diff options
Diffstat (limited to '40956-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 40956-h/40956-h.htm | 1745 |
1 files changed, 665 insertions, 1080 deletions
diff --git a/40956-h/40956-h.htm b/40956-h/40956-h.htm index 460252d..092e359 100644 --- a/40956-h/40956-h.htm +++ b/40956-h/40956-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XV Slice V - Joints to Justinian I. @@ -144,46 +144,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 15, Slice 5, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, Slice 5 - "Joints" to "Justinian I." - -Author: Various - -Release Date: October 6, 2012 [EBook #40956] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40956 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -223,24 +184,24 @@ Joints to Justinian I.</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">JOINTS</a> (anatomy)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">JUBILEES, BOOK OF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">JOINTS</a> (engineering)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">JUBILEE YEAR</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">JOINTS</a> (geology)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">JÚCAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">JOINTS</a> (geology)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">JÚCAR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">JOINTURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">JUD, LEO</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">JOINVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">JUDAEA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">JOINVILLE, FRANÇOIS FERDINAND PHILIPPE LOUIS MARIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">JUDAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">JOINVILLE, FRANÇOIS FERDINAND PHILIPPE LOUIS MARIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">JUDAH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">JOINVILLE, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">JUDAS ISCARIOT</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">JOIST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">JUDAS-TREE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">JÓKAI, MAURUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">JUDD, SYLVESTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">JÓKAI, MAURUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">JUDD, SYLVESTER</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">JOKJAKARTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">JUDE, THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">JOLIET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">JUDGE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">JOLLY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">JOLY DE LOTBINIÈRE, SIR HENRI GUSTAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">JUDGES, THE BOOK OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">JOLY DE LOTBINIÈRE, SIR HENRI GUSTAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">JUDGES, THE BOOK OF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">JOMINI, ANTOINE HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">JUDGMENT</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">JOMMELLI, NICCOLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">JUDGMENT DEBTOR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">JONAH</a> (prophet)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">JUDGMENT SUMMONS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">JONAH, RABBI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">JUDICATURE ACTS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">JONAS, JUSTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">JUDITH, THE BOOK OF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">JONATHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">JUDSON, ADONIRAM</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">JONCIÈRES, VICTORIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">JUEL, JENS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">JONCIÈRES, VICTORIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">JUEL, JENS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">JONES, ALFRED GILPIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">JUEL, NIELS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">JUG</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">JONES, EBENEZER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">JUGE, BOFFILLE DE</a></td></tr> @@ -253,14 +214,14 @@ Joints to Justinian I.</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">JONES, MICHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">JUJUY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">JONES, OWEN</a> (Welsh antiquary)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">JUKES, JOSEPH BEETE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">JONES, OWEN</a> (British architect)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">JULIAN</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">JONES, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">JÜLICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">JONES, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">JÃœLICH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">JONES, THOMAS RUPERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">JULIEN, STANISLAS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">JONES, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">JULIUS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">JONES, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">JULLIEN, LOUIS ANTOINE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">JÖNKÖPING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">JULLUNDUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">JÖNKÖPING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">JULLUNDUR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">JONSON, BEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">JULY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">JOPLIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">JUMALA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">JOPPA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">JUMIÈGES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">JOPPA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">JUMIÈGES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">JORDAENS, JACOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">JUMILLA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">JORDAN, CAMILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">JUMNA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">JORDAN, DOROTHEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">JUMPING</a></td></tr> @@ -283,23 +244,23 @@ Joints to Justinian I.</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">JOSHUA, BOOK OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">JUNIUS, FRANZ</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">JOSHUA THE STYLITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">JUNK</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">JOSIAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">JUNKER, WILHELM</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">JÓSIKA, MIKLOS [NICHOLAS]</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">JUNKET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">JÓSIKA, MIKLOS [NICHOLAS]</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">JUNKET</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">JOSIPPON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">JUNO</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">JOSS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">JUNOT, ANDOCHE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">JOST, ISAAK MARKUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">JUNOT, LAURE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">JOTUNHEIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">JUNTA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">JOUBERT, BARTHÉLEMY CATHERINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">JUPITER</a> (Roman deity)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">JOUBERT, BARTHÉLEMY CATHERINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">JUPITER</a> (Roman deity)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">JOUBERT, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">JUPITER</a> (planet)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">JOUBERT, PETRUS JACOBUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">JUR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">JOUFFROY, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">JURA</a> (department of France)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">JOUFFROY, THÉODORE SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">JURA</a> (island)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">JOUFFROY, THÉODORE SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">JURA</a> (island)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">JOUGS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">JURA</a> (mountains)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">JOULE, JAMES PRESCOTT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">JURASSIC</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">JURAT</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">JOURNAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">JURIEN DE LA GRAVIÈRE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDMOND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">JOURNAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">JURIEN DE LA GRAVIÈRE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDMOND</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">JOURNEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">JURIEU, PIERRE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">JOUVENET, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">JURIS</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">JOUY, VICTOR JOSEPH ÉTIENNE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">JURISDICTION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">JOUY, VICTOR JOSEPH ÉTIENNE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">JURISDICTION</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79a">JOVELLANOS, GASPAR MELCHOR DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">JURISPRUDENCE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">JOVELLAR Y SOLER, JOAQUIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">JOVIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">JURJĀNĪ</a></td></tr> @@ -307,7 +268,7 @@ Joints to Justinian I.</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">JOVIUS, PAULUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">JUS PRIMAE NOCTIS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">JOWETT, BENJAMIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">JUS RELICTAE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">JOYEUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">JUSSERAND, JEAN ADRIEN ANTOINE JULES</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">JOYEUSE ENTRÉE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">JUSSIEU, DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">JOYEUSE ENTRÉE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">JUSSIEU, DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">JUSTICE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">JUANGS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">JUSTICE OF THE PEACE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">JUAN MANUEL, DON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">JUSTICIAR</a></td></tr> @@ -315,7 +276,7 @@ Joints to Justinian I.</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">JUBA</a> (kings of Numidia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">JUSTIFICATION</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">JUBA</a> (African river)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">JUSTIN I.</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">JUBBULPORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">JUSTIN II.</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">JUBÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">JUSTIN</a> (Roman historian)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">JUBÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">JUSTIN</a> (Roman historian)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">JUBILEE (or Jubile), YEAR OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">JUSTINIAN I.</a></td></tr> </table> @@ -1118,11 +1079,11 @@ the synovial membrane lining the fibrous capsule of the joint which first and chiefly suffers; the condition is termed <i>synovitis</i>. Synovitis may, however, be due to other causes than mechanical injury, as when the interior of the joint is attacked by the micro-organisms -of pyæmia (blood-poisoning), typhoid fever, pneumonia, rheumatism, +of pyæmia (blood-poisoning), typhoid fever, pneumonia, rheumatism, gonorrhœa or syphilis. Under judicious treatment the synovitis generally clears up, but it may linger on and cause the formation of adhesions which may temporarily stiffen the joint; -or it may, especially in tuberculous, septic or pyæmic infections, +or it may, especially in tuberculous, septic or pyæmic infections, involve the cartilages, ligaments and bones in such serious changes as to destroy the joint, and possibly call for resection or amputation.</p> @@ -1770,7 +1731,7 @@ put to her election between jointure and dower (see <span class="sc"><a href="#a <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JOINVILLE,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> the name of a French noble family of Champagne, -which traced its descent from Étienne de Vaux, who lived at +which traced its descent from Étienne de Vaux, who lived at the beginning of the 11th century. Geoffroi III. (d. 1184), sire de Joinville, who accompanied Henry the Liberal, count of Champagne, to the Holy Land in 1147, received from him the @@ -1780,8 +1741,8 @@ a crusade, leaving no children. He was succeeded by his brother Simon, who married Beatrice of Burgundy, daughter of the count of Auxonne, and had as his son Jean (<i>q.v.</i>), the historian and friend of St Louis. Henri (d. 1374), sire de Joinville, the grandson -of Jean, became count of Vaudémont, through his mother, -Marguerite de Vaudémont. His daughter, Marguerite de Joinville, +of Jean, became count of Vaudémont, through his mother, +Marguerite de Vaudémont. His daughter, Marguerite de Joinville, married in 1393 Ferry of Lorraine (d. 1415), to whom she brought the lands of Joinville. In 1552, Joinville was made into a principality for the house of Lorraine. Mlle de Montpensier, @@ -1797,7 +1758,7 @@ descended from Geoffroi de Joinville, sire de Briquenay, and son of Jean, settled in the kingdom of Naples.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See J. Simonnet, <i>Essai sur l’histoire et la généalogie des seigneurs +<p>See J. Simonnet, <i>Essai sur l’histoire et la généalogie des seigneurs de Joinville</i> (1875); H. F. Delaborde, <i>Jean de Joinville et les seigneurs de Joinville</i> (1894).</p> </div> @@ -1805,9 +1766,9 @@ de Joinville</i> (1894).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOINVILLE, FRANÇOIS FERDINAND PHILIPPE LOUIS +<p><span class="bold">JOINVILLE, FRANÇOIS FERDINAND PHILIPPE LOUIS MARIE,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince de</span> (1818-1900), third son of Louis Phllippe, -duc d’Orléans, afterwards king of the French, was born at Neuilly +duc d’Orléans, afterwards king of the French, was born at Neuilly on the 14th of August 1818. He was educated for the navy, and became lieutenant in 1836. His first conspicuous service was at the bombardment of San Juan de Ulloa, in November 1838, @@ -1847,8 +1808,8 @@ any figure in the assembly, and he resigned his seat in 1876. In deprived him of his rank as vice-admiral, but he continued to live in France, and died in Paris on the 16th of June 1900. He had married in 1843 the princess Francisca, sister of Pedro II., -emperor of Brazil, and had a son, the duc de Penthièvre (born in -1845), also brought up to the navy, and a daughter Françoise +emperor of Brazil, and had a son, the duc de Penthièvre (born in +1845), also brought up to the navy, and a daughter Françoise (1844-  ) who married the duc de Chartres in 1863.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -1857,8 +1818,8 @@ pamphlets on naval affairs and other matters of public interest, which were originally published for the most part either unsigned or pseudonymously, and subsequently republished under his own name after the fall of the Empire. They include <i>Essais sur la marine -française</i> (1853); <i>Études sur la marine</i> (1859 and 1870); <i>La Guerre -d’Amérique, campagne du Potomac</i> (1862 and 1872); <i>Encore un mot +française</i> (1853); <i>Études sur la marine</i> (1859 and 1870); <i>La Guerre +d’Amérique, campagne du Potomac</i> (1862 and 1872); <i>Encore un mot sur Sadowa</i> (Brussels, 1868); and <i>Vieux souvenirs</i> (1894).</p> </div> @@ -1979,7 +1940,7 @@ in these cases the author only repeats what he has heard from others. On his own account he is much more interested in small personal details than in greater things. How the Saracens, when they took him prisoner, he being half dead with a complication -of diseases, kindly left him “un mien couverture d’écarlate” +of diseases, kindly left him “un mien couverture d’écarlate” which his mother had given him, and which he put over him, having made a hole therein and bound it round him with a cord; how when he came to Acre in a pitiable condition an old @@ -2010,7 +1971,7 @@ to enhance the sublime unworldliness of the king. Joinville is a better warrior than Louis, but, while the former frankly prays for his own safety, the latter only thinks of his army’s when they have escaped from the hands of the aliens. One of the king’s -knights boasts that ten thousand pieces have been “forcontés” +knights boasts that ten thousand pieces have been “forcontés” (counted short) to the Saracens; and it is with the utmost trouble that Joinville and the rest can persuade the king that this is a joke, and that the Saracens are much more likely to have got @@ -2036,7 +1997,7 @@ St Louis, from the early collection of anecdotes to the last hearsay sketch of the woeful end at Tunis, with the famous <i>enseignement</i> which is still the best summary of the theoretical duties of a Christian king in medieval times, is such as to take away all -charge of vulgarity or mere <i>commérage</i> from Joinville, a charge +charge of vulgarity or mere <i>commérage</i> from Joinville, a charge to which otherwise he might perhaps have been exposed.</p> <p>The arrangement of the book is, considering its circumstances @@ -2091,7 +2052,7 @@ history which less affects its matter than the vicissitudes to which Froissart has been subjected, but which is hardly less curious in its way. There is no reason for supposing that Joinville indulged in various editions, such as those which have given Kervyn de Lettenhove -and Siméon Luce so much trouble, and which make so vast a +and Siméon Luce so much trouble, and which make so vast a difference between the first and the last redaction of the chronicler of the Hundred Years’ War. Indeed the great age of the seneschal of Champagne, and his intimate first-hand acquaintance with his @@ -2111,7 +2072,7 @@ It does appear in that of Charles V. (1411), but apparently no copy even of this survives. As everybody knows, however, books could be and were multiplied by the process of copying tolerably freely, and a copy at first or second hand which belonged to the fiddler -king René of Provence in the 15th century was used for the first +king René of Provence in the 15th century was used for the first printed edition in 1547. Other editions were printed from other versions, all evidently posterior to the original. But in 1741 the well-known medievalist La Curne de St Palaye found at Lucca a @@ -2139,11 +2100,11 @@ with the text, the value of which is considerable, but contestable. They are accompanied by ample annotations and appendices, with illustrations of great merit and value. Much valuable information appeared for the first time in the edition of F. Michel (1859). To -these may be added A. F. Didot’s <i>Études sur Joinville</i> (1870) and +these may be added A. F. Didot’s <i>Études sur Joinville</i> (1870) and H. F. Delaborde’s <i>Jean de Joinville</i> (1894). A good sketch of the whole subject will be found in Aubertin’s <i>Histoire de la langue et -de la littérature françaises au moyen âge</i>, ii. 196-211; see also Gaston -Paris, <i>Litt. française au moyen âge</i> (1893), and A. Debidour, <i>Les +de la littérature françaises au moyen âge</i>, ii. 196-211; see also Gaston +Paris, <i>Litt. française au moyen âge</i> (1893), and A. Debidour, <i>Les Chroniqueurs</i> (1888). There are English translations by T. Johnes (1807), J. Hutton (1868), Ethel Wedgwood (1906), and (more literally) Sir F. T. Marzials (“Everyman’s Library,” 1908).</p> @@ -2161,26 +2122,26 @@ floor, running from wall to wall, and carrying the bridging joists above and the ceiling joists below (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carpentry</a></span>), <span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span> The Mid. Eng. form of the word was <i>giste</i> or <i>gyste</i>, and was -adapted from O. Fr. <i>giste</i>, modern <i>gîte</i>, a beam supporting the +adapted from O. Fr. <i>giste</i>, modern <i>gîte</i>, a beam supporting the platform of a gun. By origin the word meant that on which -anything lies or rests (<i>gésir</i>, to lie; Lat. <i>jacere</i>).</p> +anything lies or rests (<i>gésir</i>, to lie; Lat. <i>jacere</i>).</p> <p>The English word “gist,” in such phrases as “the gist of the matter,” the main or central point in an argument, is a doublet of joist. According to Skeat, the origin of this meaning is an -O. Fr. proverbial expression, <i>Je sçay bien où gist le lièvre</i>, I know +O. Fr. proverbial expression, <i>Je sçay bien où gist le lièvre</i>, I know well where the hare lies, <i>i.e.</i> I know the real point of the matter.