fine, broad, swift-flowing stream, -with an excellent bridge over it (part of Abdur Rahman's military road -developments), and has been largely utilized for irrigation. The -Pechdara finds its sources in the Kafir hills, amongst forests of pine -and deodar and thick tangles of wild vine and ivy, wild figs, -pomegranates, olives and oaks, and dense masses of sweet-scented shrubs. -Above Chagan Sarai, as far as Arnawai, where the Afghan boundary crosses -the river, and above which the valley belongs to Chitral, the river -narrows to a swift mountain stream obstructed by boulders and hedged in -with steep cliffs and difficult "parris" or slopes of rocky hill-side. -Wild almond here sheds its blossoms into the stream, and in the dawn of -summer much of the floral beauty of Kashmir is to be found. At Asmar -there is a slight widening of the valley, and the opportunity for a -large Afghan military encampment, spreading to both sides of the river -and connected by a very creditable bridge built on the cantilever -system. There are no apparent relics of Buddhism in the Kunar, such as -are common about Jalalabad or Chitral, or throughout Swat and Dir. This -is probably due to the late occupation of the valley by Kafirs, who -spread eastwards into Bajour within comparatively recent historical -times, and who still adhere to their fastnesses in the Kashmund hills. -The Kunar valley route to Chitral and to Kafiristan is being developed -by Afghan engineering. It may possibly extend ultimately unto Badakshan, -in which case it will form the most direct connexion between the Oxus -and India, and become an important feature in the strategical geography -of Asia. (T. H. H.*) - - - - -KUNBIS, the great agricultural caste of Western India, corresponding to -the Kurmis in the north and the Kapus in the Telugu country. Ethnically -they cannot be distinguished from the Mahrattas, though the latter name -is sometimes confined to the class who claim higher rank as representing -the descendants of Sivaji's soldiers. In some districts of the Deccan -they form an actual majority of the population, which is not the case -with any other Indian caste. In 1901 the total number of both Kunbis and -Mahrattas in all India was returned at nearly 8(3/4) millions. - - - - -KUNDT, AUGUST ADOLPH EDUARD EBERHARD (1839-1894), German physicist, was -born at Schwerin in Mecklenburg on the 18th of November 1839. He began -his scientific studies at Leipzig, but afterwards went to Berlin. At -first he devoted himself to astronomy, but coming under the influence of -H. G. Magnus, he turned his attention to physics, and graduated in 1864 -with a thesis on the depolarization of light. In 1867 he became -_privatdozent_ in Berlin University, and in the following year was -chosen professor of physics at the Zurich Polytechnic; then, after a -year or two at Wurzburg, he was called in 1872 to Strassburg, where he -took a great part in the organization of the new university, and was -largely concerned in the erection of the Physical Institute. Finally in -1888 he went to Berlin as successor to H. von Helmholtz in the chair of -experimental physics and directorship of the Berlin Physical Institute. -He died after a protracted illness at Israelsdorf, near Lubeck, on the -21st of May 1894. As an original worker Kundt was especially successful -in the domains of sound and light. In the former he developed a valuable -method for the investigation of aerial waves within pipes, based on the -fact that a finely divided powder--lycopodium, for example--when dusted -over the interior of a tube in which is established a vibrating column -of air, tends to collect in heaps at the nodes, the distance between -which can thus be ascertained. An extension of the method renders -possible the determination of the velocity of sound in different gases. -In light Kundt's name is widely known for his inquiries in anomalous -dispersion, not only in liquids and vapours, but even in metals, which -he obtained in very thin films by means of a laborious process of -electrolytic deposition upon platinized glass. He also carried out many -experiments in magneto-optics, and succeeded in showing, what Faraday -had failed to detect, the rotation under the influence of magnetic force -of the plane of polarization in certain gases and vapours. - - - - -KUNDUZ, a khanate and town of Afghan Turkestan. The khanate is bounded -on the E. by Badakshan, on the W. by Tashkurghan, on the N. by the Oxus -and on the S. by the Hindu Kush. It is inhabited mainly by Uzbegs. Very -little is known about the town, which is the trade centre of a -considerable district, including Kataghan, where the best horses in -Afghanistan are bred. - - - - -KUNENE, formerly known also as Nourse, a river of South-West Africa, -with a length of over 700 m., mainly within Portuguese territory, but in -its lower course forming the boundary between Angola and German -South-West Africa. The upper basin of the river lies on the inner -versant of the high plateau region which runs southwards from Bihe -parallel to the coast, forming in places ranges of mountains which give -rise to many streams running south to swell the Kunene. The main stream -rises in 12 deg. 30' S. and about 160 m. in a direct line from the sea -at Benguella, runs generally from north to south through four degrees -of latitude, but finally flows west to the sea through a break in the -outer highlands. A little south of 16 deg. S. it receives the Kulonga -from the east, and in about 16 deg. 50' the Kakulovar from the west. The -Kakulovar has its sources in the Serra da Chella and other ranges of the -Humpata district behind Mossamedes, but, though the longest tributary of -the Kunene, is but a small river in its lower course, which traverses -the arid region comprised within the lower basin of the Kunene. Between -the mouths of the Kulonga and Kakulovar the Kunene traverses a swampy -plain, inundated during high water, and containing several small lakes -at other parts of the year. From this swampy region divergent branches -run S.E. They are mainly intermittent, but the Kwamatuo, which leaves -the main stream in about 15 deg. 8' E., 17 deg. 15' S., flows into a -large marsh or lake called Etosha, which occupies a depression in the -inner table-land about 3400 ft. above sea-level. From the S.E. end of -the Etosha lake streams issue in the direction of the Okavango, to which -in times of great flood they contribute some water. From the existence -of this divergent system it is conjectured that at one time the Kunene -formed part of the Okavango, and thus of the Zambezi basin. (See NGAMI.) - -On leaving the swampy region the Kunene turns decidedly to the west, and -descends to the coast plain by a number of cataracts, of which the chief -(in 17 deg. 25' S., 14 deg. 20' E.) has a fall of 330 ft. The river -becomes smaller in volume as it passes through an almost desert region -with little or no vegetation. The stream is sometimes shallow and -fordable, at others confined to a narrow rocky channel. Near the sea the -Kunene traverses a region of sand-hills, its mouth being completely -blocked at low water. The river enters the Atlantic in 17 deg. 18' S., -11 deg. 40' E. There are indications that a former branch of the river -once entered a bay to the south. - - - - -KUNERSDORF, a village of Prussia, 4 m. E. of Frankfurt-on-Oder, the -scene of a great battle, fought on the 12th of August 1759, between the -Prussian army commanded by Frederick the Great and the allied Russians -under Soltykov and Austrians under Loudon, in which Frederick was -defeated with enormous losses and his army temporarily ruined. (See -SEVEN YEARS' WAR.) - - - - -KUNGRAD, a trading town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Syr-darya, -in the delta of the Amu-darya, 50 m. S. of Lake Aral; altitude 260 ft. -It is the centre of caravan routes leading to the Caspian Sea and the -Uralsk province. - - - - -KUNGUR, a town of eastern Russia, in the government of Perm, on the -highway to Siberia, 58 m. S.S.E. of the city of Perm. Pop. (1892), -12,400; (1897), 14,324. Tanneries and the manufacture of boots, gloves, -leather, overcoats, iron castings and machinery are the chief -industries. It has trade in boots, iron wares, cereals, tallow and -linseed exported, and in tea imported direct from China. - - - - -KUNKEL (or KUNCKEL) VON LOWENSTJERN, JOHANN (1630-1703), German chemist, -was born in 1630 (or 1638), near Rendsburg, his father being alchemist -to the court of Holstein. He became chemist and apothecary to the dukes -of Lauenburg, and then to the elector of Saxony, Johann Georg II., who -put him in charge of the royal laboratory at Dresden. Intrigues -engineered against him caused him to resign this position in 1677, and -for a time he lectured on chemistry at Annaberg and Wittenberg. Invited -to Berlin by Frederick William, in 1679 he became director of the -laboratory and glass works of Brandenburg, and in 1688 Charles XI. -brought him to Stockholm, giving him the title of Baron von Lowenstjern -in 1693 and making him a member of the council of mines. He died on the -20th of March 1703 (others say 1702) at Dreissighufen, his country house -near Pernau. Kunkel shares with Boyle the honour of having discovered -the secret of the process by which Brand of Hamburg had prepared -phosphorus in 1669, and he found how to make artificial ruby (red glass) -by the incorporation of purple of Cassius. His work also included -observations on putrefaction and fermentation, which he spoke of as -sisters, on the nature of salts, and on the preparation of pure metals. -Though he lived in an atmosphere of alchemy, he derided the notion of -the alkahest or universal solvent, and denounced the deceptions of the -adepts who pretended to effect the transmutation of metals; but he -believed mercury to be a constituent of all metals and heavy minerals, -though he held there was no proof of the presence of "sulphur -comburens." - - His chief works were _Oeffentliche Zuschrift von dem Phosphor Mirabil_ - (1678); _Ars vitriaria experimentalis_ (1689) and _Laboratorium - chymicum_ (1716). - - - - -KUNLONG, the name of a district and ferry on the Salween, in the -northern Shan States of Burma. Both are insignificant, but the place has -gained notoriety from being the nominal terminus in British territory of -the railway across the northern Shan States to the borders of Yunnan, -with its present terminus at Lashio. In point of fact, however, this -terminus will be 7 m. below the ferry and outside of Kunlong circle. At -present Kunlong ferry is little used, and the village was burnt by -Kachins in 1893. It is served by dug-outs, three in number in 1899, and -capable of carrying about fifteen men on a trip. Formerly the trade was -very considerable, and the Burmese had a customs station on the island, -from which the place takes its name; but the rebellion in the great -state of Theinni, and the southward movement of the Kachins, as well as -the Mahommedan rebellion in Yunnan, diverted the caravans to the -northern route to Bhamo, which is still chiefly followed. The Wa, who -inhabit the hills immediately overlooking the Nam Ting valley, now make -the route dangerous for traders. The great majority of these Wa live in -unadministered British territory. - - - - -KUNZITE, a transparent lilac-coloured variety of spodumene, used as a -gem-stone. It was discovered in 1902 near Pala, in San Diego county, -California, not far from the locality which yields the fine specimens of -rubellite and lepidolite, well known to mineralogists. The mineral was -named by Dr C. Baskerville after Dr George F. Kunz, the gem expert of -New York, who first described it. Analysis by R. O. E. Davis showed it -to be a spodumene. Kunzite occurs in large crystals, some weighing as -much as 1000 grams each, and presents delicate hues from rosy lilac to -deep pink. It is strongly dichroic. Near the surface it may lose colour -by exposure. Kunzite becomes strongly phosphorescent under the Rontgen -rays, or by the action of radium or on exposure to ultra-violet rays. -(See SPODUMENE.) - - - - -KUOPIO, a province of Finland, which includes northern Karelia, bounded -on the N.W. and N. by Uleaborg, on the E. by Olonets, on the S.E. by -Viborg, on the S. by St Michel and on the W. by Vasa. Its area covers -16,500 sq. m., and the population (1900) was 313,951, of whom 312,875 -were Finnish-speaking. The surface is hilly, reaching from 600 to 800 -ft. of altitude in the north (Suomenselka hills), and from 300 to 400 -ft. in the south. It is built up of gneisso-granites, which are covered, -especially in the middle and east, with younger granites, and partly of -gneisses, quartzite, and talc schists and augitic rocks. The whole is -covered with glacial and later lacustrine deposits. The soil is of -moderate fertility, but often full of boulders. Large lakes cover 16% of -surface, marshes and peat bogs over 29% of the area, and forests occupy -2,672,240 hectares. Steamers ply along the lakes as far as Joensuu. The -climate is severe, the average temperature being for the year 36 deg. -F., for January 13 deg. and for July 63 deg. Only 2.3% of the whole -surface is under cultivation. Rye, barley, oats and potatoes are the -chief crops, and in good years these meet the needs of the population. -Dairy farming and cattle breeding are of rapidly increasing importance. -Nearly 38,800 tons of iron ore are extracted every year, and nearly -12,000 tons of pig iron and 6420 tons of iron and steel are obtained in -ten iron-works. Engineering and chemical works, tanneries, saw-mills, -paper-mills and distilleries are the chief industrial establishments. -The preparation of carts, sledges and other wooden goods is an important -domestic industry. Timber, iron, butter, furs and game are exported. The -chief towns of the government are Kuopio (13,519), Joensuu (3954) and -Iisalmi (1871). - - - - -KUOPIO, capital of the Finnish province of that name, situated on Lake -Kalla-vesi, 180 m. by rail from the Kuivola junction of the St -Petersburg-Helsingfors main line. Pop. (1904), 13,519. It is -picturesquely situated, is the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral, -two lyceums and two gymnasia (both for boys and girls), a commercial and -several professional schools. There is an agricultural school at Levais, -close by. Kuopio, in consequence of its steamer communication with -middle Finland and the sea (via Saima Canal), is a trading centre of -considerable importance. - - - - -KUPRILI, spelt also KOPRILI, KOEPRULU, KEUPRULU, &c., the name of a -family of Turkish statesmen. - -1. MAHOMMED KUPRILI (c. 1586-1661) was the grandson of an Albanian who -had settled at Kupri in Asia Minor. He began life as a scullion in the -imperial kitchen, became cook, then purse-bearer to Khosrev Pasha, and -so, by wit and favour, rose to be master of the horse, "pasha of two -tails," and governor of a series of important cities and sanjaks. In -1656 he was appointed governor of Tripoli; but before he had set out to -his new post he was nominated to the grand vizierate at the instance of -powerful friends. He accepted office only on condition of being allowed -a free hand. He signalized his accession to power by suppressing an -_emeute_ of orthodox Mussulman fanatics in Constantinople (Sept. 22), -and by putting to death certain favourites of the powerful Valide -Sultana, by whose corruption and intrigues the administration had been -confused. A little later (January 1657) he suppressed with ruthless -severity a rising of the spahis; a certain Sheik Salim, leader of the -fanatical mob of the capital, was drowned in the Bosporus; and the Greek -Patriarch, who had written to the voivode of Wallachia to announce the -approaching downfall of Islam, was hanged. This impartial severity was a -foretaste of Kuprili's rule, which was characterized throughout by a -vigour which belied the expectations based upon his advanced years, and -by a ruthlessness which in time grew to be almost blood-lust. His -justification was the new life which he breathed into the decaying bones -of the Ottoman empire. - -Having cowed the disaffected elements in the state, he turned his -attention to foreign enemies. The victory of the Venetians off Chios -(May 2, 