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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Side-lights on Astronomy and Kindred Fields of Popular Science + +Author: Simon Newcomb + +Posting Date: June 13, 2009 [EBook #4065] +Release Date: May, 2003 +First Posted: October 30, 2001 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIDE-LIGHTS ON ASTRONOMY *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Franks, Robert Rowe and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. HTML version by Al Haines. + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<BR><BR> + +<H1 ALIGN="center"> +SIDE-LIGHTS ON ASTRONOMY +</H1> + +<H2 ALIGN="center"> +AND KINDRED FIELDS OF POPULAR SCIENCE +</H2> + +<BR> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES +</H3> + +<BR> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +BY +</H3> + +<H2 ALIGN="center"> +SIMON NEWCOMB +</H2> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<H2 ALIGN="center"> +CONTENTS +</H2> + +<TABLE ALIGN="center" WIDTH="80%"> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top"> </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#preface">PREFACE</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">I. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap01">THE UNSOLVED PROBLEMS OF ASTRONOMY</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">II. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap02">THE NEW PROBLEMS OF THE UNIVERSE</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">III. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap03">THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">IV. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap04">THE EXTENT OF THE UNIVERSE</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">V. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap05">MAKING AND USING A TELESCOPE</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">VI. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap06">WHAT THE ASTRONOMERS ARE DOING</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">VII. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap07">LIFE IN THE UNIVERSE</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">VIII. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap08">HOW THE PLANETS ARE WEIGHED</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">IX. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap09">THE MARINER'S COMPASS</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">X. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap10">THE FAIRYLAND OF GEOMETRY</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XI. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap11">THE ORGANIZATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XII. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap12">CAN WE MAKE IT RAIN?</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XIII. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap13">THE ASTRONOMICAL EPHEMERIS AND NAUTICAL ALMANAC</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XIV. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap14">THE WORLD'S DEBT TO ASTRONOMY</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XV. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap15">AN ASTRONOMICAL FRIENDSHIP</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XVI. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap16">THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATOR</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XVII. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap17">THE EVOLUTION OF ASTRONOMICAL KNOWLEDGE</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XVIII. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap18">ASPECTS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XIX. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap19">THE UNIVERSE AS AN ORGANISM</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XX. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap20">THE RELATION OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD TO SOCIAL PROGRESS</A></TD> +</TR> + +<TR> +<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XXI. </TD> +<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top"> +<A HREF="#chap21">THE OUTLOOK FOR THE FLYING-MACHINE</A></TD> +</TR> + +</TABLE> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<H2 ALIGN="center"> +ILLUSTRATIONS +</H2> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +SIMON NEWCOMB +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +PHOTOGRAPH OF THE CORONA OF THE SUN, TAKEN IN TRIPOLI DURING TOTAL +ECLIPSE OF AUGUST 30, 1905. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +A TYPICAL STAR CLUSTER-CENTAURI +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +THE GLASS DISK +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +THE OPTICIAN'S TOOL +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +THE OPTICIAN'S TOOL +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +GRINDING A LARGE LENS +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +IMAGE OF CANDLE-FLAME IN OBJECT-GLASS +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +TESTING ADJUSTMENT OF OBJECT-GLASS +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +A VERY PRIMITIVE MOUNTING FOR A TELESCOPE +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +THE HUYGHENIAN EYE-PIECE +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +SECTION OF THE PRIMITIVE MOUNTING +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +SPECTRAL IMAGES OF STARS, THE UPPER LINE SHOWING HOW THEY APPEAR WITH +THE EYE-PIECE PUSHED IN, THE LOWER WITH THE EYE-PIECE DRAWN OUT +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +THE GREAT REFRACTOR OF THE NATIONAL OBSERVATORY AT WASHINGTON +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +THE "BROKEN-BACKED COMET-SEEKER" +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +NEBULA IN ORION +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +DIP OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN VARIOUS LATITUDES +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +STAR SPECTRA +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +PROFESSOR LANGLEY'S AIR-SHIP +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="preface"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +PREFACE +</H3> + +<P> +In preparing and issuing this collection of essays and addresses, the +author has yielded to what he could not but regard as the too +flattering judgment of the publishers. Having done this, it became +incumbent to do what he could to justify their good opinion by revising +the material and bringing it up to date. Interest rather than unity of +thought has determined the selection. +</P> + +<P> +A prominent theme in the collection is that of the structure, extent, +and duration of the universe. Here some repetition of ideas was found +unavoidable, in a case where what is substantially a single theme has +been treated in the various forms which it assumed in the light of +constantly growing knowledge. If the critical reader finds this a +defect, the author can plead in extenuation only the difficulty of +avoiding it under the circumstances. Although mainly astronomical, a +number of discussions relating to general scientific subjects have been +included. +</P> + +<P> +Acknowledgment is due to the proprietors of the various periodicals +from the pages of which most of the essays have been taken. Besides +Harper's Magazine and the North American Review, these include +McClure's Magazine, from which were taken the articles "The Unsolved +Problems of Astronomy" and "How the Planets are Weighed." "The +Structure of the Universe" appeared in the International Monthly, now +the International Quarterly; "The Outlook for the Flying-Machine" is +mainly from The New York Independent, but in part from McClure's +Magazine; "The World's Debt to Astronomy" is from The Chautauquan; and +"An Astronomical Friendship" from the Atlantic Monthly. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +SIMON NEWCOMB. WASHINGTON, JUNE, 1906. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap01"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +I +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE UNSOLVED PROBLEMS OF ASTRONOMY +</H3> + +<P> +The reader already knows what the solar system is: an immense central +body, the sun, with a number of planets revolving round it at various +distances. On one of these planets we dwell. Vast, indeed, are the +distances of the planets when measured by our terrestrial standards. A +cannon-ball fired from the earth to celebrate the signing of the +Declaration of Independence, and continuing its course ever since with +a velocity of eighteen hundred feet per second, would not yet be +half-way to the orbit of Neptune, the outer planet. And yet the +thousands of stars which stud the heavens are at distances so much +greater than that of Neptune that our solar system is like a little +colony, separated from the rest of the universe by an ocean of void +space almost immeasurable in extent. The orbit of the earth round the +sun is of such size that a railway train running sixty miles an hour, +with never a stop, would take about three hundred and fifty years to +cross it. Represent this orbit by a lady's finger-ring. Then the +nearest fixed star will be about a mile and a half away; the next more +than two miles; a few more from three to twenty miles; the great body +at scores or hundreds of miles. Imagine the stars thus scattered from +the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and keep this little finger-ring in +mind as the orbit of the earth, and one may have some idea of the +extent of the universe. +</P> + +<P> +One of the most beautiful stars in the heavens, and one that can be +seen most of the year, is a Lyrae, or Alpha of the Lyre, known also as +Vega. In a spring evening it may be seen in the northeast, in the later +summer near the zenith, in the autumn in the northwest. On the scale we +have laid down with the earth's orbit as a finger-ring, its distance +would be some eight or ten miles. The small stars around it in the same +constellation are probably ten, twenty, or fifty times as far. +</P> + +<P> +Now, the greatest fact which modern science has brought to light is +that our whole solar system, including the sun, with all its planets, +is on a journey towards the constellation Lyra. During our whole lives, +in all probability during the whole of human history, we have been +flying unceasingly towards this beautiful constellation with a speed to +which no motion on earth can compare. The speed has recently been +determined with a fair degree of certainty, though not with entire +exactness; it is about ten miles a second, and therefore not far from +three hundred millions of miles a year. But whatever it may be, it is +unceasing and unchanging; for us mortals eternal. We are nearer the +constellation by five or six hundred miles every minute we live; we are +nearer to it now than we were ten years ago by thousands of millions of +miles, and every future generation of our race will be nearer than its +predecessor by thousands of millions of miles. +</P> + +<P> +When, where, and how, if ever, did this journey begin—when, where, and +how, if ever, will it end? This is the greatest of the unsolved +problems of astronomy. An astronomer who should watch the heavens for +ten thousand years might gather some faint suggestion of an answer, or +he might not. All we can do is to seek for some hints by study and +comparison with other stars. +</P> + +<P> +The stars are suns. To put it in another way, the sun is one of the +stars, and rather a small one at that. If the sun is moving in the way +I have described, may not the stars also be in motion, each on a +journey of its own through the wilderness of space? To this question +astronomy gives an affirmative answer. Most of the stars nearest to us +are found to be in motion, some faster than the sun, some more slowly, +and the same is doubtless true of all; only the century of accurate +observations at our disposal does not show the motion of the distant +ones. A given motion seems slower the more distant the moving body; we +have to watch a steamship on the horizon some little time to see that +she moves at all. Thus it is that the unsolved problem of the motion of +our sun is only one branch of a yet more stupendous one: What mean the +motions of the stars—how did they begin, and how, if ever, will they +end? So far as we can yet see, each star is going straight ahead on its +own journey, without regard to its neighbors, if other stars can be so +called. Is each describing some vast orbit which, though looking like a +straight line during the short period of our observation, will really +be seen to curve after ten thousand or a hundred thousand years, or +will it go straight on forever? If the laws of motion are true for all +space and all time, as we are forced to believe, then each moving star +will go on in an unbending line forever unless hindered by the +attraction of other stars. If they go on thus, they must, after +countless years, scatter in all directions, so that the inhabitants of +each shall see only a black, starless sky. +</P> + +<P> +Mathematical science can throw only a few glimmers of light on the +questions thus suggested. From what little we know of the masses, +distances, and numbers of the stars we see a possibility that the more +slow-moving ones may, in long ages, be stopped in their onward courses +or brought into orbits of some sort by the attraction of their millions +of fellows. But it is hard to admit even this possibility in the case +of the swift-moving ones. Attraction, varying as the inverse square of +the distance, diminishes so rapidly as the distance increases that, at +the distances which separate the stars, it is small indeed. We could +not, with the most delicate balance that science has yet invented, even +show the attraction of the greatest known star. So far as we know, the +two swiftest-moving stars are, first, Arcturus, and, second, one known +in astronomy as 1830 Groombridge, the latter so called because it was +first observed by the astronomer Groombridge, and is numbered 1830 in +his catalogue of stars. If our determinations of the distances of these +bodies are to be relied on, the velocity of their motion cannot be much +less than two hundred miles a second. They would make the circuit of +the earth every two or three minutes. A body massive enough to control +this motion would throw a large part of the universe into disorder. +Thus the problem where these stars came from and where they are going +is for us insoluble, and is all the more so from the fact that the +swiftly moving stars are moving in different directions and seem to +have no connection with each other or with any known star. +</P> + +<P> +It must not be supposed that these enormous velocities seem so to us. +Not one of them, even the greatest, would be visible to the naked eye +until after years of watching. On our finger-ring scale, 1830 +Groombridge would be some ten miles and Arcturus thirty or forty miles +away. Either of them would be moving only two or three feet in a year. +To the oldest Assyrian priests Lyra looked much as it does to us +to-day. Among the bright and well-known stars Arcturus has the most +rapid apparent motion, yet Job himself would not to-day see that its +position had changed, unless he had noted it with more exactness than +any astronomer of his time. +</P> + +<P> +Another unsolved problem among the greatest which present themselves to +the astronomer is that of the size of the universe of stars. We know +that several thousand of these bodies are visible to the naked eye; +moderate telescopes show us millions; our giant telescopes of the +present time, when used as cameras to photograph the heavens, show a +number past count, perhaps one hundred millions. Are all these stars +only those few which happen to be near us in a universe extending out +without end, or do they form a collection of stars outside of which is +empty infinite space? In other words, has the universe a boundary? +Taken in its widest scope this question must always remain unanswered +by us mortals because, even if we should discover a boundary within +which all the stars and clusters we ever can know are contained, and +outside of which is empty space, still we could never prove that this +space is empty out to an infinite distance. Far outside of what we call +the universe might still exist other universes which we can never see. +</P> + +<P> +It is a great encouragement to the astronomer that, although he cannot +yet set any exact boundary to this universe of ours, he is gathering +faint indications that it has a boundary, which his successors not many +generations hence may locate so that the astronomer shall include +creation itself within his mental grasp. It can be shown mathematically +that an infinitely extended system of stars would fill the heavens with +a blaze of light like that of the noonday sun. As no such effect is +produced, it may be concluded that the universe has a boundary. But +this does not enable us to locate the boundary, nor to say how many +stars may lie outside the farthest stretches of telescopic vision. Yet +by patient research we are slowly throwing light on these points and +reaching inferences which, not many years ago, would have seemed +forever beyond our powers. +</P> + +<P> +Every one now knows that the Milky Way, that girdle of light which +spans the evening sky, is formed of clouds of stars too minute to be +seen by the unaided vision. It seems to form the base on which the +universe is built and to bind all the stars into a system. It comprises +by far the larger number of stars that the telescope has shown to +exist. Those we see with the naked eye are almost equally scattered +over the sky. But the number which the telescope shows us become more +and more condensed in the Milky Way as telescope power is increased. +The number of new stars brought out with our greatest power is vastly +greater in the Milky Way than in the rest of the sky, so that the +former contains a great majority of the stars. What is yet more +curious, spectroscopic research has shown that a particular kind of +stars, those formed of heated gas, are yet more condensed in the +central circle of this band; if they were visible to the naked eye, we +should see them encircling the heavens as a narrow girdle forming +perhaps the base of our whole system of stars. This arrangement of the +gaseous or vaporous stars is one of the most singular facts that modern +research has brought to light. It seems to show that these particular +stars form a system of their own; but how such a thing can be we are +still unable to see. +</P> + +<P> +The question of the form and extent of the Milky Way thus becomes the +central one of stellar astronomy. Sir William Herschel began by trying +to sound its depths; at one time he thought he had succeeded; but +before he died he saw that they were unfathomable with his most +powerful telescopes. Even today he would be a bold astronomer who would +profess to say with certainty whether the smallest stars we can +photograph are at the boundary of the system. Before we decide this +point we must have some idea of the form and distance of the cloudlike +masses of stars which form our great celestial girdle. A most curious +fact is that our solar system seems to be in the centre of this +galactic universe, because the Milky Way divides the heavens into two +equal parts, and seems equally broad at all points. Were we looking at +such a girdle as this from one side or the other, this appearance would +not be presented. But let us not be too bold. Perhaps we are the +victims of some fallacy, as Ptolemy was when he proved, by what looked +like sound reasoning, based on undeniable facts, that this earth of +ours stood at rest in the centre of the heavens! +</P> + +<P> +A related problem, and one which may be of supreme importance to the +future of our race, is, What is the source of the heat radiated by the +sun and stars? We know that life on the earth is dependent on the heat +which the sun sends it. If we were deprived of this heat we should in a +few days be enveloped in a frost which would destroy nearly all +vegetation, and in a few months neither man nor animal would be alive, +unless crouching over fires soon to expire for want of fuel. We also +know that, at a time which is geologically recent, the whole of New +England was covered with a sheet of ice, hundreds or even thousands of +feet thick, above which no mountain but Washington raised its head. It +is quite possible that a small diminution in the supply of heat sent us +by the sun would gradually reproduce the great glacier, and once more +make the Eastern States like the pole. But the fact is that +observations of temperature in various countries for the last two or +three hundred years do not show any change in climate which can be +attributed to a variation in the amount of heat received from the sun. +</P> + +<P> +The acceptance of this theory of the heat of those heavenly bodies +which shine by their own light—sun, stars, and nebulae—still leaves +open a problem that looks insoluble with our present knowledge. What +becomes of the great flood of heat and light which the sun and stars +radiate into empty space with a velocity of one hundred and eighty +thousand miles a second? Only a very small fraction of it can be +received by the planets or by other stars, because these are mere +points compared with their distance from us. Taking the teaching of our +science just as it stands, we should say that all this heat continues +to move on through infinite space forever. In a few thousand years it +reaches the probable confines of our great universe. But we know of no +reason why it should stop here. During the hundreds of millions of +years since all our stars began to shine, has the first ray of light +and heat kept on through space at the rate of one hundred and eighty +thousand miles a second, and will it continue to go on for ages to +come? If so, think of its distance now, and think of its still going +on, to be forever wasted! Rather say that the problem, What becomes of +it? is as yet unsolved. +</P> + +<P> +Thus far I have described the greatest of problems; those which we may +suppose to concern the inhabitants of millions of worlds revolving +round the stars as much as they concern us. Let us now come down from +the starry heights to this little colony where we live, the solar +system. Here we have the great advantage of being better able to see +what is going on, owing to the comparative nearness of the planets. +When we learn that these bodies are like our earth in form, size, and +motions, the first question we ask is, Could we fly from planet to +planet and light on the surface of each, what sort of scenery would +meet our eyes? Mountain, forest, and field, a dreary waste, or a +seething caldron larger than our earth? If solid land there is, would +we find on it the homes of intelligent beings, the lairs of wild +beasts, or no living thing at all? Could we breathe the air, would we +choke for breath or be poisoned by the fumes of some noxious gas? +</P> + +<P> +To most of these questions science cannot as yet give a positive +answer, except in the case of the moon. Our satellite is so near us +that we can see it has no atmosphere and no water, and therefore cannot +be the abode of life like ours. The contrast of its eternal deadness +with the active life around us is great indeed. Here we have weather of +so many kinds that we never tire of talking about it. But on the moon +there is no weather at all. On our globe so many things are constantly +happening that our thousands of daily journals cannot begin to record +them. But on the dreary, rocky wastes of the moon nothing ever happens. +So far as we can determine, every stone that lies loose on its surface +has lain there through untold ages, unchanged and unmoved. +</P> + +<P> +We cannot speak so confidently of the planets. The most powerful +telescopes yet made, the most powerful we can ever hope to make, would +scarcely shows us mountains, or lakes, rivers, or fields at a distance +of fifty millions of miles. Much less would they show us any works of +man. Pointed at the two nearest planets, Venus and Mars, they whet our +curiosity more than they gratify it. Especially is this the case with +Venus. Ever since the telescope was invented observers have tried to +find the time of rotation of this planet on its axis. Some have reached +one conclusion, some another, while the wisest have only doubted. The +great Herschel claimed that the planet was so enveloped in vapor or +clouds that no permanent features could be seen on its surface. The +best equipped recent observers think they see faint, shadowy patches, +which remain the same from day to day, and which show that the planet +always presents the same face to the sun, as the moon does to the +earth. Others do not accept this conclusion as proved, believing that +these patches may be nothing more than variations of light, shade, and +color caused by the reflection of the sun's light at various angles +from different parts of the planet. +</P> + +<P> +There is also some mystery about the atmosphere of this planet. When +Venus passes nearly between us and the sun, her dark hemisphere is +turned towards us, her bright one being always towards the sun. But she +is not exactly on a line with the sun except on the very rare occasions +of a transit across the sun's disk. Hence, on ordinary occasions, when +she seems very near on a line with the sun, we see a very small part of +the illuminated hemisphere, which now presents the form of a very thin +crescent like the new moon. And this crescent is supposed to be a +little broader than it would be if only half the planet were +illuminated, and to encircle rather more than half the planet. Now, +this is just the effect that would be produced by an atmosphere +refracting the sun's light around the edge of the illuminated +hemisphere. +</P> + +<P> +The difficulty of observations of this kind is such that the conclusion +may be open to doubt. What is seen during transits of Venus over the +sun's disk leads to more certain, but yet very puzzling, conclusions. +The writer will describe what he saw at the Cape of Good Hope during +the transit of December 5, 1882. As the dark planet impinged on the +bright sun, it of course cut out a round notch from the edge of the +sun. At first, when this notch was small, nothing could be seen of the +outline of that part of the planet which was outside the sun. But when +half the planet was on the sun, the outline of the part still off the +sun was marked by a slender arc of light. A curious fact was that this +arc did not at first span the whole outline of the planet, but only +showed at one or two points. In a few moments another part of the +outline appeared, and then another, until, at last, the arc of light +extended around the complete outline. All this seems to show that while +the planet has an atmosphere, it is not transparent like ours, but is +so filled with mist and clouds that the sun is seen through it only as +if shining in a fog. +</P> + +<P> +Not many years ago the planet Mars, which is the next one outside of +us, was supposed to have a surface like that of our earth. Some parts +were of a dark greenish gray hue; these were supposed to be seas and +oceans. Other parts had a bright, warm tint; these were supposed to be +the continents. During the last twenty years much has been learned as +to how this planet looks, and the details of its surface have been +mapped by several observers, using the best telescopes under the most +favorable conditions of air and climate. And yet it must be confessed +that the result of this labor is not altogether satisfactory. It seems +certain that the so-called seas are really land and not water. When it +comes to comparing Mars with the earth, we cannot be certain of more +than a single point of resemblance. This is that during the Martian +winter a white cap, as of snow, is formed over the pole, which +partially melts away during the summer. The conclusion that there are +oceans whose evaporation forms clouds which give rise to this snow +seems plausible. But the telescope shows no clouds, and nothing to make +it certain that there is an atmosphere to sustain them. There is no +certainty that the white deposit is what we call snow; perhaps it is +not formed of water at all. The most careful studies of the surface of +this planet, under the best conditions, are those made at the Lowell +Observatory at Flagstaff, Arizona. Especially wonderful is the system +of so-called canals, first seen by Schiaparelli, but mapped in great +detail at Flagstaff. But the nature and meaning of these mysterious +lines are still to be discovered. The result is that the question of +the real nature of the surface of Mars and of what we should see around +us could we land upon it and travel over it are still among the +unsolved problems of astronomy. +</P> + +<P> +If this is the case with the nearest planets that we can study, how is +it with more distant ones? Jupiter is the only one of these of the +condition of whose surface we can claim to have definite knowledge. But +even this knowledge is meagre. The substance of what we know is that +its surface is surrounded by layers of what look like dense clouds, +through which nothing can certainly be seen. +</P> + +<P> +I have already spoken of the heat of the sun and its probable origin. +But the question of its heat, though the most important, is not the +only one that the sun offers us. What is the sun? When we say that it +is a very hot globe, more than a million times as large as the earth, +and hotter than any furnace that man can make, so that literally "the +elements melt with fervent heat" even at its surface, while inside they +are all vaporized, we have told the most that we know as to what the +sun really is. Of course we know a great deal about the spots, the +rotation of the sun on its axis, the materials of which it is composed, +and how its surroundings look during a total eclipse. But all this does +not answer our question. There are several mysteries which ingenious +men have tried to explain, but they cannot prove their explanations to +be correct. One is the cause and nature of the spots. Another is that +the shining surface of the sun, the "photosphere," as it is technically +called, seems so calm and quiet while forces are acting within it of a +magnitude quite beyond our conception. Flames in which our earth and +everything on it would be engulfed like a boy's marble in a +blacksmith's forge are continually shooting up to a height of tens of +thousands of miles. One would suppose that internal forces capable of +doing this would break the surface up into billows of fire a thousand +miles high; but we see nothing of the kind. The surface of the sun +seems almost as placid as a lake. +</P> + +<P> +Yet another mystery is the corona of the sun. This is something we +should never have known to exist if the sun were not sometimes totally +eclipsed by the dark body of the moon. On these rare occasions the sun +is seen to be surrounded by a halo of soft, white light, sending out +rays in various directions to great distances. This halo is called the +corona, and has been most industriously studied and photographed during +nearly every total eclipse for thirty years. Thus we have learned much +about how it looks and what its shape is. It has a fibrous, woolly +structure, a little like the loose end of a much-worn hempen rope. A +certain resemblance has been seen between the form of these seeming +fibres and that of the lines in which iron filings arrange themselves +when sprinkled on paper over a magnet. It has hence been inferred that +the sun has magnetic properties, a conclusion which, in a general way, +is supported by many other facts. Yet the corona itself remains no less +an unexplained phenomenon. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: PHOTOGRAPH OF THE CORONA OF THE SUN, TAKEN +IN TRIPOLI DURING TOTAL ECLIPSE OF AUGUST 30, 1905] +</P> + +<P> +A phenomenon almost as mysterious as the solar corona is the "zodiacal +light," which any one can see rising from the western horizon just +after the end of twilight on a clear winter or spring evening. The most +plausible explanation is that it is due to a cloud of small meteoric +bodies revolving round the sun. We should hardly doubt this explanation +were it not that this light has a yet more mysterious appendage, +commonly called the Gegenschein, or counter-glow. This is a patch of +light in the sky in a direction exactly opposite that of the sun. It is +so faint that it can be seen only by a practised eye under the most +favorable conditions. But it is always there. The latest suggestion is +that it is a tail of the earth, of the same kind as the tail of a comet! +</P> + +<P> +We know that the motions of the heavenly bodies are predicted with +extraordinary exactness by the theory of gravitation. When one finds +that the exact path of the moon's shadow on the earth during a total +eclipse of the sun can be mapped out many years in advance, and that +the planets follow the predictions of the astronomer so closely that, +if you could see the predicted planet as a separate object, it would +look, even in a good telescope, as if it exactly fitted over the real +planet, one thinks that here at least is a branch of astronomy which is +simply perfect. And yet the worlds themselves show slight deviations in +their movements which the astronomer cannot always explain, and which +may be due to some hidden cause that, when brought to light, shall lead +to conclusions of the greatest importance to our race. +</P> + +<P> +One of these deviations is in the rotation of the earth. Sometimes, for +several years at a time, it seems to revolve a little faster, and then +again a little slower. The changes are very slight; they can be +detected only by the most laborious and refined methods; yet they must +have a cause, and we should like to know what that cause is. +</P> + +<P> +The moon shows a similar irregularity of motion. For half a century, +perhaps through a whole century, she will go around the earth a little +ahead of her regular rate, and then for another half-century or more +she will fall behind. The changes are very small; they would never have +been seen with the unaided eye, yet they exist. What is their cause? +Mathematicians have vainly spent years of study in trying to answer +this question. +</P> + +<P> +The orbit of Mercury is found by observations to have a slight motion +which mathematicians have vainly tried to explain. For some time it was +supposed to be caused by the attraction of an unknown planet between +Mercury and the sun, and some were so sure of the existence of this +planet that they gave it a name, calling it Vulcan. But of late years +it has become reasonably certain that no planet large enough to produce +the effect observed can be there. So thoroughly has every possible +explanation been sifted out and found wanting, that some astronomers +are now inquiring whether the law of gravitation itself may not be a +little different from what has always been supposed. A very slight +deviation, indeed, would account for the facts, but cautious +astronomers want other proofs before regarding the deviation of +gravitation as an established fact. +</P> + +<P> +Intelligent men have sometimes inquired how, after devoting so much +work to the study of the heavens, anything can remain for astronomers +to find out. It is a curious fact that, although they were never +learning so fast as at the present day, yet there seems to be more to +learn now than there ever was before. Great and numerous as are the +unsolved problems of our science, knowledge is now advancing into +regions which, a few years ago, seemed inaccessible. Where it will stop +none can say. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap02"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +II +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE NEW PROBLEMS OF THE UNIVERSE +</H3> + +<P> +The achievements of the nineteenth century are still a theme of +congratulation on the part of all who compare the present state of the +world with that of one hundred years ago. And yet, if we should fancy +the most sagacious prophet, endowed with a brilliant imagination, to +have set forth in the year 1806 the problems that the century might +solve and the things which it might do, we should be surprised to see +how few of his predictions had come to pass. He might have fancied +aerial navigation and a number of other triumphs of the same class, but +he would hardly have had either steam navigation or the telegraph in +his picture. In 1856 an article appeared in Harper's Magazine depicting +some anticipated features of life in A.D. 3000. We have since made +great advances, but they bear little resemblance to what the writer +imagined. He did not dream of the telephone, but did describe much that +has not yet come to pass and probably never will. +</P> + +<P> +The fact is that, much as the nineteenth century has done, its last +work was to amuse itself by setting forth more problems for this +century to solve than it has ever itself succeeded in mastering. We +should not be far wrong in saying that to-day there are more riddles in +the universe than there were before men knew that it contained anything +more than the objects they could see. +</P> + +<P> +So far as mere material progress is concerned, it may be doubtful +whether anything so epoch-making as the steam-engine or the telegraph +is held in store for us by the future. But in the field of purely +scientific discovery we are finding a crowd of things of which our +philosophy did not dream even ten years ago. +</P> + +<P> +The greatest riddles which the nineteenth century has bequeathed to us +relate to subjects so widely separated as the structure of the universe +and the structure of atoms of matter. We see more and more of these +structures, and we see more and more of unity everywhere, and yet new +facts difficult of explanation are being added more rapidly than old +facts are being explained. +</P> + +<P> +We all know that the nineteenth century was marked by a separation of +the sciences into a vast number of specialties, to the subdivisions of +which one could see no end. But the great work of the twentieth century +will be to combine many of these specialties. The physical philosopher +of the present time is directing his thought to the demonstration of +the unity of creation. Astronomical and physical researches are now +being united in a way which is bringing the infinitely great and the +infinitely small into one field of knowledge. Ten years ago the atoms +of matter, of which it takes millions of millions to make a drop of +water, were the minutest objects with which science could imagine +itself to be concerned, Now a body of experimentalists, prominent among +whom stand Professors J. J. Thompson, Becquerel, and Roentgen, have +demonstrated the existence of objects so minute that they find their +way among and between the atoms of matter as rain-drops do among the +buildings of a city. More wonderful yet, it seems likely, although it +has not been demonstrated, that these little things, called +"corpuscles," play an important part in what is going on among the +stars. Whether this be true or not, it is certain that there do exist +in the universe emanations of some sort, producing visible effects, the +investigation of which the nineteenth century has had to bequeath to +the twentieth. +</P> + +<P> +For the purpose of the navigator, the direction of the magnetic needle +is invariable in any one place, for months and even years; but when +exact scientific observations on it are made, it is found subject to +numerous slight changes. The most regular of these consists in a daily +change of its direction. It moves one way from morning until noon, and +then, late in the afternoon and during the night, turns back again to +its original pointing. The laws of this change have been carefully +studied from observations, which show that it is least at the equator +and larger as we go north into middle latitudes; but no explanation of +it resting on an indisputable basis has ever been offered. +</P> + +<P> +Besides these regular changes, there are others of a very irregular +character. Every now and then the changes in the direction of the +magnet are wider and more rapid than those which occur regularly every +day. The needle may move back and forth in a way so fitful as to show +the action of some unusual exciting cause. Such movements of the needle +are commonly seen when there is a brilliant aurora. This connection +shows that a magnetic storm and an aurora must be due to the same or +some connected causes. +</P> + +<P> +Those of us who are acquainted with astronomical matters know that the +number of spots on the sun goes through a regular cycle of change, +having a period of eleven years and one or two months. Now, the curious +fact is, when the number and violence of magnetic storms are recorded +and compared, it is found that they correspond to the spots on the sun, +and go through the same period of eleven years. The conclusion seems +almost inevitable: magnetic storms are due to some emanation sent out +by the sun, which arises from the same cause that produces the spots. +This emanation does not go on incessantly, but only in an occasional +way, as storms follow each other on the earth. What is it? Every +attempt to detect it has been in vain. Professor Hale, at the Yerkes +Observatory, has had in operation from time to time, for several years, +his ingenious spectroheliograph, which photographs the sun by a single +ray of the spectrum. This instrument shows that violent actions are +going on in the sun, which ordinary observation would never lead us to +suspect. But it has failed to show with certainty any peculiar +emanation at the time of a magnetic storm or anything connected with +such a storm. +</P> + +<P> +A mystery which seems yet more impenetrable is associated with the +so-called new stars which blaze forth from time to time. These offer to +our sight the most astounding phenomena ever presented to the physical +philosopher. One hundred years ago such objects offered no mystery. +There was no reason to suppose that the Creator of the universe had +ceased His functions; and, continuing them, it was perfectly natural +that He should be making continual additions to the universe of stars. +But the idea that these objects are really new creations, made out of +nothing, is contrary to all our modern ideas and not in accord with the +observed facts. Granting the possibility of a really new star—if such +an object were created, it would be destined to take its place among +the other stars as a permanent member of the universe. Instead of this, +such objects invariably fade away after a few months, and are changed +into something very like an ordinary nebula. A question of transcendent +interest is that of the cause of these outbursts. It cannot be said +that science has, up to the present time, been able to offer any +suggestion not open to question. The most definite one is the collision +theory, according to which the outburst is due to the clashing together +of two stars, one or both of which might previously have been dark, +like a planet. The stars which may be actually photographed probably +exceed one hundred millions in number, and those which give too little +light to affect the photographic plate may be vastly more numerous than +those which do. Dark stars revolve around bright ones in an infinite +variety of ways, and complex systems of bodies, the members of which +powerfully attract each other, are the rule throughout the universe. +Moreover, we can set no limit to the possible number of dark or +invisible stars that may be flying through the celestial spaces. While, +therefore, we cannot regard the theory of collision as established, it +seems to be the only one yet put forth which can lay any claim to a +scientific basis. What gives most color to it is the extreme suddenness +with which the new stars, so far as has yet been observed, invariably +blaze forth. In almost every case it has been only two or three days +from the time that the existence of such an object became known until +it had attained nearly its full brightness. In fact, it would seem that +in the case of the star in Perseus, as in most other cases, the greater +part of the outburst took place within the space of twenty-four hours. +This suddenness and rapidity is exactly what would be the result of a +collision. +</P> + +<P> +The most inexplicable feature of all is the rapid formation of a nebula +around this star. In the first photographs of the latter, the +appearance presented is simply that of an ordinary star. But, in the +course of three or four months, the delicate photographs taken at the +Lick Observatory showed that a nebulous light surrounded the star, and +was continually growing larger and larger. At first sight, there would +seem to be nothing extraordinary in this fact. Great masses of +intensely hot vapor, shining by their own light, would naturally be +thrown out from the star. Or, if the star had originally been +surrounded by a very rare nebulous fog or vapor, the latter would be +seen by the brilliant light emitted by the star. On this was based an +explanation offered by Kapteyn, which at first seemed very plausible. +It was that the sudden wave of light thrown out by the star when it +burst forth caused the illumination of the surrounding vapor, which, +though really at rest, would seem to expand with the velocity of light, +as the illumination reached more and more distant regions of the +nebula. This result may be made the subject of exact calculation. The +velocity of light is such as would make a circuit of the earth more +than seven times in a second. It would, therefore, go out from the star +at the rate of a million of miles in between five and six seconds. In +the lapse of one of our days, the light would have filled a sphere +around the star having a diameter more than one hundred and fifty times +the distance of the sun from the earth, and more than five times the +dimensions of the whole solar system. Continuing its course and +enlarging its sphere day after day, the sight presented to us would +have been that of a gradually expanding nebulous mass—a globe of faint +light continually increasing in size with the velocity of light. +</P> + +<P> +The first sentiment the reader will feel on this subject is doubtless +one of surprise that the distance of the star should be so great as +this explanation would imply. Six months after the explosion, the globe +of light, as actually photographed, was of a size which would have been +visible to the naked eye only as a very minute object in the sky. Is it +possible that this minute object could have been thousands of times the +dimensions of our solar system? +</P> + +<P> +To see how the question stands from this point of view, we must have +some idea of the possible distance of the new star. To gain this idea, +we must find some way of estimating distances in the universe. For a +reason which will soon be apparent, we begin with the greatest +structure which nature offers to the view of man. We all know that the +Milky Way is formed of countless stars, too minute to be individually +visible to the naked eye. The more powerful the telescope through which +we sweep the heavens, the greater the number of the stars that can be +seen in it. With the powerful instruments which are now in use for +photographing the sky, the number of stars brought to light must rise +into the hundreds of millions, and the greater part of these belong to +the Milky Way. The smaller the stars we count, the greater their +comparative number in the region of the Milky Way. Of the stars visible +through the telescope, more than one-half are found in the Milky Way, +which may be regarded as a girdle spanning the entire visible universe. +</P> + +<P> +Of the diameter of this girdle we can say, almost with certainty, that +it must be more than a thousand times as great as the distance of the +nearest fixed star from us, and is probably two or three times greater. +According to the best judgment we can form, our solar system is situate +near the central region of the girdle, so that the latter must be +distant from us by half its diameter. It follows that if we can imagine +a gigantic pair of compasses, of which the points extend from us to +Alpha Centauri, the nearest star, we should have to measure out at +least five hundred spaces with the compass, and perhaps even one +thousand or more, to reach the region of the Milky Way. +</P> + +<P> +With this we have to connect another curious fact. Of eighteen new +stars which have been observed to blaze forth during the last four +hundred years, all are in the region of the Milky Way. This seems to +show that, as a rule, they belong to the Milky Way. Accepting this very +plausible conclusion, the new star in Perseus must have been more than +five hundred times as far as the nearest fixed star. We know that it +takes light four years to reach us from Alpha Centauri. It follows that +the new star was at a distance through which light would require more +than two thousand years to travel, and quite likely a time two or three +times this. It requires only the most elementary ideas of geometry to +see that if we suppose a ray of light to shoot from a star at such a +distance in a direction perpendicular to the line of sight from us to +the star, we can compute how fast the ray would seem to us to travel. +Granting the distance to be only two thousand light years, the apparent +size of the sphere around the star which the light would fill at the +end of one year after the explosion would be that of a coin seen at a +distance of two thousand times its radius, or one thousand times its +diameter—say, a five-cent piece at the distance of sixty feet. But, as +a matter of fact, the nebulous illumination expanded with a velocity +from ten to twenty times as great as this. +</P> + +<P> +The idea that the nebulosity around the new star was formed by the +illumination caused by the light of the explosion spreading out on all +sides therefore fails to satisfy us, not because the expansion of the +nebula seemed to be so slow, but because it was many times as swift as +the speed of light. Another reason for believing that it was not a mere +wave of light is offered by the fact that it did not take place +regularly in every direction from the star, but seemed to shoot off at +various angles. +</P> + +<P> +Up to the present time, the speed of light has been to science, as well +as to the intelligence of our race, almost a symbol of the greatest of +possible speeds. The more carefully we reflect on the case, the more +clearly we shall see the difficulty in supposing any agency to travel +at the rate of the seeming emanations from the new star in Perseus. +</P> + +<P> +As the emanation is seen spreading day after day, the reader may +inquire whether this is not an appearance due to some other cause than +the mere motion of light. May not an explosion taking place in the +centre of a star produce an effect which shall travel yet faster than +light? We can only reply that no such agency is known to science. +</P> + +<P> +But is there really anything intrinsically improbable in an agency +travelling with a speed many times that of light? In considering that +there is, we may fall into an error very much like that into which our +predecessors fell in thinking it entirely out of the range of +reasonable probability that the stars should be placed at such +distances as we now know them to be. +</P> + +<P> +Accepting it as a fact that agencies do exist which travel from sun to +planet and from star to star with a speed which beggars all our +previous ideas, the first question that arises is that of their nature +and mode of action. This question is, up to the present time, one which +we do not see any way of completely answering. The first difficulty is +that we have no evidence of these agents except that afforded by their +action. We see that the sun goes through a regular course of +pulsations, each requiring eleven years for completion; and we see +that, simultaneously with these, the earth's magnetism goes through a +similar course of pulsations. The connection of the two, therefore, +seems absolutely proven. But when we ask by what agency it is possible +for the sun to affect the magnetism of the earth, and when we trace the +passage of some agent between the two bodies, we find nothing to +explain the action. To all appearance, the space between the earth and +the sun is a perfect void. That electricity cannot of itself pass +through a vacuum seems to be a well-established law of physics. It is +true that electromagnetic waves, which are supposed to be of the same +nature with those of light, and which are used in wireless telegraphy, +do pass through a vacuum and may pass from the sun to the earth. But +there is no way of explaining how such waves would either produce or +affect the magnetism of the earth. +</P> + +<P> +The mysterious emanations from various substances, under certain +conditions, may have an intimate relation with yet another of the +mysteries of the universe. It is a fundamental law of the universe that +when a body emits light or heat, or anything capable of being +transformed into light or heat, it can do so only by the expenditure of +force, limited in supply. The sun and stars are continually sending out +a flood of heat. They are exhausting the internal supply of something +which must be limited in extent. Whence comes the supply? How is the +heat of the sun kept up? If it were a hot body cooling off, a very few +years would suffice for it to cool off so far that its surface would +become solid and very soon cold. In recent years, the theory +universally accepted has been that the supply of heat is kept up by the +continual contraction of the sun, by mutual gravitation of its parts as +it cools off. This theory has the advantage of enabling us to +calculate, with some approximation to exactness, at what rate the sun +must be contracting in order to keep up the supply of heat which it +radiates. On this theory, it must, ten millions of years ago, have had +twice its present diameter, while less than twenty millions of years +ago it could not have existed except as an immense nebula filling the +whole solar system. We must bear in mind that this theory is the only +one which accounts for the supply of heat, even through human history. +If it be true, then the sun, earth, and solar system must be less than +twenty million years old. +</P> + +<P> +Here the geologists step in and tell us that this conclusion is wholly +inadmissible. The study of the strata of the earth and of many other +geological phenomena, they assure us, makes it certain that the earth +must have existed much in its present condition for hundreds of +millions of years. During all that time there can have been no great +diminution in the supply of heat radiated by the sun. +</P> + +<P> +The astronomer, in considering this argument, has to admit that he +finds a similar difficulty in connection with the stars and nebulas. It +is an impossibility to regard these objects as new; they must be as old +as the universe itself. They radiate heat and light year after year. In +all probability, they must have been doing so for millions of years. +Whence comes the supply? The geologist may well claim that until the +astronomer explains this mystery in his own domain, he cannot declare +the conclusions of geology as to the age of the earth to be wholly +inadmissible. +</P> + +<P> +Now, the scientific experiments of the last two years have brought this +mystery of the celestial spaces right down into our earthly +laboratories. M. and Madame Curie have discovered the singular metal +radium, which seems to send out light, heat, and other rays +incessantly, without, so far as has yet been determined, drawing the +required energy from any outward source. As we have already pointed +out, such an emanation must come from some storehouse of energy. Is the +storehouse, then, in the medium itself, or does the latter draw it from +surrounding objects? If it does, it must abstract heat from these +objects. This question has been settled by Professor Dewar, at the +Royal Institution, London, by placing the radium in a medium next to +the coldest that art has yet produced—liquid air. The latter is +surrounded by the only yet colder medium, liquid hydrogen, so that no +heat can reach it. Under these circumstances, the radium still gives +out heat, boiling away the liquid air until the latter has entirely +disappeared. Instead of the radiation diminishing with time, it rather +seems to increase. +</P> + +<P> +Called on to explain all this, science can only say that a molecular +change must be going on in the radium, to correspond to the heat it +gives out. What that change may be is still a complete mystery. It is a +mystery which we find alike in those minute specimens of the rarest of +substances under our microscopes, in the sun, and in the vast nebulous +masses in the midst of which our whole solar system would be but a +speck. The unravelling of this mystery must be the great work of +science of the twentieth century. What results shall follow for mankind +one cannot say, any more than he could have said two hundred years ago +what modern science would bring forth. Perhaps, before future +developments, all the boasted achievements of the nineteenth century +may take the modest place which we now assign to the science of the +eighteenth century—that of the infant which is to grow into a man. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap03"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +III +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE +</H3> + +<P> +The questions of the extent of the universe in space and of its +duration in time, especially of its possible infinity in either space +or time, are of the highest interest both in philosophy and science. +The traditional philosophy had no means of attacking these questions +except considerations suggested by pure reason, analogy, and that +general fitness of things which was supposed to mark the order of +nature. With modern science the questions belong to the realm of fact, +and can be decided only by the results of observation and a study of +the laws to which these results may lead. +</P> + +<P> +From the philosophic stand-point, a discussion of this subject which is +of such weight that in the history of thought it must be assigned a +place above all others, is that of Kant in his "Kritik." Here we find +two opposing propositions—the thesis that the universe occupies only a +finite space and is of finite duration; the antithesis that it is +infinite both as regards extent in space and duration in time. Both of +these opposing propositions are shown to admit of demonstration with +equal force, not directly, but by the methods of reductio ad absurdum. +The difficulty, discussed by Kant, was more tersely expressed by +Hamilton in pointing out that we could neither conceive of infinite +space nor of space as bounded. The methods and conclusions of modern +astronomy are, however, in no way at variance with Kant's reasoning, so +far as it extends. The fact is that the problem with which the +philosopher of Konigsberg vainly grappled is one which our science +cannot solve any more than could his logic. We may hope to gain +complete information as to everything which lies within the range of +the telescope, and to trace to its beginning every process which we can +now see going on in space. But before questions of the absolute +beginning of things, or of the boundary beyond which nothing exists, +our means of inquiry are quite powerless. +</P> + +<P> +Another example of the ancient method is found in the great work of +Copernicus. It is remarkable how completely the first expounder of the +system of the world was dominated by the philosophy of his time, which +he had inherited from his predecessors. This is seen not only in the +general course of thought through the opening chapters of his work, but +among his introductory propositions. The first of these is that the +universe—mundus—as well as the earth, is spherical in form. His +arguments for the sphericity of the earth, as derived from observation, +are little more than a repetition of those of Ptolemy, and therefore +not of special interest. His proposition that the universe is spherical +is, however, not based on observation, but on considerations of the +perfection of the spherical form, the general tendency of bodies—a +drop of water, for example—to assume this form, and the sphericity of +the sun and moon. The idea retained its place in his mind, although the +fundamental conception of his system did away with the idea of the +universe having any well-defined form. +</P> + +<P> +The question as attacked by modern astronomy is this: we see scattered +through space in every direction many millions of stars of various +orders of brightness and at distances so great as to defy exact +measurement, except in the case of a few of the nearest. Has this +collection of stars any well-defined boundary, or is what we see merely +that part of an infinite mass which chances to lie within the range of +our telescopes? If we were transported to the most distant star of +which we have knowledge, should we there find ourselves still +surrounded by stars on all sides, or would the space beyond be void? +Granting that, in any or every direction, there is a limit to the +universe, and that the space beyond is therefore void, what is the form +of the whole system and the distance of its boundaries? Preliminary in +some sort to these questions are the more approachable ones: Of what +sort of matter is the universe formed? and into what sort of bodies is +this matter collected? +</P> + +<P> +To the ancients the celestial sphere was a reality, instead of a mere +effect of perspective, as we regard it. The stars were set on its +surface, or at least at no great distance within its crystalline mass. +Outside of it imagination placed the empyrean. When and how these +conceptions vanished from the mind of man, it would be as hard to say +as when and how Santa Claus gets transformed in the mind of the child. +They are not treated as realities by any astronomical writer from +Ptolemy down; yet, the impressions and forms of thought to which they +gave rise are well marked in Copernicus and faintly evident in Kepler. +The latter was perhaps the first to suggest that the sun might be one +of the stars; yet, from defective knowledge of the relative brightness +of the latter, he was led to the conclusion that their distances from +each other were less than the distance which separated them from the +sun. The latter he supposed to stand in the centre of a vast vacant +region within the system of stars. +</P> + +<P> +For us the great collection of millions of stars which are made known +to us by the telescope, together with all the invisible bodies which +may be contained within the limits of the system, form the universe. +Here the term "universe" is perhaps objectionable because there may be +other systems than the one with which we are acquainted. The term +stellar system is, therefore, a better one by which to designate the +collection of stars in question. +</P> + +<P> +It is remarkable that the first known propounder of that theory of the +form and arrangement of the system which has been most generally +accepted seems to have been a writer otherwise unknown in +science—Thomas Wright, of Durham, England. He is said to have +published a book on the theory of the universe, about 1750. It does not +appear that this work was of a very scientific character, and it was, +perhaps, too much in the nature of a speculation to excite notice in +scientific circles. One of the curious features of the history is that +it was Kant who first cited Wright's theory, pointed out its accordance +with the appearance of the Milky Way, and showed its general +reasonableness. But, at the time in question, the work of the +philosopher of Konigsberg seems to have excited no more notice among +his scientific contemporaries than that of Wright. +</P> + +<P> +Kant's fame as a speculative philosopher has so eclipsed his scientific +work that the latter has but recently been appraised at its true value. +He was the originator of views which, though defective in detail, +embodied a remarkable number of the results of recent research on the +structure and form of the universe, and the changes taking place in it. +The most curious illustration of the way in which he arrived at a +correct conclusion by defective reasoning is found in his anticipation +of the modern theory of a constant retardation of the velocity with +which the earth revolves on its axis. He conceived that this effect +must result from the force exerted by the tidal wave, as moving towards +the west it strikes the eastern coasts of Asia and America. An opposite +conclusion was reached by Laplace, who showed that the effect of this +force was neutralized by forces producing the wave and acting in the +opposite direction. And yet, nearly a century later, it was shown that +while Laplace was quite correct as regards the general principles +involved, the friction of the moving water must prevent the complete +neutralization of the two opposing forces, and leave a small residual +force acting towards the west and retarding the rotation. Kant's +conclusion was established, but by an action different from that which +he supposed. +</P> + +<P> +The theory of Wright and Kant, which was still further developed by +Herschel, was that our stellar system has somewhat the form of a +flattened cylinder, or perhaps that which the earth would assume if, in +consequence of more rapid rotation, the bulging out at its equator and +the flattening at its poles were carried to an extreme limit. This form +has been correctly though satirically compared to that of a grindstone. +It rests to a certain extent, but not entirely, on the idea that the +stars are scattered through space with equal thickness in every +direction, and that the appearance of the Milky Way is due to the fact +that we, situated in the centre of this flattened system, see more +stars in the direction of the circumference of the system than in that +of its poles. The argument on which the view in question rests may be +made clear in the following way. +</P> + +<P> +Let us chose for our observations that hour of the night at which the +Milky Way skirts our horizon. This is nearly the case in the evenings +of May and June, though the coincidence with the horizon can never be +exact except to observers stationed near the tropics. Using the figure +of the grindstone, we at its centre will then have its circumference +around our horizon, while the axis will be nearly vertical. The points +in which the latter intersects the celestial sphere are called the +galactic poles. There will be two of these poles, the one at the hour +in question near the zenith, the other in our nadir, and therefore +invisible to us, though seen by our antipodes. Our horizon corresponds, +as it were, to the central circle of the Milky Way, which now surrounds +us on all sides in a horizontal direction, while the galactic poles are +90 degrees distant from every part of it, as every point of the horizon +is 90 degrees from the zenith. +</P> + +<P> +Let us next count the number of stars visible in a powerful telescope +in the region of the heavens around the galactic pole, now our zenith, +and find the average number per square degree. This will be the +richness of the region in stars. Then we take regions nearer the +horizontal Milky Way—say that contained between 10 degrees and 20 +degrees from the zenith—and, by a similar count, find its richness in +stars. We do the same for other regions, nearer and nearer to the +horizon, till we reach the galaxy itself. The result of all the counts +will be that the richness of the sky in stars is least around the +galactic pole, and increases in every direction towards the Milky Way. +</P> + +<P> +Without such counts of the stars we might imagine our stellar system to +be a globular collection of stars around which the object in question +passed as a girdle; and we might take a globe with a chain passing +around it as representative of the possible figure of the stellar +system. But the actual increase in star-thickness which we have pointed +out shows us that this view is incorrect. The nature and validity of +the conclusions to be drawn can be best appreciated by a statement of +some features of this tendency of the stars to crowd towards the +galactic circle. +</P> + +<P> +Most remarkable is the fact that the tendency is seen even among the +brighter stars. Without either telescope or technical knowledge, the +careful observer of the stars will notice that the most brilliant +constellations show this tendency. The glorious Orion, Canis Major +containing the brightest star in the heavens, Cassiopeia, Perseus, +Cygnus, and Lyra with its bright-blue Vega, not to mention such +constellations as the Southern Cross, all lie in or near the Milky Way. +Schiaparelli has extended the investigation to all the stars visible to +the naked eye. He laid down on planispheres the number of such stars in +each region of the heavens of 5 degrees square. Each region was then +shaded with a tint that was darker as the region was richer in stars. +The very existence of the Milky Way was ignored in this work, though +his most darkly shaded regions lie along the course of this belt. By +drawing a band around the sky so as to follow or cover his darkest +regions, we shall rediscover the course of the Milky Way without any +reference to the actual object. It is hardly necessary to add that this +result would be reached with yet greater precision if we included the +telescopic stars to any degree of magnitude—plotting them on a chart +and shading the chart in the same way. What we learn from this is that +the stellar system is not an irregular chaos; and that notwithstanding +all its minor irregularities, it may be considered as built up with +special reference to the Milky Way as a foundation. +</P> + +<P> +Another feature of the tendency in question is that it is more and more +marked as we include fainter stars in our count. The galactic region is +perhaps twice as rich in stars visible to the naked eye as the rest of +the heavens. In telescopic stars to the ninth magnitude it is three or +four times as rich. In the stars found on the photographs of the sky +made at the Harvard and other observatories, and in the stargauges of +the Herschels, it is from five to ten times as rich. +</P> + +<P> +Another feature showing the unity of the system is the symmetry of the +heavens on the two sides of the galactic belt Let us return to our +supposition of such a position of the celestial sphere, with respect to +the horizon, that the latter coincides with the central line of this +belt, one galactic pole being near our zenith. The celestial hemisphere +which, being above our horizon, is visible to us, is the one to which +we have hitherto directed our attention in describing the distribution +of the stars. But below our horizon is another hemisphere, that of our +antipodes, which is the counterpart of ours. The stars which it +contains are in a different part of the universe from those which we +see, and, without unity of plan, would not be subject to the same law. +But the most accurate counts of stars that have been made fail to show +any difference in their general arrangement in the two hemispheres. +They are just as thick around the south galactic poles as around the +north one. They show the same tendency to crowd towards the Milky Way +in the hemisphere invisible to us as in the hemisphere which we see. +Slight differences and irregularities, are, indeed, found in the +enumeration, but they are no greater than must necessarily arise from +the difficulty of stopping our count at a perfectly fixed magnitude. +The aim of star-counts is not to estimate the total number of stars, +for this is beyond our power, but the number visible with a given +telescope. In such work different observers have explored different +parts of the sky, and in a count of the same region by two observers we +shall find that, although they attempt to stop at the same magnitude, +each will include a great number of stars which the other omits. There +is, therefore, room for considerable difference in the numbers of stars +recorded, without there being any actual inequality between the two +hemispheres. +</P> + +<P> +A corresponding similarity is found in the physical constitution of the +stars as brought out by the spectroscope. The Milky Way is extremely +rich in bluish stars, which make up a considerable majority of the +cloudlike masses there seen. But when we recede from the galaxy on one +side, we find the blue stars becoming thinner, while those having a +yellow tinge become relatively more numerous. This difference of color +also is the same on the two sides of the galactic plane. Nor can any +systematic difference be detected between the proper motions of the +stars in these two hemispheres. If the largest known proper motion is +found in the one, the second largest is in the other. Counting all the +known stars that have proper motions exceeding a given limit, we find +about as many in one hemisphere as in the other. In this respect, also, +the universe appears to be alike through its whole extent. It is the +uniformity thus prevailing through the visible universe, as far as we +can see, in two opposite directions, which inspires us with confidence +in the possibility of ultimately reaching some well-founded conclusion +as to the extent and structure of the system. +</P> + +<P> +All these facts concur in supporting the view of Wright, Kant, and +Herschel as to the form of the universe. The farther out the stars +extend in any direction, the more stars we may see in that direction. +In the direction of the axis of the cylinder, the distances of the +boundary are least, so that we see fewer stars. The farther we direct +our attention towards the equatorial regions of the system, the greater +the distance from us to the boundary, and hence the more stars we see. +The fact that the increase in the number of stars seen towards the +equatorial region of the system is greater, the smaller the stars, is +the natural consequence of the fact that distant stars come within our +view in greater numbers towards the equatorial than towards the polar +regions. +</P> + +<P> +Objections have been raised to the Herschelian view on the ground that +it assumes an approximately uniform distribution of the stars in space. +It has been claimed that the fact of our seeing more stars in one +direction than in another may not arise merely from our looking through +a deeper stratum, as Herschel supposed, but may as well be due to the +stars being more thinly scattered in the direction of the axis of the +system than in that of its equatorial region. The great inequalities in +the richness of neighboring regions in the Milky Way show that the +hypothesis of uniform distribution does not apply to the equatorial +region. The claim has therefore been made that there is no proof of the +system extending out any farther in the equatorial than in the polar +direction. +</P> + +<P> +The consideration of this objection requires a closer inquiry as to +what we are to understand by the form of our system. We have already +pointed out the impossibility of assigning any boundary beyond which we +can say that nothing exists. And even as regards a boundary of our +stellar system, it is impossible for us to assign any exact limit +beyond which no star is visible to us. The analogy of collections of +stars seen in various parts of the heavens leads us to suppose that +there may be no well-defined form to our system, but that, as we go out +farther and farther, we shall see occasional scattered stars to, +possibly, an indefinite distance. The truth probably is that, as in +ascending a mountain, we find the trees, which may be very dense at its +base, thin out gradually as we approach the summit, where there may be +few or none, so we might find the stars to thin out could we fly to the +distant regions of space. The practical question is whether, in such a +flight, we should find this sooner by going in the direction of the +axis of our system than by directing our course towards the Milky Way. +If a point is at length reached beyond which there are but few +scattered stars, such a point would, for us, mark the boundary of our +system. From this point of view the answer does not seem to admit of +doubt. If, going in every direction, we mark the point, if any, at +which the great mass of the stars are seen behind us, the totality of +all these points will lie on a surface of the general form that +Herschel supposed. +</P> + +<P> +There is still another direct indication of the finitude of our stellar +system upon which we have not touched. If this system extended out +without limit in any direction whatever, it is shown by a geometric +process which it is not necessary to explain in the present connection, +but which is of the character of mathematical demonstration, that the +heavens would, in every direction where this was true, blaze with the +light of the noonday sun. This would be very different from the +blue-black sky which we actually see on a clear night, and which, with +a reservation that we shall consider hereafter, shows that, how far +so-ever our stellar system may extend, it is not infinite. Beyond this +negative conclusion the fact does not teach us much. Vast, indeed, is +the distance to which the system might extend without the sky appearing +much brighter than it is, and we must have recourse to other +considerations in seeking for indications of a boundary, or even of a +well-marked thinning out, of stars. +</P> + +<P> +If, as was formerly supposed, the stars did not greatly differ in the +amount of light emitted by each, and if their diversity of apparent +magnitude were due principally to the greater distance of the fainter +stars, then the brightness of a star would enable us to form a more or +less approximate idea of its distance. But the accumulated researches +of the past seventy years show that the stars differ so enormously in +their actual luminosity that the apparent brightness of a star affords +us only a very imperfect indication of its distance. While, in the +general average, the brighter stars must be nearer to us than the +fainter ones, it by no means follows that a very bright star, even of +the first magnitude, is among the nearer to our system. Two stars are +worthy of especial mention in this connection, Canopus and Rigel. The +first is, with the single exception of Sirius, the brightest star in +the heavens. The other is a star of the first magnitude in the +southwest corner of Orion. The most long-continued and complete +measures of parallax yet made are those carried on by Gill, at the Cape +of Good Hope, on these two and some other bright stars. The results, +published in 1901, show that neither of these bodies has any parallax +that can be measured by the most refined instrumental means known to +astronomy. In other words, the distance of these stars is immeasurably +great. The actual amount of light emitted by each is certainly +thousands and probably tens of thousands of times that of the sun. +</P> + +<P> +Notwithstanding the difficulties that surround the subject, we can at +least say something of the distance of a considerable number of the +stars. Two methods are available for our estimate—measures of parallax +and determination of proper motions. +</P> + +<P> +The problem of stellar parallax, simple though it is in its conception, +is the most delicate and difficult of all which the practical +astronomer has to encounter. An idea of it may be gained by supposing a +minute object on a mountain-top, we know not how many miles away, to be +visible through a telescope. The observer is allowed to change the +position of his instrument by two inches, but no more. He is required +to determine the change in the direction of the object produced by this +minute displacement with accuracy enough to determine the distance of +the mountain. This is quite analogous to the determination of the +change in the direction in which we see a star as the earth, moving +through its vast circuit, passes from one extremity of its orbit to the +other. Representing this motion on such a scale that the distance of +our planet from the sun shall be one inch, we find that the nearest +star, on the same scale, will be more than four miles away, and +scarcely one out of a million will be at a less distance than ten +miles. It is only by the most wonderful perfection both in the +heliometer, the instrument principally used for these measures, and in +methods of observation, that any displacement at all can be seen even +among the nearest stars. The parallaxes of perhaps a hundred stars have +been determined, with greater or less precision, and a few hundred more +may be near enough for measurement. All the others are immeasurably +distant; and it is only by statistical methods based on their proper +motions and their probable near approach to equality in distribution +that any idea can be gained of their distances. +</P> + +<P> +To form a conception of the stellar system, we must have a unit of +measure not only exceeding any terrestrial standard, but even any +distance in the solar system. For purely astronomical purposes the most +convenient unit is the distance corresponding to a parallax of 1", +which is a little more than 200,000 times the sun's distance. But for +the purposes of all but the professional astronomer the most convenient +unit will be the light-year—that is, the distance through which light +would travel in one year. This is equal to the product of 186,000 +miles, the distance travelled in one second, by 31,558,000, the number +of seconds in a year. The reader who chooses to do so may perform the +multiplication for himself. The product will amount to about 63,000 +times the distance of the sun. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: A Typical Star Cluster—Centauri] +</P> + +<P> +The nearest star whose distance we know, Alpha Centauri, is distant +from us more than four light-years. In all likelihood this is really +the nearest star, and it is not at all probable that any other star +lies within six light-years. Moreover, if we were transported to this +star the probability seems to be that the sun would now be the nearest +star to us. Flying to any other of the stars whose parallax has been +measured, we should probably find that the average of the six or eight +nearest stars around us ranges somewhere between five and seven +light-years. We may, in a certain sense, call eight light-years a +star-distance, meaning by this term the average of the nearest +distances from one star to the surrounding ones. +</P> + +<P> +To put the result of measures of parallax into another form, let us +suppose, described around our sun as a centre, a system of concentric +spheres each of whose surfaces is at the distance of six light-years +outside the sphere next within it. The inner is at the distance of six +light-years around the sun. The surface of the second sphere will be +twelve light-years away, that of the third eighteen, etc. The volumes +of space within each of these spheres will be as the cubes of the +diameters. The most likely conclusion we can draw from measures of +parallax is that the first sphere will contain, beside the sun at its +centre, only Alpha Centauri. The second, twelve light-years away, will +probably contain, besides these two, six other stars, making eight in +all. The third may contain twenty-one more, making twenty-seven stars +within the third sphere, which is the cube of three. Within the fourth +would probably be found sixty-four stars, this being the cube of four, +and so on. +</P> + +<P> +Beyond this no measures of parallax yet made will give us much +assistance. We can only infer that probably the same law holds for a +large number of spheres, though it is quite certain that it does not +hold indefinitely. For more light on the subject we must have recourse +to the proper motions. The latest words of astronomy on this subject +may be briefly summarized. As a rule, no star is at rest. Each is +moving through space with a speed which differs greatly with different +stars, but is nearly always swift, indeed, when measured by any +standard to which we are accustomed. Slow and halting, indeed, is that +star which does not make more than a mile a second. With two or three +exceptions, where the attraction of a companion comes in, the motion of +every star, so far as yet determined, takes place in a straight line. +In its outward motion the flying body deviates neither to the right nor +left. It is safe to say that, if any deviation is to take place, +thousands of years will be required for our terrestrial observers to +recognize it. +</P> + +<P> +Rapid as the course of these objects is, the distances which we have +described are such that, in the great majority of cases, all the +observations yet made on the positions of the stars fail to show any +well-established motion. It is only in the case of the nearer of these +objects that we can expect any motion to be perceptible during the +period, in no case exceeding one hundred and fifty years, through which +accurate observations extend. The efforts of all the observatories +which engage in such work are, up to the present time, unequal to the +task of grappling with the motions of all the stars that can be seen +with the instruments, and reaching a decision as to the proper motion +in each particular case. As the question now stands, the aim of the +astronomer is to determine what stars have proper motions large enough +to be well established. To make our statement on this subject clear, it +must be understood that by this term the astronomer does not mean the +speed of a star in space, but its angular motion as he observes it on +the celestial sphere. A star moving forward with a given speed will +have a greater proper motion according as it is nearer to us. To avoid +all ambiguity, we shall use the term "speed" to express the velocity in +miles per second with which such a body moves through space, and the +term "proper motion" to express the apparent angular motion which the +astronomer measures upon the celestial sphere. +</P> + +<P> +Up to the present time, two stars have been found whose proper motions +are so large that, if continued, the bodies would make a complete +circuit of the heavens in less than 200,000 years. One of these would +require about 160,000; the other about 180,000 years for the circuit. +Of other stars having a rapid motion only about one hundred would +complete their course in less than a million of years. +</P> + +<P> +Quite recently a system of observations upon stars to the ninth +magnitude has been nearly carried through by an international +combination of observatories. The most important conclusion from these +observations relates to the distribution of the stars with reference to +the Milky Way, which we have already described. We have shown that +stars of every magnitude, bright and faint, show a tendency to crowd +towards this belt. It is, therefore, remarkable that no such tendency +is seen in the case of those stars which have proper motions large +enough to be accurately determined. So far as yet appears, such stars +are equally scattered over the heavens, without reference to the course +of the Milky Way. The conclusion is obvious. These stars are all inside +the girdle of the Milky Way, and within the sphere which contains them +the distribution in space is approximately uniform. At least there is +no well-marked condensation in the direction of the galaxy nor any +marked thinning out towards its poles. What can we say as to the extent +of this sphere? +</P> + +<P> +To answer this question, we have to consider whether there is any +average or ordinary speed that a star has in space. A great number of +motions in the line of sight—that is to say, in the direction of the +line from us to the star—have been measured with great precision by +Campbell at the Lick Observatory, and by other astronomers. The +statistical investigations of Kaptoyn also throw much light on the +subject. The results of these investigators agree well in showing an +average speed in space—a straight-ahead motion we may call it—of +twenty-one miles per second. Some stars may move more slowly than this +to any extent; others more rapidly. In two or three cases the speed +exceeds one hundred miles per second, but these are quite exceptional. +By taking several thousand stars having a given proper motion, we may +form a general idea of their average distance, though a great number of +them will exceed this average to a considerable extent. The conclusion +drawn in this way would be that the stars having an apparent proper +motion of 10" per century or more are mostly contained within, or lie +not far outside of a sphere whose surface is at a distance from us of +200 light-years. Granting the volume of space which we have shown that +nature seems to allow to each star, this sphere should contain 27,000 +stars in all. There are about 10,000 stars known to have so large a +proper motion as 10". But there is no actual discordance between these +results, because not only are there, in all probability, great numbers +of stars of which the proper motion is not yet recognized, but there +are within the sphere a great number of stars whose motion is less than +the average. On the other hand, it is probable that a considerable +number of the 10,000 stars lie at a distance at least one-half greater +than that of the radius of the sphere. +</P> + +<P> +On the whole, it seems likely that, out to a distance of 300 or even +400 light-years, there is no marked inequality in star distribution. If +we should explore the heavens to this distance, we should neither find +the beginning of the Milky Way in one direction nor a very marked +thinning out in the other. This conclusion is quite accordant with the +probabilities of the case. If all the stars which form the groundwork +of the Milky Way should be blotted out, we should probably find +100,000,000, perhaps even more, remaining. Assigning to each star the +space already shown to be its quota, we should require a sphere of +about 3000 light-years radius to contain such a number of stars. At +some such distance as this, we might find a thinning out of the stars +in the direction of the galactic poles, or the commencement of the +Milky Way in the direction of this stream. +</P> + +<P> +Even if this were not found at the distance which we have supposed, it +is quite certain that, at some greater distance, we should at least +find that the region of the Milky Way is richer in stars than the +region near the galactic poles. There is strong reason, based on the +appearance of the stars of the Milky Way, their physical constitution, +and their magnitudes as seen in the telescope, to believe that, were we +placed on one of these stars, we should find the stars around us to be +more thickly strewn than they are around our system. In other words, +the quota of space filled by each star is probably less in the region +of the Milky Way than it is near the centre where we seem to be +situated. +</P> + +<P> +We are, therefore, presented with what seems to be the most +extraordinary spectacle that the universe can offer, a ring of stars +spanning it, and including within its limits by far the great majority +of the stars within our system. We have in this spectacle another +example of the unity which seems to pervade the system. We might +imagine the latter so arranged as to show diversity to any extent. We +might have agglomerations of stars like those of the Milky Way situated +in some corner of the system, or at its centre, or scattered through it +here and there in every direction. But such is not the case. There are, +indeed, a few star-clusters scattered here and there through the +system; but they are essentially different from the clusters of the +Milky Way, and cannot be regarded as forming an important part of the +general plan. In the case of the galaxy we have no such scattering, but +find the stars built, as it were, into this enormous ring, having +similar characteristics throughout nearly its whole extent, and having +within it a nearly uniform scattering of stars, with here and there +some collected into clusters. Such, to our limited vision, now appears +the universe as a whole. +</P> + +<P> +We have already alluded to the conclusion that an absolutely infinite +system of stars would cause the entire heavens to be filled with a +blaze of light as bright as the sun. It is also true that the +attractive force within such a universe would be infinitely great in +some direction or another. But neither of these considerations enables +us to set a limit to the extent of our system. In two remarkable papers +by Lord Kelvin which have recently appeared, the one being an address +before the British Association at its Glasgow meeting, in 1901, are +given the results of some numerical computations pertaining to this +subject. Granting that the stars are scattered promiscuously through +space with some approach to uniformity in thickness, and are of a known +degree of brilliancy, it is easy to compute how far out the system must +extend in order that, looking up at the sky, we shall see a certain +amount of light coming from the invisible stars. Granting that, in the +general average, each star is as bright as the sun, and that their +thickness is such that within a sphere of 3300 light-years there are +1,000,000,000 stars, if we inquire how far out such a system must be +continued in order that the sky shall shine with even four per cent of +the light of the sun, we shall find the distance of its boundary so +great that millions of millions of years would be required for the +light of the outer stars to reach the centre of the system. In view of +the fact that this duration in time far exceeds what seems to be the +possible life duration of a star, so far as our knowledge of it can +extend, the mere fact that the sky does not glow with any such +brightness proves little or nothing as to the extent of the system. +</P> + +<P> +We may, however, replace these purely negative considerations by +inquiring how much light we actually get from the invisible stars of +our system. Here we can make a definite statement. Mark out a small +circle in the sky 1 degree in diameter. The quantity of light which we +receive on a cloudless and moonless night from the sky within this +circle admits of actual determination. From the measures so far +available it would seem that, in the general average, this quantity of +light is not very different from that of a star of the fifth magnitude. +This is something very different from a blaze of light. A star of the +fifth magnitude is scarcely more than plainly visible to ordinary +vision. The area of the whole sky is, in round numbers, about 50,000 +times that of the circle we have described. It follows that the total +quantity of light which we receive from all the stars is about equal to +that of 50,000 stars of the fifth magnitude—somewhat more than 1000 of +the first magnitude. This whole amount of light would have to be +multiplied by 90,000,000 to make a light equal to that of the sun. It +is, therefore, not at all necessary to consider how far the system must +extend in order that the heavens should blaze like the sun. Adopting +Lord Kelvin's hypothesis, we shall find that, in order that we may +receive from the stars the amount of light we have designated, this +system need not extend beyond some 5000 light-years. But this +hypothesis probably overestimates the thickness of the stars in space. +It does not seem probable that there are as many as 1,000,000,000 stars +within the sphere of 3300 light-years. Nor is it at all certain that +the light of the average star is equal to that of the sun. It is +impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to assign any +definite value to this average. To do so is a problem similar to that +of assigning an average weight to each component of the animal +creation, from the microscopic insects which destroy our plants up to +the elephant. What we can say with a fair approximation to confidence +is that, if we could fly out in any direction to a distance of 20,000, +perhaps even of 10,000, light-years, we should find that we had left a +large fraction of our system behind us. We should see its boundary in +the direction in which we had travelled much more certainly than we see +it from our stand-point. +</P> + +<P> +We should not dismiss this branch of the subject without saying that +considerations are frequently adduced by eminent authorities which tend +to impair our confidence in almost any conclusion as to the limits of +the stellar system. The main argument is based on the possibility that +light is extinguished in its passage through space; that beyond a +certain distance we cannot see a star, however bright, because its +light is entirely lost before reaching us. That there could be any loss +of light in passing through an absolute vacuum of any extent cannot be +admitted by the physicist of to-day without impairing what he considers +the fundamental principles of the vibration of light. But the +possibility that the celestial spaces are pervaded by matter which +might obstruct the passage of light is to be considered. We know that +minute meteoric particles are flying through our system in such numbers +that the earth encounters several millions of them every day, which +appear to us in the familiar phenomena of shooting-stars. If such +particles are scattered through all space, they must ultimately +obstruct the passage of light. We know little of the size of these +bodies, but, from the amount of energy contained in their light as they +are consumed in the passage through our atmosphere, it does not seem at +all likely that they are larger than grains of sand or, perhaps, minute +pebbles. They are probably vastly more numerous in the vicinity of the +sun than in the interstellar spaces, since they would naturally tend to +be collected by the sun's attraction. In fact there are some reasons +for believing that most of these bodies are the debris of comets; and +the latter are now known to belong to the solar system, and not to the +universe at large. +</P> + +<P> +But whatever view we take of these possibilities, they cannot +invalidate our conclusion as to the general structure of the stellar +system as we know it. Were meteors so numerous as to cut off a large +fraction of the light from the more distant stars, we should see no +Milky Way, but the apparent thickness of the stars in every direction +would be nearly the same. The fact that so many more of these objects +are seen around the galactic belt than in the direction of its poles +shows that, whatever extinction light may suffer in going through the +greatest distances, we see nearly all that comes from stars not more +distant than the Milky Way itself. +</P> + +<P> +Intimately connected with the subject we have discussed is the question +of the age of our system, if age it can be said to have. In considering +this question, the simplest hypothesis to suggest itself is that the +universe has existed forever in some such form as we now see it; that +it is a self-sustaining system, able to go on forever with only such +cycles of transformation as may repeat themselves indefinitely, and +may, therefore, have repeated themselves indefinitely in the past. +Ordinary observation does not make anything known to us which would +seem to invalidate this hypothesis. In looking upon the operations of +the universe, we may liken ourselves to a visitor to the earth from +another sphere who has to draw conclusions about the life of an +individual man from observations extending through a few days. During +that time, he would see no reason why the life of the man should have +either a beginning or an end. He sees a daily round of change, activity +and rest, nutrition and waste; but, at the end of the round, the +individual is seemingly restored to his state of the day before. Why +may not this round have been going on forever, and continue in the +future without end? It would take a profounder course of observation +and a longer time to show that, notwithstanding this seeming +restoration, an imperceptible residual of vital energy, necessary to +the continuance of life, has not been restored, and that the loss of +this residuum day by day must finally result in death. +</P> + +<P> +The case is much the same with the great bodies of the universe. +Although, to superficial observation, it might seem that they could +radiate their light forever, the modern generalizations of physics show +that such cannot be the case. The radiation of light necessarily +involves a corresponding loss of heat and with it the expenditure of +some form of energy. The amount of energy within any body is +necessarily limited. The supply must be exhausted unless the energy of +the light sent out into infinite space is, in some way, restored to the +body which expended it. The possibility of such a restoration +completely transcends our science. How can the little vibration which +strikes our eye from some distant star, and which has been perhaps +thousands of years in reaching us, find its way back to its origin? The +light emitted by the sun 10,000 years ago is to-day pursuing its way in +a sphere whose surface is 10,000 light-years distant on all sides. +Science has nothing even to suggest the possibility of its restoration, +and the most delicate observations fail to show any return from the +unfathomable abyss. +</P> + +<P> +Up to the time when radium was discovered, the most careful +investigations of all conceivable sources of supply had shown only one +which could possibly be of long duration. This is the contraction which +is produced in the great incandescent bodies of the universe by the +loss of the heat which they radiate. As remarked in the preceding +essay, the energy generated by the sun's contraction could not have +kept up its present supply of heat for much more than twenty or thirty +millions of years, while the study of earth and ocean shows evidence of +the action of a series of causes which must have been going on for +hundreds of millions of years. +</P> + +<P> +The antagonism between the two conclusions is even more marked than +would appear from this statement. The period of the sun's heat set by +the astronomical physicist is that during which our luminary could +possibly have existed in its present form. The period set by the +geologist is not merely that of the sun's existence, but that during +which the causes effecting geological changes have not undergone any +complete revolution. If, at any time, the sun radiated much less than +its present amount of heat, no water could have existed on the earth's +surface except in the form of ice; there would have been scarcely any +evaporation, and the geological changes due to erosion could not have +taken place. Moreover, the commencement of the geological operations of +which we speak is by no means the commencement of the earth's +existence. The theories of both parties agree that, for untold aeons +before the geological changes now visible commenced, our planet was a +molten mass, perhaps even an incandescent globe like the sun. During +all those aeons the sun must have been in existence as a vast nebulous +mass, first reaching as far as the earth's orbit, and slowly +contracting its dimensions. And these aeons are to be included in any +estimate of the age of the sun. +</P> + +<P> +The doctrine of cosmic evolution—the theory which in former times was +generally known as the nebular hypothesis—that the heavenly bodies +were formed by the slow contraction of heated nebulous masses, is +indicated by so many facts that it seems scarcely possible to doubt it +except on the theory that the laws of nature were, at some former time, +different from those which we now see in operation. Granting the +evolutionary hypothesis, every star has its lifetime. We can even lay +down the law by which it passes from infancy to old age. All stars do +not have the same length of life; the rule is that the larger the star, +or the greater the mass of matter which composes it, the longer will it +endure. Up to the present time, science can do nothing more than point +out these indications of a beginning, and their inevitable consequence, +that there is to be an end to the light and heat of every heavenly +body. But no cautious thinker can treat such a subject with the ease of +ordinary demonstration. The investigator may even be excused if he +stands dumb with awe before the creation of his own intellect. Our +accurate records of the operations of nature extend through only two or +three centuries, and do not reach a satisfactory standard until within +a single century. The experience of the individual is limited to a few +years, and beyond this period he must depend upon the records of his +ancestors. All his knowledge of the laws of nature is derived from this +very limited experience. How can he essay to describe what may have +been going on hundreds of millions of years in the past? Can he dare to +say that nature was the same then as now? +</P> + +<P> +It is a fundamental principle of the theory of evolution, as developed +by its greatest recent expounder, that matter itself is eternal, and +that all the changes which have taken place in the universe, so far as +made up of matter, are in the nature of transformations of this eternal +substance. But we doubt whether any physical philosopher of the present +day would be satisfied to accept any demonstration of the eternity of +matter. All he would admit is that, so far as his observation goes, no +change in the quantity of matter can be produced by the action of any +known cause. It seems to be equally uncreatable and indestructible. But +he would, at the same time, admit that his experience no more sufficed +to settle the question than the observation of an animal for a single +day would settle the question of the duration of its life, or prove +that it had neither beginning nor end. He would probably admit that +even matter itself may be a product of evolution. The astronomer finds +it difficult to conceive that the great nebulous masses which he sees +in the celestial spaces—millions of times larger than the whole solar +system, yet so tenuous that they offer not the slightest obstruction to +the passage of a ray of light through their whole length—situated in +what seems to be a region of eternal cold, below anything that we can +produce on the earth's surface, yet radiating light, and with it heat, +like an incandescent body—can be made up of the same kind of substance +that we have around us on the earth's surface. Who knows but that the +radiant property that Becquerel has found in certain forms of matter +may be a residuum of some original form of energy which is inherent in +great cosmical masses, and has fed our sun during all the ages required +by the geologist for the structure of the earth's crusts? It may be +that in this phenomenon we have the key to the great riddle of the +universe, with which profounder secrets of matter than any we have +penetrated will be opened to the eyes of our successors. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap04"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +IV +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE EXTENT OF THE UNIVERSE +</H3> + +<P> +We cannot expect that the wisest men of our remotest posterity, who can +base their conclusions upon thousands of years of accurate observation, +will reach a decision on this subject without some measure of reserve. +Such being the case, it might appear the dictate of wisdom to leave its +consideration to some future age, when it may be taken up with better +means of information than we now possess. But the question is one which +will refuse to be postponed so long as the propensity to think of the +possibilities of creation is characteristic of our race. The issue is +not whether we shall ignore the question altogether, like Eve in the +presence of Raphael; but whether in studying it we shall confine our +speculations within the limits set by sound scientific reasoning. +Essaying to do this, I invite the reader's attention to what science +may suggest, admitting in advance that the sphere of exact knowledge is +small compared with the possibilities of creation, and that outside +this sphere we can state only more or less probable conclusions. +</P> + +<P> +The reader who desires to approach this subject in the most receptive +spirit should begin his study by betaking himself on a clear, moonless +evening, when he has no earthly concern to disturb the serenity of his +thoughts, to some point where he can lie on his back on bench or roof, +and scan the whole vault of heaven at one view. He can do this with the +greatest pleasure and profit in late summer or autumn—winter would do +equally well were it possible for the mind to rise so far above bodily +conditions that the question of temperature should not enter. The +thinking man who does this under circumstances most favorable for calm +thought will form a new conception of the wonder of the universe. If +summer or autumn be chosen, the stupendous arch of the Milky Way will +pass near the zenith, and the constellation Lyra, led by its beautiful +blue Vega of the first magnitude, may be not very far from that point. +South of it will be seen the constellation Aquila, marked by the bright +Altair, between two smaller but conspicuous stars. The bright Arcturus +will be somewhere in the west, and, if the observation is not made too +early in the season, Aldebaran will be seen somewhere in the east. When +attention is concentrated on the scene the thousands of stars on each +side of the Milky Way will fill the mind with the consciousness of a +stupendous and all-embracing frame, beside which all human affairs sink +into insignificance. A new idea will be formed of such a well-known +fact of astronomy as the motion of the solar system in space, by +reflecting that, during all human history, the sun, carrying the earth +with it, has been flying towards a region in or just south of the +constellation Lyra, with a speed beyond all that art can produce on +earth, without producing any change apparent to ordinary vision in the +aspect of the constellation. Not only Lyra and Aquila, but every one of +the thousand stars which form the framework of the sky, were seen by +our earliest ancestors just as we see them now. Bodily rest may be +obtained at any time by ceasing from our labors, and weary systems may +find nerve rest at any summer resort; but I know of no way in which +complete rest can be obtained for the weary soul—in which the mind can +be so entirely relieved of the burden of all human anxiety—as by the +contemplation of the spectacle presented by the starry heavens under +the conditions just described. As we make a feeble attempt to learn +what science can tell us about the structure of this starry frame, I +hope the reader will allow me to at least fancy him contemplating it in +this way. +</P> + +<P> +The first question which may suggest itself to the inquiring reader is: +How is it possible by any methods of observation yet known to the +astronomer to learn anything about the universe as a whole? We may +commence by answering this question in a somewhat comprehensive way. It +is possible only because the universe, vast though it is, shows certain +characteristics of a unified and bounded whole. It is not a chaos, it +is not even a collection of things, each of which came into existence +in its own separate way. If it were, there would be nothing in common +between two widely separate regions of the universe. But, as a matter +of fact, science shows unity in the whole structure, and diversity only +in details. The Milky Way itself will be seen by the most ordinary +observer to form a single structure. This structure is, in some sort, +the foundation on which the universe is built. It is a girdle which +seems to span the whole of creation, so far as our telescopes have yet +enabled us to determine what creation is; and yet it has elements of +similarity in all its parts. What has yet more significance, it is in +some respects unlike those parts of the universe which lie without it, +and even unlike those which lie in that central region within it where +our system is now situated. The minute stars, individually far beyond +the limit of visibility to the naked eye, which form its cloudlike +agglomerations, are found to be mostly bluer in color, from one extreme +to the other, than the general average of the stars which make up the +rest of the universe. +</P> + +<P> +In the preceding essay on the structure of the universe, we have +pointed out several features of the universe showing the unity of the +whole. We shall now bring together these and other features with a view +of showing their relation to the question of the extent of the universe. +</P> + +<P> +The Milky Way being in a certain sense the foundation on which the +whole system is constructed, we have first to notice the symmetry of +the whole. This is seen in the fact that a certain resemblance is found +in any two opposite regions of the sky, no matter where we choose them. +If we take them in the Milky Way, the stars are more numerous than +elsewhere; if we take opposite regions in or near the Milky Way, we +shall find more stars in both of them than elsewhere; if we take them +in the region anywhere around the poles of the Milky Way, we shall find +fewer stars, but they will be equally numerous in each of the two +regions. We infer from this that whatever cause determined the number +of the stars in space was of the same nature in every two antipodal +regions of the heavens. +</P> + +<P> +Another unity marked with yet more precision is seen in the chemical +elements of which stars are composed. We know that the sun is composed +of the same elements which we find on the earth and into which we +resolve compounds in our laboratories. These same elements are found in +the most distant stars. It is true that some of these bodies seem to +contain elements which we do not find on earth. But as these unknown +elements are scattered from one extreme of the universe to the other, +they only serve still further to enforce the unity which runs through +the whole. The nebulae are composed, in part at least, of forms of +matter dissimilar to any with which we are acquainted. But, different +though they may be, they are alike in their general character +throughout the whole field we are considering. Even in such a feature +as the proper motions of the stars, the same unity is seen. The reader +doubtless knows that each of these objects is flying through space on +its own course with a speed comparable with that of the earth around +the sun. These speeds range from the smallest limit up to more than one +hundred miles a second. Such diversity might seem to detract from the +unity of the whole; but when we seek to learn something definite by +taking their average, we find this average to be, so far as can yet be +determined, much the same in opposite regions of the universe. Quite +recently it has become probable that a certain class of very bright +stars known as Orion stars—because there are many of them in the most +brilliant of our constellations—which are scattered along the whole +course of the Milky Way, have one and all, in the general average, +slower motions than other stars. Here again we have a definable +characteristic extending through the universe. In drawing attention to +these points of similarity throughout the whole universe, it must not +be supposed that we base our conclusions directly upon them. The point +they bring out is that the universe is in the nature of an organized +system; and it is upon the fact of its being such a system that we are +able, by other facts, to reach conclusions as to its structure, extent, +and other characteristics. +</P> + +<P> +One of the great problems connected with the universe is that of its +possible extent. How far away are the stars? One of the unities which +we have described leads at once to the conclusion that the stars must +be at very different distances from us; probably the more distant ones +are a thousand times as far as the nearest; possibly even farther than +this. This conclusion may, in the first place, be based on the fact +that the stars seem to be scattered equally throughout those regions of +the universe which are not connected with the Milky Way. To illustrate +the principle, suppose a farmer to sow a wheat-field of entirely +unknown extent with ten bushels of wheat. We visit the field and wish +to have some idea of its acreage. We may do this if we know how many +grains of wheat there are in the ten bushels. Then we examine a space +two or three feet square in any part of the field and count the number +of grains in that space. If the wheat is equally scattered over the +whole field, we find its extent by the simple rule that the size of the +field bears the same proportion to the size of the space in which the +count was made that the whole number of grains in the ten bushels sown +bears to the number of grains counted. If we find ten grains in a +square foot, we know that the number of square feet in the whole field +is one-tenth that of the number of grains sown. So it is with the +universe of stars. If the latter are sown equally through space, the +extent of the space occupied must be proportional to the number of +stars which it contains. +</P> + +<P> +But this consideration does not tell us anything about the actual +distance of the stars or how thickly they may be scattered. To do this +we must be able to determine the distance of a certain number of stars, +just as we suppose the farmer to count the grains in a certain small +extent of his wheat-field. There is only one way in which we can make a +definite measure of the distance of any one star. As the earth swings +through its vast annual circuit round the sun, the direction of the +stars must appear to be a little different when seen from one extremity +of the circuit than when seen from the other. This difference is called +the parallax of the stars; and the problem of measuring it is one of +the most delicate and difficult in the whole field of practical +astronomy. +</P> + +<P> +The nineteenth century was well on its way before the instruments of +the astronomer were brought to such perfection as to admit of the +measurement. From the time of Copernicus to that of Bessel many +attempts had been made to measure the parallax of the stars, and more +than once had some eager astronomer thought himself successful. But +subsequent investigation always showed that he had been mistaken, and +that what he thought was the effect of parallax was due to some other +cause, perhaps the imperfections of his instrument, perhaps the effect +of heat and cold upon it or upon the atmosphere through which he was +obliged to observe the star, or upon the going of his clock. Thus +things went on until 1837, when Bessel announced that measures with a +heliometer—the most refined instrument that has ever been used in +measurement—showed that a certain star in the constellation Cygnus had +a parallax of one-third of a second. It may be interesting to give an +idea of this quantity. Suppose one's self in a house on top of a +mountain looking out of a window one foot square, at a house on another +mountain one hundred miles away. One is allowed to look at that distant +house through one edge of the pane of glass and then through the +opposite edge; and he has to determine the change in the direction of +the distant house produced by this change of one foot in his own +position. From this he is to estimate how far off the other mountain +is. To do this, one would have to measure just about the amount of +parallax that Bessel found in his star. And yet this star is among the +few nearest to our system. The nearest star of all, Alpha Centauri, +visible only in latitudes south of our middle ones, is perhaps half as +far as Bessel's star, while Sirius and one or two others are nearly at +the same distance. About 100 stars, all told, have had their parallax +measured with a greater or less degree of probability. The work is +going on from year to year, each successive astronomer who takes it up +being able, as a general rule, to avail himself of better instruments +or to use a better method. But, after all, the distances of even some +of the 100 stars carefully measured must still remain quite doubtful. +</P> + +<P> +Let us now return to the idea of dividing the space in which the +universe is situated into concentric spheres drawn at various distances +around our system as a centre. Here we shall take as our standard a +distance 400,000 times that of the sun from the earth. Regarding this +as a unit, we imagine ourselves to measure out in any direction a +distance twice as great as this—then another equal distance, making +one three times as great, and so indefinitely. We then have successive +spheres of which we take the nearer one as the unit. The total space +filled by the second sphere will be 8 times the unit; that of the third +space 27 times, and so on, as the cube of each distance. Since each +sphere includes all those within it, the volume of space between each +two spheres will be proportional to the difference of these +numbers—that is, to 1, 7, 19, etc. Comparing these volumes with the +number of stars probably within them, the general result up to the +present time is that the number of stars in any of these spheres will +be about equal to the units of volume which they comprise, when we take +for this unit the smallest and innermost of the spheres, having a +radius 400,000 times the sun's distance. We are thus enabled to form +some general idea of how thickly the stars are sown through space. We +cannot claim any numerical exactness for this idea, but in the absence +of better methods it does afford us some basis for reasoning. +</P> + +<P> +Now we can carry on our computation as we supposed the farmer to +measure the extent of his wheat-field. Let us suppose that there are +125,000,000 stars in the heavens. This is an exceedingly rough +estimate, but let us make the supposition for the time being. Accepting +the view that they are nearly equally scattered throughout space, it +will follow that they must be contained within a volume equal to +125,000,000 times the sphere we have taken as our unit. We find the +distance of the surface of this sphere by extracting the cube root of +this number, which gives us 500. We may, therefore, say, as the result +of a very rough estimate, that the number of stars we have supposed +would be contained within a distance found by multiplying 400,000 times +the distance of the sun by 500; that is, that they are contained within +a region whose boundary is 200,000,000 times the distance of the sun. +This is a distance through which light would travel in about 3300 years. +</P> + +<P> +It is not impossible that the number of stars is much greater than that +we have supposed. Let us grant that there are eight times as many, or +1,000,000,000. Then we should have to extend the boundary of our +universe twice as far, carrying it to a distance which light would +require 6600 years to travel. +</P> + +<P> +There is another method of estimating the thickness with which stars +are sown through space, and hence the extent of the universe, the +result of which will be of interest. It is based on the proper motion +of the stars. One of the greatest triumphs of astronomy of our time has +been the measurement of the actual speed at which many of the stars are +moving to or from us in space. These measures are made with the +spectroscope. Unfortunately, they can be best made only on the brighter +stars—becoming very difficult in the case of stars not plainly visible +to the naked eye. Still the motions of several hundreds have been +measured and the number is constantly increasing. +</P> + +<P> +A general result of all these measures and of other estimates may be +summed up by saying that there is a certain average speed with which +the individual stars move in space; and that this average is about +twenty miles per second. We are also able to form an estimate as to +what proportion of the stars move with each rate of speed from the +lowest up to a limit which is probably as high as 150 miles per second. +Knowing these proportions we have, by observation of the proper motions +of the stars, another method of estimating how thickly they are +scattered in space; in other words, what is the volume of space which, +on the average, contains a single star. This method gives a thickness +of the stars greater by about twenty-five per cent, than that derived +from the measures of parallax. That is to say, a sphere like the second +we have proposed, having a radius 800,000 times the distance of the +sun, and therefore a diameter 1,600,000 times this distance, would, +judging by the proper motions, have ten or twelve stars contained +within it, while the measures of parallax only show eight stars within +the sphere of this diameter having the sun as its centre. The +probabilities are in favor of the result giving the greater thickness +of the stars. But, after all, the discrepancy does not change the +general conclusion as to the limits of the visible universe. If we +cannot estimate its extent with the same certainty that we can +determine the size of the earth, we can still form a general idea of it. +</P> + +<P> +The estimates we have made are based on the supposition that the stars +are equally scattered in space. We have good reason to believe that +this is true of all the stars except those of the Milky Way. But, after +all, the latter probably includes half the whole number of stars +visible with a telescope, and the question may arise whether our +results are seriously wrong from this cause. This question can best be +solved by yet another method of estimating the average distance of +certain classes of stars. +</P> + +<P> +The parallaxes of which we have heretofore spoken consist in the change +in the direction of a star produced by the swing of the earth from one +side of its orbit to the other. But we have already remarked that our +solar system, with the earth as one of its bodies, has been journeying +straightforward through space during all historic times. It follows, +therefore, that we are continually changing the position from which we +view the stars, and that, if the latter were at rest, we could, by +measuring the apparent speed with which they are moving in the opposite +direction from that of the earth, determine their distance. But since +every star has its own motion, it is impossible, in any one case, to +determine how much of the apparent motion is due to the star itself, +and how much to the motion of the solar system through space. Yet, by +taking general averages among groups of stars, most of which are +probably near each other, it is possible to estimate the average +distance by this method. When an attempt is made to apply it, so as to +obtain a definite result, the astronomer finds that the data now +available for the purpose are very deficient. The proper motion of a +star can be determined only by comparing its observed position in the +heavens at two widely separate epochs. Observations of sufficient +precision for this purpose were commenced about 1750 at the Greenwich +Observatory, by Bradley, then Astronomer Royal of England. But out of +3000 stars which he determined, only a few are available for the +purpose. Even since his time, the determinations made by each +generation of astronomers have not been sufficiently complete and +systematic to furnish the material for anything like a precise +determination of the proper motions of stars. To determine a single +position of any one star involves a good deal of computation, and if we +reflect that, in order to attack the problem in question in a +satisfactory way, we should have observations of 1,000,000 of these +bodies made at intervals of at least a considerable fraction of a +century, we see what an enormous task the astronomers dealing with this +problem have before them, and how imperfect must be any determination +of the distance of the stars based on our motion through space. So far +as an estimate can be made, it seems to agree fairly well with the +results obtained by the other methods. Speaking roughly, we have +reason, from the data so far available, to believe that the stars of +the Milky Way are situated at a distance between 100,000,000 and +200,000,000 times the distance of the sun. At distances less than this +it seems likely that the stars are distributed through space with some +approach to uniformity. We may state as a general conclusion, indicated +by several methods of making the estimate, that nearly all the stars +which we can see with our telescopes are contained within a sphere not +likely to be much more than 200,000,000 times the distance of the sun. +</P> + +<P> +The inquiring reader may here ask another question. Granting that all +the stars we can see are contained within this limit, may there not be +any number of stars outside the limit which are invisible only because +they are too far away to be seen? +</P> + +<P> +This question may be answered quite definitely if we grant that light +from the most distant stars meets with no obstruction in reaching us. +The most conclusive answer is afforded by the measure of starlight. If +the stars extended out indefinitely, then the number of those of each +order of magnitude would be nearly four times that of the magnitude +next brighter. For example, we should have nearly four times as many +stars of the sixth magnitude as of the fifth; nearly four times as many +of the seventh as of the sixth, and so on indefinitely. Now, it is +actually found that while this ratio of increase is true for the +brighter stars, it is not so for the fainter ones, and that the +increase in the number of the latter rapidly falls off when we make +counts of the fainter telescopic stars. In fact, it has long been known +that, were the universe infinite in extent, and the stars equally +scattered through all space, the whole heavens would blaze with the +light of countless millions of distant stars separately invisible even +with the telescope. +</P> + +<P> +The only way in which this conclusion can be invalidated is by the +possibility that the light of the stars is in some way extinguished or +obstructed in its passage through space. A theory to this effect was +propounded by Struve nearly a century ago, but it has since been found +that the facts as he set them forth do not justify the conclusion, +which was, in fact, rather hypothetical. The theories of modern science +converge towards the view that, in the pure ether of space, no single +ray of light can ever be lost, no matter how far it may travel. But +there is another possible cause for the extinction of light. During the +last few years discoveries of dark and therefore invisible stars have +been made by means of the spectroscope with a success which would have +been quite incredible a very few years ago, and which, even to-day, +must excite wonder and admiration. The general conclusion is that, +besides the shining stars which exist in space, there may be any number +of dark ones, forever invisible in our telescopes. May it not be that +these bodies are so numerous as to cut off the light which we would +otherwise receive from the more distant bodies of the universe? It is, +of course, impossible to answer this question in a positive way, but +the probable conclusion is a negative one. We may say with certainty +that dark stars are not so numerous as to cut off any important part of +the light from the stars of the Milky Way, because, if they did, the +latter would not be so clearly seen as it is. Since we have reason to +believe that the Milky Way comprises the more distant stars of our +system, we may feel fairly confident that not much light can be cut off +by dark bodies from the most distant region to which our telescopes can +penetrate. Up to this distance we see the stars just as they are. Even +within the limit of the universe as we understand it, it is likely that +more than one-half the stars which actually exist are too faint to be +seen by human vision, even when armed with the most powerful +telescopes. But their invisibility is due only to their distance and +the faintness of their intrinsic light, and not to any obstructing +agency. +</P> + +<P> +The possibility of dark stars, therefore, does not invalidate the +general conclusions at which our survey of the subject points. The +universe, so far as we can see it, is a bounded whole. It is surrounded +by an immense girdle of stars, which, to our vision, appears as the +Milky Way. While we cannot set exact limits to its distance, we may yet +confidently say that it is bounded. It has uniformities running through +its vast extent. Could we fly out to distances equal to that of the +Milky Way, we should find comparatively few stars beyond the limits of +that girdle. It is true that we cannot set any definite limit and say +that beyond this nothing exists. What we can say is that the region +containing the visible stars has some approximation to a boundary. We +may fairly anticipate that each successive generation of astronomers, +through coming centuries, will obtain a little more light on the +subject—will be enabled to make more definite the boundaries of our +system of stars, and to draw more and more probable conclusions as to +the existence or non-existence of any object outside of it. The wise +investigator of to-day will leave to them the task of putting the +problem into a more positive shape. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap05"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +V +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +MAKING AND USING A TELESCOPE +</H3> + +<P> +The impression is quite common that satisfactory views of the heavenly +bodies can be obtained only with very large telescopes, and that the +owner of a small one must stand at a great disadvantage alongside of +the fortunate possessor of a great one. This is not true to the extent +commonly supposed. Sir William Herschel would have been delighted to +view the moon through what we should now consider a very modest +instrument; and there are some objects, especially the moon, which +commonly present a more pleasing aspect through a small telescope than +through a large one. The numerous owners of small telescopes throughout +the country might find their instruments much more interesting than +they do if they only knew what objects were best suited to examination +with the means at their command. There are many others, not possessors +of telescopes, who would like to know how one can be acquired, and to +whom hints in this direction will be valuable. We shall therefore give +such information as we are able respecting the construction of a +telescope, and the more interesting celestial objects to which it may +be applied. +</P> + +<P> +Whether the reader does or does not feel competent to undertake the +making of a telescope, it may be of interest to him to know how it is +done. First, as to the general principles involved, it is generally +known that the really vital parts of the telescope, which by their +combined action perform the office of magnifying the object looked at, +are two in number, the OBJECTIVE and the EYE-PIECE. The former brings +the rays of light which emanate from the object to the focus where the +image of the object is formed. The eye-piece enables the observer to +see this image to the best advantage. +</P> + +<P> +The functions of the objective as well as those of the eye-piece may, +to a certain extent, each be performed by a single lens. Galileo and +his contemporaries made their telescopes in this way, because they knew +of no way in which two lenses could be made to do better than one. But +every one who has studied optics knows that white light passing through +a single lens is not all brought to the same focus, but that the blue +light will come to a focus nearer the objective than the red light. +There will, in fact, be a succession of images, blue, green, yellow, +and red, corresponding to the colors of the spectrum. It is impossible +to see these different images clearly at the same time, because each of +them will render all the others indistinct. +</P> + +<P> +The achromatic object-glass, invented by Dollond, about 1750, obviates +this difficulty, and brings all the rays to nearly the same focus. +Nearly every one interested in the subject is aware that this +object-glass is composed of two lenses—a concave one of flint-glass +and a convex one of crown-glass, the latter being on the side towards +the object. This is the one vital part of the telescope, the +construction of which involves the greatest difficulty. Once in +possession of a perfect object-glass, the rest of the telescope is a +matter of little more than constructive skill which there is no +difficulty in commanding. +</P> + +<P> +The construction of the object-glass requires two completely distinct +processes: the making of the rough glass, which is the work of the +glass-maker; and the grinding and polishing into shape, which is the +work of the optician. The ordinary glass of commerce will not answer +the purpose of the telescope at all, because it is not sufficiently +clear and homogeneous. OPTICAL GLASS, as it is called, must be made of +materials selected and purified with the greatest care, and worked in a +more elaborate manner than is necessary in any other kind of glass. In +the time of Dollond it was found scarcely possible to make good disks +of flint-glass more than three or four inches in diameter. Early in the +present century, Guinand, of Switzerland, invented a process by which +disks of much larger size could be produced. In conjunction with the +celebrated Fraunhofer he made disks of nine or ten inches in diameter, +which were employed by his colaborer in constructing the telescopes +which were so famous in their time. He was long supposed to be in +possession of some secret method of avoiding the difficulties which his +predecessors had met. It is now believed that this secret, if one it +was, consisted principally in the constant stirring of the molten glass +during the process of manufacture. However this may be, it is a curious +historical fact that the most successful makers of these great disks of +glass have either been of the family of Guinand, or successors, in the +management of the family firm. It was Feil, a son-in-law or near +relative, who made the glass from which Clark fabricated the lenses of +the great telescope of the Lick Observatory. His successor, Mantois, of +Paris, carried the art to a point of perfection never before +approached. The transparency and uniformity of his disks as well as the +great size to which he was able to carry them would suggest that he and +his successors have out-distanced all competitors in the process. He it +was who made the great 40-inch lens for the Yerkes Observatory. +</P> + +<P> +As optical glass is now made, the material is constantly stirred with +an iron rod during all the time it is melting in the furnace, and after +it has begun to cool, until it becomes so stiff that the stirring has +to cease. It is then placed, pot and all, in the annealing furnace, +where it is kept nearly at a melting heat for three weeks or more, +according to the size of the pot. When the furnace has cooled off, the +glass is taken out, and the pot is broken from around it, leaving only +the central mass of glass. Having such a mass, there is no trouble in +breaking it up into pieces of all desirable purity, and sufficiently +large for moderate-sized telescopes. But when a great telescope of two +feet aperture or upward is to be constructed, very delicate and +laborious operations have to be undertaken. The outside of the glass +has first to be chipped off, because it is filled with impurities from +the material of the pot itself. But this is not all. Veins of unequal +density are always found extending through the interior of the mass, no +way of avoiding them having yet been discovered. They are supposed to +arise from the materials of the pot and stirring rod, which become +mixed in with the glass in consequence of the intense heat to which all +are subjected. These veins must, so far as possible, be ground or +chipped out with the greatest care. The glass is then melted again, +pressed into a flat disk, and once more put into the annealing oven. In +fact, the operation of annealing must be repeated every time the glass +is melted. When cooled, it is again examined for veins, of which great +numbers are sure to be found. The problem now is to remove these by +cutting and grinding without either breaking the glass in two or +cutting a hole through it. If the parts of the glass are once +separated, they can never be joined without producing a bad scar at the +point of junction. So long, however, as the surface is unbroken, the +interior parts of the glass can be changed in form to any extent. +Having ground out the veins as far as possible, the glass is to be +again melted, and moulded into proper shape. In this mould great care +must be taken to have no folding of the surface. Imagining the latter +to be a sort of skin enclosing the melted glass inside, it must be +raised up wherever the glass is thinnest, and the latter allowed to +slowly run together beneath it. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: THE GLASS DISK.] +</P> + +<P> +If the disk is of flint, all the veins must be ground out on the first +or second trial, because after two or three mouldings the glass will +lose its transparency. A crown disk may, however, be melted a number of +times without serious injury. In many cases—perhaps the majority—the +artisan finds that after all his months of labor he cannot perfectly +clear his glass of the noxious veins, and he has to break it up into +smaller pieces. When he finally succeeds, the disk has the form of a +thin grindstone two feet or upward in diameter, according to the size +of the telescope to be made, and from two to three inches in thickness. +The glass is then ready for the optician. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: THE OPTICIAN'S TOOL.] +</P> + +<P> +The first process to be performed by the optician is to grind the glass +into the shape of a lens with perfectly spherical surfaces. The convex +surface must be ground in a saucer-shaped tool of corresponding form. +It is impossible to make a tool perfectly spherical in the first place, +but success may be secured on the geometrical principle that two +surfaces cannot fit each other in all positions unless both are +perfectly spherical. The tool of the optician is a very simple affair, +being nothing more than a plate of iron somewhat larger, perhaps a +fourth, than the lens to be ground to the corresponding curvature. In +order to insure its changing to fit the glass, it is covered on the +interior with a coating of pitch from an eighth to a quarter of an inch +thick. This material is admirably adapted to the purpose because it +gives way certainly, though very slowly, to the pressure of the glass. +In order that it may have room to change its form, grooves are cut +through it in both directions, so as to leave it in the form of +squares, like those on a chess-board. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: THE OPTICIAN'S TOOL.] +</P> + +<P> +It is then sprinkled over with rouge, moistened with water, and gently +warmed. The roughly ground lens is then placed upon it, and moved from +side to side. The direction of the motion is slightly changed with +every stroke, so that after a dozen or so of strokes the lines of +motion will lie in every direction on the tool. This change of +direction is most readily and easily effected by the operator slowly +walking around as he polishes, at the same time the lens is to be +slowly turned around either in the opposite direction or more rapidly +yet in the same direction, so that the strokes of the polisher shall +cross the lens in all directions. This double motion insures every part +of the lens coming into contact with every part of the polisher, and +moving over it in every direction. +</P> + +<P> +Then whatever parts either of the lens or of the polisher may be too +high to form a spherical surface will be gradually worn down, thus +securing the perfect sphericity of both. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: GRINDING A LARGE LENS.] +</P> + +<P> +When the polishing is done by machinery, which is the custom in Europe, +with large lenses, the polisher is slid back and forth over the lens by +means of a crank attached to a revolving wheel. The polisher is at the +same time slowly revolving around a pivot at its centre, which pivot +the crank works into, and the glass below it is slowly turned in an +opposite direction. Thus the same effect is produced as in the other +system. Those who practice this method claim that by thus using +machinery the conditions of a uniform polish for every part of the +surface can be more perfectly fulfilled than by a hand motion. The +results, however, do not support this view. No European optician will +claim to do better than the American firm of Alvan Clark & Sons in +producing uniformly good object-glasses, and this firm always does the +work by hand, moving the glass over the polisher, and not the polisher +over the glass. +</P> + +<P> +Having brought both flint and crown glasses into proper figure by this +process, they are joined together, and tested by observations either +upon a star in the heavens, or some illuminated point at a little +distance on the ground. The reflection of the sun from a drop of +quicksilver, a thermometer bulb, or even a piece of broken bottle, +makes an excellent artificial star. The very best optician will always +find that on a first trial his glass is not perfect. He will find that +he has not given exactly the proper curves to secure achromatism. He +must then change the figure of one or both the glasses by polishing it +upon a tool of slightly different curvature. He may also find that +there is some spherical aberration outstanding. He must then alter his +curve so as to correct this. The correction of these little +imperfections in the figures of the lenses so as to secure perfect +vision through them is the most difficult branch of the art of the +optician, and upon his skill in practising it will depend more than +upon anything else his ultimate success and reputation. The shaping of +a pair of lenses in the way we have described is not beyond the power +of any person of ordinary mechanical ingenuity, possessing the +necessary delicacy of touch and appreciation of the problem he is +attacking. But to make a perfect objective of considerable size, which +shall satisfy all the wants of the astronomer, is an undertaking +requiring such accuracy of eyesight, and judgment in determining where +the error lies, and such skill in manipulating so as to remove the +defects, that the successful men in any one generation can be counted +on one's fingers. +</P> + +<P> +In order that the telescope may finally perform satisfactorily it is +not sufficient that the lenses should both be of proper figure; they +must also both be properly centred in their cells. If either lens is +tipped aside, or slid out from its proper central line, the definition +will be injured. As this is liable to happen with almost any telescope, +we shall explain how the proper adjustment is to be made. +</P> + +<P> +The easiest way to test this adjustment is to set the cell with the two +glasses of the objective in it against a wall at night, and going to a +short distance, observe the reflection in the glass of the flame of a +candle held in the hand. Three or four reflections will be seen from +the different surfaces. The observer, holding the candle before his +eye, and having his line of sight as close as possible to the flame, +must then move until the different images of the flame coincide with +each other. If he cannot bring them into coincidence, owing to +different pairs coinciding on different sides of the flame, the glasses +are not perfectly centred upon each other. When the centring is +perfect, the observer having the light in the line of the axes of the +lenses, and (if it were possible to do so) looking through the centre +of the flame, would see the three or four images all in coincidence. As +he cannot see through the flame itself, he must look first on one side +and then on the other, and see if the arrangement of the images seen in +the lenses is symmetrical. If, going to different distances, he finds +no deviation from symmetry, in this respect the adjustment is near +enough for all practical purposes. +</P> + +<P> +A more artistic instrument than a simple candle is a small concave +reflector pierced through its centre, such as is used by physicians in +examining the throat. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: IMAGE OF CANDLE-FLAME IN OBJECT-GLASS.] +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: TESTING ADJUSTMENT OF OBJECT-GLASS.] +</P> + +<P> +Place this reflector in the prolongation of the optical axis, set the +candle so that the light from the reflector shall be shown through the +glass, and look through the opening. Images of the reflector itself +will then be seen in the object-glass, and if the adjustment is +perfect, the reflector can be moved so that they will all come into +coincidence together. +</P> + +<P> +When the objective is in the tube of the telescope, it is always well +to examine this adjustment from time to time, holding the candle so +that its light shall shine through the opening perpendicularly upon the +object-glass. The observer looks upon one side of the flame, and then +upon the other, to see if the images are symmetrical in the different +positions. If in order to see them in this way the candle has to be +moved to one side of the central line of the tube, the whole objective +must be adjusted. If two images coincide in one position of the +candle-flame, and two in another position, so that they cannot all be +brought together in any position, it shows that the glasses are not +properly adjusted in their cell. It may be remarked that this last +adjustment is the proper work of the optician, since it is so difficult +that the user of the telescope cannot ordinarily effect it. But the +perpendicularity of the whole objective to the tube of the telescope is +liable to be deranged in use, and every one who uses such an instrument +should be able to rectify an error of this kind. +</P> + +<P> +The question may be asked, How much of a telescope can an amateur +observer, under any circumstances, make for himself? As a general rule, +his work in this direction must be confined to the tube and the +mounting. We should not, it is true, dare to assert that any ingenious +young man, with a clear appreciation of optical principles, could not +soon learn to grind and polish an object-glass for himself by the +method we have described, and thus obtain a much better instrument than +Galileo ever had at his command. But it would be a wonderful success if +his home-made telescope was equal to the most indifferent one which can +be bought at an optician's. The objective, complete in itself, can be +purchased at prices depending upon the size. +</P> + +<P CLASS="footnote"> +[Footnote: The following is a rough rule for getting an idea of the +price of an achromatic objective, made to order, of the finest quality. +Take the cube of the diameter in inches, or, which is the same thing, +calculate the contents of a cubical box which would hold a sphere of +the same diameter as the clear aperture of the glass. The price of the +glass will then range from $1 to $1.75 for each cubic inch in this box. +For example, the price of a four-inch objective will probably range +from $64 to $112. Very small object-glasses of one or two inches may be +a little higher than would be given by this rule. Instruments which are +not first-class, but will answer most of the purposes of the amateur, +are much cheaper.] +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: A VERY PRIMITIVE MOUNTING FOR A TELESCOPE.] +</P> + +<P> +The tube for the telescope may be made of paper, by pasting a great +number of thicknesses around a long wooden cylinder. A yet better tube +is made of a simple wooden box. The best material, however, is metal, +because wood and pasteboard are liable both to get out of shape, and to +swell under the influence of moisture. Tin, if it be of sufficient +thickness, would be a very good material. The brighter it is kept, the +better. The work of fitting the objective into one end of a tin tube of +double thickness, and properly adjusting it, will probably be quite +within the powers of the ordinary amateur. The fitting of the eye-piece +into the other end of the tube will require some skill and care both on +his own part and that of his tinsmith. +</P> + +<P> +Although the construction of the eye-piece is much easier than that of +the objective, since the same accuracy in adjusting the curves is not +necessary, yet the price is lower in a yet greater degree, so that the +amateur will find it better to buy than to make his eye-piece, unless +he is anxious to test his mechanical powers. For a telescope which has +no micrometer, the Huyghenian or negative eye-piece, as it is commonly +called, is the best. As made by Huyghens, it consists of two +plano-convex lenses, with their plane sides next the eye, as shown in +the figure. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: THE HUYGHENIAN EYE-PIECE.] +</P> + +<P> +So far as we have yet described our telescope it is optically complete. +If it could be used as a spy-glass by simply holding it in the hand, +and pointing at the object we wish to observe, there would be little +need of any very elaborate support. But if a telescope, even of the +smallest size, is to be used with regularity, a proper "mounting" is as +essential as a good instrument. Persons unpractised in the use of such +instruments are very apt to underrate the importance of those +accessories which merely enable us to point the telescope. An idea of +what is wanted in the mounting may readily be formed if the reader will +try to look at a star with an ordinary good-sized spy-glass held in the +hand, and then imagine the difficulties he meets with multiplied by +fifty. +</P> + +<P> +The smaller and cheaper telescopes, as commonly sold, are mounted on a +simple little stand, on which the instrument admits of a horizontal and +vertical motion. If one only wants to get a few glimpses of a celestial +object, this mounting will answer his purpose. But to make anything +like a study of a celestial body, the mounting must be an equatorial +one; that is, one of the axes around which the telescope moves must be +inclined so as to point towards the pole of the heavens, which is near +the polar star. This axis will then make an angle with the horizon +equal to the latitude of the place. The telescope cannot, however, be +mounted directly on this axis, but must be attached to a second one, +itself fastened to this one. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: SECTION OF THE PRIMITIVE MOUNTING. P P. +Polar axis, bearing a fork at the upper end A. Declination axis passing +through the fork E. Section of telescope tube C. Weight to balance the +tube.] +</P> + +<P> +When mounted in this way, an object can be followed in its diurnal +motion from east to west by turning on the polar axis alone. But if the +greatest facility in use is required, this motion must be performed by +clock-work. A telescope with this appendage will commonly cost one +thousand dollars and upward, so that it is not usually applied to very +small ones. +</P> + +<P> +We will now suppose that the reader wishes to purchase a telescope or +an object-glass for himself, and to be able to judge of its +performance. He must have the object-glass properly adjusted in its +tube, and must use the highest power; that is, the smallest eye-piece, +which he intends to use in the instrument. Of course he understands +that in looking directly at a star or a celestial object it must appear +sharp in outline and well defined. But without long practice with good +instruments, this will not give him a very definite idea. If the person +who selects the telescope is quite unpractised, it is possible that he +can make the best test by ascertaining at what distance he can read +ordinary print. To do this he should have an eye-piece magnifying about +fifty times for each inch of aperture of the telescope. For instance, +if his telescope is three inches clear aperture, then his eye-piece +should magnify one hundred and fifty times; if the aperture is four +inches, one magnifying two hundred times may be used. This magnifying +power is, as a general rule, about the highest that can be +advantageously used with any telescope. Supposing this magnifying power +to be used, this page should be legible at a distance of four feet for +every unit of magnifying power of the telescope. For example, with a +power of 100, it should be legible at a distance of 400 feet; with a +power of 200, at 800 feet, and so on. To put the condition into another +shape: if the telescope will read the print at a distance of 150 feet +for each inch of aperture with the best magnifying power, its +performance is at least not very bad. If the magnifying power is less +than would be given by this rule, the telescope should perform a little +better; for instance, a three-inch telescope with a power of 60 should +make this page legible at a distance of 300 feet, or four feet for each +unit of power. +</P> + +<P> +The test applied by the optician is much more exact, and also more +easy. He points the instrument at a star, or at the reflection of the +sun's rays from a small round piece of glass or a globule of +quicksilver several hundred yards away, and ascertains whether the rays +are all brought to a focus. This is not done by simply looking at the +star, but by alternately pushing the eye-piece in beyond the point of +distinct vision and drawing it out past the point. In this way the +image of the star will appear, not as a point, but as a round disk of +light. If the telescope is perfect, this disk will appear round and of +uniform brightness in either position of the eye-piece. But if there is +any spherical aberration or differences of density in different parts +of the glass, the image will appear distorted in various ways. If the +spherical aberration is not correct, the outer rim of the disk will be +brighter than the centre when the eye-piece is pushed in, and the +centre will be the brighter when it is drawn out. If the curves of the +glass are not even all around, the image will appear oval in one or the +other position. If there are large veins of unequal density, wings or +notches will be seen on the image. If the atmosphere is steady, the +image, when the eye-piece is pushed in, will be formed of a great +number of minute rings of light. If the glass is good, these rings will +be round, unbroken, and equally bright. We present several figures +showing how these spectral images, as they are sometimes called, will +appear; first, when the eye-piece is pushed in, and secondly, when it +is drawn out, with telescopes of different qualities. +</P> + +<P> +We have thus far spoken only of the refracting telescope, because it is +the kind with which an observer would naturally seek to supply himself. +At the same time there is little doubt that the construction of a +reflector of moderate size is easier than that of a corresponding +refractor. The essential part of the reflector is a slightly concave +mirror of any metal which will bear a high polish. This mirror may be +ground and polished in the same way as a lens, only the tool must be +convex. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: SPECTRAL IMAGES OF STARS; THE UPPER LINE +SHOWING HOW THEY APPEAR WITH THE EYE-PIECE PUSHED IN, THE LOWER WITH +THE EYE-PIECE DRAWN OUT. +</P> + +<P> +A The telescope is all right B Spherical aberration shown by the light +and dark centre C The objective is not spherical but elliptical D The +glass not uniform—a very bad and incurable case E One side of the +objective nearer than the other. Adjust it] +</P> + +<P> +Of late years it has become very common to make the mirror of glass and +to cover the reflecting face with an exceedingly thin film of silver, +which can be polished by hand in a few minutes. Such a mirror differs +from our ordinary looking-glass in that the coating of silver is put on +the front surface, so that the light does not pass through the glass. +Moreover, the coating of silver is so thin as to be almost transparent: +in fact, the sun may be seen through it by direct vision as a faint +blue object. Silvered glass reflectors made in this way are extensively +manufactured in London, and are far cheaper than refracting telescopes +of corresponding size. Their great drawback is the want of permanence +in the silver film. In the city the film will ordinarily tarnish in a +few months from the sulphurous vapors arising from gaslights and other +sources, and even in the country it is very difficult to preserve the +mirror from the contact of everything that will injure it. In +consequence, the possessor of such a telescope, if he wishes to keep it +in order, must always be prepared to resilver and repolish it. To do +this requires such careful manipulation and management of the chemicals +that it is hardly to be expected that an amateur will take the trouble +to keep his telescope in order, unless he has a taste for chemistry as +well as for astronomy. +</P> + +<P> +The curiosity to see the heavenly bodies through great telescopes is so +wide-spread that we are apt to forget how much can be seen and done +with small ones. The fact is that a large proportion of the +astronomical observations of past times have been made with what we +should now regard as very small instruments, and a good deal of the +solid astronomical work of the present time is done with meridian +circles the apertures of which ordinarily range from four to eight +inches. One of the most conspicuous examples in recent times of how a +moderate-sized instrument may be utilized is afforded by the +discoveries of double stars made by Mr. S. W. Burnham, of Chicago. +Provided with a little six-inch telescope, procured at his own expense +from the Messrs. Clark, he has discovered many hundred double stars so +difficult that they had escaped the scrutiny of Maedler and the +Struves, and gained for himself one of the highest positions among the +astronomers of the day engaged in the observation of these objects. It +was with this little instrument that on Mount Hamilton, +California—afterward the site of the great Lick Observatory—he +discovered forty-eight new double stars, which had remained unnoticed +by all previous observers. First among the objects which show +beautifully through moderate instruments stands the moon. People who +want to see the moon at an observatory generally make the mistake of +looking when the moon is full, and asking to see it through the largest +telescope. Nothing can then be made out but a brilliant blaze of light, +mottled with dark spots, and crossed by irregular bright lines. The +best time to view the moon is near or before the first quarter, or when +she is from three to eight days old. The last quarter is of course +equally favorable, so far as seeing is concerned, only one must be up +after midnight to see her in that position. Seen through a three or +four inch telescope, a day or two before the first quarter, about half +an hour after sunset, and with a magnifying power between fifty and one +hundred, the moon is one of the most beautiful objects in the heavens. +Twilight softens her radiance so that the eye is not dazzled as it will +be when the sky is entirely dark. The general aspect she then presents +is that of a hemisphere of beautiful chased silver carved out in +curious round patterns with a more than human skill. If, however, one +wishes to see the minute details of the lunar surface, in which many of +our astronomers are now so deeply interested, he must use a higher +magnifying power. The general beautiful effect is then lessened, but +more details are seen. Still, it is hardly necessary to seek for a very +large telescope for any investigation of the lunar surface. I very much +doubt whether any one has ever seen anything on the moon which could +not be made out in a clear, steady atmosphere with a six-inch telescope +of the first class. +</P> + +<P> +Next to the moon, Saturn is among the most beautiful of celestial +objects. Its aspect, however, varies with its position in its orbit. +Twice in the course of a revolution, which occupies nearly thirty +years, the rings are seen edgewise, and for a few days are invisible +even in a powerful telescope. For an entire year their form may be +difficult to make out with a small telescope. These unfavorable +conditions occur in 1907 and 1921. Between these dates, especially for +some years after 1910, the position of the planet in the sky will be +the most favorable, being in northern declination, near its perihelion, +and having its rings widely open. We all know that Saturn is plainly +visible to the naked eye, shining almost like a star of the first +magnitude, so that there is no difficulty in finding it if one knows +when and where to look. In 1906-1908 its oppositions occur in the month +of September. In subsequent years, it will occur a month later every +two and a half years. The ring can be seen with a common, good +spy-glass fastened to a post so as to be steady. A four or five-inch +telescope will show most of the satellites, the division in the ring, +and, when the ring is well opened, the curious dusky ring discovered by +Bond. This "crape ring," as it is commonly called, is one of the most +singular phenomena presented by that planet. +</P> + +<P> +It might be interesting to the amateur astronomer with a keen eye and a +telescope of four inches aperture or upward to frequently scrutinize +Saturn, with a view of detecting any extraordinary eruptions upon his +surface, like that seen by Professor Hall in 1876. On December 7th of +that year a bright spot was seen upon Saturn's equator. It elongated +itself from day to day, and remained visible for several weeks. Such a +thing had never before been known upon this planet, and had it not been +that Professor Hall was engaged in observations upon the satellites, it +would not have been seen then. A similar spot on the planet was +recorded in 1902, and much more extensively noticed. On this occasion +the spot appeared in a higher latitude from the planet's equator than +did Professor Hall's. At this appearance the time of the planet's +revolution on its axis was found to be somewhat greater than in 1876, +in accordance with the general law exhibited in the rotations of the +sun and of Jupiter. Notwithstanding their transient character, these +two spots have afforded the only determination of the time of +revolution of Saturn which has been made since Herschel the elder. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: THE GREAT REFRACTOR OF THE NATIONAL +OBSERVATORY AT WASHINGTON] +</P> + +<P> +Of the satellites of Saturn the brightest is Titan, which can be seen +with the smallest telescope, and revolves around the planet in fifteen +days. Iapetus, the outer satellite, is remarkable for varying greatly +in brilliancy during its revolution around the planet. Any one having +the means and ability to make accurate photometrical estimates of the +light of this satellite in all points of its orbit, can thereby render +a valuable service to astronomy. +</P> + +<P> +The observations of Venus, by which the astronomers of the last century +supposed themselves to have discovered its time of rotation on its +axis, were made with telescopes much inferior to ours. Although their +observations have not been confirmed, some astronomers are still +inclined to think that their results have not been refuted by the +failure of recent observers to detect those changes which the older +ones describe on the surface of the planet. With a six-inch telescope +of the best quality, and with time to choose the most favorable moment, +one will be as well equipped to settle the question of the rotation of +Venus as the best observer. The few days near each inferior conjunction +are especially to be taken advantage of. +</P> + +<P> +The questions to be settled are two: first, are there any dark spots or +other markings on the disk? second, are there any irregularities in the +form of the sharp cusps? The central portions of the disk are much +darker than the outline, and it is probably this fact which has given +rise to the impression of dark spots. Unless this apparent darkness +changes from time to time, or shows some irregularity in its outline, +it cannot indicate any rotation of the planet. The best time to +scrutinize the sharp cusps will be when the planet is nearly on the +line from the earth to the sun. The best hour of the day is near +sunset, the half-hour following sunset being the best of all. But if +Venus is near the sun, she will after sunset be too low down to be well +seen, and must be looked at late in the afternoon. +</P> + +<P> +The planet Mars must always be an object of great interest, because of +all the heavenly bodies it is that which appears to bear the greatest +resemblance to the earth. It comes into opposition at intervals of a +little more than two years, and can be well seen only for a month or +two before and after each opposition. It is hopeless to look for the +satellites of Mars with any but the greatest telescopes of the world. +But the markings on the surface, from which the time of rotation has +been determined, and which indicate a resemblance to the surface of our +own planet, can be well seen with telescopes of six inches aperture and +upward. One or both of the bright polar spots, which are supposed to be +due to deposits of snow, can be seen with smaller telescopes when the +situation of the planet is favorable. +</P> + +<P> +The case is different with the so-called canals discovered by +Schiaparelli in 1877, which have ever since excited so much interest, +and given rise to so much discussion as to their nature. The astronomer +who has had the best opportunities for studying them is Mr. Percival +Lowell, whose observatory at Flaggstaff, Arizona, is finely situated +for the purpose, while he also has one of the best if not the largest +of telescopes. There the canals are seen as fine dark lines; but, even +then, they must be fifty miles in breadth, so that the word "canal" may +be regarded as a misnomer. +</P> + +<P> +Although the planet Jupiter does not present such striking features as +Saturn, it is of even more interest to the amateur astronomer, because +he can study it with less optical power, and see more of the changes +upon its surface. Every work on astronomy tells in a general way of the +belts of Jupiter, and many speculate upon their causes. The reader of +recent works knows that Jupiter is supposed to be not a solid mass like +the earth, but a great globe of molten and vaporous matter, +intermediate in constitution between the earth and the sun. The outer +surface which we see is probably a hot mass of vapor hundreds of miles +deep, thrown up from the heated interior. The belts are probably +cloudlike forms in this vaporous mass. Certain it is that they are +continually changing, so that the planet seldom looks exactly the same +on two successive evenings. The rotation of the planet can be very well +seen by an hour's watching. In two hours an object at the centre of the +disk will move off to near the margin. +</P> + +<P> +The satellites of this planet, in their ever-varying phases, are +objects of perennial interest. Their eclipses may be observed with a +very small telescope, if one knows when to look for them. To do this +successfully, and without waste of time, it is necessary to have an +astronomical ephemeris for the year. All the observable phenomena are +there predicted for the convenience of observers. Perhaps the most +curious observation to be made is that of the shadow of the satellite +crossing the disk of Jupiter. The writer has seen this perfectly with a +six-inch telescope, and a much smaller one would probably show it well. +With a telescope of this size, or a little larger, the satellites can +be seen between us and Jupiter. Sometimes they appear a little brighter +than the planet, and sometimes a little fainter. +</P> + +<P> +Of the remaining large planets, Mercury, the inner one, and Uranus and +Neptune, the two outer ones, are of less interest than the others to an +amateur with a small telescope, because they are more difficult to see. +Mercury can, indeed, be observed with the smallest instrument, but no +physical configurations or changes have ever been made out upon his +surface. The question whether any such can be observed is still an open +one, which can be settled only by long and careful scrutiny. A small +telescope is almost as good for this purpose as a large one, because +the atmospheric difficulties in the way of getting a good view of the +planet cannot be lessened by an increase of telescopic power. +</P> + +<P> +Uranus and Neptune are so distant that telescopes of considerable size +and high magnifying power are necessary to show their disks. In small +telescopes they have the appearance of stars, and the observer has no +way of distinguishing them from the surrounding stars unless he can +command the best astronomical appliances, such as star maps, circles on +his instrument, etc. It is, however, to be remarked, as a fact not +generally known, that Uranus can be well seen with the naked eye if one +knows where to look for it. To recognize it, it is necessary to have an +astronomical ephemeris showing its right ascension and declination, and +star maps showing where the parallels of right ascension and +declination lie among the stars. When once found by the naked eye, +there will, of course, be no difficulty in pointing the telescope upon +it. +</P> + +<P> +Of celestial objects which it is well to keep a watch upon, and which +can be seen to good advantage with inexpensive instruments, the sun may +be considered as holding the first place. Astronomers who make a +specialty of solar physics have, especially in this country, so many +other duties, and their view is so often interrupted by clouds, that a +continuous record of the spots on the sun and the changes they undergo +is hardly possible. Perhaps one of the most interesting and useful +pieces of astronomical work which an amateur can perform will consist +of a record of the origin and changes of form of the solar spots and +faculae. What does a spot look like when it first comes into sight? +Does it immediately burst forth with considerable magnitude, or does it +begin as the smallest visible speck, and gradually grow? When several +spots coalesce into one, how do they do it? When a spot breaks up into +several pieces, what is the seeming nature of the process? How do the +groups of brilliant points called faculae come, change, and grow? All +these questions must no doubt be answered in various ways, according to +the behavior of the particular spot, but the record is rather meagre, +and the conscientious and industrious amateur will be able to amuse +himself by adding to it, and possibly may make valuable contributions +to science in the same way. +</P> + +<P> +Still another branch of astronomical observation, in which industry and +skill count for more than expensive instruments, is the search for new +comets. This requires a very practised eye, in order that the comet may +be caught among the crowd of stars which flit across the field of view +as the telescope is moved. It is also necessary to be well acquainted +with a number of nebulae which look very much like comets. The search +can be made with almost any small telescope, if one is careful to use a +very low power. With a four-inch telescope a power not exceeding twenty +should be employed. To search with ease, and in the best manner, the +observer should have what among astronomers is familiarly known as a +"broken-backed telescope." This instrument has the eye-piece on the end +of the axis, where one would never think of looking for it. By turning +the instrument on this axis, it sweeps from one horizon through the +zenith and over to the other horizon without the observer having to +move his head. This is effected by having a reflector in the central +part of the instrument, which throws the rays of light at right angles +through the axis. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration: THE "BROKEN-BACKED COMET-SEEKER"] +</P> + +<P> +How well this search can be conducted by observers with limited means +at their disposal is shown by the success of several American +observers, among whom Messrs. W. R. Brooks, E. E. Barnard, and Lewis +Swift are well known. The cometary discoveries of these men afford an +excellent illustration of how much can be done with the smallest means +when one sets to work in the right spirit. +</P> + +<P> +The larger number of wonderful telescopic objects are to be sought for +far beyond the confines of the solar system, in regions from which +light requires years to reach us. On account of their great distance, +these objects generally require the most powerful telescopes to be seen +in the best manner; but there are quite a number within the range of +the amateur. Looking at the Milky Way, especially its southern part, on +a clear winter or summer evening, tufts of light will be seen here and +there. On examining these tufts with a telescope, they will be found to +consist of congeries of stars. Many of these groups are of the greatest +beauty, with only a moderate optical power. Of all the groups in the +Milky Way the best known is that in the sword-handle of Perseus, which +may be seen during the greater part of the year, and is distinctly +visible to the naked eye as a patch of diffused light. With the +telescope there are seen in this patch two closely connected clusters +of stars, or perhaps we ought rather to say two centres of condensation. +</P> + +<P> +Another object of the same class is Proesepe in the constellation +Cancer. This can be very distinctly seen by the naked eye on a clear +moonless night in winter or spring as a faint nebulous object, +surrounded by three small stars. The smallest telescope shows it as a +group of stars. +</P> + +<P> +Of all stellar objects, the great nebula of Orion is that which has +most fascinated the astronomers of two centuries. It is distinctly +visible to the naked eye, and may be found without difficulty on any +winter night. The three bright stars forming the sword-belt of Orion +are known to every one who has noticed that constellation. Below this +belt is seen another triplet of stars, not so bright, and lying in a +north and south direction. The middle star of this triplet is the great +nebula. At first the naked eye sees nothing to distinguish it from +other stars, but if closely scanned it will be seen to have a hazy +aspect. A four-inch telescope will show its curious form. Not the least +interesting of its features are the four stars known as the +"Trapezium," which are located in a dark region near its centre. In +fact, the whole nebula is dotted with stars, which add greatly to the +effect produced by its mysterious aspect. +</P> + +<P> +The great nebula of Andromeda is second only to that of Orion in +interest. Like the former, it is distinctly visible to the naked eye, +having the aspect of a faint comet. The most curious feature of this +object is that although the most powerful telescopes do not resolve it +into stars, it appears in the spectroscope as if it were solid matter +shining by its own light. +</P> + +<P> +The above are merely selections from the countless number of objects +which the heavens offer to telescopic study. Many such are described in +astronomical works, but the amateur can gratify his curiosity to almost +any extent by searching them out for himself. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: NEBULA IN ORION] +</P> + +<P> +Ever since 1878 a red spot, unlike any before noticed, has generally +been visible on Jupiter. At first it was for several years a very +conspicuous object, but gradually faded away, so that since 1890 it has +been made out only with difficulty. But it is now regarded as a +permanent feature of the planet. There is some reason to believe it was +occasionally seen long before attention was first attracted to it. +Doubtless, when it can be seen at all, practice in observing such +objects is more important than size of telescope. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap06"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +VI +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +WHAT THE ASTRONOMERS ARE DOING +</H3> + +<P> +In no field of science has human knowledge been more extended in our +time than in that of astronomy. Forty years ago astronomical research +seemed quite barren of results of great interest or value to our race. +The observers of the world were working on a traditional system, +grinding out results in an endless course, without seeing any prospect +of the great generalizations to which they might ultimately lead. Now +this is all changed. A new instrument, the spectroscope, has been +developed, the extent of whose revelations we are just beginning to +learn, although it has been more than thirty years in use. The +application of photography has been so extended that, in some important +branches of astronomical work, the observer simply photographs the +phenomenon which he is to study, and then makes his observation on the +developed negative. +</P> + +<P> +The world of astronomy is one of the busiest that can be found to-day, +and the writer proposes, with the reader's courteous consent, to take +him on a stroll through it and see what is going on. We may begin our +inspection with a body which is, for us, next to the earth, the most +important in the universe. I mean the sun. At the Greenwich Observatory +the sun has for more than twenty years been regularly photographed on +every clear day, with the view of determining the changes going on in +its spots. In recent years these observations have been supplemented by +others, made at stations in India and Mauritius, so that by the +combination of all it is quite exceptional to have an entire day pass +without at least one photograph being taken. On these observations must +mainly rest our knowledge of the curious cycle of change in the solar +spots, which goes through a period of about eleven years, but of which +no one has as yet been able to establish the cause. +</P> + +<P> +This Greenwich system has been extended and improved by an American. +Professor George E. Hale, formerly Director of the Yerkes Observatory, +has devised an instrument for taking photographs of the sun by a single +ray of the spectrum. The light emitted by calcium, the base of lime, +and one of the substances most abundant in the sun, is often selected +to impress the plate. +</P> + +<P> +The Carnegie Institution has recently organized an enterprise for +carrying on the study of the sun under a combination of better +conditions than were ever before enjoyed. The first requirement in such +a case is the ablest and most enthusiastic worker in the field, ready +to devote all his energies to its cultivation. This requirement is +found in the person of Professor Hale himself. The next requirement is +an atmosphere of the greatest transparency, and a situation at a high +elevation above sea-level, so that the passage of light from the sun to +the observer shall be obstructed as little as possible by the mists and +vapors near the earth's surface. This requirement is reached by placing +the observatory on Mount Wilson, near Pasadena, California, where the +climate is found to be the best of any in the United States, and +probably not exceeded by that of any other attainable point in the +world. The third requirement is the best of instruments, specially +devised to meet the requirements. In this respect we may be sure that +nothing attainable by human ingenuity will be found wanting. +</P> + +<P> +Thus provided, Professor Hale has entered upon the task of studying the +sun, and recording from day to day all the changes going on in it, +using specially devised instruments for each purpose in view. +Photography is made use of through almost the entire investigation. A +full description of the work would require an enumeration of technical +details, into which we need not enter at present. Let it, therefore, +suffice to say in a general way that the study of the sun is being +carried on on a scale, and with an energy worthy of the most important +subject that presents itself to the astronomer. Closely associated with +this work is that of Professor Langley and Dr. Abbot, at the +Astro-Physical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, who have +recently completed one of the most important works ever carried out on +the light of the sun. They have for years been analyzing those of its +rays which, although entirely invisible to our eyes, are of the same +nature as those of light, and are felt by us as heat. To do this, +Langley invented a sort of artificial eye, which he called a bolometer, +in which the optic nerve is made of an extremely thin strip of metal, +so slight that one can hardly see it, which is traversed by an electric +current. This eye would be so dazzled by the heat radiated from one's +body that, when in use, it must be protected from all such heat by +being enclosed in a case kept at a constant temperature by being +immersed in water. With this eye the two observers have mapped the heat +rays of the sun down to an extent and with a precision which were +before entirely unknown. +</P> + +<P> +The question of possible changes in the sun's radiation, and of the +relation of those changes to human welfare, still eludes our scrutiny. +With all the efforts that have been made, the physicist of to-day has +not yet been able to make anything like an exact determination of the +total amount of heat received from the sun. The largest measurements +are almost double the smallest. This is partly due to the atmosphere +absorbing an unknown and variable fraction of the sun's rays which pass +through it, and partly to the difficulty of distinguishing the heat +radiated by the sun from that radiated by terrestrial objects. +</P> + +<P> +In one recent instance, a change in the sun's radiation has been +noticed in various parts of the world, and is of especial interest +because there seems to be little doubt as to its origin. In the latter +part of 1902 an extraordinary diminution was found in the intensity of +the sun's heat, as measured by the bolometer and other instruments. +This continued through the first part of 1903, with wide variations at +different places, and it was more than a year after the first +diminution before the sun's rays again assumed their ordinary intensity. +</P> + +<P> +This result is now attributed to the eruption of Mount Pelee, during +which an enormous mass of volcanic dust and vapor was projected into +the higher regions of the air, and gradually carried over the entire +earth by winds and currents. Many of our readers may remember that +something yet more striking occurred after the great cataclasm at +Krakatoa in 1883, when, for more than a year, red sunsets and red +twilights of a depth of shade never before observed were seen in every +part of the world. +</P> + +<P> +What we call universology—the knowledge of the structure and extent of +the universe—must begin with a study of the starry heavens as we see +them. There are perhaps one hundred million stars in the sky within the +reach of telescopic vision. This number is too great to allow of all +the stars being studied individually; yet, to form the basis for any +conclusion, we must know the positions and arrangement of as many of +them as we can determine. +</P> + +<P> +To do this the first want is a catalogue giving very precise positions +of as many of the brighter stars as possible. The principal national +observatories, as well as some others, are engaged in supplying this +want. Up to the present time about 200,000 stars visible in our +latitudes have been catalogued on this precise plan, and the work is +still going on. In that part of the sky which we never see, because it +is only visible from the southern hemisphere, the corresponding work is +far from being as extensive. Sir David Gill, astronomer at the Cape of +Good Hope, and also the directors of other southern observatories, are +engaged in pushing it forward as rapidly as the limited facilities at +their disposal will allow. +</P> + +<P> +Next in order comes the work of simply listing as many stars as +possible. Here the most exact positions are not required. It is only +necessary to lay down the position of each star with sufficient +exactness to distinguish it from all its neighbors. About 400,000 stars +were during the last half-century listed in this way at the observatory +of Bonn by Argelander, Schonfeld, and their assistants. This work is +now being carried through the southern hemisphere on a large scale by +Thome, Director of the Cordoba Observatory, in the Argentine Republic. +This was founded thirty years ago by our Dr. B. A. Gould, who turned it +over to Dr. Thome in 1886. The latter has, up to the present time, +fixed and published the positions of nearly half a million stars. This +work of Thome extends to fainter stars than any other yet attempted, so +that, as it goes on, we have more stars listed in a region invisible in +middle northern latitudes than we have for that part of the sky we can +see. Up to the present time three quarto volumes giving the positions +and magnitudes of the stars have appeared. Two or three volumes more, +and, perhaps, ten or fifteen years, will be required to complete the +work. +</P> + +<P> +About twenty years ago it was discovered that, by means of a telescope +especially adapted to this purpose, it was possible to photograph many +more stars than an instrument of the same size would show to the eye. +This discovery was soon applied in various quarters. Sir David Gill, +with characteristic energy, photographed the stars of the southern sky +to the number of nearly half a million. As it was beyond his power to +measure off and compute the positions of the stars from his plates, the +latter were sent to Professor J. C. Kapteyn, of Holland, who undertook +the enormous labor of collecting them into a catalogue, the last volume +of which was published in 1899. One curious result of this enterprise +is that the work of listing the stars is more complete for the southern +hemisphere than for the northern. +</P> + +<P> +Another great photographic work now in progress has to do with the +millions of stars which it is impossible to handle individually. +Fifteen years ago an association of observatories in both hemispheres +undertook to make a photographic chart of the sky on the largest scale. +Some portions of this work are now approaching completion, but in +others it is still in a backward state, owing to the failure of several +South American observatories to carry out their part of the programme. +When it is all done we shall have a picture of the sky, the study of +which may require the labor of a whole generation of astronomers. +</P> + +<P> +Quite independently of this work, the Harvard University, under the +direction of Professor Pickering, keeps up the work of photographing +the sky on a surprising scale. On this plan we do not have to leave it +to posterity to learn whether there is any change in the heavens, for +one result of the enterprise has been the discovery of thirteen of the +new stars which now and then blaze out in the heavens at points where +none were before known. Professor Pickering's work has been continually +enlarged and improved until about 150,000 photographic plates, showing +from time to time the places of countless millions of stars among their +fellows are now stored at the Harvard Observatory. Not less remarkable +than this wealth of material has been the development of skill in +working it up. Some idea of the work will be obtained by reflecting +that, thirty years ago, careful study of the heavens by astronomers +devoting their lives to the task had resulted in the discovery of some +two or three hundred stars, varying in their light. Now, at Harvard, +through keen eyes studying and comparing successive photographs not +only of isolated stars, but of clusters and agglomerations of stars in +the Milky Way and elsewhere, discoveries of such objects numbering +hundreds have been made, and the work is going on with ever-increasing +speed. Indeed, the number of variable stars now known is such that +their study as individual objects no longer suffices, and they must +hereafter be treated statistically with reference to their distribution +in space, and their relations to one another, as a census classifies +the entire population without taking any account of individuals. +</P> + +<P> +The works just mentioned are concerned with the stars. But the heavenly +spaces contain nebulae as well as stars; and photography can now be +even more successful in picturing them than the stars. A few years ago +the late lamented Keeler, at the Lick Observatory, undertook to see +what could be done by pointing the Crossley reflecting telescope at the +sky and putting a sensitive photographic plate in the focus. He was +surprised to find that a great number of nebulae, the existence of +which had never before been suspected, were impressed on the plate. Up +to the present time the positions of about 8000 of these objects have +been listed. Keeler found that there were probably 200,000 nebulae in +the heavens capable of being photographed with the Crossley reflector. +But the work of taking these photographs is so great, and the number of +reflecting telescopes which can be applied to it so small, that no one +has ventured to seriously commence it. It is worthy of remark that only +a very small fraction of these objects which can be photographed are +visible to the eye, even with the most powerful telescope. +</P> + +<P> +This demonstration of what the reflecting telescope can do may be +regarded as one of the most important discoveries of our time as to the +capabilities of astronomical instruments. It has long been known that +the image formed in the focus of the best refracting telescope is +affected by an imperfection arising from the different action of the +glasses on rays of light of different colors. Hence, the image of a +star can never be seen or photographed with such an instrument, as an +actual point, but only as a small, diffused mass. This difficulty is +avoided in the reflecting telescope; but a new difficulty is found in +the bending of the mirror under the influence of its own weight. +Devices for overcoming this had been so far from successful that, when +Mr. Crossley presented his instrument to the Lick Observatory, it was +feared that little of importance could be done with it. But as often +happens in human affairs outside the field of astronomy, when ingenious +and able men devote their attention to the careful study of a problem, +it was found that new results could be reached. Thus it was that, +before a great while, what was supposed to be an inferior instrument +proved not only to have qualities not before suspected, but to be the +means of making an important addition to the methods of astronomical +investigation. +</P> + +<P> +In order that our knowledge of the position of a star may be complete, +we must know its distance. This can be measured only through the star's +parallax—that is to say, the slight change in its direction produced +by the swing of our earth around its orbit. But so vast is the distance +in question that this change is immeasurably small, except for, +perhaps, a few hundred stars, and even for these few its measurement +almost baffles the skill of the most expert astronomer. Progress in +this direction is therefore very slow, and there are probably not yet a +hundred stars of which the parallax has been ascertained with any +approach to certainty. Dr. Chase is now completing an important work of +this kind at the Yale Observatory. +</P> + +<P> +To the most refined telescopic observations, as well as to the naked +eye, the stars seem all alike, except that they differ greatly in +brightness, and somewhat in color. But when their light is analyzed by +the spectroscope, it is found that scarcely any two are exactly alike. +An important part of the work of the astro-physical observatories, +especially that of Harvard, consists in photographing the spectra of +thousands of stars, and studying the peculiarities thus brought out. At +Harvard a large portion of this work is done as part of the work of the +Henry Draper Memorial, established by his widow in memory of the +eminent investigator of New York, who died twenty years ago. +</P> + +<P> +By a comparison of the spectra of stars Sir William Huggins has +developed the idea that these bodies, like human beings, have a life +history. They are nebulae in infancy, while the progress to old age is +marked by a constant increase in the density of their substance. Their +temperature also changes in a way analogous to the vigor of the human +being. During a certain time the star continually grows hotter and +hotter. But an end to this must come, and it cools off in old age. What +the age of a star may be is hard even to guess. It is many millions of +years, perhaps hundreds, possibly even thousands, of millions. +</P> + +<P> +Some attempt at giving the magnitude is included in every considerable +list of stars. The work of determining the magnitudes with the greatest +precision is so laborious that it must go on rather slowly. It is being +pursued on a large scale at the Harvard Observatory, as well as in that +of Potsdam, Germany. +</P> + +<P> +We come now to the question of changes in the appearance of bright +stars. It seems pretty certain that more than one per cent of these +bodies fluctuate to a greater or less extent in their light. +Observations of these fluctuations, in the case of at least the +brighter stars, may be carried on without any instrument more expensive +than a good opera-glass—in fact, in the case of stars visible to the +naked eye, with no instrument at all. +</P> + +<P> +As a general rule, the light of these stars goes through its changes in +a regular period, which is sometimes as short as a few hours, but +generally several days, frequently a large fraction of a year or even +eighteen months. Observations of these stars are made to determine the +length of the period and the law of variation of the brightness. Any +person with a good eye and skill in making estimates can make the +observations if he will devote sufficient pains to training himself; +but they require a degree of care and assiduity which is not to be +expected of any one but an enthusiast on the subject. One of the most +successful observers of the present time is Mr. W. A. Roberts, a +resident of South Africa, whom the Boer war did not prevent from +keeping up a watch of the southern sky, which has resulted in greatly +increasing our knowledge of variable stars. There are also quite a +number of astronomers in Europe and America who make this particular +study their specialty. +</P> + +<P> +During the past fifteen years the art of measuring the speed with which +a star is approaching us or receding from us has been brought to a +wonderful degree of perfection. The instrument with which this was +first done was the spectroscope; it is now replaced with another of the +same general kind, called the spectrograph. The latter differs from the +other only in that the spectrum of the star is photographed, and the +observer makes his measures on the negative. This method was first +extensively applied at the Potsdam Observatory in Germany, and has +lately become one of the specialties of the Lick Observatory, where +Professor Campbell has brought it to its present degree of perfection. +The Yerkes Observatory is also beginning work in the same line, where +Professor Frost is already rivalling the Lick Observatory in the +precision of his measures. +</P> + +<P> +Let us now go back to our own little colony and see what is being done +to advance our knowledge of the solar system. This consists of planets, +on one of which we dwell, moons revolving around them, comets, and +meteoric bodies. The principal national observatories keep up a more or +less orderly system of observations of the positions of the planets and +their satellites in order to determine the laws of their motion. As in +the case of the stars, it is necessary to continue these observations +through long periods of time in order that everything possible to learn +may be discovered. +</P> + +<P> +Our own moon is one of the enigmas of the mathematical astronomer. +Observations show that she is deviating from her predicted place, and +that this deviation continues to increase. True, it is not very great +when measured by an ordinary standard. The time at which the moon's +shadow passed a given point near Norfolk during the total eclipse of +May 29, 1900, was only about seven seconds different from the time +given in the Astronomical Ephemeris. The path of the shadow along the +earth was not out of place by more than one or two miles But, small +though these deviations are, they show that something is wrong, and no +one has as yet found out what it is. Worse yet, the deviation is +increasing rapidly. The observers of the total eclipse in August, 1905, +were surprised to find that it began twenty seconds before the +predicted time. The mathematical problems involved in correcting this +error are of such complexity that it is only now and then that a +mathematician turns up anywhere in the world who is both able and bold +enough to attack them. +</P> + +<P> +There now seems little doubt that Jupiter is a miniature sun, only not +hot enough at its surface to shine by its own light The point in which +it most resembles the sun is that its equatorial regions rotate in less +time than do the regions near the poles. This shows that what we see is +not a solid body. But none of the careful observers have yet succeeded +in determining the law of this difference of rotation. +</P> + +<P> +Twelve years ago a suspicion which had long been entertained that the +earth's axis of rotation varied a little from time to time was verified +by Chandler. The result of this is a slight change in the latitude of +all places on the earth's surface, which admits of being determined by +precise observations. The National Geodetic Association has established +four observatories on the same parallel of latitude—one at +Gaithersburg, Maryland, another on the Pacific coast, a third in Japan, +and a fourth in Italy—to study these variations by continuous +observations from night to night. This work is now going forward on a +well-devised plan. +</P> + +<P> +A fact which will appeal to our readers on this side of the Atlantic is +the success of American astronomers. Sixty years ago it could not be +said that there was a well-known observatory on the American continent. +The cultivation of astronomy was confined to a professor here and +there, who seldom had anything better than a little telescope with +which he showed the heavenly bodies to his students. But during the +past thirty years all this has been changed. The total quantity of +published research is still less among us than on the continent of +Europe, but the number of men who have reached the highest success +among us may be judged by one fact. The Royal Astronomical Society of +England awards an annual medal to the English or foreign astronomer +deemed most worthy of it. The number of these medals awarded to +Americans within twenty-five years is about equal to the number awarded +to the astronomers of all other nations foreign to the English. That +this preponderance is not growing less is shown by the award of medals +to Americans in three consecutive years—1904, 1905, and 1906. The +recipients were Hale, Boss, and Campbell. Of the fifty foreign +associates chosen by this society for their eminence in astronomical +research, no less than eighteen—more than one-third—are Americans. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap07"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +VII +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +LIFE IN THE UNIVERSE +</H3> + +<P> +So far as we can judge from what we see on our globe, the production of +life is one of the greatest and most incessant purposes of nature. Life +is absent only in regions of perpetual frost, where it never has an +opportunity to begin; in places where the temperature is near the +boiling-point, which is found to be destructive to it; and beneath the +earth's surface, where none of the changes essential to it can come +about. Within the limits imposed by these prohibitory conditions—that +is to say, within the range of temperature at which water retains its +liquid state, and in regions where the sun's rays can penetrate and +where wind can blow and water exist in a liquid form—life is the +universal rule. How prodigal nature seems to be in its production is +too trite a fact to be dwelt upon. We have all read of the millions of +germs which are destroyed for every one that comes to maturity. Even +the higher forms of life are found almost everywhere. Only small +islands have ever been discovered which were uninhabited, and animals +of a higher grade are as widely diffused as man. +</P> + +<P> +If it would be going too far to claim that all conditions may have +forms of life appropriate to them, it would be going as much too far in +the other direction to claim that life can exist only with the precise +surroundings which nurture it on this planet. It is very remarkable in +this connection that while in one direction we see life coming to an +end, in the other direction we see it flourishing more and more up to +the limit. These two directions are those of heat and cold. We cannot +suppose that life would develop in any important degree in a region of +perpetual frost, such as the polar regions of our globe. But we do not +find any end to it as the climate becomes warmer. On the contrary, +every one knows that the tropics are the most fertile regions of the +globe in its production. The luxuriance of the vegetation and the +number of the animals continually increase the more tropical the +climate becomes. Where the limit may be set no one can say. But it +would doubtless be far above the present temperature of the equatorial +regions. +</P> + +<P> +It has often been said that this does not apply to the human race, that +men lack vigor in the tropics. But human vigor depends on so many +conditions, hereditary and otherwise, that we cannot regard the +inferior development of humanity in the tropics as due solely to +temperature. Physically considered, no men attain a better development +than many tribes who inhabit the warmer regions of the globe. The +inferiority of the inhabitants of these regions in intellectual power +is more likely the result of race heredity than of temperature. +</P> + +<P> +We all know that this earth on which we dwell is only one of countless +millions of globes scattered through the wilds of infinite space. So +far as we know, most of these globes are wholly unlike the earth, being +at a temperature so high that, like our sun, they shine by their own +light. In such worlds we may regard it as quite certain that no +organized life could exist. But evidence is continually increasing that +dark and opaque worlds like ours exist and revolve around their suns, +as the earth on which we dwell revolves around its central luminary. +Although the number of such globes yet discovered is not great, the +circumstances under which they are found lead us to believe that the +actual number may be as great as that of the visible stars which stud +the sky. If so, the probabilities are that millions of them are +essentially similar to our own globe. Have we any reason to believe +that life exists on these other worlds? +</P> + +<P> +The reader will not expect me to answer this question positively. It +must be admitted that, scientifically, we have no light upon the +question, and therefore no positive grounds for reaching a conclusion. +We can only reason by analogy and by what we know of the origin and +conditions of life around us, and assume that the same agencies which +are at play here would be found at play under similar conditions in +other parts of the universe. +</P> + +<P> +If we ask what the opinion of men has been, we know historically that +our race has, in all periods of its history, peopled other regions with +beings even higher in the scale of development than we are ourselves. +The gods and demons of an earlier age all wielded powers greater than +those granted to man—powers which they could use to determine human +destiny. But, up to the time that Copernicus showed that the planets +were other worlds, the location of these imaginary beings was rather +indefinite. It was therefore quite natural that when the moon and +planets were found to be dark globes of a size comparable with that of +the earth itself, they were made the habitations of beings like unto +ourselves. +</P> + +<P> +The trend of modern discovery has been against carrying this view to +its extreme, as will be presently shown. Before considering the +difficulties in the way of accepting it to the widest extent, let us +enter upon some preliminary considerations as to the origin and +prevalence of life, so far as we have any sound basis to go upon. +</P> + +<P> +A generation ago the origin of life upon our planet was one of the +great mysteries of science. All the facts brought out by investigation +into the past history of our earth seemed to show, with hardly the +possibility of a doubt, that there was a time when it was a fiery mass, +no more capable of serving as the abode of a living being than the +interior of a Bessemer steel furnace. There must therefore have been, +within a certain period, a beginning of life upon its surface. But, so +far as investigation had gone—indeed, so far as it has gone to the +present time—no life has been found to originate of itself. The living +germ seems to be necessary to the beginning of any living form. Whence, +then, came the first germ? Many of our readers may remember a +suggestion by Sir William Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, made twenty or +thirty years ago, that life may have been brought to our planet by the +falling of a meteor from space. This does not, however, solve the +difficulty—indeed, it would only make it greater. It still leaves open +the question how life began on the meteor; and granting this, why it +was not destroyed by the heat generated as the meteor passed through +the air. The popular view that life began through a special act of +creative power seemed to be almost forced upon man by the failure of +science to discover any other beginning for it. It cannot be said that +even to-day anything definite has been actually discovered to refute +this view. All we can say about it is that it does not run in with the +general views of modern science as to the beginning of things, and that +those who refuse to accept it must hold that, under certain conditions +which prevail, life begins by a very gradual process, similar to that +by which forms suggesting growth seem to originate even under +conditions so unfavorable as those existing in a bottle of acid. +</P> + +<P> +But it is not at all necessary for our purpose to decide this question. +If life existed through a creative act, it is absurd to suppose that +that act was confined to one of the countless millions of worlds +scattered through space. If it began at a certain stage of evolution by +a natural process, the question will arise, what conditions are +favorable to the commencement of this process? Here we are quite +justified in reasoning from what, granting this process, has taken +place upon our globe during its past history. One of the most +elementary principles accepted by the human mind is that like causes +produce like effects. The special conditions under which we find life +to develop around us may be comprehensively summed up as the existence +of water in the liquid form, and the presence of nitrogen, free perhaps +in the first place, but accompanied by substances with which it may +form combinations. Oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are, then, the +fundamental requirements. The addition of calcium or other forms of +matter necessary to the existence of a solid world goes without saying. +The question now is whether these necessary conditions exist in other +parts of the universe. +</P> + +<P> +The spectroscope shows that, so far as the chemical elements go, other +worlds are composed of the same elements as ours. Hydrogen especially +exists everywhere, and we have reason to believe that the same is true +of oxygen and nitrogen. Calcium, the base of lime, is almost universal. +So far as chemical elements go, we may therefore take it for granted +that the conditions under which life begins are very widely diffused in +the universe. It is, therefore, contrary to all the analogies of nature +to suppose that life began only on a single world. +</P> + +<P> +It is a scientific inference, based on facts so numerous as not to +admit of serious question, that during the history of our globe there +has been a continually improving development of life. As ages upon ages +pass, new forms are generated, higher in the scale than those which +preceded them, until at length reason appears and asserts its sway. In +a recent well-known work Alfred Russel Wallace has argued that this +development of life required the presence of such a rare combination of +conditions that there is no reason to suppose that it prevailed +anywhere except on our earth. It is quite impossible in the present +discussion to follow his reasoning in detail; but it seems to me +altogether inconclusive. Not only does life, but intelligence, flourish +on this globe under a great variety of conditions as regards +temperature and surroundings, and no sound reason can be shown why +under certain conditions, which are frequent in the universe, +intelligent beings should not acquire the highest development. +</P> + +<P> +Now let us look at the subject from the view of the mathematical theory +of probabilities. A fundamental tenet of this theory is that no matter +how improbable a result may be on a single trial, supposing it at all +possible, it is sure to occur after a sufficient number of trials—and +over and over again if the trials are repeated often enough. For +example, if a million grains of corn, of which a single one was red, +were all placed in a pile, and a blindfolded person were required to +grope in the pile, select a grain, and then put it back again, the +chances would be a million to one against his drawing out the red +grain. If drawing it meant he should die, a sensible person would give +himself no concern at having to draw the grain. The probability of his +death would not be so great as the actual probability that he will +really die within the next twenty-four hours. And yet if the whole +human race were required to run this chance, it is certain that about +fifteen hundred, or one out of a million, of the whole human family +would draw the red grain and meet his death. +</P> + +<P> +Now apply this principle to the universe. Let us suppose, to fix the +ideas, that there are a hundred million worlds, but that the chances +are one thousand to one against any one of these taken at random being +fitted for the highest development of life or for the evolution of +reason. The chances would still be that one hundred thousand of them +would be inhabited by rational beings whom we call human. But where are +we to look for these worlds? This no man can tell. We only infer from +the statistics of the stars—and this inference is fairly well +grounded—that the number of worlds which, so far as we know, may be +inhabited, are to be counted by thousands, and perhaps by millions. +</P> + +<P> +In a number of bodies so vast we should expect every variety of +conditions as regards temperature and surroundings. If we suppose that +the special conditions which prevail on our planet are necessary to the +highest forms of life, we still have reason to believe that these same +conditions prevail on thousands of other worlds. The fact that we might +find the conditions in millions of other worlds unfavorable to life +would not disprove the existence of the latter on countless worlds +differently situated. +</P> + +<P> +Coming down now from the general question to the specific one, we all +know that the only worlds the conditions of which can be made the +subject of observation are the planets which revolve around the sun, +and their satellites. The question whether these bodies are inhabited +is one which, of course, completely transcends not only our powers of +observation at present, but every appliance of research that we can +conceive of men devising. If Mars is inhabited, and if the people of +that planet have equal powers with ourselves, the problem of merely +producing an illumination which could be seen in our most powerful +telescope would be beyond all the ordinary efforts of an entire nation. +An unbroken square mile of flame would be invisible in our telescopes, +but a hundred square miles might be seen. We cannot, therefore, expect +to see any signs of the works of inhabitants even on Mars. All that we +can do is to ascertain with greater or less probability whether the +conditions necessary to life exist on the other planets of the system. +</P> + +<P> +The moon being much the nearest to us of all the heavenly bodies, we +can pronounce more definitely in its case than in any other. We know +that neither air nor water exists on the moon in quantities sufficient +to be perceived by the most delicate tests at our command. It is +certain that the moon's atmosphere, if any exists, is less than the +thousandth part of the density of that around us. The vacuum is greater +than any ordinary air-pump is capable of producing. We can hardly +suppose that so small a quantity of air could be of any benefit +whatever in sustaining life; an animal that could get along on so +little could get along on none at all. +</P> + +<P> +But the proof of the absence of life is yet stronger when we consider +the results of actual telescopic observation. An object such as an +ordinary city block could be detected on the moon. If anything like +vegetation were present on its surface, we should see the changes which +it would undergo in the course of a month, during one portion of which +it would be exposed to the rays of the unclouded sun, and during +another to the intense cold of space. If men built cities, or even +separate buildings the size of the larger ones on our earth, we might +see some signs of them. +</P> + +<P> +In recent times we not only observe the moon with the telescope, but +get still more definite information by photography. The whole visible +surface has been repeatedly photographed under the best conditions. But +no change has been established beyond question, nor does the photograph +show the slightest difference of structure or shade which could be +attributed to cities or other works of man. To all appearances the +whole surface of our satellite is as completely devoid of life as the +lava newly thrown from Vesuvius. We next pass to the planets. Mercury, +the nearest to the sun, is in a position very unfavorable for +observation from the earth, because when nearest to us it is between us +and the sun, so that its dark hemisphere is presented to us. Nothing +satisfactory has yet been made out as to its condition. We cannot say +with certainty whether it has an atmosphere or not. What seems very +probable is that the temperature on its surface is higher than any of +our earthly animals could sustain. But this proves nothing. +</P> + +<P> +We know that Venus has an atmosphere. This was very conclusively shown +during the transits of Venus in 1874 and 1882. But this atmosphere is +so filled with clouds or vapor that it does not seem likely that we +ever get a view of the solid body of the planet through it. Some +observers have thought they could see spots on Venus day after day, +while others have disputed this view. On the whole, if intelligent +inhabitants live there, it is not likely that they ever see sun or +stars. Instead of the sun they see only an effulgence in the vapory sky +which disappears and reappears at regular intervals. +</P> + +<P> +When we come to Mars, we have more definite knowledge, and there seems +to be greater possibilities for life there than in the case of any +other planet besides the earth. The main reason for denying that life +such as ours could exist there is that the atmosphere of Mars is so +rare that, in the light of the most recent researches, we cannot be +fully assured that it exists at all. The very careful comparisons of +the spectra of Mars and of the moon made by Campbell at the Lick +Observatory failed to show the slightest difference in the two. If Mars +had an atmosphere as dense as ours, the result could be seen in the +darkening of the lines of the spectrum produced by the double passage +of the light through it. There were no lines in the spectrum of Mars +that were not seen with equal distinctness in that of the moon. But +this does not prove the entire absence of an atmosphere. It only shows +a limit to its density. It may be one-fifth or one-fourth the density +of that on the earth, but probably no more. +</P> + +<P> +That there must be something in the nature of vapor at least seems to +be shown by the formation and disappearance of the white polar caps of +this planet. Every reader of astronomy at the present time knows that, +during the Martian winter, white caps form around the pole of the +planet which is turned away from the sun, and grow larger and larger +until the sun begins to shine upon them, when they gradually grow +smaller, and perhaps nearly disappear. It seems, therefore, fairly well +proved that, under the influence of cold, some white substance forms +around the polar regions of Mars which evaporates under the influence +of the sun's rays. It has been supposed that this substance is snow, +produced in the same way that snow is produced on the earth, by the +evaporation of water. +</P> + +<P> +But there are difficulties in the way of this explanation. The sun +sends less than half as much heat to Mars as to the earth, and it does +not seem likely that the polar regions can ever receive enough of heat +to melt any considerable quantity of snow. Nor does it seem likely that +any clouds from which snow could fall ever obscure the surface of Mars. +</P> + +<P> +But a very slight change in the explanation will make it tenable. Quite +possibly the white deposits may be due to something like hoar-frost +condensed from slightly moist air, without the actual production of +snow. This would produce the effect that we see. Even this explanation +implies that Mars has air and water, rare though the former may be. It +is quite possible that air as thin as that of Mars would sustain life +in some form. Life not totally unlike that on the earth may therefore +exist upon this planet for anything that we know to the contrary. More +than this we cannot say. +</P> + +<P> +In the case of the outer planets the answer to our question must be in +the negative. It now seems likely that Jupiter is a body very much like +our sun, only that the dark portion is too cool to emit much, if any, +light. It is doubtful whether Jupiter has anything in the nature of a +solid surface. Its interior is in all likelihood a mass of molten +matter far above a red heat, which is surrounded by a comparatively +cool, yet, to our measure, extremely hot, vapor. The belt-like clouds +which surround the planet are due to this vapor combined with the rapid +rotation. If there is any solid surface below the atmosphere that we +can see, it is swept by winds such that nothing we have on earth could +withstand them. But, as we have said, the probabilities are very much +against there being anything like such a surface. At some great depth +in the fiery vapor there is a solid nucleus; that is all we can say. +</P> + +<P> +The planet Saturn seems to be very much like that of Jupiter in its +composition. It receives so little heat from the sun that, unless it is +a mass of fiery vapor like Jupiter, the surface must be far below the +freezing-point. +</P> + +<P> +We cannot speak with such certainty of Uranus and Neptune; yet the +probability seems to be that they are in much the same condition as +Saturn. They are known to have very dense atmospheres, which are made +known to us only by their absorbing some of the light of the sun. But +nothing is known of the composition of these atmospheres. +</P> + +<P> +To sum up our argument: the fact that, so far as we have yet been able +to learn, only a very small proportion of the visible worlds scattered +through space are fitted to be the abode of life does not preclude the +probability that among hundreds of millions of such worlds a vast +number are so fitted. Such being the case, all the analogies of nature +lead us to believe that, whatever the process which led to life upon +this earth—whether a special act of creative power or a gradual course +of development—through that same process does life begin in every part +of the universe fitted to sustain it. The course of development +involves a gradual improvement in living forms, which by irregular +steps rise higher and higher in the scale of being. We have every +reason to believe that this is the case wherever life exists. It is, +therefore, perfectly reasonable to suppose that beings, not only +animated, but endowed with reason, inhabit countless worlds in space. +It would, indeed, be very inspiring could we learn by actual +observation what forms of society exist throughout space, and see the +members of such societies enjoying themselves by their warm firesides. +But this, so far as we can now see, is entirely beyond the possible +reach of our race, so long as it is confined to a single world. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap08"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +VIII +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +HOW THE PLANETS ARE WEIGHED +</H3> + +<P> +You ask me how the planets are weighed? I reply, on the same principle +by which a butcher weighs a ham in a spring-balance. When he picks the +ham up, he feels a pull of the ham towards the earth. When he hangs it +on the hook, this pull is transferred from his hand to the spring of +the balance. The stronger the pull, the farther the spring is pulled +down. What he reads on the scale is the strength of the pull. You know +that this pull is simply the attraction of the earth on the ham. But, +by a universal law of force, the ham attracts the earth exactly as much +as the earth does the ham. So what the butcher really does is to find +how much or how strongly the ham attracts the earth, and he calls that +pull the weight of the ham. On the same principle, the astronomer finds +the weight of a body by finding how strong is its attractive pull on +some other body. If the butcher, with his spring-balance and a ham, +could fly to all the planets, one after the other, weigh the ham on +each, and come back to report the results to an astronomer, the latter +could immediately compute the weight of each planet of known diameter, +as compared with that of the earth. In applying this principle to the +heavenly bodies, we at once meet a difficulty that looks +insurmountable. You cannot get up to the heavenly bodies to do your +weighing; how then will you measure their pull? I must begin the answer +to this question by explaining a nice point in exact science. +Astronomers distinguish between the weight of a body and its mass. The +weight of objects is not the same all over the world; a thing which +weighs thirty pounds in New York would weigh an ounce more than thirty +pounds in a spring-balance in Greenland, and nearly an ounce less at +the equator. This is because the earth is not a perfect sphere, but a +little flattened. Thus weight varies with the place. If a ham weighing +thirty pounds were taken up to the moon and weighed there, the pull +would only be five pounds, because the moon is so much smaller and +lighter than the earth. There would be another weight of the ham for +the planet Mars, and yet another on the sun, where it would weigh some +eight hundred pounds. Hence the astronomer does not speak of the weight +of a planet, because that would depend on the place where it was +weighed; but he speaks of the mass of the planet, which means how much +planet there is, no matter where you might weigh it. +</P> + +<P> +At the same time, we might, without any inexactness, agree that the +mass of a heavenly body should be fixed by the weight it would have in +New York. As we could not even imagine a planet at New York, because it +may be larger than the earth itself, what we are to imagine is this: +Suppose the planet could be divided into a million million million +equal parts, and one of these parts brought to New York and weighed. We +could easily find its weight in pounds or tons. Then multiply this +weight by a million million million, and we shall have a weight of the +planet. This would be what the astronomers might take as the mass of +the planet. +</P> + +<P> +With these explanations, let us see how the weight of the earth is +found. The principle we apply is that round bodies of the same specific +gravity attract small objects on their surface with a force +proportional to the diameter of the attracting body. For example, a +body two feet in diameter attracts twice as strongly as one of a foot, +one of three feet three times as strongly, and so on. Now, our earth is +about 40,000,000 feet in diameter; that is 10,000,000 times four feet. +It follows that if we made a little model of the earth four feet in +diameter, having the average specific gravity of the earth, it would +attract a particle with one ten-millionth part of the attraction of the +earth. The attraction of such a model has actually been measured. Since +we do not know the average specific gravity of the earth—that being in +fact what we want to find out—we take a globe of lead, four feet in +diameter, let us suppose. By means of a balance of the most exquisite +construction it is found that such a globe does exert a minute +attraction on small bodies around it, and that this attraction is a +little more than the ten-millionth part of that of the earth. This +shows that the specific gravity of the lead is a little greater than +that of the average of the whole earth. All the minute calculations +made, it is found that the earth, in order to attract with the force it +does, must be about five and one-half times as heavy as its bulk of +water, or perhaps a little more. Different experimenters find different +results; the best between 5.5 and 5.6, so that 5.5 is, perhaps, as near +the number as we can now get. This is much more than the average +specific gravity of the materials which compose that part of the earth +which we can reach by digging mines. The difference arises from the +fact that, at the depth of many miles, the matter composing the earth +is compressed into a smaller space by the enormous weight of the +portions lying above it. Thus, at the depth of 1000 miles, the pressure +on every cubic inch is more than 2000 tons, a weight which would +greatly condense the hardest metal. +</P> + +<P> +We come now to the planets. I have said that the mass or weight of a +heavenly body is determined by its attraction on some other body. There +are two ways in which the attraction of a planet may be measured. One +is by its attraction on the planets next to it. If these bodies did not +attract one another at all, but only moved under the influence of the +sun, they would move in orbits having the form of ellipses. They are +found to move very nearly in such orbits, only the actual path deviates +from an ellipse, now in one direction and then in another, and it +slowly changes its position from year to year. These deviations are due +to the pull of the other planets, and by measuring the deviations we +can determine the amount of the pull, and hence the mass of the planet. +</P> + +<P> +The reader will readily understand that the mathematical processes +necessary to get a result in this way must be very delicate and +complicated. A much simpler method can be used in the case of those +planets which have satellites revolving round them, because the +attraction of the planet can be determined by the motions of the +satellite. The first law of motion teaches us that a body in motion, if +acted on by no force, will move in a straight line. Hence, if we see a +body moving in a curve, we know that it is acted on by a force in the +direction towards which the motion curves. A familiar example is that +of a stone thrown from the hand. If the stone were not attracted by the +earth, it would go on forever in the line of throw, and leave the earth +entirely. But under the attraction of the earth, it is drawn down and +down, as it travels onward, until finally it reaches the ground. The +faster the stone is thrown, of course, the farther it will go, and the +greater will be the sweep of the curve of its path. If it were a +cannon-ball, the first part of the curve would be nearly a right line. +If we could fire a cannon-ball horizontally from the top of a high +mountain with a velocity of five miles a second, and if it were not +resisted by the air, the curvature of the path would be equal to that +of the surface of our earth, and so the ball would never reach the +earth, but would revolve round it like a little satellite in an orbit +of its own. Could this be done, the astronomer would be able, knowing +the velocity of the ball, to calculate the attraction of the earth as +well as we determine it by actually observing the motion of falling +bodies around us. +</P> + +<P> +Thus it is that when a planet, like Mars or Jupiter, has satellites +revolving round it, astronomers on the earth can observe the attraction +of the planet on its satellites and thus determine its mass. The rule +for doing this is very simple. The cube of the distance between the +planet and satellite is divided by the square of the time of revolution +of the satellite. The quotient is a number which is proportional to the +mass of the planet. The rule applies to the motion of the moon round +the earth and of the planets round the sun. If we divide the cube of +the earth's distance from the sun, say 93,000,000 miles, by the square +of 365 1/4, the days in a year, we shall get a certain quotient. Let us +call this number the sun-quotient. Then, if we divide the cube of the +moon's distance from the earth by the square of its time of revolution, +we shall get another quotient, which we may call the earth-quotient. +The sun-quotient will come out about 330,000 times as large as the +earth-quotient. Hence it is concluded that the mass of the sun is +330,000 times that of the earth; that it would take this number of +earths to make a body as heavy as the sun. +</P> + +<P> +I give this calculation to illustrate the principle; it must not be +supposed that the astronomer proceeds exactly in this way and has only +this simple calculation to make. In the case of the moon and earth, the +motion and distance of the former vary in consequence of the attraction +of the sun, so that their actual distance apart is a changing quantity. +So what the astronomer actually does is to find the attraction of the +earth by observing the length of a pendulum which beats seconds in +various latitudes. Then, by very delicate mathematical processes, he +can find with great exactness what would be the time of revolution of a +small satellite at any given distance from the earth, and thus can get +the earth-quotient. +</P> + +<P> +But, as I have already pointed out, we must, in the case of the +planets, find the quotient in question by means of the satellites; and +it happens, fortunately, that the motions of these bodies are much less +changed by the attraction of the sun than is the motion of the moon. +Thus, when we make the computation for the outer satellite of Mars, we +find the quotient to be 1/3093500 that of the sun-quotient. Hence we +conclude that the mass of Mars is 1/3093500 that of the sun. By the +corresponding quotient, the mass of Jupiter is found to be about 1/1047 +that of the sun, Saturn 1/3500, Uranus 1/22700, Neptune 1/19500. +</P> + +<P> +We have set forth only the great principle on which the astronomer has +proceeded for the purpose in question. The law of gravitation is at the +bottom of all his work. The effects of this law require mathematical +processes which it has taken two hundred years to bring to their +present state, and which are still far from perfect. The measurement of +the distance of a satellite is not a job to be done in an evening; it +requires patient labor extending through months and years, and then is +not as exact as the astronomer would wish. He does the best he can, and +must be satisfied with that. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap09"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +IX +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE MARINER'S COMPASS +</H3> + +<P> +Among those provisions of Nature which seem to us as especially +designed for the use of man, none is more striking than the seeming +magnetism of the earth. What would our civilization have been if the +mariner's compass had never been known? That Columbus could never have +crossed the Atlantic is certain; in what generation since his time our +continent would have been discovered is doubtful. Did the reader ever +reflect what a problem the captain of the finest ocean liner of our day +would face if he had to cross the ocean without this little instrument? +With the aid of a pilot he gets his ship outside of Sandy Hook without +much difficulty. Even later, so long as the sun is visible and the air +is clear, he will have some apparatus for sailing by the direction of +the sun. But after a few hours clouds cover the sky. From that moment +he has not the slightest idea of east, west, north, or south, except so +far as he may infer it from the direction in which he notices the wind +to blow. For a few hours he may be guided by the wind, provided he is +sure he is not going ashore on Long Island. Thus, in time, he feels his +way out into the open sea. By day he has some idea of direction with +the aid of the sun; by night, when the sky is clear he can steer by the +Great Bear, or "Cynosure," the compass of his ancient predecessors on +the Mediterranean. But when it is cloudy, if he persists in steaming +ahead, he may be running towards the Azores or towards Greenland, or he +may be making his way back to New York without knowing it. So, keeping +up steam only when sun or star is visible, he at length finds that he +is approaching the coast of Ireland. Then he has to grope along much +like a blind man with his staff, feeling his way along the edge of a +precipice. He can determine the latitude at noon if the sky is clear, +and his longitude in the morning or evening in the same conditions. In +this way he will get a general idea of his whereabouts. But if he +ventures to make headway in a fog, he may find himself on the rocks at +any moment. He reaches his haven only after many spells of patient +waiting for favoring skies. +</P> + +<P> +The fact that the earth acts like a magnet, that the needle points to +the north, has been generally known to navigators for nearly a thousand +years, and is said to have been known to the Chinese at a yet earlier +period. And yet, to-day, if any professor of physical science is asked +to explain the magnetic property of the earth, he will acknowledge his +inability to do so to his own satisfaction. Happily this does not +hinder us from finding out by what law these forces act, and how they +enable us to navigate the ocean. I therefore hope the reader will be +interested in a short exposition of the very curious and interesting +laws on which the science of magnetism is based, and which are applied +in the use of the compass. +</P> + +<P> +The force known as magnetic, on which the compass depends, is different +from all other natural forces with which we are familiar. It is very +remarkable that iron is the only substance which can become magnetic in +any considerable degree. Nickel and one or two other metals have the +same property, but in a very slight degree. It is also remarkable that, +however powerfully a bar of steel may be magnetized, not the slightest +effect of the magnetism can be seen by its action on other than +magnetic substances. It is no heavier than before. Its magnetism does +not produce the slightest influence upon the human body. No one would +know that it was magnetic until something containing iron was brought +into its immediate neighborhood; then the attraction is set up. The +most important principle of magnetic science is that there are two +opposite kinds of magnetism, which are, in a certain sense, contrary in +their manifestations. The difference is seen in the behavior of the +magnet itself. One particular end points north, and the other end +south. What is it that distinguishes these two ends? The answer is that +one end has what we call north magnetism, while the other has south +magnetism. Every magnetic bar has two poles, one near one end, one near +the other. The north pole is drawn towards the north pole of the earth, +the south pole towards the south pole, and thus it is that the +direction of the magnet is determined. Now, when we bring two magnets +near each other we find another curious phenomenon. If the two like +poles are brought together, they do not attract but repel each other. +But the two opposite poles attract each other. The attraction and +repulsion are exactly equal under the same conditions. There is no more +attraction than repulsion. If we seal one magnet up in a paper or a +box, and then suspend another over the box, the north pole of the one +outside will tend to the south pole of the one in the box, and vice +versa. +</P> + +<P> +Our next discovery is, that whenever a magnet attracts a piece of iron +it makes that iron into a magnet, at least for the time being. In the +case of ordinary soft or untempered iron the magnetism disappears +instantly when the magnet is removed. But if the magnet be made to +attract a piece of hardened steel, the latter will retain the magnetism +produced in it and become itself a permanent magnet. +</P> + +<P> +This fact must have been known from the time that the compass came into +use. To make this instrument it was necessary to magnetize a small bar +or needle by passing a natural magnet over it. +</P> + +<P> +In our times the magnetization is effected by an electric current. The +latter has curious magnetic properties; a magnetic needle brought +alongside of it will be found placing itself at right angles to the +wire bearing the current. On this principle is made the galvanometer +for measuring the intensity of a current. Moreover, if a piece of wire +is coiled round a bar of steel, and a powerful electric current pass +through the coil, the bar will become a magnet. +</P> + +<P> +Another curious property of magnetism is that we cannot develop north +magnetism in a bar without developing south magnetism at the same time. +If it were otherwise, important consequences would result. A separate +north pole of a magnet would, if attached to a floating object and +thrown into the ocean, start on a journey towards the north all by +itself. A possible method of bringing this result about may suggest +itself. Let us take an ordinary bar magnet, with a pole at each end, +and break it in the middle; then would not the north end be all ready +to start on its voyage north, and the south end to make its way south? +But, alas! when this experiment is tried it is found that a south pole +instantly develops itself on one side of the break, and a north pole on +the other side, so that the two pieces will simply form two magnets, +each with its north and south pole. There is no possibility of making a +magnet with only one pole. +</P> + +<P> +It was formerly supposed that the central portions of the earth +consisted of an immense magnet directed north and south. Although this +view is found, for reasons which need not be set forth in detail, to be +untenable, it gives us a good general idea of the nature of terrestrial +magnetism. One result that follows from the law of poles already +mentioned is that the magnetism which seems to belong to the north pole +of the earth is what we call south on the magnet, and vice versa. +</P> + +<P> +Careful experiment shows us that the region around every magnet is +filled with magnetic force, strongest near the poles of the magnet, but +diminishing as the inverse square of the distance from the pole. This +force, at each point, acts along a certain line, called a line of +force. These lines are very prettily shown by the familiar experiment +of placing a sheet of paper over a magnet, and then scattering iron +filings on the surface of the paper. It will be noticed that the +filings arrange themselves along a series of curved lines, diverging in +every direction from each pole, but always passing from one pole to the +other. It is a universal law that whenever a magnet is brought into a +region where this force acts, it is attracted into such a position that +it shall have the same direction as the lines of force. Its north pole +will take the direction of the curve leading to the south pole of the +other magnet, and its south pole the opposite one. +</P> + +<P> +The fact of terrestrial magnetism may be expressed by saying that the +space within and around the whole earth is filled by lines of magnetic +force, which we know nothing about until we suspend a magnet so +perfectly balanced that it may point in any direction whatever. Then it +turns and points in the direction of the lines of force, which may thus +be mapped out for all points of the earth. +</P> + +<P> +We commonly say that the pole of the needle points towards the north. +The poets tell us how the needle is true to the pole. Every reader, +however, is now familiar with the general fact of a variation of the +compass. On our eastern seaboard, and all the way across the Atlantic, +the north pointing of the compass varies so far to the west that a ship +going to Europe and making no allowance for this deviation would find +herself making more nearly for the North Cape than for her destination. +The "declination," as it is termed in scientific language, varies from +one region of the earth to another. In some places it is towards the +west, in others towards the east. +</P> + +<P> +The pointing of the needle in various regions of the world is shown by +means of magnetic maps. Such maps are published by the United States +Coast Survey, whose experts make a careful study of the magnetic force +all over the country. It is found that there is a line running nearly +north and south through the Middle States along which there is no +variation of the compass. To the east of it the variation of the north +pole of the magnet is west; to the west of it, east. The most rapid +changes in the pointing of the needle are towards the northeast and +northwest regions. When we travel to the northeastern boundary of Maine +the westerly variation has risen to 20 degrees. Towards the northwest +the easterly variation continually increases, until, in the northern +part of the State of Washington, it amounts to 23 degrees. +</P> + +<P> +When we cross the Atlantic into Europe we find the west variation +diminishing until we reach a certain line passing through central +Russia and western Asia. This is again a line of no variation. Crossing +it, the variation is once more towards the east. This direction +continues over most of the continent of Asia, but varies in a somewhat +irregular manner from one part of the continent to another. +</P> + +<P> +As a general rule, the lines of the earth's magnetic force are not +horizontal, and therefore one end or the other of a perfectly suspended +magnet will dip below the horizontal position. This is called the "dip +of the needle." It is observed by means of a brass circle, of which the +circumference is marked off in degrees. A magnet is attached to this +circle so as to form a diameter, and suspended on a horizontal axis +passing through the centre of gravity, so that the magnet shall be free +to point in the direction indicated by the earth's lines of magnetic +force. Armed with this apparatus, scientific travellers and navigators +have visited various points of the earth in order to determine the dip. +It is thus found that there is a belt passing around the earth near the +equator, but sometimes deviating several degrees from it, in which +there is no dip; that is to say, the lines of magnetic force are +horizontal. Taking any point on this belt and going north, it will be +found that the north pole of the magnet gradually tends downward, the +dip constantly increasing as we go farther north. In the southern part +of the United States the dip is about 60 degrees, and the direction of +the needle is nearly perpendicular to the earth's axis. In the northern +part of the country, including the region of the Great Lakes, the dip +increases to 75 degrees. Noticing that a dip of 90 degrees would mean +that the north end of the magnet points straight downward, it follows +that it would be more nearly correct to say that, throughout the United +States, the magnetic needle points up and down than that it points +north and south. +</P> + +<P> +Going yet farther north, we find the dip still increasing, until at a +certain point in the arctic regions the north pole of the needle points +downward. In this region the compass is of no use to the traveller or +the navigator. The point is called the Magnetic Pole. Its position has +been located several times by scientific observers. The best +determinations made during the last eighty years agree fairly well in +placing it near 70 degrees north latitude and 97 degrees longitude west +from Greenwich. This point is situated on the west shore of the +Boothian Peninsula, which is bounded on the south end by McClintock +Channel. It is about five hundred miles north of the northwest part of +Hudson Bay. There is a corresponding magnetic pole in the Antarctic +Ocean, or rather on Victoria Land, nearly south of Australia. Its +position has not been so exactly located as in the north, but it is +supposed to be at about 74 degrees of south latitude and 147 degrees of +east longitude from Greenwich. +</P> + +<P> +The magnetic poles used to be looked upon as the points towards which +the respective ends of the needle were attracted. And, as a matter of +fact, the magnetic force is stronger near the poles than elsewhere. +When located in this way by strength of force, it is found that there +is a second north pole in northern Siberia. Its location has not, +however, been so well determined as in the case of the American pole, +and it is not yet satisfactorily shown that there is any one point in +Siberia where the direction of the force is exactly downward. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: DIP OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN VARIOUS +LATITUDES. The arrow points show the direction of the north end of the +magnetic needle, which dips downward in north latitudes, while the +south end dips in south latitudes.] +</P> + +<P> +The declination and dip, taken together, show the exact direction of +the magnetic force at any place. But in order to complete the statement +of the force, one more element must be given—its amount. The intensity +of the magnetic force is determined by suspending a magnet in a +horizontal position, and then allowing it to oscillate back and forth +around the suspension. The stronger the force, the less the time it +will take to oscillate. Thus, by carrying a magnet to various parts of +the world, the magnetic force can be determined at every point where a +proper support for the magnet is obtainable. The intensity thus found +is called the horizontal force. This is not really the total force, +because the latter depends upon the dip; the greater the dip, the less +will be the horizontal force which corresponds to a certain total +force. But a very simple computation enables the one to be determined +when the value of the other is known. In this way it is found that, as +a general rule, the magnetic force is least in the earth's equatorial +regions and increases as we approach either of the magnetic poles. +</P> + +<P> +When the most exact observations on the direction of the needle are +made, it is found that it never remains at rest. Beginning with the +changes of shortest duration, we have a change which takes place every +day, and is therefore called diurnal. In our northern latitudes it is +found that during the six hours from nine o'clock at night until three +in the morning the direction of the magnet remains nearly the same. But +between three and four A.M. it begins to deviate towards the east, +going farther and farther east until about 8 A.M. Then, rather +suddenly, it begins to swing towards the west with a much more rapid +movement, which comes to an end between one and two o'clock in the +afternoon. Then, more slowly, it returns in an easterly direction until +about nine at night, when it becomes once more nearly quiescent. +Happily, the amount of this change is so small that the navigator need +not trouble himself with it. The entire range of movement rarely +amounts to one-quarter of a degree. +</P> + +<P> +It is a curious fact that the amount of the change is twice as great in +June as it is in December. This indicates that it is caused by the +sun's radiation. But how or why this cause should produce such an +effect no one has yet discovered. +</P> + +<P> +Another curious feature is that in the southern hemisphere the +direction of the motion is reversed, although its general character +remains the same. The pointing deviates towards the west in the +morning, then rapidly moves towards the east until about two o'clock, +after which it slowly returns to its original direction. +</P> + +<P> +The dip of the needle goes through a similar cycle of daily changes. In +northern latitudes it is found that at about six in the morning the dip +begins to increase, and continues to do so until noon, after which it +diminishes until seven or eight o'clock in the evening, when it becomes +nearly constant for the rest of the night. In the southern hemisphere +the direction of the movement is reversed. +</P> + +<P> +When the pointing of the needle is compared with the direction of the +moon, it is found that there is a similar change. But, instead of +following the moon in its course, it goes through two periods in a day, +like the tides. When the moon is on the meridian, whether above or +below us, the effect is in one direction, while when it is rising or +setting it is in the opposite direction. In other words, there is a +complete swinging backward and forward twice in a lunar day. It might +be supposed that such an effect would be due to the moon, like the +earth, being a magnet. But were this the case there would be only one +swing back and forth during the passage of the moon from the meridian +until it came back to the meridian again. The effect would be opposite +at the rising and setting of the moon, which we have seen is not the +case. To make the explanation yet more difficult, it is found that, as +in the case of the sun, the change is opposite in the northern and +southern hemispheres and very small at the equator, where, by virtue of +any action that we can conceive of, it ought to be greatest. The +pointing is also found to change with the age of the moon and with the +season of the year. But these motions are too small to be set forth in +the present article. +</P> + +<P> +There is yet another class of changes much wider than these. The +observations recorded since the time of Columbus show that, in the +course of centuries, the variation of the compass, at any one point, +changes very widely. It is well known that in 1490 the needle pointed +east of north in the Mediterranean, as well as in those portions of the +Atlantic which were then navigated. Columbus was therefore much +astonished when, on his first voyage, in mid-ocean, he found that the +deviation was reversed, and was now towards the west. It follows that a +line of no variation then passed through the Atlantic Ocean. But this +line has since been moving towards the east. About 1662 it passed the +meridian of Paris. During the two hundred and forty years which have +since elapsed, it has passed over Central Europe, and now, as we have +already said, passes through European Russia. +</P> + +<P> +The existence of natural magnets composed of iron ore, and their +property of attracting iron and making it magnetic, have been known +from the remotest antiquity. But the question as to who first +discovered the fact that a magnetized needle points north and south, +and applied this discovery to navigation, has given rise to much +discussion. That the property was known to the Chinese about the +beginning of our era seems to be fairly well established, the +statements to that effect being of a kind that could not well have been +invented. Historical evidence of the use of the magnetic needle in +navigation dates from the twelfth century. The earliest compass +consisted simply of a splinter of wood or a piece of straw to which the +magnetized needle was attached, and which was floated in water. A +curious obstacle is said to have interfered with the first uses of this +instrument. Jack is a superstitious fellow, and we may be sure that he +was not less so in former times than he is today. From his point of +view there was something uncanny in so very simple a contrivance as a +floating straw persistently showing him the direction in which he must +sail. It made him very uncomfortable to go to sea under the guidance of +an invisible power. But with him, as with the rest of us, familiarity +breeds contempt, and it did not take more than a generation to show +that much good and no harm came to those who used the magic pointer. +</P> + +<P> +The modern compass, as made in the most approved form for naval and +other large ships, is the liquid one. This does not mean that the card +bearing the needle floats on the liquid, but only that a part of the +force is taken off from the pivot on which it turns, so as to make the +friction as small as possible, and to prevent the oscillation back and +forth which would continually go on if the card were perfectly free to +turn. The compass-card is marked not only with the thirty-two familiar +points of the compass, but is also divided into degrees. In the most +accurate navigation it is probable that very little use of the points +is made, the ship being directed according to the degrees. +</P> + +<P> +A single needle is not relied upon to secure the direction of the card, +the latter being attached to a system of four or even more magnets, all +pointing in the same direction. The compass must have no iron in its +construction or support, because the attraction of that substance on +the needle would be fatal to its performance. +</P> + +<P> +From this cause the use of iron as ship-building material introduced a +difficulty which it was feared would prove very serious. The thousands +of tons of iron in a ship must exert a strong attraction on the +magnetic needle. Another complication is introduced by the fact that +the iron of the ship will always become more or less magnetic, and when +the ship is built of steel, as modern ones are, this magnetism will be +more or less permanent. +</P> + +<P> +We have already said that a magnet has the property of making steel or +iron in its neighborhood into another magnet, with its poles pointing +in the opposite direction. The consequence is that the magnetism of the +earth itself will make iron or steel more or less magnetic. As a ship +is built she thus becomes a great repository of magnetism, the +direction of the force of which will depend upon the position in which +she lay while building. If erected on the bank of an east and west +stream, the north end of the ship will become the north pole of a +magnet and the south end the south pole. Accordingly, when she is +launched and proceeds to sea, the compass points not exactly according +to the magnetism of the earth, but partly according to that of the ship +also. +</P> + +<P> +The methods of obviating this difficulty have exercised the ingenuity +of the ablest physicists from the beginning of iron ship building. One +method is to place in the neighborhood of the compass, but not too near +it, a steel bar magnetized in the opposite direction from that of the +ship, so that the action of the latter shall be neutralized. But a +perfect neutralization cannot be thus effected. It is all the more +difficult to effect it because the magnetism of a ship is liable to +change. +</P> + +<P> +The practical method therefore adopted is called "swinging the ship," +an operation which passengers on ocean liners may have frequently +noticed when approaching land. The ship is swung around so that her bow +shall point in various directions. At each pointing the direction of +the ship is noticed by sighting on the sun, and also the direction of +the compass itself. In this way the error of the pointing of the +compass as the ship swings around is found for every direction in which +she may be sailing. A table can then be made showing what the pointing, +according to the compass, should be in order that the ship may sail in +any given direction. +</P> + +<P> +This, however, does not wholly avoid the danger. The tables thus made +are good when the ship is on a level keel. If, from any cause whatever, +she heels over to one side, the action will be different. Thus there is +a "heeling error" which must be allowed for. It is supposed to have +been from this source of error not having been sufficiently determined +or appreciated that the lamentable wreck of the United States ship +Huron off the coast of Hatteras occurred some twenty years ago. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap10"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +X +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE FAIRYLAND OF GEOMETRY +</H3> + +<P> +If the reader were asked in what branch of science the imagination is +confined within the strictest limits, he would, I fancy, reply that it +must be that of mathematics. The pursuer of this science deals only +with problems requiring the most exact statements and the most rigorous +reasoning. In all other fields of thought more or less room for play +may be allowed to the imagination, but here it is fettered by iron +rules, expressed in the most rigid logical form, from which no +deviation can be allowed. We are told by philosophers that absolute +certainty is unattainable in all ordinary human affairs, the only field +in which it is reached being that of geometric demonstration. +</P> + +<P> +And yet geometry itself has its fairyland—a land in which the +imagination, while adhering to the forms of the strictest +demonstration, roams farther than it ever did in the dreams of Grimm or +Andersen. One thing which gives this field its strictly mathematical +character is that it was discovered and explored in the search after +something to supply an actual want of mathematical science, and was +incited by this want rather than by any desire to give play to fancy. +Geometricians have always sought to found their science on the most +logical basis possible, and thus have carefully and critically inquired +into its foundations. The new geometry which has thus arisen is of two +closely related yet distinct forms. One of these is called +NON-EUCLIDIAN, because Euclid's axiom of parallels, which we shall +presently explain, is ignored. In the other form space is assumed to +have one or more dimensions in addition to the three to which the space +we actually inhabit is confined. As we go beyond the limits set by +Euclid in adding a fourth dimension to space, this last branch as well +as the other is often designated non-Euclidian. But the more common +term is hypergeometry, which, though belonging more especially to space +of more than three dimensions, is also sometimes applied to any +geometric system which transcends our ordinary ideas. +</P> + +<P> +In all geometric reasoning some propositions are necessarily taken for +granted. These are called axioms, and are commonly regarded as +self-evident. Yet their vital principle is not so much that of being +self-evident as being, from the nature of the case, incapable of +demonstration. Our edifice must have some support to rest upon, and we +take these axioms as its foundation. One example of such a geometric +axiom is that only one straight line can be drawn between two fixed +points; in other words, two straight lines can never intersect in more +than a single point. The axiom with which we are at present concerned +is commonly known as the 11th of Euclid, and may be set forth in the +following way: We have given a straight line, A B, and a point, P, with +another line, C D, passing through it and capable of being turned +around on P. Euclid assumes that this line C D will have one position +in which it will be parallel to A B, that is, a position such that if +the two lines are produced without end, they will never meet. His axiom +is that only one such line can be drawn through P. That is to say, if +we make the slightest possible change in the direction of the line C D, +it will intersect the other line, either in one direction or the other. +</P> + +<P> +The new geometry grew out of the feeling that this proposition ought to +be proved rather than taken as an axiom; in fact, that it could in some +way be derived from the other axioms. Many demonstrations of it were +attempted, but it was always found, on critical examination, that the +proposition itself, or its equivalent, had slyly worked itself in as +part of the base of the reasoning, so that the very thing to be proved +was really taken for granted. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: FIG. 1] +</P> + +<P> +This suggested another course of inquiry. If this axiom of parallels +does not follow from the other axioms, then from these latter we may +construct a system of geometry in which the axiom of parallels shall +not be true. This was done by Lobatchewsky and Bolyai, the one a +Russian the other a Hungarian geometer, about 1830. +</P> + +<P> +To show how a result which looks absurd, and is really inconceivable by +us, can be treated as possible in geometry, we must have recourse to +analogy. Suppose a world consisting of a boundless flat plane to be +inhabited by reasoning beings who can move about at pleasure on the +plane, but are not able to turn their heads up or down, or even to see +or think of such terms as above them and below them, and things around +them can be pushed or pulled about in any direction, but cannot be +lifted up. People and things can pass around each other, but cannot +step over anything. These dwellers in "flatland" could construct a +plane geometry which would be exactly like ours in being based on the +axioms of Euclid. Two parallel straight lines would never meet, though +continued indefinitely. +</P> + +<P> +But suppose that the surface on which these beings live, instead of +being an infinitely extended plane, is really the surface of an immense +globe, like the earth on which we live. It needs no knowledge of +geometry, but only an examination of any globular object—an apple, for +example—to show that if we draw a line as straight as possible on a +sphere, and parallel to it draw a small piece of a second line, and +continue this in as straight a line as we can, the two lines will meet +when we proceed in either direction one-quarter of the way around the +sphere. For our "flat-land" people these lines would both be perfectly +straight, because the only curvature would be in the direction +downward, which they could never either perceive or discover. The lines +would also correspond to the definition of straight lines, because any +portion of either contained between two of its points would be the +shortest distance between those points. And yet, if these people should +extend their measures far enough, they would find any two parallel +lines to meet in two points in opposite directions. For all small +spaces the axioms of their geometry would apparently hold good, but +when they came to spaces as immense as the semi-diameter of the earth, +they would find the seemingly absurd result that two parallel lines +would, in the course of thousands of miles, come together. Another +result yet more astonishing would be that, going ahead far enough in a +straight line, they would find that although they had been going +forward all the time in what seemed to them the same direction, they +would at the end of 25,000 miles find themselves once more at their +starting-point. +</P> + +<P> +One form of the modern non-Euclidian geometry assumes that a similar +theorem is true for the space in which our universe is contained. +Although two straight lines, when continued indefinitely, do not appear +to converge even at the immense distances which separate us from the +fixed stars, it is possible that there may be a point at which they +would eventually meet without either line having deviated from its +primitive direction as we understand the case. It would follow that, if +we could start out from the earth and fly through space in a perfectly +straight line with a velocity perhaps millions of times that of light, +we might at length find ourselves approaching the earth from a +direction the opposite of that in which we started. Our straight-line +circle would be complete. +</P> + +<P> +Another result of the theory is that, if it be true, space, though +still unbounded, is not infinite, just as the surface of a sphere, +though without any edge or boundary, has only a limited extent of +surface. Space would then have only a certain volume—a volume which, +though perhaps greater than that of all the atoms in the material +universe, would still be capable of being expressed in cubic miles. If +we imagine our earth to grow larger and larger in every direction +without limit, and with a speed similar to that we have described, so +that to-morrow it was large enough to extend to the nearest fixed +stars, the day after to yet farther stars, and so on, and we, living +upon it, looked out for the result, we should, in time, see the other +side of the earth above us, coming down upon us? as it were. The space +intervening would grow smaller, at last being filled up. The earth +would then be so expanded as to fill all existing space. +</P> + +<P> +This, although to us the most interesting form of the non-Euclidian +geometry, is not the only one. The idea which Lobatchewsky worked out +was that through a point more than one parallel to a given line could +be drawn; that is to say, if through the point P we have already +supposed another line were drawn making ever so small an angle with CD, +this line also would never meet the line AB. It might approach the +latter at first, but would eventually diverge. The two lines AB and CD, +starting parallel, would eventually, perhaps at distances greater than +that of the fixed stars, gradually diverge from each other. This system +does not admit of being shown by analogy so easily as the other, but an +idea of it may be had by supposing that the surface of "flat-land," +instead of being spherical, is saddle-shaped. Apparently straight +parallel lines drawn upon it would then diverge, as supposed by Bolyai. +We cannot, however, imagine such a surface extended indefinitely +without losing its properties. The analogy is not so clearly marked as +in the other case. +</P> + +<P> +To explain hypergeometry proper we must first set forth what a fourth +dimension of space means, and show how natural the way is by which it +may be approached. We continue our analogy from "flat-land" In this +supposed land let us make a cross—two straight lines intersecting at +right angles. The inhabitants of this land understand the cross +perfectly, and conceive of it just as we do. But let us ask them to +draw a third line, intersecting in the same point, and perpendicular to +both the other lines. They would at once pronounce this absurd and +impossible. It is equally absurd and impossible to us if we require the +third line to be drawn on the paper. But we should reply, "If you allow +us to leave the paper or flat surface, then we can solve the problem by +simply drawing the third line through the paper perpendicular to its +surface." +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: FIG. 2] +</P> + +<P> +Now, to pursue the analogy, suppose that, after we have drawn three +mutually perpendicular lines, some being from another sphere proposes +to us the drawing of a fourth line through the same point, +perpendicular to all three of the lines already there. We should answer +him in the same way that the inhabitants of "flat-land" answered us: +"The problem is impossible. You cannot draw any such line in space as +we understand it." If our visitor conceived of the fourth dimension, he +would reply to us as we replied to the "flat-land" people: "The problem +is absurd and impossible if you confine your line to space as you +understand it. But for me there is a fourth dimension in space. Draw +your line through that dimension, and the problem will be solved. This +is perfectly simple to me; it is impossible to you solely because your +conceptions do not admit of more than three dimensions." +</P> + +<P> +Supposing the inhabitants of "flat-land" to be intellectual beings as +we are, it would be interesting to them to be told what dwellers of +space in three dimensions could do. Let us pursue the analogy by +showing what dwellers in four dimensions might do. Place a dweller of +"flat-land" inside a circle drawn on his plane, and ask him to step +outside of it without breaking through it. He would go all around, and, +finding every inch of it closed, he would say it was impossible from +the very nature of the conditions. "But," we would reply, "that is +because of your limited conceptions. We can step over it." +</P> + +<P> +"Step over it!" he would exclaim. "I do not know what that means. I can +pass around anything if there is a way open, but I cannot imagine what +you mean by stepping over it." +</P> + +<P> +But we should simply step over the line and reappear on the other side. +So, if we confine a being able to move in a fourth dimension in the +walls of a dungeon of which the sides, the floor, and the ceiling were +all impenetrable, he would step outside of it without touching any part +of the building, just as easily as we could step over a circle drawn on +the plane without touching it. He would simply disappear from our view +like a spirit, and perhaps reappear the next moment outside the prison. +To do this he would only have to make a little excursion in the fourth +dimension. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: FIG. 3] +</P> + +<P> +Another curious application of the principle is more purely +geometrical. We have here two triangles, of which the sides and angles +of the one are all equal to corresponding sides and angles of the +other. Euclid takes it for granted that the one triangle can be laid +upon the other so that the two shall fit together. But this cannot be +done unless we lift one up and turn it over. In the geometry of +"flat-land" such a thing as lifting up is inconceivable; the two +triangles could never be fitted together. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: FIG 4] +</P> + +<P> +Now let us suppose two pyramids similarly related. All the faces and +angles of the one correspond to the faces and angles of the other. Yet, +lift them about as we please, we could never fit them together. If we +fit the bases together the two will lie on opposite sides, one being +below the other. But the dweller in four dimensions of space will fit +them together without any trouble. By the mere turning over of one he +will convert it into the other without any change whatever in the +relative position of its parts. What he could do with the pyramids he +could also do with one of us if we allowed him to take hold of us and +turn a somersault with us in the fourth dimension. We should then come +back into our natural space, but changed as if we were seen in a +mirror. Everything on us would be changed from right to left, even the +seams in our clothes, and every hair on our head. All this would be +done without, during any of the motion, any change having occurred in +the positions of the parts of the body. +</P> + +<P> +It is very curious that, in these transcendental speculations, the most +rigorous mathematical methods correspond to the most mystical ideas of +the Swedenborgian and other forms of religion. Right around us, but in +a direction which we cannot conceive any more than the inhabitants of +"flat-land" can conceive up and down, there may exist not merely +another universe, but any number of universes. All that physical +science can say against the supposition is that, even if a fourth +dimension exists, there is some law of all the matter with which we are +acquainted which prevents any of it from entering that dimension, so +that, in our natural condition, it must forever remain unknown to us. +</P> + +<P> +Another possibility in space of four dimensions would be that of +turning a hollow sphere, an india-rubber ball, for example, inside out +by simple bending without tearing it. To show the motion in our space +to which this is analogous, let us take a thin, round sheet of +india-rubber, and cut out all the central part, leaving only a narrow +ring round the border. Suppose the outer edge of this ring fastened +down on a table, while we take hold of the inner edge and stretch it +upward and outward over the outer edge until we flatten the whole ring +on the table, upside down, with the inner edge now the outer one. This +motion would be as inconceivable in "flat-land" as turning the ball +inside out is to us. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap11"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +XI +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE ORGANIZATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH +</H3> + +<P> +The claims of scientific research on the public were never more +forcibly urged than in Professor Ray Lankester's recent Romanes Lecture +before the University of Oxford. Man is here eloquently pictured as +Nature's rebel, who, under conditions where his great superior commands +"Thou shalt die," replies "I will live." In pursuance of this +determination, civilized man has proceeded so far in his interference +with the regular course of Nature that he must either go on and acquire +firmer control of the conditions, or perish miserably by the vengeance +certain to be inflicted on the half-hearted meddler in great affairs. +This rebel by every step forward renders himself liable to greater and +greater penalties, and so cannot afford to pause or fail in one single +step. One of Nature's most powerful agencies in thwarting his +determination to live is found in disease-producing parasites. "Where +there is one man of first-rate intelligence now employed in gaining +knowledge of this agency, there should be a thousand. It should be as +much the purpose of civilized nations to protect their citizens in this +respect as it is to provide defence against human aggression." +</P> + +<P> +It was no part of the function of the lecturer to devise a plan for +carrying on the great war he proposes to wage. The object of the +present article is to contribute some suggestions in this direction; +with especial reference to conditions in our own country; and no better +text can be found for a discourse on the subject than the preceding +quotation. In saying that there should be a thousand investigators of +disease where there is now one, I believe that Professor Lankester +would be the first to admit that this statement was that of an ideal to +be aimed at, rather than of an end to be practically reached. Every +careful thinker will agree that to gather a body of men, young or old, +supply them with laboratories and microscopes, and tell them to +investigate disease, would be much like sending out an army without +trained leaders to invade an enemy's country. +</P> + +<P> +There is at least one condition of success in this line which is better +fulfilled in our own country than in any other; and that is liberality +of support on the part of munificent citizens desirous of so employing +their wealth as to promote the public good. Combining this +instrumentality with the general public spirit of our people, it must +be admitted that, with all the disadvantages under which scientific +research among us has hitherto labored, there is still no country to +which we can look more hopefully than to our own as the field in which +the ideal set forth by Professor Lankester is to be pursued. Some +thoughts on the question how scientific research may be most +effectively promoted in our own country through organized effort may +therefore be of interest. Our first step will be to inquire what +general lessons are to be learned from the experience of the past. +</P> + +<P> +The first and most important of these lessons is that research has +never reached its highest development except at centres where bodies of +men engaged in it have been brought together, and stimulated to action +by mutual sympathy and support. We must call to mind that, although the +beginnings of modern science were laid by such men as Copernicus, +Galileo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Torricelli, before the middle of the +seventeenth century, unbroken activity and progress date from the +foundations of the Academy of Sciences of Paris and the Royal Society +of London at that time. The historic fact that the bringing of men +together, and their support by an intelligent and interested community, +is the first requirement to be kept in view can easily be explained. +Effective research involves so intricate a network of problems and +considerations that no one engaged in it can fail to profit by the +suggestions of kindred spirits, even if less acquainted with the +subject than he is himself. Intelligent discussion suggests new ideas +and continually carries the mind to a higher level of thought. We must +not regard the typical scientific worker, even of the highest class, as +one who, having chosen his special field and met with success in +cultivating it, has only to be supplied with the facilities he may be +supposed to need in order to continue his work in the most efficient +way. What we have to deal with is not a fixed and permanent body of +learned men, each knowing all about the field of work in which he is +engaged, but a changing and growing class, constantly recruited by +beginners at the bottom of the scale, and constantly depleted by the +old dropping away at the top. No view of the subject is complete which +does not embrace the entire activity of the investigator, from the tyro +to the leader. The leader himself, unless engaged in the prosecution of +some narrow specialty, can rarely be so completely acquainted with his +field as not to need information from others. Without this, he is +constantly liable to be repeating what has already been better done +than he can do it himself, of following lines which are known to lead +to no result, and of adopting methods shown by the experience of others +not to be the best. Even the books and published researches to which he +must have access may be so voluminous that he cannot find time to +completely examine them for himself; or they may be inaccessible. All +this will make it clear that, with an occasional exception, the best +results of research are not to be expected except at centres where +large bodies of men are brought into close personal contact. +</P> + +<P> +In addition to the power and facility acquired by frequent discussion +with his fellows, the appreciation and support of an intelligent +community, to whom the investigator may, from time to time, make known +his thoughts and the results of his work, add a most effective +stimulus. The greater the number of men of like minds that can be +brought together and the larger the community which interests itself in +what they are doing, the more rapid will be the advance and the more +effective the work carried on. It is thus that London, with its +munificently supported institutions, and Paris and Berlin, with their +bodies of investigators supported either by the government or by +various foundations, have been for more than three centuries the great +centres where we find scientific activity most active and most +effective. Looking at this undoubted fact, which has asserted itself +through so long a period, and which asserts itself today more strongly +than ever, the writer conceives that there can be no question as to one +proposition. If we aim at the single object of promoting the advance of +knowledge in the most effective way, and making our own country the +leading one in research, our efforts should be directed towards +bringing together as many scientific workers as possible at a single +centre, where they can profit in the highest degree by mutual help, +support, and sympathy. +</P> + +<P> +In thus strongly setting forth what must seem an indisputable +conclusion, the writer does not deny that there are drawbacks to such a +policy, as there are to every policy that can be devised aiming at a +good result. Nature offers to society no good that she does not +accompany by a greater or less measure of evil The only question is +whether the good outweighs the evil. In the present case, the seeming +evil, whether real or not, is that of centralization. A policy tending +in this direction is held to be contrary to the best interests of +science in quarters entitled to so much respect that we must inquire +into the soundness of the objection. +</P> + +<P> +It would be idle to discuss so extreme a question as whether we shall +take all the best scientific investigators of our country from their +several seats of learning and attract them to some one point. We know +that this cannot be done, even were it granted that success would be +productive of great results. The most that can be done is to choose +some existing centre of learning, population, wealth, and influence, +and do what we can to foster the growth of science at that centre by +attracting thither the greatest possible number of scientific +investigators, especially of the younger class, and making it possible +for them to pursue their researches in the most effective way. This +policy would not result in the slightest harm to any institution or +community situated elsewhere. It would not be even like building up a +university to outrank all the others of our country; because the +functions of the new institution, if such should be founded, would in +its relations to the country be radically different from those of a +university. Its primary object would not be the education of youth, but +the increase of knowledge. So far as the interests of any community or +of the world at large are concerned, it is quite indifferent where +knowledge may be acquired, because, when once acquired and made public, +it is free to the world. The drawbacks suffered by other centres would +be no greater than those suffered by our Western cities, because all +the great departments of the government are situated at a single +distant point. Strong arguments could doubtless be made for locating +some of these departments in the Far West, in the Mississippi Valley, +or in various cities of the Atlantic coast; but every one knows that +any local advantages thus gained would be of no importance compared +with the loss of that administrative efficiency which is essential to +the whole country. +</P> + +<P> +There is, therefore, no real danger from centralization. The actual +danger is rather in the opposite direction; that the sentiment against +concentrating research will prove to operate too strongly. There is a +feeling that it is rather better to leave every investigator where he +chances to be at the moment, a feeling which sometimes finds expression +in the apothegm that we cannot transplant a genius. That such a +proposition should find acceptance affords a striking example of the +readiness of men to accept a euphonious phrase without inquiring +whether the facts support the doctrine which it enunciates. The fact is +that many, perhaps the majority, of the great scientific investigators +of this and of former times have done their best work through being +transplanted. As soon as the enlightened monarchs of Europe felt the +importance of making their capitals great centres of learning, they +began to invite eminent men of other countries to their own. Lagrange +was an Italian transplanted to Paris, as a member of the Academy of +Sciences, after he had shown his powers in his native country. His +great contemporary, Euler, was a Swiss, transplanted first to St. +Petersburg, then invited by Frederick the Great to become a member of +the Berlin Academy, then again attracted to St. Petersburg. Huyghens +was transplanted from his native country to Paris. Agassiz was an +exotic, brought among us from Switzerland, whose activity during the +generation he passed among us was as great and effective as at any time +of his life. On the Continent, outside of France, the most eminent +professors in the universities have been and still are brought from +distant points. So numerous are the cases of which these are examples +that it would be more in accord with the facts to claim that it is only +by transplanting a genius that we stimulate him to his best work. +</P> + +<P> +Having shown that the best results can be expected only by bringing +into contact as many scientific investigators as possible, the next +question which arises is that of their relations to one another. It may +be asked whether we shall aim at individualism or collectivism. Shall +our ideal be an organized system of directors, professors, associates, +assistants, fellows; or shall it be a collection of individual workers, +each pursuing his own task in the way he deems best, untrammelled by +authority? +</P> + +<P> +The reply to this question is that there is in this special case no +antagonism between the two ideas. The most effective organization will +aim both at the promotion of individual effort, and at subordination +and co-operation. It would be a serious error to formulate any general +rule by which all cases should be governed. The experience of the past +should be our guide, so far as it applies to present and future +conditions; but in availing ourselves of it we must remember that +conditions are constantly changing, and must adapt our policy to the +problems of the future. In doing this, we shall find that different +fields of research require very different policies as regards +co-operation and subordination. It will be profitable to point out +those special differences, because we shall thereby gain a more +luminous insight into the problems which now confront the scientific +investigator, and better appreciate their variety, and the necessity of +different methods of dealing with them. +</P> + +<P> +At one extreme, we have the field of normative