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JÓKAI, MAURUS<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1825-1904), Hungarian novelist, was born -at Rév-Komárom on the 19th of February 1825. His father, -Joseph, was a member of the Asva branch of the ancient Jókay +<p><span class="bold">JÓKAI, MAURUS<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1825-1904), Hungarian novelist, was born +at Rév-Komárom on the 19th of February 1825. His father, +Joseph, was a member of the Asva branch of the ancient Jókay family; his mother was a scion of the noble Pulays. The lad was timid and delicate, and therefore educated at home till his tenth year, when he was sent to Pressburg, subsequently completing -his education at the Calvinist college at Pápá, where he -first met Petöfi, Alexander Kozma, and several other brilliant +his education at the Calvinist college at Pápá, where he +first met Petöfi, Alexander Kozma, and several other brilliant young men who subsequently became famous. His family had meant him to follow the law, his father’s profession, and accordingly the youth, always singularly assiduous, plodded conscientiously @@ -2189,16 +2150,16 @@ and as a full-blown advocate actually succeeded in winning his first case. But the drudgery of a lawyer’s office was uncongenial to the ardently poetical youth, and, encouraged by the encomiums pronounced by the Hungarian Academy upon his -first play, <i>Zsidó fiu</i> (“The Jew Boy”), he flitted, when barely +first play, <i>Zsidó fiu</i> (“The Jew Boy”), he flitted, when barely twenty, to Pest in 1845 with a MS. romance in his pocket; he -was introduced by Petöfi to the literary notabilities of the Hungarian +was introduced by Petöfi to the literary notabilities of the Hungarian capital, and the same year his first notable romance -<i>Hétköznapok</i> (“Working Days”), appeared, first in the columns +<i>Hétköznapok</i> (“Working Days”), appeared, first in the columns of the <i>Pesti Dievatlap</i>, and subsequently, in 1846, in book form. -<i>Hétköznapok</i>, despite its manifest crudities and extravagances, +<i>Hétköznapok</i>, despite its manifest crudities and extravagances, was instantly recognized by all the leading critics as a work of -original genius, and in the following year Jókai was appointed -the editor of <i>Életképek</i>, the leading Hungarian literary journal, +original genius, and in the following year Jókai was appointed +the editor of <i>Életképek</i>, the leading Hungarian literary journal, and gathered round him all the rising talent of the country. On the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 the young editor enthusiastically adopted the national cause, and served it with both pen @@ -2214,14 +2175,14 @@ Yet this was perhaps the most glorious period of his existence, for during it he devoted himself to the rehabilitation of the proscribed and humiliated Magyar language, composing in it no fewer than thirty great romances, besides innumerable volumes of -tales, essays, criticisms and facetiæ. This was the period of such -masterpieces as <i>Erdély Arany Kord</i> (“The Golden Age of Transylvania”), -with its sequel <i>Törökvilág Magyarországon</i> (“The -Turks in Hungary”), <i>Egy Magyar Nábob</i> (“A Hungarian Nabob”), -<i>Karpáthy Zoltán, Janicsárok végnapjai</i> (“The Last Days of the -Janissaries”), <i>Szomorú napok</i> (“Sad Days”). On the re-establishment +tales, essays, criticisms and facetiæ. This was the period of such +masterpieces as <i>Erdély Arany Kord</i> (“The Golden Age of Transylvania”), +with its sequel <i>Törökvilág Magyarországon</i> (“The +Turks in Hungary”), <i>Egy Magyar Nábob</i> (“A Hungarian Nabob”), +<i>Karpáthy Zoltán, Janicsárok végnapjai</i> (“The Last Days of the +Janissaries”), <i>Szomorú napok</i> (“Sad Days”). On the re-establishment of the Hungarian constitution by the Composition of -1867, Jókai took an active part in politics. As a constant supporter +1867, Jókai took an active part in politics. As a constant supporter of the Tisza administration, not only in parliament, where he sat continuously for more than twenty years, but also as the editor of the government organ, <i>Hon</i>, founded by him in @@ -2236,19 +2197,19 @@ Stranger still, none of this work is slipshod, and the best of it deserves to endure. Amongst the finest of his later works may be mentioned the unique and incomparable <i>Az arany ember</i> (“A Man of Gold”)—translated into English under the title of -<i>Timar’s Two Worlds</i>—and <i>A téngerzemü hölgy</i> (“Eyes like the +<i>Timar’s Two Worlds</i>—and <i>A téngerzemü hölgy</i> (“Eyes like the Sea”), the latter of which won the Academy’s prize in 1890. He died at Budapest on the 5th of May 1904; his wife having -predeceased him in 1886. Jókai was an arch-romantic, with a +predeceased him in 1886. Jókai was an arch-romantic, with a perfervid Oriental imagination, and humour of the purest, rarest description. If one can imagine a combination, in almost equal -parts, of Walter Scott, William Beckford, Dumas <i>père</i>, and +parts, of Walter Scott, William Beckford, Dumas <i>père</i>, and Charles Dickens, together with the native originality of an ardent Magyar, one may perhaps form a fair idea of the great Hungarian romancer’s indisputable genius.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Névy László, <i>Jókai Mór</i>; Hegedúsis Sándor, <i>Jókai Mórról</i>; +<p>See Névy László, <i>Jókai Mór</i>; Hegedúsis Sándor, <i>Jókai Mórról</i>; H. W. Temperley, “Maurus Jokai and the Historical Novel,” <i>Contemporary Review</i> (July 1904).</p> </div> @@ -2299,7 +2260,7 @@ being German, 1579 Austrian, 1206 Irish and 951 Swedish; (1910 census) 34,670. In addition there is a large population in the immediate suburbs: that of the township including the city was 27,438 in 1890, and 50,640 in 1910. Joliet is served by -the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago & Alton, the +the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Michigan Central, the Illinois, Iowa & Minnesota, and the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern railways, by interurban electric lines, and is on the Illinois & @@ -2356,21 +2317,21 @@ galliot was, however, a large vessel.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOLY DE LOTBINIÈRE, SIR HENRI GUSTAVE<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1829-1908), +<p><span class="bold">JOLY DE LOTBINIÈRE, SIR HENRI GUSTAVE<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1829-1908), Canadian politician, was born at Epernay in France on the 5th of December 1829. His father, Gaspard Pierre Gustave Joly, the owner of famous vineyards at Epernay, was of Huguenot descent, and married Julie Christine, grand-daughter of Eustache -Gaspard Michel Chartier de Lotbinière, marquis de Lotbinière +Gaspard Michel Chartier de Lotbinière, marquis de Lotbinière (one of Montcalm’s engineers at Quebec); he thus became -seigneur de Lotbinière. Henri Gustave adopted the name of de -Lotbinière in 1888, under a statute of the province of Quebec. +seigneur de Lotbinière. Henri Gustave adopted the name of de +Lotbinière in 1888, under a statute of the province of Quebec. He was educated in Paris, and called to the bar of lower Canada in 1858. On the 6th of May 1856 he married Margaretta Josepha (d. 1904), daughter of Hammond Gowen, of Quebec. At the general election of 1861 he was elected to the house of assembly of the province of Canada as Liberal member for the county of -Lotbinière, and from 1867 to 1874 he represented the same +Lotbinière, and from 1867 to 1874 he represented the same county in the House of Commons, Ottawa, and in the legislative assembly, Quebec. Joly was opposed to confederation and supported Dorion in the stand which he took on this question. @@ -2407,9 +2368,9 @@ regiments of France at the Revolution. For some time he was a clerk in a Paris banking-house, until the outbreak of the Swiss revolution. At the age of nineteen he was appointed to a post on the Swiss headquarters staff, and when scarcely twenty-one to -the command of a battalion. At the peace of Lunéville in 1801 +the command of a battalion. At the peace of Lunéville in 1801 he returned to business life in Paris, but devoted himself chiefly -to preparing the celebrated <i>Traité des grandes opérations militaires</i>, +to preparing the celebrated <i>Traité des grandes opérations militaires</i>, which was published in 1804-1805. Introduced to Marshal Ney, he served in the campaign of Austerlitz as a volunteer aide-de-camp on Ney’s personal staff. In December 1805 @@ -2418,7 +2379,7 @@ made him a colonel in the French service. Ney thereupon made him his principal aide-de-camp. In 1806 Jomini published his views as to the conduct of the impending war with Prussia, and this, along with his knowledge of Frederick the Great’s campaigns, -which he had described in the <i>Traité</i>, led Napoleon to attach him +which he had described in the <i>Traité</i>, led Napoleon to attach him to his own headquarters. He was present with Napoleon at the battle of Jena, and at Eylau won the cross of the Legion of Honour. After the peace of Tilsit he was made chief of the staff @@ -2437,7 +2398,7 @@ which he ended by taking a command on the line of communication. He was thus engaged when the retreat from Moscow and the uprising of Prussia transferred the seat of war to central Germany. He promptly rejoined Ney, took part in the battle -of Lützen and, as chief of the staff of Ney’s group of corps, +of Lützen and, as chief of the staff of Ney’s group of corps, rendered distinguished services before and at the battle of Bautzen, and was recommended for the rank of general of division. Berthier, however, not only erased Jomini’s name from the list, @@ -2503,15 +2464,15 @@ War. Thus one of the earliest of the great military theorists lived to speculate on the tactics of the present day.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Amongst his numerous works the principal, besides the <i>Traité</i>, -are: <i>Histoire critique et militaire des campagnes de la Révolution</i> -(1806; new ed. 1819-1824); <i>Vie politique et militaire de Napoléon -racontée par lui-même</i> (1827) and, perhaps the best known of all his -publications, the theoretical <i>Précis de l’art de la guerre</i> (1836).</p> - -<p>See Ferdinand Lecomte, <i>Le Général Jomini, sa vie et ses écrits</i> -(1861; new ed. 1888); C. A. Saint-Beuve, <i>Le Général Jomini</i> (1869); -A. Pascal, <i>Observations historiques sur la vie, &c., du général Jomini</i> +<p>Amongst his numerous works the principal, besides the <i>Traité</i>, +are: <i>Histoire critique et militaire des campagnes de la Révolution</i> +(1806; new ed. 1819-1824); <i>Vie politique et militaire de Napoléon +racontée par lui-même</i> (1827) and, perhaps the best known of all his +publications, the theoretical <i>Précis de l’art de la guerre</i> (1836).</p> + +<p>See Ferdinand Lecomte, <i>Le Général Jomini, sa vie et ses écrits</i> +(1861; new ed. 1888); C. A. Saint-Beuve, <i>Le Général Jomini</i> (1869); +A. Pascal, <i>Observations historiques sur la vie, &c., du général Jomini</i> (1842).</p> </div> @@ -2521,8 +2482,8 @@ A. Pascal, <i>Observations historiques sur la vie, &c., du général Jomini</i born at Aversa near Naples on the 10th of September 1714. He received his musical education at two of the famous music schools of that capital, being a pupil of the Conservatorio de’ -poveri di Gesù Cristo under Feo, and also of the Conservatorio -della pietà dei Turchini under Prota, Mancini and Leo. His +poveri di Gesù Cristo under Feo, and also of the Conservatorio +della pietà dei Turchini under Prota, Mancini and Leo. His first opera, <i>L’Errore amoroso</i>, was successfully produced at Naples (under a pseudonym) when Jommelli was only twenty-three. Three years afterwards he went to Rome to bring out @@ -2532,7 +2493,7 @@ In the meantime Jommelli’s fame began to spread beyond the limits of his country, and in 1748 he went for the first time to Vienna, where one of his finest operas, <i>Didone</i>, was produced. Three years later he returned to Italy, and in 1753 he obtained -the post of chapel-master to the duke of Württemberg at Stuttgart, +the post of chapel-master to the duke of Württemberg at Stuttgart, which city he made his home for a number of years. In the same year he had ten commissions to write operas for princely courts. In Stuttgart he permitted no operas but his own to be @@ -2631,7 +2592,7 @@ Israel to be swallowed up.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>For further details see T. K. Cheyne, <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, “Jonah”; and his article “Jonah, a Study in Jewish Folklore and Religion,” -<i>Theological Review</i> (1877), pp. 211-219. König, Hastings’s <i>Dict. +<i>Theological Review</i> (1877), pp. 211-219. König, Hastings’s <i>Dict. Bible</i>, “Jonah,” is full but not lucid; C. H. H. Wright, <i>Biblical Studies</i> (1886) argues ably for the symbolic theory. Against Cheyne, see Marti’s work on the <i>Minor Prophets</i> (1894); the “great fish” @@ -2680,7 +2641,7 @@ published in the Hebrew translation of Yehuda Ibn Tibbon <i>Sefer Ha-Schoraschim</i>, ed. W. Bacher, Berlin, 1897). The other writings of Rabbi Jonah, so far as extant, have appeared in an edition of the Arabic original accompanied by a French translation -(<i>Opuscules et traités d’Abou’l Walid</i>, ed. Joseph and Hartwig +(<i>Opuscules et traités d’Abou’l Walid</i>, ed. Joseph and Hartwig Derenbourg, Paris 1880). A few fragments and numerous quotations in his principal book form our only knowledge of the <i>Kitab al-Tashwir</i> (“Book of Refutation”) a controversial work @@ -2700,10 +2661,10 @@ science in the 19th century.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See S. Munk, <i>Notice sur Abou’l Walid</i> (Paris, 1851); W. Bacher, -<i>Leben und Werke des Abulwalid und die Quellen seiner Schrifterklärung</i> -(Leipzig, 1885); id., <i>Aus der Schrifterklärung des Abulwalid</i> (Leipzig, +<i>Leben und Werke des Abulwalid und die Quellen seiner Schrifterklärung</i> +(Leipzig, 1885); id., <i>Aus der Schrifterklärung des Abulwalid</i> (Leipzig, 1889); id., <i>Die hebr.-arabische Sprachvergleichung des Abulwalid</i> -(Vienna, 1884); id., <i>Die hebräisch-neuhebräische und hebr.-aramäische +(Vienna, 1884); id., <i>Die hebräisch-neuhebräische und hebr.-aramäische Sprachvergleichung des Abulwalid</i> (Vienna, 1885).</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. Ba.)</div> @@ -2748,7 +2709,7 @@ where he died. He had been married three times.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See <i>Briefswechsel des Justus Jonas, gesammelt und bearbeitet von G. Kawerau</i> (2 vols., Halle, 1884-1885); Kawerau’s article in Herzog-Hauck, -<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, ed. 3, with bibliography.</p> +<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, ed. 3, with bibliography.</p> </div> @@ -2774,24 +2735,24 @@ took charge of the youth and gave him a place at his court <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JONCIÈRES, VICTORIN<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1839-1903), French composer, was +<p><span class="bold">JONCIÈRES, VICTORIN<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1839-1903), French composer, was born in Paris on the 12th of April 1839. He first devoted his attention to painting, but afterwards took up the serious study of music. He entered the Paris Conservatoire, but did not remain there long, because he had espoused too warmly the cause of Wagner against his professor. He composed the following operas: <i>Sardanapale</i> (1867), <i>Le Dernier jour de -Pompéi</i> (1869), <i>Dimitri</i> (1876), <i>La Reine Berthe</i> (1878), <i>Le +Pompéi</i> (1869), <i>Dimitri</i> (1876), <i>La Reine Berthe</i> (1878), <i>Le Chevalier Jean</i> (1885), <i>Lancelot</i> (1900). He also wrote incidental -music to <i>Hamlet</i>, a symphony, and other works. Joncières’ +music to <i>Hamlet</i>, a symphony, and other works. Joncières’ admiration for Wagner asserted itself rather in a musical than a dramatic sense. The influence of the German master’s earlier -style can be traced in his operas. Joncières, however, adhered +style can be traced in his operas. Joncières, however, adhered to the recognized forms of the French opera and did not model his works according to the later developments of the Wagnerian “music drama.” He may indeed be said to have been at least as much influenced by Gounod as by Wagner. -From 1871 he was musical critic for <i>La Liberté</i>. He died on +From 1871 he was musical critic for <i>La Liberté</i>. He died on the 26th of October 1903.</p> @@ -2917,7 +2878,7 @@ He was a member of several whist clubs, among them the “Cavendish,” and in 1862 appeared his <i>Principles of Whist, stated and explained by</i> “<i>Cavendish</i>,” which was destined to become the leading authority as to the practice of the game. This work -was followed by treatises on the laws of piquet and écarté. +was followed by treatises on the laws of piquet and écarté. “Cavendish” also wrote on billiards, lawn tennis and croquet, and contributed articles on whist and other games to the ninth edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>. “’Cavendish’ was not @@ -2935,7 +2896,7 @@ September 1851 the son of Silvanus Jones, a farmer. He began to earn his living early, his spare time being given to literary pursuits. He was twenty-seven before his first piece, <i>Only Round the Corner</i>, was produced at the Exeter Theatre, but within -four years of his début as a dramatist he scored a great success by +four years of his début as a dramatist he scored a great success by <i>The Silver King</i> (November 1882), written with Henry Herman, a melodrama produced by Wilson Barrett at the Princess’s Theatre. Its financial success enabled the author to write a play “to @@ -2945,7 +2906,7 @@ and religion in a country town, and the introduction of the religious element raised considerable outcry. The author defended himself in an article published in the <i>Nineteenth Century</i> (January 1885), taking for his starting-point a quotation from -the preface to Molière’s <i>Tartuffe</i>. His next serious piece was +the preface to Molière’s <i>Tartuffe</i>. His next serious piece was <i>The Middleman</i> (1889), followed by <i>Judah</i> (1890), both powerful plays, which established his reputation. Later plays were <i>The Dancing Girl</i> (1891), <i>The Crusaders</i> (1891), <i>The Bauble Shop</i> @@ -3017,7 +2978,7 @@ with a large fortune. When quite a young man he had begun to collect articles of <i>vertu</i>. The rooms over his shop in which he at first lived were soon crowded, and even the bedrooms of his new house in Piccadilly were filled with art treasures. His -collection was valued at approximately £250,000. Jones died +collection was valued at approximately £250,000. Jones died in London on the 7th of January 1882, leaving his pictures, furniture and objects of art to the South Kensington Museum.</p> @@ -3132,7 +3093,7 @@ he reached the prime of life, and after an illness, in which he was attended by the queen’s physician, he died on the 18th of July 1792. His body was interred in the St Louis cemetery for foreign Protestants, the funeral expenses being paid from -the private purse of Pierrot François Simmoneau, the king’s +the private purse of Pierrot François Simmoneau, the king’s <span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span> commissary. In the confusion during the following years the burial place of Paul Jones was forgotten; but in June 1899 @@ -3210,7 +3171,7 @@ firm of furriers, to whose business he ultimately succeeded. He had from boyhood studied Welsh literature, and later devoted time and money to its collection. Assisted by Edward William of Glamorgan (Iolo Morganwg) and Dr. Owen Pughe, he -published, at a cost of more than £1000, the well-known <i>Myvyrian +published, at a cost of more than £1000, the well-known <i>Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales</i> (1801-1807), a collection of pieces dating from the 6th to the 14th century. The manuscripts which he had brought together are deposited in the British Museum; @@ -3396,17 +3357,17 @@ Denmark visited England in 1768, bringing with him a life of Nadir Shah in Persian, Jones was requested to translate the MS. into French. The translation appeared in 1770, with an introduction containing a description of Asia and a short -history of Persia. This was followed in the same year by a <i>Traité -sur la poésie orientale</i>, and by a French metrical translation of +history of Persia. This was followed in the same year by a <i>Traité +sur la poésie orientale</i>, and by a French metrical translation of the odes of Hafiz. In 1771 he published a <i>Dissertation sur la -littérature orientale</i>, defending Oxford scholars against the +littérature orientale</i>, defending Oxford scholars against the criticisms made by Anquetil Du Perron in the introduction to his translation of the <i>Zend-Avesta</i>. In the same year appeared his <i>Grammar of the Persian Language</i>. In 1772 Jones published a volume of <i>Poems, Chiefly Translations from Asiatick Languages, together with Two Essays on the Poetry of Eastern Nations and on the Arts commonly called Imitative</i>, and in 1774 a treatise -entitled <i>Poeseos Asiaticæ commentatorium libri sex</i>, which definitely +entitled <i>Poeseos Asiaticæ commentatorium libri sex</i>, which definitely confirmed his authority as an Oriental scholar.</p> <p>Finding that some more financially profitable occupation was @@ -3425,7 +3386,7 @@ chance of success owing to his Liberal opinions, especially on the questions of the American War and of the slave trade.</p> <p>In 1783 was published his translation of the seven ancient -Arabic poems called <i>Moallakât</i>. In the same year he was appointed +Arabic poems called <i>Moallakât</i>. In the same year he was appointed judge of the supreme court of judicature at Calcutta, then “Fort William,” and was knighted. Shortly after his arrival in India he founded, in January 1784, the Bengal Asiatic Society, @@ -3465,11 +3426,11 @@ collected edition of Sir W. Jones’s works.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JÖNKÖPING,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a town of Sweden, capital of the district (<i>län</i>) of -Jönköping, 230 m. S.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900), +<p><span class="bold">JÖNKÖPING,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a town of Sweden, capital of the district (<i>län</i>) of +Jönköping, 230 m. S.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900), 23,143. It occupies a beautiful but somewhat unhealthy position between the southern end of Lake Vetter and two small lakes, -Roksjö and Munksjö. Two quarters of the town, Svenska Mad +Roksjö and Munksjö. Two quarters of the town, Svenska Mad and Tyska Mad, recall the time when the site was a marsh (<i>mad</i>), and buildings were constructed on piles. The residential suburbs among the hills, especially Dunkehallar, are attractive @@ -3477,22 +3438,22 @@ and healthier than the town. The church of St Kristine (<i>c.</i> 1650), the court-houses, town-hall, government buildings, and high school, are noteworthy. The town is one of the leading industrial centres in Sweden. The match manufacture, for which -it is principally famous, was founded by Johan Edvard Lundström -in 1844. The well-known brand of <i>säkerhets-tändstickor</i> +it is principally famous, was founded by Johan Edvard Lundström +in 1844. The well-known brand of <i>säkerhets-tändstickor</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span> (safety-matches) was introduced later. There are also textile -manufactures, paper-factories (on Munksjö), and mechanical +manufactures, paper-factories (on Munksjö), and mechanical works. There is a large fire-arms factory at Huskvarna, 5 m. E. Water-power is supplied here by a fine series of falls. The hill Taberg, 8 m. S., is a mass of magnetic iron ore, rising 410 ft. above the surrounding country, 2950 ft. long and 1475 ft. broad, but the percentage of iron is low as compared with the rich ores of -other parts, and the deposit is little worked. Jönköping is the +other parts, and the deposit is little worked. Jönköping is the seat of one of the three courts of appeal in Sweden.