1657) was a severe blow to the Turkish sea-power, which Kuprili -set himself energetically to repair. A second battle, fought in the -Dardanelles (July 17-19), ended by a lucky shot blowing up the Venetian -flag-ship; the losses of the Ottoman fleet were repaired, and in the -middle of August Kuprili appeared off Tenedos, which was captured on the -31st and reincorporated permanently in the Turkish empire. Thus the -Ottoman prestige was restored at sea, while Kuprili's ruthless -enforcement of discipline in the army and suppression of revolts, -whether in Europe or Asia, restored it also on land. It was, however, -due to his haughty and violent temper that the traditional friendly -relations between Turkey and France were broken. The French ambassador, -de la Haye, had delayed bringing him the customary gifts, with the idea -that he would, like his predecessors, speedily give place to a new grand -vizier; Kuprili was bitterly offended, and, on pretext of an abuse of -the immunities of diplomatic correspondence, bastinadoed the -ambassador's son and cast him and the ambassador himself into prison. A -special envoy, sent by Louis XIV., to make inquiries and demand -reparation, was treated with studied insult; and the result was that -Mazarin abandoned the Turkish alliance and threw the power of France on -to the side of Venice, openly assisting the Venetians in the defence of -Crete. - -Kuprili's restless energy continued to the last, exhibiting itself on -one side in wholesale executions, on the other in vast building -operations. By his orders castles were built at the mouth of the Don and -on the bank of the Dnieper, outworks against the ever-aggressive Tatars, -as well as on either shore of the Dardanelles. His last activity as a -statesman was to spur the sultan on to press the war against Hungary. He -died on the 31st of October 1661. The advice which, on his death-bed, he -is said to have given to the sultan is characteristic of his -Machiavellian statecraft. This was: never to pay attention to the advice -of women, to allow nobody to grow too rich, to keep his treasury well -filled, and himself and his troops constantly occupied. Had he so -desired, Kuprili might have taken advantage of the revolts of the -Janissaries to place himself on the throne; instead, he recommended the -sultan to appoint his son as his successor, and so founded a dynasty of -able statesmen who occupied the grand vizierate almost without -interruption for half a century. - -2. FAZIL AHMED KUPRILI (1635-1676), son of the preceding, succeeded his -father as grand vizier in 1661 (this being the first instance of a son -succeeding his father in that office since the time of the Chenderelis). -He began life in the clerical career, which he left, at the age of -twenty-three, when he had attained the rank of _muderris_. Usually -humane and generous, he sought to relieve the people of the excessive -taxation and to secure them against unlawful exactions. Three years -after his accession to office Turkey suffered a crushing defeat at the -battle of St Gothard and was obliged to make peace with the Empire. But -Kuprili's influence with the sultan remained unshaken, and five years -later Crete fell to his arms (1669). The next war in which he was called -upon to take part was with Poland, in defence of the Cossacks, who had -appealed to Turkey for protection. At first successful, Kuprili was -defeated by the Poles under John Sobieski at Khotin and Lemberg; the -Turks, however, continued to hold their own, and finally in October 1676 -consented to honourable terms of peace by the treaty of Zurawno (October -16, 1676), retaining Kaminiec, Podolia and the greater part of the -Ukraine. Three days later Ahmed Kuprili died. His military capacity was -far inferior to his administrative qualities. He was a liberal protector -of art and literature, and the kindliness of his disposition formed a -marked contrast to the cruelty of his father; but he was given to -intemperance, and the cause of his death was dropsy brought on by -alcoholic abuse. - -3. ZADE MUSTAFA KUPRILI (1637-1691), surnamed Fazil, son of Mahommed -Kuprili, became grand vizier to Suleiman II. in 1689. Called to office -after disaster had driven Turkey's forces from Hungary and Poland and -her fleets from the Mediterranean, he began by ordering strict economy -and reform in the taxation; himself setting the example, which was -widely followed, of voluntary contributions for the army, which with the -navy he reorganized as quickly as he could. His wisdom is shown by the -prudent measures which he took by enacting the _Nizam-i-jedid_, or new -regulations for the improvement of the condition of the Christian rayas, -and for affording them security for life and property; a conciliatory -attitude which at once bore fruit in Greece, where the people abandoned -the Venetian cause and returned to their allegiance to the Porte. He met -his death at the battle of Salankamen in 1691, when the total defeat of -the Turks by the Austrians under Prince Louis of Baden led to their -expulsion from Hungary. - -4. HUSSEIN KUPRILI (surnamed AMUJA-ZADE) was the son of Hassan, a -younger brother of Mahommed Kuprili. After occupying various important -posts he became grand vizier in 1697, and owing to his ability and -energy the Turks were able to drive the Austrians back over the Save, -and Turkish fleets were sent into the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. -The efforts of European diplomacy succeeded in inducing Austria and -Turkey to come to terms by the treaty of Carlowitz, whereby Turkey was -shorn of her chief conquests (1699). After this event Hussein Kuprili, -surnamed "the Wise," devoted himself to the suppression of the revolts -which had broken out in Arabia, Egypt and the Crimea, to the reduction -of the Janissaries, and to the institution of administrative and -financial reform. Unfortunately the intrigues against him drove him from -office in 1702, and soon afterwards he died. - -5. NUMAN KUPRILI, son of Mustafa Fazil, became grand vizier in 1710. The -expectations formed of him were not fulfilled, as although he was -tolerant, wise and just like his father, he injudiciously sought to take -upon himself all the details of administration, a task which proved to -be beyond his powers. He failed to introduce order into the -administration and was dismissed from office in less than fourteen -months after his appointment. - -6. ABDULLAH KUPRILI, a son of Mustafa Fazil Kuprili, was appointed -Kaimmakam or _locum tenens_ of the grand vizier in 1703. He commanded -the Persian expedition in 1723 and captured Tabriz in 1725, resigning -his office in 1726. In 1735 he again commanded against the Persians, but -fell at the disastrous battle of Bagaverd, thus emulating his father's -heroic death at Selankamen. - - - - -KURAKIN, BORIS IVANOVICH, PRINCE (1676-1727), Russian diplomatist, was -the brother-in-law of Peter the Great, their wives being sisters. He was -one of the earliest of Peter's pupils. In 1697 he was sent to Italy to -learn navigation. His long and honourable diplomatic career began in -1707, when he was sent to Rome to induce the pope not to recognize -Charles XII.'s candidate, Stanislaus Leszczynski, as king of Poland. -From 1708 to 1712 he represented Russia at London, Hanover, and the -Hague successively, and, in 1713, was the principal Russian -plenipotentiary at the peace congress of Utrecht. From 1716 to 1722 he -held the post of ambassador at Paris, and when, in 1724, Peter set forth -on his Persian campaign, Kurakin was appointed the supervisor of all the -Russian ambassadors accredited to the various European courts. "The -father of Russian diplomacy," as he has justly been called, was -remarkable throughout his career for infinite tact and insight, and a -wonderfully correct appreciation of men and events. He was most useful -to Russia perhaps when the Great Northern war (see SWEDEN, _History_) -was drawing to a close. Notably he prevented Great Britain from -declaring war against Peter's close ally, Denmark, at the crisis of the -struggle. Kurakin was one of the best-educated Russians of his day, and -his autobiography, carried down to 1709, is an historical document of -the first importance. He intended to write a history of his own times -with Peter the Great as the central figure, but got no further than the -summary, entitled _History of Tsar Peter Aleksievich and the People -Nearest to Him_ (1682-1694) (Rus.). - - See _Archives of Prince A. Th. Kurakin_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1890); - A. Bruckner, _A Russian Tourist in Western Europe in the beginning of - the XVIIIth Century_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1892). (R. N. B.) - - - - -KURBASH, or KOURBASH (from the Arabic _qurbash_, a whip; Turkish -_qirbach_; and French _courbache_), a whip or strap about a yard in -length, made of the hide of the hippopotamus or rhinoceros. It is an -instrument of punishment and torture used in various Mahommedan -countries, especially in the Turkish empire. "Government by kurbash" -denotes the oppression of a people by the constant abuse of the kurbash -to maintain authority, to collect taxes, or to pervert justice. The use -of the kurbash for such purposes, once common in Egypt, has been -abolished by the British authorities. - - - - -KURDISTAN, in its wider sense, the "country of the Kurds" (Koords), -including that part of Mount Taurus which buttresses the Armenian -table-land (see ARMENIA), and is intersected by the Batman Su, the -Bohtan Su, and other tributaries of the Tigris; and the wild mountain -district, watered by the Great and Little Zab, which marks the western -termination of the great Iranian plateau. - -_Population._--The total Kurd population probably exceeds two and a half -millions, namely, Turkish Kurds 1,650,000, Persian 800,000, Russian -50,000, but there are no trustworthy statistics. The great mass of the -population has its home in Kurdistan. But Kurds are scattered -irregularly over the country from the river Sakaria on the west to Lake -Urmia on the east, and from Kars on the north to Jebel Sinjar on the -south. There is also an isolated settlement in Khorasan. The tribes, -_ashiret_, into which the Kurds are divided, resemble in some respects -the Highland clans of Scotland. Very few of them number more than 10,000 -souls, and the average is about 3000. The sedentary and pastoral Kurds, -_Yerli_, who live in villages in winter and encamp on their own -pasture-grounds in summer, form an increasing majority of the -population. The nomad Kurds, _Kocher_, who always dwell in tents, are -the wealthiest and most independent. They spend the summer on the -mountains and high plateaus, which they enter in May and leave in -October; and pass the winter on the banks of the Tigris and on the great -plain north of Jebel Sinjar, where they purchase right of pasturage -from the Shammar Arabs. Each tribe has its own pasture-grounds, and -trespass by other tribes is a fertile source of quarrel. During the -periodical migrations Moslem and Christian alike suffer from the -predatory instincts of the Kurd, and disturbances are frequent in the -districts traversed. In Turkey the sedentary Kurds pay taxes; but the -nomads only pay the sheep tax, which is collected as they cross the -Tigris on their way to their summer pastures. - -_Character._--The Kurd delights in the bracing air and unrestricted -liberty of the mountains. He is rarely a muleteer or camel-man, and does -not take kindly to handicrafts. The Kurds generally bear a very -indifferent reputation, a worse reputation perhaps, than they really -deserve. Being aliens to the Turks in language and to the Persians in -religion, they are everywhere treated with mistrust, and live as it were -in a state of chronic warfare with the powers that be. Such a condition -is not of course favourable to the development of the better qualities -of human nature. The Kurds are thus wild and lawless; they are much -given to brigandage; they oppress and frequently maltreat the Christian -populations with whom they are brought in contact,--these populations -being the Armenians in Diarbekr, Erzerum and Van, the Jacobites and -Syrians in the Jebel-Tur, and the Nestorians and Chaldaeans in the -Hakkari country. - -Perhaps the most distinguishing characteristic of the Kurdish chief is -pride of ancestry. This feeling is in many cases exaggerated, for in -reality the present tribal organization does not date from any great -antiquity. In the list indeed of eighteen principal tribes of the nation -which was drawn up by the Arabian historian Masudi, in the 10th century, -only two or three names are to be recognized at the present day. A -14th-century list, however, translated by Quatremere,[1] presents a -great number of identical names, and there seems no reason to doubt that -certain Kurdish families can trace their descent from the Omayyad -caliphs, while only in recent years the Baban chief of Suleimania, -representing the old Sohrans, and the Ardelan chief of Sinna,[2] -representing an elder branch of the Gurans, each claimed an ancestry of -at least five hundred years. There was up to a recent period no more -picturesque or interesting scene to be witnessed in the east than the -court of one of these great Kurdish chiefs, where, like another Saladin, -the bey ruled in patriarchal state, surrounded by an hereditary -nobility, regarded by his clansmen with reverence and affection, and -attended by a bodyguard of young Kurdish warriors, clad in chain armour, -with flaunting silken scarfs, and bearing javelin, lance and sword as in -the time of the crusades. - -Though ignorant and unsophisticated the Kurd is not wanting in natural -intelligence. In recent years educated Kurds have held high office under -the sultan, including that of grand vizier, have assisted in translating -the Bible into Turkish, and in editing a newspaper. The men are lithe, -active and strong, but rarely of unusual stature. The women do not veil, -and are allowed great freedom. The Kurds as a race are proud, faithful -and hospitable, and have rude but strict feelings of honour. They are, -however, much under the influence of dervishes, and when their -fanaticism is aroused their habitual lawlessness is apt to degenerate -into savage barbarity. They are not deficient in martial spirit, but -have an innate dislike to the restraints of military service. The -country is rich in traditions and legends, and in lyric and in epic -poems, which have been handed down from earlier times and are recited in -a weird melancholy tone. - -_Antiquities._--Kurdistan abounds in antiquities of the most varied and -interesting character. But it has been very little opened up to modern -research. A series of rock-cut cuneiform inscriptions extend from -Malatia on the west to Miandoab (in Persia) on the east, and from the -banks of the Aras on the north to Rowanduz on the south, which record -the glories of a Turanian dynasty, who ruled the country of Nairi during -the 8th and 7th centuries, B.C., contemporaneously with the lower -Assyrian empire. Intermingled with these are a few genuine Assyrian -inscriptions of an earlier date; and in one instance, at Van, a later -tablet of Xerxes brings the record down to the period of Grecian -history. The most ancient monuments of this class, however, are to be -found at Holwan and in the neighbourhood, where the sculptures and -inscriptions belong probably to the Guti and Luli tribes, and date from -the early Babylonian period. - -In the northern Kurdish districts which represent the Arzanene, -Intilene, Anzitene, Zabdicene, and Moxuene of the ancients, there are -many interesting remains of Roman cities, e.g. at Arzen, Miyafarikin -(anc. _Martyropolis_), Sisauronon, and the ruins of Dunisir near Dara, -which Sachau identified with the Armenian capital of Tigranocerta. Of -the Macedonian and Parthian periods there are remains both sculptured -and inscribed at several points in Kurdistan; at Bisitun or Behistun -(q.v.), in a cave at Amadia, at the Mithraic temple of Kereftu, on the -rocks at Sir Pul-o-Zohab near the ruins of Holwan, and probably in some -other localities, such as the Balik country between Lahijan and -Koi-Sanjak; but the most