science, work in which +is of necessity that of the individual mind alone. This embraces pure +mathematics and the methods of science in their widest range. The +common interests of science require that these methods shall be worked +out and formulated for the guidance of investigators generally, and +this work is necessarily that of the individual brain. +</P> + +<P> +At the other extreme, we have the great and growing body of sciences of +observation. Through the whole nineteenth century, to say nothing of +previous centuries, organizations, and even individuals, have been +engaged in recording the innumerable phases of the course of nature, +hoping to accumulate material that posterity shall be able to utilize +for its benefit. We have observations astronomical, meteorological, +magnetic, and social, accumulating in constantly increasing volume, the +mass of which is so unmanageable with our present organizations that +the question might well arise whether almost the whole of it will not +have to be consigned to oblivion. Such a conclusion should not be +entertained until we have made a vigorous effort to find what pure +metal of value can be extracted from the mass of ore. To do this +requires the co-operation of minds of various orders, quite akin in +their relations to those necessary in a mine or great manufacturing +establishment. Laborers whose duties are in a large measure matters of +routine must be guided by the skill of a class higher in quality and +smaller in number than their own, and these again by the technical +knowledge of leaders in research. Between these extremes we have a +great variety of systems of co-operation. +</P> + +<P> +There is another feature of modern research the apprehension of which +is necessary to the completeness of our view. A cursory survey of the +field of science conveys the impression that it embraces only a +constantly increasing number of disconnected specialties, in which each +cultivator knows little or nothing of what is being done by others. +Measured by its bulk, the published mass of scientific research is +increasing in a more than geometrical ratio. Not only do the +publications of nearly every scientific society increase in number and +volume, but new and vigorous societies are constantly organized to add +to the sum total. The stately quartos issued from the presses of the +leading academies of Europe are, in most cases, to be counted by +hundreds. The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society already +number about two hundred volumes, and the time when the Memoirs of the +French Academy of Sciences shall reach the thousand mark does not +belong to the very remote future. Besides such large volumes, these and +other societies publish smaller ones in a constantly growing number. In +addition to the publications of learned societies, there are journals +devoted to each scientific specialty, which seem to propagate their +species by subdivision in much the same way as some of the lower orders +of animal life. Every new publication of the kind is suggested by the +wants of a body of specialists, who require a new medium for their +researches and communications. The time has already come when we cannot +assume that any specialist is acquainted with all that is being done +even in his own line. To keep the run of this may well be beyond his +own powers; more he can rarely attempt. +</P> + +<P> +What is the science of the future to do when this huge mass outgrows +the space that can be found for it in the libraries, and what are we to +say of the value of it all? Are all these scientific researches to be +classed as really valuable contributions to knowledge, or have we only +a pile in which nuggets of gold are here and there to be sought for? +One encouraging answer to such a question is that, taking the interests +of the world as a whole, scientific investigation has paid for itself +in benefits to humanity a thousand times over, and that all that is +known to-day is but an insignificant fraction of what Nature has to +show us. Apart from this, another feature of the science of our time +demands attention. While we cannot hope that the multiplication of +specialties will cease, we find that upon the process of +differentiation and subdivision is now being superposed a form of +evolution, tending towards the general unity of all the sciences, of +which some examples may be pointed out. +</P> + +<P> +Biological science, which a generation ago was supposed to be at the +antipodes of exact science, is becoming more and more exact, and is +cultivated by methods which are developed and taught by mathematicians. +Psychophysics—the study of the operations of the mind by physical +apparatus of the same general nature as that used by the chemist and +physicist—is now an established branch of research. A natural science +which, if any comparisons are possible, may outweigh all others in +importance to the race, is the rising one of "eugenics,"—the +improvement of the human race by controlling the production of its +offspring. No better example of the drawbacks which our country suffers +as a seat of science can be given than the fact that the beginning of +such a science has been possible only at the seat of a larger body of +cultivated men than our land has yet been able to bring together. +Generations may elapse before the seed sown by Mr. Francis Galton, from +which grew the Eugenic Society, shall bear full fruit in the adoption +of those individual efforts and social regulations necessary to the +propagation of sound and healthy offspring on the part of the human +family. But when this comes about, then indeed will Professor +Lankester's "rebel against Nature" find his independence acknowledged +by the hitherto merciless despot that has decreed punishment for his +treason. +</P> + +<P> +This new branch of science from which so much may be expected is the +offshoot of another, the rapid growth of which illustrates the rapid +invasion of the most important fields of thought by the methods of +exact science. It is only a few years since it was remarked of +Professor Karl Pearson's mathematical investigations into the laws of +heredity, and the biological questions associated with these laws, that +he was working almost alone, because the biologists did not understand +his mathematics, while the mathematicians were not interested in his +biology. Had he not lived at a great centre of active thought, within +the sphere of influence of the two great universities of England, it is +quite likely that this condition of isolation would have been his to +the end. But, one by one, men were found possessing the skill and +interest in the subject necessary to unite in his work, which now has +not only a journal of its own, but is growing in a way which, though +slow, has all the marks of healthy progress towards an end the +importance of which has scarcely dawned upon the public mind. +</P> + +<P> +Admitting that an organized association of investigators is of the +first necessity to secure the best results in the scientific work of +the future, we meet the question of the conditions and auspices under +which they are to be brought together. The first thought to strike us +at this point may well be that we have, in our great universities, +organizations which include most of the leading men now engaged in +scientific research, whose personnel and facilities we should utilize. +Admitting, as we all do, that there are already too many universities, +and that better work would be done by a consolidation of the smaller +ones, a natural conclusion is that the end in view will be best reached +through existing organizations. But it would be a great mistake to jump +at this conclusion without a careful study of the conditions. The brief +argument—there are already too many institutions—instead of having +more we should strengthen those we have—should not be accepted without +examination. Had it been accepted thirty years ago, there are at least +two great American universities of to-day which would not have come +into being, the means devoted to their support having been divided +among others. These are the Johns Hopkins and the University of +Chicago. What would have been gained by applying the argument in these +cases? The advantage would have been that, instead of 146 so-called +universities which appear to-day in the Annual Report of the Bureau of +Education, we should have had only 144. The work of these 144 would +have been strengthened by an addition, to their resources, represented +by the endowments of Baltimore and Chicago, and sufficient to add +perhaps one professor to the staff of each. Would the result have been +better than it actually has been? Have we not gained anything by +allowing the argument to be forgotten in the cases of these two +institutions? I do not believe that any who carefully look at the +subject will hesitate in answering this question in the affirmative. +The essential point is that the Johns Hopkins University did not merely +add one to an already overcrowded list, but that it undertook a mission +which none of the others was then adequately carrying out. If it did +not plant the university idea in American soil, it at least gave it an +impetus which has now made it the dominant one in the higher education +of almost every state. +</P> + +<P> +The question whether the country at large would have reaped a greater +benefit, had the professors of the University of Chicago, with the +appliances they now command, been distributed among fifty or a hundred +institutions in every quarter of the land, than it has actually reaped +from that university, is one which answers itself. Our two youngest +universities have attained success, not because two have thus been +added to the number of American institutions of learning, but because +they had a special mission, required by the advance of the age, for +which existing institutions were inadequate. +</P> + +<P> +The conclusion to which these considerations lead is simple. No new +institution is needed to pursue work on traditional lines, guided by +traditional ideas. But, if a new idea is to be vigorously prosecuted, +then a young and vigorous institution, specially organized to put the +idea into effect, is necessary. The project of building up in our +midst, at the most appropriate point, an organization of leading +scientific investigators, for the single purpose of giving a new +impetus to American science and, if possible, elevating the thought of +the country and of the world to a higher plane, involves a new idea, +which can best be realized by an institution organized for the special +purpose. While this purpose is quite in line with that of the leading +universities, it goes too far beyond them to admit of its complete +attainment through their instrumentality. The first object of a +university is the training of the growing individual for the highest +duties of life. Additions to the mass of knowledge have not been its +principal function, nor even an important function in our own country, +until a recent time. The primary object of the proposed institution is +the advance of knowledge and the opening up of new lines of thought, +which, it may be hoped, are to prove of great import to humanity. It +does not follow that the function of teaching shall be wholly foreign +to its activities. It must take up the best young men at the point +where universities leave them, and train them in the arts of thinking +and investigating. But this training will be beyond that which any +regular university is carrying out. +</P> + +<P> +In pursuing our theme the question next arises as to the special +features of the proposed association. The leading requirement is one +that cannot be too highly emphasized. How clearly soever the organizers +may have in their minds' eye the end in view, they must recognize the +fact that it cannot be attained in a day. In every branch of work which +is undertaken, there must be a single leader, and he must be the best +that the country, perhaps even the world, can produce. The required man +is not to be found without careful inquiry; in many branches he may be +unattainable for years. When such is the case, wait patiently till he +appears. Prudence requires that the fewest possible risks would be +taken, and that no leader should be chosen except one of tried +experience and world-wide reputation. Yet we should not leave wholly +out of sight the success of the Johns Hopkins University in selecting, +at its very foundation, young men who were to prove themselves the +leaders of the future. This experience may admit of being repeated, if +it be carefully borne in mind that young men of promise are to be +avoided and young men of performance only to be considered. The +performance need not be striking: ex pede Herculem may be possible; but +we must be sure of the soundness of our judgment before accepting our +Hercules. This requires a master. Clerk-Maxwell, who never left his +native island to visit our shores, is entitled to honor as a promoter +of American science for seeing the lion's paw in the early efforts of +Rowland, for which the latter was unable to find a medium of +publication in his own country. It must also be admitted that the task +is more serious now than it was then, because, from the constantly +increasing specialization of science, it has become difficult for a +specialist in one line to ascertain the soundness of work in another. +With all the risks that may be involved in the proceeding, it will be +quite possible to select an effective body of leaders, young and old, +with whom an institution can begin. The wants of these men will be of +the most varied kind. One needs scarcely more than a study and library; +another must have small pieces of apparatus which he can perhaps design +and make for himself. Another may need apparatus and appliances so +expensive that only an institution at least as wealthy as an ordinary +university would be able to supply them. The apparatus required by +others will be very largely human—assistants of every grade, from +university graduates of the highest standing down to routine drudges +and day-laborers. Workrooms there must be; but it is hardly probable +that buildings and laboratories of a highly specialized character will +be required at the outset. The best counsel will be necessary at every +step, and in this respect the institution must start from simple +beginnings and grow slowly. Leaders must be added one by one, each +being judged by those who have preceded him before becoming in his turn +a member of the body. As the body grows its members must be kept in +personal touch, talk together, pull together, and act together. +</P> + +<P> +The writer submits these views to the great body of his fellow-citizens +interested in the promotion of American science with the feeling that, +though his conclusions may need amendment in details, they rest upon +facts of the past and present which have not received the consideration +which they merit. What he most strongly urges is that the whole subject +of the most efficient method of promoting research upon a higher plane +shall be considered with special reference to conditions in our own +country; and that the lessons taught by the history and progress of +scientific research in all countries shall be fully weighed and +discussed by those most interested in making this form of effort a more +important feature of our national life. When this is done, he will feel +that his purpose in inviting special consideration to his individual +views has been in great measure reached. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap12"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +XII +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +CAN WE MAKE IT RAIN? +</H3> + +<P> +To the uncritical observer the possible achievements of invention and +discovery seem boundless. Half a century ago no idea could have +appeared more visionary than that of holding communication in a few +seconds of time with our fellows in Australia, or having a talk going +on viva voce between a man in Washington and another in Boston. The +actual attainment of these results has naturally given rise to the +belief that the word "impossible" has disappeared from our vocabulary. +To every demonstration that a result cannot be reached the answer is, +Did not one Lardner, some sixty years ago, demonstrate that a steamship +could not cross the Atlantic? If we say that for every actual discovery +there are a thousand visionary projects, we are told that, after all, +any given project may be the one out of the thousand. +</P> + +<P> +In a certain way these hopeful anticipations are justified. We cannot +set any limit either to the discovery of new laws of nature or to the +ingenious combination of devices to attain results which now look +impossible. The science of to-day suggests a boundless field of +possibilities. It demonstrates that the heat which the sun radiates +upon the earth in a single day would suffice to drive all the +steamships now on the ocean and run all the machinery on the land for a +thousand years. The only difficulty is how to concentrate and utilize +this wasted energy. From the stand-point of exact science aerial +navigation is a very simple matter. We have only to find the proper +combination of such elements as weight, power, and mechanical force. +Whenever Mr. Maxim can make an engine strong and light enough, and +sails large, strong, and light enough, and devise the machinery +required to connect the sails and engine, he will fly. Science has +nothing but encouraging words for his project, so far as general +principles are concerned. Such being the case, I am not going to +maintain that we can never make it rain. +</P> + +<P> +But I do maintain two propositions. If we are ever going to make it +rain, or produce any other result hitherto unattainable, we must employ +adequate means. And if any proposed means or agency is already familiar +to science, we may be able to decide beforehand whether it is adequate. +Let us grant that out of a thousand seemingly visionary projects one is +really sound. Must we try the entire thousand to find the one? By no +means. The chances are that nine hundred of them will involve no agency +that is not already fully understood, and may, therefore, be set aside +without even being tried. To this class belongs the project of +producing rain by sound. As I write, the daily journals are announcing +the brilliant success of experiments in this direction; yet I +unhesitatingly maintain that sound cannot make rain, and propose to +adduce all necessary proof of my thesis. The nature of sound is fully +understood, and so are the conditions under which the aqueous vapor in +the atmosphere may be condensed. Let us see how the case stands. +</P> + +<P> +A room of average size, at ordinary temperature and under usual +conditions, contains about a quart of water in the form of invisible +vapor. The whole atmosphere is impregnated with vapor in about the same +proportion. We must, however, distinguish between this invisible vapor +and the clouds or other visible masses to which the same term is often +applied. The distinction may be very clearly seen by watching the steam +coming from the spout of a boiling kettle. Immediately at the spout the +escaping steam is transparent and invisible; an inch or two away a +white cloud is formed, which we commonly call steam, and which is seen +belching out to a distance of one or more feet, and perhaps filling a +considerable space around the kettle; at a still greater distance this +cloud gradually disappears. Properly speaking, the visible cloud is not +vapor or steam at all, but minute particles or drops of water in a +liquid state. The transparent vapor at the mouth of the kettle is the +true vapor of water, which is condensed into liquid drops by cooling; +but after being diffused through the air these drops evaporate and +again become true vapor. Clouds, then, are not formed of true vapor, +but consist of impalpable particles of liquid water floating or +suspended in the air. +</P> + +<P> +But we all know that clouds do not always fall as rain. In order that +rain may fall the impalpable particles of water which form the cloud +must collect into sensible drops large enough to fall to the earth. Two +steps are therefore necessary to the formation of rain: the transparent +aqueous vapor in the air must be condensed into clouds, and the +material of the clouds must agglomerate into raindrops. +</P> + +<P> +No physical fact is better established than that, under the conditions +which prevail in the atmosphere, the aqueous vapor of the air cannot be +condensed into clouds except by cooling. It is true that in our +laboratories it can be condensed by compression. But, for reasons which +I need not explain, condensation by compression cannot take place in +the air. The cooling which results in the formation of clouds and rain +may come in two ways. Rains which last for several hours or days are +generally produced by the intermixture of currents of air of different +temperatures. A current of cold air meeting a current of warm, moist +air in its course may condense a considerable portion of the moisture +into clouds and rain, and this condensation will go on as long as the +currents continue to meet. In a hot spring day a mass of air which has +been warmed by the sun, and moistened by evaporation near the surface +of the earth, may rise up and cool by expansion to near the +freezing-point. The resulting condensation of the moisture may then +produce a shower or thunder-squall. But the formation of clouds in a +clear sky without motion of the air or change in the temperature of the +vapor is simply impossible. We know by abundant experiments that a mass +of true aqueous vapor will never condense into clouds or drops so long +as its temperature and the pressure of the air upon it remain unchanged. +</P> + +<P> +Now let us consider sound as an agent for changing the state of things +in the air. It is one of the commonest and simplest agencies in the +world, which we can experiment upon without difficulty. It is purely +mechanical in its action. When a bomb explodes, a certain quantity of +gas, say five or six cubic yards, is suddenly produced. It pushes aside +and compresses the surrounding air in all directions, and this motion +and compression are transmitted from one portion of the air to another. +The amount of motion diminishes as the square of the distance; a simple +calculation shows that at a quarter of a mile from the point of +explosion it would not be one ten-thousandth of an inch. The +condensation is only momentary; it may last the hundredth or the +thousandth of a second, according to the suddenness and violence of the +explosion; then elasticity restores the air to its original condition +and everything is just as it was before the explosion. A thousand +detonations can produce no more effect upon the air, or upon the watery +vapor in it, than a thousand rebounds of a small boy's rubber ball +would produce upon a stonewall. So far as the compression of the air +could produce even a momentary effect, it would be to prevent rather +than to cause condensation of its vapor, because it is productive of +heat, which produces evaporation, not condensation. +</P> + +<P> +The popular notion that sound may produce rain is founded principally +upon the supposed fact that great battles have been followed by heavy +rains. This notion, I believe, is not confirmed by statistics; but, +whether it is or not, we can say with confidence that it was not the +sound of the cannon that produced the rain. That sound as a physical +factor is quite insignificant would be evident were it not for our +fallacious way of measuring it. The human ear is an instrument of +wonderful delicacy, and when its tympanum is agitated by a sound we +call it a "concussion" when, in fact, all that takes place is a sudden +motion back and forth of a tenth, a hundredth, or a thousandth of an +inch, accompanied by a slight momentary condensation. After these +motions are completed the air is exactly in the same condition as it +was before; it is neither hotter nor colder; no current has been +produced, no moisture added. +</P> + +<P> +If the reader is not satisfied with this explanation, he can try a very +simple experiment which ought to be conclusive. If he will explode a +grain of dynamite, the concussion within a foot of the point of +explosion will be greater than that which can be produced by the most +powerful bomb at a distance of a quarter of a mile. In fact, if the +latter can condense vapor a quarter of a mile away, then anybody can +condense vapor in a room by slapping his hands. Let us, therefore, go +to work slapping our hands, and see how long we must continue before a +cloud begins to form. +</P> + +<P> +What we have just said applies principally to the condensation of +invisible vapor. It may be asked whether, if clouds are already formed, +something may not be done to accelerate their condensation into +raindrops large enough to fall to the ground. This also may be the +subject of experiment. Let us stand in the steam escaping from a kettle +and slap our hands. We shall see whether the steam condenses into +drops. I am sure the experiment will be a failure; and no other +conclusion is possible than that the production of rain by sound or +explosions is out of the question. +</P> + +<P> +It must, however, be added that the laws under which the impalpable +particles of water in clouds agglomerate into drops of rain are not yet +understood, and that opinions differ on this subject. Experiments to +decide the question are needed, and it is to be hoped that the Weather +Bureau will undertake them. For anything we know to the contrary, the +agglomeration may be facilitated by smoke in the air. If it be really +true that rains have been produced by great battles, we may say with +confidence that they were produced by the smoke from the burning powder +rising into the clouds and forming nuclei for the agglomeration into +drops, and not by the mere explosion. If this be the case, if it was +the smoke and not the sound that brought the rain, then by burning +gunpowder and dynamite we are acting much like Charles Lamb's Chinamen +who practised the burning of their houses for several centuries before +finding out that there was any cheaper way of securing the coveted +delicacy of roast pig. +</P> + +<P> +But how, it may be asked, shall we deal with the fact that Mr. +Dyrenforth's recent explosions of bombs under a clear sky in Texas were +followed in a few hours, or a day or two, by rains in a region where +rain was almost unknown? I know too little about the fact, if such it +be, to do more than ask questions about it suggested by well-known +scientific truths. If there is any scientific result which we can +accept with confidence, it is that ten seconds after the sound of the +last bomb died away, silence resumed her sway. From that moment +everything in the air—humidity, temperature, pressure, and motion—was +exactly the same as if no bomb had been fired. Now, what went on during +the hours that elapsed between the sound of the last bomb and the +falling of the first drop of rain? Did the aqueous vapor already in the +surrounding air slowly condense into clouds and raindrops in defiance +of physical laws? If not, the hours must have been occupied by the +passage of a mass of thousands of cubic miles of warm, moist air coming +from some other region to which the sound could not have extended. Or +was Jupiter Pluvius awakened by the sound after two thousand years of +slumber, and did the laws of nature become silent at his command? When +we transcend what is scientifically possible, all suppositions are +admissible; and we leave the reader to take his choice between these +and any others he may choose to invent. +</P> + +<P> +One word in justification of the confidence with which I have cited +established physical laws. It is very generally supposed that most +great advances in applied science are made by rejecting or disproving +the results reached by one's predecessors. Nothing could be farther +from the truth. As Huxley has truly said, the army of science has never +retreated from a position once gained. Men like Ohm and Maxwell have +reduced electricity to a mathematical science, and it is by accepting, +mastering, and applying the laws of electric currents which they +discovered and expounded that the electric light, electric railway, and +all other applications of electricity have been developed. It is by +applying and utilizing the laws of heat, force, and vapor laid down by +such men as Carnot and Regnault that we now cross the Atlantic in six +days. These same laws govern the condensation of vapor in the +atmosphere; and I say with confidence that if we ever do learn to make +it rain, it will be by accepting and applying them, and not by ignoring +or trying to repeal them. +</P> + +<P> +How much the indisposition of our government to secure expert +scientific evidence may cost it is strikingly shown by a recent +example. It expended several million dollars on a tunnel and +water-works for the city of Washington, and then abandoned the whole +work. Had the project been submitted to a commission of geologists, the +fact that the rock-bed under the District of Columbia would not stand +the continued action of water would have been immediately reported, and +all the money expended would have been saved. The fact is that there is +very little to excite popular interest in the advance of exact science. +Investigators are generally quiet, unimpressive men, rather diffident, +and wholly wanting in the art of interesting the public in their work. +It is safe to say that neither Lavoisier, Galvani, Ohm, Regnault, nor +Maxwell could have gotten the smallest appropriation through Congress +to help make discoveries which are now the pride of our century. They +all dealt in facts and conclusions quite devoid of that grandeur which +renders so captivating the project of attacking the rains in their +aerial stronghold with dynamite bombs. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap13"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +XIII +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE ASTRONOMICAL EPHEMERIS AND THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC +</H3> + +<P CLASS="footnote"> +[Footnote: Read before the U S Naval Institute, January 10, 1879.] +</P> + +<BR> + +<P> +Although the Nautical Almanacs of the world, at the present time, are +of comparatively recent origin, they have grown from small beginnings, +the tracing of which is not unlike that of the origin of species by the +naturalist of the present day. Notwithstanding its familiar name, it +has always been designed rather for astronomical than for nautical +purposes. Such a publication would have been of no use to the navigator +before he had instruments with which to measure the altitudes of the +heavenly bodies. The earlier navigators seldom ventured out of sight of +land, and during the night they are said to have steered by the +"Cynosure" or constellation of the Great Bear, a practice which has +brought the name of the constellation into our language of the present +day to designate an object on which all eyes are intently fixed. This +constellation was a little nearer the pole in former ages than at the +present time; still its distance was always so great that its use as a +mark of the northern point of the horizon does not inspire us with +great respect for the accuracy with which the ancient navigators sought +to shape their course. +</P> + +<P> +The Nautical Almanac of the present day had its origin in the +Astronomical Ephemerides called forth by the needs of predictions of +celestial motions both on the part of the astronomer and the citizen. +So long as astrology had a firm hold on the minds of men, the positions +of the planets were looked to with great interest. The theories of +Ptolemy, although founded on a radically false system, nevertheless +sufficed to predict the position of the sun, moon, and planets, with +all the accuracy necessary for the purposes of the daily life of the +ancients or the sentences of their astrologers. Indeed, if his tables +were carried down to the present time, the positions of the heavenly +bodies would be so few degrees in error that their recognition would be +very easy. The times of most of the eclipses would be predicted within +a few hours, and the conjunctions of the planets within a few days. +Thus it was possible for the astronomers of the Middle Ages to prepare +for their own use, and that of the people, certain rude predictions +respecting the courses of the sun and moon and the aspect of the +heavens, which served the purpose of daily life and perhaps lessened +the confusion arising from their complicated calendars. In the signs of +the zodiac and the different effects which follow from the sun and moon +passing from sign to sign, still found in our farmers' almanacs, we +have the dying traces of these ancient ephemerides. +</P> + +<P> +The great Kepler was obliged to print an astrological almanac in virtue +of his position as astronomer of the court of the King of Austria. But, +notwithstanding the popular belief that astronomy had its origin in +astrology, the astronomical writings of all ages seem to show that the +astronomers proper never had any belief in astrology. To Kepler himself +the necessity for preparing this almanac was a humiliation to which he +submitted only through the pressure of poverty. Subsequent ephemerides +were prepared with more practical objects. They gave the longitudes of +the planets, the position of the sun, the time of rising and setting, +the prediction of eclipses, etc. +</P> + +<P> +They have, of course, gradually increased in accuracy as the tables of +the celestial motions were improved from time to time. At first they +were not regular, annual publications, issued by governments, as at the +present time, but the works of individual astronomers who issued their +ephemerides for several years in advance, at irregular intervals. One +man might issue one, two, or half a dozen such volumes, as a private +work, for the benefit of his fellows, and each might cover as many +years as he thought proper. +</P> + +<P> +The first publication of this sort, which I have in my possession, is +the Ephemerides of Manfredi, of Bonn, computed for the years 1715 to +1725, in two volumes. +</P> + +<P> +Of the regular annual ephemerides the earliest, so far as I am aware, +is the Connaissance des Temps or French Nautical Almanac. The first +issue was in the year 1679, by Picard, and it has been continued +without interruption to the present time. Its early numbers were, of +course, very small, and meagre in their details. They were issued by +the astronomers of the French Academy of Sciences, under the combined +auspices of the academy and the government. They included not merely +predictions from the tables, but also astronomical observations made at +the Paris Observatory or elsewhere. When the Bureau of Longitudes was +created in 1795, the preparation of the work was intrusted to it, and +has remained in its charge until the present time. As it is the oldest, +so, in respect at least to number of pages, it is the largest ephemeris +of the present time. The astronomical portion of the volume for 1879 +fills more than seven hundred pages, while the table of geographical +positions, which has always been a feature of the work, contains nearly +one hundred pages more. +</P> + +<P> +The first issue of the British Nautical Almanac was that for the year +1767 and appeared in 1766. It differs from the French Almanac in owing +its origin entirely to the needs of navigation. The British nation, as +the leading maritime power of the world, was naturally interested in +the discovery of a method by which the longitude could be found at sea. +As most of my hearers are probably aware, there was, for many years, a +standing offer by the British government, of ten thousand pounds for +the discovery of a practical and sufficiently accurate method of +attaining this object. If I am rightly informed, the requirement was +that a ship should be able to determine the Greenwich time within two +minutes, after being six months at sea. When the office of Astronomer +Royal was established in 1765, the duty of the incumbent was declared +to be "to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the +rectifying the Tables of the Motions of the Heavens, and the places of +the Fixed Stars in order to find out the so much desired Longitude at +Sea for the perfecting the Art of Navigation." +</P> + +<P> +About the middle of the last century the lunar tables were so far +improved that Dr. Maskelyne considered them available for attaining +this long-wished-for object. The method which I think was then, for the +first time, proposed was the now familiar one of lunar distances. +Several trials of the method were made by accomplished gentlemen who +considered that nothing was wanting to make it practical at sea but a +Nautical Ephemeris. The tables of the moon, necessary for the purpose, +were prepared by Tobias Mayer, of Gottingen, and the regular annual +issue of the work was commenced in 1766, as already stated. Of the +reward which had been offered, three thousand pounds were paid to the +widow of Mayer, and three thousand pounds to the celebrated +mathematician Euler for having invented the methods used by Mayer in +the construction of his tables. The issue of the Nautical Ephemeris was +intrusted to Dr. Maskelyne. Like other publications of this sort this +ephemeris has gradually increased in volume. During the first sixty or +seventy years the data were extremely meagre, including only such as +were considered necessary for the determination of positions. +</P> + +<P> +In 1830 the subject of improving the Nautical Almanac was referred by +the Lord Commissioners of the Admiralty to a committee of the +Astronomical Society of London. A subcommittee, including eleven of the +most distinguished astronomers and one scientific navigator, made an +exhaustive report, recommending a radical rearrangement and improvement +of the work. The recommendations of this committee were first carried +into effect in the Nautical Almanac for the year 1834. The arrangement +of the Navigator's Ephemeris then devised has been continued in the +British Almanac to the present time. +</P> + +<P> +A good deal of matter has been added to the British Almanac during the +forty years and upwards which have elapsed, but it has been worked in +rather by using smaller type and closer printing than by increasing the +number of pages. The almanac for 1834 contains five hundred and +seventeen pages and that for 1880 five hundred and nineteen pages. The +general aspect of the page is now somewhat crowded, yet, considering +the quantity of figures on each page the arrangement is marvellously +clear and legible. +</P> + +<P> +The Spanish "Almanaque Nautico" has been issued since the beginning of +the century. Like its fellows it has been gradually enlarged and +improved, in recent times, and is now of about the same number of pages +with the British and American almanacs. As a rule there is less matter +on a page, so that the data actually given are not so complete as in +some other publications. +</P> + +<P> +In Germany two distinct publications of this class are issued, the one +purely astronomical, the other purely nautical. +</P> + +<P> +The astronomical publication has been issued for more than a century +under the title of "Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch." It is intended +principally for the theoretical astronomer, and in respect to matter +necessary to the determinations of positions on the earth it is rather +meagre. It is issued by the Berlin Observatory, at the expense of the +government. +</P> + +<P> +The companion of this work, intended for the use of the German marine, +is the "Nautisches Jahrbuch," prepared and issued under the direction +of the minister of commerce and public works. It is copied largely from +the British Nautical Almanac, and in respect to arrangement and data is +similar to our American Nautical Almanac, prepared for the use of +navigators, giving, however, more matter, but in a less convenient +form. The right ascension and declination of the moon are given for +every three hours instead of for every hour; one page of each month is +devoted to eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, phenomena which we never +consider necessary in the nautical portion of our own almanac. At the +end of the work the apparent positions of seventy or eighty of the +brightest stars are given for every ten days, while it is considered +that our own navigators will be satisfied with the mean places for the +beginning of the year. At the end is a collection of tables which I +doubt whether any other than a German navigator would ever use. Whether +they use them or not I am not prepared to say. +</P> + +<P> +The preceding are the principal astronomical and nautical ephemerides +of the world, but there are a number of minor publications, of the same +class, of which I cannot pretend to give a complete list. Among them is +the Portuguese Astronomical Ephemeris for the meridian of the +University of Coimbra, prepared for Portuguese navigators. I do not +know whether the Portuguese navigators really reckon their longitudes +from this point: if they do the practice must be attended with more or +less confusion. All the matter is given by months, as in the solar and +lunar ephemeris of our own and the British Almanac. For the sun we have +its longitude, right ascension, and declination, all expressed in arc +and not in time. The equation of time and the sidereal time of mean +noon complete the ephemeris proper. The positions of the principal +planets are given in no case oftener than for every third day. The +longitude and latitude of the moon are given for noon and midnight. One +feature not found in any other almanac is the time at which the moon +enters each of the signs of the zodiac. It may be supposed that this +information is designed rather for the benefit of the Portuguese +landsman than of the navigator. The right ascensions and declinations +of the moon and the lunar distances are also given for intervals of +twelve hours. Only the last page gives the eclipses of the satellites +of Jupiter. The Fixed Stars are wholly omitted. +</P> + +<P> +An old ephemeris, and one well known in astronomy is that published by +the Observatory of Milan, Italy, which has lately entered upon the +second century of its existence. Its data are extremely meagre and of +no interest whatever to the navigator. The greater part of the volume +is taken up with observations at the Milan Observatory. +</P> + +<P> +Since taking charge of the American Ephemeris I have endeavored to +ascertain what nautical almanacs are actually used by the principal +maritime nations of Europe. I have been able to obtain none except +those above mentioned. As a general rule I think the British Nautical +Almanac is used by all the northern nations, as already indicated. The +German Nautical Jahrbuch is principally a reprint from the British. The +Swedish navigators, being all well acquainted with the English +language, use the British Almanac without change. The Russian +government, however, prints an explanation of the various terms in the +language of their own people and binds it in at the end of the British +Almanac. This explanation includes translations of the principal terms +used in the heading of pages, such as the names of the months and days, +the different planets, constellations, and fixed stars, and the +phenomena of angle and time. They have even an index of their own in +which the titles of the different articles are given in Russian. This +explanation occupies, in all, seventy-five pages—more than double that +taken up by the original explanation. +</P> + +<P> +One of the first considerations which strikes us in comparing these +multitudinous publications is the confusion which must arise from the +use of so many meridians. If each of these southern nations, the +Spanish and Portuguese for instance, actually use a meridian of their +own, the practice must lead to great confusion. If their navigators do +not do so but refer their longitudes to the meridian of Greenwich, then +their almanacs must be as good as useless. They would find it far +better to buy an ephemeris referred to the meridian of Greenwich than +to attempt to use their own The northern nations, I think, have all +begun to refer to the meridian of Greenwich, and the same thing is +happily true of our own marine. We may, therefore, hope that all +commercial nations will, before long, refer their longitudes to one and +the same meridian, and the resulting confusion be thus avoided. +</P> + +<P> +The preparation of the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac was +commenced in 1849, under the superintendence of the late Rear-Admiral, +then Lieutenant, Charles Henry Davis. The first volume to be issued was +that for the year 1855. Both in the preparation of that work and in the +connected work of mapping the country, the question of the meridian to +be adopted was one of the first importance, and received great +attention from Admiral Davis, who made an able report on the subject. +Our situation was in some respects peculiar, owing to the great +distance which separated us from Europe and the uncertainty of the +exact difference of longitude between the two continents. It was hardly +practicable to refer longitudes in our own country to any European +meridian. The attempt to do so would involve continual changes as the +transatlantic longitude was from time to time corrected. On the other +hand, in order to avoid confusion in navigation, it was essential that +our navigators should continue to reckon from the meridian of +Greenwich. The trouble arising from uncertainty of the exact longitude +does not affect the navigator, because, for his purpose, astronomical +precision is not necessary. +</P> + +<P> +The wisest solution was probably that embodied in the act of Congress, +approved September 28, 1850, on the recommendation of Lieutenant Davis, +if I mistake not. "The meridian of the Observatory at Washington shall +be adopted and used as the American meridian for all astronomical +purposes, and the meridian of Greenwich shall be adopted for all +nautical purposes." The execution of this law necessarily involves the +question, "What shall be considered astronomical and what nautical +purposes?" Whether it was from the difficulty of deciding this +question, or from nobody's remembering the law, the latter has been +practically a dead letter. Surely, if there is any region of the globe +which the law intended should be referred to the meridian of +Washington, it is the interior of our own country. Yet, notwithstanding +the law, all acts of Congress relating to the territories have, so far +as I know, referred everything to the meridian of Greenwich and not to +that of Washington. Even the maps issued by our various surveys are +referred to the same transatlantic meridian. The absurdity culminated +in a local map of the city of Washington and the District of Columbia, +issued by private parties, in 1861, in which we find even the meridians +passing through the city of Washington referred to a supposed Greenwich. +</P> + +<P> +This practice has led to a confusion which may not be evident at first +sight, but which is so great and permanent that it may be worth +explaining. If, indeed, we could actually refer all our longitudes to +an accurate meridian of Greenwich in the first place; if, for instance, +any western region could be at once connected by telegraph with the +Greenwich Observatory, and thus exchange longitude signals night after +night, no trouble or confusion would arise from referring to the +meridian of Greenwich. But this, practically, cannot be done. All our +interior longitudes have been and are determined differentially by +comparison with some point in this country. One of the most frequent +points of reference used this way has been the Cambridge Observatory. +Suppose, then, a surveyor at Omaha makes a telegraphic longitude +determination between that point and the Cambridge Observatory. Since +he wants his longitude reduced to Greenwich, he finds some supposed +longitude of the Cambridge Observatory from Greenwich and adds that to +his own longitude. Thus, what he gives is a longitude actually +determined, plus an assumed longitude of Cambridge, and, unless the +assumed longitude of Cambridge is distinctly marked on his maps, we may +not know what it is. +</P> + +<P> +After a while a second party determines the longitude of Ogden from +Cambridge. In the mean time, the longitude of Cambridge from Greenwich +has been corrected, and we have a longitude of Ogden which will be +discordant with that of Omaha, owing to the change in the longitude of +Cambridge. A third party determines the longitudes of, let us suppose, +St. Louis from Washington, he adds the assumed longitudes of Washington +from Greenwich which may not agree with either of the longitudes of +Cambridge and gets his longitude. Thus we have a series of results for +our western longitude all nominally referred to the meridian of +Greenwich, but actually referred to a confused collection of meridians, +nobody knows what. If the law had only provided that the longitude of +Washington from Greenwich should be invariably fixed at a certain +quantity, say 77 degrees 3', this confusion would not have arisen. It +is true that the longitude thus established by law might not have been +perfectly correct, but this would not cause any trouble nor confusion. +Our longitude would have been simply referred to a certain assumed +Greenwich, the small error of which would have been of no importance to +the navigator or astronomer. It would have differed from the present +system only in that the assumed Greenwich would have been invariable +instead of dancing about from time to time as it has done under the +present system. You understand that when the astronomer, in computing +an interior longitude, supposes that of Cambridge from Greenwich to be +a certain definite amount, say 4h 44m 30s, what he actually does is to +count from a meridian just that far east of Cambridge. When he changes +the assumed longitude of Cambridge he counts from a meridian farther +east or farther west of his former one: in other words, he always +counts from an assumed Greenwich, which changes its position from time +to time, relative to our own country. +</P> + +<P> +Having two meridians to look after, the form of the American Ephemeris, +to be best adapted to the wants both of navigators and astronomers was +necessarily peculiar. Had our navigators referred their longitudes to +any meridian of our own country the arrangement of the work need not +have differed materially from that of foreign ones. But being referred +to a meridian far outside our limits and at the same time designed for +use within those limits, it was necessary to make a division of the +matter. Accordingly, the American Ephemeris has always been divided +into two parts: the first for the use of navigators, referred to the +meridian of Greenwich, the second for that of astronomers, referred to +the meridian of Washington. The division of the matter without serious +duplication is more easy than might at first be imagined. In explaining +it, I will take the ephemeris as it now is, with the small changes +which have been made from time to time. +</P> + +<P> +One of the purposes of any ephemeris, and especially of that of the +navigators, is to give the position of the heavenly bodies at +equidistant intervals of time, usually one day. Since it is noon at +some point of the earth all the time, it follows that such an ephemeris +will always be referred to noon at some meridian. What meridian this +shall be is purely a practical question, to be determined by +convenience and custom. Greenwich noon, being that necessarily used by +the navigator, is adopted as the standard, but we must not conclude +that the ephemeris for Greenwich noon is referred to the meridian of +Greenwich in the sense that we refer a longitude to that meridian. +Greenwich noon is 18h 51m 48s, Washington mean time; so the ephemeris +which gives data for every Greenwich noon may be considered as referred +to the meridian of Washington giving the data for 17h 51m 48s, +Washington time, every day. The rule adopted, therefore, is to have all +the ephemerides which refer to absolute time, without any reference to +a meridian, given for Greenwich noon, unless there may be some special +reason to the contrary. For the needs of the navigator and the +theoretical astronomer these are the most convenient epochs. +</P> + +<P> +Another part of the ephemeris gives the position of the heavenly +bodies, not at equidistant intervals, but at transit over some +meridian. For this purpose the meridian of Washington is chosen for +obvious reasons. The astronomical part of our ephemeris, therefore, +gives the positions of the principal fixed stars, the sun, moon, and +all the larger planets at the moment of transit over our own meridian. +</P> + +<P> +The third class of data in the ephemeris comprises phenomena to be +predicted and observed. Such are eclipses of the sun and moon, +occultations of fixed stars by the moon, and eclipses of Jupiter's +satellites. These phenomena are all given in Washington mean time as +being most convenient for observers in our own country. There is a +partial exception, however, in the case of eclipses of the sun and +moon. The former are rather for the world in general than for our own +country, and it was found difficult to arrange them to be referred to +the meridian of Washington without having the maps referred to the same +meridian. Since, however, the meridian of Greenwich is most convenient +outside of our own territory, and since but a small portion of the +eclipses are visible within it, it is much the best to have the +eclipses referred entirely to the meridian of Greenwich. I am the more +ready to adopt this change because when the eclipses are to be computed +for our own country the change of meridians will be very readily +understood by those who make the computation. +</P> + +<P> +It may be interesting to say something of the tables and theories from +which the astronomical ephemerides are computed. To understand them +completely it is necessary to trace them to their origin. The problem +of calculating the motions of the heavenly bodies and the changes in +the aspect of the celestial sphere was one of the first with which the +students of astronomy were occupied. Indeed, in ancient times, the only +astronomical problems which could be attacked were of this class, for +the simple reason that without the telescope and other instruments of +research it was impossible to form any idea of the physical +constitution of the heavenly bodies. To the ancients the stars and +planets were simply points or surfaces in motion. They might have +guessed that they were globes like that on which we live, but they were +unable to form any theory of the nature of these globes. Thus, in The +Almagest of Ptolemy, the most complete treatise on the ancient +astronomy which we possess, we find the motions of all the heavenly +bodies carefully investigated and tables given for the convenient +computation of their positions. Crude and imperfect though these tables +may be, they were the beginnings from which those now in use have +arisen. +</P> + +<P> +No radical change was made in the general principles on which these +theories and tables were constructed until the true system of the world +was propounded by Copernicus. On this system the apparent motion of +each planet in the epicycle was represented by a motion of the earth +around the sun, and the problem of correcting the position of the +planet on account of the epicycle was reduced to finding its geocentric +from its heliocentric position. This was the greatest step ever taken +in theoretical astronomy, yet it was but a single step. So far as the +materials were concerned and the mode of representing the planetary +motions, no other radical advance was made by Copernicus. Indeed, it is +remarkable that he introduced an epicycle which was not considered +necessary by Ptolemy in order to represent the inequalities in the +motions of the planets around the sun. +</P> + +<P> +The next great advance made in the theory of the planetary motion was +the discovery by Kepler of the celebrated laws which bear his name. +When it was established that each planet moved in an ellipse having the +sun in one focus it became possible to form tables of the motions of +the heavenly bodies much more accurate than had before been known. Such +tables were published by Kepler in 1632, under the name of Rudolphine +Tables, in memory of his patron, the Emperor Rudolph. But the laws of +Kepler took no account of the action of the planets on one another. It +is well known that if each planet moved only under the influence of the +gravitating force of the sun its motion would accord rigorously with +the laws of Kepler, and the problems of theoretical astronomy would be +greatly simplified. When, therefore, the results of Kepler's laws were +compared with ancient and modern observations it was found that they +were not exactly represented by the theory. It was evident that the +elliptic orbits of the planets were subject to change, but it was +entirely beyond the power of investigation, at that time, to assign any +cause for such changes. Notwithstanding the simplicity of the causes +which we now know to produce them, they are in form extremely complex. +Without the knowledge of the theory of gravitation it would be entirely +out of the question to form any tables of the planetary motions which +would at all satisfy our modern astronomers. +</P> + +<P> +When the theory of universal gravitation was propounded by Newton he +showed that a planet subjected only to the gravitation of a central +body, like the sun, would move in exact accordance with Kepler's laws. +But by his theory the planets must attract one another and these +attractions must cause the motions of each to deviate slightly from the +laws in question. Since such deviations were actually observed it was +very natural to conclude that they were due to this cause, but how +shall we prove it? To do this with all the rigor required in a +mathematical investigation it is necessary to calculate the effect of +the mutual action of the planets in changing their orbits. This +calculation must be made with such precision that there shall be no +doubt respecting the results of the theory. Then its results must be +compared with the best observations. If the slightest outstanding +difference is established there is something wrong and the requirements +of astronomical science are not satisfied. The complete solution of +this problem was entirely beyond the power of Newton. When his methods +of research were used he was indeed able to show that the mutual action +of the planets would produce deviations in their motions of the same +general nature with those observed, but he was not able to calculate +these deviations with numerical exactness. His most successful attempt +in this direction was perhaps made in the case of the moon. He showed +that the sun's disturbing force on this body would produce several +inequalities the existence of which had been established by +observation, and he was also able to give a rough estimate of their +amount, but this was as far as his method could go. A great improvement +had to be made, and this was effected not by English, but by +continental mathematicians. +</P> + +<P> +The latter saw, clearly, that it was impossible to effect the required +solution by the geometrical mode of reasoning employed by Newton. The +problem, as it presented itself to their minds, was to find algebraic +expressions for the positions of the planets at any time. The latitude, +longitude, and radius-vector of each planet are constantly varying, but +they each have a determined value at each moment of time. They may +therefore be regarded as functions of the time, and the problem was to +express these functions by algebraic formulae. These algebraic +expressions would contain, besides the time, the elements of the +planetary orbits to be derived from observation. The time which we may +suppose to be represented algebraically by the symbol t, would remain +as an unknown quantity to the end. What the mathematician sought to do +was to present the astronomer with a series of algebraic expressions +containing t as an indeterminate quantity, and so, by simply +substituting for t any year and fraction of a year whatever—1600, +1700, 1800, for example, the result would give the latitude, longitude, +or radius-vector of a planet. +</P> + +<P> +The problem as thus presented was one of the most difficult we can +perceive of, but the difficulty was only an incentive to attacking it +with all the greater energy. So long as the motion was supposed purely +elliptical, so long as the action of the planets was neglected, the +problem was a simple one, requiring for its solution only the analytic +geometry of the ellipse. The real difficulties commenced when the +mutual action of the planets was taken into account. It is, of course, +out of the question to give any technical description or analysis of +the processes which have been invented for solving the problem; but a +brief historical sketch may not be out of place. A complete and +rigorous solution of the problem is out of the question—that is, it is +impossible by any known method to form an algebraic expression for the +co-ordinates of a planet which shall be absolutely exact in a +mathematical sense. In whatever way we go to work the expression comes +out in the form of an infinite series of terms, each term being, on the +whole, a little smaller as we increase the number. So, by increasing +the number of these various terms, we can approach nearer and nearer to +a mathematical exactness, but can never reach it. The mathematician and +astronomer have to be satisfied when they have carried the solution so +far that the neglected quantities are entirely beyond the powers of +observation. +</P> + +<P> +Mathematicians have worked upon the problem in its various phases for +nearly two centuries, and many improvements in detail have, from time +to time, been made, but no general method, applicable to all cases, has +been devised. One plan is to be used in treating the motion of the +moon, another for the interior planets, another for Jupiter and Saturn, +another for the minor planets, and so on. Under these circumstances it +will not surprise you to learn that our tables of the celestial motions +do not, in general, correspond in accuracy to the present state of +practical astronomy. There is no authority and no office in the world +whose duty it is to look after the preparations of the formulae I have +described. The work of computing them has been almost entirely left to +individual mathematicians whose taste lay in that direction, and who +have sometimes devoted the greater part of their lives to calculations +on a single part of the work. As a striking instance of this, the last +great work on the Motion of the Moon, that of Delaunay, of Paris, +involved some fifteen years of continuous hard labor. +</P> + +<P> +Hansen, of Germany, who died five years ago, devoted almost his whole +life to investigations of this class and to the development of new +methods of computation. His tables of the moon are those now used for +predicting the places of the moon in all the ephemerides of the world. +</P> + +<P> +The only successful attempt to prepare systematic tables for all the +large planets is that completed by Le Verrier just before his death; +but he used only a small fraction of the material at his disposal, and +did not employ the modern methods, confining himself wholly to those +invented by his countrymen about the beginning of the present century. +For him Jacobi and Hansen had lived in vain. +</P> + +<P> +The great difficulty which besets the subject arises from the fact that +mathematical processes alone will not give us the position of a planet, +there being seven unknown quantities for each planet which must be +determined by observations. A planet, for instance, may move in any +ellipse whatever, having the sun in one focus, and it is impossible to +tell what ellipse it is, except from observation. The mean motion of a +planet, or its period of revolution, can only be determined by a long +series of observations, greater accuracy being obtained the longer the +observations are continued. Before the time of Bradley, who commenced +work at the Greenwich Observatory about 1750, the observations were so +far from accurate that they are now of no use whatever, unless in +exceptional cases. Even Bradley's observations are in many cases far +less accurate than those made now. In consequence, we have not +heretofore had a sufficiently extended series of observations to form +an entirely satisfactory theory of the celestial motions. +</P> + +<P> +As a consequence of the several difficulties and drawbacks, when the +computation of our ephemeris was started, in the year 1849, there were +no tables which could be regarded as really satisfactory in use. In the +British Nautical Almanac the places of the moon were derived from the +tables of Burckhardt published in the year 1812. You will understand, +in a case like this, no observations subsequent to the issue of the +tables are made use of; the place of the moon of any day, hour, and +minute of Greenwich time, mean time, was precisely what Burckhardt +would have computed nearly a half a century before. Of the tables of +the larger planets the latest were those of Bouvard, published in 1812, +while the places of Venus were from tables published by Lindenau in +1810. Of course such tables did not possess astronomical accuracy. At +that time, in the case of the moon, completely new tables were +constructed from the results reached by Professor Airy in his reduction +of the Greenwich observations of the moon from 1750 to 1830. These were +constructed under the direction of Professor Pierce and represented the +places of the moon with far greater accuracy than the older tables of +Burckhardt. For the larger planets corrections were applied to the +older tables to make them more nearly represent observations before new +ones were constructed. These corrections, however, have not proved +satisfactory, not being founded on sufficiently thorough +investigations. Indeed, the operation of correcting tables by +observation, as we would correct the dead-reckoning of a ship, is a +makeshift, the result of which must always be somewhat uncertain, and +it tends to destroy that unity which is an essential element of the +astronomical ephemeris designed for permanent future use. The result of +introducing them, while no doubt an improvement on the old tables, has +not been all that should be desired. The general lack of unity in the +tables hitherto employed is such that I can only state what has been +done by mentioning each planet in detail. +</P> + +<P> +For Mercury, new tables were constructed by Professor Winlock, from +formulae published by Le Verrier in 1846. These tables have, however, +been deviating from the true motion of the planet, owing to the motion +of the perihelion of Mercury, subsequently discovered by Le Verrier +himself. They are now much less accurate than the newer tables +published by Le Verrier ten years later. +</P> + +<P> +Of Venus new tables were constructed by Mr. Hill in 1872. They are more +accurate than any others, being founded on later data than those of Le +Verrier, and are therefore satisfactory so far as accuracy of +prediction is concerned. +</P> + +<P> +The place of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are still computed from the old +tables, with certain necessary corrections to make them better +represent observations. +</P> + +<P> +The places of Uranus and Neptune are derived from new tables which will +probably be sufficiently accurate for some time to come. +</P> + +<P> +For the moon, Pierce's tables have been employed up to the year 1882 +inclusive. Commencing with the ephemeris for the year 1883, Hansen's +tables are introduced with corrections to the mean longitude founded on +two centuries of observation. +</P> + +<P> +With so great a lack of uniformity, and in the absence of any existing +tables which have any other element of unity than that of being the +work of the same authors, it is extremely desirable that we should be +able to compute astronomical ephemerides from a single uniform and +consistent set of astronomical data. I hope, in the course of years, to +render this possible. +</P> + +<P> +When our ephemeris was first commenced, the corrections applied to +existing tables rendered it more accurate than any other. Since that +time, the introduction into foreign ephemerides of the improved tables +of Le Verrier have rendered them, on the whole, rather more accurate +than our own. In one direction, however, our ephemeris will hereafter +be far ahead of all others. I mean in its positions of the fixed stars. +This portion of it is of particular importance to us, owing to the +extent to which our government is engaged in the determination of +positions on this continent, and especially in our western territories. +Although the places of the stars are determined far more easily than +those of the planets, the discussion of star positions has been in +almost as backward a state as planetary positions. The errors of old +observers have crept in and been continued through two generations of +astronomers. A systematic attempt has been made to correct the places +of the stars for all systematic errors of this kind, and the work of +preparing a catalogue of stars which shall be completely adapted to the +determination of time and longitude, both in the fixed observatory and +in the field, is now approaching completion. The catalogue cannot be +sufficiently complete to give places of the stars for determining the +latitude by the zenith telescope, because for such a purpose a much +greater number of stars is necessary than can be incorporated in the +ephemeris. +</P> + +<P> +From what I have said, it will be seen that the astronomical tables, in +general, do not satisfy the scientific condition of completely +representing observations to the last degree of accuracy. Few, I think, +have an idea how unsystematically work of this kind has hitherto been +performed. Until very lately the tables we have possessed have been the +work of one man here, another there, and another one somewhere else, +each using different methods and different data. The result of this is +that there is nothing uniform and systematic among them, and that they +have every range of precision. This is no doubt due in part to the fact +that the construction of such tables, founded on the mass of +observation hitherto made, is entirely beyond the power of any one man. +What is wanted is a number of men of different degrees of capacity, all +co-operating on a uniform system, so as to obtain a uniform result, +like the astronomers in a large observatory. The Greenwich Observatory +presents an example of co-operative work of this class extending over +more than a century. But it has never extended its operations far +outside the field of observation, reduction, and comparison with +existing tables. It shows clearly, from time to time, the errors of the +tables used in the British Nautical Almanac, but does nothing further, +occasional investigations excepted, in the way of supplying new tables. +An exception to this is a great work on the theory of the moon's +motion, in which Professor Airy is now engaged. +</P> + +<P> +It will be understood that several distinct conditions not yet +fulfilled are desirable in astronomical tables; one is that each set of +tables shall be founded on absolutely consistent data, for instance, +that the masses of the planets shall be the same throughout. Another +requirement is that this data shall be as near the truth as +astronomical data will suffice to determine them. The third is that the +results shall be correct in theory. That is, whether they agree or +disagree with observations, they shall be such as result mathematically +from the adopted data. +</P> + +<P> +Tables completely fulfilling these conditions are still a work of the +future. It is yet to be seen whether such co-operation as is necessary +to their production can be secured under any arrangement whatever. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap14"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +XIV +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE WORLD'S DEBT TO ASTRONOMY +</H3> + +<P> +Astronomy is more intimately connected than any other science with the +history of mankind. While chemistry, physics, and we might say all +sciences which pertain to things on the earth, are comparatively +modern, we find that contemplative men engaged in the study of the +celestial motions even before the commencement of authentic history. +The earliest navigators of whom we know must have been aware that the +earth was round. This fact was certainly understood by the ancient +Greeks and Egyptians, as well as it is at the present day. True, they +did not know that the earth revolved on its axis, but thought that the +heavens and all that in them is performed a daily revolution around our +globe, which was, therefore, the centre of the universe. It was the +cynosure, or constellation of the Little Bear, by which the sailors +used to guide their ships before the discovery of the mariner's +compass. Thus we see both a practical and contemplative side to +astronomy through all history. The world owes two debts to that +science: one for its practical uses, and the other for the ideas it has +afforded us of the immensity of creation. +</P> + +<P> +The practical uses of astronomy are of two kinds: One relates to +geography; the other to times, seasons, and chronology. Every navigator +who sails long out of sight of land must be something of an astronomer. +His compass tells him where are east, west, north, and south, but it +gives him no information as to where on the wide ocean he may be, or +whither the currents may be carrying him. Even with the swiftest modern +steamers it is not safe to trust to the compass in crossing the +Atlantic. A number of years ago the steamer City of Washington set out +on her usual voyage from Liverpool to New York. By rare bad luck the +weather was stormy or cloudy during her whole passage, so that the +captain could not get a sight on the sun, and therefore had to trust to +his compass and his log-line, the former telling him in what direction +he had steamed, and the latter how fast he was going each hour. The +result was that the ship ran ashore on the coast of Nova Scotia, when +the captain thought he was approaching Nantucket. +</P> + +<P> +Not only the navigator but the surveyor in the western wilds must +depend on astronomical observations to learn his exact position on the +earth's surface, or the latitude and longitude of the camp which he +occupies. He is able to do this because the earth is round, and the +direction of the plumb-line not exactly the same at any two places. Let +us suppose that the earth stood still, so as not to revolve on its axis +at all. Then we should always see the stars at rest and the star which +was in the zenith of any place, say a farm-house in New York, at any +time, would be there every night and every hour of the year. Now the +zenith is simply the point from which the plumb-line seems to drop. Lie +on the ground; hang a plummet above your head, sight on the line with +one eye, and the direction of the sight will be the zenith of your +place. Suppose the earth was still, and a certain star was at your +zenith. Then if you went to another place a mile away, the direction of +the plumb-line would be slightly different. The change would, indeed, +be very small, so small that you could not detect it by sighting with +the plumb-line. But astronomers and surveyors have vastly more accurate +instruments than the plumb-line and the eye, instruments by which a +deviation that the unaided eye could not detect can be seen and +measured. Instead of the plumb-line they use a spirit-level or a basin +of quicksilver. The surface of quicksilver is exactly level and so at +right angles to the true direction of the plumb-line or the force of +gravity. Its direction is therefore a little different at two different +places on the surface, and the change can be measured by its effect on +the apparent direction of a star seen by reflection from the surface. +</P> + +<P> +It is true that a considerable distance on the earth's surface will +seem very small in its effect on the position of a star. Suppose there +were two stars in the heavens, the one in the zenith of the place where +you now stand, and the other in the zenith of a place a mile away. To +the best eye unaided by a telescope those two stars would look like a +single one. But let the two places be five miles apart, and the eye +could see that there were two of them. A good telescope could +distinguish between two stars corresponding to places not more than a +hundred feet apart. The most exact measurements can determine distances +ranging from thirty to sixty feet. If a skilful astronomical observer +should mount a telescope on your premises, and determine his latitude +by observations on two or three evenings, and then you should try to +trick him by taking up the instrument and putting it at another point +one hundred feet north or south, he would find out that something was +wrong by a single night's work. +</P> + +<P> +Within the past three years a wobbling of the earth's axis has been +discovered, which takes place within a circle thirty feet in radius and +sixty feet in diameter. Its effect was noticed in astronomical +observations many years ago, but the change it produced was so small +that men could not find out what the matter was. The exact nature and +amount of the wobbling is a work of the exact astronomy of the present +time. +</P> + +<P> +We cannot measure across oceans from island to island. Until a recent +time we have not even measured across the continent, from New York to +San Francisco, in the most precise way. Without astronomy we should +know nothing of the distance between New York and Liverpool, except by +the time which it took steamers to run it, a measure which would be +very uncertain indeed. But by the aid of astronomical observations and +the Atlantic cables the distance is found within a few hundred yards. +Without astronomy we could scarcely make an accurate map of the United +States, except at enormous labor and expense, and even then we could +not be sure of its correctness. But the practical astronomer being able +to determine his latitude and longitude within fifty yards, the +positions of the principal points in all great cities of the country +are known, and can be laid down on maps. +</P> + +<P> +The world has always had to depend on astronomy for all its knowledge +concerning times and seasons. The changes of the moon gave us the first +month, and the year completes its round as the earth travels in its +orbit. The results of astronomical observation are for us condensed +into almanacs, which are now in such universal use that we never think +of their astronomical origin. But in ancient times people had no +almanacs, and they learned the time of year, or the number of days in +the year, by observing the time when Sirius or some other bright star +rose or set with the sun, or disappeared from view in the sun's rays. +At Alexandria, in Egypt, the length of the year was determined yet more +exactly by observing when the sun rose exactly in the east and set +exactly in the west, a date which fixed the equinox for them as for us. +More than seventeen hundred years ago, Ptolemy, the great author of The +Almagest, had fixed the length of the year to within a very few +minutes. He knew it was a little less than 365 1/2 days. The dates of +events in ancient history depend very largely on the chronological +cycles of astronomy. Eclipses of the sun and moon sometimes fixed the +date of great events, and we learn the relation of ancient calendars to +our own through the motions of the earth and moon, and can thus measure +out the years for the events in ancient history on the same scale that +we measure out our own. +</P> + +<P> +At the present day, the work of the practical astronomer is made use of +in our daily life throughout the whole country in yet another way. Our +fore-fathers had to regulate their clocks by a sundial, or perhaps by a +mark at the corner of the house, which showed where the shadow of the +house fell at noon. Very rude indeed was this method; and it was +uncertain for another reason. It is not always exactly twenty-four +hours between two noons by the sun, Sometimes for two or three months +the sun will make it noon earlier and earlier every day; and during +several other months later and later every day. The result is that, if +a clock is perfectly regulated, the sun will be sometimes a quarter of +an hour behind it, and sometimes nearly the same amount before it. Any +effort to keep the clock in accord with this changing sun was in vain, +and so the time of day was always uncertain. +</P> + +<P> +Now, however, at some of the principal observatories of the country +astronomical observations are made on every clear night for the express +purpose of regulating an astronomical clock with the greatest +exactness. Every day at noon a signal is sent to various parts of the +country by telegraph, so that all operators and railway men who hear +that signal can set their clock at noon within two or three seconds. +People who live near railway stations can thus get their time from it, +and so exact time is diffused into every household of the land which is +at all near a railway station, without the trouble of watching the sun. +Thus increased exactness is given to the time on all our railroads, +increased safety is obtained, and great loss of time saved to every +one. If we estimated the money value of this saving alone we should no +doubt find it to be greater than all that our study of astronomy costs. +</P> + +<P> +It must therefore be conceded that, on the whole, astronomy is a +science of more practical use than one would at first suppose. To the +thoughtless man, the stars seem to have very little relation to his +daily life; they might be forever hid from view without his being the +worse for it. He wonders what object men can have in devoting +themselves to the study of the motions or phenomena of the heavens. But +the more he looks into the subject, and the wider the range which his +studies include, the more he will be impressed with the great practical +usefulness of the science of the heavens. And yet I think it would be a +serious error to say that the world's greatest debt to astronomy was +owing to its usefulness in surveying, navigation, and chronology. The +more enlightened a man is, the more he will feel that what makes his +mind what it is, and gives him the ideas of himself and creation which +he possesses, is more important than that which gains him wealth. I +therefore hold that the world's greatest debt to astronomy is that it +has taught us what a great thing creation is, and what an insignificant +part of the Creator's work is this earth on which we dwell, and +everything that is upon it. That space is infinite, that wherever we go +there is a farther still beyond it, must have been accepted as a fact +by all men who have thought of the subject since men began to think at +all. But it is very curious how hard even the astronomers found it to +believe that creation is as large as we now know it to be. The Greeks +had their gods on or not very far above Olympus, which was a sort of +footstool to the heavens. Sometimes they tried to guess how far it +probably was from the vault of heaven to the earth, and they had a myth +as to the time it took Vulcan to fall. Ptolemy knew that the moon was +about thirty diameters of the earth distant from us, and he knew that +the sun was many times farther than the moon; he thought it about +twenty times as far, but could not be sure. We know that it is nearly +four hundred times as far. +</P> + +<P> +When Copernicus propounded the theory that the earth moved around the +sun, and not the sun around the earth, he was able to fix the relative +distances of the several planets, and thus make a map of the solar +system. But he knew nothing about the scale of this map. He knew, for +example, that Venus was a little more than two-thirds the distance of +the earth from the sun, and that Mars was about half as far again as +the earth, Jupiter about five times, and Saturn about ten times; but he +knew nothing about the distance of any one of them from the sun. He had +his map all right, but he could not give any scale of miles or any +other measurements upon it. The astronomers who first succeeded him +found that the distance was very much greater than had formerly been +supposed; that it was, in fact, for them immeasurably great, and that +was all they could say about it. +</P> + +<P> +The proofs which Copernicus gave that the earth revolved around the sun +were so strong that none could well doubt them. And yet there was a +difficulty in accepting the theory which seemed insuperable. If the +earth really moved in so immense an orbit as it must, then the stars +would seem to move in the opposite direction, just as, if you were in a +train that is shunting off cars one after another, as the train moves +back and forth you see its motion in the opposite motion of every +object around you. If then the earth at one side of its orbit was +exactly between two stars, when it moved to the other side of its orbit +it would not be in a line between them, but each star would have seemed +to move in the opposite direction. +</P> + +<P> +For centuries astronomers made the most exact observations that they +were able without having succeeded in detecting any such apparent +motion among the stars. Here was a mystery which they could not solve. +Either the Copernican system was not true, after all, and the earth did +not move in an orbit, or the stars were at such immense distances that +the whole immeasurable orbit of the earth is a mere point in +comparison. Philosophers could not believe that the Creator would waste +room by allowing the inconceivable spaces which appeared to lie between +our system and the fixed stars to remain unused, and so thought there +must be something wrong in the theory of the earth's motion. +</P> + +<P> +Not until the nineteenth century was well in progress did the most +skilful observers of their time, Bessel and Struve, having at command +the most refined instruments which science was then able to devise, +discover the reality of the parallax of the stars, and show that the +nearest of these bodies which they could find was more than 400,000 +times as far as the 93,000,000 of miles which separate the earth from +the sun. During the half-century and more which has elapsed since this +discovery, astronomers have been busily engaged in fathoming the +heavenly depths. The nearest star they have been able to find is about +280,000 times the sun's distance. A dozen or a score more are within +1,000,000 times that distance. Beyond this all is unfathomable by any +sounding-line yet known to man. +</P> + +<P> +The results of these astronomical measures are stupendous beyond +conception. No mere statement in numbers conveys any idea of it. Nearly +all the brighter stars are known to be flying through space at speeds +which generally range between ten and forty or fifty miles per second, +some slower and some swifter, even up to one or two hundred miles a +second. Such a speed would carry us across the Atlantic while we were +reading two or three of these sentences. These motions take place some +in one direction and some in another. Some of the stars are coming +almost straight towards us. Should they reach us, and pass through our +solar system, the result would be destructive to our earth, and perhaps +to our sun. +</P> + +<P> +Are we in any danger? No, because, however madly they may come, whether +ten, twenty, or one hundred miles per second, so many millions of years +must elapse before they reach us that we need give ourselves no concern +in the matter. Probably none of them are coming straight to us; their +course deviates just a hair's-breadth from our system, but that +hair's-breadth is so large a quantity that when the millions of years +elapse their course will lie on one side or the other of our system and +they will do no harm to our planet; just as a bullet fired at an insect +a mile away would be nearly sure to miss it in one direction or the +other. +</P> + +<P> +Our instrument makers have constructed telescopes more and more +powerful, and with these the whole number of stars visible is carried +up into the millions, say perhaps to fifty or one hundred millions. For +aught we know every one of those stars may have planets like our own +circling round it, and these planets may be inhabited by beings equal +to ourselves. To suppose that our globe is the only one thus inhabited +is something so unlikely that no one could expect it. It would be very +nice to know something about the people who may inhabit these bodies, +but we must await our translation to another sphere before we can know +anything on the subject. Meanwhile, we have gained what is of more +value than gold or silver; we have learned that creation transcends all +our conceptions, and our ideas of its Author are enlarged accordingly. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap15"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +XV +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +AN ASTRONOMICAL FRIENDSHIP +</H3> + +<P> +There are few men with whom I would like so well to have a quiet talk +as with Father Hell. I have known more important and more interesting +men, but none whose acquaintance has afforded me a serener +satisfaction, or imbued me with an ampler measure of a feeling that I +am candid enough to call self-complacency. The ties that bind us are +peculiar. When I call him my friend, I do not mean that we ever +hobnobbed together. But if we are in sympathy, what matters it that he +was dead long before I was born, that he lived in one century and I in +another? Such differences of generation count for little in the +brotherhood of astronomy, the work of whose members so extends through +all time that one might well forget that he belongs to one century or +to another. +</P> + +<P> +Father Hell was an astronomer. Ask not whether he was a very great one, +for in our science we have no infallible gauge by which we try men and +measure their stature. He was a lover of science and an indefatigable +worker, and he did what in him lay to advance our knowledge of the +stars. Let that suffice. I love to fancy that in some other sphere, +either within this universe of ours or outside of it, all who have +successfully done this may some time gather and exchange greetings. +Should this come about there will be a few—Hipparchus and Ptolemy, +Copernicus and Newton, Galileo and Herschel—to be surrounded by +admiring crowds. But these men will have as warm a grasp and as kind a +word for the humblest of their followers, who has merely discovered a +comet or catalogued a nebula, as for the more brilliant of their +brethren. +</P> + +<P> +My friend wrote the letters S. J. after his name. This would indicate +that he had views and tastes which, in some points, were very different +from my own. But such differences mark no dividing line in the +brotherhood of astronomy. My testimony would count for nothing were I +called as witness for the prosecution in a case against the order to +which my friend belonged. The record would be very short: Deponent +saith that he has at various times known sundry members of the said +order; and that they were lovers of sound learning, devoted to the +discovery and propagation of knowledge; and further deponent saith not. +</P> + +<P> +If it be true that an undevout astronomer is mad, then was Father Hell +the sanest of men. In his diary we find entries like these: +"Benedicente Deo, I observed the Sun on the meridian to-day.... Deo +quoque benedicente, I to-day got corresponding altitudes of the Sun's +upper limb." How he maintained the simplicity of his faith in the true +spirit of the modern investigator is shown by his proceedings during a +momentous voyage along the coast of Norway, of which I shall presently +speak. He and his party were passengers on a Norwegian vessel. For +twelve consecutive days they had been driven about by adverse storms, +threatened with shipwreck on stony cliffs, and finally compelled to +take refuge in a little bay, with another ship bound in the same +direction, there to wait for better weather. +</P> + +<P> +Father Hell was philosopher enough to know that unusual events do not +happen without cause. Perhaps he would have undergone a week of storm +without its occurring to him to investigate the cause of such a bad +spell of weather. But when he found the second week approaching its end +and yet no sign of the sun appearing or the wind abating, he was +satisfied that something must be wrong. So he went to work in the +spirit of the modern physician who, when there is a sudden outbreak of +typhoid fever, looks at the wells and examines their water with the +microscope to find the microbes that must be lurking somewhere. He +looked about, and made careful inquiries to find what wickedness +captain and crew had been guilty of to bring such a punishment. Success +soon rewarded his efforts. The King of Denmark had issued a regulation +that no fish or oil should be sold along the coast except by the +regular dealers in those articles. And the vessel had on board +contraband fish and blubber, to be disposed of in violation of this law. +</P> + +<P> +The astronomer took immediate and energetic measures to insure the +public safety. He called the crew together, admonished them of their +sin, the suffering they were bringing on themselves, and the necessity +of getting back to their families. He exhorted them to throw the fish +overboard, as the only measure to secure their safety. In the goodness +of his heart, he even offered to pay the value of the jettison as soon +as the vessel reached Drontheim. +</P> + +<P> +But the descendants of the Vikings were stupid and unenlightened +men—"educatione sua et professione homines crassissimi"—and would not +swallow the medicine so generously offered. They claimed that, as they +had bought the fish from the Russians, their proceedings were quite +lawful. As for being paid to throw the fish overboard, they must have +spot cash in advance or they would not do it. +</P> + +<P> +After further fruitless conferences, Father Hell determined to escape +the danger by transferring his party to the other vessel. They had not +more than got away from the wicked crew than Heaven began to smile on +their act—"factum comprobare Deus ipse videtur"—the clouds cleared +away, the storm ceased to rage, and they made their voyage to +Copenhagen under sunny skies. I regret to say that the narrative is +silent as to the measure of storm subsequently awarded to the homines +crassissimi of the forsaken vessel. +</P> + +<P> +For more than a century Father Hell had been a well-known figure in +astronomical history. His celebrity was not, however, of such a kind as +the Royal Astronomer of Austria that he was ought to enjoy. A not +unimportant element in his fame was a suspicion of his being a black +sheep in the astronomical flock. He got under this cloud through +engaging in a trying and worthy enterprise. On June 3, 1769, an event +occurred which had for generations been anticipated with the greatest +interest by the whole astronomical world. This was a transit of Venus +over the disk of the sun. Our readers doubtless know that at that time +such a transit afforded the most accurate method known of determining +the distance of the earth from the sun. To attain this object, parties +were sent to the most widely separated parts of the globe, not only +over wide stretches of longitude, but as near as possible to the two +poles of the earth. One of the most favorable and important regions of +observation was Lapland, and the King of Denmark, to whom that country +then belonged, interested himself in getting a party sent thither. +After a careful survey of the field he selected Father Hell, Chief of +the Observatory at Vienna, and well known as editor and publisher of an +annual ephemeris, in which the movements and aspects of the heavenly +bodies were predicted. The astronomer accepted the mission and +undertook what was at that time a rather hazardous voyage. His station +was at Vardo in the region of the North Cape. What made it most +advantageous for the purpose was its being situated several degrees +within the Arctic Circle, so that on the date of the transit the sun +did not set. The transit began when the sun was still two or three +hours from his midnight goal, and it ended nearly an equal time +afterwards. The party consisted of Hell himself, his friend and +associate, Father Sajnovics, one Dominus Borgrewing, of whom history, +so far as I know, says nothing more, and an humble individual who in +the record receives no other designation than "Familias." This implies, +we may suppose, that he pitched the tent and made the coffee. If he did +nothing but this we might pass him over in silence. But we learn that +on the day of the transit he stood at the clock and counted the +all-important seconds while the observations were going on. +</P> + +<P> +The party was favored by cloudless weather, and made the required +observations with entire success. They returned to Copenhagen, and +there Father Hell remained to edit and publish his work. Astronomers +were naturally anxious to get the results, and showed some impatience +when it became known that Hell refused to announce them until they were +all reduced and printed in proper form under the auspices of his royal +patron. While waiting, the story got abroad that he was delaying the +work until he got the results of observations made elsewhere, in order +to "doctor" his own and make them fit in with the others. One went so +far as to express a suspicion that Hell had not seen the transit at +all, owing to clouds, and that what he pretended to publish were pure +fabrications. But his book came out in a few months in such good form +that this suspicion was evidently groundless. Still, the fears that the +observations were not genuine were not wholly allayed, and the results +derived from them were, in consequence, subject to some doubt. Hell +himself considered the reflections upon his integrity too contemptible +to merit a serious reply. It is said that he wrote to some one offering +to exhibit his journal free from interlineations or erasures, but it +does not appear that there is any sound authority for this statement. +What is of some interest is that he published a determination of the +parallax of the sun based on the comparison of his own observations +with those made at other stations. The result was 8".70. It was then, +and long after, supposed that the actual value of the parallax was +about 8".50, and the deviation of Hell's result from this was +considered to strengthen the doubt as to the correctness of his work. +It is of interest to learn that, by the most recent researches, the +number in question must be between 8".75 and 8".80, so that in reality +Hell's computations came nearer the truth than those generally current +during the century following his work. +</P> + +<P> +Thus the matter stood for sixty years after the transit, and for a +generation after Father Hell had gone to his rest. About 1830 it was +found that the original journal of his voyage, containing the record of +his work as first written down at the station, was still preserved at +the Vienna Observatory. Littrow, then an astronomer at Vienna, made a +critical examination of this record in order to determine whether it +had been tampered with. His conclusions were published in a little book +giving a transcript of the journal, a facsimile of the most important +entries, and a very critical description of the supposed alterations +made in them. He reported in substance that the original record had +been so tampered with that it was impossible to decide whether the +observations as published were genuine or not. The vital figures, those +which told the times when Venus entered upon the sun, had been erased, +and rewritten with blacker ink. This might well have been done after +the party returned to Copenhagen. The case against the observer seemed +so well made out that professors of astronomy gave their hearers a +lesson in the value of truthfulness, by telling them how Father Hell +had destroyed what might have been very good observations by trying to +make them appear better than they really were. +</P> + +<P> +In 1883 I paid a visit to Vienna for the purpose of examining the great +telescope which had just been mounted in the observatory there by +Grubb, of Dublin. The weather was so unfavorable that it was necessary +to remain two weeks, waiting for an opportunity to see the stars. One +evening I visited the theatre to see Edwin Booth, in his celebrated +tour over the Continent, play King Lear to the applauding Viennese. But +evening amusements cannot be utilized to kill time during the day. +Among the works I had projected was that of rediscussing all the +observations made on the transits of Venus which had occurred in 1761 +and 1769, by the light of modern discovery. As I have already remarked, +Hell's observations were among the most important made, if they were +only genuine. So, during my almost daily visits to the observatory, I +asked permission of the director to study Hell's manuscript, which was +deposited in the library of the institution. Permission was freely +given, and for some days I pored over the manuscript. It is a very +common experience in scientific research that a subject which seems +very unpromising when first examined may be found more and more +interesting as one looks further into it. Such was the case here. For +some time there did not seem any possibility of deciding the question +whether the record was genuine. But every time I looked at it some new +point came to light. I compared the pages with Littrow's published +description and was struck by a seeming want of precision, especially +when he spoke of the ink with which the record had been made. Erasers +were doubtless unknown in those days—at least our astronomer had none +on his expedition—so when he found he had written the wrong word he +simply wiped the place off with, perhaps, his finger and wrote what he +wanted to say. In such a case Littrow described the matter as erased +and new matter written. When the ink flowed freely from the quill pen +it was a little dark. Then Littrow said a different kind of ink had +been used, probably after he had got back from his journey. On the +other hand, there was a very singular case in which there had been a +subsequent interlineation in ink of quite a different tint, which +Littrow said nothing about. This seemed so curious that I wrote in my +notes as follows: +</P> + +<P> +"That Littrow, in arraying his proofs of Hell's forgery, should have +failed to dwell upon the obvious difference between this ink and that +with which the alterations were made leads me to suspect a defect in +his sense of color." +</P> + +<P> +The more I studied the description and the manuscript the stronger this +impression became. Then it occurred to me to inquire whether perhaps +such could have been the case. So I asked Director Weiss whether +anything was known as to the normal character of Littrow's power of +distinguishing colors. His answer was prompt and decisive. "Oh yes, +Littrow was color-blind to red. He could not distinguish between the +color of Aldebaran and the whitest star." No further research was +necessary. For half a century the astronomical world had based an +impression on the innocent but mistaken evidence of a color-blind +man—respecting the tints of ink in a manuscript. +</P> + +<P> +It has doubtless happened more than once that when an intimate friend +has suddenly and unexpectedly passed away, the reader has ardently +wished that it were possible to whisper just one word of appreciation +across the dark abyss. And so it is that I have ever since felt that I +would like greatly to tell Father Hell the story of my work at Vienna +in 1883. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap16"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +XVI +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATOR +</H3> + +<P CLASS="footnote"> +[Footnote: Presidential address at the opening of the International +Congress of Arts and Science, St. Louis Exposition, September 21: 1904.] +</P> + +<BR> + +<P> +As we look at the assemblage gathered in this hall, comprising so many +names of widest renown in every branch of learning—we might almost say +in every field of human endeavor—the first inquiry suggested must be +after the object of our meeting. The answer is that our purpose +corresponds to the eminence of the assemblage. We aim at nothing less +than a survey of the realm of knowledge, as comprehensive as is +permitted by the limitations of time and space. The organizers of our +congress have honored me with the charge of presenting such preliminary +view of its field as may make clear the spirit of our undertaking. +</P> + +<P> +Certain tendencies characteristic of the science of our day clearly +suggest the direction of our thoughts most appropriate to the occasion. +Among the strongest of these is one towards laying greater stress on +questions of the beginnings of things, and regarding a knowledge of the +laws of development of any object of study as necessary to the +understanding of its present form. It may be conceded that the +principle here involved is as applicable in the broad field before us +as in a special research into the properties of the minutest organism. +It therefore seems meet that we should begin by inquiring what agency +has brought about the remarkable development of science to which the +world of to-day bears witness. This view is recognized in the plan of +our proceedings by providing for each great department of knowledge a +review of its progress during the century that has elapsed since the +great event commemorated by the scenes outside this hall. But such +reviews do not make up that general survey of science at large which is +necessary to the development of our theme, and which must include the +action of causes that had their origin long before our time. The +movement which culminated in making the nineteenth century ever +memorable in history is the outcome of a long series of causes, acting +through many centuries, which are worthy of especial attention on such +an occasion as this. In setting them forth we should avoid laying +stress on those visible manifestations which, striking the eye of every +beholder, are in no danger of being overlooked, and search rather for +those agencies whose activities underlie the whole visible scene, but +which are liable to be blotted out of sight by the very brilliancy of +the results to which they have given rise. It is easy to draw attention +to the wonderful qualities of the oak; but, from that very fact, it may +be needful to point out that the real wonder lies concealed in the +acorn from which it grew. +</P> + +<P> +Our inquiry into the logical order of the causes which have made our +civilization what it is to-day will be facilitated by bringing to mind +certain elementary considerations—ideas so familiar that setting them +forth may seem like citing a body of truisms—and yet so frequently +overlooked, not only individually, but in their relation to each other, +that the conclusion to which they lead may be lost to sight. One of +these propositions is that psychical rather than material causes are +those which we should regard as fundamental in directing the +development of the social organism. The human intellect is the really +active agent in every branch of endeavor—the primum mobile of +civilization—and all those material manifestations to which our +attention is so often directed are to be regarded as secondary to this +first agency. If it be true that "in the world is nothing great but +man; in man is nothing great but mind," then should the key-note of our +discourse be the recognition of this first and greatest of powers. +</P> + +<P> +Another well-known fact is that those applications of the forces of +nature to the promotion of human welfare which have made our age what +it is are of such comparatively recent origin that we need go back only +a single century to antedate their most important features, and +scarcely more than four centuries to find their beginning. It follows +that the subject of our inquiry should be the commencement, not many +centuries ago, of a certain new form of intellectual activity. +</P> + +<P> +Having gained this point of view, our next inquiry will be into the +nature of that activity and its relation to the stages of progress +which preceded and followed its beginning. The superficial observer, +who sees the oak but forgets the acorn, might tell us that the special +qualities which have brought out such great results are expert +scientific knowledge and rare ingenuity, directed to the application of +the powers of steam and electricity. From this point of view the great +inventors and the great captains of industry were the first agents in +bringing about the modern era. But the more careful inquirer will see +that the work of these men was possible only through a knowledge of the +laws of nature, which had been gained by men whose work took precedence +of theirs in logical order, and that success in invention has been +measured by completeness in such knowledge. While giving all due honor +to the great inventors, let us remember that the first place is that of +the great investigators, whose forceful intellects opened the way to +secrets previously hidden from men. Let it be an honor and not a +reproach to these men that they were not actuated by the love of gain, +and did not keep utilitarian ends in view in the pursuit of their +researches. If it seems that in neglecting such ends they were leaving +undone the most important part of their work, let us remember that +Nature turns a forbidding face to those who pay her court with the hope +of gain, and is responsive only to those suitors whose love for her is +pure and undefiled. Not only is the special genius required in the +investigator not that generally best adapted to applying the +discoveries which he makes, but the result of his having sordid ends in +view would be to narrow the field of his efforts, and exercise a +depressing effect upon his activities. The true man of science has no +such expression in his vocabulary as "useful knowledge." His domain is +as wide as nature itself, and he best fulfils his mission when he +leaves to others the task of applying the knowledge he gives to the +world. +</P> + +<P> +We have here the explanation of the well-known fact that the functions +of the investigator of the laws of nature, and of the inventor who +applies these laws to utilitarian purposes, are rarely united in the +same person. If the one conspicuous exception which the past century +presents to this rule is not unique, we should probably have to go back +to Watt to find another. +</P> + +<P> +From this view-point it is clear that the primary agent in the movement +which has elevated man to the masterful position he now occupies is the +scientific investigator. He it is whose work has deprived plague and +pestilence of their terrors, alleviated human suffering, girdled the +earth with the electric wire, bound the continent with the iron way, +and made neighbors of the most distant nations. As the first agent +which has made possible this meeting of his representatives, let his +evolution be this day our worthy theme. As we follow the evolution of +an organism by studying the stages of its growth, so we have to show +how the work of the scientific investigator is related to the +ineffectual efforts of his predecessors. +</P> + +<P> +In our time we think of the process of development in nature as one +going continuously forward through the combination of the opposite +processes of evolution and dissolution. The tendency of our thought has +been in the direction of banishing cataclysms to the theological limbo, +and viewing Nature as a sleepless plodder, endowed with infinite +patience, waiting through long ages for results. I do not contest the +truth of the principle of continuity on which this view is based. But +it fails to make known to us the whole truth. The building of a ship +from the time that her keel is laid until she is making her way across +the ocean is a slow and gradual process; yet there is a cataclysmic +epoch opening up a new era in her history. It is the moment when, after +lying for months or years a dead, inert, immovable mass, she is +suddenly endowed with the power of motion, and, as if imbued with life, +glides into the stream, eager to begin the career for which she was +designed. +</P> + +<P> +I think it is thus in the development of humanity. Long ages may pass +during which a race, to all external observation, appears to be making +no real progress. Additions may be made to learning, and the records of +history may constantly grow, but there is nothing in its sphere of +thought, or in the features of its life, that can be called essentially +new. Yet, Nature may have been all along slowly working in a way which +evades our scrutiny, until the result of her operations suddenly +appears in a new and revolutionary movement, carrying the race to a +higher plane of civilization. +</P> + +<P> +It is not difficult to point out such epochs in human progress. The +greatest of all, because it was the first, is one of which we find no +record either in written or geological history. It was the epoch when +our progenitors first took conscious thought of the morrow, first used +the crude weapons which Nature had placed within their reach to kill +their prey, first built a fire to warm their bodies and cook their +food. I love to fancy that there was some one first man, the Adam of +evolution, who did all this, and who used the power thus acquired to +show his fellows how they might profit by his example. When the members +of the tribe or community which he gathered around him began to +conceive of life as a whole—to include yesterday, to-day, and +to-morrow in the same mental grasp—to think how they might apply the +gifts of Nature to their own uses—a movement was begun which should +ultimately lead to civilization. +</P> + +<P> +Long indeed must have been the ages required for the development of +this rudest primitive community into the civilization revealed to us by +the most ancient tablets of Egypt and Assyria. After spoken language +was developed, and after the rude representation of ideas by visible +marks drawn to resemble them had long been practised, some Cadmus must +have invented an alphabet. When the use of written language was thus +introduced, the word of command ceased to be confined to the range of +the human voice, and it became possible for master minds to extend +their influence as far as a written message could be carried. Then were +communities gathered into provinces; provinces into kingdoms, kingdoms +into great empires of antiquity. Then arose a stage of civilization +which we find pictured in the most ancient records—a stage in which +men were governed by laws that were perhaps as wisely adapted to their +conditions as our laws are to ours—in which the phenomena of nature +were rudely observed, and striking occurrences in the earth or in the +heavens recorded in the annals of the nation. +</P> + +<P> +Vast was the progress of knowledge during the interval between these +empires and the century in which modern science began. Yet, if I am +right in making a distinction between the slow and regular steps of +progress, each growing naturally out of that which preceded it, and the +entrance of the mind at some fairly definite epoch into an entirely new +sphere of activity, it would appear that there was only one such epoch +during the entire interval. This was when abstract geometrical +reasoning commenced, and astronomical observations aiming at precision +were recorded, compared, and discussed. Closely associated with it must +have been the construction of the forms of logic. The radical +difference between the demonstration of a theorem of geometry and the +reasoning of every-day life which the masses of men must have practised +from the beginning, and which few even to-day ever get beyond, is so +evident at a glance that I need not dwell upon it. The principal +feature of this advance is that, by one of those antinomies of human +intellect of which examples are not wanting even in our own time, the +development of abstract ideas preceded the concrete knowledge of +natural phenomena. When we reflect that in the geometry of Euclid the +science of space was brought to such logical perfection that even +to-day its teachers are not agreed as to the practicability of any +great improvement upon it, we cannot avoid the feeling that a very +slight change in the direction of the intellectual activity of the +Greeks would have led to the beginning of natural science. But it would +seem that the very purity and perfection which was aimed at in their +system of geometry stood in the way of any extension or application of +its methods and spirit to the field of nature. One example of this is +worthy of attention. In modern teaching the idea of magnitude as +generated by motion is freely introduced. A line is described by a +moving point; a plane by a moving line; a solid by a moving plane. It +may, at first sight, seem singular that this conception finds no place +in the Euclidian system. But we may regard the omission as a mark of +logical purity and rigor. Had the real or supposed advantages of +introducing motion into geometrical conceptions been suggested to +Euclid, we may suppose him to have replied that the theorems of space +are independent of time; that the idea of motion necessarily implies +time, and that, in consequence, to avail ourselves of it would be to +introduce an extraneous element into geometry. +</P> + +<P> +It is quite possible that the contempt of the ancient philosophers for +the practical application of their science, which has continued in some +form to our own time, and which is not altogether unwholesome, was a +powerful factor in the same direction. The result was that, in keeping +geometry pure from ideas which did not belong to it, it failed to form +what might otherwise have been the basis of physical science. Its +founders missed the discovery that methods similar to those of +geometric demonstration could be extended into other and wider fields +than that of space. Thus not only the development of applied geometry +but the reduction of other conceptions to a rigorous mathematical form +was indefinitely postponed. +</P> + +<P> +There is, however, one science which admitted of the immediate +application of the theorems of geometry, and which did not require the +application of the experimental method. Astronomy is necessarily a +science of observation pure and simple, in which experiment can have no +place except as an auxiliary. The vague accounts of striking celestial +phenomena handed down by the priests and astrologers of antiquity were +followed in the time of the Greeks by observations having, in form at +least, a rude approach to precision, though nothing like the degree of +precision that the astronomer of to-day would reach with the naked eye, +aided by such instruments as he could fashion from the tools at the +command of the ancients. +</P> + +<P> +The rude observations commenced by the Babylonians were continued with +gradually improving instruments—first by the Greeks and afterwards by +the Arabs—but the results failed to afford any insight into the true +relation of the earth to the heavens. What was most remarkable in this +failure is that, to take a first step forward which would have led on +to success, no more was necessary than a course of abstract thinking +vastly easier than that required for working out the problems of +geometry. That space is infinite is an unexpressed axiom, tacitly +assumed by Euclid and his successors. Combining this with the most +elementary consideration of the properties of the triangle, it would be +seen that a body of any given size could be placed at such a distance +in space as to appear to us like a point. Hence a body as large as our +earth, which was known to be a globe from the time that the ancient +Phoenicians navigated the Mediterranean, if placed in the heavens at a +sufficient distance, would look like a star. The obvious conclusion +that the stars might be bodies like our globe, shining either by their +own light or by that of the sun, would have been a first step to the +understanding of the true system of the world. +</P> + +<P> +There is historic evidence that this deduction did not wholly escape +the Greek thinkers. It is true that the critical student will assign +little weight to the current belief that the vague theory of +Pythagoras—that fire was at the centre of all things—implies a +conception of the heliocentric theory of the solar system. But the +testimony of Archimedes, confused though it is in form, leaves no +serious doubt that Aristarchus of Samos not only propounded the view +that the earth revolves both on its own axis and around the sun, but +that he correctly removed the great stumbling-block in the way of this +theory by adding that the distance of the fixed stars was infinitely +greater than the dimensions of the earth's orbit. Even the world of +philosophy was not yet ready for this conception, and, so far from +seeing the reasonableness of the explanation, we find Ptolemy arguing +against the rotation of the earth on grounds which careful observations +of the phenomena around him would have shown to be ill-founded. +</P> + +<P> +Physical science, if we can apply that term to an uncoordinated body of +facts, was successfully cultivated from the earliest times. Something +must have been known of the properties of metals, and the art of +extracting them from their ores must have been practised, from the time +that coins and medals were first stamped. The properties of the most +common compounds were discovered by alchemists in their vain search for +the philosopher's stone, but no actual progress worthy of the name +rewarded the practitioners of the black art. +</P> + +<P> +Perhaps the first approach to a correct method was that of Archimedes, +who by much thinking worked out the law of the lever, reached the +conception of the centre of gravity, and demonstrated the first +principles of hydrostatics. It is remarkable that he did not extend his +researches into the phenomena of motion, whether spontaneous or +produced by force. The stationary condition of the human intellect is +most strikingly illustrated by the fact that not until the time of +Leonardo was any substantial advance made on his discovery. To sum up +in one sentence the most characteristic feature of ancient and medieval +science, we see a notable contrast between the precision of thought +implied in the construction and demonstration of geometrical theorems +and the vague indefinite character of the ideas of natural phenomena +generally, a contrast which did not disappear until the foundations of +modern science began to be laid. +</P> + +<P> +We should miss the most essential point of the difference between +medieval and modern learning if we looked upon it as mainly a +difference either in the precision or the amount of knowledge. The +development of both of these qualities would, under any circumstances, +have been slow and gradual, but sure. We can hardly suppose that any +one generation, or even any one century, would have seen the complete +substitution of exact for inexact ideas. Slowness of growth is as +inevitable in the case of knowledge as in that of a growing organism. +The most essential point of difference is one of those seemingly slight +ones, the importance of which we are too apt to overlook. It was like +the drop of blood in the wrong place, which some one has told us makes +all the difference between a philosopher and a maniac. It was all the +difference between a living tree and a dead one, between an inert mass +and a growing organism. The transition of knowledge from the dead to +the living form must, in any complete review of the subject, be looked +upon as the really great event of modern times. Before this event the +intellect was bound down by a scholasticism which regarded knowledge as +a rounded whole, the parts of which were written in books and carried +in the minds of learned men. The student was taught from the beginning +of his work to look upon authority as the foundation of his beliefs. +The older the authority the greater the weight it carried. So effective +was this teaching that it seems never to have occurred to individual +men that they had all the opportunities ever enjoyed by Aristotle of +discovering truth, with the added advantage of all his knowledge to +begin with. Advanced as was the development of formal logic, that +practical logic was wanting which could see that the last of a series +of authorities, every one of which rested on those which preceded it, +could never form a surer foundation for any doctrine than that supplied +by its original propounder. +</P> + +<P> +The result of this view of knowledge was that, although during the +fifteen centuries following the death of the geometer of Syracuse great +universities were founded at which generations of professors expounded +all the learning of their time, neither professor nor student ever +suspected what latent possibilities of good were concealed in the most +familiar operations of Nature. Every one felt the wind blow, saw water +boil, and heard the thunder crash, but never thought of investigating +the forces here at play. Up to the middle of the fifteenth century the +most acute observer could scarcely have seen the dawn of a new era. +</P> + +<P> +In view of this state of things it must be regarded as one of the most +remarkable facts in evolutionary history that four or five men, whose +mental constitution was either typical of the new order of things, or +who were powerful agents in bringing it about, were all born during the +fifteenth century, four of them at least, at so nearly the same time as +to be contemporaries. +</P> + +<P> +Leonardo da Vinci, whose artistic genius has charmed succeeding +generations, was also the first practical engineer of his time, and the +first man after Archimedes to make a substantial advance in developing +the laws of motion. That the world was not prepared to make use of his +scientific discoveries does not detract from the significance which +must attach to the period of his birth. +</P> + +<P> +Shortly after him was born the great navigator whose bold spirit was to +make known a new world, thus giving to commercial enterprise that +impetus which was so powerful an agent in bringing about a revolution +in the thoughts of men. +</P> + +<P> +The birth of Columbus was soon followed by that of Copernicus, the +first after Aristarchus to demonstrate the true system of the world. In +him more than in any of his contemporaries do we see the struggle +between the old forms of thought and the new. It seems almost pathetic +and is certainly most suggestive of the general view of knowledge taken +at that time that, instead of claiming credit for bringing to light +great truths before unknown, he made a labored attempt to show that, +after all, there was nothing really new in his system, which he claimed +to date from Pythagoras and Philolaus. In this connection it is curious +that he makes no mention of Aristarchus, who I think will be regarded +by conservative historians as his only demonstrated predecessor. To the +hold of the older ideas upon his mind we must attribute the fact that +in constructing his system he took great pains to make as little change +as possible in ancient conceptions. +</P> + +<P> +Luther, the greatest thought-stirrer of them all, practically of the +same generation with Copernicus, Leonardo and Columbus, does not come +in as a scientific investigator, but as the great loosener of chains +which had so fettered the intellect of men that they dared not think +otherwise than as the authorities thought. +</P> + +<P> +Almost coeval with the advent of these intellects was the invention of +printing with movable type. Gutenberg was born during the first decade +of the century, and his associates and others credited with the +invention not many years afterwards. If we accept the principle on +which I am basing my argument, that in bringing out the springs of our +progress we should assign the first place to the birth of those psychic +agencies which started men on new lines of thought, then surely was the +fifteenth the wonderful century. +</P> + +<P> +Let us not forget that, in assigning the actors then born to their +places, we are not narrating history, but studying a special phase of +evolution. It matters not for us that no university invited Leonardo to +its halls, and that his science was valued by his contemporaries only +as an adjunct to the art of engineering. The great fact still is that +he was the first of mankind to propound laws of motion. It is not for +anything in Luther's doctrines that he finds a place in our scheme. No +matter for us whether they were sound or not. What he did towards the +evolution of the scientific investigator was to show by his example +that a man might question the best-established and most venerable +authority and still live—still preserve his intellectual +integrity—still command a hearing from nations and their rulers. It +matters not for us whether Columbus ever knew that he had discovered a +new continent. His work was to teach that neither hydra, chimera nor +abyss—neither divine injunction nor infernal machination—was in the +way of men visiting every part of the globe, and that the problem of +conquering the world reduced itself to one of sails and rigging, hull +and compass. The better part of Copernicus was to direct man to a +view-point whence he should see that the heavens were of like matter +with the earth. All this done, the acorn was planted from which the oak +of our civilization should spring. The mad quest for gold which +followed the discovery of Columbus, the questionings which absorbed the +attention of the learned, the indignation excited by the seeming +vagaries of a Paracelsus, the fear and trembling lest the strange +doctrine of Copernicus should undermine the faith of centuries, were +all helps to the germination of the seed—stimuli to thought which +urged it on to explore the new fields opened up to its occupation. This +given, all that has since followed came out in regular order of +development, and need be here considered only in those phases having a +special relation to the purpose of our present meeting. +</P> + +<P> +So slow was the growth at first that the sixteenth century may scarcely +have recognized the inauguration of a new era. Torricelli and Benedetti +were of the third generation after Leonardo, and Galileo, the first to +make a substantial advance upon his theory, was born more than a +century after him. Only two or three men appeared in a generation who, +working alone, could make real progress in discovery, and even these +could do little in leavening the minds of their fellowmen with the new +ideas. +</P> + +<P> +Up to the middle of the seventeenth century an agent which all +experience since that time shows to be necessary to the most productive +intellectual activity was wanting. This was the attrition of like +minds, making suggestions to one another, criticising, comparing, and +reasoning. This element was introduced by the organization of the Royal +Society of London and the Academy of Sciences of Paris. +</P> + +<P> +The members of these two bodies seem like ingenious youth suddenly +thrown into a new world of interesting objects, the purposes and +relations of which they had to discover. The novelty of the situation +is strikingly shown in the questions which occupied the minds of the +incipient investigators. One natural result of British maritime +enterprise was that the aspirations of the Fellows of the Royal Society +were not confined to any continent or hemisphere. Inquiries were sent +all the way to Batavia to know "whether there be a hill in Sumatra +which burneth continually, and a fountain which runneth pure balsam." +The astronomical precision with which it seemed possible that +physiological operations might go on was evinced by the inquiry whether +the Indians can so prepare that stupefying herb Datura that "they make +it lie several days, months, years, according as they will, in a man's +body without doing him any harm, and at the end kill him without +missing an hour's time." Of this continent one of the inquiries was +whether there be a tree in Mexico that yields water, wine, vinegar, +milk, honey, wax, thread and needles. +</P> + +<P> +Among the problems before the Paris Academy of Sciences those of +physiology and biology took a prominent place. The distillation of +compounds had long been practised, and the fact that the more +spirituous elements of certain substances were thus separated naturally +led to the question whether the essential essences of life might not be +discoverable in the same way. In order that all might participate in +the experiments, they were conducted in open session of the academy, +thus guarding against the danger of any one member obtaining for his +exclusive personal use a possible elixir of life. A wide range of the +animal and vegetable kingdom, including cats, dogs and birds of various +species, were thus analyzed. The practice of dissection was introduced +on a large scale. That of the cadaver of an elephant occupied several +sessions, and was of such interest that the monarch himself was a +spectator. +</P> + +<P> +To the same epoch with the formation and first work of these two bodies +belongs the invention of a mathematical method which in its importance +to the advance of exact science may be classed with the invention of +the alphabet in its relation to the progress of society at large. The +use of algebraic symbols to represent quantities had its origin before +the commencement of the new era, and gradually grew into a highly +developed form during the first two centuries of that era. But this +method could represent quantities only as fixed. It is true that the +elasticity inherent in the use of such symbols permitted of their being +applied to any and every quantity; yet, in any one application, the +quantity was considered as fixed and definite. But most of the +magnitudes of nature are in a state of continual variation; indeed, +since all motion is variation, the latter is a universal characteristic +of all phenomena. No serious advance could be made in the application +of algebraic language to the expression of physical phenomena until it +could be so extended as to express variation in quantities, as well as +the quantities themselves. This extension, worked out independently by +Newton and Leibnitz, may be classed as the most fruitful of conceptions +in exact science. With it the way was opened for the unimpeded and +continually accelerated progress of the last two centuries. +</P> + +<P> +The feature of this period which has the closest relation to the +purpose of our coming together is the seemingly unending subdivision of +knowledge into specialties, many of which are becoming so minute and so +isolated that they seem to have no interest for any but their few +pursuers. Happily science itself has afforded a corrective for its own +tendency in this direction. The careful thinker will see that in these +seemingly diverging branches common elements and common principles are +coming more and more to light. There is an increasing recognition of +methods of research, and of deduction, which are common to large +branches, or to the whole of science. We are more and more recognizing +the principle that progress in knowledge implies its reduction to more +exact forms, and the expression of its ideas in language more or less +mathematical. The problem before the organizers of this Congress was, +therefore, to bring the sciences together, and seek for the unity which +we believe underlies their infinite diversity. +</P> + +<P> +The assembling of such a body as now fills this hall was scarcely +possible in any preceding generation, and is made possible now only +through the agency of science itself. It differs from all preceding +international meetings by the universality of its scope, which aims to +include the whole of knowledge. It is also unique in that none but +leaders have been sought out as members. It is unique in that so many +lands have delegated their choicest intellects to carry on its work. +They come from the country to which our republic is indebted for a +third of its territory, including the ground on which we stand; from +the land which has taught us that the most scholarly devotion to the +languages and learning of the cloistered past is compatible with +leadership in the practical application of modern science to the arts +of life; from the island whose language and literature have found a new +field and a vigorous growth in this region; from the last seat of the +holy Roman Empire; from the country which, remembering a monarch who +made an astronomical observation at the Greenwich Observatory, has +enthroned science in one of the highest places in its government; from +the peninsula so learned that we have invited one of its scholars to +come and tells us of our own language; from the land which gave birth +to Leonardo, Galileo, Torricelli, Columbus, Volta—what an array of +immortal names!—from the little republic of glorious history which, +breeding men rugged as its eternal snow-peaks, has yet been the seat of +scientific investigation since the day of the Bernoullis; from the land +whose heroic dwellers did not hesitate to use the ocean itself to +protect it against invaders, and which now makes us marvel at the +amount of erudition compressed within its little area; from the nation +across the Pacific, which, by half a century of unequalled progress in +the arts of life, has made an important contribution to evolutionary +science through demonstrating the falsity of the theory that the most +ancient races are doomed to be left in the rear of the advancing +age—in a word, from every great centre of intellectual activity on the +globe I see before me eminent representatives of that world—advance in +knowledge which we have met to celebrate. May we not confidently hope +that the discussions of such an assemblage will prove pregnant of a +future for science which shall outshine even its brilliant past. +</P> + +<P> +Gentlemen and scholars all! You do not visit our shores to find great +collections in which centuries of humanity have given expression on +canvas and in marble to their hopes, fears, and aspirations. Nor do you +expect institutions and buildings hoary with age. But as you feel the +vigor latent in the fresh air of these expansive prairies, which has +collected the products of human genius by which we are here surrounded, +and, I may add, brought us together; as you study the institutions +which we have founded for the benefit, not only of our own people, but +of humanity at large; as you meet the men who, in the short space of +one century, have transformed this valley from a savage wilderness into +what it is today—then may you find compensation for the want of a past +like yours by seeing with prophetic eye a future world-power of which +this region shall be the seat. If such is to be the outcome of the +institutions Which we are now building up, then may your present visit +be a blessing both to your posterity and ours by making that power one +for good to all man-kind. Your deliberations will help to demonstrate +to us and to the world at large that the reign of law must supplant +that of brute force in the relations of the nations, just as it has +supplanted it in the relations of individuals. You will help to show +that the war which science is now waging against the sources of +diseases, pain, and misery offers an even nobler field for the exercise +of heroic qualities than can that of battle. We hope that when, after +your all too-fleeting sojourn in our midst, you return to your own +shores, you will long feel the influence of the new air you have +breathed in an infusion of increased vigor in pursuing your varied +labors. And if a new impetus is thus given to the great intellectual +movement of the past century, resulting not only in promoting the +unification of knowledge, but in widening its field through new +combinations of effort on the part of its votaries, the projectors, +organizers and supporters of this Congress of Arts and Science will be +justified of their labors. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap17"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +XVII +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE EVOLUTION OF ASTRONOMICAL KNOWLEDGE +</H3> + +<P CLASS="footnote"> +[Footnote: Address at the dedication of the Flower Observatory, +University of Pennsylvania, May 12, 1897—Science, May 21, 1897] +</P> + +<BR> + +<P> +Assembled, as we are, to dedicate a new institution to the promotion of +our knowledge of the heavens, it appeared to me that an appropriate and +interesting subject might be the present and future problems of +astronomy. Yet it seemed, on further reflection, that, apart from the +difficulty of making an adequate statement of these problems on such an +occasion as the present, such a wording of the theme would not fully +express the idea which I wish to convey. The so-called problems of +astronomy are not separate and independent, but are rather the parts of +one great problem, that of increasing our knowledge of the universe in +its widest extent. Nor is it easy to contemplate the edifice of +astronomical science as it now stands, without thinking of the past as +well as of the present and future. The fact is that our knowledge of +the universe has been in the nature of a slow and gradual evolution, +commencing at a very early period in human history, and destined to go +forward without stop, as we hope, so long as civilization shall endure. +The astronomer of every age has built on the foundations laid by his +predecessors, and his work has always formed, and must ever form, the +base on which his successors shall build. The astronomer of to-day may +look back upon Hipparchus and Ptolemy as the earliest ancestors of whom +he has positive knowledge. He can trace his scientific descent from +generation to generation, through the periods of Arabian and medieval +science, through Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, Laplace, and Herschel, +down to the present time. The evolution of astronomical knowledge, +generally slow and gradual, offering little to excite the attention of +the public, has yet been marked by two cataclysms. One of these is seen +in the grand conception of Copernicus that this earth on which we dwell +is not a globe fixed in the centre of the universe, but is simply one +of a number of bodies, turning on their own axes and at the same time +moving around the sun as a centre. It has always seemed to me that the +real significance of the heliocentric system lies in the greatness of +this conception rather than in the fact of the discovery itself. There +is no figure in astronomical history which may more appropriately claim +the admiration of mankind through all time than that of Copernicus. +Scarcely any great work was ever so exclusively the work of one man as +was the heliocentric system the work of the retiring sage of +Frauenburg. No more striking contrast between the views of scientific +research entertained in his time and in ours can be found than that +afforded by the fact that, instead of claiming credit for his great +work, he deemed it rather necessary to apologize for it and, so far as +possible, to attribute his ideas to the ancients. +</P> + +<P> +A century and a half after Copernicus followed the second great step, +that taken by Newton. This was nothing less than showing that the +seemingly complicated and inexplicable motions of the heavenly bodies +were only special cases of the same kind of motion, governed by the +same forces, that we see around us whenever a stone is thrown by the +hand or an apple falls to the ground. The actual motions of the heavens +and the laws which govern them being known, man had the key with which +he might commence to unlock the mysteries of the universe. +</P> + +<P> +When Huyghens, in 1656, published his Systema Saturnium, where he first +set forth the mystery of the rings of Saturn, which, for nearly half a +century, had perplexed telescopic observers, he prefaced it with a +remark that many, even among the learned, might condemn his course in +devoting so much time and attention to matters far outside the earth, +when he might better be studying subjects of more concern to humanity. +Notwithstanding that the inventor of the pendulum clock was, perhaps, +the last astronomer against whom a neglect of things terrestrial could +be charged, he thought it necessary to enter into an elaborate defence +of his course in studying the heavens. Now, however, the more distant +objects are in space—I might almost add the more distant events are in +time—the more they excite the attention of the astronomer, if only he +can hope to acquire positive knowledge about them. Not, however, +because he is more interested in things distant than in things near, +but because thus he may more completely embrace in the scope of his +work the beginning and the end, the boundaries of all things, and thus, +indirectly, more fully comprehend all that they include. From his +stand-point, +</P> + +<P CLASS="poem"> + "All are but parts of one stupendous whole,<BR> + Whose body Nature is and God the soul."