</p> -<p>Jönköping received the earliest extant Swedish charter in 1284 +<p>Jönköping received the earliest extant Swedish charter in 1284 from Magnus I. The castle is mentioned in 1263, when Waldemar -Birgersson married the Danish princess Sophia. Jönköping was +Birgersson married the Danish princess Sophia. Jönköping was afterwards the scene of many events of moment in Scandinavian history—of parliaments in 1357, 1439, and 1599; of the meeting of the Danish and Swedish plenipotentiaries in 1448; and of the @@ -3599,7 +3560,7 @@ to the histrionic conditions of his—perhaps of any—day; but, in any case, it was not long before he found his place in the organism of his company. In 1597, as we know from Henslowe, Jonson undertook to write a play for the lord admiral’s men; -and in the following year he was mentioned by Merès in his +and in the following year he was mentioned by Merès in his <i>Palladis Tamia</i> as one of “the best for tragedy,” without any reference to a connexion on his part with the other branch of the drama. Whether this was a criticism based on material evidence @@ -3690,7 +3651,7 @@ Some more last words were indeed attempted on Jonson’s part, but in the <i>Apologetic Dialogue</i> added to <i>The Poetaster</i> in the edition of 1616, though excluded from that of 1602, he says he intends to turn his attention to tragedy. This intention he apparently -carried out immediately, for in 1602 he received £10 from +carried out immediately, for in 1602 he received £10 from Henslowe for a play, entitled <i>Richard Crookbacke</i>, now lost—unfortunately so, for purposes of comparison in particular, even if it was only, as Fleay conjectures, “an alteration of Marlowe’s @@ -3894,7 +3855,7 @@ revels, besides proposing to confer upon him the honour of knighthood. This honour Jonson (hardly in deference to the memory of Sir Petronel Flash) declined; but there was no reason why he should not gratefully accept the increase of his pension in the -same year (1621) to £200—a temporary increase only, inasmuch +same year (1621) to £200—a temporary increase only, inasmuch as it still stood at 100 marks when afterwards augmented by Charles I.</p> @@ -3928,7 +3889,7 @@ some fruits of his labours in his place, or—as he more succinctly phrased it—“yesterday the barbarous court of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span> aldermen have withdrawn their chandlerly pension for verjuice -and mustard, £33, 6s. 8d.” After being in 1628 arrested by mistake +and mustard, £33, 6s. 8d.” After being in 1628 arrested by mistake on the utterly false charge of having written certain verses in approval of the assassination of Buckingham, he was soon allowed to return to Westminster, where it would appear from a letter of @@ -3942,7 +3903,7 @@ played”; and Jonson defended himself against his critics in his spirited <i>Ode to Himself</i>. The epilogue to <i>The New Inn</i> having dwelt not without dignity upon the neglect which the poet had experienced at the hands of “king and queen,” King Charles -immediately sent the unlucky author a gift of £100, and in +immediately sent the unlucky author a gift of £100, and in response to a further appeal increased his standing salary to the same sum, with the addition of an annual tierce of canary—the poet-laureate’s customary royal gift, though this designation @@ -4138,7 +4099,7 @@ excessive scientific consistency as a comic dramatist. But, by refusing to apply the term “humour” (<i>q.v.</i>) to a mere peculiarity or affectation of manners, and restricting its use to actual or implied differences or distinctions of character, he broadened the -whole basis of English comedy after his fashion, as Molière at a +whole basis of English comedy after his fashion, as Molière at a later date, keeping in closer touch with the common experience of human life, with a lighter hand broadened the basis of French and of modern Western comedy at large. It does not of course @@ -4330,7 +4291,7 @@ Dramas</i> (Louvain, 1905).</p> <p>The criticisms of Ben Jonson are too numerous for cataloguing here; among those by eminent Englishmen should be specially mentioned John Dryden’s, particularly those in his <i>Essay on Dramatic -Poësy</i> (1667-1668; revised 1684), and in the preface to <i>An Evening’s +Poësy</i> (1667-1668; revised 1684), and in the preface to <i>An Evening’s Love, or the Mock Astrologer</i> (1668), and A. C. Swinburne’s <i>Study of Ben Jonson</i> (1889), in which, however, the significance of the <i>Discoveries</i> is misapprehended. See also F. G. Fleay, <i>Biographical Chronicle of @@ -4347,13 +4308,13 @@ has been made above, is Maurice Castelain’s <i>Ben Jonson, l’homme e l’œuvre</i> (1907). Among treatises or essays on particular aspects of his literary work may be mentioned Emil Koeppel’s <i>Quellenstudien zu den Dramen Ben Jonson’s</i>, &c. (1895); the same writer’s “Ben -Jonson’s Wirkung auf zeitgenössische Dramatiker,” &c., in <i>Anglicistische +Jonson’s Wirkung auf zeitgenössische Dramatiker,” &c., in <i>Anglicistische Forschungen</i>, 20 (1906); F. E. Schelling’s <i>Ben Jonson and the Classical School</i> (1898); and as to his masques, A. Soergel, <i>Die -englischen Maskenspiele</i> (1882) and J. Schmidt, “Über Ben Jonson’s +englischen Maskenspiele</i> (1882) and J. Schmidt, “Ãœber Ben Jonson’s Maskenspiele,” in Herrig’s <i>Archiv</i>, &c., xxvii. 51-91. See also H. Reinsch, “Ben Jonson’s Poetik und seine Beziehungen zu -Horaz,” in <i>Münchener Beiträge</i>, 16 (1899).</p> +Horaz,” in <i>Münchener Beiträge</i>, 16 (1899).</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div> @@ -4475,8 +4436,8 @@ oranges (commonly known as Jaffa oranges), grown in the famous and ever-increasing gardens that lie north and east of the town. The chief imports are timber, cotton and other textile goods, tiles, iron, rice, coffee, sugar and petroleum. The -value of the exports in 1900 was estimated at £264,950, the -imports £382,405. Over 10,000 pilgrims, chiefly Russians, and +value of the exports in 1900 was estimated at £264,950, the +imports £382,405. Over 10,000 pilgrims, chiefly Russians, and some three or four thousand tourists land annually at Joppa. The town is the seat of a kaimakam or lieutenant-governor, subordinate to the governor of Jerusalem, and contains vice-consulates @@ -4529,18 +4490,18 @@ next year he was sent by Lyons as a deputy to the Council of Five Hundred. There his eloquence won him consideration. He earnestly supported what he felt to be true freedom, especially in matters of religious worship, though the energetic appeal on -behalf of church bells in his <i>Rapport sur la liberté des cultes</i> +behalf of church bells in his <i>Rapport sur la liberté des cultes</i> procured him the sobriquet of Jordan-Cloche. Proscribed at -the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 18th Fructidor (4th of September 1797) he +the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 18th Fructidor (4th of September 1797) he escaped to Basel. Thence he went to Germany, where he met Goethe. Back again in France by 1800, he boldly published in -1802 his <i>Vrai sens du vote national pour le consulat à vie</i>, in which +1802 his <i>Vrai sens du vote national pour le consulat à vie</i>, in which he exposed the ambitious schemes of Bonaparte. He was unmolested, however, and during the First Empire lived in literary retirement at Lyons with his wife and family, producing for the -Lyons academy occasional papers on the <i>Influence réciproque de -l’éloquence sur la Révolution et de la Révolution sur l’éloquence</i>; -<i>Études sur Klopstock</i>, &c. At the restoration in 1814 he again +Lyons academy occasional papers on the <i>Influence réciproque de +l’éloquence sur la Révolution et de la Révolution sur l’éloquence</i>; +<i>Études sur Klopstock</i>, &c. At the restoration in 1814 he again emerged into public life. By Louis XVIII. he was ennobled and named a councillor of state; and from 1816 he sat in the chamber of deputies as representative of Ain. At first he supported @@ -4552,17 +4513,17 @@ by failing health to resign, Camille Jordan remained at his post till his death at Paris, on the 19th of May 1821.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>To his pen we owe <i>Lettre à M. Lamourette</i> (1791); <i>Histoire de la -conversion d’une dame Parisienne</i> (1792); <i>La Loi et la religion vengées</i> -(1792); <i>Adresse à ses commettants sur la révolution du 4 Septembre +<p>To his pen we owe <i>Lettre à M. Lamourette</i> (1791); <i>Histoire de la +conversion d’une dame Parisienne</i> (1792); <i>La Loi et la religion vengées</i> +(1792); <i>Adresse à ses commettants sur la révolution du 4 Septembre 1797</i> (1797); <i>Sur les troubles de Lyon</i> (1818); <i>La Session de 1817</i> (1818). His <i>Discours</i> were collected in 1818. The “Fragments choisis,” and translations from the German, were published in -<i>L’Abeille française</i>. Besides the various histories of the time, see -further details vol. x. of the <i>Revue encyclopédique</i>; a paper on -Jordan and Madame de Staël, by C. A. Sainte-Beuve, in the <i>Revue -des deux mondes</i> for March 1868 and R. Boubée, “Camille Jordan -à Weimar,” in the <i>Correspondant</i> (1901), ccv. 718-738 and 948-970.</p> +<i>L’Abeille française</i>. Besides the various histories of the time, see +further details vol. x. of the <i>Revue encyclopédique</i>; a paper on +Jordan and Madame de Staël, by C. A. Sainte-Beuve, in the <i>Revue +des deux mondes</i> for March 1868 and R. Boubée, “Camille Jordan +à Weimar,” in the <i>Correspondant</i> (1901), ccv. 718-738 and 948-970.</p> </div> @@ -4772,8 +4733,8 @@ winter torrents that traverse it on their way to the Jordan. As far south as Kurn Surtabeh most of the valley is fertile, and even between that point and the Dead Sea there are several well-watered oases. In summer the heat in the Ghor is intense, -110° F. in the shade, but in winter the temperature falls to 40°, -and sometimes to 32° at night. During the seasons of rain and +110° F. in the shade, but in winter the temperature falls to 40°, +and sometimes to 32° at night. During the seasons of rain and melting snow the river is very full, and liable to freshets. After twelve hours’ rain it has been known to rise from 4 to 5 ft., and to fall as rapidly. In 1257 the Jordan was dammed up @@ -4832,7 +4793,7 @@ the lower slopes of the Judaean heights.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See W. F. Lynch, <i>Narrative of the U.S. Expedition</i>, &c. (1849); H. B. Tristram, <i>Land of Israel</i> (1865); J. Macgregor, <i>Rob Roy on the -Jordan</i> (1870); A. Neubauer, <i>La Géographie du Talmud</i> (1868); +Jordan</i> (1870); A. Neubauer, <i>La Géographie du Talmud</i> (1868); E. Robinson, <i>Physical Geography of the Holy Land</i> (1865); E. Hull, <i>Mount Seir</i>, &c. (1885), and <i>Memoir on the Geology of Arabia Petraea</i>, &c. (1886); G. A. Smith, <i>Hist. Geography of the Holy Land</i> (1894); @@ -4979,7 +4940,7 @@ Jordanes almost exults in the fact that “the nobility of the Amals and the illustrious offspring of so many mighty men have surrendered to a yet more illustrious prince and a yet mightier general, whose fame shall not grow dim through all the -centuries.” (<i>Getica</i>, lx. § 315).</p> +centuries.” (<i>Getica</i>, lx. § 315).</p> <p>This laudation, both of the Goths and of their Byzantine conquerors, may perhaps help us to understand the motive @@ -5088,8 +5049,8 @@ The next of the MSS. in value are the Vaticanus Palatinus of the <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Von Sybel’s essay, <i>De fontibus Jordanis</i> (1838); Schirren’s <i>De ratione quae inter Jordanem et Cassiodorum intercedat -Commentatio</i> (Dorpat, 1858); Kopke’s <i>Die Anfänge des Königthums -beiden Gothen</i> (Berlin, 1859); Dahn’s <i>Die Könige der Germanen</i>, vol. ii. +Commentatio</i> (Dorpat, 1858); Kopke’s <i>Die Anfänge des Königthums +beiden Gothen</i> (Berlin, 1859); Dahn’s <i>Die Könige der Germanen</i>, vol. ii. (Munich, 1861); Ebert’s <i>Geschichte der Christlich-Lateinischen Literatur</i> (Leipsic, 1874); Wattenbach’s <i>Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter</i> (Berlin, 1877); and the introduction of Mommsen to his @@ -5111,7 +5072,7 @@ make it impossible that the pope (538-555) of that name is meant.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JORDANUS<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Jordan Catalani</span>) (<i>fl.</i> 1321-1330), French Dominican missionary and explorer in Asia, was perhaps born -at Séverac in Aveyron, north-east of Toulouse. In 1302 he +at Séverac in Aveyron, north-east of Toulouse. In 1302 he may have accompanied the famous Thomas of Tolentino, via Negropont, to the East; but it is only in 1321 that we definitely discover him in western India, in the company of the same @@ -5175,18 +5136,18 @@ of April 1330 we have no more knowledge of Bishop Jordanus.</p> <p>Of Jordanus’ <i>Epistles</i> there is only one MS., viz. Paris, National Library, 5006 Lat., fol. 182, r. and v.; of the <i>Mirabilia</i> also one MS. only, viz. London, British Museum, <i>Additional MSS.</i>, 19,513, fols. -3, r.-12 r. The text of the <i>Epistles</i> is in Quétif and Echard, <i>Scriptores +3, r.-12 r. The text of the <i>Epistles</i> is in Quétif and Echard, <i>Scriptores ordinis praedicatorum</i>, i. 549-550 (Epistle I.); and in Wadding, <i>Annales minorum</i>, vi. 359-361 (Epistle II.); the text of the <i>Mirabilia</i> in the Paris Geog. Soc.’s <i>Recueil de voyages</i>, iv. 1-68 (1839). The Papal letters referring to Jordanus are in Raynaldus, <i>Annales -ecclesiastici</i>, 1330, §§ lv. and lvii. (April 8; Feb. 14). See also Sir H. +ecclesiastici</i>, 1330, §§ lv. and lvii. (April 8; Feb. 14). See also Sir H. Yule’s <i>Jordanus</i>, a version of the <i>Mirabilia</i> with a commentary (Hakluyt Soc., 1863) and the same editor’s <i>Cathay</i>, giving a version of the <i>Epistles</i>, with a commentary, &c. (Hak. Soc., 1866) pp. 184-185, 192-196, 225-230; F. Kunstmann, “Die Mission in Meliapor und Tana” and “Die Mission in Columbo” in the <i>Historisch-politische -Blätter</i> of Phillips and Görres, xxxvii. 25-38, 135-152 (Munich, 1856), +Blätter</i> of Phillips and Görres, xxxvii. 25-38, 135-152 (Munich, 1856), &c.; C. R. Beazley, <i>Dawn of Modern Geography</i>, iii. 215-235.</p> </div> <div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div> @@ -5216,12 +5177,12 @@ committed an outrage on the sacrament carried in procession; he was placed in the pillory, had his tongue bored, and was banished from Delft for three years. He turned to the Anabaptists, was rebaptized in 1533, and for some years led a -wandering life. He came into relations with John à Lasco, and +wandering life. He came into relations with John à Lasco, and with Menno Simons. Much influenced by Melchior Hofman, -he had no sympathy with the fanatic violence of the Münster +he had no sympathy with the fanatic violence of the Münster faction. At the Buckholdt conference in August 1536 he played a mediating part. His mother, in 1537, suffered martyrdom as -an Anabaptist. Soon after he took up a rôle of his own, having +an Anabaptist. Soon after he took up a rôle of his own, having visions and a gift of prophecy. He adapted in his own interest the theory (constantly recurrent among mystics and innovators, from the time of Abbot Joachim to the present day) of three dispensations, @@ -5270,10 +5231,10 @@ his own practice.</p> <p>The first attempt at a true account of Jorisz was by Gottfried Arnold, in his anonymous <i>Historia</i> (1713), pursued with much fuller material in his <i>Kirchen und Ketzer Historie</i> (best ed. 1740-1742). -See also F. Nippold, in <i>Zeitschrift für die historische Theologie</i> (1863, +See also F. Nippold, in <i>Zeitschrift für die historische Theologie</i> (1863, 1864, 1868); A. van der Linde, in <i>Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie</i> (1881); P. Burckhardt, <i>Basler Biographien</i> (1900); Hegler, in Hauck’s -<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1901), and the bibliography by A. van der Linde, +<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1901), and the bibliography by A. van der Linde, 1867, supplemented by E. Weller, 1869.</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> @@ -5388,7 +5349,7 @@ mother of Jesus. He is represented as a descendant of the house of David, and his genealogy appears in two divergent forms in Matt. i. 1-17 and Luke iii. 23-38. The latter is probably much more complete and accurate in details. The former, -obviously artificial in structure (notice 3 × 14 generations), traces +obviously artificial in structure (notice 3 × 14 generations), traces the Davidic descent through kings, and is governed by an apologetic purpose. Of Joseph’s personal history practically nothing is recorded in the Bible. The facts concerning him common to @@ -5448,7 +5409,7 @@ in the accounts, which have given rise to controversy. Matthew seq.), Luke (xxiii. 50 seq.) say nothing of this, while John (xix. 41) simply says that the body was laid in a sepulchre “nigh at hand.” Both Mark and Luke say that Joseph was a “councillor” -(<span class="grk" title="euschêmôn bouleutês">εὐσχήμων βουλευτής</span>, Mark xv. 43), and the Gospel of +(<span class="grk" title="euschêmôn bouleutês">εὐσχήμων βουλευτής</span>, Mark xv. 43), and the Gospel of Peter describes him as a “friend of Pilate and of the Lord.” This last statement is probably a late invention, and there is considerable difficulty as to “councillor.” That Joseph was a @@ -5506,7 +5467,7 @@ Vienna on the 26th of July 1678, he was educated strictly by Prince Dietrich Otto von Salm, and became a good linguist. In 1687 he received the crown of Hungary, and he was elected king of the Romans in 1690. In 1699 he married Wilhelmina -Amalia, daughter of Duke Frederick of Brunswick-Lüneburg, +Amalia, daughter of Duke Frederick of Brunswick-Lüneburg, by whom he had two daughters. In 1702, on the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession, he saw his only military service. He joined the imperial general Louis of Baden in the @@ -5515,10 +5476,10 @@ into a place of danger he replied that those who were afraid might retire. He succeeded his father as emperor in 1705, and it was his good fortune to govern the Austrian dominions, and to be head of the Empire during the years in which his trusted -general Prince Eugène, either acting alone in Italy or with the +general Prince Eugène, either acting alone in Italy or with the duke of Marlborough in Germany and Flanders, was beating the armies of Louis XIV. During the whole of his reign -Hungary was disturbed by the conflict with Francis Ráckóczy II., +Hungary was disturbed by the conflict with Francis Ráckóczy II., who eventually took refuge in France. The emperor did not himself take the field against the rebels, but he is entitled to a large share of the credit for the restoration of his authority. He @@ -5537,7 +5498,7 @@ Joseph died in Vienna on the 17th of April 1711, of small-pox.</p> <p>See F. Krones von Marchland, <i>Grundriss der Oesterreichischen Geschichte</i> (1882); F. Wagner, <i>Historia Josephi Caesaris</i> (1746); J. C. Herchenhahn, <i>Geschichte der Regierung Kaiser Josephs I.</i> -(1786-1789); C. van Noorden, <i>Europäische Geschichte im 18. Jahrhundert</i> +(1786-1789); C. van Noorden, <i>Europäische Geschichte im 18. Jahrhundert</i> (1870-1882).</p> </div> @@ -5595,7 +5556,7 @@ on her patience and temper, as in the case of the first partition of Poland and the Bavarian War of 1778, but in the last resort the empress spoke the final word. During these wars Joseph travelled much. He met Frederick the Great privately at -Neisse in 1769, and again at Mährisch-Neustadt in 1770. On +Neisse in 1769, and again at Mährisch-Neustadt in 1770. On the second occasion he was accompanied by Prince Kaunitz, whose conversation with Frederick may be said to mark the starting-point of the first partition of Poland. To this and to @@ -5644,7 +5605,7 @@ partition of Turkey and Venice. They also had to be given up in the face of the opposition of neighbours, and in particular of France. Then he resumed his attempts to obtain Bavaria—this time by exchanging it for Belgium—and only provoked the -formation of the <i>Fürstenbund</i> organized by the king of Prussia. +formation of the <i>Fürstenbund</i> organized by the king of Prussia. Finally he joined Russia in an attempt to pillage Turkey. It began on his part by an unsuccessful and discreditable attempt to surprise Belgrade in time of peace, and was followed by the @@ -5689,24 +5650,24 @@ mit seinem Minister in den Oesterreichischen Niederlanden, Ferdinand Graf Trauttmannsdorff 1787-1789</i>, edited by H. Schlitter (1902). Among the lives of Joseph may be mentioned: A. J. Gross-Hoffinger, <i>Geschichte Josephs II.</i> (1847); C. Paganel, <i>Histoire de Joseph II.</i> -(1843; German translation by F. Köhler, 1844); H. Meynert, <i>Kaiser -Joseph II.</i> (1862); A. Beer, <i>Joseph II.</i> (1882); A. Jäger, <i>Kaiser +(1843; German translation by F. Köhler, 1844); H. Meynert, <i>Kaiser +Joseph II.</i> (1862); A. Beer, <i>Joseph II.</i> (1882); A. Jäger, <i>Kaiser Joseph II. und Leopold II.</i> (1867); A. Fournier, <i>Joseph II.</i> (1885); and J. Wendrinski, <i>Kaiser Joseph II.</i> (1880). There is a useful small volume on the emperor by J. Franck Bright (1897). Other books which may be consulted are: G. Wolf, <i>Das Unterrichtswesen in Oesterreich unter Joseph II.</i> (1880), and <i>Oesterreich und Preussen -1780-1790</i> (1880), A. Wolf and H. von Zwiedeneck-Südenhorst, <i>Oesterreich +1780-1790</i> (1880), A. Wolf and H. von Zwiedeneck-Südenhorst, <i>Oesterreich unter Maria Theresia, Joseph II. und Leopold II.</i> (1882-1884); H. Schlitter, <i>Die Regierung Josephs II. in den Oesterreichischen Niederlanden</i> (1900); and <i>Pius VI. und Joseph II. 1782-1784</i> (1894); O. Lorenz, <i>Joseph II. und die Belgische Revolution</i> (1862); and -L. Delplace, <i>Joseph II. et la révolution brabançonne</i> (1890).</p> +L. Delplace, <i>Joseph II. et la révolution brabançonne</i> (1890).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOSEPH, FATHER<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (<span class="sc">François Leclerc du Tremblay</span>) +<p><span class="bold">JOSEPH, FATHER<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (<span class="sc">François Leclerc du Tremblay</span>) (1577-1638), French Capuchin monk, the confidant of Richelieu, was the eldest son of Jean Leclerc du Tremblay, president of the chamber of requests of the parlement of Paris, and of Marie @@ -5718,7 +5679,7 @@ London. In 1599 Baron de Mafflier, by which name he was known at court, renounced the world and entered the Capuchin monastery of Orleans. He embraced the religious life with great ardour, and became a notable preacher and reformer. -In 1606 he aided Antoinette d’Orléans, a nun of Fontevrault, to +In 1606 he aided Antoinette d’Orléans, a nun of Fontevrault, to found the reformed order of the Filles du Calvaire, and wrote a manual of devotion for the nuns. His proselytizing zeal led him to send missionaries throughout the Huguenot centres—he had @@ -5750,7 +5711,7 @@ when on his deathbed and roused the dying man by the words, “Courage, Father Joseph, we have won Breisach,” is apocryphal.