interesting site in all Kurdistan, perhaps in -all western Asia, is the ruined fire temple of Pai Kuli on the southern -frontier of Suleimania. Among the debris of this temple, which is -scattered over a bare hillside, are to be found above one hundred slabs, -inscribed with Parthian and Pahlavi characters, the fragments of a wall -which formerly supported the eastern face of the edifice, and bore a -bilingual legend of great length, dating from the Sassanian period. -There are also remarkable Sassanian remains in other parts of -Kurdistan--at Salmus to the north, and at Kermanshah and Kasr-i-Shirin -on the Turkish frontier to the south. - - _Language._--The Kurdish language, Kermanji, is an old Persian patois, - intermixed to the north with Chaldaean words and to the south with a - certain Turanian element which may not improbably have come down from - Babylonian times. Several peculiar dialects are spoken in secluded - districts in the mountains, but the only varieties which, from their - extensive use, require to be specified are the Zaza and the Guran. The - Zaza is spoken throughout the western portion of the Dersim country, - and is said to be unintelligible to the Kermanji-speaking Kurds. It is - largely intermingled with Armenian, and may contain some trace of the - old Cappadocian, but is no doubt of the same Aryan stock as the - standard Kurdish. The Guran dialect again, which is spoken throughout - Ardelan and Kermanshah[3] chiefly differs from the northern Kurdish in - being entirely free from any Semitic intermixture. It is thus somewhat - nearer to the Persian than the Kermanji dialect, but is essentially - the same language. It is a mistake to suppose that there is no - Kurdish literature. Many of the popular Persian poets have been - translated into Kurdish, and there are also books relating to the - religious mysteries of the Ali-Illahis in the hands of the Dersimlis - to the north and of the Gurans of Kermanshah to the south. The New - Testament in Kurdish was printed at Constantinople in 1857. The Rev. - Samuel Rhea published a grammar and vocabulary of the Hakkari dialect - in 1872. In 1879 there appeared, under the auspices of the imperial - academy of St Petersburg a French-Kurdish dictionary compiled - originally by Mons. Jaba, many years Russian consul at Erzerum, but - completed by Ferdinand Justi by the help of a rich assortment of - Kurdish tales and ballads, collected by Socin and Prym in Assyria. - - _Religion._--The great body of the nation, in Persia as well as in - Turkey, are Sunnis of the Shafi'ite sect, but in the recesses of the - Dersim to the north and of Zagros to the south there are large - half-pagan communities, who are called indifferently Ali-Illahi and - Kizjil-bash, and who hold tenets of some obscurity, but of - considerable interest. Outwardly professing to be Shi'ites or - "followers of Ali," they observe secret ceremonies and hold esoteric - doctrines which have probably descended to them from very early ages, - and of which the essential condition is that there must always be upon - the earth a visible manifestation of the Deity. While paying reverence - to the supposed incarnations of ancient days, to Moses, David, Christ, - Ali and his tutor Salman-ul-Farisi, and several of the Shi'ite imams - and saints, they have thus usually some recent local celebrity at - whose shrine they worship and make vows; and there is, moreover, in - every community of Ali-Illahis some living personage, not necessarily - ascetic, to whom, as representing the godhead, the superstitious - tribesmen pay almost idolatrous honours. Among the Gurans of the south - the shrine of Baba Yadgar, in a gorge of the hills above the old city - of Holwan, is thus regarded with a supreme veneration. Similar - institutions are also found in other parts of the mountains, which may - be compared with the tenets of the Druses and Nosairis in Syria and - the Ismailites in Persia. - -_History._--With regard to the origin of the Kurds, it was formerly -considered sufficient to describe them as the descendants of the -Carduchi, who opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand through the -mountains, but modern research traces them far beyond the period of the -Greeks. At the dawn of history the mountains overhanging Assyria were -held by a people named _Gutu_, a title which signified "a warrior," and -which was rendered in Assyrian by the synonym of _Gardu_ or _Kardu_, the -precise term quoted by Strabo to explain the name of the Cardaces -([Greek: Kardakes]). These _Gutu_ were a Turanian tribe of such power as -to be placed in the early cuneiform records on an equality with the -other nations of western Asia, that is, with the Syrians and Hittites, -the Susians, Elamites, and Akkadians of Babylonia; and during the whole -period of the Assyrian empire they seem to have preserved a more or less -independent political position. After the fall of Nineveh they coalesced -with the Medes, and, in common with all the nations inhabiting the high -plateaus of Asia Minor, Armenia and Persia, became gradually Aryanized, -owing to the immigration at this period of history of tribes in -overwhelming numbers which, from whatever quarter they may have sprung, -belonged certainly to the Aryan family. - -The _Gutu_ or Kurdu were reduced to subjection by Cyrus before he -descended upon Babylon, and furnished a contingent of fighting men to -his successors, being thus mentioned under the names of Saspirians and -Alarodians in the muster roll of the army of Xerxes which was preserved -by Herodotus. - -In later times they passed successively under the sway of the -Macedonians, the Parthians, and Sassanians, being especially befriended, -if we may judge from tradition as well as from the remains still -existing in the country, by the Arsacian monarchs, who were probably of -a cognate race. Gotarzes indeed, whose name may perhaps be translated -"chief of the _Gutu_," was traditionally believed to be the founder of -the Gurans, the principal tribe of southern Kurdistan,[4] and his name -and titles are still preserved in a Greek inscription at Behistun near -the Kurdish capital of Kermanshah. Under the caliphs of Bagdad the Kurds -were always giving trouble in one quarter or another. In A.D. 838, and -again in 905, there were formidable insurrections in northern Kurdistan; -the amir, Adod-addaula, was obliged to lead the forces of the caliphate -against the southern Kurds, capturing the famous fortress of Sermaj, of -which the ruins are to be seen at the present day near Behistun, and -reducing the province of Shahrizor with its capital city now marked by -the great mound of Yassin Teppeh. The most flourishing period of Kurdish -power was probably during the 12th century of our era, when the great -Saladin, who belonged to the Rawendi branch of the Hadabani tribe, -founded the Ayyubite dynasty of Syria, and Kurdish chiefships were -established, not only to the east and west of the Kurdistan mountains, -but as far as Khorasan upon one side and Egypt and Yemen on the other. -During the Mongol and Tatar domination of western Asia the Kurds in the -mountains remained for the most part passive, yielding a reluctant -obedience to the provincial governors of the plains. - -When Sultan Selim I., after defeating Shah Ismail, 1514, annexed Armenia -and Kurdistan, he entrusted the organization of the conquered -territories to Idris, the historian, who was a Kurd of Bitlis. Idris -found Kurdistan bristling with castles, held by hereditary tribal chiefs -of Kurd, Arab, and Armenian descent, who were practically independent, -and passed their time in tribal warfare or in raiding the agricultural -population. He divided the territory into sanjaks or districts, and, -making no attempt to interfere with the principle of heredity, installed -the local chiefs as governors. He also resettled the rich pastoral -country between Erzerum and Erivan, which had lain waste since the -passage of Timur, with Kurds from the Hakkiari and Bohtan districts. The -system of administration introduced by Idris remained unchanged until -the close of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29. But the Kurds, owing to -the remoteness of their country from the capital and the decline of -Turkey, had greatly increased in influence and power, and had spread -westwards over the country as far as Angora. After the war the Kurds -attempted to free themselves from Turkish control, and in 1834 it became -necessary to reduce them to subjection. This was done by Reshid Pasha. -The principal towns were strongly garrisoned, and many of the Kurd beys -were replaced by Turkish governors. A rising under Bedr Khan Bey in 1843 -was firmly repressed, and after the Crimean War the Turks strengthened -their hold on the country. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 was followed -by the attempt of Sheikh Obaidullah, 1880-81, to found an independent -Kurd principality under the protection of Turkey. The attempt, at first -encouraged by the Porte, as a reply to the projected creation of an -Armenian state under the suzerainty of Russia (see ARMENIA), collapsed -after Obaidullah's raid into Persia, when various circumstances led the -central government to reassert its supreme authority. Until the -Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29 there had been little hostile feeling -between the Kurds and the Armenians, and as late as 1877-1878 the -mountaineers of both races had got on fairly well together. Both -suffered from Turkey, both dreaded Russia. But the national movement -amongst the Armenians, and its encouragement by Russia after the last -war, gradually aroused race hatred and fanaticism. In 1891 the activity -of the Armenian Committees induced the Porte to strengthen the position -of the Kurds by raising a body of Kurdish irregular cavalry, which was -well armed and called Hamidieh after the Sultan. The opportunities thus -offered for plunder and the gratification of race hatred brought out the -worst qualities of the Kurds. Minor disturbances constantly occurred, -and were soon followed by the massacre of Armenians at Sasun and other -places, 1894-96, in which the Kurds took an active part. - - AUTHORITIES.--Rich, _Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan_ (1836); - Wagner, _Reise nach Persien und dem Lande der Kurden_ (Leipzig, 1852); - Consul Taylor in _R. G. S. Journal_ (1865); Millingen, _Wild Life - among the Koords_ (1870); Von Luschan, "Die Wandervolker Kleinasiens," - in _V^n. d. G. fur Anthropologie_ (Berlin, 1886); Clayton, "The - Mountains of Kurdistan," in _Alpine Journal_ (1887); Binder, _Au - Kurdistan_ (Paris, 1887); Naumann, _Vom Goldnen Horn zu den Quellen - des Euphrat_ (Munich, 1893); Murray, _Handbook to Asia Minor, &c._ - (1895); Lerch, _Forschungen uber die Kurden_ (St Petersburg, 1857-58); - Jaba, _Dict. Kurde-Francais_ (St Petersburg, 1879); Justi, _Kurdische - Grammatik_ (1880); Prym and Socin, _Kurdische Sammlungen_ (1890); - Makas, _Kurdische Studien_ (1901); Earl Percy, _Highlands of Asiatic - Turkey_ (1901); Lynch, _Armenia_ (1901); A. V. Williams Jackson, - _Persia, Past and Present_ (1906). (C. W. W.; H. C. R.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] See _Notices et Extraits des MSS._, xiii. 305. Of the tribes - enumerated in this work of the 14th century who still retain a - leading place among the Kurds, the following names may be quoted: - _Guranieh_ of Dartang, modern Gurans; _Zengeneh_, in Hamadan hills, - now in Kermanshah; _Hasnani_ of Kerkuk and Arbil, now in the Dersim - mountains, having originally come from Khorasan according to - tradition; _Sohrieh_ of Shekelabad and Tel-Haftun, modern Sohran, - from whom descend the Baban of Suleimanieh; _Zerzari_ of Hinjarin - mountains, modern Zerzas of Ushnu (cuneiform pillars of Kel-i-shin - and Sidek noticed by author); _Julamerkieh_, modern Julamerik, said - to be descended from the caliph Merwan-ibn-Hakam; _Hakkarieh_, - Hakkari inhabiting _Zuzan_ of Arab geography; _Bokhtieh_, modern - Bohtan. The _Rowadi_, to whom Saladin belonged, are probably modern - Rawendi, as they held the fortress of Arbil (Arbela). Some twenty - other names are mentioned, but the orthography is so doubtful that it - is useless to try to identify them. - - [2] The _Sheref-nama_, a history of the Kurds dating from the 16th - century, tells us that "towards the close of the reign of the - Jenghizians, a man named Baba Ardilan, a descendant of the governors - of Diarbekr, and related to the famous Ahmed-ibn-Merwan, after - remaining for some time among the Gurans, gained possession of the - country of Shahrizor" and the Ardelan family history, with the - gradual extension of their power over Persian Kurdistan, is then - traced down to the Saffavid period. - - [3] The Guran are mentioned in the _Mesalik-el-Absar_ as the dominant - tribe in southern Kurdistan in the 14th century, occupying very much - the same seats as at present, from the Hamadan frontier to Shahrizor. - Their name probably signifies merely "the mountaineers," being - derived from _gur_ or _giri_, "a mountain," which is also found in - Zagros, i.e. _za-giri_, "beyond the mountain," or _Pusht-i-koh_, as - the name is translated in Persian. They are a fine, active and hardy - race, individually brave, and make excellent soldiers, though in - appearance very inferior to the tribal Kurds of the northern - districts. These latter indeed delight in gay colours, while the - Gurans dress in the most homely costume, wearing coarse blue cotton - vests, with felt caps and coats. In a great part of Kurdistan the - name Guran has become synonymous with an agricultural peasantry, as - opposed to the migratory shepherds. - - [4] "The Kalhur tribe are traditionally descended from - Gudarz-ibn-Gio, whose son Roham was sent by Bahman Keiani to destroy - Jerusalem and bring the Jews into captivity. This Roham is the - individual usually called Bokht-i-nasser (Nebuchadrezzar) and he - ultimately succeeded to the throne. The neighbouring country has ever - since remained in the hands of his descendants, who are called - Gurans" (_Sheref-Nama_, Persian MS.). The same popular tradition - still exists in the country, and [Greek: GOTARZEO GEOPOTHROS] is - found on the rock at Behistun, showing that Gudarz-ibn-Gio was really - an historic personage. See _Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc._ ix. 114. - - - - -KURDISTAN, in the narrower sense, a province of Persia, situated in the -hilly districts between Azerbaijan and Kermanshah, and extending to the -Turkish frontier on the W., and bounded on the E. by Gerrus and Hamadan. -In proportion to its size and population it pays a very small yearly -revenue--only about L14,000--due to the fact that a great part of the -population consists of wild and disorderly nomad Kurds. Some of these -nomads pass their winters in Turkish territory, and have their summer -pasture-grounds in the highlands of Kurdistan. This adds much to the -difficulty of collecting taxation. The province is divided into sixteen -districts, and its eastern part, in which the capital is situated, is -known as Ardelan. The capital is Senendij, usually known as Sinna (not -Sihna, or Sahna, as some writers have it), situated 60 m. N.W. of -Hamadan, in 35 deg. 15' N., 47 deg. 18' E., at an elevation of 5300 ft. -The city has a population of about 35,000 and manufactures great -quantities of carpets and felts for the supply of the province and for -export. Some of the carpets are very fine and expensive, rugs 2 yards by -1(1/2) costing L15 to L20. Post and telegraph offices have been -established since 1879. - - - - -KURGAN, a town (founded 1553) of West Siberia, in the government of -Tobolsk, on the Siberian railway, 160 m. E. of Chelyabinsk, and on the -left bank of the Tobol, in a wealthy agricultural district. Pop. (1897), -10,579. Owing to its position at the terminus of steam navigation up the -river Tobol, it has become second only to Tyumen as a commercial centre. -It has a public library and a botanic garden. There is a large trade in -cattle with Petropavlovsk, and considerable export of grain, tallow, -meat, hides, butter, game and fish, there being three large fairs in the -year. In the vicinity are a great number of prehistoric