<BR> +</P> + +<P> +Others study Nature and her plans as we see them developed on the +surface of this little planet which we inhabit, the astronomer would +fain learn the plan on which the whole universe is constructed. The +magnificent conception of Copernicus is, for him, only an introduction +to the yet more magnificent conception of infinite space containing a +collection of bodies which we call the visible universe. How far does +this universe extend? What are the distances and arrangements of the +stars? Does the universe constitute a system? If so, can we comprehend +the plan on which this system is formed, of its beginning and of its +end? Has it bounds outside of which nothing exists but the black and +starless depths of infinity itself? Or are the stars we see simply such +members of an infinite collection as happen to be the nearest our +system? A few such questions as these we are perhaps beginning to +answer; but hundreds, thousands, perhaps even millions, of years may +elapse without our reaching a complete solution. Yet the astronomer +does not view them as Kantian antinomies, in the nature of things +insoluble, but as questions to which he may hopefully look for at least +a partial answer. +</P> + +<P> +The problem of the distances of the stars is of peculiar interest in +connection with the Copernican system. The greatest objection to this +system, which must have been more clearly seen by astronomers +themselves than by any others, was found in the absence of any apparent +parallax of the stars. If the earth performed such an immeasurable +circle around the sun as Copernicus maintained, then, as it passed from +side to side of its orbit, the stars outside the solar system must +appear to have a corresponding motion in the other direction, and thus +to swing back and forth as the earth moved in one and the other +direction. The fact that not the slightest swing of that sort could be +seen was, from the time of Ptolemy, the basis on which the doctrine of +the earth's immobility rested. The difficulty was not grappled with by +Copernicus or his immediate successors. The idea that Nature would not +squander space by allowing immeasurable stretches of it to go unused +seems to have been one from which medieval thinkers could not entirely +break away. The consideration that there could be no need of any such +economy, because the supply was infinite, might have been theoretically +acknowledged, but was not practically felt. The fact is that +magnificent as was the conception of Copernicus, it was dwarfed by the +conception of stretches from star to star so vast that the whole orbit +of the earth was only a point in comparison. +</P> + +<P> +An indication of the extent to which the difficulty thus arising was +felt is seen in the title of a book published by Horrebow, the Danish +astronomer, some two centuries ago. This industrious observer, one of +the first who used an instrument resembling our meridian transit of the +present day, determined to see if he could find the parallax of the +stars by observing the intervals at which a pair of stars in opposite +quarters of the heavens crossed his meridian at opposite seasons of the +year. When, as he thought, he had won success, he published his +observations and conclusions under the title of Copernicus Triumphans. +But alas! the keen criticism of his successors showed that what he +supposed to be a swing of the stars from season to season arose from a +minute variation in the rate of his clock, due to the different +temperatures to which it was exposed during the day and the night. The +measurement of the distance even of the nearest stars evaded +astronomical research until Bessel and Struve arose in the early part +of the present century. +</P> + +<P> +On some aspects of the problem of the extent of the universe light is +being thrown even now. Evidence is gradually accumulating which points +to the probability that the successive orders of smaller and smaller +stars, which our continually increasing telescopic power brings into +view, are not situated at greater and greater distances, but that we +actually see the boundary of our universe. This indication lends a +peculiar interest to various questions growing out of the motions of +the stars. Quite possibly the problem of these motions will be the +great one of the future astronomer. Even now it suggests thoughts and +questions of the most far-reaching character. +</P> + +<P> +I have seldom felt a more delicious sense of repose than when crossing +the ocean during the summer months I sought a place where I could lie +alone on the deck, look up at the constellations, with Lyra near the +zenith, and, while listening to the clank of the engine, try to +calculate the hundreds of millions of years which would be required by +our ship to reach the star a Lyrae, if she could continue her course in +that direction without ever stopping. It is a striking example of how +easily we may fail to realize our knowledge when I say that I have +thought many a time how deliciously one might pass those hundred +millions of years in a journey to the star a Lyrae, without its +occurring to me that we are actually making that very journey at a +speed compared with which the motion of a steamship is slow indeed. +Through every year, every hour, every minute, of human history from the +first appearance of man on the earth, from the era of the builders of +the Pyramids, through the times of Caesar and Hannibal, through the +period of every event that history records, not merely our earth, but +the sun and the whole solar system with it, have been speeding their +way towards the star of which I speak on a journey of which we know +neither the beginning nor the end. We are at this moment thousands of +miles nearer to a Lyrae than we were a few minutes ago when I began +this discourse, and through every future moment, for untold thousands +of years to come, the earth and all there is on it will be nearer to a +Lyrae, or nearer to the place where that star now is, by hundreds of +miles for every minute of time come and gone. When shall we get there? +Probably in less than a million years, perhaps in half a million. We +cannot tell exactly, but get there we must if the laws of nature and +the laws of motion continue as they are. To attain to the stars was the +seemingly vain wish of an ancient philosopher, but the whole human race +is, in a certain sense, realizing this wish as rapidly as a speed of +ten miles a second can bring it about. +</P> + +<P> +I have called attention to this motion because it may, in the not +distant future, afford the means of approximating to a solution of the +problem already mentioned—that of the extent of the universe. +Notwithstanding the success of astronomers during the present century +in measuring the parallax of a number of stars, the most recent +investigations show that there are very few, perhaps hardly more than a +score, of stars of which the parallax, and therefore the distance, has +been determined with any approach to certainty. Many parallaxes +determined about the middle of the nineteenth century have had to +disappear before the powerful tests applied by measures with the +heliometer; others have been greatly reduced and the distances of the +stars increased in proportion. So far as measurement goes, we can only +say of the distances of all the stars, except the few whose parallaxes +have been determined, that they are immeasurable. The radius of the +earth's orbit, a line more than ninety millions of miles in length, not +only vanishes from sight before we reach the distance of the great mass +of stars, but becomes such a mere point that when magnified by the +powerful instruments of modern times the most delicate appliances fail +to make it measurable. Here the solar motion comes to our help. This +motion, by which, as I have said, we are carried unceasingly through +space, is made evident by a motion of most of the stars in the opposite +direction, just as passing through a country on a railway we see the +houses on the right and on the left being left behind us. It is clear +enough that the apparent motion will be more rapid the nearer the +object. We may therefore form some idea of the distance of the stars +when we know the amount of the motion. It is found that in the great +mass of stars of the sixth magnitude, the smallest visible to the naked +eye, the motion is about three seconds per century. As a measure thus +stated does not convey an accurate conception of magnitude to one not +practised in the subject, I would say that in the heavens, to the +ordinary eye, a pair of stars will appear single unless they are +separated by a distance of 150 or 200 seconds. Let us, then, imagine +ourselves looking at a star of the sixth magnitude, which is at rest +while we are carried past it with the motion of six to eight miles per +second which I have described. Mark its position in the heavens as we +see it to-day; then let its position again be marked five thousand +years hence. A good eye will just be able to perceive that there are +two stars marked instead of one. The two would be so close together +that no distinct space between them could be perceived by unaided +vision. It is due to the magnifying power of the telescope, enlarging +such small apparent distances, that the motion has been determined in +so small a period as the one hundred and fifty years during which +accurate observations of the stars have been made. +</P> + +<P> +The motion just described has been fairly well determined for what, +astronomically speaking, are the brighter stars; that is to say, those +visible to the naked eye. But how is it with the millions of faint +telescopic stars, especially those which form the cloud masses of the +Milky Way? The distance of these stars is undoubtedly greater, and the +apparent motion is therefore smaller. Accurate observations upon such +stars have been commenced only recently, so that we have not yet had +time to determine the amount of the motion. But the indication seems to +be that it will prove quite a measurable quantity and that before the +twentieth century has elapsed, it will be determined for very much +smaller stars than those which have heretofore been studied. A +photographic chart of the whole heavens is now being constructed by an +association of observatories in some of the leading countries of the +world. I cannot say all the leading countries, because then we should +have to exclude our own, which, unhappily, has taken no part in this +work. At the end of the twentieth century we may expect that the work +will be repeated. Then, by comparing the charts, we shall see the +effect of the solar motion and perhaps get new light upon the problem +in question. +</P> + +<P> +Closely connected with the problem of the extent of the universe is +another which appears, for us, to be insoluble because it brings us +face to face with infinity itself. We are familiar enough with +eternity, or, let us say, the millions or hundreds of millions of years +which geologists tell us must have passed while the crust of the earth +was assuming its present form, our mountains being built, our rocks +consolidated, and successive orders of animals coming and going. +Hundreds of millions of years is indeed a long time, and yet, when we +contemplate the changes supposed to have taken place during that time, +we do not look out on eternity itself, which is veiled from our sight, +as it were, by the unending succession of changes that mark the +progress of time. But in the motions of the stars we are brought face +to face with eternity and infinity, covered by no veil whatever. It +would be bold to speak dogmatically on a subject where the springs of +being are so far hidden from mortal eyes as in the depths of the +universe. But, without declaring its positive certainty, it must be +said that the conclusion seems unavoidable that a number of stars are +moving with a speed such that the attraction of all the bodies of the +universe could never stop them. One such case is that of Arcturus, the +bright reddish star familiar to mankind since the days of Job, and +visible near the zenith on the clear evenings of May and June. Yet +another case is that of a star known in astronomical nomenclature as +1830 Groombridge, which exceeds all others in its angular proper motion +as seen from the earth. We should naturally suppose that it seems to +move so fast because it is near us. But the best measurements of its +parallax seem to show that it can scarcely be less than two million +times the distance of the earth from the sun, while it may be much +greater. Accepting this result, its velocity cannot be much less than +two hundred miles per second, and may be much more. With this speed it +would make the circuit of our globe in two minutes, and had it gone +round and round in our latitudes we should have seen it fly past us a +number of times since I commenced this discourse. It would make the +journey from the earth to the sun in five days. If it is now near the +centre of our universe it would probably reach its confines in a +million of years. So far as our knowledge goes, there is no force in +nature which would ever have set it in motion and no force which can +ever stop it. What, then, was the history of this star, and, if there +are planets circulating around, what the experience of beings who may +have lived on those planets during the ages which geologists and +naturalists assure us our earth has existed? Was there a period when +they saw at night only a black and starless heaven? Was there a time +when in that heaven a small faint patch of light began gradually to +appear? Did that patch of light grow larger and larger as million after +million of years elapsed? Did it at last fill the heavens and break up +into constellations as we now see them? As millions more of years +elapse will the constellations gather together in the opposite quarter +and gradually diminish to a patch of light as the star pursues its +irresistible course of two hundred miles per second through the +wilderness of space, leaving our universe farther and farther behind +it, until it is lost in the distance? If the conceptions of modern +science are to be considered as good for all time—a point on which I +confess to a large measure of scepticism—then these questions must be +answered in the affirmative. +</P> + +<P> +The problems of which I have so far spoken are those of what may be +called the older astronomy. If I apply this title it is because that +branch of the science to which the spectroscope has given birth is +often called the new astronomy. It is commonly to be expected that a +new and vigorous form of scientific research will supersede that which +is hoary with antiquity. But I am not willing to admit that such is the +case with the old astronomy, if old we may call it. It is more pregnant +with future discoveries today than it ever has been, and it is more +disposed to welcome the spectroscope as a useful handmaid, which may +help it on to new fields, than it is to give way to it. How useful it +may thus become has been recently shown by a Dutch astronomer, who +finds that the stars having one type of spectrum belong mostly to the +Milky Way, and are farther from us than the others. +</P> + +<P> +In the field of the newer astronomy perhaps the most interesting work +is that associated with comets. It must be confessed, however, that the +spectroscope has rather increased than diminished the mystery which, in +some respects, surrounds the constitution of these bodies. The older +astronomy has satisfactorily accounted for their appearance, and we +might also say for their origin and their end, so far as questions of +origin can come into the domain of science. It is now known that comets +are not wanderers through the celestial spaces from star to star, but +must always have belonged to our system. But their orbits are so very +elongated that thousands, or even hundreds of thousands, of years are +required for a revolution. Sometimes, however, a comet passing near to +Jupiter is so fascinated by that planet that, in its vain attempts to +follow it, it loses so much of its primitive velocity as to circulate +around the sun in a period of a few years, and thus to become, +apparently, a new member of our system. If the orbit of such a comet, +or in fact of any comet, chances to intersect that of the earth, the +latter in passing the point of intersection encounters minute particles +which cause a meteoric shower. +</P> + +<P> +But all this does not tell us much about the nature and make-up of a +comet. Does it consist of nothing but isolated particles, or is there a +solid nucleus, the attraction of which tends to keep the mass together? +No one yet knows. The spectroscope, if we interpret its indications in +the usual way, tells us that a comet is simply a mass of hydrocarbon +vapor, shining by its own light. But there must be something wrong in +this interpretation. That the light is reflected sunlight seems to +follow necessarily from the increased brilliancy of the comet as it +approaches the sun and its disappearance as it passes away. +</P> + +<P> +Great attention has recently been bestowed upon the physical +constitution of the planets and the changes which the surfaces of those +bodies may undergo. In this department of research we must feel +gratified by the energy of our countrymen who have entered upon it. +Should I seek to even mention all the results thus made known I might +be stepping on dangerous ground, as many questions are still unsettled. +While every astronomer has entertained the highest admiration for the +energy and enthusiasm shown by Mr. Percival Lowell in founding an +observatory in regions where the planets can be studied under the most +favorable conditions, they cannot lose sight of the fact that the +ablest and most experienced observers are liable to error when they +attempt to delineate the features of a body 50,000,000 or 100,000,000 +miles away through such a disturbing medium as our atmosphere. Even on +such a subject as the canals of Mars doubts may still be felt. That +certain markings to which Schiaparelli gave the name of canals exist, +few will question. But it may be questioned whether these markings are +the fine, sharp, uniform lines found on Schiaparelli's map and +delineated in Lowell's beautiful book. It is certainly curious that +Barnard at Mount Hamilton, with the most powerful instrument and under +the most favorable circumstances, does not see these markings as canals. +</P> + +<P> +I can only mention among the problems of the spectroscope the elegant +and remarkable solution of the mystery surrounding the rings of Saturn, +which has been effected by Keeler at Allegheny. That these rings could +not be solid has long been a conclusion of the laws of mechanics, but +Keeler was the first to show that they really consist of separate +particles, because the inner portions revolve more rapidly than the +outer. +</P> + +<P> +The question of the atmosphere of Mars has also received an important +advance by the work of Campbell at Mount Hamilton. Although it is not +proved that Mars has no atmosphere, for the existence of some +atmosphere can scarcely be doubted, yet the Mount Hamilton astronomer +seems to have shown, with great conclusiveness, that it is so rare as +not to produce any sensible absorption of the solar rays. +</P> + +<P> +I have left an important subject for the close. It belongs entirely to +the older astronomy, and it is one with which I am glad to say this +observatory is expected to especially concern itself. I refer to the +question of the variation of latitudes, that singular phenomenon +scarcely suspected ten years ago, but brought out by observations in +Germany during the past eight years, and reduced to law with such +brilliant success by our own Chandler. The north pole is not a fixed +point on the earth's surface, but moves around in rather an irregular +way. True, the motion is small; a circle of sixty feet in diameter will +include the pole in its widest range. This is a very small matter so +far as the interests of daily life are concerned; but it is very +important to the astronomer. It is not simply a motion of the pole of +the earth, but a wobbling of the solid earth itself. No one knows what +conclusions of importance to our race may yet follow from a study of +the stupendous forces necessary to produce even this slight motion. +</P> + +<P> +The director of this new observatory has already distinguished himself +in the delicate and difficult work of investigating this motion, and I +am glad to know that he is continuing the work here with one of the +finest instruments ever used for the purpose, a splendid product of +American mechanical genius. I can assure you that astronomers the world +over will look with the greatest interest for Professor Doolittle's +success in the arduous task he has undertaken. +</P> + +<P> +There is one question connected with these studies of the universe on +which I have not touched, and which is, nevertheless, of transcendent +interest. What sort of life, spiritual and intellectual, exists in +distant worlds? We cannot for a moment suppose that our little planet +is the only one throughout the whole universe on which may be found the +fruits of civilization, family affection, friendship, the desire to +penetrate the mysteries of creation. And yet this question is not +to-day a problem of astronomy, nor can we see any prospect that it ever +will be, for the simple reason that science affords us no hope of an +answer to any question that we may send through the fathomless abyss. +When the spectroscope was in its infancy it was suggested that possibly +some difference might be found in the rays reflected from living +matter, especially from vegetation, that might enable us to distinguish +them from rays reflected by matter not endowed with life. But this hope +has not been realized, nor does it seem possible to realize it. The +astronomer cannot afford to waste his energies on hopeless speculation +about matters of which he cannot learn anything, and he therefore +leaves this question of the plurality of worlds to others who are as +competent to discuss it as he is. All he can tell the world is: +</P> + +<P CLASS="poem"> + He who through vast immensity can pierce,<BR> + See worlds on worlds compose one universe;<BR> + Observe how system into system runs,<BR> + What other planets circle other suns,<BR> + What varied being peoples every star,<BR> + May tell why Heaven has made us as we are.<BR> +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap18"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +XVIII +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +ASPECTS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY +</H3> + +<P CLASS="footnote"> +[Footnote: Address delivered at the University of Chicago, October 22, +1897, in connection with the dedication of the Yerkes Observatory. +Printed in the Astro physical Journal. November, 1897.] +</P> + +<BR> + +<P> +The University of Chicago yesterday accepted one of the most munificent +gifts ever made for the promotion of any single science, and with +appropriate ceremonies dedicated it to the increase of our knowledge of +the heavenly bodies. +</P> + +<P> +The president of your university has done me the honor of inviting me +to supplement what was said on that occasion by some remarks of a more +general nature suggested by the celebration. One is naturally disposed +to say first what is uppermost in his mind. At the present moment this +will naturally be the general impression made by what has been seen and +heard. The ceremonies were attended, not only by a remarkable +delegation of citizens, but by a number of visiting astronomers which +seems large when we consider that the profession itself is not at all +numerous in any country. As one of these, your guests, I am sure that I +give expression only to their unanimous sentiment in saying that we +have been extremely gratified in many ways by all that we have seen and +heard. The mere fact of so munificent a gift to science cannot but +excite universal admiration. We knew well enough that it was nothing +more than might have been expected from the public spirit of this great +West; but the first view of a towering snowpeak is none the less +impressive because you have learned in your geography how many feet +high it is, and great acts are none the less admirable because they +correspond to what you have heard and read, and might therefore be led +to expect. +</P> + +<P> +The next gratifying feature is the great public interest excited by the +occasion. That the opening of a purely scientific institution should +have led so large an assemblage of citizens to devote an entire day, +including a long journey by rail, to the celebration of yesterday is +something most suggestive from its unfamiliarity. A great many +scientific establishments have been inaugurated during the last +half-century, but if on any such occasion so large a body of citizens +has gone so great a distance to take part in the inauguration, the fact +has at the moment escaped my mind. +</P> + +<P> +That the interest thus shown is not confined to the hundreds of +attendants, but must be shared by your great public, is shown by the +unfailing barometer of journalism. Here we have a field in which the +non-survival of the unfit is the rule in its most ruthless form. The +journals that we see and read are merely the fortunate few of a +countless number, dead and forgotten, that did not know what the public +wanted to read about. The eagerness shown by the representatives of +your press in recording everything your guests would say was +accomplished by an enterprise in making known everything that occurred, +and, in case of an emergency requiring a heroic measure, what did NOT +occur, showing that smart journalists of the East must have learned +their trade, or at least breathed their inspiration, in these regions. +I think it was some twenty years since I told a European friend that +the eighth wonder of the world was a Chicago daily newspaper. Since +that time the course of journalistic enterprise has been in the reverse +direction to that of the course of empire, eastward instead of westward. +</P> + +<P> +It has been sometimes said—wrongfully, I think—that scientific men +form a mutual admiration society. One feature of the occasion made me +feel that we, your guests, ought then and there to have organized such +a society and forthwith proceeded to business. This feature consisted +in the conferences on almost every branch of astronomy by which the +celebration of yesterday was preceded. The fact that beyond the +acceptance of a graceful compliment I contributed nothing to these +conferences relieves me from the charge of bias or self-assertion in +saying that they gave me a new and most inspiring view of the energy +now being expended in research by the younger generation of +astronomers. All the experience of the past leads us to believe that +this energy will reap the reward which nature always bestows upon those +who seek her acquaintance from unselfish motives. In one way it might +appear that little was to be learned from a meeting like that of the +present week. Each astronomer may know by publications pertaining to +the science what all the others are doing. But knowledge obtained in +this way has a sort of abstractness about it a little like our +knowledge of the progress of civilization in Japan, or of the great +extent of the Australian continent. It was, therefore, a most happy +thought on the part of your authorities to bring together the largest +possible number of visiting astronomers from Europe, as well as +America, in order that each might see, through the attrition of +personal contact, what progress the others were making in their +researches. To the visitors at least I am sure that the result of this +meeting has been extremely gratifying. They earnestly hope, one and +all, that the callers of the conference will not themselves be more +disappointed in its results; that, however little they may have +actually to learn of methods and results, they will feel stimulated to +well-directed efforts and find themselves inspired by thoughts which, +however familiar, will now be more easily worked out. +</P> + +<P> +We may pass from the aspects of the case as seen by the strictly +professional class to those general aspects fitted to excite the +attention of the great public. From the point of view of the latter it +may well appear that the most striking feature of the celebration is +the great amount of effort which is shown to be devoted to the +cultivation of a field quite outside the ordinary range of human +interests. The workers whom we see around us are only a detachment from +an army of investigators who, in many parts of the world, are seeking +to explore the mysteries of creation. Why so great an expenditure of +energy? Certainly not to gain wealth, for astronomy is perhaps the one +field of scientific work which, in our expressive modern phrase, "has +no money in it." It is true that the great practical use of +astronomical science to the country and the world in affording us the +means of determining positions on land and at sea is frequently pointed +out. It is said that an Astronomer Royal of England once calculated +that every meridian observation of the moon made at Greenwich was worth +a pound sterling, on account of the help it would afford to the +navigation of the ocean. An accurate map of the United States cannot be +constructed without astronomical observations at numerous points +scattered over the whole country, aided by data which great +observatories have been accumulating for more than a century, and must +continue to accumulate in the future. +</P> + +<P> +But neither the measurement of the earth, the making of maps, nor the +aid of the navigator is the main object which the astronomers of to-day +have in view. If they do not quite share the sentiment of that eminent +mathematician, who is said to have thanked God that his science was one +which could not be prostituted to any useful purpose, they still know +well that to keep utilitarian objects in view would only prove & +handicap on their efforts. Consequently they never ask in what way +their science is going to benefit mankind. As the great captain of +industry is moved by the love of wealth, and the political leader by +the love of power over men, so the astronomer is moved by the love of +knowledge for its own sake, and not for the sake of its useful +applications. Yet he is proud to know that his science has been worth +more to mankind than it has cost. He does not value its results merely +as a means of crossing the ocean or mapping the country, for he feels +that man does not live by bread alone. If it is not more than bread to +know the place we occupy in the universe, it is certainly something +which we should place not far behind the means of subsistence. That we +now look upon a comet as something very interesting, of which the sight +affords us a pleasure unmixed with fear of war, pestilence, or other +calamity, and of which we therefore wish the return, is a gain we +cannot measure by money. In all ages astronomy has been an index to the +civilization of the people who cultivated it. It has been crude or +exact, enlightened or mingled with superstition, according to the +current mode of thought. When once men understand the relation of the +planet on which they dwell to the universe at large, superstition is +doomed to speedy extinction. This alone is an object worth more than +money. +</P> + +<P> +Astronomy may fairly claim to be that science which transcends all +others in its demands upon the practical application of our reasoning +powers. Look at the stars that stud the heavens on a clear evening. +What more hopeless problem to one confined to earth than that of +determining their varying distances, their motions, and their physical +constitution? Everything on earth we can handle and investigate. But +how investigate that which is ever beyond our reach, on which we can +never make an experiment? On certain occasions we see the moon pass in +front of the sun and hide it from our eyes. To an observer a few miles +away the sun was not entirely hidden, for the shadow of the moon in a +total eclipse is rarely one hundred miles wide. On another continent no +eclipse at all may have been visible. Who shall take a map of the world +and mark upon it the line on which the moon's shadow will travel during +some eclipse a hundred years hence? Who shall map out the orbits of the +heavenly bodies as they are going to appear in a hundred thousand +years? How shall we ever know of what chemical elements the sun and the +stars are made? All this has been done, but not by the intellect of any +one man. The road to the stars has been opened only by the efforts of +many generations of mathematicians and observers, each of whom began +where his predecessor had left off. +</P> + +<P> +We have reached a stage where we know much of the heavenly bodies. We +have mapped out our solar system with great precision. But how with +that great universe of millions of stars in which our solar system is +only a speck of star-dust, a speck which a traveller through the wilds +of space might pass a hundred times without notice? We have learned +much about this universe, though our knowledge of it is still dim. We +see it as a traveller on a mountain-top sees a distant city in a cloud +of mist, by a few specks of glimmering light from steeples or roofs. We +want to know more about it, its origin and its destiny; its limits in +time and space, if it has any; what function it serves in the universal +economy. The journey is long, yet we want, in knowledge at least, to +make it. Hence we build observatories and train observers and +investigators. Slow, indeed, is progress in the solution of the +greatest of problems, when measured by what we want to know. Some +questions may require centuries, others thousands of years for their +answer. And yet never was progress more rapid than during our time. In +some directions our astronomers of to-day are out of sight of those of +fifty years ago; we are even gaining heights which twenty years ago +looked hopeless. Never before had the astronomer so much work—good, +hard, yet hopeful work—before him as to-day. He who is leaving the +stage feels that he has only begun and must leave his successors with +more to do than his predecessors left him. +</P> + +<P> +To us an interesting feature of this progress is the part taken in it +by our own country. The science of our day, it is true, is of no +country. Yet we very appropriately speak of American science from the +fact that our traditional reputation has not been that of a people +deeply interested in the higher branches of intellectual work. Men yet +living can remember when in the eyes of the universal church of +learning, all cisatlantic countries, our own included, were partes +infidelium. +</P> + +<P> +Yet American astronomy is not entirely of our generation. In the middle +of the last century Professor Winthrop, of Harvard, was an industrious +observer of eclipses and kindred phenomena, whose work was recorded in +the transactions of learned societies. But the greatest astronomical +activity during our colonial period was that called out by the transit +of Venus in 1769, which was visible in this country. A committee of the +American Philosophical Society, at Philadelphia, organized an excellent +system of observations, which we now know to have been fully as +successful, perhaps more so, than the majority of those made on other +continents, owing mainly to the advantages of air and climate. Among +the observers was the celebrated Rittenhouse, to whom is due the +distinction of having been the first American astronomer whose work has +an important place in the history of the science. In addition to the +observations which he has left us, he was the first inventor or +proposer of the collimating telescope, an instrument which has become +almost a necessity wherever accurate observations are made. The fact +that the subsequent invention by Bessel may have been independent does +not detract from the merits of either. +</P> + +<P> +Shortly after the transit of Venus, which I have mentioned, the war of +the Revolution commenced. The generation which carried on that war and +the following one, which framed our Constitution and laid the bases of +our political institutions, were naturally too much occupied with these +great problems to pay much attention to pure science. While the great +mathematical astronomers of Europe were laying the foundation of +celestial mechanics their writings were a sealed book to every one on +this side of the Atlantic, and so remained until Bowditch appeared, +early in the present century. His translation of the Mecanique Celeste +made an epoch in American science by bringing the great work of Laplace +down to the reach of the best American students of his time. +</P> + +<P> +American astronomers must always honor the names of Rittenhouse and +Bowditch. And yet in one respect their work was disappointing of +results. Neither of them was the founder of a school. Rittenhouse left +no successor to carry on his work. The help which Bowditch afforded his +generation was invaluable to isolated students who, here and there, +dived alone and unaided into the mysteries of the celestial motions. +His work was not mainly in the field of observational astronomy, and +therefore did not materially influence that branch of science. In 1832 +Professor Airy, afterwards Astronomer Royal of England, made a report +to the British Association on the condition of practical astronomy in +various countries. In this report he remarked that he was unable to say +anything about American astronomy because, so far as he knew, no public +observatory existed in the United States. +</P> + +<P> +William C. Bond, afterwards famous as the first director of the Harvard +Observatory, was at that time making observations with a small +telescope, first near Boston and afterwards at Cambridge. But with so +meagre an outfit his establishment could scarcely lay claim to being an +astronomical observatory, and it was not surprising if Airy did not +know anything of his modest efforts. +</P> + +<P> +If at this time Professor Airy had extended his investigations into yet +another field, with a view of determining the prospects for a great +city at the site of Fort Dearborn, on the southern shore of Lake +Michigan, he would have seen as little prospect of civic growth in that +region as of a great development of astronomy in the United States at +large. A plat of the proposed town of Chicago had been prepared two +years before, when the place contained perhaps half a dozen families. +In the same month in which Professor Airy made his report, August, +1832, the people of the place, then numbering twenty-eight voters, +decided to become incorporated, and selected five trustees to carry on +their government. +</P> + +<P> +In 1837 a city charter was obtained from the legislature of Illinois. +The growth of this infant city, then small even for an infant, into the +great commercial metropolis of the West has been the just pride of its +people and the wonder of the world. I mention it now because of a +remarkable coincidence. With this civic growth has quietly gone on +another, little noted by the great world, and yet in its way equally +wonderful and equally gratifying to the pride of those who measure +greatness by intellectual progress. Taking knowledge of the universe as +a measure of progress, I wish to invite attention to the fact that +American astronomy began with your city, and has slowly but surely kept +pace with it, until to-day our country stands second only to Germany in +the number of researches being prosecuted, and second to none in the +number of men who have gained the highest recognition by their labors. +</P> + +<P> +In 1836 Professor Albert Hopkins, of Williams College, and Professor +Elias Loomis, of Western Reserve College, Ohio, both commenced little +observatories. Professor Loomis went to Europe for all his instruments, +but Hopkins was able even then to get some of his in this country. +Shortly afterwards a little wooden structure was erected by Captain +Gilliss on Capitol Hill, at Washington, and supplied with a transit +instrument for observing moon culminations, in conjunction with Captain +Wilkes, who was then setting out on his exploring expedition to the +southern hemisphere. The date of these observatories was practically +the same as that on which a charter for the city of Chicago was +obtained from the legislature. With their establishment the population +of your city had increased to 703. +</P> + +<P> +The next decade, 1840 to 1850, was that in which our practical +astronomy seriously commenced. The little observatory of Captain +Gilliss was replaced by the Naval, then called the National +Observatory, erected at Washington during the years 1843-44, and fitted +out with what were then the most approved instruments. About the same +time the appearance of the great comet of 1843 led the citizens of +Boston to erect the observatory of Harvard College. Thus it is little +more than a half-century since the two principal observatories in the +United States were established. But we must not for a moment suppose +that the mere erection of an observatory can mark an epoch in +scientific history. What must make the decade of which I speak ever +memorable in American astronomy was not merely the erection of +buildings, but the character of the work done by astronomers away from +them as well as in them. +</P> + +<P> +The National Observatory soon became famous by two remarkable steps +which raised our country to an important position among those applying +modern science to practical uses. One of these consisted of the +researches of Sears Cook Walker on the motion of the newly discovered +planet Neptune. He was the first astronomer to determine fairly good +elements of the orbit of that planet, and, what is yet more remarkable, +he was able to trace back the movement of the planet in the heavens for +half a century and to show that it had been observed as a fixed star by +Lalande in 1795, without the observer having any suspicion of the true +character of the object. +</P> + +<P> +The other work to which I refer was the application to astronomy and to +the determination of longitudes of the chronographic method of +registering transits of stars or other phenomena requiring an exact +record of the instant of their occurrence. It is to be regretted that +the history of this application has not been fully written. In some +points there seems to be as much obscurity as with the discovery of +ether as an anaesthetic, which took place about the same time. Happily, +no such contest has been fought over the astronomical as over the +surgical discovery, the fact being that all who were engaged in the +application of the new method were more anxious to perfect it than they +were to get credit for themselves. We know that Saxton, of the Coast +Survey; Mitchell and Locke, of Cincinnati; Bond, at Cambridge, as well +as Walker, and other astronomers at the Naval Observatory, all worked +at the apparatus; that Maury seconded their efforts with untiring zeal; +that it was used to determine the longitude of Baltimore as early as +1844 by Captain Wilkes, and that it was put into practical use in +recording observations at the Naval Observatory as early as 1846. +</P> + +<P> +At the Cambridge Observatory the two Bonds, father and son, speedily +began to show the stuff of which the astronomer is made. A well-devised +system of observations was put in operation. The discovery of the dark +ring of Saturn and of a new satellite to that planet gave additional +fame to the establishment. +</P> + +<P> +Nor was activity confined to the observational side of the science. The +same decade of which I speak was marked by the beginning of Professor +Pierce's mathematical work, especially his determination of the +perturbations of Uranus and Neptune. At this time commenced the work of +Dr. B. A. Gould, who soon became the leading figure in American +astronomy. Immediately on graduating at Harvard in 1845, he determined +to devote all the energies of his life to the prosecution of his +favorite science. He studied in Europe for three years, took the +doctor's degree at Gottingen, came home, founded the Astronomical +Journal, and took an active part in that branch of the work of the +Coast Survey which included the determination of longitudes by +astronomical methods. +</P> + +<P> +An episode which may not belong to the history of astronomy must be +acknowledged to have had a powerful influence in exciting public +interest in that science. Professor O. M. Mitchell, the founder and +first director of the Cincinnati Observatory, made the masses of our +intelligent people acquainted with the leading facts of astronomy by +courses of lectures which, in lucidity and eloquence, have never been +excelled. The immediate object of the lectures was to raise funds for +establishing his observatory and fitting it out with a fine telescope. +The popular interest thus excited in the science had an important +effect in leading the public to support astronomical research. If +public support, based on public interest, is what has made the present +fabric of American astronomy possible, then should we honor the name of +a man whose enthusiasm leavened the masses of his countrymen with +interest in our science. +</P> + +<P> +The Civil War naturally exerted a depressing influence upon our +scientific activity. The cultivator of knowledge is no less patriotic +than his fellow-citizens, and vies with them in devotion to the public +welfare. The active interest which such cultivators took, first in the +prosecution of the war and then in the restoration of the Union, +naturally distracted their attention from their favorite pursuits. But +no sooner was political stability reached than a wave of intellectual +activity set in, which has gone on increasing up to the present time. +If it be true that never before in our history has so much attention +been given to education as now; that never before did so many men +devote themselves to the diffusion of knowledge, it is no less true +that never was astronomical work so energetically pursued among us as +at the present time. +</P> + +<P> +One deplorable result of the Civil War was that Gould's Astronomical +Journal had to be suspended. Shortly after the restoration of peace, +instead of re-establishing the journal, its founder conceived the +project of exploring the southern heavens. The northern hemisphere +being the seat of civilization, that portion of the sky which could not +be seen from our latitudes was comparatively neglected. What had been +done in the southern hemisphere was mostly the occasional work of +individuals and of one or two permanent observatories. The latter were +so few in number and so meagre in their outfit that a splendid field +was open to the inquirer. Gould found the patron which he desired in +the government of the Argentine Republic, on whose territory he erected +what must rank in the future as one of the memorable astronomical +establishments of the world. His work affords a most striking example +of the principle that the astronomer is more important than his +instruments. Not only were the means at the command of the Argentine +Observatory slender in the extreme when compared with those of the +favored institutions of the North, but, from the very nature of the +case, the Argentine Republic could not supply trained astronomers. The +difficulties thus growing out of the administration cannot be +overestimated. And yet the sixteen great volumes in which the work of +the institution has been published will rank in the future among the +classics of astronomy. +</P> + +<P> +Another wonderful focus of activity, in which one hardly knows whether +he ought most to admire the exhaustless energy or the admirable +ingenuity which he finds displayed, is the Harvard Observatory. Its +work has been aided by gifts which have no parallel in the liberality +that prompted them. Yet without energy and skill such gifts would have +been useless. The activity of the establishment includes both +hemispheres. Time would fail to tell how it has not only mapped out +important regions of the heavens from the north to the south pole, but +analyzed the rays of light which come from hundreds of thousands of +stars by recording their spectra in permanence on photographic plates. +</P> + +<P> +The work of the establishment is so organized that a new star cannot +appear in any part of the heavens nor a known star undergo any +noteworthy change without immediate detection by the photographic eye +of one or more little telescopes, all-seeing and never-sleeping +policemen that scan the heavens unceasingly while the astronomer may +sleep, and report in the morning every case of irregularity in the +proceedings of the heavenly bodies. +</P> + +<P> +Yet another example, showing what great results may be obtained with +limited means, is afforded by the Lick Observatory, on Mount Hamilton, +California. During the ten years of its activity its astronomers have +made it known the world over by works and discoveries too varied and +numerous to be even mentioned at the present time. +</P> + +<P> +The astronomical work of which I have thus far spoken has been almost +entirely that done at observatories. I fear that I may in this way have +strengthened an erroneous impression that the seat of important +astronomical work is necessarily connected with an observatory. It must +be admitted that an institution which has a local habitation and a +magnificent building commands public attention so strongly that +valuable work done elsewhere may be overlooked. A very important part +of astronomical work is done away from telescopes and meridian circles +and requires nothing but a good library for its prosecution. One who is +devoted to this side of the subject may often feel that the public does +not appreciate his work at its true relative value from the very fact +that he has no great buildings or fine instruments to show. I may +therefore be allowed to claim as an important factor in the American +astronomy of the last half-century an institution of which few have +heard and which has been overlooked because there was nothing about it +to excite attention. +</P> + +<P> +In 1849 the American Nautical Almanac office was established by a +Congressional appropriation. The title of this publication is somewhat +misleading in suggesting a simple enlargement of the family almanac +which the sailor is to hang up in his cabin for daily use. The fact is +that what started more than a century ago as a nautical almanac has +since grown into an astronomical ephemeris for the publication of +everything pertaining to times, seasons, eclipses, and the motions of +the heavenly bodies. It is the work in which astronomical observations +made in all the great observatories of the world are ultimately +utilized for scientific and public purposes. Each of the leading +nations of western Europe issues such a publication. When the +preparation and publication of the American ephemeris was decided upon +the office was first established in Cambridge, the seat of Harvard +University, because there could most readily be secured the technical +knowledge of mathematics and theoretical astronomy necessary for the +work. +</P> + +<P> +A field of activity was thus opened, of which a number of able young +men who have since earned distinction in various walks of life availed +themselves. The head of the office, Commander Davis, adopted a policy +well fitted to promote their development. He translated the classic +work of Gauss, Theoria Motus Corporum Celestium, and made the office a +sort of informal school, not, indeed, of the modern type, but rather +more like the classic grove of Hellas, where philosophers conducted +their discussions and profited by mutual attrition. When, after a few +years of experience, methods were well established and a routine +adopted, the office was removed to Washington, where it has since +remained. The work of preparing the ephemeris has, with experience, +been reduced to a matter of routine which may be continued +indefinitely, with occasional changes in methods and data, and +improvements to meet the increasing wants of investigators. +</P> + +<P> +The mere preparation of the ephemeris includes but a small part of the +work of mathematical calculation and investigation required in +astronomy. One of the great wants of the science to-day is the +reduction of the observations made during the first half of the present +century, and even during the last half of the preceding one. The labor +which could profitably be devoted to this work would be more than that +required in any one astronomical observatory. It is unfortunate for +this work that a great building is not required for its prosecution +because its needfulness is thus very generally overlooked by that +portion of the public interested in the progress of science. An +organization especially devoted to it is one of the scientific needs of +our time. +</P> + +<P> +In such an epoch-making age as the present it is dangerous to cite any +one step as making a new epoch. Yet it may be that when the historian +of the future reviews the science of our day he will find the most +remarkable feature of the astronomy of the last twenty years of our +century to be the discovery that this steadfast earth of which the +poets have told us is not, after all, quite steadfast; that the north +and south poles move about a very little, describing curves so +complicated that they have not yet been fully marked out. The periodic +variations of latitude thus brought about were first suspected about +1880, and announced with some modest assurance by Kustner, of Berlin, a +few years later. The progress of the views of astronomical opinion from +incredulity to confidence was extremely slow until, about 1890, +Chandler, of the United States, by an exhaustive discussion of +innumerable results of observations, showed that the latitude of every +point on the earth was subject to a double oscillation, one having a +period of a year, the other of four hundred and twenty-seven days. +</P> + +<P> +Notwithstanding the remarkable parallel between the growth of American +astronomy and that of your city, one cannot but fear that if a foreign +observer had been asked only half a dozen years ago at what point in +the United States a great school of theoretical and practical +astronomy, aided by an establishment for the exploration of the +heavens, was likely to be established by the munificence of private +citizens, he would have been wiser than most foreigners had he guessed +Chicago. Had this place been suggested to him, I fear he would have +replied that were it possible to utilize celestial knowledge in +acquiring earthly wealth, here would be the most promising seat for +such a school. But he would need to have been a little wiser than his +generation to reflect that wealth is at the base of all progress in +knowledge and the liberal arts; that it is only when men are relieved +from the necessity of devoting all their energies to the immediate +wants of life that they can lead the intellectual life, and that we +should therefore look to the most enterprising commercial centre as the +likeliest seat for a great scientific institution. +</P> + +<P> +Now we have the school, and we have the observatory, which we hope will +in the near future do work that will cast lustre on the name of its +founder as well as on the astronomers who may be associated with it. +You will, I am sure, pardon me if I make some suggestions on the +subject of the future needs of the establishment. We want this newly +founded institution to be a great success, to do work which shall show +that the intellectual productiveness of your community will not be +allowed to lag behind its material growth The public is very apt to +feel that when some munificent patron of science has mounted a great +telescope under a suitable dome, and supplied all the apparatus which +the astronomer wants to use, success is assured. But such is not the +case. The most important requisite, one more difficult to command than +telescopes or observatories, may still be wanting. A great telescope is +of no use without a man at the end of it, and what the telescope may do +depends more upon this appendage than upon the instrument itself. The +place which telescopes and observatories have taken in astronomical +history are by no means proportional to their dimensions. Many a great +instrument has been a mere toy in the hands of its owner. Many a small +one has become famous. +</P> + +<P> +Twenty years ago there was here in your own city a modest little +instrument which, judged by its size, could not hold up its head with +the great ones even of that day. It was the private property of a young +man holding no scientific position and scarcely known to the public. +And yet that little telescope is to-day among the famous ones of the +world, having made memorable advances in the astronomy of double stars, +and shown its owner to be a worthy successor of the Herschels and +Struves in that line of work. +</P> + +<P> +A hundred observers might have used the appliances of the Lick +Observatory for a whole generation without finding the fifth satellite +of Jupiter; without successfully photographing the cloud forms of the +Milky Way; without discovering the extraordinary patches of nebulous +light, nearly or quite invisible to the human eye, which fill some +regions of the heavens. +</P> + +<P> +When I was in Zurich last year I paid a visit to the little, but not +unknown, observatory of its famous polytechnic school. The professor of +astronomy was especially interested in the observations of the sun with +the aid of the spectroscope, and among the ingenious devices which he +described, not the least interesting was the method of photographing +the sun by special rays of the spectrum, which had been worked out at +the Kenwood Observatory in Chicago. The Kenwood Observatory is not, I +believe, in the eye of the public, one of the noteworthy institutions +of your city which every visitor is taken to see, and yet this +invention has given it an important place in the science of our day. +</P> + +<P> +Should you ask me what are the most hopeful features in the great +establishment which you are now dedicating, I would say that they are +not alone to be found in the size of your unequalled telescope, nor in +the cost of the outfit, but in the fact that your authorities have +shown their appreciation of the requirements of success by adding to +the material outfit of the establishment the three men whose works I +have described. +</P> + +<P> +Gentlemen of the trustees, allow me to commend to your fostering care +the men at the end of the telescope. The constitution of the astronomer +shows curious and interesting features. If he is destined to advance +the science by works of real genius, he must, like the poet, be born, +not made. The born astronomer, when placed in command of a telescope, +goes about using it as naturally and effectively as the babe avails +itself of its mother's breast. He sees intuitively what less gifted men +have to learn by long study and tedious experiment. He is moved to +celestial knowledge by a passion which dominates his nature. He can no +more avoid doing astronomical work, whether in the line of observations +or research, than a poet can chain his Pegasus to earth. I do not mean +by this that education and training will be of no use to him. They will +certainly accelerate his early progress. If he is to become great on +the mathematical side, not only must his genius have a bend in that +direction, but he must have the means of pursuing his studies. And yet +I have seen so many failures of men who had the best instruction, and +so many successes of men who scarcely learned anything of their +teachers, that I sometimes ask whether the great American celestial +mechanician of the twentieth century will be a graduate of a university +or of the backwoods. +</P> + +<P> +Is the man thus moved to the exploration of nature by an unconquerable +passion more to be envied or pitied? In no other pursuit does success +come with such certainty to him who deserves it. No life is so +enjoyable as that whose energies are devoted to following out the +inborn impulses of one's nature. The investigator of truth is little +subject to the disappointments which await the ambitious man in other +fields of activity. It is pleasant to be one of a brotherhood extending +over the world, in which no rivalry exists except that which comes out +of trying to do better work than any one else, while mutual admiration +stifles jealousy. And yet, with all these advantages, the experience of +the astronomer may have its dark side. As he sees his field widening +faster than he can advance he is impressed with the littleness of all +that can be done in one short life. He feels the same want of +successors to pursue his work that the founder of a dynasty may feel +for heirs to occupy his throne. He has no desire to figure in history +as a Napoleon of science whose conquests must terminate with his life. +Even during his active career his work may be such a kind as to require +the co-operation of others and the active support of the public. If he +is disappointed in commanding these requirements, if he finds neither +co-operation nor support, if some great scheme to which he may have +devoted much of his life thus proves to be only a castle in the air, he +may feel that nature has dealt hardly with him in not endowing him with +passions like to those of other men. +</P> + +<P> +In treating a theme of perennial interest one naturally tries to fancy +what the future may have in store If the traveller, contemplating the +ruins of some ancient city which in the long ago teemed with the life +and activities of generations of men, sees every stone instinct with +emotion and the dust alive with memories of the past, may he not be +similarly impressed when he feels that he is looking around upon a seat +of future empire—a region where generations yet unborn may take a +leading part in moulding the history of the world? What may we not +expect of that energy which in sixty years has transformed a straggling +village into one of the world's great centres of commerce? May it not +exercise a powerful influence on the destiny not only of the country +but of the world? If so, shall the power thus to be exercised prove an +agent of beneficence, diffusing light and life among nations, or shall +it be the opposite? +</P> + +<P> +The time must come ere long when wealth shall outgrow the field in +which it can be profitably employed. In what direction shall its +possessors then look? Shall they train a posterity which will so use +its power as to make the world better that it has lived in it? Will the +future heir to great wealth prefer the intellectual life to the life of +pleasure? +</P> + +<P> +We can have no more hopeful answer to these questions than the +establishment of this great university in the very focus of the +commercial activity of the West. Its connection with the institution we +have been dedicating suggests some thoughts on science as a factor in +that scheme of education best adapted to make the power of a wealthy +community a benefit to the race at large. When we see what a factor +science has been in our present civilization, how it has transformed +the world and increased the means of human enjoyment by enabling men to +apply the powers of nature to their own uses, it is not wonderful that +it should claim the place in education hitherto held by classical +studies. In the contest which has thus arisen I take no part but that +of a peace-maker, holding that it is as important to us to keep in +touch with the traditions of our race, and to cherish the thoughts +which have come down to us through the centuries, as it is to enjoy and +utilize what the present has to offer us. Speaking from this point of +view, I would point out the error of making the utilitarian +applications of knowledge the main object in its pursuit. It is an +historic fact that abstract science—science pursued without any +utilitarian end—has been at the base of our progress in the +utilization of knowledge. If in the last century such men as Galvani +and Volta had been moved by any other motive than love of penetrating +the secrets of nature they would never have pursued the seemingly +useless experiments they did, and the foundation of electrical science +would not have been laid. Our present applications of electricity did +not become possible until Ohm's mathematical laws of the electric +current, which when first made known seemed little more than +mathematical curiosities, had become the common property of inventors. +Professional pride on the part of our own Henry led him, after making +the discoveries which rendered the telegraph possible, to go no further +in their application, and to live and die without receiving a dollar of +the millions which the country has won through his agency. +</P> + +<P> +In the spirit of scientific progress thus shown we have patriotism in +its highest form—a sentiment which does not seek to benefit the +country at the expense of the world, but to benefit the world by means +of one's country. Science has its competition, as keen as that which is +the life of commerce. But its rivalries are over the question who shall +contribute the most and the best to the sum total of knowledge; who +shall give the most, not who shall take the most. Its animating spirit +is love of truth. Its pride is to do the greatest good to the greatest +number. It embraces not only the whole human race but all nature in its +scope. The public spirit of which this city is the focus has made the +desert blossom as the rose, and benefited humanity by the diffusion of +the material products of the earth. Should you ask me how it is in the +future to use its influence for the benefit of humanity at large, I +would say, look at the work now going on in these precincts, and study +its spirit. Here are the agencies which will make "the voice of law the +harmony of the world." Here is the love of country blended with love of +the race. Here the love of knowledge is as unconfined as your +commercial enterprise. Let not your youth come hither merely to learn +the forms of vertebrates and the properties of oxides, but rather to +imbibe that catholic spirit which, animating their growing energies, +shall make the power they are to wield an agent of beneficence to all +mankind. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap19"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +XIX +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE UNIVERSE AS AN ORGANISM +</H3> + +<P CLASS="footnote"> +[Footnote: Address before the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of +America, December 29, 1902] +</P> + +<BR> + +<P> +If I were called upon to convey, within the compass of a single +sentence, an idea of the trend of recent astronomical and physical +science, I should say that it was in the direction of showing the +universe to be a connected whole. The farther we advance in knowledge, +the clearer it becomes that the bodies which are scattered through the +celestial spaces are not completely independent existences, but have, +with all their infinite diversity, many attributes in common. +</P> + +<P> +In this we are going in the direction of certain ideas of the ancients +which modern discovery long seemed to have contradicted. In the infancy +of the race, the idea that the heavens were simply an enlarged and +diversified earth, peopled by beings who could roam at pleasure from +one extreme to the other, was a quite natural one. The crystalline +sphere or spheres which contained all formed a combination of machinery +revolving on a single plan. But all bonds of unity between the stars +began to be weakened when Copernicus showed that there were no spheres, +that the planets were isolated bodies, and that the stars were vastly +more distant than the planets. As discovery went on and our conceptions +of the universe were enlarged, it was found that the system of the +fixed stars was made up of bodies so vastly distant and so completely +isolated that it was difficult to conceive of them as standing in any +definable relation to one another. It is true that they all emitted +light, else we could not see them, and the theory of gravitation, if +extended to such distances, a fact not then proved, showed that they +acted on one another by their mutual gravitation. But this was all. +Leaving out light and gravitation, the universe was still, in the time +of Herschel, composed of bodies which, for the most part, could not +stand in any known relation one to the other. +</P> + +<P> +When, forty years ago, the spectroscope was applied to analyze the +light coming from the stars, a field was opened not less fruitful than +that which the telescope made known to Galileo. The first conclusion +reached was that the sun was composed almost entirely of the same +elements that existed upon the earth. Yet, as the bodies of our solar +system were evidently closely related, this was not remarkable. But +very soon the same conclusion was, to a limited extent, extended to the +fixed stars in general. Such elements as iron, hydrogen, and calcium +were found not to belong merely to our earth, but to form important +constituents of the whole universe. We can conceive of no reason why, +out of the infinite number of combinations which might make up a +spectrum, there should not be a separate kind of matter for each +combination. So far as we know, the elements might merge into one +another by insensible gradations. It is, therefore, a remarkable and +suggestive fact when we find that the elements which make up bodies so +widely separate that we can hardly imagine them having anything in +common, should be so much the same. +</P> + +<P> +In recent times what we may regard as a new branch of astronomical +science is being developed, showing a tendency towards unity of +structure throughout the whole domain of the stars. This is what we now +call the science of stellar statistics. The very conception of such a +science might almost appall us by its immensity. The widest statistical +field in other branches of research is that occupied by sociology. +Every country has its census, in which the individual inhabitants are +classified on the largest scale and the combination of these statistics +for different countries may be said to include all the interest of the +human race within its scope. Yet this field is necessarily confined to +the surface of our planet. In the field of stellar statistics millions +of stars are classified as if each taken individually were of no more +weight in the scale than a single inhabitant of China in the scale of +the sociologist. And yet the most insignificant of these suns may, for +aught we know, have planets revolving around it, the interests of whose +inhabitants cover as wide a range as ours do upon our own globe. +</P> + +<P> +The statistics of the stars may be said to have commenced with +Herschel's gauges of the heavens, which were continued from time to +time by various observers, never, however, on the largest scale. The +subject was first opened out into an illimitable field of research +through a paper presented by Kapteyn to the Amsterdam Academy of +Sciences in 1893. The capital results of this paper were that different +regions of space contain different kinds of stars and, more especially, +that the stars of the Milky Way belong, in part at least, to a +different class from those existing elsewhere. Stars not belonging to +the Milky Way are, in large part, of a distinctly different class. +</P> + +<P> +The outcome of Kapteyn's conclusions is that we are able to describe +the universe as a single object, with some characters of an organized +whole. A large part of the stars which compose it may be considered as +divisible into two groups. One of these comprises the stars composing +the great girdle of the Milky Way. These are distinguished from the +others by being bluer in color, generally greater in absolute +brilliancy, and affected, there is some reason to believe, with rather +slower proper motions The other classes are stars with a greater or +less shade of yellow in their color, scattered through a spherical +space of unknown dimensions, but concentric with the Milky Way. Thus a +sphere with a girdle passing around it forms the nearest approach to a +conception of the universe which we can reach to-day. The number of +stars in the girdle is much greater than that in the sphere. +</P> + +<P> +The feature of the universe which should therefore command our +attention is the arrangement of a large part of the stars which compose +it in a ring, seemingly alike in all its parts, so far as general +features are concerned. So far as research has yet gone, we are not +able to say decisively that one region of this ring differs essentially +from another. It may, therefore, be regarded as forming a structure +built on a uniform plan throughout. +</P> + +<P> +All scientific conclusions drawn from statistical data require a +critical investigation of the basis on which they rest. If we are +going, from merely counting the stars, observing their magnitudes and +determining their proper motions, to draw conclusions as to the +structure of the universe in space, the question may arise how we can +form any estimate whatever of the possible distance of the stars, a +conclusion as to which must be the very first step we take. We can +hardly say that the parallaxes of more than one hundred stars have been +measured with any approach to certainty. The individuals of this one +hundred are situated at very different distances from us. We hope, by +long and repeated observations, to make a fairly approximate +determination of the parallaxes of all the stars whose distance is less +than twenty times that of a Centauri. But how can we know anything +about the distance of stars outside this sphere? What can we say +against the view of Kepler that the space around our sun is very much +thinner in stars than it is at a greater distance; in fact, that, the +great mass of the stars may be situated between the surfaces of two +concentrated spheres not very different in radius. May not this +universe of stars be somewhat in the nature of a hollow sphere? +</P> + +<P> +This objection requires very careful consideration on the part of all +who draw conclusions as to the distribution of stars in space and as to +the extent of the visible universe. The steps to a conclusion on the +subject are briefly these: First, we have a general conclusion, the +basis of which I have already set forth, that, to use a loose +expression, there are likenesses throughout the whole diameter of the +universe. There is, therefore, no reason to suppose that the region in +which our system is situated differs in any essential degree from any +other region near the central portion. Again, spectroscopic +examinations seem to show that all the stars are in motion, and that we +cannot say that those in one part of the universe move more rapidly +than those in another. This result is of the greatest value for our +purpose, because, when we consider only the apparent motions, as +ordinarily observed, these are necessarily dependent upon the distance +of the star. We cannot, therefore, infer the actual speed of a star +from ordinary observations until we know its distance. But the results +of spectroscopic measurements of radial velocity are independent of the +distance of the star. +</P> + +<P> +But let us not claim too much. We cannot yet say with certainty that +the stars which form the agglomerations of the Milky Way have, beyond +doubt, the same average motion as the stars in other regions of the +universe. The difficulty is that these stars appear to us so faint +individually, that the investigation of their spectra is still beyond +the powers of our instruments. But the extraordinary feat performed at +the Lick Observatory of measuring the radial motion of 1830 +Groombridge, a star quite invisible to the naked eye, and showing that +it is approaching our system with a speed of between fifty and sixty +miles a second, may lead us to hope for a speedy solution of this +question. But we need not await this result in order to reach very +probable conclusions. The general outcome of researches on proper +motions tends to strengthen the conclusions that the Keplerian sphere, +if I may use this expression, has no very well marked existence. The +laws of stellar velocity and the statistics of proper motions, while +giving some color to the view that the space in which we are situated +is thinner in stars than elsewhere, yet show that, as a general rule, +there are no great agglomerations of stars elsewhere than in the region +of the Milky Way. +</P> + +<P> +With unity there is always diversity; in fact, the unity of the +universe on which I have been insisting consists in part of diversity. +It is very curious that, among the many thousands of stars which have +been spectroscopically examined, no two are known to have absolutely +the same physical constitution. It is true that there are a great many +resemblances. Alpha Centauri, our nearest neighbor, if we can use such +a word as "near" in speaking of its distance, has a spectrum very like +that of our sun, and so has Capella. But even in these cases careful +examination shows differences. These differences arise from variety in +the combinations and temperature of the substances of which the star is +made up. Quite likely also, elements not known on the earth may exist +on the stars, but this is a point on which we cannot yet speak with +certainty. +</P> + +<P> +Perhaps the attribute in which the stars show the greatest variety is +that of absolute luminosity. One hundred years ago it was naturally +supposed that the brighter stars were the nearest to us, and this is +doubtless true when we take the general average. But it was soon found +that we cannot conclude that because a star is bright, therefore it is +near. The most striking example of this is afforded by the absence of +measurable parallaxes in the two bright stars, Canopus and Rigel, +showing that these stars, though of the first magnitude, are +immeasurably distant. A remarkable fact is that these conclusions +coincide with that which we draw from the minuteness of the proper +motions. Rigel has no motion that has certainly been shown by more than +a century of observation, and it is not certain that Canopus has +either. From this alone we may conclude, with a high degree of +probability, that the distance of each is immeasurably great. We may +say with certainty that the brightness of each is thousands of times +that of the sun, and with a high degree of probability that it is +hundreds of thousands of times. On the other hand, there are stars +comparatively near us of which the light is not the hundredth part of +the sun. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: Star Spectra] +</P> + +<P> +The universe may be a unit in two ways. One is that unity of structure +to which our attention has just been directed. This might subsist +forever without one body influencing another. The other form of unity +leads us to view the universe as an organism. It is such by mutual +action going on between its bodies. A few years ago we could hardly +suppose or imagine that any other agents than gravitation and light +could possibly pass through spaces so immense as those which separate +the stars. +</P> + +<P> +The most remarkable and hopeful characteristic of the unity of the +universe is the evidence which is being gathered that there are other +agencies whose exact nature is yet unknown to us, but which do pass +from one heavenly body to another. The best established example of this +yet obtained is afforded in the case of the sun and the earth. +</P> + +<P> +The fact that the frequency of magnetic storms goes through a period of +about eleven years, and is proportional to the frequency of sun-spots, +has been well established. The recent work of Professor Bigelow shows +the coincidence to be of remarkable exactness, the curves of the two +phenomena being practically coincident so far as their general features +are concerned. The conclusion is that spots on the sun and magnetic +storms are due to the same cause. This cause cannot be any change in +the ordinary radiation of the sun, because the best records of +temperature show that, to whatever variations the sun's radiation may +be subjected, they do not change in the period of the sun-spots. To +appreciate the relation, we must recall that the researches of Hale +with the spectro-heliograph show that spots are not the primary +phenomenon of solar activity, but are simply the outcome of processes +going on constantly in the sun which result in spots only in special +regions and on special occasions. It does not, therefore, necessarily +follow that a spot does cause a magnetic storm. What we should conclude +is that the solar activity which produces a spot also produces the +magnetic storm. +</P> + +<P> +When we inquire into the possible nature of these relations between +solar activity and terrestrial magnetism, we find ourselves so +completely in the dark that the question of what is really proved by +the coincidence may arise. Perhaps the most obvious explanation of +fluctuations in the earth's magnetic field to be inquired into would be +based on the hypothesis that the space through which the earth is +moving is in itself a varying magnetic field of vast extent. This +explanation is tested by inquiring whether the fluctuations in question +can be explained by supposing a disturbing force which acts +substantially in the same direction all over the globe. But a very +obvious test shows that this explanation is untenable. Were it the +correct one, the intensity of the force in some regions of the earth +would be diminished and in regions where the needle pointed in the +opposite direction would be increased in exactly the same degree. But +there is no relation traceable either in any of the regular +fluctuations of the magnetic force, or in those irregular ones which +occur during a magnetic storm. If the horizontal force is increased in +one part of the earth, it is very apt to show a simultaneous increase +the world over, regardless of the direction in which the needle may +point in various localities. It is hardly necessary to add that none of +the fluctuations in terrestrial magnetism can be explained on the +hypothesis that either the moon or the sun acts as a magnet. In such a +case the action would be substantially in the same direction at the +same moment the world over. +</P> + +<P> +Such being the case, the question may arise whether the action +producing a magnetic storm comes from the sun at all, and whether the +fluctuations in the sun's activity, and in the earth's magnetic field +may not be due to some cause external to both. All we can say in reply +to this is that every effort to find such a cause has failed and that +it is hardly possible to imagine any cause producing such an effect. It +is true that the solar spots were, not many years ago, supposed to be +due in some way to the action of the planets. But, for reasons which it +would be tedious to go into at present, we may fairly regard this +hypothesis as being completely disproved. There can, I conclude, be +little doubt that the eleven-year cycle of change in the solar spots is +due to a cycle going on in the sun itself. Such being the case, the +corresponding change in the earth's magnetism must be due to the same +cause. +</P> + +<P> +We may, therefore, regard it as a fact sufficiently established to +merit further investigation that there does emanate from the sun, in an +irregular way, some agency adequate to produce a measurable effect on +the magnetic needle. We must regard it as a singular fact that no +observations yet made give us the slightest indication as to what this +emanation is. The possibility of defining it is suggested by the +discovery within the past few years, that under certain conditions, +heated matter sends forth entities known as Rontgen rays, Becquerel +corpuscles and electrons. I cannot speak authoritatively on this +subject, but, so far as I am aware, no direct evidence has yet been +gathered showing that any of these entities reach us from the sun. We +must regard the search for the unknown agency so fully proved as among +the most important tasks of the astronomical physicist of the present +time. From what we know of the history of scientific discovery, it +seems highly probable that, in the course of his search, he will, +before he finds the object he is aiming at, discover many other things +of equal or greater importance of which he had, at the outset, no +conception. +</P> + +<P> +The main point I desire to bring out in this review is the tendency +which it shows towards unification in physical research. Heretofore +differentiation—the subdivision of workers into a continually +increasing number of groups of specialists—has been the rule. Now we +see a coming together of what, at first sight, seem the most widely +separated spheres of activity. What two branches could be more widely +separated than that of stellar statistics, embracing the whole universe +within its scope, and the study of these newly discovered emanations, +the product of our laboratories, which seem to show the existence of +corpuscles smaller than the atoms of matter? And yet, the phenomena +which we have reviewed, especially the relation of terrestrial +magnetism to the solar activity, and the formation of nebulous masses +around the new stars, can be accounted for only by emanations or forms +of force, having probably some similarity with the corpuscles, +electrons, and rays which we are now producing in our laboratories. The +nineteenth century, in passing away, points with pride to what it has +done. It has become a word to symbolize what is most important in human +progress Yet, perhaps its greatest glory may prove to be that the last +thing it did was to lay a foundation for the physical science of the +twentieth century. What shall be discovered in the new fields is, at +present, as far without our ken as were the modern developments of +electricity without the ken of the investigators of one hundred years +ago. We cannot guarantee any special discovery. What lies before us is +an illimitable field, the existence of which was scarcely suspected ten +years ago, the exploration of which may well absorb the activities of +our physical laboratories, and of the great mass of our astronomical +observers and investigators for as many generations as were required to +bring electrical science to its present state. We of the older +generation cannot hope to see more than the beginning of this +development, and can only tender our best wishes and most hearty +congratulations to the younger school whose function it will be to +explore the limitless field now before it. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap20"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +XX +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE RELATION OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD TO SOCIAL PROGRESS +</H3> + +<P CLASS="footnote"> +[Footnote: An address before the Washington Philosophical Society] +</P> + +<BR> + +<P> +Among those subjects which are not always correctly apprehended, even +by educated men, we may place that of the true significance of +scientific method and the relations of such method to practical +affairs. This is especially apt to be the case in a country like our +own, where the points of contact between the scientific world on the +one hand, and the industrial and political world on the other, are +fewer than in other civilized countries. The form which this +misapprehension usually takes is that of a failure to appreciate the +character of scientific method, and especially its analogy to the +methods of practical life. In the judgment of the ordinary intelligent +man there is a wide distinction between theoretical and practical +science. The latter he considers as that science directly applicable to +the building of railroads, the construction of engines, the invention +of new machinery, the construction of maps, and other useful objects. +The former he considers analogous to those philosophic speculations in +which men have indulged in all ages without leading to any result which +he considers practical. That our knowledge of nature is increased by +its prosecution is a fact of which he is quite conscious, but he +considers it as terminating with a mere increase of knowledge, and not +as having in its method anything which a person devoted to material +interests can be expected to appreciate. +</P> + +<P> +This view is strengthened by the spirit with which he sees scientific +investigation prosecuted. It is well understood on all sides that when +such investigations are pursued in a spirit really recognized as +scientific, no merely utilitarian object is had in view. Indeed, it is +easy to see how the very fact of pursuing such an object would detract +from that thoroughness of examination which is the first condition of a +real advance. True science demands in its every research a completeness +far beyond what is apparently necessary for its practical applications. +The precision with which the astronomer seeks to measure the heavens +and the chemist to determine the relations of the ultimate molecules of +matter has no limit, except that set by the imperfections of the +instruments of research. There is no such division recognized as that +of useful and useless knowledge. The ultimate aim is nothing less than +that of bringing all the phenomena of nature under laws as exact as +those which govern the planetary motions. +</P> + +<P> +Now the pursuit of any high object in this spirit commands from men of +wide views that respect which is felt towards all exertion having in +view more elevated objects than the pursuit of gain. Accordingly, it is +very natural to classify scientists and philosophers with the men who +in all ages have sought after learning instead of utility. But there is +another aspect of the question which will show the relations of +scientific advance to the practical affairs of life in a different +light. I make bold to say that the greatest want of the day, from a +purely practical point of view, is the more general introduction of the +scientific method and the scientific spirit into the discussion of +those political and social problems which we encounter on our road to a +higher plane of public well being. Far from using methods too refined +for practical purposes, what most distinguishes scientific from other +thought is the introduction of the methods of practical life into the +discussion of abstract general problems. A single instance will +illustrate the lesson I wish to enforce. +</P> + +<P> +The question of the tariff is, from a practical point of view, one of +the most important with which our legislators will have to deal during +the next few years. The widest diversity of opinion exists as to the +best policy to be pursued in collecting a revenue from imports. +Opposing interests contend against one another without any common basis +of fact or principle on which a conclusion can be reached. The opinions +of intelligent men differ almost as widely as those of the men who are +immediately interested. But all will admit that public action in this +direction should be dictated by one guiding principle—that the +greatest good of the community is to be sought after. That policy is +the best which will most promote this good. Nor is there any serious +difference of opinion as to the nature of the good to be had in view; +it is in a word the increase of the national wealth and prosperity. The +question on which opinions fundamentally differ is that of the effects +of a higher or lower rate of duty upon the interests of the public. If +it were possible to foresee, with an approach to certainty, what effect +a given tariff would have upon the producers and consumers of an +article taxed, and, indirectly, upon each member of the community in +any way interested in the article, we should then have an exact datum +which we do not now possess for reaching a conclusion. If some +superhuman authority, speaking with the voice of infallibility, could +give us this information, it is evident that a great national want +would be supplied. No question in practical life is more important than +this: How can this desirable knowledge of the economic effects of a +tariff be obtained? +</P> + +<P> +The answer to this question is clear and simple. The subject must be +studied in the same spirit, and, to a certain extent, by the same +methods which have been so successful in advancing our knowledge of +nature. Every one knows that, within the last two centuries, a method +of studying the course of nature has been introduced which has been so +successful in enabling us to trace the sequence of cause and effect as +almost to revolutionize society. The very fact that scientific method +has been so successful here leads to the belief that it might be +equally successful in other departments of inquiry. +</P> + +<P> +The same remarks will apply to the questions connected with banking and +currency; the standard of value; and, indeed, all subjects which have a +financial bearing. On every such question we see wide differences of +opinion without any common basis to rest upon. +</P> + +<P> +It may be said, in reply, that in these cases there are really no +grounds for forming an opinion, and that the contests which arise over +them are merely those between conflicting interests. But this claim is +not at all consonant with the form which we see the discussion assume. +Nearly every one has a decided opinion on these several subjects; +whereas, if there were no data for forming an opinion, it would be +unreasonable to maintain any whatever. Indeed, it is evident that there +must be truth somewhere, and the only question that can be open is that +of the mode of discovering it. No man imbued with a scientific spirit +can claim that such truth is beyond the power of the human intellect. +He may doubt his own ability to grasp it, but cannot doubt that by +pursuing the proper method and adopting the best means the problem can +be solved. It is, in fact, difficult to show why some exact results +could not be as certainly reached in economic questions as in those of +physical science. It is true that if we pursue the inquiry far enough +we shall find more complex conditions to encounter, because the future +course of demand and supply enters as an uncertain element. But a +remarkable fact to be considered is that the difference of opinion to +which we allude does not depend upon different estimates of the future, +but upon different views of the most elementary and general principles +of the subject. It is as if men were not agreed whether air were +elastic or whether the earth turns on its axis. Why is it that while in +all subjects of physical science we find a general agreement through a +wide range of subjects, and doubt commences only where certainty is not +attained, yet when we turn to economic subjects we do not find the +beginning of an agreement? +</P> + +<P> +No two answers can be given. It is because the two classes of subjects +are investigated by different instruments and in a different spirit. +The physicist has an exact nomenclature; uses methods of research well +adapted to the objects he has in view; pursues his investigations +without being attacked by those who wish for different results; and, +above all, pursues them only for the purpose of discovering the truth. +In economic questions the case is entirely different. Only in rare +cases are they studied without at least the suspicion that the student +has a preconceived theory to support. If results are attained which +oppose any powerful interest, this interest can hire a competing +investigator to bring out a different result. So far as the public can +see, one man's result is as good as another's, and thus the object is +as far off as ever. We may be sure that until there is an intelligent +and rational public, able to distinguish between the speculations of +the charlatan and the researches of the investigator, the present state +of things will continue. What we want is so wide a diffusion of +scientific ideas that there shall be a class of men engaged in studying +economic problems for their own sake, and an intelligent public able to +judge what they are doing. There must be an improvement in the objects +at which they aim in education, and it is now worth while to inquire +what that improvement is. +</P> + +<P> +It is not mere instruction in any branch of technical science that is +wanted. No knowledge of chemistry, physics, or biology, however +extensive, can give the learner much aid in forming a correct opinion +of such a question as that of the currency. If we should claim that +political economy ought to be more extensively studied, we would be met +by the question, which of several conflicting systems shall we teach? +What is wanted is not to teach this system or that, but to give such a +training that the student shall be able to decide for himself which +system is right. +</P> + +<P> +It seems to me that the true educational want is ignored both by those +who advocate a classical and those who advocate a scientific education. +What is really wanted is to train the intellectual powers, and the +question ought to be, what is the best method of doing this? Perhaps it +might be found that both of the conflicting methods could be improved +upon. The really distinctive features, which we should desire to see +introduced, are two in number: the one the scientific spirit; the other +the scientific discipline. Although many details may be classified +under each of these heads, yet there is one of pre-eminent importance +on which we should insist. +</P> + +<P> +The one feature of the scientific spirit which outweighs all others in +importance is the love of knowledge for its own sake. If by our system +of education we can inculcate this sentiment we shall do what is, from +a public point of view, worth more than any amount of technical +knowledge, because we shall lay the foundation of all knowledge. So +long as men study only what they think is going to be useful their +knowledge will be partial and insufficient. I think it is to the +constant inculcation of this fact by experience, rather than to any +reasoning, that is due the continued appreciation of a liberal +education. Every business-man knows that a business-college training is +of very little account in enabling one to fight the battle of life, and +that college-bred men have a great advantage even in fields where mere +education is a secondary matter. We are accustomed to seeing ridicule +thrown upon the questions sometimes asked of candidates for the civil +service because the questions refer to subjects of which a knowledge is +not essential. The reply to all criticisms of this kind is that there +is no one quality which more certainly assures a man's usefulness to +society than the propensity to acquire useless knowledge. Most of our +citizens take a wide interest in public affairs, else our form of +government would be a failure. But it is desirable that their study of +public measures should be more critical and take a wider range. It is +especially desirable that the conclusions to which they are led should +be unaffected by partisan sympathies. The more strongly the love of +mere truth is inculcated in their nature the better this end will be +attained. +</P> + +<P> +The scientific discipline to which I ask mainly to call your attention +consists in training the scholar to the scientific use of language. +Although whole volumes may be written on the logic of science there is +one general feature of its method which is of fundamental significance. +It is that every term which it uses and every proposition which it +enunciates has a precise meaning which can be made evident by proper +definitions. This general principle of scientific language is much more +easily inculcated by example than subject to exact description; but I +shall ask leave to add one to several attempts I have made to define +it. If I should say that when a statement is made in the language of +science the speaker knows what he means, and the hearer either knows it +or can be made to know it by proper definitions, and that this +community of understanding is frequently not reached in other +departments of thought, I might be understood as casting a slur on +whole departments of inquiry. Without intending any such slur, I may +still say that language and statements are worthy of the name +scientific as they approach this standard; and, moreover, that a great +deal is said and written which does not fulfil the requirement. The +fact that words lose their meaning when removed from the connections in +which that meaning has been acquired and put to higher uses, is one +which, I think, is rarely recognized. There is nothing in the history +of philosophical inquiry more curious than the frequency of +interminable disputes on subjects where no agreement can be reached +because the opposing parties do not use words in the same sense. That +the history of science is not free from this reproach is shown by the +fact of the long dispute whether the force of a moving body was +proportional to the simple velocity or to its square. Neither of the +parties to the dispute thought it worth while to define what they meant +by the word "force," and it was at length found that if a definition +was agreed upon the seeming difference of opinion would vanish. Perhaps +the most striking feature of the case, and one peculiar to a scientific +dispute, was that the opposing parties did not differ in their solution +of a single mechanical problem. I say this is curious, because the very +fact of their agreeing upon every concrete question which could have +been presented ought to have made it clear that some fallacy was +lacking in the discussion as to the measure of force. The good effect +of a scientific spirit is shown by the fact that this discussion is +almost unique in the history of science during the past two centuries, +and that scientific men themselves were able to see the fallacy +involved, and thus to bring the matter to a conclusion. +</P> + +<P> +If we now turn to the discussion of philosophers, we shall find at +least one yet more striking example of the same kind. The question of +the freedom of the human will has, I believe, raged for centuries. It +cannot yet be said that any conclusion has been reached. Indeed, I have +heard it admitted by men of high intellectual attainments that the +question was insoluble. Now a curious feature of this dispute is that +none of the combatants, at least on the affirmative side, have made any +serious attempt to define what should be meant by the phrase freedom of +the will, except by using such terms as require definition equally with +the word freedom itself. It can, I conceive, be made quite clear that +the assertion, "The will is free," is one without meaning, until we +analyze more fully the different meanings to be attached to the word +free. Now this word has a perfectly well-defined signification in +every-day life. We say that anything is free when it is not subject to +external constraint. We also know exactly what we mean when we say that +a man is free to do a certain act. We mean that if he chooses to do it +there is no external constraint acting to prevent him. In all cases a +relation of two things is implied in the word, some active agent or +power, and the presence or absence of another constraining agent. Now, +when we inquire whether the will itself is free, irrespective of +external constraints, the word free no longer has a meaning, because +one of the elements implied in it is ignored. +</P> + +<P> +To inquire whether the will itself is free is like inquiring whether +fire itself is consumed by the burning, or whether clothing is itself +clad. It is not, therefore, at all surprising that both parties have +been able to dispute without end, but it is a most astonishing +phenomenon of the human intellect that the dispute should go on +generation after generation without the parties finding out whether +there was really any difference of opinion between them on the subject. +I venture to say that if there is any such difference, neither party +has ever analyzed the meaning of the words used sufficiently far to +show it. The daily experience of every man, from his cradle to his +grave, shows that human acts are as much the subject of external causal +influences as are the phenomena of nature. To dispute this would be +little short of the ludicrous. All that the opponents of freedom, as a +class, have ever claimed is the assertion of a causal connection +between the acts of the will and influences independent of the will. +True, propositions of this sort can be expressed in a variety of ways +connoting an endless number of more or less objectionable ideas, but +this is the substance of the matter. +</P> + +<P> +To suppose that the advocates on the other side meant to take issue on +this proposition would be to assume that they did not know what they +were saying. The conclusion forced upon us is that though men spend +their whole lives in the study of the most elevated department of human +thought it does not guard them against the danger of using words +without meaning. It would be a mark of ignorance, rather than of +penetration, to hastily denounce propositions on subjects we are not +well acquainted with because we do not understand their meaning. I do +not mean to intimate that philosophy itself is subject to this +reproach. When we see a philosophical proposition couched in terms we +do not understand, the most modest and charitable view is to assume +that this arises from our lack of knowledge. Nothing is easier than for +the ignorant to ridicule the propositions of the learned. And yet, with +every reserve, I cannot but feel that the disputes to which I have +alluded prove the necessity of bringing scientific precision of +language into the whole domain of thought. If the discussion had been +confined to a few, and other philosophers had analyzed the subject, and +showed the fictitious character of the discussion, or had pointed out +where opinions really might differ, there would be nothing derogatory +to philosophers. But the most suggestive circumstance is that although +a large proportion of the philosophic writers in recent times have +devoted more or less attention to the subject, few, or none, have made +even this modest contribution. I speak with some little confidence on +this subject, because several years ago I wrote to one of the most +acute thinkers of the country, asking if he could find in philosophic +literature any terms or definitions expressive of the three different +senses in which not only the word freedom, but nearly all words +implying freedom were used. His search was in vain. +</P> + +<P> +Nothing of this sort occurs in the practical affairs of life. All terms +used in business, however general or abstract, have that well-defined +meaning which is the first requisite of the scientific language. Now +one important lesson which I wish to inculcate is that the language of +science in this respect corresponds to that of business; in that each +and every term that is employed has a meaning as well defined as the +subject of discussion can admit of. It will be an instructive exercise +to inquire what this peculiarity of scientific and business language +is. It can be shown that a certain requirement should be fulfilled by +all language intended for the discovery of truth, which is fulfilled +only by the two classes of language which I have described. It is one +of the most common errors of discourse to assume that any common +expression which we may use always conveys an idea, no matter what the +subject of discourse. The true state of the case can, perhaps, best be +seen by beginning at the foundation of things and examining under what +conditions language can really convey ideas. +</P> + +<P> +Suppose thrown among us a person of well-developed intellect, but +unacquainted with a single language or word that we use. It is +absolutely useless to talk to him, because nothing that we say conveys +any meaning to his mind. We can supply him no dictionary, because by +hypothesis he knows no language to which we have access. How shall we +proceed to communicate our ideas to him? Clearly there is but one +possible way—namely, through his senses. Outside of this means of +bringing him in contact with us we can have no communication with him. +We, therefore, begin by showing him sensible objects, and letting him +understand that certain words which we use correspond to those objects. +After he has thus acquired a small vocabulary, we make him understand +that other terms refer to relations between objects which he can +perceive by his senses. Next he learns, by induction, that there are +terms which apply not to special objects, but to whole classes of +objects. Continuing the same process, he learns that there are certain +attributes of objects made known by the manner in which they affect his +senses, to which abstract terms are applied. Having learned all this, +we can teach him new words by combining words without exhibiting +objects already known. Using these words we can proceed yet further, +building up, as it were, a complete language. But there is one limit at +every step. Every term which we make known to him must depend +ultimately upon terms the meaning of which he has learned from their +connection with special objects of sense. +</P> + +<P> +To communicate to him a knowledge of words expressive of mental states +it is necessary to assume that his own mind is subject to these states +as well as our own, and that we can in some way indicate them by our +acts. That the former hypothesis is sufficiently well established can +be made evident so long as a consistency of different words and ideas +is maintained. If no such consistency of meaning on his part were +evident, it might indicate that the operations of his mind were so +different from ours that no such communication of ideas was possible. +Uncertainty in this respect must arise as soon as we go beyond those +mental states which communicate themselves to the senses of others. +</P> + +<P> +We now see that in order to communicate to our foreigner a knowledge of +language, we must follow rules similar to those necessary for the +stability of a building. The foundation of the building must be well +laid upon objects knowable by his five senses. Of course the mind, as +well as the external object, may be a factor in determining the ideas +which the words are intended to express; but this does not in any +manner invalidate the conditions which we impose. Whatever theory we +may adopt of the relative part played by the knowing subject, and the +external object in the acquirement of knowledge, it remains none the +less true that no knowledge of the meaning of a word can be acquired +except through the senses, and that the meaning is, therefore, limited +by the senses. If we transgress the rule of founding each meaning upon +meanings below it, and having the whole ultimately resting upon a +sensuous foundation, we at once branch off into sound without sense. We +may teach him the use of an extended vocabulary, to the terms of which +he may apply ideas of his own, more or less vague, but there will be no +way of deciding that he attaches the same meaning to these terms that +we do. +</P> + +<P> +What we have shown true of an intelligent foreigner is necessarily true +of the growing child. We come into the world without a knowledge of the +meaning of words, and can acquire such knowledge only by a process +which we have found applicable to the intelligent foreigner. But to +confine ourselves within these limits in the use of language requires a +course of severe mental discipline. The transgression of the rule will +naturally seem to the undisciplined mind a mark of intellectual vigor +rather than the reverse. In our system of education every temptation is +held out to the learner to transgress the rule by the fluent use of +language to which it is doubtful if he himself attaches clear notions, +and which he can never be certain suggests to his hearer the ideas +which he desires to convey. Indeed, we not infrequently see, even among +practical educators, expressions of positive antipathy to scientific +precision of language so obviously opposed to good sense that they can +be attributed only to a failure to comprehend the meaning of the +language which they criticise. +</P> + +<P> +Perhaps the most injurious effect in this direction arises from the +natural tendency of the mind, when not subject to a scientific +discipline, to think of words expressing sensible objects and their +relations as connoting certain supersensuous attributes. This is +frequently seen in the repugnance of the metaphysical mind to receive a +scientific statement about a matter of fact simply as a matter of fact. +This repugnance does not generally arise in respect to the every-day +matters of life. When we say that the earth is round we state a truth +which every one is willing to receive as final. If without denying that +the earth was round, one should criticise the statement on the ground +that it was not necessarily round but might be of some other form, we +should simply smile at this use of language. But when we take a more +general statement and assert that the laws of nature are inexorable, +and that all phenomena, so far as we can show, occur in obedience to +their requirements, we are met with a sort of criticism with which all +of us are familiar, but which I am unable adequately to describe. No +one denies that as a matter of fact, and as far as his experience +extends, these laws do appear to be inexorable. I have never heard of +any one professing, during the present generation, to describe a +natural phenomenon, with the avowed belief that it was not a product of +natural law; yet we constantly hear the scientific view criticised on +the ground that events MAY occur without being subject to natural law. +The word "may," in this connection, is one to which we can attach no +meaning expressive of a sensuous relation. +</P> + +<P> +The analogous conflict between the scientific use of language and the +use made by some philosophers is found in connection with the idea of +causation. Fundamentally the word cause is used in scientific language +in the same sense as in the language of common life. When we discuss +with our neighbors the cause of a fit of illness, of a fire, or of cold +weather, not the slightest ambiguity attaches to the use of the word, +because whatever meaning may be given to it is founded only on an +accurate analysis of the ideas involved in it from daily use. No +philosopher objects to the common meaning of the word, yet we +frequently find men of eminence in the intellectual world who will not +tolerate the scientific man in using the word in this way. In every +explanation which he can give to its use they detect ambiguity. They +insist that in any proper use of the term the idea of power must be +connoted. But what meaning is here attached to the word power, and how +shall we first reduce it to a sensible form, and then apply its meaning +to the operations of nature? Whether this can be done, I do not +inquire. All I maintain is that if we wish to do it, we must pass +without the domain of scientific statement. +</P> + +<P> +Perhaps the greatest advantage in the use of symbolic and other +mathematical language in scientific investigation is that it cannot +possibly be made to connote anything except what the speaker means. It +adheres to the subject matter of discourse with a tenacity which no +criticism can overcome. In consequence, whenever a science is reduced +to a mathematical form its conclusions are no longer the subject of +philosophical attack. To secure the same desirable quality in all other +scientific language it is necessary to give it, so far as possible, the +same simplicity of signification which attaches to mathematical +symbols. This is not easy, because we are obliged to use words of +ordinary language, and it is impossible to divest them of whatever they +may connote to ordinary hearers. +</P> + +<P> +I have thus sought to make it clear that the language of science +corresponds to that of ordinary life, and especially of business life, +in confining its meaning to phenomena. An analogous statement may be +made of the method and objects of scientific investigation. I think +Professor Clifford was very happy in defining science as organized +common-sense. The foundation of its widest general creations is laid, +not in any artificial theories, but in the natural beliefs and +tendencies of the human mind. Its position against those who deny these +generalizations is quite analogous to that taken by the Scottish school +of philosophy against the scepticism of Hume. +</P> + +<P> +It may be asked, if the methods and language of science correspond to +those of practical life, why is not the every-day discipline of that +life as good as the discipline of science? The answer is, that the +power of transferring the modes of thought of common life to subjects +of a higher order of generality is a rare faculty which can be acquired +only by scientific discipline. What we want is that in public affairs +men shall reason about questions of finance, trade, national wealth, +legislation, and administration, with the same consciousness of the +practical side that they reason about their own interests. When this +habit is once acquired and appreciated, the scientific method will +naturally be applied to the study of questions of social policy. When a +scientific interest is taken in such questions, their boundaries will +be extended beyond the utilities immediately involved, and one +important condition of unceasing progress will be complied with. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap21"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +XXI +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE OUTLOOK FOR THE FLYING-MACHINE +</H3> + +<P> +Mr. Secretary Langley's trial of his flying-machine, which seems to +have come to an abortive issue for the time, strikes a sympathetic +chord in the constitution of our race. Are we not the lords of +creation? Have we not girdled the earth with wires through which we +speak to our antipodes? Do we not journey from continent to continent +over oceans that no animal can cross, and with a speed of which our +ancestors would never have dreamed? Is not all the rest of the animal +creation so far inferior to us in every point that the best thing it +can do is to become completely subservient to our needs, dying, if need +be, that its flesh may become a toothsome dish on our tables? And yet +here is an insignificant little bird, from whose mind, if mind it has, +all conceptions of natural law are excluded, applying the rules of +aerodynamics in an application of mechanical force to an end we have +never been able to reach, and this with entire ease and absence of +consciousness that it is doing an extraordinary thing. Surely our +knowledge of natural laws, and that inventive genius which has enabled +us to subordinate all nature to our needs, ought also to enable us to +do anything that the bird can do. Therefore we must fly. If we cannot +yet do it, it is only because we have not got to the bottom of the +subject. Our successors of the not distant future will surely succeed. +</P> + +<P> +This is at first sight a very natural and plausible view of the case. +And yet there are a number of circumstances of which we should take +account before attempting a confident forecast. Our hope for the future +is based on what we have done in the past. But when we draw conclusions +from past successes we should not lose sight of the conditions on which +success has depended. There is no advantage which has not its attendant +drawbacks; no strength which has not its concomitant weakness. Wealth +has its trials and health its dangers. We must expect our great +superiority to the bird to be associated with conditions which would +give it an advantage at some point. A little study will make these +conditions clear. +</P> + +<P> +We may look on the bird as a sort of flying-machine complete in itself, +of which a brain and nervous system are fundamentally necessary parts. +No such machine can navigate the air unless guided by something having +life. Apart from this, it could be of little use to us unless it +carried human beings on its wings. We thus meet with a difficulty at +the first step—we cannot give a brain and nervous system to our +machine. These necessary adjuncts must be supplied by a man, who is no +part of the machine, but something carried by it. The bird is a +complete machine in itself. Our aerial ship must be machine plus man. +Now, a man is, I believe, heavier than any bird that flies. The limit +which the rarity of the air places upon its power of supporting wings, +taken in connection with the combined weight of a man and a machine, +make a drawback which we should not too hastily assume our ability to +overcome. The example of the bird does not prove that man can fly. The +hundred and fifty pounds of dead weight which the manager of the +machine must add to it over and above that necessary in the bird may +well prove an insurmountable obstacle to success. +</P> + +<P> +I need hardly remark that the advantage possessed by the bird has its +attendant drawbacks when we consider other movements than flying. Its +wings are simply one pair of its legs, and the human race could not +afford to abandon its arms for the most effective wings that nature or +art could supply. +</P> + +<P> +Another point to be considered is that the bird operates by the +application of a kind of force which is peculiar to the animal +creation, and no approach to which has ever been made in any mechanism. +This force is that which gives rise to muscular action, of which the +necessary condition is the direct action of a nervous system. We cannot +have muscles or nerves for our flying-machine. We have to replace them +by such crude and clumsy adjuncts as steam-engines and electric +batteries. It may certainly seem singular if man is never to discover +any combination of substances which, under the influence of some such +agency as an electric current, shall expand and contract like a muscle. +But, if he is ever to do so, the time is still in the future. We do not +see the dawn of the age in which such a result will be brought forth. +</P> + +<P> +Another consideration of a general character may be introduced. As a +rule it is the unexpected that happens in invention as well as +discovery. There are many problems which have fascinated mankind ever +since civilization began which we have made little or no advance in +solving. The only satisfaction we can feel in our treatment of the +great geometrical problems of antiquity is that we have shown their +solution to be impossible. The mathematician of to-day admits that he +can neither square the circle, duplicate the cube or trisect the angle. +May not our mechanicians, in like manner, be ultimately forced to admit +that aerial flight is one of that great class of problems with which +man can never cope, and give up all attempts to grapple with it? +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration with caption: PROFESSOR LANGLEY'S AIR-SHIP] +</P> + +<P> +The fact is that invention and discovery have, notwithstanding their +seemingly wide extent, gone on in rather narrower lines than is +commonly supposed. If, a hundred years ago, the most sagacious of +mortals had been told that before the nineteenth century closed the +face of the earth would be changed, time and space almost annihilated, +and communication between continents made more rapid and easy than it +was between cities in his time; and if he had been asked to exercise +his wildest imagination in depicting what might come—the airship and +the flying-machine would probably have had a prominent place in his +scheme, but neither the steamship, the railway, the telegraph, nor the +telephone would have been there. Probably not a single new agency which +he could have imagined would have been one that has come to pass. +</P> + +<P> +It is quite clear to me that success must await progress of a different +kind from that which the inventors of flying-machines are aiming at. We +want a great discovery, not a great invention. It is an unfortunate +fact that we do not always appreciate the distinction between progress +in scientific discovery and ingenious application of discovery to the +wants of civilization. The name of Marconi is familiar to every ear; +the names of Maxwell and Herz, who made the discoveries which rendered +wireless telegraphy possible, are rarely recalled. Modern progress is +the result of two factors: Discoveries of the laws of nature and of +actions or possibilities in nature, and the application of such +discoveries to practical purposes. The first is the work of the +scientific investigator, the second that of the inventor. +</P> + +<P> +In view of the scientific discoveries of the past ten years, which, +after bringing about results that would have seemed chimerical if +predicted, leading on to the extraction of a substance which seems to +set the laws and limits of nature at defiance by radiating a flood of +heat, even when cooled to the lowest point that science can reach—a +substance, a few specks of which contain power enough to start a +railway train, and embody perpetual motion itself, almost—he would be +a bold prophet who would set any limit to possible discoveries in the +realm of nature. We are binding the universe together by agencies which +pass from sun to planet and from star to star. We are determined to +find out all we can about the mysterious ethereal medium supposed to +fill all space, and which conveys light and heat from one heavenly body +to another, but which yet evades all direct investigation. We are +peering into the law of gravitation itself with the full hope of +discovering something in its origin which may enable us to evade its +action. From time to time philosophers fancy the road open to success, +yet nothing that can be practically called success has yet been reached +or even approached. When it is reached, when we are able to state +exactly why matter gravitates, then will arise the question how this +hitherto unchangeable force may be controlled and regulated. With this +question answered the problem of the interaction between ether and +matter may be solved. That interaction goes on between ethers and +molecules is shown by the radiation of heat by all bodies. When the +molecules are combined into a mass, this interaction ceases, so that +the lightest objects fly through the ether without resistance. Why is +this? Why does ether act on the molecule and not the mass? When we can +produce the latter, and when the mutual action can be controlled, then +may gravitation be overcome and then may men build, not merely +airships, but ships which shall fly above the air, and transport their +passengers from continent to continent with the speed of the celestial +motions. +</P> + +<P> +The first question suggested to the reader by these considerations is +whether any such result is possible; whether it is within the power of +man to discover the nature of luminiferous ether and the cause of +gravitation. To this the profoundest philosopher can only answer, "I do +not know." Quite possibly the gates at which he is beating are, in the +very nature of things, incapable of being opened. It may be that the +mind of man is incapable of grasping the secrets within them. The +question has even occurred to me whether, if a being of such +supernatural power as to understand the operations going on in a +molecule of matter or in a current of electricity as we understand the +operations of a steam-engine should essay to explain them to us, he +would meet with any more success than we should in explaining to a fish +the engines of a ship which so rudely invades its domain. As was +remarked by William K. Clifford, perhaps the clearest spirit that has +ever studied such problems, it is possible that the laws of geometry +for spaces infinitely small may be so different from those of larger +spaces that we must necessarily be unable to conceive them. +</P> + +<P> +Still, considering mere possibilities, it is not impossible that the +twentieth century may be destined to make known natural forces which +will enable us to fly from continent to continent with a speed far +exceeding that of the bird. +</P> + +<P> +But when we inquire whether aerial flight is possible in the present +state of our knowledge, whether, with such materials as we possess, a +combination of steel, cloth, and wire can be made which, moved by the +power of electricity or steam, shall form a successful flying-machine, +the outlook may be altogether different. To judge it sanely, let us +bear in mind the difficulties which are encountered in any +flying-machine. The basic principle on which any such machine must be +constructed is that of the aeroplane. This, by itself, would be the +simplest of all flyers, and therefore the best if it could be put into +operation. The principle involved may be readily comprehended by the +accompanying figure. A M is the section of a flat plane surface, say a +thin sheet of metal or a cloth supported by wires. It moves through the +air, the latter being represented by the horizontal rows of dots. The +direction of the motion is that of the horizontal line A P. The +aeroplane has a slight inclination measured by the proportion between +the perpendicular M P and the length A P. We may raise the edge M up or +lower it at pleasure. Now the interesting point, and that on which the +hopes of inventors are based, is that if we give the plane any given +inclination, even one so small that the perpendicular M P is only two +or three per cent of the length A M, we can also calculate a certain +speed of motion through the air which, if given to the plane, will +enable it to bear any required weight. A plane ten feet square, for +example, would not need any great inclination, nor would it require a +speed higher than a few hundred feet a second to bear a man. What is of +yet more importance, the higher the speed the less the inclination +required, and, if we leave out of consideration the friction of the air +and the resistance arising from any object which the machine may carry, +the less the horse-power expended in driving the plane. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +[Illustration] +</P> + +<P> +Maxim exemplified this by experiment several years ago. He found that, +with a small inclination, he could readily give his aeroplane, when it +slid forward upon ways, such a speed that it would rise from the ways +of itself. The whole problem of the successful flying-machine is, +therefore, that of arranging an aeroplane that shall move through the +air with the requisite speed. +</P> + +<P> +The practical difficulties in the way of realizing the movement of such +an object are obvious. The aeroplane must have its propellers. These +must be driven by an engine with a source of power. Weight is an +essential quality of every engine. The propellers must be made of +metal, which has its weakness, and which is liable to give way when its +speed attains a certain limit. And, granting complete success, imagine +the proud possessor of the aeroplane darting through the air at a speed +of several hundred feet per second! It is the speed alone that sustains +him. How is he ever going to stop? Once he slackens his speed, down he +begins to fall. He may, indeed, increase the inclination of his +aeroplane. Then he increases the resistance to the sustaining force. +Once he stops he falls a dead mass. How shall he reach the ground +without destroying his delicate machinery? I do not think the most +imaginative inventor has yet even put upon paper a demonstratively +successful way of meeting this difficulty. The only ray of hope is +afforded by the bird. The latter does succeed in stopping and reaching +the ground safely after its flight. But we have already mentioned the +great advantages which the bird possesses in the power of applying +force to its wings, which, in its case, form the aeroplanes. But we +have already seen that there is no mechanical combination, and no way +of applying force, which will give to the aeroplanes the flexibility +and rapidity of movement belonging to the wings of a bird. With all the +improvements that the genius of man has made in the steamship, the +greatest and best ever constructed is liable now and then to meet with +accident. When this happens she simply floats on the water until the +damage is repaired, or help reaches her. Unless we are to suppose for +the flying-machine, in addition to everything else, an immunity from +accident which no human experience leads us to believe possible, it +would be liable to derangements of machinery, any one of which would be +necessarily fatal. If an engine were necessary not only to propel a +ship, but also to make her float—if, on the occasion of any accident +she immediately went to the bottom with all on board—there would not, +at the present day, be any such thing as steam navigation. That this +difficulty is insurmountable would seem to be a very fair deduction, +not only from the failure of all attempts to surmount it, but from the +fact that Maxim has never, so far as we are aware, followed up his +seemingly successful experiment. +</P> + +<P> +There is, indeed, a way of attacking it which may, at first sight, seem +plausible. In order that the aeroplane may have its full sustaining +power, there is no need that its motion be continuously forward. A +nearly horizontal surface, swinging around in a circle, on a vertical +axis, like the wings of a windmill moving horizontally, will fulfil all +the conditions. In fact, we have a machine on this simple principle in +the familiar toy which, set rapidly whirling, rises in the air. Why +more attempts have not been made to apply this system, with two sets of +sails whirling in opposite directions, I do not know. Were there any +possibility of making a flying-machine, it would seem that we should +look in this direction. +</P> + +<P> +The difficulties which I have pointed out are only preliminary ones, +patent on the surface. A more fundamental one still, which the writer +feels may prove insurmountable, is based on a law of nature which we +are bound to accept. It is that when we increase the size of any +flying-machine without changing its model we increase the weight in +proportion to the cube of the linear dimensions, while the effective +supporting power of the air increases only as the square of those +dimensions. To illustrate the principle let us make two flying-machines +exactly alike, only make one on double the scale of the other in all +its dimensions. We all know that the volume and therefore the weight of +two similar bodies are proportional to the cubes of their dimensions. +The cube of two is eight. Hence the large machine will have eight times +the weight of the other. But surfaces are as the squares of the +dimensions. The square of two is four. The heavier machine will +therefore expose only four times the wing surface to the air, and so +will have a distinct disadvantage in the ratio of efficiency to weight. +</P> + +<P> +Mechanical principles show that the steam pressures which the engines +would bear would be the same, and that the larger engine, though it +would have more than four times the horse-power of the other, would +have less than eight times. The larger of the two machines would +therefore be at a disadvantage, which could be overcome only by +reducing the thickness of its parts, especially of its wings, to that +of the other machine. Then we should lose in strength. It follows that +the smaller the machine the greater its advantage, and the smallest +possible flying-machine will be the first one to be successful. +</P> + +<P> +We see the principle of the cube exemplified in the animal kingdom. The +agile flea, the nimble ant, the swift-footed greyhound, and the +unwieldy elephant form a series of which the next term would be an +animal tottering under its own weight, if able to stand or move at all. +The kingdom of flying animals shows a similar gradation. The most +numerous fliers are little insects, and the rising series stops with +the condor, which, though having much less weight than a man, is said +to fly with difficulty when gorged with food. +</P> + +<P> +Now, suppose that an inventor succeeds, as well he may, in making a +machine which would go into a watch-case, yet complete in all its +parts, able to fly around the room. It may carry a button, but nothing +heavier. Elated by his success, he makes one on the same model twice as +large in every dimension. The parts of the first, which are one inch in +length, he increases to two inches. Every part is twice as long, twice +as broad, and twice as thick. The result is that his machine is eight +times as heavy as before. But the sustaining surface is only four times +as great. As compared with the smaller machine, its ratio of +effectiveness is reduced to one-half. It may carry two or three +buttons, but will not carry over four, because the total weight, +machine plus buttons, can only be quadrupled, and if he more than +quadruples the weight of the machine, he must less than quadruple that +of the load. How many such enlargements must he make before his machine +will cease to sustain itself, before it will fall as an inert mass when +we seek to make it fly through the air? Is there any size at which it +will be able to support a human being? We may well hesitate before we +answer this question in the affirmative. +</P> + +<P> +Dr. Graham Bell, with a cheery optimism very pleasant to contemplate, +has pointed out that the law I have just cited may be evaded by not +making a larger machine on the same model, but changing the latter in a +way tantamount to increasing the number of small machines. This is +quite true, and I wish it understood that, in laying down the law I +have cited, I limit it to two machines of different sizes on the same +model throughout. Quite likely the most effective flying-machine would +be one carried by a vast number of little birds. The veracious +chronicler who escaped from a cloud of mosquitoes by crawling into an +immense metal pot and then amused himself by clinching the antennae of +the insects which bored through the pot until, to his horror, they +became so numerous as to fly off with the covering, was more scientific +than he supposed. Yes, a sufficient number of humming-birds, if we +could combine their forces, would carry an aerial excursion party of +human beings through the air. If the watch-maker can make a machine +which will fly through the room with a button, then, by combining ten +thousand such machines he may be able to carry a man. But how shall the +combined forces be applied? +</P> + +<P> +The difficulties I have pointed out apply only to the flying-machine +properly so-called, and not to the dirigible balloon or airship. It is +of interest to notice that the law is reversed in the case of a body +which is not supported by the resistance of a fluid in which it is +immersed, but floats in it, the ship or balloon, for example. When we +double the linear dimensions of a steamship in all its parts, we +increase not only her weight but her floating power, her carrying +capacity, and her engine capacity eightfold. But the resistance which +she meets with when passing through the water at a given speed is only +multiplied four times. Hence, the larger we build the steamship the +more economical the application of the power necessary to drive it at a +given speed. It is this law which has brought the great increase in the +size of ocean steamers in recent times. The proportionately diminishing +resistance which, in the flying-machine, represents the floating power +is, in the ship, something to be overcome. Thus there is a complete +reversal of the law in its practical application to the two cases. +</P> + +<P> +The balloon is in the same class with the ship. Practical difficulties +aside, the larger it is built the more effective it will be, and the +more advantageous will be the ratio of the power which is necessary to +drive it to the resistance to be overcome. +</P> + +<P> +If, therefore, we are ever to have aerial navigation with our present +knowledge of natural capabilities, it is to the airship floating in the +air, rather than the flying-machine resting on the air, to which we are +to look. In the light of the law which I have laid down, the subject, +while not at all promising, seems worthy of more attention than it has +received. It is not at all unlikely that if a skilful and experienced +naval constructor, aided by an able corps of assistants, should design +an airship of a diameter of not less than two hundred feet, and a +length at least four or five times as great, constructed, possibly, of +a textile substance impervious to gas and borne by a light framework, +but, more likely, of exceedingly thin plates of steel carried by a +frame fitted to secure the greatest combination of strength and +lightness, he might find the result to be, ideally at least, a ship +which would be driven through the air by a steam-engine with a velocity +far exceeding that of the fleetest Atlantic liner. Then would come the +practical problem of realizing the ship by overcoming the mechanical +difficulties involved in the construction of such a huge and light +framework. I would not be at all surprised if the result of the exact +calculation necessary to determine the question should lead to an +affirmative conclusion, but I am quite unable to judge whether steel +could be rolled into parts of the size and form required in the +mechanism. +</P> + +<P> +In judging of the possibility of commercial success the cheapness of +modern transportation is an element in the case that should not be +overlooked. I believe the principal part of the resistance which a +limited express train meets is the resistance of the air. This would be +as great for an airship as for a train. An important fraction of the +cost of transporting goods from Chicago to London is that of getting +them into vehicles, whether cars or ships, and getting them out again. +The cost of sending a pair of shoes from a shop in New York to the +residence of the wearer is, if I mistake not, much greater than the +mere cost of transporting them across the Atlantic. Even if a dirigible +balloon should cross the Atlantic, it does not follow that it could +compete with the steamship in carrying passengers and freight. +</P> + +<P> +I may, in conclusion, caution the reader on one point. I should be very +sorry if my suggestion of the advantage of the huge airship leads to +the subject being taken up by any other than skilful engineers or +constructors, able to grapple with all problems relating to the +strength and resistance of materials. As a single example of what is to +be avoided I may mention the project, which sometimes has been mooted, +of making a balloon by pumping the air from a very thin, hollow +receptacle. Such a project is as futile as can well be imagined; no +known substance would begin to resist the necessary pressure. Our +aerial ship must be filled with some substance lighter than air. +Whether heated air would answer the purpose, or whether we should have +to use a gas, is a question for the designer. +</P> + +<P> +To return to our main theme, all should admit that if any hope for the +flying-machine can be entertained, it must be based more on general +faith in what mankind is going to do than upon either reasoning or +experience. We have solved the problem of talking between two widely +separated cities, and of telegraphing from continent to continent and +island to island under all the oceans—therefore we shall solve the +problem of flying. But, as I have already intimated, there is another +great fact of progress which should limit this hope. As an almost +universal rule we have never solved a problem at which our predecessors +have worked in vain, unless through the discovery of some agency of +which they have had no conception. The demonstration that no possible +combination of known substances, known forms of machinery, and known +forms of force can be united in a practicable machine by which men +shall fly long distances through the air, seems to the writer as +complete as it is possible for the demonstration of any physical fact +to be. But let us discover a substance a hundred times as strong as +steel, and with that some form of force hitherto unsuspected which will +enable us to utilize this strength, or let us discover some way of +reversing the law of gravitation so that matter may be repelled by the +earth instead of attracted—then we may have a flying-machine. But we +have every reason to believe that mere ingenious contrivances with our +present means and forms of force will be as vain in the future as they +have been in the past. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR><BR> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Side-lights on Astronomy and Kindred +Fields of Popular Science, by Simon Newcomb + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIDE-LIGHTS ON ASTRONOMY *** + +***** This file should be named 4065-h.htm or 4065-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/6/4065/ + +Produced by Charles Franks, Robert Rowe and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. 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