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Fagniez, <i>Le Père Joseph et Richelieu</i> (1894), a work based +<p>See Fagniez, <i>Le Père Joseph et Richelieu</i> (1894), a work based largely on original and unpublished sources. Father Joseph, according to this biography, would seem not to have lectured Richelieu in the fashion of the legends, whatever his moral influence @@ -5768,7 +5729,7 @@ languid Creole style, won the affections of the young officer the vicomte de Beauharnais, and, after some family complications, she was married to him. Their married life was not wholly happy, the frivolity of Josephine occasioning her husband -anxiety and jealousy. Two children, Eugène and Hortense, +anxiety and jealousy. Two children, Eugène and Hortense, were the fruit of the union. During Josephine’s second residence in Martinique, whither she proceeded to tend her mother, occurred the first troubles with the slaves, which resulted from @@ -5785,9 +5746,9 @@ of Madame Tallien, to both of whom she was then much attached, brought her into notice, and she was one of the queens of Parisian society in the year 1795, when Napoleon Bonaparte’s services to the French convention in scattering the malcontents -of the capital (13 Vendémiaire, or October 5, 1795) brought +of the capital (13 Vendémiaire, or October 5, 1795) brought him to the front. There is a story that she became known to -Napoleon through a visit paid to him by her son Eugène in order +Napoleon through a visit paid to him by her son Eugène in order to beg his help in procuring the restoration of his father’s sword, but it rests on slender foundations. In any case, it is certain that Bonaparte, however he came to know her, was speedily @@ -5808,7 +5769,7 @@ but at the time when he resided at Montebello (near Milan) in 1797 he still showed great regard for her. During his absence in Egypt in 1798-1799, her relations to an officer, M. Charles, were most compromising; and Bonaparte on his return thought -of divorcing her. Her tears and the entreaties of Eugène and +of divorcing her. Her tears and the entreaties of Eugène and Hortense availed to bring about a reconciliation; and during the period of the consulate (1799-1804) their relations were on the whole happy, though Napoleon’s conduct now gave his @@ -5824,7 +5785,7 @@ Napoleon with religious rites. Despite her care, the emperor procured the omission of one formality, the presence of the parish priest; but at the coronation scene Josephine appeared radiant with triumph over her envious relatives. The august -marriages contracted by her children Eugène and Hortense +marriages contracted by her children Eugène and Hortense seemed to establish her position; but her ceaseless extravagance and, above all, the impossibility that she should bear a son strained the relations between Napoleon and Josephine. She @@ -5845,7 +5806,7 @@ his first abdication (April 11, 1814) it was clear that her end was not far off. The emperor Alexander of Russia and Frederick William III. of Prussia, then in Paris, requested an interview with her. She died on the 24th of May 1814. Her friends, -Mme de Rémusat and others, pointed out that Napoleon’s +Mme de Rémusat and others, pointed out that Napoleon’s good fortune deserted him after the divorce; and it is certain that the Austrian marriage clogged him in several ways. Josephine’s influence was used on behalf of peace and moderation @@ -5854,13 +5815,13 @@ not to execute the duc d’Enghien and not to embroil himself in Spanish affairs in 1808.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See M. A. Le Normand, <i>Mémoires historiques et secrets de Joséphine</i> -(2 vols., 1820); <i>Lettres de Napoléon à Joséphine</i> (1833); J. A. Aubenas, -<i>Hist. de l’impératrice Joséphine</i> (2 vols., 1858-1859); J. Turquan, -<i>L’Impératrice Joséphine</i> (2 vols., 1895-1896); F. Masson, <i>Joséphine</i> +<p>See M. A. Le Normand, <i>Mémoires historiques et secrets de Joséphine</i> +(2 vols., 1820); <i>Lettres de Napoléon à Joséphine</i> (1833); J. A. Aubenas, +<i>Hist. de l’impératrice Joséphine</i> (2 vols., 1858-1859); J. Turquan, +<i>L’Impératrice Joséphine</i> (2 vols., 1895-1896); F. Masson, <i>Joséphine</i> (3 vols., 1899-1902); <i>Napoleon’s Letters to Josephine</i> (1796-1812), translated and edited by H. F. Hall (1903). Also the <i>Memoirs of</i> -Mme. de Rémusat and of Bausset, and P. W. Sergeant, <i>The Empress +Mme. de Rémusat and of Bausset, and P. W. Sergeant, <i>The Empress Josephine</i> (1908).</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div> @@ -5937,7 +5898,7 @@ Josephus may have been involved in his fall and perished under Domitian in 95.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p><span class="sc">Works.</span>—1. <i>The Jewish War</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tou Ioudaïkou polemou">Περὶ τοῦ Ἰουδαϊκοῦ πολέμου</span>), the oldest +<p><span class="sc">Works.</span>—1. <i>The Jewish War</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tou Ioudaïkou polemou">Περὶ τοῦ Ἰουδαϊκοῦ πολέμου</span>), the oldest of Josephus’ extant writings, was written towards the end of Vespasian’s reign (69-79). The Aramaic original has not been preserved; but the Greek version was prepared by Josephus himself in conjunction @@ -5954,7 +5915,7 @@ Titus and Agrippa II. testified (he tells us) to his accuracy. Representatives of the Zealots would probably have protested against his pro-Roman prejudices.</p> -<p>2. <i>The Jewish Antiquities</i> (<span class="grk" title="Ioudaïkê Archaiologia">Ἰουδαϊκὴ Ἀρχαιολογία</span>) covers in twenty +<p>2. <i>The Jewish Antiquities</i> (<span class="grk" title="Ioudaïkê Archaiologia">Ἰουδαϊκὴ Ἀρχαιολογία</span>) covers in twenty books the history of the Jews from the creation of the world to the outbreak of the war with Rome. It was finished in the thirteenth year of Domitian (93). Its purpose was to glorify the Jewish nation @@ -5997,7 +5958,7 @@ permanent value and shows him at his best.</p> of different readings by B. Niese (Berlin, 1887-1895). The Teubner text by Naber is based on this. The translation into English of W. Whiston has been (superficially) revised by A. R. Shilleto -(1889-1890). Schürer (<i>History of the Jewish People</i>) gives a full +(1889-1890). Schürer (<i>History of the Jewish People</i>) gives a full bibliography.</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. H. A. H.)</div> @@ -6006,7 +5967,7 @@ bibliography.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JOSHEKAN,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a small province of Persia covering about 1000 sq. m. Pop. about 5000. It has a yearly revenue of about -£1200, and is held in fief by the family of Bahram Mirza, Muizz +£1200, and is held in fief by the family of Bahram Mirza, Muizz ed Dowleh (d. 1882). Its chief town and the residence of the governor used to be Joshekan-Kali, a large village with fine gardens, formerly famous for its carpets (<i>kali</i>), but now the chief @@ -6364,7 +6325,7 @@ can be perceived from the renewed endeavours to present an adequate outline of the course of events; for a criticism of the most prominent hypotheses see Cheyne, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> art. “Tribes” (col. 5209 seq.); a new theory has been more recently advanced -by E. Meyer (<i>Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme</i>, 1906). But +by E. Meyer (<i>Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme</i>, 1906). But Joshua as a tribal hero does not belong to the earliest phase in the surviving traditions. He has no place in the oldest surviving narratives of the exodus (Wellhausen, Steuernagel); @@ -6424,15 +6385,15 @@ articles on the books of the Pentateuch.</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Heb. <i>Jĕhōshūa</i>; later <i>Jēshūa</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="Iêsous">Ἰησοῦς</span>, whence “Jesus” +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Heb. <i>Jĕhōshūa</i>; later <i>Jēshūa</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="Iêsous">Ἰησοῦς</span>, whence “Jesus” in the A.V. of Heb. iv. 8; another form of the name is Hoshea (Num. xiii. 8, 16). The name may mean “Yah(weh) is wealth, <i>or</i> is (our) war-cry, <i>or</i> saves.” The only extra-biblical notice of Joshua is the inscription of more than doubtful genuineness given by Procopius (<i>Vand.</i> ii. 20), and mentioned also by Moses of Chorene (<i>Hist. Arm.</i> i. 18). It is said to have stood at Tingis in Mauretania, -and to have borne that those who erected it had fled before <span class="grk" title="Iêsous -ho lêstês">Ἰησοῦς ὁ ληστής</span>. For the medieval Samaritan Book of Joshua, see T. +and to have borne that those who erected it had fled before <span class="grk" title="Iêsous +ho lêstês">Ἰησοῦς ὁ ληστής</span>. For the medieval Samaritan Book of Joshua, see T. Juynboll, <i>Chronicum Samaritanum</i> (1846); J. A. Montgomery, <i>The Samaritans</i> (1907), pp. 301 sqq.</p> @@ -6498,7 +6459,7 @@ was probably an orthodox Catholic.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The chronicle was first made known by Assemani’s abridged -Latin version (<i>B. O.</i> i. 260-283) and was edited in 1876 by the abbé +Latin version (<i>B. O.</i> i. 260-283) and was edited in 1876 by the abbé Martin and (with an English translation) by W. Wright in 1882. After an elaborate dedication to a friend—the “priest and abbot” Sergius—a brief recapitulation of events from the death of Julian in @@ -6568,7 +6529,7 @@ upon the condition of religion in Judah in the time of Josiah, it is to be observed that the writings of the contemporary prophets (Jeremiah, Ezekiel) make it very questionable whether the narratives are thoroughly trustworthy for the history of the -king’s measures. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, § 16.)</p> +king’s measures. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, § 16.)</p> <div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> @@ -6582,26 +6543,26 @@ of Judaea, not the Migdol of Exod. xiv. 2; Jer. xliv. 1.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JÓSIKA, MIKLOS [NICHOLAS],<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1794-1865), Hungarian +<p><span class="bold">JÓSIKA, MIKLOS [NICHOLAS],<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1794-1865), Hungarian novelist, was born on the 28th of April 1794 at Torda in Transylvania, of aristocratic and wealthy parents. After finishing -the usual course of legal studies at Kolozsvár (Klausenburg), +the usual course of legal studies at Kolozsvár (Klausenburg), he in 1811 entered the army, joining a cavalry regiment, with which he subsequently took part in the Italian campaign. On the battlefield of Mincio (February 8, 1814) he was promoted to the grade of lieutenant. He served in the campaign against Napoleon, and was present at the entry of the Allied Troops -into Paris (March 31, 1814). In 1818 Jósika resigned his +into Paris (March 31, 1814). In 1818 Jósika resigned his commission, returned to Hungary, and married his first wife <span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span> -Elizabeth Kallai. The union proving an unhappy one, Jósika +Elizabeth Kallai. The union proving an unhappy one, Jósika parted from his wife, settled on his estate at Szurdok in Transylvania, and devoted himself to agricultural and literary pursuits. Drawn into the sphere of politics, he took part in the memorable -Transylvanian diet of 1834. About this time Jósika first began to +Transylvanian diet of 1834. About this time Jósika first began to attract attention as a writer of fiction. In 1836 his <i>Abafi</i> laid the foundation of his literary reputation. This novel gives a vivid -picture of Transylvania in the time of Sigismund Bátori. Jósika +picture of Transylvania in the time of Sigismund Bátori. Jósika was soon afterwards elected member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and of the Kisfaludy Society; of the latter he became, in 1841, director, and in 1842 vice-president. In 1847 he appeared @@ -6611,34 +6572,34 @@ Transylvania with Hungary proper. In the same year he was converted to Protestantism, was formally divorced from his wife, and married Baroness Julia Podmaniczky, herself a writer of considerable merit, with whom he lived happily until his death. -So great was Jósika’s literary activity that by the time of the +So great was Jósika’s literary activity that by the time of the revolution (1848) he had already produced about sixty volumes of romances and novels, besides numerous contributions to periodicals. Both as magnate of the upper house of the Hungarian -diet and by his writings Jósika aided the revolutionary movement, +diet and by his writings Jósika aided the revolutionary movement, with which he was soon personally identified, being chosen one of the members of the committee of national defence. Consequently, -after the capitulation at Világos (Aug. 13, 1849) +after the capitulation at Világos (Aug. 13, 1849) he found it necessary to flee the country, and settled first at Dresden and then, in 1850, at Brussels, where he resumed his literary pursuits anonymously. In 1864 he removed to Dresden, in which city he died on the 27th of February 1865. The -romances of Jósika, written somewhat after the style of Sir +romances of Jósika, written somewhat after the style of Sir Walter Scott, are chiefly of an historical and social-political character, his materials being drawn almost entirely from the annals of his own country. Among his more important works may be specially mentioned, besides <i>Abafi</i>—<i>The Poet Zrinyi</i> -(1843); <i>The Last of the Bátoris</i> (1837); <i>The Bohemians in Hungary</i> -(1839); <i>Esther</i> (1853); <i>Francis Rákóczy II.</i> (1861); and <i>A Végváriak</i>, -a tale of the time of the Transylvanian prince Bethlen Gábor, -1864. Many of Jósika’s novels have been translated into +(1843); <i>The Last of the Bátoris</i> (1837); <i>The Bohemians in Hungary</i> +(1839); <i>Esther</i> (1853); <i>Francis Rákóczy II.</i> (1861); and <i>A Végváriak</i>, +a tale of the time of the Transylvanian prince Bethlen Gábor, +1864. Many of Jósika’s novels have been translated into German.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See K. Moenich and S. Vutkovich, <i>Magyar Irók Névtára</i> (1876); -M. Jókai, “Jósika Miklós Emlékezete,” <i>A Kisfaludy-Társaság Evlapjai, -Új folyam</i>, vol. iii. (1869); G. W. Steinacker, <i>Ungarische -Lyriker</i> (1874). Cf. also Jósika’s autobiography—<i>Emlékirat</i>, vol. iv. +<p>See K. Moenich and S. Vutkovich, <i>Magyar Irók Névtára</i> (1876); +M. Jókai, “Jósika Miklós Emlékezete,” <i>A Kisfaludy-Társaság Evlapjai, +Új folyam</i>, vol. iii. (1869); G. W. Steinacker, <i>Ungarische +Lyriker</i> (1874). Cf. also Jósika’s autobiography—<i>Emlékirat</i>, vol. iv. (1865).</p> </div> @@ -6695,12 +6656,12 @@ by English seamen from Batavia.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JOST, ISAAK MARKUS<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1793-1860), Jewish historical writer, was born on the 22nd of February 1793 at Bernburg, and studied -at the universities of Göttingen and Berlin. In Berlin he began +at the universities of Göttingen and Berlin. In Berlin he began to teach, and in 1835 received the appointment of upper master in the Jewish commercial school (called the Philanthropin) at Frankfort-on-the-Main. Here he remained until his death, on the 22nd of November 1860. The work by which he is chiefly -known is <i>Geschichte der Israeliten seit der Zeit der Maccabäer</i>, +known is <i>Geschichte der Israeliten seit der Zeit der Maccabäer</i>, in 9 vols. (1820-1829), which was afterwards supplemented by <i>Neuere Geschichte der Israeliten von 1815-1845</i> (1846-1847), and <i>Geschichte des Judenthums und seiner Sekten</i> (1857-1859). He also @@ -6721,12 +6682,12 @@ he contributed extensively to periodicals.</p> southern Norway, lying between Gudbrandsdal on the east and Jostedalsbrae and the head of the Sogne fjord on the west. Within an area of about 950 sq. m. it contains the highest mountain -in the Scandinavian Peninsula—Galdhöpiggen (8399 ft.)—and +in the Scandinavian Peninsula—Galdhöpiggen (8399 ft.)—and several others but little inferior. Such are Glittertind or Glitretind (8380), and Memurutind (7966), which face -Galdhöpiggen across the northward-sloping Visdal; Knutshulstind +Galdhöpiggen across the northward-sloping Visdal; Knutshulstind (7812) and several other peaks exceeding 7000 ft., to the -south, between lakes Gjende and Bygdin, and Skagastölstind +south, between lakes Gjende and Bygdin, and Skagastölstind (7723) in the west of the region, above the Utladal, the chief summit of the magnificent Horunger. The upper parts of the main valleys are of characteristic form, not ending in lofty @@ -6741,7 +6702,7 @@ rough lodging and difficult travelling.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOUBERT, BARTHÉLEMY CATHERINE<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1769-1799), French +<p><span class="bold">JOUBERT, BARTHÉLEMY CATHERINE<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1769-1799), French general, the son of an advocate, was born at Pont de Vaux (Ain) on the 14th of April 1769. In 1784 he ran away from school to enlist in the artillery, but was brought back and sent to study @@ -6794,19 +6755,19 @@ at Pont de Vaux.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Guilbert, <i>Notice sur la vie de B. C. Joubert</i>; Chevrier, <i>Le -Général Joubert d’après sa correspondance</i> (2nd ed. 1884).</p> +Général Joubert d’après sa correspondance</i> (2nd ed. 1884).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JOUBERT, JOSEPH<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1754-1824), French moralist, was born -at Montignac (Corrèze) on the 6th of May 1754. After completing +at Montignac (Corrèze) on the 6th of May 1754. After completing his studies at Toulouse he spent some years there as a teacher. His delicate health proved unequal to the task, and after two years spent at home in study Joubert went to Paris at the beginning of 1778. He allied himself with the chiefs of the philosophic party, especially with Diderot, of whom he was in some -sort a disciple, but his closest friendship was with the abbé de +sort a disciple, but his closest friendship was with the abbé de Fontanes. In 1790 he was recalled to his native place to act as <i>juge de paix</i>, and carried out the duties of his office with great fidelity. He had made the acquaintance of Mme de Beaumont @@ -6814,17 +6775,17 @@ in a Burgundian cottage where she had taken refuge from the Terror, and it was under her inspiration that Joubert’s genius was at its best. The atmosphere of serenity and affection with which she surrounded him seemed necessary to the development -of what Sainte-Beuve calls his “esprit ailé, ami du ciel et des +of what Sainte-Beuve calls his “esprit ailé, ami du ciel et des hauteurs.” Her death in 1803 was a great blow to him, and his literary activity, never great, declined from that time. In 1809, at the solicitation of Joseph de Bonald, he was made an inspector-general of education, and his professional duties practically absorbed his interests during the rest of his life. He died on the 3rd of May 1824. His manuscripts were entrusted by his widow -to Chateaubriand, who published a selection of <i>Pensées</i> from +to Chateaubriand, who published a selection of <i>Pensées</i> from them in 1838 for private circulation. A more complete edition was published by Joubert’s nephew, Paul de Raynal, under the -title <i>Pensées, essais, maximes et correspondance</i> (2 vols. 1842). +title <i>Pensées, essais, maximes et correspondance</i> (2 vols. 1842). A selection of letters addressed to Joubert was published in 1883. Joubert constantly strove after perfection, and the small quantity of his work was partly due to his desire to find adequate and @@ -6835,7 +6796,7 @@ and morals.</p> <p>If Joubert’s readers in England are not numerous, he is well known at second hand through the sympathetic essay devoted to him in Matthew Arnold’s <i>Essays in Criticism</i> (1st series). See -Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. i.; <i>Portraits littéraires</i>, vol. ii.; +Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. i.; <i>Portraits littéraires</i>, vol. ii.; and a notice by Paul de Raynal, prefixed to the edition of 1842.</p> </div> @@ -6907,7 +6868,7 @@ and a brave and honourable opponent.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JOUFFROY, JEAN<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1412-1473), French prelate and diplomatist, -was born at Luxeuil (Haute-Saône). After entering +was born at Luxeuil (Haute-Saône). After entering the Benedictine order and teaching at the university of Paris from 1435 to 1438, he became almoner to Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, who entrusted him with diplomatic missions in @@ -6934,7 +6895,7 @@ year.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOUFFROY, THÉODORE SIMON<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1706-1842), French philosopher, +<p><span class="bold">JOUFFROY, THÉODORE SIMON<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1706-1842), French philosopher, was born at Pontets, near Mouthe, department of Doubs. In his tenth year, his father, a tax-gatherer, sent him to an uncle at Pontarlier, under whom he commenced his classical studies. @@ -6944,8 +6905,8 @@ there came under the influence of Victor Cousin, and in 1817 he was appointed assistant professor of philosophy at the normal and Bourbon schools. Three years later, being thrown upon his own resources, he began a course of lectures in his own house, -and formed literary connexions with <i>Le Courrier français</i>, <i>Le -Globe</i>, <i>L’Encyclopédie moderne</i>, and <i>La Revue européenne</i>. The +and formed literary connexions with <i>Le Courrier français</i>, <i>Le +Globe</i>, <i>L’Encyclopédie moderne</i>, and <i>La Revue européenne</i>. The variety of his pursuits at this time carried him over the whole field of ancient and modern literature. But he was chiefly attracted to the philosophical system represented by Reid and @@ -6966,7 +6927,7 @@ was ill-suited to him. Yet he attended to his duties conscientiously, and ultimately broke his health in their discharge. In 1833 he was appointed professor of Greek and Roman philosophy at the college of France and a member of the Academy of -Sciences; he then published the <i>Mélanges philosophiques</i> (4th ed. +Sciences; he then published the <i>Mélanges philosophiques</i> (4th ed. 1866; Eng. trans. G. Ripley, Boston, 1835 and 1838), a collection of fugitive papers in criticism and philosophy and history. In them is foreshadowed all that he afterwards worked out in @@ -7002,8 +6963,8 @@ failed and he went to Italy, where he continued to translate the Scottish philosophers. On his return he became librarian to the university, and took the chair of recent philosophy at the faculty of letters. He died in Paris on the 4th of February 1842. After -his death were published <i>Nouveaux mélanges philosophiques</i> -(3rd ed. 1872) and <i>Cours d’esthétique</i> (3rd ed. 1875). The former +his death were published <i>Nouveaux mélanges philosophiques</i> +(3rd ed. 1872) and <i>Cours d’esthétique</i> (3rd ed. 1875). The former contributed nothing new to the system except a more emphatic statement of the distinction between psychology and physiology. The latter formulated his theory of beauty.</p> @@ -7020,10 +6981,10 @@ vitiated by loose reading of the philosophers he interpreted, he did serviceable, even memorable work.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See L. Lévy Bruhl, <i>History of Modern Philos. in France</i> (1899), -pp. 349-357; C. J. Tissot, <i>Th. Jouffroy: sa vie et ses écrits</i> (1876); +<p>See L. Lévy Bruhl, <i>History of Modern Philos. in France</i> (1899), +pp. 349-357; C. J. Tissot, <i>Th. Jouffroy: sa vie et ses écrits</i> (1876); J. P. Damiron, <i>Essai sur l’histoire de la philos. en France au xix<span class="sp">e</span> -siècle</i> (1846).</p> +siècle</i> (1846).