kurgans or -burial-mounds. - - - - -KURIA MURIA ISLANDS, a group of five islands in the Arabian Sea, close -under the coast of Arabia, belonging to Britain and forming a dependency -of Aden. They are lofty and rocky, and have a total area of 28 sq. m., -that of the largest, Hallania, being 22 sq. m. They are identified with -the ancient _Insulae Zenobii_, and were ceded by the sultan of Muscat to -Britain in 1854 for the purposes of a cable station. They are inhabited -by a few families of Arabs, who however speak a dialect differing -considerably from the ordinary Arabic. The islands yield some guano. - - - - -KURILES (Jap. _Chishima_, "thousand islands"), a chain of small islands -belonging to Japan, stretching in a north-easterly direction from Nemuro -Bay, on the extreme east of the island of Yezo, to Chishima-kaikyo -(Kuriles Strait), which separates them from the southernmost point of -Kamchatka. They extend from 44 deg. 45' to 50 deg. 56' N. and from 145 -deg. 25' to 156 deg. 32' E. Their coasts measure 1496 m.; their area is -6159 sq. m.; their total number is 32, and the names of the eight -principal islands, counting from the south, are Kunashiri, Shikotan, -Etorofu (generally called Etorop, and known formerly to Europe as Staten -Island), Urup, Simusir, Onnekotan, Paramoshiri (Paramusir) and -Shumshiri. From Noshapzaki (Notsu-no-sake or Notsu Cape), the most -easterly point of Nemuro province, to Tomari, the most westerly point in -Kunashiri, the distance is 7(1/3) m., and the Kuriles Strait separating -Shumshiri from Kamchatka is about the same width. The name "Kurile" is -derived from the Russian _kurit_ (to smoke), in allusion to the active -volcanic character of the group. The dense fogs that envelop these -islands, and the violence of the currents in their vicinity, have -greatly hindered exploration, so that little is known of their -physiography. They lie entangled in a vast net of sea-weed; are the -resort of innumerable birds, and used to be largely frequented by seals -and sea-otters, which, however, have been almost completely driven away -by unregulated hunting. Near the south-eastern coast of Kunashiri stands -a mountain called Rausunobori (3005 ft. high), round whose base sulphur -bubbles up in large quantities, and hot springs as well as a hot stream -are found. On the west coast of the same island is a boiling lake, -called Ponto, which deposits on its bed and round its shores black sand, -consisting almost entirely of pure sulphur. This island has several -lofty peaks; Ponnobori-yama near the east coast, and Chachanobori and -Rurindake in the north. Chachanobori (about 7382 ft.) is described by -Messrs Chamberlain and Mason as "a cone within a cone, the inner and -higher of the two being--so the natives say--surrounded by a lake." The -island has extensive forests of conifers with an undergrowth of ferns -and flowering plants, and bears are numerous. The chief port of -Kunashiri is Tomari, on the south coast. The island of Shikotan is -remarkable for the growth of a species of bamboo (called -Shikotan-chiku), having dark brown spots on the cane. Etorofu has a -coast-line broken by deep bays, of which the principal are Naibo-wan, -Rubetsu-wan and Bettobuwan on the northern shore and Shitokap-wan on the -southern. It is covered almost completely with dense forest, and has a -number of streams abounding with salmon. Shana, the chief port, is in -Rubetsu Bay. This island, the principal of the group, is divided into -four provinces for administrative purposes, namely, Etorofu, Furubetsu, -Shana and Shibetoro. Its mountains are Atosha-nobori (4035 ft.) in -Etorofu; Chiripnupari (5009 ft.) in Shana; and Mokoro-nobori (3930 ft.) -and Atuiyadake (3932 ft.) in Shibetoro. Among the other islands three -only call for notice on account of their altitudes, namely, Ketoi-jima, -Rashua-jima and Matua-jima, which rise to heights of 3944, 3304 and 5240 -ft. respectively. - -_Population._--Not much is known about the aborigines. By some -authorities Ainu colonists are supposed to have been the first settlers, -and to have arrived there via Yezo; by others, the earliest comers are -believed to have been a hyperborean tribe travelling southwards by way -of Kamchatka. The islands themselves have not been sufficiently explored -to determine whether they furnish any ethnological evidences. The -present population aggregates about 4400, or 0.7 per sq. m., of whom -about 600 are Ainu (q.v.). There is little disposition to emigrate -thither from Japan proper, the number of settlers being less than 100 -annually. - -_History._--The Kurile Islands were discovered in 1634 by the Dutch -navigator Martin de Vries. The three southern islands, Kunashiri, -Etorofu, and Shikotan, are believed to have belonged to Japan from a -remote date, but at the beginning of the 18th century the Russians, -having conquered Kamchatka, found their way to the northern part of the -Kuriles in pursuit of fur-bearing animals, with which the islands then -abounded. Gradually these encroachments were pushed farther south, -simultaneously with aggressions imperilling the Japanese settlements in -the southern half of Sakhalin. Japan's occupation was far from effective -in either region, and in 1875 she was not unwilling to conclude a -convention by which she agreed to withdraw altogether from Sakhalin -provided that Russia withdrew from the Kuriles. - -An officer of the Japanese navy, Lieut. Gunji, left Tokyo with about -forty comrades in 1892, his intention being to form a settlement on -Shumshiri, the most northerly of the Kurile Islands. They embarked in -open boats, and for that reason, as well as because they were going to -constitute themselves their country's extreme outpost, the enterprise -attracted public enthusiasm. After a long struggle the immigrants became -fairly prosperous. - - See Capt. H. J. Snow, _Notes on the Kurile Islands_ (London, 1896). - - - - -KURISCHES HAFF, a lagoon of Germany, on the Baltic coast of East -Prussia, stretching from Labiau to Memel, a distance of 60 m., has an -area of nearly 680 sq. m. It is mostly shallow and only close to Memel -attains a depth of 23 ft. It is thus unnavigable except for small -coasting and fishing boats, and sea-going vessels proceed through the -Memeler Tief (Memel Deep), which connects the Baltic with Memel and has -a depth of 19 ft. and a breadth of 800 to 1900 ft. The Kurisches Haff is -separated from the Baltic by a long spit, or tongue of land, the -so-called Kurische Nehrung, 72 m. in length and with a breadth of 1 to 2 -miles. The latter is fringed throughout its whole length by a chain of -dunes, which rise in places to a height of nearly 200 ft. and threaten, -unless checked, to be pressed farther inland and silt up the whole Haff. - - See Berendt, _Geologie des Kurischen Haffs_ (Konigsberg, 1869); - Sommer, _Das Kurische Haff_ (Danzig, 1889); A. Bezzenberger, _Die - Kurische Nehrung und ihre Bewohner_ (Stuttgart, 1889); and Lindner, - _Die Preussische Wuste einst und jetzt, Bilder von der Kurischen - Nehrung_ (Osterwieck, 1898). - - - - -KURNOOL, or KARNUL, a town and district of British India, in the Madras -presidency. The town is built on a rocky soil at the junction of the -Hindri and Tungabhadra rivers 33 m. from a railway station. The old -Hindu fort was levelled in 1865, with the exception of one of the gates, -which was preserved as a specimen of ancient architecture. Cotton cloth -and carpets are manufactured. Pop. (1901), 25,376, of whom half are -Mussulmans. - -The DISTRICT OF KURNOOL has an area of 7578 sq. m., pop. (1901), -872,055, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. Two long mountain -ranges, the Nallamalais and the Yellamalais, extend in parallel lines, -north and south, through its centre. The principal heights of the -Nallamalai range are Biranikonda (3149 ft.), Gundlabrahmeswaram (3055 -ft.), and Durugapukonda (3086 ft.). The Yellamalai is a low range, -generally flat-topped with scarped sides; the highest point is about -2000 ft. Several low ridges run parallel to the Nallamalais, broken here -and there by gorges, through which mountain streams take their course. -Several of these gaps were dammed across under native rule, to form -tanks for purposes of irrigation. The principal rivers are the -Tungabhadra and Kistna, which bound the district on the north. When in -flood, the Tungabhadra averages 900 yards broad and 15 ft. deep. The -Kistna here flows chiefly through uninhabited jungles, sometimes in long -smooth reaches, with intervening shingly rapids. The Bhavanasi rises on -the Nallamalais, and falls into the Kistna at Sungameswaram, a place of -pilgrimage. During the 18th century Kurnool formed the _jagir_ of a -semi-independent Pathan Nawab, whose descendant was dispossessed by the -British government for treason in 1838. The principal crops are millets, -cotton, oil-seeds, and rice, with a little indigo and tobacco. Kurnool -suffered very severely from the famine of 1876-1877, and to a slight -extent in 1896-1897. It is the chief scene of the operations of the -Madras Irrigation Company taken over by government in 1882. The canal, -which starts from the Tungabhadra river near Kurnool town, was -constructed at a total cost of two millions sterling, but has not been a -financial success. A more successful work is the Cumbum tank, formed -under native rule by damming a gorge of the Gundlakamma river. Apart -from the weaving of coarse cotton cloth, the chief industrial -establishments are cotton presses, indigo vats, and saltpetre -refineries. The district is served by the Southern Mahratta railway. - - - - -KUROKI, ITEI, COUNT (1844- ), Japanese general, was born in Satsuma. He -distinguished himself in the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95. He commanded -the I. Army in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), when he won the opening -battle of the war at the Yalu river, and afterwards advanced through the -mountains and took part with the other armies in the battles of -Liao-Yang, Shaho and Mukden (see RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR). He was created -baron for his services in the former war, and count for his services in -the latter. - - - - -KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH (1848- ), Russian general, was born in -1848 and entered the army in 1864. From 1872 to 1874 he studied at the -Nicholas staff college, after which he spent a short time with the -French troops in Algiers. In 1875 he was employed in diplomatic work in -Kashgaria and in 1876 he took part in military operations in Turkistan, -Kokan and Samerkand. In the war of 1877-78 against Turkey he earned a -great reputation as chief of staff to the younger Skobelev, and after -the war he wrote a detailed and critical history of the operations which -is still regarded as the classical work on the subject and is available -for other nations in the German translation by Major Krahmer. After the -war he served again on the south-eastern borders in command of the -Turkestan Rifle Brigade, and in 1881 he won further fame by a march of -500 miles from Tashkent to Geok-Tepe, taking part in the storming of the -latter place. In 1882 he was promoted major-general, at the early age of -34, and he henceforth was regarded by the army as the natural successor -of Skobelev. In 1890 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and thirteen -years later, having acquired in peace and war the reputation of being -one of the foremost soldiers in Europe, he quitted the post of minister -of war which he then held and took command of the Russian army then -gathering in Manchuria for the contest with Japan. His ill-success in -the great war of 1904-5, astonishing as it seemed at the time, was -largely attributable to his subjection to the superior command of -Admiral Alexeiev, the tsar's viceroy in the Far East, and to internal -friction amongst the generals, though in his history of the war (Eng. -trans., 1909) he frankly admitted his own mistakes and paid the highest -tribute to the gallantry of the troops who had been committed to battle -under conditions unfavourable to success. After the defeat of Mukden and -the retirement of the whole army to Tieling he resigned the command to -General Linievich, taking the latter officer's place at the head of one -of the three armies in Manchuria. (See RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR.) - - - - -KURO SIWO, or KURO SHIO (literally blue salt), a stream current in the -Pacific Ocean, easily distinguishable by the warm temperature and blue -colour of its waters, flowing north-eastwards along the east coast of -Japan, and separated from it by a strip of cold water. The current -persists as a stream to about 40 N., between the meridians of 150 deg. -E. and 160 deg. E., when it merges in the general easterly drift of the -North Pacific. The Kuro Siwo is the analogue of the Gulf Stream in the -Atlantic. - - - - -KURRAM, a river and district on the Kohat border of the North-West -Frontier province of India. The Kurram river drains the southern flanks -of the Safed Koh, enters the plains a few miles above Bannu, and joins -the Indus near Isa-Khel after a course of more than 200 miles. The -district has an area of 1278 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 54,257. It lies -between the Miranzai Valley and the Afghan border, and is inhabited by -the Turis, a tribe of Turki origin who are supposed to have subjugated -the Bangash Pathans five hundred years ago. It is highly irrigated, well -peopled, and crowded with small fortified villages, orchards and groves, -to which a fine background is afforded by the dark pine forests and -alpine snows of the Safed Koh. The beauty and climate of the valley -attracted some of the Mogul emperors of Delhi, and the remains exist of -a garden planted by Shah Jahan. Formerly the Kurram valley was under the -government of Kabul, and every five or six years a military expedition -was sent to collect the revenue, the soldiers living meanwhile at free -quarters on the people. It was not until about 1848 that the Turis were -brought directly under the control of Kabul, when a governor was -appointed, who established himself in Kurram. The Turis, being Shiah -Mahommedans, never liked the Afghan rule. During the second Afghan War, -when Sir Frederick Roberts advanced by way of the Kurram valley and the -Peiwar Kotal to Kabul, the Turis lent him every assistance in their -power, and in consequence their independence was granted them in 1880. -The administration of the Kurram valley was finally undertaken by the -British government, at the request of the Turis themselves, in 1890. -Technically it ranks, not as a British district, but as an agency or -administered area. Two expeditions in the Kurram valley also require -mention: (1) The Kurram expedition of 1856 under Brigadier Chamberlain. -The Turis on the first annexation of the Kohat district by the British -had given much trouble. They had repeatedly leagued with other tribes to -harry the Miranzai valley, harbouring fugitives, encouraging resistance, -and frequently attacking Bangash and Khattak villages in the Kohat -district. Accordingly in 1856 a British force of 4896 troops traversed -their country, and the tribe entered into engagements for future good -conduct. (2) The Kohat-Kurram expedition of 1897 under Colonel W. Hill. -During the frontier risings of 1897 the inhabitants of the Kurram -valley, chiefly the Massozai section of the Orakzais, were infected by -the general excitement, and attacked the British camp at Sadda and other -posts. A force of 14,230 British troops traversed the country, and the -tribesmen were severely punished. In Lord Curzon's reorganization of the -frontier in 1900-1901, the British troops were withdrawn from the forts -in the Kurram valley, and were replaced by the Kurram militia, -reorganized in two battalions, and chiefly drawn from the Turi tribe. - - - - -KURSEONG, or KARSIANG, a sanatorium of northern India, in the Darjeeling -district of Bengal, 20 m. S. of Darjeeling and 4860 ft. above sea-level; -pop. (1901), 4469. It has a station on the mountain railway, and is a -centre of the tea trade. It also contains boys' and girls' schools for -Europeans and Eurasians. - - - - -KURSK, a government of middle Russia, bounded N. by the government of -Orel, E. by that of Voronezh, S. by Kharkov and W. by Chernigov. Area, -17,932 sq. m. It belongs to the central plateau of middle Russia, of -which it mostly occupies the southern slope, the highest parts being in -Orel and Kaluga, to the north of Kursk. Its surface is 700 to 1100 ft. -high, deeply trenched by ravines, and consequently assumes a hilly -aspect when viewed from the river valleys. Cretaceous and Eocene rocks -prevail, and chalk, iron-stone, potters' clay and phosphates are among -the economic minerals. No fewer than four hundred streams are counted -within its borders, but none of them is of any service as waterways. A -layer of fertile loess covers the whole surface, and Kursk belongs -almost entirely to the black-earth region. The flora is distinct from -that of the governments to the north, not only on account of the -black-earth flora which enters into its composition, but also of the -plants of south-western Russia which belong to it, a characteristic -which is accentuated in the southern portion of the government. The -climate is milder than that of middle Russia generally, and winds from -the south-east and the south-west prevail in winter. The average -temperatures are--for the year 42 deg. F., for January 14 deg. F. and -for July 67 deg. F. The very interesting magnetic phenomenon, known as -the Byelgorod anomaly, covering an oval area 20 m. long and 12 m. wide, -has been studied near the town of this name. The population, 1,893,597 -in 1862, was 2,391,091 in 1897, of whom 1,208,488 were women and 199,676 -lived in towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 2,797,000. It is -thoroughly Russian (76% Great Russians and 24% Little Russians), and 94% -are peasants who own over 59% of the land, and live mostly in large -villages. Owing to the rapid increase of the peasantry and the small -size of the allotments given at the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, -emigration, chiefly to Siberia, is on the increase, while 80,000 to -100,000 men leave home every summer to work in the neighbouring -governments. Three-quarters of the available land is under crops, -chiefly rye, other crops being wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, millet, -potatoes, sugar-beets, hemp, flax, sunflowers and fruits. Grain is -exported in considerable quantities. Bees are commonly kept, as also are -large numbers of livestock. Factories (steam flour-mills, -sugar-factories, distilleries, wool-washing, tobacco factories) give -occupation to about 23,000 workers. Domestic and petty trades are on the -increase in the villages, and new ones are being introduced, the chief -products being boots, ikons (sacred images) and shrines, toys, caps, -vehicles, baskets, and pottery. About 17 m. from the chief town is held -the Korennaya fair, formerly the greatest in South Russia, and still -with an annual trade valued at L900,000. The Kursk district contains -more than sixty old town sites; and barrows or burial mounds (_kurgans_) -are extremely abundant. Notwithstanding the active efforts of the local -councils (_zemstvos_), less than 10% of the population read and write. -The government is crossed from north to south and from west to south by -two main lines of railway. The trade in grain, hemp, hemp-seed oil, -sheepskins, hides, tallow, felt goods, wax, honey and leather goods is -very brisk. There are fifteen districts, the chief towns of which, with -their populations in 1897, are Kursk (q.v.) Byelgorod (21,850), Dmitriev -(7315), Fatezh (4959), Graivoron (7669), Korocha (14,405), Lgov (5376), -Novyi Oskol (2762), Oboyan (11872), Putivl (8965), Rylsk (11,415), -Staryi Oskol (16,662), Shchigry (3329), Suja (12,856) and Tim (7380). -There are more than twenty villages which have from 5000 to 12,000 -inhabitants each. (P. A K.; J. T. Be.) - - - - -KURSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, at -the junction of the railways from Moscow, Kiev and Kharkov, 330 m. -S.S.W. from Moscow. Pop. (1897), 52,896. It is built on two hills (750 -ft.), the slopes of which are planted with orchards. The environs all -round are well wooded and the woods are famous for their nightingales. -Among the public buildings the more noticeable are a monastery with an -image of the Virgin, greatly venerated since 1295; the Orthodox Greek -cathedral (18th century); and the episcopal palace, Kursk being a -bishopric of the national church. It is essentially a provincial town, -and is revered as the birthplace of Theodosius, one of the most -venerated of Russian saints. It has a public garden, and has become the -seat of several societies (medical, musical, educational and for sport). -Its factories include steam flour-mills, distilleries, tobacco-works, -hemp-crushing mills, tanneries, soap-works and iron-works. It has a -great yearly fair (_Korennaya_), and an active trade in cereals, linen, -leather, fruit, horses, cattle, hides, sheepskins, furs, down, bristles, -wax, tallow and manufactured goods. - -Kursk was in existence in 1032. It was completely destroyed by the -Mongols in 1240. The defence of the town against an incursion of the -Turkish Polovtsi (or Comans or Cumani) is celebrated in _The Triumph of -Igor_, an epic which forms one of the most valuable relics of early -Russian literature. From 1586 to the close of the 18th century the -citadel was a place of considerable strength; the remains are now -comparatively few. - - - - -KURTZ, JOHANN HEINRICH (1809-1890), German Lutheran theologian, was born -at Montjoie near Aix la Chapelle on the 13th of December 1809, and was -educated at Halle and Bonn. Abandoning the idea of a commercial career, -he gave himself to the study of theology and became religious instructor -at the gymnasium of Mitau in 1835, and ordinary professor of theology -(church history, 1850; exegesis, 1859) at Dorpat. He resigned his chair -in 1870 and went to live at Marburg, where he died on the 26th of April -1890. Kurtz was a prolific writer, and many of his books, especially the -_Lehrbuch der heiligen Geschichte_ (1843), became very popular. In the -field of biblical criticism he wrote a _Geschichte des Alten Bundes_ -(1848-1855), _Zur Theologie der Psalmen_ (1865) and _Erklarung des -Briefs an die Hebraer_ (1869). His chief work was done in church -history, among his productions being _Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte fur -Studierende_ (1849), _Abriss der Kirchengeschichte_ (1852) and _Handbuch -der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte_ (1853-1856). Several of his books -have been translated into English. - - - - -KURUMAN, a town in the Bechuanaland division of Cape Colony, 120 m. N.W. -of Kimberley and 85 m. S.W. of Vryburg. It is a station of the London -Missionary Society, founded in 1818, and from 1821 to 1870 was the scene -of the labours of Robert Moffat (q.v.) who here translated the Bible -into the Bechuana tongue. In the middle period of the 19th century -Kuruman was the rendezvous of all travellers going north or south. Of -these the best known is David Livingstone. The trunk railway line -passing considerably to the east of the town, Kuruman is no longer a -place of much importance. It is pleasantly situated on the upper course -of the Kuruman river, being beautified by gardens and orchards, and -presents a striking contrast to the desert conditions of the surrounding -country. Its name is that of the son and heir of Mosilikatze, the -founder of the Matabele nation. Kuruman disappeared during his father's -lifetime and the succession passed to Lobengula (see RHODESIA: -_History_). In November 1899 the town was besieged by a Boer force. The -garrison, less than a hundred strong, held out for six weeks against -over 1000 of the enemy, but was forced to surrender on the 1st of -January 1900. In June following it was reoccupied by the British. - - - - -KURUMBAS and KURUBAS, aboriginal tribes of southern India, by some -thought to be of distinct races. There are two types of Kurumbas, those -who live on the Nilgiri plateau, speak the Kurumba dialect and are mere -savages; and those who live in the plains, speak Kanarese and are -civilized. The former are a small people, with wild matted hair and -scanty beard, sickly-looking, pot-bellied, large-mouthed, with -projecting jaws, prominent teeth and thick lips. Their villages are -called _mottas_, groups of four or five huts, built in mountain glens or -forests. At the 1901 census the numbers were returned at 4083. - - See James W. Breeks, _An Account of Primitive Tribes of the Nilgiris_ - (1873); Dr John Shortt, _Hill Ranges of Southern India_, pt. i. 47-53; - Rev. F. Metz, _Tribes Inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills_ (Mangalore, - 1864). - - - - -KURUNEGALA, the chief town in the north-western province of Ceylon. Pop. -of the town, 6483; of the district, 249,429. It was the residence of the -kings of Ceylon from A.D. 1319 to 1347, and is romantically situated -under the shade of Adagalla (the rock of the Tusked Elephant), which is -600 ft. high. It was in 1902 the terminus of the Northern railway (59 m. -from Colombo), which has since been extended 200 m. farther, to the -northernmost coast of the Jaffna Peninsula. Kurunegala is the centre of -rice, coco-nut, tea, coffee and cocoa cultivation. - - - - -KURUNTWAD, or KURANDVAD, a native state of India, in the Deccan division -of Bombay, forming part of the Southern Mahratta jagirs. Originally -created in 1772 by a grant from the peshwa, the state was divided in -1811 into two parts, one of which, called Shedbal, lapsed to the British -government in 1857. In 1855 Kuruntwad was further divided between a -senior and a junior branch. The territory of both is widely scattered -among other native states and British districts. Area of the senior -branch, 185 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 42,474; revenue, L13,000. Area of -junior branch, 114 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 34,003; revenue, L9000. The -joint tribute is L640. The chiefs are Brahmans by caste, of the -Patwardhan family. The town of Kuruntwad, in which both branches have -their residence, is on the right bank of the Panchganga river near its -junction with the Kistna. Pop. (1901), 10,451. - - - - -KURZ, HERMANN (1813-1873), German poet and novelist, was born at -Reutlingen on the 30th of November 1813. Having studied at the -theological seminary at Maulbronn and at the university of Tubingen, he -was for a time assistant pastor at Ehningen. He then entered upon a -literary career, and in 1863 was appointed university librarian at -Tubingen, where he died on the 10th of October 1873. Kurz is less known -to fame by his poems, _Gedichte_ (1836) and _Dichtungen_ (1839), than by -his historical novels, _Schillers Heimatjahre_ (1843, 3rd ed., 1899) and -_Der Sonnenwirt_ (1854, 2nd ed., 1862), and his excellent translations -from English, Italian and Spanish. He also published a successful modern -German version of Gottfried von Strassburg's _Tristan und Isolde_ -(1844). His collected works were published in ten volumes (Stuttgart, -1874), also in twelve volumes (Leipzig, 1904). - -His daughter, ISOLDE KURZ, born on the 21st of December 1853 at -Stuttgart, takes a high place among contemporary lyric poets in Germany -with her _Gedichte_ (Stuttgart, 1888, 3rd ed. 1898) and _Neue Gedichte_ -(1903). Her short stories, _Florentiner Novellen_ (1890, 2nd ed. 1893), -_Phantasien und Marchen_ (1890), _Italienische Erzahlungen_ (1895) and -_Von Dazumal_ (1900) are distinguished by a fine sense of form and -clear-cut style. - - - - -KUSAN ("lake" or "inland bay"), a small group of North American Indian -tribes, formerly living on the Coos river and the coast of Oregon. They -call themselves Anasitch, and other names given them have been Ka-us or -KWO-KWOOS, Kowes and Cook-koo-oose. They appear to be in no way related -to their neighbours. The few survivors, mostly of mixed blood, are on -the Siletz reservation, Oregon. - - - - -KUSHALGARH, a village in the Kohat district of the North-West Frontier -province of India. It is only notable as the point at which the Indus is -bridged to permit of the extension of the strategic frontier railway -from Rawalpindi to the Miranzai and Kurram valleys. - - - - -KUSHK, a river of Afghanistan, which also gives its name to the chief -town in the Afghan province of Badghis, and to a military post on the -border of Russian Turkestan. The river Kushk, during a portion of its -course, forms the boundary between Afghan and Russian territory; but the -town is some 20 m. from the border. Kushk, or Kushkinski Post, is now a -fourth-class Russian fortress, on a Russian branch railway from Merv, -the terminus of which is 12 m. to the south, at Chahil Dukteran. It is -served by both the Transcaspian and the Orenburg-Tashkent railways. The -terminus is only 66 m. from Herat, and in the event of war would become -an important base for a Russian advance. Some confusion has arisen -through the popular application of the name of Kushk to this terminus, -though it is situated neither at the Russian post nor at the old town. - (T. H. H.*) - - - - -KUSTANAISK, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Turgai, on the -Tobol river, 410 m. E.N.E. of Orenburg, in a very fertile part of the -steppes. Pop. (1897), 14,065. The first buildings were erected in 1871, -and it has since grown with American-like rapidity. The immigrants from -Russia built a large village, which became the centre of the district -administration in 1884, and a town in 1893, under the name of -Nicolaevsk, changed later into Kustanaisk. It is an educational centre, -and a cathedral has been built. There are tanneries, tallow works, -potteries, and a fair for cattle, while its trade makes it a rival to -Orenburg and Troitsk. - - - - -KUSTENLAND (coast-land or littoral), a common name for the three -crown-lands of Austria, Gorz and Gradisca, Istria and Trieste. Their -combined area is 3084 sq. m., and their population in 1900 was 755,183. -They are united for certain administrative purposes under the governor -of Trieste, the legal and financial authorities of which also exercise -jurisdiction over the entire littoral. - - - - -KUTAIAH, KUTAYA, or KIUTAHIA, the chief town of a sanjak in the vilayet -of Brusa (Khudavendikiar), Asia Minor, is situated on the Pursaksu, an -affluent of the Sakaria (anc. _Sangarius_). The town lies at an -important point of the great road across Asia Minor from Constantinople -to Aleppo, and is connected by a branch line with the main line from -Eski-shehr to Afium Kara-Hissar, of the Anatolian railway. It has a busy -trade; pop. estimated at 22,000. Kutaiah has been identified with the -ancient Cotiaeum. - - See V. Cuinet, _Turquie d'Asie_, vol. iv. (Paris, 1894). - - - - -KUTAIS, a government of Russian Transcaucasia, situated between the -Caucasus range on the N. and the Black Sea on the W., the government of -Tiflis on the E. and the province of Kars on the S. Area, 14,313 sq. m. -The government includes the districts of Guria, Mingrelia, Imeretia, -Abkhasia and Svanetia, and consists of four distinct parts: (1) the -lowlands, drained by the Rion, and continued N.W. along the shore of the -Black Sea; (2) the southern slopes of the main Caucasus range; (3) the -western slopes of the Suram mountains, which separate Kutais from -Tiflis; and (4) the slopes of the Armenian highlands, as well as a -portion of the highlands themselves, drained by the Chorokh and its -tributary, the Ajaris-tskhali, which formerly constituted the Batum -province. Generally speaking, the government is mountainous in the north -and south. Many secondary ridges and spurs shoot off the main range, -forming high, narrow valleys (see CAUCASUS). The district of Batum and -Artvin in the S.W., which in 1903 were in part separated for -administration as the semi-military district of Batum, are filled up by -spurs of the Pontic range, 9000 to 11,240 ft. high, the Arzyan ridge -separating them from the plateau of Kars. Deep gorges, through which -tributaries of the Chorokh force their passage to the main river, -intersect these highlands, forming most picturesque gorges. The lowlands -occupy over 2400 sq. m. They