</p> </div> @@ -7095,7 +7056,7 @@ the frictional method; the latter, however, was repeated with every precaution, and again indicated 772.55 foot-pounds as the quantity of work that must be expended at sea-level in the latitude of Greenwich in order to raise the temperature of one -pound of water, weighed <i>in vacuo</i>, from 60° to 61° F. Ultimately +pound of water, weighed <i>in vacuo</i>, from 60° to 61° F. Ultimately the discrepancy was traced to an error which, not by Joule’s fault, vitiated the determination by the electrical method, for it was found that the standard ohm, as actually defined by the @@ -7149,7 +7110,7 @@ Wars</a></span>). Soon afterwards he became a “suspect,” the moderation of his political opinions and his misgivings as to the future conduct of the war being equally distasteful to the truculent and enthusiastic Committee of Public Safety. Warned -in time by his friend Carnot and by Barère, he avoided arrest and +in time by his friend Carnot and by Barère, he avoided arrest and resumed his business as a silk-mercer in Limoges. He was soon reinstated, and early in 1794 was appointed commander-in-chief of the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse. After repeated attempts to @@ -7171,7 +7132,7 @@ and Styria. The campaign began brilliantly, the Austrians under the Archduke Charles being driven back by Moreau and Jourdan almost to the Austrian frontier. But the archduke, slipping away from Moreau, threw his whole weight on Jourdan, -who was defeated at Amberg and Würzburg, and forced over the +who was defeated at Amberg and Würzburg, and forced over the Rhine after a severe rearguard action, which cost the life of Marceau. Moreau had to fall back in turn, and, apart from Bonaparte’s marvellous campaign in Italy, the operations of the @@ -7184,11 +7145,11 @@ framer of the famous conscription law of 1798. When the war was renewed in 1799 Jourdan was placed at the head of the army on the Rhine, but again underwent defeat at the hands of the archduke Charles at Stockach (March 25), and, disappointed and -broken in health, handed over the command to Masséna. He +broken in health, handed over the command to Masséna. He at once resumed his political duties, and was a prominent opponent -of the <i>coup d’état</i> of 18 Brumaire, after which he was expelled +of the <i>coup d’état</i> of 18 Brumaire, after which he was expelled from the Council of the Five Hundred. Soon, however, he -became formally reconciled to the new régime, and accepted +became formally reconciled to the new régime, and accepted from Napoleon fresh military and civil employment. In 1800 he became inspector-general of cavalry and infantry and representative of French interests in the Cisalpine Republic, and in @@ -7215,8 +7176,8 @@ spent. Marshal Jourdan died on the 23rd of November 1833, and was buried in the Invalides.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>He wrote <i>Opérations de l’armée du Danube</i> (1799); <i>Mémoires pour -servir à l’histoire sur la campagne de 1796</i> (1819); and unpublished +<p>He wrote <i>Opérations de l’armée du Danube</i> (1799); <i>Mémoires pour +servir à l’histoire sur la campagne de 1796</i> (1819); and unpublished personal memoirs.</p> </div> @@ -7266,7 +7227,7 @@ firmly established, has not been explained.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOURNEY<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (through O. Fr. <i>jornee</i> or <i>journee</i>, mod. Fr. <i>journée</i>, +<p><span class="bold">JOURNEY<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (through O. Fr. <i>jornee</i> or <i>journee</i>, mod. Fr. <i>journée</i>, from med. Lat. <i>diurnata</i>, Lat. <i>diurnus</i>, of or belonging to <i>dies</i>, day), properly that which occupies a day in its performance, and so a day’s work, particularly a day’s travel, and the distance @@ -7293,7 +7254,7 @@ Rouen, came of a family of artists, one of whom had taught Poussin. He early showed remarkable aptitude for his profession, and, on arriving in Paris, attracted the attention of Le Brun, by whom he was employed at Versailles, and under whose -auspices, in 1675, he became a member of the Académie Royale, +auspices, in 1675, he became a member of the Académie Royale, of which he was elected professor in 1681, and one of the four perpetual rectors in 1707. The great mass of works that he executed, chiefly in Paris, many of which, including his celebrated @@ -7306,13 +7267,13 @@ April 1717, having been forced by paralysis during the last four years of his life to work with his left hand.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Mém. inéd. acad. roy. de p. et de sc.</i>, 1854, and D’Argenville, +<p>See <i>Mém. inéd. acad. roy. de p. et de sc.</i>, 1854, and D’Argenville, <i>Vies des peintres</i>.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOUY, VICTOR JOSEPH ÉTIENNE DE<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1764-1846), French +<p><span class="bold">JOUY, VICTOR JOSEPH ÉTIENNE DE<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1764-1846), French dramatist, was born at Jouy, near Versailles, on the 12th of September 1764. At the age of eighteen he received a commission in the army, and sailed for South America in the company @@ -7337,11 +7298,11 @@ nights, and was characterized by the Institute of France as the best lyric drama of the day. Other operas followed, but none obtained so great a success. He published in the <i>Gazette de France</i> a series of satirical sketches of Parisian life, collected -under the title of <i>L’Ermite de la Chaussée d’Antin, ou observations -sur les mœurs et les usages français au commencement du xix<span class="sp">e</span> -siècle</i> (1812-1814, 5 vols.), which was warmly received. In 1821 +under the title of <i>L’Ermite de la Chaussée d’Antin, ou observations +sur les mœurs et les usages français au commencement du xix<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i> (1812-1814, 5 vols.), which was warmly received. In 1821 his tragedy of <i>Sylla</i> gained a triumph due in part to the genius -of Talma, who had studied the title-rôle from Napoleon. Under +of Talma, who had studied the title-rôle from Napoleon. Under the Restoration Jouy consistently fought for the cause of freedom, and if his work was overrated by his contemporaries, they were probably influenced by their respect for the author himself. He @@ -7351,8 +7312,8 @@ on the 4th of September 1846.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Out of the long list of his operas, tragedies and miscellaneous writings may be mentioned, <i>Fernand Cortez</i> (1809), opera, in collaboration -with J. E. Esménard, music by Spontini; <i>Tippo Saïb</i>, -tragedy (1813); <i>Bélisaire</i>, tragedy (1818); <i>Les Hermites en prison</i> +with J. E. Esménard, music by Spontini; <i>Tippo Saïb</i>, +tragedy (1813); <i>Bélisaire</i>, tragedy (1818); <i>Les Hermites en prison</i> (1823), written in collaboration with Antoine Jay, like himself a political prisoner; <i>Guillaume Tell</i> (1829), with Hippolyte Bis, for the music of Rossini. Jouy was also one of the founders of the @@ -7364,14 +7325,14 @@ the music of Rossini. Jouy was also one of the founders of the <p><span class="bold">JOVELLANOS<a name="ar79a" id="ar79a"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Jove Llanos</span>), <span class="bold">GASPAR MELCHOR DE</span> (1744-1811), Spanish statesman and author, was born at Gijon in Asturias, Spain, on the 5th of January 1744. Selecting law -as his profession, he studied at Oviedo, Avila, and Alcalá, and +as his profession, he studied at Oviedo, Avila, and Alcalá, and in 1767 became criminal judge at Seville. His integrity and ability were rewarded in 1778 by a judgeship in Madrid, and in 1780 by appointment to the council of military orders. In the capital Jovellanos took a good place in the literary and scientific societies; for the society of friends of the country he wrote in 1787 his most valuable work, <i>Informe sobre un proyecto de ley -agraria</i>. Involved in the disgrace of his friend, François +agraria</i>. Involved in the disgrace of his friend, François Cabarrus, Jovellanos spent the years 1790 to 1797 in a sort of banishment at Gijon, engaged in literary work and in founding the Asturian institution for agricultural, industrial, social and @@ -7414,7 +7375,7 @@ politicas</i> (1801), suppressed in Spain, and translated into French, (1831-1832) in 7 vols., and another at Barcelona (1839).</p> <p>See <i>Noticias historicas de Don G. M. de Jovellanos</i> (1812), and -<i>Memorias para la vida del Señor ... Jovellanos</i>, by J. A. C. Bermudez +<i>Memorias para la vida del Señor ... Jovellanos</i>, by J. A. C. Bermudez (1814).</p> </div> @@ -7434,7 +7395,7 @@ of Madrid, and rose to the rank of general of division in 1866. Jovellar adhered to the revolution, and King Amadeus made him a lieutenant-general in 1872. He absented himself from Spain when the federal republic was proclaimed, and returned -in the autumn of 1873, when Castelár sent him to Cuba as +in the autumn of 1873, when Castelár sent him to Cuba as governor-general. In 1874 Jovellar came back to the Peninsula, and was in command of the Army of the Centre against the Carlists when Marshal Campos went to Sagunto to proclaim @@ -7481,14 +7442,14 @@ rests on insufficient evidence. Jovian entertained a great regard for Athanasius, whom he reinstated on the archiepiscopal throne, desiring him to draw up a statement of the Catholic faith. In Syriac literature Jovian became the hero of a Christian romance -(G. Hoffmann, <i>Julianus der Abtrünnige</i>, 1880).</p> +(G. Hoffmann, <i>Julianus der Abtrünnige</i>, 1880).</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Ammianus Marcellinus, xxv. 5-10; J. P. de la Bléterie, <i>Histoire +<p>See Ammianus Marcellinus, xxv. 5-10; J. P. de la Bléterie, <i>Histoire de Jovien</i> (1740); Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, chs. xxiv., xxv.; J. Wordsworth in Smith and Wace’s <i>Dictionary of Christian -Biography</i>; H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, vol. ii. -(1887); A. de Broglie, <i>L’Église et l’empire romain au iv<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (4th ed. +Biography</i>; H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, vol. ii. +(1887); A. de Broglie, <i>L’Église et l’empire romain au iv<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (4th ed. 1882). For the relations of Rome and Persia see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>.</p> </div> @@ -7687,7 +7648,7 @@ de legatione Basilii Magni principis Moscoviae</i> (Rome, 1525); (11) (Venice, 1548); (13) <i>De piscibus romanis</i> (Rome, 1524); (14) <i>Descriptiones quotquot extant regionum atque locorum</i> (Basel, 1571). 2. Works in Italian: (1) <i>Dialogo delle imprese militari et amorose</i> (Rome, -1555); (2) <i>Commentarî delle cose dei Turchi</i> (Venice, 1541); (3) <i>Lettere +1555); (2) <i>Commentarî delle cose dei Turchi</i> (Venice, 1541); (3) <i>Lettere volgari</i> (Venice, 1560). Some minor works and numerous reprints of those cited have been omitted from this list; and it should also be mentioned that some of the lives with additional matter, are @@ -7697,7 +7658,7 @@ included in the <i>Vitae illustrium virorum</i> (Basel, 1576).</p> <p>The best and most complete edition of Giovio’s works is that of Basel (1678). For his life see Giuseppe Sanesi, “Alcuni osservazioni e notizie intorno a tre storici minori del cinquecento—Giovio; Nerli, -Segni” (in <i>Archivio Storico Italiano</i>, 5th series, vol. xxiii.); Eug. Müntz, +Segni” (in <i>Archivio Storico Italiano</i>, 5th series, vol. xxiii.); Eug. Müntz, <i>Sul museo di ritratti composto da Paolo Giovio</i> (ibid., vol. xix.).</p> </div> @@ -7763,7 +7724,7 @@ of his salary as Greek professor was withheld. This petty persecution was continued until 1865, when E. A. Freeman and Charles Elton discovered by historical research that a breach of the conditions of the professorship had occurred, and Christ Church -raised the endowment from £40 a year to £500. Meanwhile +raised the endowment from £40 a year to £500. Meanwhile Jowett’s influence at Oxford had steadily increased. It culminated in 1864, when the country clergy, provoked by the final acquittal of the essayists, had voted in convocation against the @@ -7894,11 +7855,11 @@ Lewis Campbell (1897); <i>Benjamin Jowett</i>, by Lionel Tollemache <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOYEUSE,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a small town in the department of Ardèche, France, -situated on the Baume, a tributary of the Ardèche, is historically +<p><span class="bold">JOYEUSE,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a small town in the department of Ardèche, France, +situated on the Baume, a tributary of the Ardèche, is historically important as having been the seat of a noble French family which derived its name from it. The lordship of Joyeuse came, -in the 13th century, into the possession of the house of Châteauneuf-Randon, +in the 13th century, into the possession of the house of Châteauneuf-Randon, and was made into a viscountship in 1432. Guillaume, viscount of Joyeuse, was bishop of Alet, but afterwards left the church, and became a marshal of France; he died @@ -7906,17 +7867,17 @@ in 1592. His eldest son Anne de Joyeuse (1561-1587), was one of the favourites of Henry III. of France, who created him duke <span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span> and peer (1581), admiral of France (1582), and governor of -Normandy (1586), and married him to Marguerite de Lorraine-Vaudémont, +Normandy (1586), and married him to Marguerite de Lorraine-Vaudémont, younger sister of the queen. He gained several successes against the Huguenots, but was recalled by court intrigues at an inopportune moment, and when he marched a second time against Henry of Navarre he was defeated and -killed at Coutras. Guillaume had three other sons: François +killed at Coutras. Guillaume had three other sons: François de Joyeuse (d. 1615), cardinal and archbishop of Narbonne, Toulouse and Rouen, who brought about the reconciliation of Henry IV. with the pope; Henri, count of Bouchage, and later duke of Joyeuse, who first entered the army, then became a -Capuchin under the name of Père Ange, left the church and +Capuchin under the name of Père Ange, left the church and became a marshal of France, and finally re-entered the church, dying in 1608; Antoine Scipion, grand prior of Toulouse in the order of the knights of Malta, who was one of the leaders in the @@ -7924,15 +7885,15 @@ League, and died in the retreat of Villemur (1592). Henriette Catherine de Joyeuse, daughter of Henri, married in 1611 Charles of Lorraine, duke of Guise, to whom she brought the duchy of Joyeuse. On the death of her great-grandson, -François Joseph de Lorraine, duke of Guise, in 1675, without +François Joseph de Lorraine, duke of Guise, in 1675, without issue, the duchy of Joyeuse was declared extinct, but it was revived in 1714, in favour of Louis de Melun, prince of -Épinoy.</p> +Épinoy.</p> <div class="author">(M. P.*)</div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOYEUSE ENTRÉE,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a famous charter of liberty granted to +<p><span class="bold">JOYEUSE ENTRÉE,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a famous charter of liberty granted to Brabant by Duke John III. in 1354. John summoned the representatives of the cities of the duchy to Louvain to announce to them the marriage of his daughter and heiress Jeanne of Brabant @@ -7942,7 +7903,7 @@ dynasty. John III. died in 1355, and Wenceslaus and Jeanne on the occasion of their state entry into Brussels solemnly swore to observe all the provisions of the charter, which had been drawn up. From the occasion on which it was first proclaimed -this charter has since been known in history as <i>La Joyeuse Entrée</i>. +this charter has since been known in history as <i>La Joyeuse Entrée</i>. By this document the dukes of Brabant undertook to maintain the integrity of the duchy, and not to wage war, make treaties, or impose taxes without the consent of their subjects, as represented @@ -7952,17 +7913,17 @@ model for other provinces and the bulwark of the liberties of the Netherlands. Its provisions were modified from time to time, but remained practically unchanged from the reign of Charles V. onwards. The ill-advised attempt of the emperor Joseph II. -in his reforming zeal to abrogate the <i>Joyeuse Entrée</i> caused a +in his reforming zeal to abrogate the <i>Joyeuse Entrée</i> caused a revolt in Brabant, before which he had to yield.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See E. Poullet, <i>La Joyeuse entrée, ou constitution Brabançonne</i> (1862).</p> +<p>See E. Poullet, <i>La Joyeuse entrée, ou constitution Brabançonne</i> (1862).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a small group in the South -Pacific Ocean, between 33° and 34° S., 80° W., belonging to +Pacific Ocean, between 33° and 34° S., 80° W., belonging to Chile and included in the province of Valparaiso. The main island is called <i>Mas-a-Tierra</i> (Span. “more to land”) to distinguish it from a smaller island, <i>Mas-a-Fuera</i> (“more to sea”), @@ -8082,7 +8043,7 @@ at the court of his cousin, Sancho IV., with whom his precocious ability made him a favourite. In 1294 he was appointed <i>adelantado</i> of Murcia and in his fourteenth year served against the Moors at Granada. In 1304 he was entrusted by the queen-mother, -Doña Maria de Molina, to conduct political negotiations +Doña Maria de Molina, to conduct political negotiations with James II. of Aragon on behalf of her son, Ferdinand IV., then under age. His diplomacy was successful and his marriage to James II.’s daughter, Constantina, added to his prestige. @@ -8096,8 +8057,8 @@ and removed his father-in-law from the scene by nominating him of Constanza, whom he imprisoned at Toro, drove Don Juan Manuel into opposition, and a long period of civil war followed. On the death of his wife Constantina in 1327, Don Juan Manuel -strengthened his position by marrying Doña Blanca de la Cerda; -he secured the support of Juan Nuñez, <i>alférez</i> of Castile, by +strengthened his position by marrying Doña Blanca de la Cerda; +he secured the support of Juan Nuñez, <i>alférez</i> of Castile, by arranging a marriage between him and Maria, daughter of Don Juan el Tuerto; he won over Portugal by promising the hand of his daughter, the ex-queen Constanza, to the infante of that @@ -8105,12 +8066,12 @@ kingdom, and he entered into alliance with Mahomet III. of Granada. This formidable coalition compelled Alphonso XI. to sue for terms, which he accepted in 1328 without any serious intention of complying with them; but he was compelled -to release Doña Constanza. War speedily broke out +to release Doña Constanza. War speedily broke out anew, and lasted till 1331 when Alphonso XI. invited Juan -Manuel and Juan Nuñez to a banquet at Villahumbrales with +Manuel and Juan Nuñez to a banquet at Villahumbrales with the intention, it was believed, of assassinating them; the plot failed, and Don Juan Manuel joined forces with Peter IV. of -Aragon. He was besieged by Alphonso XI. at Garci-Nuñez, +Aragon. He was besieged by Alphonso XI. at Garci-Nuñez, whence he escaped on the 30th of July 1336, fled into exile, and kept the rebellion alive till 1338, when he made his peace with the king. He proved his loyalty by serving in further @@ -8120,16 +8081,16 @@ a tranquil death in the first half of 1349.</p> <p>Distinguished as an astute politician, Don Juan Manuel is an author of the highest eminence, and, considering the circumstances of his stormy life, his voluminousness is remarkable. -The <i>Libro de los sabios</i>, a treatise called <i>Engeños de Guerra</i> and +The <i>Libro de los sabios</i>, a treatise called <i>Engeños de Guerra</i> and the <i>Libro de cantares</i>, a collection of verses, were composed between 1320 and 1327; but they have disappeared together -with the <i>Libro de la caballería</i> (written during the winter of 1326), +with the <i>Libro de la caballerÃa</i> (written during the winter of 1326), and the <i>Reglas como se debe trovar</i>, a metrical treatise assigned to -1328-1334. Of his surviving writings, Juan Manuel’s <i>Crónica +1328-1334. Of his surviving writings, Juan Manuel’s <i>Crónica abreviada</i> was compiled between 1319 and 1325, while the <i>Libro de la caza</i> must have been written between 1320 and 1329; and -during this period of nine years the <i>Crónica de España</i>, the -<i>Crónica complida</i>, and the <i>Tratado sobre las armas</i> were produced. +during this period of nine years the <i>Crónica de España</i>, the +<i>Crónica complida</i>, and the <i>Tratado sobre las armas</i> were produced. The <i>Libro del caballero et del escudero</i> was finished before the end of 1326; the first book of the <i>Libro de los estados</i> was finished on the 22nd of May 1330, while the second was begun @@ -8137,7 +8098,7 @@ five days later; the first book of <i>El Conde Lucanor</i> was written in 1328, the second in 1330, and the fourth is dated 12th of June 1335. We are unable to assign to any precise date the devout <i>Tractado</i> on the Virgin, dedicated to the prior of the monastery -at Peñafiel, to which Don Juan Manuel bequeathed his manuscripts; +at Peñafiel, to which Don Juan Manuel bequeathed his manuscripts; but it seems probable that the <i>Libro de los frailes predicadores</i> is slightly later than the <i>Libro de los estados</i>; that the <i>Libro de los castigos</i> (left unfinished, and therefore known by @@ -8181,25 +8142,25 @@ in the faculty of ironical presentation, in tolerant wisdom and in luminous conciseness. He naturalizes the Eastern apologue in Spain, and by the laconic picturesqueness of his expression imports a new quality into Spanish prose which attains its -full development in the hands of Juan de Valdés and Cervantes. +full development in the hands of Juan de Valdés and Cervantes. Some of his themes are utilized for dramatic purposes by Lope -de Vega in <i>La Pobreza estimada</i>, by Ruiz de Alarcón in <i>La -Prueba de las promesas</i>, by Calderón in <i>La Vida es sueño</i>, and by -Cañizares in <i>Don Juan de Espina en Milán</i>: there is an evident, -though remote, relation between the tale of the <i>mancebo que casó +de Vega in <i>La Pobreza estimada</i>, by Ruiz de Alarcón in <i>La +Prueba de las promesas</i>, by Calderón in <i>La Vida es sueño</i>, and by +Cañizares in <i>Don Juan de Espina en Milán</i>: there is an evident, +though remote, relation between the tale of the <i>mancebo que casó con una mujer muy fuerte y muy brava</i> and <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i>; and a more direct connexion exists between some of Don Juan Manuel’s <i>enxemplos</i> and some of Anderson’s fairy tales.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>Obras</i>, edited by P. de Gayangos in the <i>Biblioteca -de autores Españoles</i>, vol. li.; <i>El Conde Lucanor</i> (Leipzig, 1900), edited +de autores Españoles</i>, vol. li.; <i>El Conde Lucanor</i> (Leipzig, 1900), edited by H. Knust and A. Hirschfeld; <i>Libro de la caza</i> (Halle, 1880), edited -by G. Baist; <i>El Libro del caballero et del escudero</i>, edited by S. Gräfenberg -in <i>Romanische Forschungen</i>, vol. vi.; <i>La crónica complida</i>, +by G. Baist; <i>El Libro del caballero et del escudero</i>, edited by S. Gräfenberg +in <i>Romanische Forschungen</i>, vol. vi.; <i>La crónica complida</i>, edited by G. Baist in <i>Romanische Forschungen</i>, vol. vi.; G. Baist, <i>Alter und Textueberlieferung der Schriften Don Juan Manuels</i> (Halle, -1880); F. Hanssen, <i>Notas á la versificación de D. Juan Manuel</i> +1880); F. Hanssen, <i>Notas á la versificación de D. Juan Manuel</i> (Santiago de Chile, 1902). The <i>Conde Lucanor</i> has been translated by J. Eichendorff into German (1840), by A. Puibusque into French (1854) and by J. York into English (1868).