are mostly barren in the littoral region, -but extremely fertile higher up the Rion. - -The climate is very moist and warm. The winters are often without frost -at all in the lowlands, while the lowest temperatures observed are 18 -deg. F. at Batum and 9 deg. at Poti. The mountains condense the moisture -brought by the west winds, and the yearly amount of rain varies from 50 -to 120 in. The chief rivers are the Rion, which enters the Black Sea at -Poti; the Chorokh, which enters the same sea at Batum; and the Ingur, -the Kodor and the Bzyb, also flowing into the Black Sea in Abkhasia. The -vegetation is extremely rich, its character suggesting the sub-tropic -regions of Japan (see CAUCASIA). The population belongs almost entirely -to the Kartvelian or Georgian group, and is distributed as follows: -Imeretians, 41.2%; Mingrelians and Lazes, 22.5%; Gurians, 7.3%; Ajars, -5.8%; Svanetians, 1.3%; of other nationalities there are 6% of -Abkhasians, 2.6% of Turks, 2.3% of Armenians, besides Russians, Jews, -Greeks, Persians, Kurds, Ossetes and Germans. By religion 87% of the -population are Greek Orthodox and only 10% Mussulmans. The total -population was 933,773 in 1897, of whom 508,468 were women and 77,702 -lived in towns. The estimated population in 1906 was 924,800. The land -is excessively subdivided, and, owing to excellent cultivation, fetches -very high prices. The chief crops are maize, wheat, barley, beans, rye, -hemp, potatoes and tobacco. Maize, wine and timber are largely exported. -Some cotton-trees have been planted. The vine, olive, mulberry and all -sorts of fruit trees are cultivated, as also many exotic plants -(eucalyptus, cork-oak, camellia, and even tea). Manganese ore is the -chief mineral, and is extracted for export to the extent of 160,000 to -180,000 tons annually, besides coal, lead and silver ores, copper, -naphtha, some gold, lithographic stone and marble. Factories are still -in infancy, but silk is spun. A railway runs from the Caspian Sea, via -Tiflis and the Suram tunnel, to Kutais, and thence to Poti and Batum, -and from Kutais to the Tkvibuli coal and manganese mines. The export of -both local produce and goods shipped by rail from other ports of -Transcaucasia is considerable, Batum and Poti being the two chief ports -of Caucasia. Kutais is divided into seven districts, of which the chief -towns, with their populations in 1897, are Kutais, capital of the -province (q.v.); Lailashi (834), chief town of Lechgum, of which -Svanetia makes a separate administrative unit; Ozurgeti (4694); Oni, -chief town of Racha; Senaki (101); Kvirili, of Sharopan district; -Zugdidi; and two semi-military districts--Batum (28,512) with Artvin -(7000) and Sukhum-kaleh (7809). (P. A. K.--J. T. Be.) - - - - -KUTAIS, a town of Russian Caucasia, capital of the government of the -same name, 60 m. by rail E. of Poti and 5 m. from the Rion station of -the railway between Poti and Tiflis. Pop. (1897), 32,492. It is one of -the oldest towns of Caucasia, having been the ancient capital (Aea or -Kutaea) of Colchis, and later the capital of Imeretia (from 792); -Procopius mentions it under the name of Kotatision. Persians, Mongols, -Turks and Russians have again and again destroyed the town and its -fortress. In 1810 it became Russian. It is situated on both banks of the -Rion river, which is spanned by three bridges. Its most remarkable -building is the ruined cathedral, erected in the 11th century by the -Bagratids, the ruling dynasty of Georgia, and destroyed by the Turks in -1692; it is the most important representative extant of Georgian -architecture. The fort, mentioned by Procopius, is now a heap of ruins, -destroyed by the Russians in 1770. The inhabitants make hats and silks, -and trade in agricultural produce and wine. On the right bank of the -Rion is a government model garden, with a model farm. - - - - -KUT-EL-AMARA, a small town in Turkish Asia, on the east bank of the -Tigris (32 deg. 29' 19" N., 44 deg. 45' 37" E.) at the point where the -Shatt-el-Hai leaves that stream. It is a coaling station of the steamers -plying between Basra and Bagdad, and an important Turkish post for the -control of the lower Tigris. - - - - -KUTENAI (Kutonaga), a group of North-American Indian tribes forming the -distinct stock of Kitunahan. Their former range was British Columbia, -along the Kootenay lake and river. They were always friendly to the -whites and noted for their honesty. In 1904 there were some 550 in -British Columbia; and in 1908 there were 606 on the Flathead Agency, -Montana. - - - - -KUTTALAM, or COURTALLUM, a sanatorium of southern India, in the -Tinnevelly district of Madras; pop. (1901), 1197. Though situated only -450 ft. above sea-level, it possesses the climate of a much higher -elevation, owing to the breezes that reach it through a gap in the -Ghats. It has long been a favourite resort for European visitors, the -season lasting from July to September; and it has recently been made -more accessible by the opening of the railway from Tinnevelly into -Travancore. The scenery is most picturesque, including a famous -waterfall. - - - - -KUTTENBERG (Czech, _Kutna Hora_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 45 m. E. -by S. of Prague. Pop. (1900), 14,799, mostly Czech. Amongst its -buildings are the Gothic five-naved church of St Barbara, begun in 1368, -the Gothic church of St Jacob (14th century) and the Late Gothic Trinity -church (end of 15th century). The Walscher Hof, formerly a royal -residence and mint, was built at the end of the 13th century, and the -Gothic Steinerne Haus, which since 1849 serves as town-hall, contains -one of the richest archives in Bohemia. The industry includes -sugar-refining, brewing, the manufacture of cotton and woollen stuffs, -leather goods and agricultural implements. - -The town of Kuttenberg owes its origin to the silver mines, the -existence of which can be traced back to the first part of the 13th -century. The city developed with great rapidity, and at the outbreak of -the Hussite troubles, early in the 14th century, was next to Prague the -most important in Bohemia, having become the favourite residence of -several of the Bohemian kings. It was here that, on the 18th of January -1410, Wenceslaus IV. signed the famous decree of Kuttenberg, by which -the Bohemian nation was given three votes in the elections to the -faculty of Prague University as against one for the three other -"nations." In the autumn of the same year Kuttenberg was the scene of -horrible atrocities. The fierce mining population of the town was mainly -German, and fanatically Catholic, in contrast with Prague, which was -Czech and utraquist. By way of reprisals for the Hussite outrages in -Prague, the miners of Kuttenberg seized on any Hussites they could find, -and burned, beheaded or threw them alive into the shafts of disused -mines. In this way 1600 people are said to have perished, including the -magistrates and clergy of the town of Kaurim, which the Kuttenbergers -had taken. In 1420 the emperor Sigismund made the city the base for his -unsuccessful attack on the Taborites; Kuttenberg was taken by Zizka, and -after a temporary reconciliation of the warring parties was burned by -the imperial troops in 1422, to prevent its falling again into the hands -of the Taborites. Zizka none the less took the place, and under Bohemian -auspices it awoke to a new period of prosperity. In 1541 the richest -mine was hopelessly flooded; in the insurrection of Bohemia against -Ferdinand I. the city lost all its privileges; repeated visitations of -the plague and the horrors of the Thirty Years' War completed its ruin. -Half-hearted attempts after the peace to repair the ruined mines failed; -the town became impoverished, and in 1770 was devastated by fire. The -mines were abandoned at the end of the 18th century; one mine was again -opened by the government in 1874, but the work was discontinued in 1903. - - - - -KUTUSOV [GOLENISHCHEV-KUTUZOV], MIKHAIL LARIONOVICH, PRINCE OF SMOLENSK -(1745-1813), Russian field marshal, was born on the 16th of September -1745 at St Petersburg, and entered the Russian army in 1759 or 1760. He -saw active service in Poland, 1764-69, and against the Turks, 1770-74; -lost an eye in action in the latter year; and after that travelled for -some years in central and western Europe. In 1784 he became -major-general, in 1787 governor-general of the Crimea; and under -Suvorov, whose constant companion he became, he won considerable -distinction in the Turkish War of 1788-91, at the taking of Ochakov, -Odessa, Benda and Ismail, and the battles of Rimnik and Mashin. He was -now (1791) a lieutenant-general, and successively occupied the positions -of ambassador at Constantinople, governor-general of Finland, commandant -of the corps of cadets at St Petersburg, ambassador at Berlin, and -governor-general of St Petersburg. In 1805 he commanded the Russian -corps which opposed Napoleon's advance on Vienna (see NAPOLEONIC -CAMPAIGNS), and won the hard-fought action of Durrenstein on the -18th-19th of November. - -On the eve of Austerlitz (q.v.) he tried to prevent the Allied generals -from fighting a battle, and when he was overruled took so little -interest in the event that he fell asleep during the reading of the -orders. He was, however, present at the battle itself, and was wounded. -From 1806 to 1811 Kutusov was governor-general of Lithuania and Kiev, -and in 1811, being then commander-in-chief in the war against the Turks, -he was made a prince. Shortly after this he was called by the unanimous -voice of the army and the people to command the army that was retreating -before Napoleon's advance. He gave battle at Borodino (q.v.), and was -defeated, but not decisively, and after retreating to the south-west of -Moscow, he forced Napoleon to begin the celebrated retreat. The old -general's cautious pursuit evoked much criticism, but at any rate he -allowed only a remnant of the Grand Army to regain Prussian soil. He was -now field marshal and prince of Smolensk--this title having been given -him for a victory over part of the French army at that place in November -1812. Early in the following year he carried the war into Germany, took -command of the allied Russians and Prussians, and prepared to raise all -central Europe in arms against Napoleon's domination, but before the -opening of the campaign he fell ill and died on the 25th of March 1813 -at Bunzlau. Memorials have been erected to him at that place and at St -Petersburg. - - Mikhailovsky-Danilevski's life of Kutusov (St Petersburg, 1850) was - translated into French by A. Fizelier (Paris, 1850). - - - - -KUWET (KUWEIT, KOWEIT), a port in Arabia at the north-western angle of -the Persian Gulf in 29 deg. 20' N. and 48 deg. E., about 80 m. due S. of -Basra and 60 m. S.W. of the mouth of the Shat el Arab. The name Kuwet is -the diminutive form of Kut, a common term in Irak for a walled village; -it is also shown in some maps as Grane or Grain, a corruption of Kuren, -the diminutive of Karn, a horn. It lies on the south side of a bay 20 m. -long and 5 m. wide, the mouth of which is protected by two islands, -forming a fine natural harbour, with good anchorage in from 4 to 9 -fathoms of water. The town has 15,000 inhabitants and is clean and well -built; the country around being practically desert, it depends entirely -on the sea and its trade, and its sailors have a high reputation as the -most skilful and trustworthy on the Persian Gulf; while its position as -the nearest port to Upper Nejd gives it great importance as the port of -entry for rice, piece goods, &c., and of export for horses, sheep, wool -and other products of the interior. Kuwet was recommended in 1850 by -General F. R. Chesney as the terminus of his proposed Euphrates Valley -railway, and since 1898, when the extension of the Anatolian railway to -Bagdad and the Gulf has been under discussion, attention has again been -directed to it. An alternative site for the terminus has been suggested -in Um Khasa, at the head of the Khor `Abdallah, where a branch of the -Shat el Arab formerly entered the sea; it lies some 20 m. N.E. of Kuwet -and separated from it by the island of Bubian, which has for some time -been in Turkish occupation. An attempt by Turkey to occupy Kuwet in 1898 -was met by a formal protest from Great Britain against any infringement -of the _status quo_, and in 1899 Sheikh Mubarak of Kuwet placed his -interests under British protection. - -The total trade passing through Kuwet in 1904-1905 was valued at -L160,000. The imports include arms and ammunition, piece goods, rice, -coffee, sugar, &c.; and the exports, horses, pearls, dates, wool, &c. -The steamers of the British India Steamship Company call fortnightly. - (R. A. W.) - - - - -KUZNETSK, two towns of Russia. (1) A town in the government of Saratov, -74 m. by rail east of Penza. It has grown rapidly since the development -of the railway system in the Volga basin. It has manufactures of -agricultural machinery and hardware, in a number of small factories and -workshops, besides tanneries, rope-works, boot and shoe making in -houses, and there is considerable trade in sheepskins, grain, salt and -wooden goods exported to the treeless regions of south-east Russia. Pop. -(1897), 21,740. (2) A town in West Siberia, in the government of Tomsk, -150 m. E.N.E. of Barnaul, on the Upper Tom river, at the head of -navigation. It has trade in grain, cattle, furs, cedarwood, nuts, wax, -honey and tallow, and is the centre of a coal-mining district. Pop. -(1897), 3141. - - - - -KVASS, or KWASS (a Russian word for "leaven"), one of the national -alcoholic drinks of Russia, and popular also in eastern Europe. It is -made, by a simultaneous acid and alcoholic fermentation, of wheat, rye, -barley and buckwheat meal or of rye-bread, with the addition of sugar or -fruit. It has been a universal drink in Russia since the 16th century. -Though in the large towns it is made commercially, elsewhere it is -frequently an article of domestic production. Kvass is of very low -alcoholic content (0.7 to 2.2%). There are, beside the ordinary kind, -superior forms of the drink, such as apple or raspberry kvass. - - - - -KWAKIUTL, a tribe of North-American Indians of Wakashan stock. They -number about 2000. Formerly the term was used of the one tribe in the -north-east of Vancouver, but now it is the collective name for a group -of Wakashan peoples. The Kwakiutl Indians are remarkable for their -conservatism in all matters and specially their adherence to the custom -of Potlatch, which it is sometimes suggested originated with them. -Tribal government is in the hands of secret societies. There are three -social ranks, hereditary chiefs, middle and third estates, most of the -latter being slaves or their descendants. Entry to the societies is -forbidden the latter, and can only be obtained by the former after -torture and fasting. The _hamatsa_ or cannibal society is only open to -those who have been members of a lower society for eight years. - - - - -KWANGCHOW BAY (KWANGCHOW WAN), a coaling station on the south coast of -China, acquired, along with other concessions, by the French government -in April 1898. It is situated on the east side of the peninsula of -Lienchow, in the province of Kwang-tung, and directly north of the -island of Hainan. It is held on lease for 99 years on similar terms to -those by which Kiaochow is held by Germany, Port Arthur by Japan and -Wei-hai-wei by Great Britain. The cession includes the islands lying in -the bay; these enclose a roadstead 18 m. long by 6 m. wide, with -admirable natural defences and a depth at no part of less than 33 ft. -The bay forms the estuary of the Ma-Ts'e river, navigable by the largest -men-of-war for 12 m. from the coast. The limits of the concession inland -were fixed in November 1899. On the left bank of the Ma-Ts'e France -gained from Kow Chow Fu a strip of territory 11 m. by 6 m., and on the -right bank a strip 15 m. by 11 m. from Lei Chow Fu. The country is well -populated; the capital and chief town is Lei Chow. The cession carries -with it full territorial jurisdiction during the continuance of the -lease. In January 1900 it was placed under the authority of the -governor-general of Indo-China, who in the same month appointed a civil -administrator over the country, which was divided into three districts. -The population of the territory is about 189,000. A mixed tribunal has -been instituted, but the local organization is maintained for purposes -of administration. In addition to the territory acquired, the right has -been given to connect the bay by railway with the city and harbour of -Ompon, situated on the west side of the peninsula, and in consequence of -difficulties which were offered by the provincial government on the -occasion of taking possession, and which compelled the French to have -recourse to arms, the latter demanded and obtained exclusive mining -rights in the three adjoining prefectures. Two lines of French -steamships call at the bay. By reason of the great strategical -importance of the bay, and the presence of large coal-beds in the near -neighbourhood, much importance is attached by the French to the -acquirement of Kwangchow Wan. - - - - -KWANG-SI, a southern province of China, bounded N. by Kwei-chow and -Hu-nan, E. and S. by Kwang-tung, S.W. and W. by French Indo-Chino and -Yun-nan. It covers an area of 80,000 sq. m. It is the least populous -province of China, its inhabitants numbering (1908) little over -5,000,000. The Skias, an aboriginal race, form two-thirds of the -population. The provincial capital is Kwei-lin Fu, or City of the Forest -of Cinnamon Trees, and there are besides ten prefectural cities. The -province is largely mountainous. The principal rivers are the Si-kiang -and the Kwei-kiang, or Cinnamon River, which takes its rise in the -district of Hing-gan, in the north of the province, and in the -neighbourhood of that of the Siang river, which flows northward through -Hu-nan to the Tung-t'ing Lake. The Kwei-kiang, on the other hand, takes -a southerly course, and passes the cities of Kwei-lin, Yang-so Hien, -P'ing-le Fu, Chao-p'ing Hien, and so finds its way to Wu-chow Fu, where -it joins the waters of the Si-kiang. Another considerable river is the -Liu-kiang, or Willow River, which rises in the mountains inhabited by -the Miao-tsze, in Kwei-chow. Leaving its source it takes a -south-easterly direction, and enters Kwang-si, in the district of -Hwai-yuen. After encircling the city of that name, it flows south as -far as Liu-ch'eng Hien, where it forms a junction with the Lung-kiang, -or Dragon River. Adopting the trend of this last-named stream, which has -its head-waters in Kwei-chow, the mingled flow passes eastward, and -farther on in a south-easterly direction, by Lai-chow Fu, Wu-suan Hien, -and Sin-chow Fu, where it receives the waters of the Si-kiang, and -thenceforth changes its name for that of its affluent. The treaty ports -in Kwang-si are Wu-chow Fu, Lung-chow and Nanning Fu. - - - - -KWANG-TUNG, a southern province of China, bounded N. by Hu-nan, Kiang-si -and Fu-kien, S. and E. by the sea, and W. by Kwang-si. It contains an -area, including the island of Hainan, of 75,500 sq. m., and is divided -into nine prefectures; and the population is estimated at about -30,000,000. Its name, which signifies "east of Kwang," is derived, -according to Chinese writers, from the fact of its being to the east of -the old province of Hu-kwang, in the same way that Kwang-si derives its -name from its position to the west of Hu-kwang. Kwang-tung extends for -more than 600 m. from east to west, and for about 420 from north to -south. It may be described as a hilly region, forming part as it does of -the Nan Shan ranges. These mountains, speaking generally, trend in a -north-east and south-westerly direction, and are divided by valleys of -great fertility. The principal rivers of the province are the Si-kiang, -the Pei-kiang, or North River, which rises in the mountains to the north -of the province, and after a southerly course joins the Si-kiang at -San-shui Hien; the Tung-kiang, or East River, which, after flowing in a -south-westerly direction from its source in the north-east of the -province, empties itself into the estuary which separates the city of -Canton from the sea; and the Han River, which runs a north and south -course across the eastern portion of the province, taking its rise in -the mountains on the western frontier of Fu-kien and emptying itself -into the China Sea in the neighbourhood of Swatow. Kwang-tung is one of -the most productive provinces of the empire. Its mineral wealth is very -considerable, and the soil of the valleys and plains is extremely -fertile. The principal article of export is silk, which is produced in -the district forming the river delta, extending from Canton to Macao and -having its apex at San-shui Hien. Three large coal-fields exist in the -province, namely, the Shao-chow Fu field in the north; the Hwa Hien -field, distant about 30 m. from Canton; and the west coast field, in the -south-west. The last is by far the largest of the three and extends over -the districts of Wu-ch'uen, Tien-pai, Yang-kiang, Yang-ch'un, Gan-p'ing, -K'ai-p'ing, Sin-hing, Ho-shan, Sin-hwang, and Sin-ning. The coal from -the two first-named fields is of an inferior quality, but that in the -west coast field is of a more valuable kind. Iron ore is found in about -twenty different districts, notably in Ts'ing-yuen, Ts'ung-hwa, -Lung-men, and Lu-feng. None, however, is exported in its raw state, as -all which is produced is manufactured in the province, and principally -at Fat-shan, which has been called the Birmingham of China. The -Kwang-tung coast abounds with islands, the largest of which is Hainan, -which forms part of the prefecture of K'iung-chow Fu. This island -extends for about 100 m. from north to south and the same distance from -east to west. The southern and eastern portions of Hainan are -mountainous, but on the north there is a plain of some extent. Gold is -found in the central part; and sugar, coco-nuts, betel-nuts, birds' -nests, and agar agar, or sea vegetable, are among the other products of -the island. Canton, Swatow, K'iung-chow (in Hainan), Pakhoi, San-shui -are among the treaty ports. Three ports in the province have been ceded -or leased to foreign powers--Macao to Portugal, Hong-Kong (with Kowloon) -to Great Britain, and Kwangchow to France. - - - - -KWANZA (COANZA or QUANZA), a river of West Africa, with a course of -about 700 m. entirely within the Portuguese territory of Angola. The -source lies in about 13 deg. 40' S., 17 deg. 30' E. on the Bihe plateau, -at an altitude of over 5000 ft. It runs first N.E. and soon attains -fairly large dimensions. Just north of 12 deg. it is about 60 yds. wide -and 13 to 16 ft. deep. From this point to 10 deg. it flows N.W., -receiving many tributaries, especially the Luando from the east. In -about 10 deg., and at intervals during its westerly passage through the -outer plateau escarpments, its course is broken by rapids, the river -flowing in a well-defined valley flanked by higher ground. The lowest -fall is that of Kambamba, or Livingstone, with a drop of 70 ft. Thence -to the sea, a distance of some 160 m., it is navigable by small -steamers, though very shallow in the dry season. The river enters the -sea in 9 deg. 15' S., 13 deg. 20' E., 40 m. S. of Loanda. There is a -shifting bar at its mouth, difficult to cross, but the river as a -waterway has become of less importance since the fertile district in its -middle basin has been served by the railway from Loanda to Ambaca (see -ANGOLA). - - - - -KWEI-CHOW, a south-western province of China, bounded N. by Sze-ch'uen, -E. by Hu-nan, S. by Kwang-si, and W. by Yun-nan. It contains 67,000 sq. -m., and has a population of about 8,000,000. Kwei-yang Fu is the -provincial capital, and besides this there are eleven prefectural cities -in the province. With the exception of plains in the neighbourhood of -Kwei-yang Fu, Ta-ting Fu, and Tsun-i Fu, in the central and northern -regions, the province may be described as mountainous. The mountain -ranges in the south are largely inhabited by Miao-tsze, who are the -original owners of the soil and have been constantly goaded into a state -of rebellion by the oppression to which they have been subjected by the -Chinese officials. To this disturbing cause was added another in 1861 by -the spread of the Mahommedan rebellion in Yun-nan into some of the -south-western districts of the province. The devastating effects of -these civil wars were most disastrous to the trade and the prosperity of -Kwei-chow. The climate is by nature unhealthy, the supply of running -water being small, and that of stagnant water, from which arises a fatal -malaria, being considerable. The agricultural products of the province -are very limited, and its chief wealth lies in its minerals. Copper, -silver, lead, and zinc are found in considerable quantities, and as -regards quicksilver, Kwei-chow is probably the richest country in the -world. This has been from of old the chief product of the province, and -the belt in which it occurs extends through the whole district from -south-west to north-east. One of the principal mining districts is K'ai -Chow, in the prefecture of Kwei-yang Fu, and this district has the -advantage of being situated near Hwang-p'ing Chow, from which place the -products can be conveniently and cheaply shipped to Hankow. Cinnabar, -realgar, orpiment and coal form the rest of the mineral products of -Kwei-chow. Wild silk is another valuable article of export. It is -chiefly manufactured in the prefecture of Tsun-i Fu. - - - - -KYAUKPYU, a district in the Arakan division of Lower Burma, on the -eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. It consists of, first, a strip of -mainland along the Bay of Bengal, extending from the An pass, across the -main range, to the Ma-i River, and, secondly, the large islands of -Ramree and Cheduba, with many others to the south, lying off the coast -of Sandoway. The mainland in the north and east is highly mountainous -and forest-clad, and the lower portion is cut up into numerous islands -by a network of tidal creeks. Between the mainland and Ramree lies a -group of islands separated by deep, narrow, salt-water inlets, forming -the north-eastern shore of Kyaukpyu harbour, which extends for nearly 30 -m. along Ramree in a south-easterly direction, and has an average -breadth of 3 m. The principal mountains are the Arakan Yomas, which send -out spurs and sub-spurs almost to the sea-coast. The An pass, an -important trade route, rises to a height of 4664 ft. above sea-level. -The Dha-let and the An rivers are navigable by large boats for 25 and 45 -m. respectively. Above these distances they are mere mountain torrents. -Large forests of valuable timber cover an area of about 650 sq. m. -Kyaukpyu contains numerous "mud volcanoes," from which marsh gas is -frequently discharged, with occasional issue of flame. The largest of -these is situated in the centre of Cheduba island. Earth-oil wells exist -in several places in the district. The oil when brought to the surface -has the appearance of a whitish-blue water, which gives out brilliant -straw-coloured rays, and emits a strong pungent odour. Limestone, iron -and coal are also found. Area 4387 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 168,827, -showing an increase in the decade of 2.3%. - -The chief town, Kyaukpyu, had a population in 1901 of 3145. It has a -municipal committee of twelve members, three _ex officio_ and nine -appointed by the local government, and there is a third-class district -gaol. Kyaukpyu is a port under the Indian Ports Act (X. of 1889), and -the steamers of the British India Navigation Company call there once a -week going and coming between Rangoon and Calcutta. - - - - -KYAUKSE, a district in the Meiktila division of Upper Burma, with an -area of 1274 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 141,253. It is also -known as the _Ko-kayaing_, so called from the original nine canals of -the district. It consists of a generally level strip running north and -south at the foot of the Shan Hills, and of a hilly region rising up -these hills to the east, and including the Yeyaman tract, which lies -between 21 deg. 30' and 21 deg. 40' N. and 96 deg. 15' and 96 deg. 45' -E., with peaks rising to between 4500 and 5000 ft. This tract is rugged -and scored by ravines, and is very sparsely inhabited. The Panlaung and -Zawgyi rivers from the Shan States flow through the district and are -utilized for the numerous irrigation canals. Notwithstanding this, much -timber is floated down, and the Panlaung is navigable for small boats -all the year round. Rain is very scarce, but the canals supply ample -water for cultivation and all other purposes. They are said to have been -dug by King Nawrahta in 1092. He is alleged to have completed the system -of nine canals and weirs in three years' time. Others have been -constructed since the annexation of Upper Burma. At that time many were -in serious disrepair, but most of them have been greatly improved by the -construction of proper regulators and sluices. Two-thirds of the -population are dependent entirely on cultivation for their support, and -this is mainly rice on irrigated land. In the Yeyaman tract the chief -crop is rice. The great majority of the population is pure Burmese, but -in the hills there are a good many Danus, a cross between Shans and -Burmese. The railway runs through the centre of the rice-producing area, -and feeder roads open up the country as far as the Shan foot-hills. The -greater part of the district consists of state land, the cultivators -being tenants of government, but there is a certain amount of hereditary -freehold. - -KYAUKSE town is situated on the Zawgyi River and on the Rangoon-Mandalay -railway line, and is well laid out in regular streets, covering an area -of about a square mile. It has a population (1901) of 5420, mostly -Burmese, with a colony of Indian traders. Above it are some bare rocky -hillocks, picturesquely studded with pagodas. - - - - -KYD, THOMAS (1558-1594), one of the most important of the English -Elizabethan dramatists who preceded Shakespeare. Kyd remained until the -last decade of the 19th century in what appeared likely to be -impenetrable obscurity. Even his name was forgotten until Thomas Hawkins -about 1773 discovered it in connexion with _The Spanish Tragedy_ in -Thomas Heywood's _Apologie for Actors_. But by the industry of English -and German scholars a great deal of light has since been thrown on his -life and writings. He was the son of Francis Kyd, citizen and scrivener -of London, and was baptized in the church of St Mary Woolnoth, Lombard -Street, on the 6th of November 1558. His mother, who survived her son, -was named Agnes, or Anna. In October 1565 Kyd entered the newly founded -Merchant Taylors' School, where Edmund Spenser and perhaps Thomas Lodge -were at different times his school-fellows. It is thought that Kyd did -not proceed to either of the universities; he apparently followed, soon -after leaving school, his father's business as a scrivener. But Nashe -describes him as a "shifting companion that ran through every art and -throve by none." He showed a fairly wide range of reading in Latin. The -author on whom he draws most freely is Seneca, but there are many -reminiscences, and occasionally mistranslations of other authors. Nashe -contemptuously said that "English Seneca read by candlelight yeeldes -many good sentences," no doubt exaggerating his indebtedness to Thomas -Newton's translation. John Lyly had a more marked influence on his -manner than any of his contemporaries. It is believed that he produced -his famous play, _The Spanish Tragedy_, between 1584 and 1589; the -quarto in the British Museum (which is probably earlier than the -Gottingen and Ellesmere quartos, dated 1594 and 1599) is undated, and -the play was licensed for the press in 1592. The full title runs, _The -Spanish Tragedie containing the Lamentable End of Don Horatio and -Bel-imperia; with the Pitiful Death of Old Hieronimo_, and the play is -commonly referred to by Henslowe and other contemporaries as -_Hieronimo_. This drama enjoyed all through the age of Elizabeth and -even of James I. and Charles I. so unflagging a success that it has been -styled the most popular of all old English plays. Certain expressions in -Nashe's preface to