</p> @@ -8238,7 +8199,7 @@ French remained, declared war in 1862, placed Maximilian upon the throne as emperor, and drove Juarez and his adherents to the northern limits of the republic. Juarez maintained an obstinate resistance, which resulted in final success. In 1867 -Maximilian was taken at Querétaro, and shot; and in August +Maximilian was taken at Querétaro, and shot; and in August Juarez was once more elected president. His term of office was far from tranquil; discontented generals stirred up ceaseless revolts and insurrections; and, though he was re-elected in 1871, @@ -8294,17 +8255,17 @@ Varro.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>He wrote many historical and geographical works, of which some seem to have been voluminous and of considerable value on account -of the sources to which their author had access: (1) <span class="grk" title="Rhômaikê historia">Ῥωμαϊκὴ ἱστορία</span>; +of the sources to which their author had access: (1) <span class="grk" title="Rhômaikê historia">Ῥωμαϊκὴ ἱστορία</span>; (2) <span class="grk" title="Assyriaka">Ἀσσυριακά</span>; (3) <span class="grk" title="Libyka">Λιβυκά</span>; (4) <i>De Arabia sive De expeditione arabica</i>; (5) <i>Physiologa</i>; (6) <i>De Euphorbia herba</i>; (7) <span class="grk" title="Peri opou">Περὶ ὀποῦ</span>; (8) <span class="grk" title="Peri -graphikês">Περὶ γραφικῆς</span> (<span class="grk" title="Peri zôgraphôn">Περὶ ζωγράφων</span>); -(9) <span class="grk" title="Theatrikê historia">Θεατρικὴ ἱστορία</span>; (10) <span class="grk" title="Homoiotêtes">Ὁμοιότητες</span>; (11) -<span class="grk" title="Peri phthoras lexeôs">Περὶ φθορᾶς λέξεως</span>; (12) <span class="grk" title="Epigramma">Ἐπίγραμμα</span>.</p> +graphikês">Περὶ γραφικῆς</span> (<span class="grk" title="Peri zôgraphôn">Περὶ ζωγράφων</span>); +(9) <span class="grk" title="Theatrikê historia">Θεατρικὴ ἱστορία</span>; (10) <span class="grk" title="Homoiotêtes">Ὁμοιότητες</span>; (11) +<span class="grk" title="Peri phthoras lexeôs">Περὶ φθορᾶς λέξεως</span>; (12) <span class="grk" title="Epigramma">Ἐπίγραμμα</span>.</p> -<p>Fragments and life in Müller, <i>Frag. Hist. Graec.</i>, vol. iii.; see also -Sevin, <i>Mém. de l’Acad. des Inscriptions</i>, vol. iv.; Hullemann, <i>De vita et +<p>Fragments and life in Müller, <i>Frag. Hist. Graec.</i>, vol. iii.; see also +Sevin, <i>Mém. de l’Acad. des Inscriptions</i>, vol. iv.; Hullemann, <i>De vita et scriptis Jubae</i> (1846). For the denarii of Juba II. found in 1908 at -El Ksar on the coast of Morocco see Dieudonné in <i>Revue Numism</i>. +El Ksar on the coast of Morocco see Dieudonné in <i>Revue Numism</i>. (1908), pp. 350 seq. They are interesting mainly as throwing light on the chronology of the reign.</p> </div> @@ -8323,24 +8284,24 @@ the Indian Ocean.</p> <p>Of the three headstreams, the Web, the Ganale and the Daua, the Ganale (or Ganana) is the central river and the true upper course of the Juba. It has two chief branches, the Black and the Great Ganale. -The last-named, the most remote source of the river, rises in 7° 30′ -N., 38° E. at an altitude of about 7500 ft., the crest of the mountains +The last-named, the most remote source of the river, rises in 7° 30′ +N., 38° E. at an altitude of about 7500 ft., the crest of the mountains reaching another 2500 ft. In its upper course it flows over a rocky bed with a swift current and many rapids. The banks are clothed with dense jungle and the hills beyond with thorn-bush. Lower down the river has formed a narrow valley, 1500 to 2000 ft. below the general level of the country. Leaving the higher mountains in -about 5° 15′ N., 40° E., the Ganale enters a large slightly undulating +about 5° 15′ N., 40° E., the Ganale enters a large slightly undulating grass plain which extends south of the valley of the Daua and occupies all the country eastward to the junction of the two rivers. In this plain the Ganale makes a semicircular sweep northward before -resuming its general S.-E. course. East of 42° E. in 4° 12′ N. it is +resuming its general S.-E. course. East of 42° E. in 4° 12′ N. it is joined by the Web on the left or eastern bank, and about 10 m. lower down the Daua enters on the right bank.</p> <p>The Web rises in the mountain chain a little S. and E. of the sources of the Ganale, and some 40 m. from its source passes, first, -through a cañon 500 ft. deep, and then through a series of remarkable +through a cañon 500 ft. deep, and then through a series of remarkable underground caves hollowed out of a quartz mountain and, with their arches and white columns, presenting the appearance of a pillared temple. The Daua (or Dawa) is formed by the mountain @@ -8358,23 +8319,23 @@ direct line from the source of the Ganale—being only 590 ft.</p> <p>Below the Daua the river, now known as the Juba, receives no tributary of importance. It first flows in a valley bounded, especially towards the west, by the escarpments of a high plateau, and -containing the towns of Lugh (in 3° 50′ N., the centre of active trade), +containing the towns of Lugh (in 3° 50′ N., the centre of active trade), Bardera, 387 m. above the mouth, and Saranli—the last two on -opposite sides of the stream, in 2° 20′ N., a crossing-place for caravans. -Beyond 1° 45′ N. the country becomes more level and the course of +opposite sides of the stream, in 2° 20′ N., a crossing-place for caravans. +Beyond 1° 45′ N. the country becomes more level and the course of the river very tortuous. On the west a series of small lakes and backwaters receives water from the Juba during the rains. Just south of the equator channels from the long, branching Lake Deshekwama or Hardinge, fed by the Lakdera river, enter from the -west, and in 0° 15′ S. the Juba enters the sea across a dangerous bar, +west, and in 0° 15′ S. the Juba enters the sea across a dangerous bar, which has only one fathom of water at high tide.</p> </div> -<p>From its mouth to 20 m. above Bardera, where at 2° 35′ N. +<p>From its mouth to 20 m. above Bardera, where at 2° 35′ N. rapids occur, the Juba is navigable by shallow-draught steamers, having a general depth of from 4 to 12 ft., though shallower in places. Just above its mouth it is a fine stream 250 yds. wide, -with a current of 2½ knots. Below the mountainous region of +with a current of 2½ knots. Below the mountainous region of the headstreams the Juba and its tributaries flow through a country generally arid away from the banks of the streams. The soil is sandy, covered either with thorn-scrub or rank grass, @@ -8405,7 +8366,7 @@ British army, and others. The river, from its mouth to the confluence of the Daua and Ganale, forms the frontier between the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span> British East Africa protectorate and Italian Somaliland; and -from that point to about 4° 20′ N. the Daua is the boundary +from that point to about 4° 20′ N. the Daua is the boundary between British and Abyssinian territory.</p> @@ -8482,15 +8443,15 @@ Area, 18,950 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 2,081,499.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JUBÉ,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> the French architectural term (taken from the imperative +<p><span class="bold">JUBÉ,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> the French architectural term (taken from the imperative of Lat. <i>jubere</i>, to order) for the chancel or choir screen, which in England is known as the rood-screen (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rood</a></span>). Above the screen was a gallery or loft, from which the words “Jube Domine benedicere” were spoken by the deacon before the reading of the Gospel, and hence probably the name. One of -the finest <i>jubés</i> in France is that of the church of the Madeleine +the finest <i>jubés</i> in France is that of the church of the Madeleine at Troyes, in rich flamboyant Gothic. A later example, of the -Renaissance period, <i>c.</i> 1600, is in the church of St Étienne du +Renaissance period, <i>c.</i> 1600, is in the church of St Étienne du Mont, Paris. In the Low Countries there are many fine examples in marble, of which one of the most perfect from Bois-le-Duc is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum.</p> @@ -8511,7 +8472,7 @@ scholars are agreed that it signifies “ram” or “ram’s ho by the blowing of the ram’s horn (Lev. xxv. 9).</p> <p>According to Lev. xxv. 8-12, at the completion of seven -sabbaths of years (<i>i.e.</i> 7 × 7 = 49 years) the trumpet of the +sabbaths of years (<i>i.e.</i> 7 × 7 = 49 years) the trumpet of the jubilee is to be sounded “throughout the land” on the 10th day of the seventh month (Tisri 10), the great Day of Atonement. The 50th year thus announced is to be “hallowed,” <i>i.e.</i> liberty<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> @@ -8542,7 +8503,7 @@ restoration programme “crown lands presented by the ‘prince’ to any of his officials revert to the crown in the year of liberty (? jubilee year)”; only to his sons may any portion of his inheritance be alienated in perpetuity (Ezek. xlvi. 16-18; -cf. Code of Hammurabi, § 38 seq.).</p> +cf. Code of Hammurabi, § 38 seq.).</p> <p>The same rule applies to dwelling-houses of unwalled villages; the case is different, however, as regards dwelling-houses in @@ -8608,7 +8569,7 @@ Num. xxxvi. 4.</p> <p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Heb. <i>dĕrōr</i>. The same word (<i>durāru</i>) is used in the Code of Hammurabi in the similar enactment that wife, son or daughter sold into slavery for debt are to be restored to <i>liberty</i> in the fourth -year (§ 117).</p> +year (§ 117).</p> </div> @@ -8628,11 +8589,11 @@ dogmatically offensive elements removed and the genuine spirit of later Judaism infused into the primitive history of the world.</p> <p><i>Titles of the Book.</i>—The book is variously entitled. First, it is -known as <span class="grk" title="ta Iôbêlaia, hoi Iôbêlaioi">τὰ Ἰωβηλαῖα, οἱ Ἰωβηλαῖοι</span>, Heb. <span title="haiuvalim">היובלים</span>. This +known as <span class="grk" title="ta Iôbêlaia, hoi Iôbêlaioi">τὰ Ἰωβηλαῖα, οἱ Ἰωβηλαῖοι</span>, Heb. <span title="haiuvalim">היובלים</span>. This name is admirably adapted to our book, as it divides into jubilee periods of forty-nine years each the history of the world from the creation to the legislation on Sinai. Secondly, it is -frequently designated “The Little Genesis,” <span class="grk" title="hê leptê Genesis">ἡ λεπτὴ Γένεσις</span> or <span class="grk" title="hê +frequently designated “The Little Genesis,” <span class="grk" title="hê leptê Genesis">ἡ λεπτὴ Γένεσις</span> or <span class="grk" title="hê Mikrogenesis">ἡ Μικρογένεσις</span>, Heb. <span title="bereshit zutta">בראשית זוטה</span>. This title may have arisen from its dealing more fully with details and minutiae than the biblical work. For the other names by which it is referred to, @@ -8695,7 +8656,7 @@ the source of the various corruptions. And finally, proper names are transliterated as they appear in Greek and not in Hebrew. That the Latin is also a translation from the Greek is no less obvious. Thus in xxxix. 12 <i>timoris</i> = <span class="grk" title="deilias">δειλίας</span>, corrupt for <span class="grk" title="douleias">δουλείας</span>; in xxxviii. -13 <i>honorem</i> = <span class="grk" title="timên">τιμήν</span>, but <span class="grk" title="timên">τιμήν</span> should here have been rendered by +13 <i>honorem</i> = <span class="grk" title="timên">τιμήν</span>, but <span class="grk" title="timên">τιμήν</span> should here have been rendered by <i>tributum</i>, as the Ethiopic and the context require; in xxxii. 26, <i>celavit</i> = <span class="grk" title="ekrypse">ἔκρυψε</span>, corrupt for <span class="grk" title="egrapse">ἔγραψε</span> (so Ethiopic).</p> @@ -8723,7 +8684,7 @@ parallel passage in Gen. xliv. 18, which our text reproduces almost verbally, = <span class="grk" title="deomai">δέομαι</span>. We might observe here that our text attests the presence of dittographies already existing in the Hebrew text. (4) Hebraisms survive in the Ethiopic and Latin Versions. In the -former nûḫa in iv. 4, is a corrupt transliteration of <span title="na">נע</span>. In the +former nûḫa in iv. 4, is a corrupt transliteration of <span title="na">נע</span>. In the Latin eligere in te in xxii. 10 is a reproduction of <span title="behar be">בהר ב</span> and <i>in qua ... in ipsa</i> in xix. 8 = <span title="ba ... asher">אשר ... בה</span>. This idiom could, of course, be explained on the hypothesis of an Aramaic original. (5) @@ -8810,21 +8771,21 @@ Charles from four (<i>The Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of Jubilees ... with the Hebrew, Syriac, Greek and Latin fragments</i>). In the latter edition, the Greek and Latin fragments are printed together with the Ethiopic. The book was translated into German by -Dillmann from one MS. in Ewald’s <i>Jahrbücher</i>, vols. ii. and iii. (1850, +Dillmann from one MS. in Ewald’s <i>Jahrbücher</i>, vols. ii. and iii. (1850, 1851), and by Littmann (in Kautzsch’s <i>Apok. und Pseud.</i> ii. 39-119) from Charles’s Ethiopic text; into English by Schodde (<i>Bibl. Sacr.</i> 1885) from Dillmann’s text, and by Charles (<i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>, vols. v., vi., vii. (1893-1895) from the text afterwards published in 1895, and finally in his commentary, <i>The Book of Jubilees</i> (1902). -<i>Critical Inquiries</i>: Dillmann, “Das Buch der Jubiläen” (Ewald’s -<i>Jahrbücher d. bibl. Wissensch.</i> (1851), iii. 72-96); “Pseudepig. des -Alten Testaments,” Herzog’s <i>Realencyk.</i><span class="sp">2</span> xii. 364-365; “Beiträge aus -dem Buche der Jubiläen zur Kritik des Pentateuch Textes” (<i>Sitzungsberichte -der Kgl. Preussischen Akad.</i>, 1883); Beer, <i>Das Buch der Jubiläen</i> -(1856); Rönsch, <i>Das Buch der Jubiläen</i> (1874); Singer, <i>Das Buch -der Jubiläen</i> (1898); Bohn, “Die Bedeutung des Buches der Jubiläen” +<i>Critical Inquiries</i>: Dillmann, “Das Buch der Jubiläen” (Ewald’s +<i>Jahrbücher d. bibl. Wissensch.</i> (1851), iii. 72-96); “Pseudepig. des +Alten Testaments,” Herzog’s <i>Realencyk.</i><span class="sp">2</span> xii. 364-365; “Beiträge aus +dem Buche der Jubiläen zur Kritik des Pentateuch Textes” (<i>Sitzungsberichte +der Kgl. Preussischen Akad.</i>, 1883); Beer, <i>Das Buch der Jubiläen</i> +(1856); Rönsch, <i>Das Buch der Jubiläen</i> (1874); Singer, <i>Das Buch +der Jubiläen</i> (1898); Bohn, “Die Bedeutung des Buches der Jubiläen” (<i>Theol. Stud. und Kritiken</i> (1900), pp. 167-184). A full bibliography -will be found in Schürer or in R. H. Charles’s commentary, <i>The +will be found in Schürer or in R. H. Charles’s commentary, <i>The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis</i> (1902), which deals exhaustively with all the questions treated in this article.</p> </div> @@ -8903,7 +8864,7 @@ plenariae in forma jubilaei</i>).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JÚCAR,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> a river of eastern Spain. It rises in the north of the +<p><span class="bold">JÚCAR,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> a river of eastern Spain. It rises in the north of the province of Cuenca, at the foot of the Cerro de San Felipe (5906 ft.), and flows south past Cuenca to the borders of Albacete; here it bends towards the east, and maintains this direction for @@ -8911,7 +8872,7 @@ the greater part of its remaining course. On the right it is connected with the city of Albacete by the Maria Cristina canal. After entering Valencia, it receives on the left its chief tributary the Cabriel, which also rises near the Cerro de San Felipe, in the -Montes Universales. Near Alcira the Júcar turns south-eastward, +Montes Universales. Near Alcira the Júcar turns south-eastward, and then sharply north, curving again to the south-east before it enters the Mediterranean Sea at Cullera, after a total course of 314 m. Its estuary forms the harbour of Cullera, and @@ -8924,14 +8885,14 @@ Meister Leu, Swiss reformer, was born in Alsace and educated <span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span> at Basel, where after a course in medicine he turned to the study of theology. This change was due to the influence of Zwingli -whose colleague at Zürich Jud became after serving for four years +whose colleague at Zürich Jud became after serving for four years (1518-1522) as pastor of Einsiedeln. His chief activity was as a translator; he was the leading spirit in the translation of the -Zürich Bible and also made a Latin version of the Old Testament. -He died at Zürich on the 19th of June 1542.</p> +Zürich Bible and also made a Latin version of the Old Testament. +He died at Zürich on the 19th of June 1542.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Life</i> by C. Pestalozzi (1860); art. in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, +<p>See <i>Life</i> by C. Pestalozzi (1860); art. in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vol. ix. (1901).</p> </div> @@ -9047,19 +9008,19 @@ from the city to the province. The location of Yehūd and Ēhūd in the light of 1 Kings iv. 8-19 (perhaps the subdivisions of the Israelite kingdom, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solomon</a></span>), would necessitate the assumption of a violent separation from the north; this, however, is quite conceivable -(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, §§ 11-13). On the bearing of South Judah upon the +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, §§ 11-13). On the bearing of South Judah upon the historical criticism of the Old Testament, see especially N. Schmidt, <i>Hibbert Journal</i> (1908), pp. 322-342, “The Jerahmeel Theory and the Historic Importance of the Negeb, with some account of personal -exploration of the country”; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, § 20.</p> +exploration of the country”; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, § 20.</p> </div> <div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See especially Wellhausen, <i>De gentibus et familiis Judaeorum</i> -(Göttingen, 1869), the articles on the relative proper names in the -<i>Ency. Bib.</i>, and E. Meyer, <i>Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme</i>, +(Göttingen, 1869), the articles on the relative proper names in the +<i>Ency. Bib.</i>, and E. Meyer, <i>Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme</i>, pp. 299-471 (much valuable matter).</p> <p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For the principle of the Levirate illustrated in Gen. xxxviii., @@ -9073,7 +9034,7 @@ in Meyer, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 200 sqq.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JUDAS ISCARIOT<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Ioudas Iskariôtês">Ἰούδας Ἰσκαριώτης</span> or <span class="grk" title="Iskariôth">Ἰσκαριώθ</span>), in the +<p><span class="bold">JUDAS ISCARIOT<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Ioudas Iskariôtês">Ἰούδας Ἰσκαριώτης</span> or <span class="grk" title="Iskariôth">Ἰσκαριώθ</span>), in the Bible, the son of Simon Iscariot (John vi. 71, xiii. 26), and one of the twelve apostles. He is always enumerated last with the special mention of the fact that he was the betrayer of Jesus. @@ -9137,8 +9098,8 @@ zur Gesch. der deutschen Sprache und Litteratur</i>, vol. ii. (1875), and Victor Diederich in <i>Russiche Revue</i> (1880). Cholevius, in his <i>Geschichte der deutschen Poesie nach ihren antiken Elementen</i> (1854), pointed out the connexion of the legend with the Oedipus story. -According to Daub (<i>Judas Ischariot, oder Betrachtungen über das -Böse im Verhältniss zum Guten</i>, 1816, 1818) Judas was “an incarnation +According to Daub (<i>Judas Ischariot, oder Betrachtungen über das +Böse im Verhältniss zum Guten</i>, 1816, 1818) Judas was “an incarnation of the devil,” to whom “mercy and blessedness are alike impossible.”</p> @@ -9271,7 +9232,7 @@ informant regarding his later history.</p> <p>The Greek of Jude is also such as to exclude the idea of authorship in Palestine by an unschooled Galilean, at an early date in church history. As F. H. Chase has pointed out: (1) the -terms <span class="grk" title="klêtoi, sôtêria, pistis">κλητοί, σωτηρία, πίστις</span>, have attained their later technical +terms <span class="grk" title="klêtoi, sôtêria, pistis">κλητοί, σωτηρία, πίστις</span>, have attained their later technical sense; (2) “the writer is steeped in the language of the LXX.,” employing its phraseology independently of other N.T. writers, and not that of the canonical books alone, but of the broader @@ -9323,7 +9284,7 @@ and the generation of those that had been deemed worthy to hear the inspired wisdom with their own ears had passed away ... attempted thenceforth with a bold face, to proclaim, in opposition to the preaching of the truth, ‘the knowledge which is falsely -so-called (<span class="grk" title="pseudônymos gnôsis">ψευδώνυμος γνῶσις</span>).’” For an appeal like that of our +so-called (<span class="grk" title="pseudônymos gnôsis">ψευδώνυμος γνῶσις</span>).’” For an appeal like that of our epistle to the authority of the past against the moral laxity and antinomian teaching of degenerate Pauline churches in the Greek world, the natural resort after Paul himself (Pastoral @@ -9424,13 +9385,13 @@ many subsequent writers. Eusebius classed it among the the ancients have mentioned it” (<i>H. E.</i> ii. 23, 25).</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The <i>Introd. to the New Test.</i> by Holtzmann, Jülicher, Weiss, +<p>The <i>Introd. to the New Test.</i> by Holtzmann, Jülicher, Weiss, Zahn, Davidson, Salmon, Bacon and the standard <i>Commentaries</i> of Meyer and Holtzmann, the <i>International</i> (Bigg) and other series, contain discussions of authorship and date. The articles s.v. in Hastings’s <i>Dict. Bible</i> (Chase) and the <i>Ency. Bib.</i> (Cone) are full and scholarly. In addition the <i>Histories of the Apostolic Age</i>, by Hausrath, -Weizsäcker, McGiffert, Bartlet, Ropes and others, and the +Weizsäcker, McGiffert, Bartlet, Ropes and others, and the kindred works of Baur, Schwegler and Pfleiderer should be consulted. Moffat’s <i>Historical New Testament</i>, 2nd ed., p. 589, contains a convenient summary of the evidence with copious bibliography. One @@ -9541,7 +9502,7 @@ St Helier). There was no salary attached to the office when held by Lord St Helier, and the duties were for the most part performed by deputy. On his death in 1905, Thomas Milvain, K.C., was appointed, and the terms and conditions of the post -were rearranged as follows: (1) A salary of £2000 a year; +were rearranged as follows: (1) A salary of £2000 a year; (2) the holder to devote his whole time to the duties of the post; (3) the retention of the post until the age of seventy, subject to continued efficiency—but with claim to gratuity or pension on @@ -9895,7 +9856,7 @@ value of Judges will depend largely upon the question whether the Deuteronomic editor (about 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> at the earliest) would have access to trustworthy documents relating to a period some six or seven centuries previously. See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, -§§ 6, 8; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samuel, Books of</a></span>.</p> +§§ 6, 8; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samuel, Books of</a></span>.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—Biblical scholars are in agreement regarding the @@ -10259,7 +10220,7 @@ appeal lies to the House of Lords.</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The comte de Franqueville in his interesting work, <i>Le Système +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The comte de Franqueville in his interesting work, <i>Le Système judiciaire de la Grande Bretagne</i>, criticizes the use of the word “supreme” as a designation of this court, inasmuch as its judgments are subject to appeal to the House of Lords, but in the act of 1873 @@ -10272,7 +10233,7 @@ different senses (i. 180-181).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JUDITH, THE BOOK OF,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> one of the apocryphal books of the Old Testament. It takes its name from the heroine Judith -(<span class="grk" title="Ioudith, Ioudêth">Ἰουδίθ, Ἰουδήθ</span>, <i>i.e.</i> <span title="yehudit">יהודית</span>, Jewess), to whom the last nine of +(<span class="grk" title="Ioudith, Ioudêth">Ἰουδίθ, Ἰουδήθ</span>, <i>i.e.</i> <span title="yehudit">יהודית</span>, Jewess), to whom the last nine of its sixteen chapters relate. In the Septuagint and Vulgate it immediately precedes Esther, and along with Tobit comes after Nehemiah; in the English Apocrypha it is placed between @@ -10348,7 +10309,7 @@ from the Old Latin, under the control of a Chaldee version.</p> <p><i>Later Hebrew Midrashim.</i>—These are printed in Jellinek’s <i>Bet ha-Midrasch</i>, i. 130-131; ii. 12-22; and by Gaster in <i>Proceedings -of the Society of Biblical Archæology</i> (1894), pp. 156-163.</p> +of the Society of Biblical Archæology</i> (1894), pp. 156-163.</p> </div> <p><i>Date.</i>—The book in its fuller form was most probably written @@ -10361,10 +10322,10 @@ were Holofernes and Bagoas.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Recent Literature.</span>—Ball, <i>Speaker’s Apocrypha</i> (1888), an excellent -piece of work; Scholz, <i>Das Buch Judith</i> (1896); Löhr, <i>Apok. +piece of work; Scholz, <i>Das Buch Judith</i> (1896); Löhr, <i>Apok. und Pseud.</i> (1900), ii. 147-164; Porter in Hastings’s <i>Dict. Bible</i>, ii. 822-824; Gaster, <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, ii. 2642-2646. See Ball, pp. 260-261, -and Schürer <i>in loc.</i>, for a full bibliography.</p> +and Schürer <i>in loc.</i>, for a full bibliography.</p> </div> <div class="author">(R. H. C.)</div> @@ -10490,14 +10451,14 @@ the few patricians who accepted the title of baron. He saw some military service during the Scanian War, distinguishing himself at the siege of Venersborg, and by his swift decision at the critical moment materially contributing to his brother Niels’s -naval victory in the Bay of Kjöge. To his great honour he remained +naval victory in the Bay of Kjöge. To his great honour he remained faithful to Griffenfeldt after his fall, enabled his daughter to marry handsomely, and did his utmost, though in vain, to obtain the ex-chancellor’s release from his dungeon.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Carl Frederik Bricka, <i>Dansk biografisk lex.</i>, art. “Juel” (1887, -&c.); Adolf Ditlev Jörgensen, <i>P. Schumacher Griffenfeldt</i> (1893-1894).</p> +&c.); Adolf Ditlev Jörgensen, <i>P. Schumacher Griffenfeldt</i> (1893-1894).</p> </div> <div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> @@ -10524,7 +10485,7 @@ and raised Danish sea-power to unprecedented eminence, by the system of naval tactics, afterwards perfected by Nelson, which consists in cutting off a part of the enemy’s force and concentrating the whole attack on it. He first employed this manœuvre -at the battle of Jasmund off Rügen (May 25, 1676) when he +at the battle of Jasmund off Rügen (May 25, 1676) when he broke through the enemy’s line in close column and cut off five of their ships, which, however, nightfall prevented him from pursuing. Juel’s operations were considerably hampered at this @@ -10533,11 +10494,11 @@ Almonde, who falsely accused the Danish admiral of cowardice. A few days after the battle of Jasmund, Cornelius Van Tromp the younger, with 17 fresh Danish and Dutch ships of the line, superseded Juel in the supreme command. Juel took a leading part -in Van Tromp’s great victory off Öland (June 1, 1676), which +in Van Tromp’s great victory off Öland (June 1, 1676), which enabled the Danes to invade Scania unopposed. On the 1st of -June 1677 Juel defeated the Swedish admiral Sjöblad off Möen; +June 1677 Juel defeated the Swedish admiral Sjöblad off Möen; on the 30th of June 1677 he won his greatest victory, in the Bay -of Kjöge, where, with 25 ships of the line and 1267 guns, he +of Kjöge, where, with 25 ships of the line and 1267 guns, he routed the Swedish admiral Evert Horn with 36 ships of the line and 1800 guns. For this great triumph, the just reward of superior seamanship and strategy—at an early stage of the @@ -10554,7 +10515,7 @@ of 1678 Juel put to sea with 84 ships carrying 2400 cannon, but as the Swedes were no longer strong enough to encounter such a formidable armament on the open sea, his operations were limited to blockading the Swedish ports and transporting troops -to Rügen. After the peace of Lund Juel showed himself an +to Rügen. After the peace of Lund Juel showed himself an administrator and reformer of the first order, and under his energetic supervision the Danish navy ultimately reached imposing dimensions, especially after Juel became chief of the admiralty @@ -10565,7 +10526,7 @@ years he was popularly known in Copenhagen as “the good old knight.” He died on the 8th of April 1697.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Garde, <i>Niels Juel</i> (1842), and <i>Den dansk. norske Sömagts Historie, +<p>See Garde, <i>Niels Juel</i> (1842), and <i>Den dansk. norske Sömagts Historie, 1535-1700</i> (1861).</p> </div> <div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> @@ -10625,7 +10586,7 @@ and statesman, belonged to the family of del Giudice, which came from Amalfi, and followed the fortunes of the Angevin dynasty. When John of Anjou, duke of Calabria, was conquered in Italy (1461) and fled to Provence, Boffille followed him. He -was given by Duke John and his father, King René, the charge of +was given by Duke John and his father, King René, the charge of upholding by force of arms their claims on Catalonia. Louis XI., who had joined his troops to those of the princes of Anjou, attached Boffille to his own person, made him his chamberlain @@ -10638,7 +10599,7 @@ him with diplomatic negotiations with Flanders and England. In 1480 Boffille married Marie d’Albret, sister of Alain the Great, thus confirming the feudal position which the king had given him in the south. He was appointed as one of the judges in the -trial of René of Alençon, and showed such zeal in the discharge +trial of René of Alençon, and showed such zeal in the discharge of his functions that Louis XI. rewarded him by fresh gifts. However, the bishop of Castres recovered his diocese (1483), and the heirs of the duke of Nemours took legal proceedings for @@ -10654,7 +10615,7 @@ of Castres to his brother-in-law, Alain d’Albret (1494). He died in 1502.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See P. M. Perret, <i>Boffille de Juge, comte de Castres, et la république +<p>See P. M. Perret, <i>Boffille de Juge, comte de Castres, et la république de Venise</i> (1891); F. Pasquier, <i>Inventaire des documents concernant Boffille de Juge</i> (1905).</p> </div> @@ -10689,9 +10650,9 @@ meals a day are served to them. The attendants on the god are divided into 36 orders and 97 classes. Special servants are assigned the tasks of putting the god to bed, of dressing and bathing him. The annual rent-roll of the temple was put -at £68,000 by Sir W. W. Hunter; but the pilgrims’ offerings, +at £68,000 by Sir W. W. Hunter; but the pilgrims’ offerings, which form the bulk of the income, are quite unknown and have -been said to reach as much as £100,000 in one year. Ranjit +been said to reach as much as £100,000 in one year. Ranjit Singh bequeathed the Koh-i-nor to Jagannath. There are four chief festivals, of which the famous Car festival is the most important.</p> @@ -10740,7 +10701,7 @@ tossing balls, plates, knives, &c. The term is practically synonymous with conjurer (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conjuring</a></span>). The <i>joculatores</i> were the mimes of the middle ages (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drama</a></span>); the French use of the word <i>jongleurs</i> (an erroneous form of <i>jougleur</i>) included the -singers known as <i>trouvères</i>; and the humbler English minstrels +singers known as <i>trouvères</i>; and the humbler English minstrels of the same type gradually passed into the strolling jugglers, from whose exhibitions the term came to cover loosely any acrobatic, pantomimic and sleight-of-hand performances. In @@ -11370,9 +11331,9 @@ discovered in 1884 by A. Papadopulos Kerameus in a monastery on the island of Chalcis near Constantinople (see <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, xlii., 1887). Separate edition of the letters by L. H. Heyler (1828); see also J. Bidez and F. Cumont, “Recherches sur la tradition MS. -des lettres de l’empereur Julian” in <i>Mémoires couronnés ... publiés +des lettres de l’empereur Julian” in <i>Mémoires couronnés ... publiés par l’Acad. royale de Belgique</i>, lvii. (1898) and F. Cumont, <i>Sur -l’authenticité de quelques lettres de Julien</i> (1889). (2) <i>Orations</i>, eight +l’authenticité de quelques lettres de Julien</i> (1889). (2) <i>Orations</i>, eight in number—two panegyrics on Constantius, one on the empress Eusebia, two theosophical declamations on King Helios and the Mother of the Gods, two essays on true and false cynicism, and a consolatory @@ -11387,7 +11348,7 @@ in a whimsical spirit. It also contains a charming description of Lutetia (Paris). It owes its name to the ridicule heaped upon his beard by the Antiocheans, who were in the habit of shaving. (5) Five epigrams, two of which (<i>Anth. Pal.</i>, ix. 365, 368) are of some interest. -(6) <span class="grk" title="Karà Christianôn">Κατὰ Χριστιανῶν</span> (<i>Adversus Christianos</i>) in three books, an attack +(6) <span class="grk" title="Karà Christianôn">Κατὰ Χριστιανῶν</span> (<i>Adversus Christianos</i>) in three books, an attack on Christianity written during the Persian campaign, is lost. Theodosius II. ordered all copies of it to be destroyed, and our knowledge of its contents is derived almost entirely from the <i>Contra @@ -11414,25 +11375,25 @@ Rufinus; Socrates; Sozomen; Theodoret; Philostorgius; the poems of Ephraem Syrus written in 363; Zonaras; Cedrenus; and later Byzantine chronographers. The impression which Julian produced on the Christians of the East is reflected in two Syriac romances -published by J. G. E. Hoffmann, <i>Julianos der Abtrünnige</i> (1880; -see also Th. Nöldeke in <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen +published by J. G. E. Hoffmann, <i>Julianos der Abtrünnige</i> (1880; +see also Th. Nöldeke in <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i> [1874], xxviii. 263).</p> <p>2. <i>Modern.</i> For works before 1878 see R. Engelmann, <i>Scriptores Graeci</i> (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880). Of later works the most important are G. H. Rendall, <i>The Emperor Julian, Paganism and Christianity</i> (1879); Alice Gardner, <i>Julian, Philosopher and Emperor</i> -(1895); G. Negri, <i>Julian the Apostate</i> (Eng. trans., 1905); E. Müller, +(1895); G. Negri, <i>Julian the Apostate</i> (Eng. trans., 1905); E. Müller, <i>Kaiser Flavius Claudius Julianus</i> (1901); P. Allard, <i>Julien l’apostat</i> (1900-1903); G. Mau, <i>Die Religionsphilosophie Kaiser Julians in -seinen Reden auf König Helios und die Göttermutter</i> (1907); J. E. +seinen Reden auf König Helios und die Göttermutter</i> (1907); J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i> (1906), p. 356; W. Christ, -<i>Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur</i> (1898), § 603; J. Geffcken, “Kaiser +<i>Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur</i> (1898), § 603; J. Geffcken, “Kaiser Julianus und die Streitschriften seiner Gegner,” in <i>Neue Jahrb. f. das klassische Altertum</i> (1908), pp. 161-195. The sketch by Gibbon (<i>Decline and Fall</i>, chs. xix., xxii.-xxiv.) and the articles by J. Wordsworth in Smith’s <i>Dictionary of Christian Biography</i> and A. Harnack -in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie</i> +in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie</i> ix. (1901) are valuable, the last especially for the bibliography.</p> </div> <div class="author">(T. K.; J. H. F.)</div> @@ -11448,13 +11409,13 @@ Ammianus Marcellinus, xxv. 3, 23).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JÜLICH<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Juliers</i>), a town of Germany, in the Prussian +<p><span class="bold">JÃœLICH<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Juliers</i>), a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the Roer, 16 m. N.E. of Aix-la-Chapelle. Pop. (1900), 5459. It contains an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium, a school for non-commissioned officers, which occupies the former ducal palace, and a museum of local antiquities. Its manufactures -include sugar, leather and paper. Jülich (formerly also Gülch, +include sugar, leather and paper. Jülich (formerly also Gülch, Guliche) the capital of the former duchy of that name, is the Juliacum of the <i>Antonini Itinerarium</i>; some have attributed its origin to Julius Caesar. It became a fortress in the 17th century, @@ -11462,21 +11423,21 @@ and was captured by the archduke Leopold in 1609, by the Dutch under Maurice of Orange in 1610, and by the Spaniards in 1622. In 1794 it was taken by the French, who held it until the peace of Paris in 1814. Till 1860, when its works were -demolished, Jülich ranked as a fortress of the second class.</p> +demolished, Jülich ranked as a fortress of the second class.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Jülich</span>, or <span class="sc">Juliers, Duchy of</span>. In the 9th century a certain -Matfried was count of Jülich (pagus Juliacensis), and towards +<p><span class="sc">Jülich</span>, or <span class="sc">Juliers, Duchy of</span>. In the 9th century a certain +Matfried was count of Jülich (pagus Juliacensis), and towards the end of the 11th century one Gerhard held this dignity. This Gerhard founded a family of hereditary counts, who held -Jülich as immediate vassals of the emperor, and in 1356 the +Jülich as immediate vassals of the emperor, and in 1356 the county was raised to the rank of a duchy. The older and -reigning branch of the family died in 1423, when Jülich passed +reigning branch of the family died in 1423, when Jülich passed to Adolph, duke of Berg (d. 1437), who belonged to a younger branch, and who had obtained Berg by virtue of the marriage <span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span> of one of his ancestors. Nearly a century later Mary (d. 1543) the heiress of these two duchies, married John, the heir of the -duchy of Cleves, and in 1521 the three duchies, Jülich, Berg and +duchy of Cleves, and in 1521 the three duchies, Jülich, Berg and Cleves, together with the counties of Ravensberg and La Marck, were united under John’s sway. John died in 1539 and was succeeded by his son William who reigned until 1592.</p> @@ -11491,7 +11452,7 @@ sister Anna, and John Sigismund, elector of Brandenburg, whose wife was the daughter of another sister. Two other sisters were married to princes of minor importance. Moreover, by virtue of an imperial promise made in 1485 and renewed in -1495, the elector of Saxony claimed the duchies of Jülich and +1495, the elector of Saxony claimed the duchies of Jülich and Berg, while the proximity of the coveted lands to the Netherlands made their fate a matter of great moment to the Dutch. When it is remembered that at this time there was a great deal of @@ -11510,7 +11471,7 @@ Evangelical Union, the elector palatine, Frederick IV., in the following September, which prevented, or rather delayed, a great European war. About this time the emperor adjudged the duchies to Saxony, while the Dutch captured the fortress of -Jülich; but for all practical purposes victory remained with +Jülich; but for all practical purposes victory remained with the “possessing princes,” as Brandenburg and Neuburg were called, who continued to occupy and to administer the lands. These two princes had made a compact at Dortmund in 1609 @@ -11526,36 +11487,36 @@ marched to assist the elector of Brandenburg and Spanish ones came to aid the count palatine, but through the intervention of England and France peace was made and the treaty of Xanten was signed in November 1614. By this arrangement Brandenburg -obtained Jülich and Berg, the rest of the lands falling +obtained Jülich and Berg, the rest of the lands falling to the count palatine. In 1666 the great elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg, made with William, count palatine of Neuburg, a treaty of mutual succession to the duchies, providing that in case the male line of either house became extinct the other should inherit its lands.</p> -<p>The succession to the duchy of Jülich was again a matter of +<p>The succession to the duchy of Jülich was again a matter of interest in the earlier part of the 18th century. The family of the counts palatine of Neuburg was threatened with extinction -and the emperor Charles VI. promised the succession to Jülich +and the emperor Charles VI. promised the succession to Jülich to the Prussian king, Frederick William I., in return for a guarantee of the pragmatic sanction. A little later, however, he promised the same duchy to the count palatine of Sulzbach, a kinsman of the count palatine of Neuburg. Then Frederick -the Great, having secured Silesia, abandoned his claim to Jülich, +the Great, having secured Silesia, abandoned his claim to Jülich, which thus passed to Sulzbach when, in 1742, the family of Neuburg became extinct. From Sulzbach the duchy came to the electors palatine of the Rhine, and, when this family died out in 1799, to the elector of Bavaria, the head of the other branch of -the house of Wittelsbach. In 1801 Jülich was seized by France, +the house of Wittelsbach. In 1801 Jülich was seized by France, and by the settlement of 1815 it came into the hands of Prussia. Its area was just over 1600 sq. m. and its population about 400,000.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Kuhl, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Jülich</i>; M. Ritter, <i>Sachsen und der -Jülicher Erbfolgestreit</i> (1873), and <i>Der Jülicher Erbfolgekrieg, 1610 und -1611</i> (1877); A. Müller, <i>Der Jülich-Klevesche Erbfolgestreit im Jahre -1614</i> (1900) and H. H. Koch, <i>Die Reformation im Herzogtum Jülich</i> +<p>See Kuhl, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Jülich</i>; M. Ritter, <i>Sachsen und der +Jülicher Erbfolgestreit</i> (1873), and <i>Der Jülicher Erbfolgekrieg, 1610 und +1611</i> (1877); A. Müller, <i>Der Jülich-Klevesche Erbfolgestreit im Jahre +1614</i> (1900) and H. H. Koch, <i>Die Reformation im Herzogtum Jülich</i> (1883-1888).</p> </div> @@ -11563,27 +11524,27 @@ Jülicher Erbfolgestreit</i> (1873), and <i>Der Jülicher Erbfolgekrieg, 1610 und <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JULIEN, STANISLAS<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1797?-1873), French orientalist, was born at Orleans, probably on the 13th of April 1797. Stanislas -Julien, a mechanic of Orleans, had two sons, Noël, born on the +Julien, a mechanic of Orleans, had two sons, Noël, born on the 13th of April 1797, and Stanislas, born on the 20th of September 1799. It appears that the younger son died in America, and -that Noël then adopted his brother’s name. He studied classics -at the collège de France, and in 1821 was appointed assistant +that Noël then adopted his brother’s name. He studied classics +at the collège de France, and in 1821 was appointed assistant professor of Greek. In the same year he published an edition of -the <span class="grk" title="Helenês harpagê">Ἑλένης ἁρπαγή</span> of Coluthus, with versions in French, Latin, +the <span class="grk" title="Helenês harpagê">Ἑλένης ἁρπαγή</span> of Coluthus, with versions in French, Latin, English, German, Italian and Spanish. He attended the lectures -of Abel Rémusat on Chinese, and his progress was as rapid as it +of Abel Rémusat on Chinese, and his progress was as rapid as it had been in other languages. From the first, as if by intuition, he mastered the genius of the language; and in 1824 he published a Latin translation of a part of the works of Mencius (Mang-tse), one of the nine classical books of the Chinese. Soon afterwards he translated the modern Greek odes of Kalvos under the title -of <i>La Lyre patriotique de la Grèce</i>. But such works were not +of <i>La Lyre patriotique de la Grèce</i>. But such works were not profitable in a commercial sense, and, being without any patrimony, Julien was glad to accept the assistance of Sir William Drummond and others, until in 1827 he was appointed sublibrarian -to the French institute. In 1832 he succeeded Rémusat -as professor of Chinese at the collège de France. In 1833 he was -elected a member of the Académie des Inscriptions in the place +to the French institute. In 1832 he succeeded Rémusat +as professor of Chinese at the collège de France. In 1833 he was +elected a member of the Académie des Inscriptions in the place of the orientalist, Antoine Jean Saint-Martin. For some years his studies had been directed towards the dramatic and lighter literature of the Chinese, and in rapid succession he now brought @@ -11594,24 +11555,24 @@ eul</i>, upon which Voltaire had founded his <i>Orphelin de la Chine</i> (1755). With the versatility which belonged to his genius, he next turned, apparently without difficulty, to the very different style common to Taoist writings, and translated in 1835 <i>Le Livre -des récompenses et des peines</i> of Lao-tsze. About this time the +des récompenses et des peines</i> of Lao-tsze. About this time the cultivation of silkworms was beginning to attract attention in France, and by order of the minister of agriculture Julien compiled, -in 1837, a <i>Résumé des principaux traités chinois sur la -culture des mûriers, et l’éducation des vers-à-soie</i>, which was +in 1837, a <i>Résumé des principaux traités chinois sur la +culture des mûriers, et l’éducation des vers-à -soie</i>, which was speedily translated into English, German, Italian and Russian.</p> <p>Nothing was more characteristic of his method of studying Chinese than his habit of collecting every peculiarity of idiom and expression which he met with in his reading; and, in order that others might reap the benefit of his experiences, he published -in 1841 <i>Discussions grammaticales sur certaines règles de position -qui, en chinois, jouent le même rôle que les inflexions dans les autres +in 1841 <i>Discussions grammaticales sur certaines règles de position +qui, en chinois, jouent le même rôle que les inflexions dans les autres langues</i>, which he followed in 1842 by <i>Exercices pratiques d’analyse, de syntaxe, et de lexigraphie chinoise</i>. Meanwhile in -1839, he had been appointed joint keeper of the Bibliothèque +1839, he had been appointed joint keeper of the Bibliothèque royale, with the especial superintendence of the Chinese books, -and shortly afterwards he was made administrator of the collège +and shortly afterwards he was made administrator of the collège de France.