the 1589 edition of Robert Greene's _Menaphon_ may be -said to have started a whole world of speculation with regard to Kyd's -activity. Much of this is still very puzzling; nor is it really -understood why Ben Jonson called him "sporting Kyd." In 1592 there was -added a sort of prologue to _The Spanish Tragedy_, called _The First -Part of Jeronimo, or The Warres of Portugal_, not printed till 1605. -Professor Boas concludes that Kyd had nothing to do with this -melodramatic production, which gives a different version of the story -and presents Jeronimo as little more than a buffoon. On the other hand, -it becomes more and more certain that what German criticism calls the -_Ur-Hamlet_, the original draft of the tragedy of the prince of Denmark, -was a lost work by Kyd, probably composed by him in 1587. This theory -has been very elaborately worked out by Professor Sarrazin, and -confirmed by Professor Boas; these scholars are doubtless right in -holding that traces of Kyd's play survive in the first two acts of the -1603 first quarto of _Hamlet_, but they probably go too far in -attributing much of the actual language of the last three acts to Kyd. -Kyd's next work was in all probability the tragedy of _Soliman and -Perseda_, written perhaps in 1588 and licensed for the press in 1592, -which, although anonymous, is assigned to him on strong internal -evidence by Mr Boas. No copy of the first edition has come down to us; -but it was reprinted, after Kyd's death, in 1599. In the summer or -autumn of 1590 Kyd seems to have given up writing for the stage, and to -have entered the service of an unnamed lord, who employed a troop of -"players." Kyd was probably the private secretary of this nobleman, in -whom Professor Boas sees Robert Radcliffe, afterwards fifth earl of -Sussex. To the wife of the earl (Bridget Morison of Cassiobury) Kyd -dedicated in the last year of his life his translation of Garnier's -_Cornelia_ (1594), to the dedication of which he attached his initials. -Two prose works of the dramatist have survived, a treatise on domestic -economy, _The Householder's Philosophy_, translated from the Italian of -Tasso (1588); and a sensational account of _The Most Wicked and Secret -Murdering of John Brewer, Goldsmith_ (1592). His name is written on the -title-page of the unique copy of the last-named pamphlet at Lambeth, but -probably not by his hand. That many of Kyd's plays and poems have been -lost is proved by the fact that fragments exist, attributed to him, -which are found in no surviving context. Towards the close of his life -Kyd was brought into relations with Marlowe. It would seem that in 1590, -soon after he entered the service of this nobleman, Kyd formed his -acquaintance. If he is to be believed, he shrank at once from Marlowe as -a man "intemperate and of a cruel heart" and "irreligious." This, -however, was said by Kyd with the rope round his neck, and is scarcely -consistent with a good deal of apparent intimacy between him and -Marlowe. When, in May 1593, the "lewd libels" and "blasphemies" of -Marlowe came before the notice of the Star Chamber, Kyd was immediately -arrested, papers of his having been found "shuffled" with some of -Marlowe's, who was imprisoned a week later. A visitation on Kyd's papers -was made in consequence of his having attached a seditious libel to the -wall of the Dutch churchyard in Austin Friars. Of this he was innocent, -but there was found in his chamber a paper of "vile heretical conceits -denying the deity of Jesus Christ." Kyd was arrested and put to the -torture in Bridewell. He asserted that he knew nothing of this document -and tried to shift the responsibility of it upon Marlowe, but he was -kept in prison until after the death of that poet (June 1, 1593). When -he was at length dismissed, his patron refused to take him back into his -service. He fell into utter destitution, and sank under the weight of -"bitter times and privy broken passions." He must have died late in -1594, and on the 30th of December of that year his parents renounced -their administration of the goods of their deceased son, in a document -of great importance discovered by Professor Schick. - -The importance of Kyd, as the pioneer in the wonderful movement of -secular drama in England, gives great interest to his works, and we are -now able at last to assert what many critics have long conjectured, that -he takes in that movement the position of a leader and almost of an -inventor. Regarded from this point of view, _The Spanish Tragedy_ is a -work of extraordinary value, since it is the earliest specimen of -effective stage poetry existing in English literature. It had been -preceded only by the pageant-poems of Peele and Lyly, in which all that -constitutes in the modern sense theatrical technique and effective -construction was entirely absent. These gifts, in which the whole power -of the theatre as a place of general entertainment was to consist, were -supplied earliest among English playwrights to Kyd, and were first -exercised by him, so far as we can see, in 1586. This, then, is a more -or less definite starting date for Elizabethan drama, and of peculiar -value to its historians. Curiously enough, _The Spanish Tragedy_, which -was the earliest stage-play of the great period, was also the most -popular, and held its own right through the careers of Shakespeare, Ben -Jonson, and Fletcher. It was not any shortcoming in its harrowing and -exciting plot, but the tameness of its archaic versification, which -probably led in 1602 to its receiving "additions," which have been a -great stumbling-block to the critics. It is known that Ben Jonson was -paid for these additional scenes, but they are extremely unlike all -other known writings of his, and several scholars have independently -conjectured that John Webster wrote them. Of Kyd himself it seems -needful to point out that neither the Germans nor even Professor Boas -seems to realize how little definite merit his poetry has. He is -important, not in himself, but as a pioneer. The influence of Kyd is -marked on all the immediate predecessors of Shakespeare, and the bold -way in which scenes of violent crime were treated on the Elizabethan -stage appears to be directly owing to the example of Kyd's innovating -genius. His relation to _Hamlet_ has already been noted, and _Titus -Andronicus_ presents and exaggerates so many of his characteristics that -Mr Sidney Lee and others have supposed that tragedy to be a work of -Kyd's touched up by Shakespeare. Professor Boas, however, brings cogent -objections against this theory, founding them on what he considers the -imitative inferiority of _Titus Andronicus_ to _The Spanish Tragedy_. -The German critics have pushed too far their attempt to find indications -of Kyd's influence on later plays of Shakespeare. The extraordinary -interest felt for Kyd in Germany is explained by the fact that _The -Spanish Tragedy_ was long the best known of all Elizabethan plays -abroad. It was acted at Frankfort in 1601, and published soon afterwards -at Nuremberg. It continued to be a stock piece in Germany until the -beginning of the 18th century; it was equally popular in Holland, and -potent in its effect upon Dutch dramatic literature. - - Kyd's works were first collected and his life written by Professor F. - S. Boas in 1901. Of modern editions of _The Spanish Tragedy_ may be - mentioned that by Professor J. M. Manly in _Specimens of the - Pre-Shakespearean Drama_, vol. ii. (Boston, 1897), and by J. Schick in - the _Temple Dramatists_ (1898). See also _Cornelia_ (ed. H. Gassner, - 1894); C. Markscheffel, _T. Kyd's Tragodien_ (1885); Gregor Sarrazin, - Thomas Kyd und sein Kreis (1892); G. O. Fleischer, "Bemerkungen uber - Thomas Kyd's Spanish Tragedy" (_Jahresbericht der Drei-Konigschule zu - Dresden-Neustadt_ (1896); J. Schick, "T. Kyd's Spanish Tragedy" - (_Literarhistorische Forschungen_, vol. 19, 1901); and R. Koppel, in - Prolss, _Altengl. Theater_ (vol. i., 1904). (E. G.) - - - - -KYFFHAUSER, a double line of hills in Thuringia, Germany. The northern -part looks steeply down upon the valley of the Goldene Aue, and is -crowned by two ruined castles, Rothenburg (1440 ft.) on the west, and -Kyffhausen (1542 ft.) on the east. The latter, built probably in the -10th century, was frequently the residence of the Hohenstaufen emperors, -and was finally destroyed in the 16th century. The existing ruins are -those of the Oberburg with its tower, and of the Unterburg with its -chapel. The hill is surmounted by an imposing monument to the emperor -William I., the equestrian statue of the emperor being 31 ft. high and -the height of the whole 210 ft. This was erected in 1896. According to -an old and popular legend, the emperor Frederick Barbarossa sits asleep -beside a marble table in the interior of the mountain, surrounded by his -knights, awaiting the destined day when he shall awaken and lead the -united peoples of Germany against her enemies, and so inaugurate an era -of unexampled glory. But G. Vogt has advanced cogent reasons (see _Hist. -Zeitschrift_, xxvi. 131-187) for believing that the real hero of the -legend is the other great Hohenstaufen emperor, Frederick II., not -Frederick I. Around him gradually crystallized the hopes of the German -peoples, and to him they looked for help in the hour of their sorest -need. But this is not the only legend of a slumbering future deliverer -which lives on in Germany. Similar hopes cling to the memory of -Charlemagne, sleeping in a hill near Paderborn; to that of the Saxon -hero Widukind, in a hill in Westphalia; to Siegfried, in the hill of -Geroldseck; and to Henry I., in a hill near Goslar. - - See Richter, _Das deutsche Kyffhausergebirge_ (Eisleben, 1876); - Lemcke, _Der deutsche Kaisertraum und der Kyffhauser_ (Magdeburg, - 1887); and _Fuhrer durch das Kyffhausergebirge_ (Sangerhausen, 1891); - Baltzer, _Das Kyffhausergebirge_ (Rudolstadt, 1882); A. Fulda, _Die - Kyffhausersage_ (Sangerhausen, 1889); and Anemuller, _Kyffhauser und - Rothenburg_ (Detmold, 1892). - - - - -KYNASTON, EDWARD (c. 1640-1706), English actor, was born in London and -first appeared in Rhodes's company, having been, like Betterton, a clerk -in Rhodes's book-shop before he set up a company in the Cockpit in Drury -Lane. Kynaston was probably the last and certainly the best of the male -actors of female parts, for which his personal beauty admirably fitted -him. His last female part was Evadne in _The Maid's Tragedy_ in 1661 -with Killigrew's company. In 1665 he was playing important male parts at -Covent Garden. He joined Betterton at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1695, -after which he received less important roles, retiring in 1699. He died -in 1706, and was buried on the 18th of January. - - - - -KYNETON, a town of Dalhousie county, Victoria, Australia, on the river -Campaspe, 56 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 3274. It is -the centre of a prosperous agricultural and pastoral district. Important -stock sales and an annual exhibition of stock are held. There are, -moreover, some rich gold quartz reefs in the neighbourhood. Kyneton lies -at an elevation of 1687 ft., and the scenery of the district, which -includes some beautiful waterfalls, attracts visitors in summer. - - - - -KYOSAI, SHO-FU (1831-1889), Japanese painter, was born at Koga in the -province of Shimotsuke, Japan, in 1831. After working for a short time, -as a boy, with Kuniyoshi, he received his artistic training in the -studio of Kano Dohaku, but soon abandoned the formal traditions of his -master for the greater freedom of the popular school. During the -political ferment which produced and followed the revolution of 1867, -Kyosai attained a considerable reputation as a caricaturist. He was -three times arrested and imprisoned by the authorities of the shogunate. -Soon after the assumption of effective power by the mikado, a great -congress of painters and men of letters was held, at which Kyosai was -present. He again expressed his opinion of the new movement in a -caricature, which had a great popular success, but also brought him into -the hands of the police--this time of the opposite party. Kyosai must be -considered the greatest successor of Hokusai (of whom, however, he was -not a pupil), and as the first political caricaturist of Japan. His -work--like his life--is somewhat wild and undisciplined, and -"occasionally smacks of the _sake_ cup." But if he did not possess -Hokusai's dignity, power and reticence, he substituted an exuberant -fancy, which always lends interest to draughtsmanship of very great -technical excellence. In addition to his caricatures, Kyosai painted a -large number of pictures and sketches, often choosing subjects from the -folk-lore of his country. A fine collection of these works is preserved -in the British Museum; and there are also good examples in the National -Art Library at South Kensington, and the Musee Guimet at Paris. Among -his illustrated books may be mentioned _Yehon Taka-kagami_, -Illustrations of Hawks (5 vols., 1870, &c.); _Kyosai Gwafu_ (1880); -_Kyosai Dongwa_; _Kyosai Raku-gwa_; _Kyosai Riaku-gwa_; _Kyosai Mangwa_ -(1881); _Kyosai Suigwa_ (1882); and _Kyosai Gwaden_ (1887). The latter -is illustrated by him under the name of Kawanabe Toyoku, and two of its -four volumes are devoted to an account of his own art and life. He died -in 1889. - - See Guimet (E.) and Regamey (F.), _Promenades japonaises_ (Paris, - 1880); Anderson (W.), _Catalogue of Japanese Painting in the British - Museum_ (London, 1886); Mortimer Menpes, "A Personal View of Japanese - Art: A Lesson from Kyosai," _Magazine of Art_ (1888). (E. F. S.) - - - - -KYRIE (in full _kyrie eleison_, or _eleeson_, Gr. [Greek: kyrie -eleeson]; cf. Ps. cxxii. 3, Matt. XV. 22, &c., meaning "Lord, have -mercy"), the words of petition used at the beginning of the Mass and in -other offices of the Eastern and Roman Churches. In the Anglican Book of -Common Prayer the Kyrie is introduced into the orders for Morning and -Evening Prayer, and also, with an additional petition, as a response -made by the congregation after the reading of each of the Ten -Commandments at the opening of the Communion Service. These responses -are usually sung, and the name Kyrie is thus also applied to their -musical setting. In the Lutheran Church the Kyrie is still said or sung -in the original Greek. "Kyrielle," a shortened form of _Kyrie eleison_, -is applied to eight-syllabled four-line verses, the last line in each -verse being repeated as a refrain. - - - - -KYRLE, JOHN (1637-1724), "the Man of Ross," English philanthropist, was -born in the parish of Dymock, Gloucestershire, on the 22nd of May 1637. -His father was a barrister and M.P., and the family had lived at Ross, -in Herefordshire, for many generations. He was educated at Balliol -College, Oxford, and having succeeded to the property at Ross took up -his abode there. In everything that concerned the welfare of the little -town in which he lived he took a lively interest--in the education of -the children, the distribution of alms, in improving and embellishing -the town. He delighted in mediating between those who had quarrelled and -in preventing lawsuits. He was generous to the poor and spent all he had -in good works. He lived a great deal in the open air working with the -labourers on his farm. He died on the 7th of November 1724, and was -buried in the chancel of Ross Church. His memory is preserved by the -Kyrie Society, founded in 1877, to better the lot of working people, by -laying out parks, encouraging house decoration, window gardening and -flower growing. Ross was eulogized by Pope in the third _Moral Epistle_ -(1732), and by Coleridge in an early poem (1794). - - - - -KYSHTYM, a town of Russia, in the government of Perm, 56 m. by rail N.N.W. -of Chelyabinsk, on a river of the same name which connects two lakes. Pop. -(1897), 12,331. The official name is Verkhne-Kyshtymskiy-Zavod, or Upper -Kyshtym Works, to distinguish it from the Lower (Nizhne) Kyshtym Works, -situated two miles lower down the same river. - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 15, Slice 8, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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