</p> <p>The facility with which he had learned Chinese, and the success @@ -11631,12 +11592,12 @@ might better understand the references to Indian institutions, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span> and the transcriptions in Chinese of Sanskrit words and proper names, he began the study of Sanskrit, and in 1853 brought out -his <i>Voyages du pélérin Hiouen-tsang</i>, which is regarded by some +his <i>Voyages du pélérin Hiouen-tsang</i>, which is regarded by some critics as his most valuable work. Six years later he published -<i>Les Avadânas, contes et apologues Indiens inconnus jusqu’à ce -jour, suivis de poésies et de nouvelles chinoises</i>. For the benefit of +<i>Les Avadânas, contes et apologues Indiens inconnus jusqu’à ce +jour, suivis de poésies et de nouvelles chinoises</i>. For the benefit of future students he disclosed his system of deciphering Sanskrit -words occurring in Chinese books in his <i>Méthode pour déchiffrer et +words occurring in Chinese books in his <i>Méthode pour déchiffrer et transcrire les noms sanscrits qui se rencontrent dans les livres chinois</i> (1861). This work, which contains much of interest and importance, falls short of the value which its author was accustomed @@ -11661,7 +11622,7 @@ chinois</i> (1869), translated from native authorities. In the intervals of more serious undertakings he translated the <i>San tseu King</i> (<i>Le Livre des trois mots</i>); <i>Thsien tseu wen</i> (<i>Le Livre de mille mots</i>); <i>Les Deux cousines</i>; <i>Nouvelles chinoises</i>; the <i>Ping chan ling -yen</i> (<i>Les Deux jeunes filles lettrées</i>); and the <i>Dialoghi Cinesi</i>, <i>Ji-tch’ang +yen</i> (<i>Les Deux jeunes filles lettrées</i>); and the <i>Dialoghi Cinesi</i>, <i>Ji-tch’ang k’ eou-t’ eou-koa</i>. His last work of importance was <i>Syntaxe nouvelle de la langue chinoise</i> (1869), in which he gave the result of his study of the language, and collected a vast array of facts @@ -11681,7 +11642,7 @@ of the legion of honour in recognition of the services he had rendered to literature during the second empire.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See notice and bibliography by Wallon, <i>Mém. de l’Acad. des +<p>See notice and bibliography by Wallon, <i>Mém. de l’Acad. des Inscr.</i> (1884), xxxi. 409-458.</p> </div> <div class="author">(R. K. D.)</div> @@ -11814,11 +11775,11 @@ the 21st of February 1513, and was succeeded by Leo X.</p> <p>See L. Pastor, <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. vi., trans. by F. I. Antrobus (1898); M. Creighton, <i>History of the Papacy</i>, vol. v. (1901); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. viii., trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton -(1900-1902); Hefele-Hergenröther, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, vol. viii., 2nd +(1900-1902); Hefele-Hergenröther, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, vol. viii., 2nd ed.; J. Klaczko, <i>Rome et la renaissance ... Jules II.</i> (1898), trans. into English by J. Dennie (New York, 1903); M. Brosch, <i>Papst Julius II. -u. die Gründung des Kirchenstaates</i> (1878); A. J. Dumesnil, <i>Histoire -de Jules II.</i> (1873); J. J. I. von Döllinger, <i>Beiträge zur polit., kirchl., +u. die Gründung des Kirchenstaates</i> (1878); A. J. Dumesnil, <i>Histoire +de Jules II.</i> (1873); J. J. I. von Döllinger, <i>Beiträge zur polit., kirchl., u. Cultur-Geschichte der sechs letzten Jahrhunderte</i>, vol. iii. (1882); A. Schulte, <i>Die Fugger in Rom 1495-1523, mit Studien zur Gesch. des kirchlichen Finanzwesens jener Zeit</i> (1904).</p> @@ -11863,7 +11824,7 @@ Ciaconius, <i>Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Rome, 1601-1602) (both contemporaries of Julius III.); Ranke, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 276 seq.; v. Reumont, <i>Gesch. der Stadt Rom.</i>, iii. 2, 503 seq.; Brosch, <i>Gesch. des Kirchenstaates</i> (1880), i. 189 seq.; -and extended bibliography in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, s.v. +and extended bibliography in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, s.v. “Julius III.”</p> </div> <div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div> @@ -11945,9 +11906,9 @@ of thirty-one days. It was originally the fifth month of the year, and as such was called by the Romans <i>Quintilis</i>. The later name of Julius was given in honour of Julius Caesar (who was born in the month); it came into use in the year of his death. -The Anglo-Saxons called July <i>Hegmônath</i>, “hay-month,” or -<i>Maed-mônath</i>, “mead-month,” the meadows being then in -bloom. Another name was <i>aftera lîða</i>, “the latter mild month,” +The Anglo-Saxons called July <i>Hegmônath</i>, “hay-month,” or +<i>Maed-mônath</i>, “mead-month,” the meadows being then in +bloom. Another name was <i>aftera lîða</i>, “the latter mild month,” in contradistinction to June, which was named “the former mild month.” Chief dates of the month: 3rd July, Dog Days begin; 15th July, St Swithin; 25th July, St James.</p> @@ -11963,24 +11924,24 @@ of the thunder, takes the place of Jumala.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JUMIÈGES,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> a village of north-western France, in the department -of Seine-Inférieure, 17 m. W. of Rouen by road, on a +<p><span class="bold">JUMIÈGES,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> a village of north-western France, in the department +of Seine-Inférieure, 17 m. W. of Rouen by road, on a peninsula formed by a bend of the Seine. Pop. (1906), 244. -Jumièges is famous for the imposing ruins of its abbey, one of +Jumièges is famous for the imposing ruins of its abbey, one of the great establishments of the Benedictine order. The principal remains are those of the abbey-church, built from 1040 to 1067; -these comprise the façade with two towers, the walls of the nave, -a wall and sustaining arch of the great central tower and débris +these comprise the façade with two towers, the walls of the nave, +a wall and sustaining arch of the great central tower and débris of the choir (restored in the 13th century). Among the minor relics, preserved in a small museum in a building of the 14th century, are the stone which once covered the grave of Agnes Sorel, and two recumbent figures of the 13th century, commonly -known as the <i>Énervés</i>, and representing, according to one legend, +known as the <i>Énervés</i>, and representing, according to one legend, two sons of Clovis II., who, as a punishment for revolt against their father, had the tendons of their arms and legs cut, and were set adrift in a boat on the Seine. Another tradition states that the statues represent Thassilo, duke of Bavaria, and Theodo -his son, relegated to Jumièges by Charlemagne. The church +his son, relegated to Jumièges by Charlemagne. The church of St Pierre, which adjoins the south side of the abbey-church, was built in the 14th century as a continuation of a previous church of the time of Charlemagne, of which a fragment still @@ -11988,13 +11949,13 @@ survives. Among the other ruins, those of the chapter-house (13th century) and refectory (12th and 15th centuries) also survive.</p> -<p>The abbey of Jumièges was founded about the middle of the +<p>The abbey of Jumièges was founded about the middle of the 7th century by St Philibert, whose name is still to be read on gold and silver coins obtained from the site. The abbey was destroyed by the Normans, but was rebuilt in 928 by William Longsword, duke of Normandy, and continued to exist till 1790. Charles VII. often resided there with Agnes Sorel, who had a -manor at Mesnil-sous-Jumièges in the neighbourhood, and died +manor at Mesnil-sous-Jumièges in the neighbourhood, and died in the monastery in 1450.</p> @@ -12015,7 +11976,7 @@ and farm produce.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JUMNA,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Jamuna</span>, a river of northern India. Rising in the Himalayas in Tehri state, about 5 m. N. of the Jamnotri -hot springs, in 31° 3′ N. and 78° 30′ E., the stream first flows +hot springs, in 31° 3′ N. and 78° 30′ E., the stream first flows S. for 7 m., then S.W. for 32 m., and afterwards due S. for 26 m., receiving several small tributaries in its course. It afterwards turns sharply to the W. for 14 m., when it is joined by the large @@ -12040,7 +12001,7 @@ being joined by the Sengar on its north bank, and on the south by the great river Chambal from the west, and by the Sind. From Hamirpur, the Jumna flows nearly due E., until it enters Allahabad district and passes Allahabad city, below which it -falls into the Ganges in 25° 25′ N. and 81° 55′ E. In this last +falls into the Ganges in 25° 25′ N. and 81° 55′ E. In this last part of its course it receives the waters of the Betwa and the Ken. Where the Jumna and the Ganges unite is the <i>prayag</i>, or place of pilgrimage, where devout Hindus resort in thousands to wash @@ -12119,7 +12080,7 @@ of weights, which are not allowed in championship contests.</p> <p>In the running long jump anything over 18 ft. was once considered good, while Peter O’Connor’s world’s record (1901) -is 24 ft. 11¾ in. The jump is made, after a short fast run on a +is 24 ft. 11¾ in. The jump is made, after a short fast run on a cinder path, from a joist sunk into the ground flush with the path, the jumper landing in a pit filled with loose earth, its level a few inches below that of the path. The joist, called the @@ -12131,36 +12092,36 @@ person in landing.</p> for it is in reality nothing but a push against the ground, and a perfect purchase is of the greatest importance. Weights held in the hands of course greatly aid the jumper. Without weights -J. Darby (professional) jumped 12 ft. 1½ in. and R. C. Ewry +J. Darby (professional) jumped 12 ft. 1½ in. and R. C. Ewry (American amateur) 11 ft. 4<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. With weights J. Darby covered 14 ft. 9 in. at Liverpool in 1890, while the amateur record is -12 ft. 9½ in., made by J. Chandler and G. L. Hellwig (U.S.A.). +12 ft. 9½ in., made by J. Chandler and G. L. Hellwig (U.S.A.). The standing two, three, five and ten jumps are merely repetitions of the single jump, care being taken to land with the proper balance to begin the next leap. The record for two jumps -without weights is 22 ft. 2½ in., made by H. M. Johnson (U.S.A.); -for three jumps without weights, R. C. Ewry, 35 ft. 7¼ in.; with +without weights is 22 ft. 2½ in., made by H. M. Johnson (U.S.A.); +for three jumps without weights, R. C. Ewry, 35 ft. 7¼ in.; with weights J. Darby, 41 ft. 7 in.</p> <p>The hop step and jump is popular in Ireland and often included in the programmes of minor meetings, and so is the two hops and a jump. The record for the first, made by W. McManus, -is 49 ft. 2½ in. with a run and without weights; for the latter, -also with a run and without weights, 49 ft. ½ in., made by J. B. +is 49 ft. 2½ in. with a run and without weights; for the latter, +also with a run and without weights, 49 ft. ½ in., made by J. B. Conolly.</p> <p>In the running high jump also the standard has improved. In 1864 a jump of 5 ft. 6 in. was considered excellent. The Scotch professional Donald Dinnie, on hearing that M. J. Brooks -of Oxford had jumped 6 ft. 2½ in. in 1876, wrote to the newspapers +of Oxford had jumped 6 ft. 2½ in. in 1876, wrote to the newspapers to show that upon <i>a priori</i> grounds such an achievement was impossible. Since then many jumpers who can clear over 6 ft. have appeared. In 1895 M. F. Sweeney of New York accomplished a jump of 6 ft. 5<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. Ireland has produced many first-class high jumpers, nearly all tall men, P. Leahy winning the British amateur record in Dublin in 1898 with a jump of 6 ft. -4¾ in. The American A. Bird Page, however, although only -5 ft. 6¾ in. in height, jumped 6 ft. 4 in. High jumping is done +4¾ in. The American A. Bird Page, however, although only +5 ft. 6¾ in. in height, jumped 6 ft. 4 in. High jumping is done over a light staff or lath resting upon pins fixed in two uprights upon which a scale is marked. The “take-off,” or ground immediately in front of the uprights from which the spring is @@ -12201,7 +12162,7 @@ gymnasts and is not recognized by athletic authorities.</p> century. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> takes it to be of onomatopoeic origin and does not consider a connexion with Dan. <i>gumpe</i>, Icel. <i>goppa</i>, &c., possible. The earlier English word is “leap” (O.E. -<i>hléapan</i>, to run, jump, cf. Ger. <i>laufen</i>).</p> +<i>hléapan</i>, to run, jump, cf. Ger. <i>laufen</i>).</p> </div> @@ -12282,8 +12243,8 @@ members of the family.</p> Gujarat division of Bombay, extending inland from the southern coast of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Area, 3284 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 395,428, showing a decrease of 19% in the decade, -owing to famine; estimated gross revenue, £174,000; tribute to -the British government and the gaekwar of Baroda, £4200; +owing to famine; estimated gross revenue, £174,000; tribute to +the British government and the gaekwar of Baroda, £4200; a considerable sum is also received as tribute from minor states in Kathiawar. The state is traversed by a railway from Rajkot, to the seaport of Verawal. It includes the sacred mountain @@ -12514,7 +12475,7 @@ pyre.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JUNG-BUNZLAU<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Mladá Boleslav</i>), a town of Bohemia, +<p><span class="bold">JUNG-BUNZLAU<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Mladá Boleslav</i>), a town of Bohemia, 44 m. N.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,479, mostly Czech. The town contains several old buildings of historical interest, notably the castle, built towards the end of the 10th @@ -12547,9 +12508,9 @@ surpass it in height. It was first ascended in 1811 by the brothers Meyer, and again in 1812 by Gottlieb Meyer (son of J. R. Meyer), in both cases by the eastern or Valais side, the foot of which (the final ascent being made by the 1811-1812 -route) was reached in 1828 over the Mönchjoch by six peasants +route) was reached in 1828 over the Mönchjoch by six peasants from Grindelwald. In 1841 Principal J. D. Forbes, with -Agassiz, Desor and Du Châtelier, made the fourth ascent by +Agassiz, Desor and Du Châtelier, made the fourth ascent by the 1812 route. It was not till 1865 that Sir George Young and the Rev. H. B. George succeeded in making the first ascent from the west or Interlaken side. This is a far more difficult @@ -12659,7 +12620,7 @@ frequently a low tree. In former times the juniper seems to have been a very well-known plant, the name occurring almost unaltered in many languages. The Lat. <i>juniperus</i>, probably formed from <i>juni</i>—crude form of <i>juvenis</i>, fresh, young, and <i>parere</i>, -to produce, is represented by Fr. <i>genièvre</i>, Sp. <i>enebro</i>, Ital. <i>ginepito</i>, +to produce, is represented by Fr. <i>genièvre</i>, Sp. <i>enebro</i>, Ital. <i>ginepito</i>, &c. The dialectical names, chiefly in European languages, were collected by Prince L. L. Bonaparte, and published in the <i>Academy</i> (July 17, 1880, No. 428, p. 45). The common @@ -12672,8 +12633,8 @@ is given in doses up to one drachm. Much safer and more powerful diuretics are now in use. The wood is very aromatic and is used for ornamental purposes. In Lapland the bark is made into ropes. The fruits are used for flavouring -gin (a name derived from <i>juniper</i>, through Fr. <i>genièvre</i>); and in -some parts of France a kind of beer called <i>genévrette</i> was made +gin (a name derived from <i>juniper</i>, through Fr. <i>genièvre</i>); and in +some parts of France a kind of beer called <i>genévrette</i> was made from them by the peasants. <i>J. Oxycedrus</i>, from the Mediterranean district and Madeira, yields cedar-oil which is official in most of the European pharmacopoeias, but not in that of @@ -12838,7 +12799,7 @@ Joseph Parkes, author with Herman Merivale of the <i>Memoirs of Sir Philip Francis</i> (1867), gives a list of more than forty persons who had been supposed to be Junius. They are: Edmund Burke, Lord George Sackville, Lord Chatham, Colonel -Barré, Hugh Macaulay Boyd, Dr Butler, John Wilkes, Lord +Barré, Hugh Macaulay Boyd, Dr Butler, John Wilkes, Lord Chesterfield, Henry Flood, William Burke, Gibbon, W. E. Hamilton, Charles Lloyd, Charles Lee (general in the American War of Independence), John Roberts, George Grenville, @@ -12918,7 +12879,7 @@ Theory Unsound</i> (1868).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JUNIUS, FRANZ<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (in French, François du Jon), the name of +<p><span class="bold">JUNIUS, FRANZ<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (in French, François du Jon), the name of two Huguenot scholars.</p> <p>(1) <span class="sc">Franz Junius</span> (1545-1602) was born at Bourges in France @@ -12934,7 +12895,7 @@ reformed church. He went in 1562 to study at Geneva, where he was reduced to the direst poverty by the failure of remittances from home, owing to civil war in France. He would accept only the barest sustenance from a humble friend who had -himself been a protégé of Junius’s family at Bourges, and his +himself been a protégé of Junius’s family at Bourges, and his health was permanently injured. The long-expected remittance from home was closely followed by the news of the brutal murder of his father by a Catholic fanatic at Issoudun; and @@ -12947,7 +12908,7 @@ times he barely escaped arrest, and finally, after spending six months in preaching at Limburg, he was forced to retire to Heidelberg in 1567. There he was welcomed by the elector Frederick II., and temporarily settled in charge of the Walloon -church at Schönau; but in 1568 his patron sent him as chaplain +church at Schönau; but in 1568 his patron sent him as chaplain with Prince William of Orange in his unfortunate expedition to the Netherlands. Junius escaped as soon as he could from that post, and returning to his church remained there till 1573. From @@ -13037,7 +12998,7 @@ with straw or horsehair, formerly with rushes or reeds.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JUNKER, WILHELM<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1840-1892), German explorer of Africa, was born at Moscow on the 6th of April 1840. He studied medicine -at Dorpat, Göttingen, Berlin and Prague, but did not +at Dorpat, Göttingen, Berlin and Prague, but did not practise for long. After a series of short journeys to Iceland, Tunis and Lower Egypt, he remained almost continuously in eastern Equatorial Africa from 1875 to 1886, making first @@ -13098,7 +13059,7 @@ in Latin literature is not the true Roman deity. In the <i>Aeneid</i>, for example, her policy is antagonistic to the plans of Jupiter for the conquest of Latium and the future greatness of Rome; though in the fourth <i>Eclogue</i>, as Lucina, she appears in her proper -rôle as assisting at childbirth. It was under Greek influence +rôle as assisting at childbirth. It was under Greek influence again that she became the wife of Jupiter, the mother of Mars; the true Roman had no such personal interest in his deities as to invent family relations for them.</p> @@ -13140,7 +13101,7 @@ introduced new-born infants “in luminis oras.”</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Roscher’s article “Juno” in his Lexicon of Mythology, and his earlier treatise on Juno and Hera; Wissowa, <i>Religion und Kultus -der Römer</i>, 113 foll.; also a fresh discussion by Walter Otto in +der Römer</i>, 113 foll.; also a fresh discussion by Walter Otto in <i>Philologus</i> for 1905 (p. 161 foll.).</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. W. F.*)</div> @@ -13148,7 +13109,7 @@ der Römer</i>, 113 foll.; also a fresh discussion by Walter Otto in <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JUNOT, ANDOCHE,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of Abrabantes</span> (1771-1813), French -general, was born at Bussy-le-Grand (Côte d’Or), on the 23rd +general, was born at Bussy-le-Grand (Côte d’Or), on the 23rd of October 1771. He went to school at Chatillon, and was known among his comrades as a blustering but lovable creature, with a pugnacious disposition. He was studying law in Paris at the @@ -13159,7 +13120,7 @@ Napoleon Bonaparte during the siege of Toulon, while serving as his secretary. It is related that as he was taking down a despatch, a shell burst hard by and covered the paper with sand, whereupon he exclaimed, “Bien! nous n’avions pas de sable -pour sécher l’encre! en voici!” He remained the faithful +pour sécher l’encre! en voici!” He remained the faithful companion of his chief during the latter’s temporary disgrace, and went with him to Italy as aide-de-camp. He distinguished himself so much at the battle of Millesimo that he was selected @@ -13219,7 +13180,7 @@ Cintra, and to withdraw from Portugal with all his forces. Napoleon was furious, but, as he said, was spared the necessity of sending his old friend before a court martial by the fact that the English put their own generals on their trial. Junot was -sent back to Spain, where, in 1810-1811, acting under Masséna, +sent back to Spain, where, in 1810-1811, acting under Masséna, he was once more seriously wounded. His last campaign was made in Russia, and he received more than a just share of discredit for it. Napoleon next appointed him to govern @@ -13263,9 +13224,9 @@ somewhat spiteful <i>Memoirs</i>, which were published at Paris in <div class="condensed"> <p>Of her other books the most noteworthy are <i>Histoires contemporaines</i> -(2 vols., 1835); <i>Scènes de la vie espagnole</i> (2 vols., 1836); +(2 vols., 1835); <i>Scènes de la vie espagnole</i> (2 vols., 1836); <i>Histoire des salons de Paris</i> (6 vols., 1837-1838); <i>Souvenirs d’une -ambassade et d’un séjour en Espagne et en Portugal, de 1808 à 1811</i> +ambassade et d’un séjour en Espagne et en Portugal, de 1808 à 1811</i> (2 vols., 1837).</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div> @@ -13277,7 +13238,7 @@ ambassade et d’un séjour en Espagne et en Portugal, de 1808 à 1811</i> administrative council or board. The original meaning is now rather lost in the two derivative significations. The Spaniards have even begun to make use of the barbarism -<i>métin</i>, corrupted from the English “meeting.” The word <i>junta</i> +<i>métin</i>, corrupted from the English “meeting.” The word <i>junta</i> has always been and still is used in the other senses. Some of the boards by which the Spanish administration was conducted under the Habsburg and the earlier Bourbon kings were styled @@ -13436,7 +13397,7 @@ whom they themselves looked upon as greatest.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zeus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Religion</a></span>. Excellent accounts of Jupiter may be found in Roscher’s <i>Mythological Lexicon</i>, and in Wissowa’s -<i>Religion und Kultus der Römer</i> (p. 100 seq.).</p> +<i>Religion und Kultus der Römer</i> (p. 100 seq.).</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. M. Ra.; W. W. F.*)</div> @@ -13451,7 +13412,7 @@ amounting to 0.048, so that his maximum and minimum distances are 504,000,000 and 462,000,000 miles respectively. When in opposition and at his mean distance, he is situated 390,000,000 miles from the earth. His orbit is inclined about -1° 18′ 40″ to the ecliptic. His sidereal revolution is completed +1° 18′ 40″ to the ecliptic. His sidereal revolution is completed in 4332.585 days or 11 years 314.9 days, and his synodical period, or the mean interval separating his returns to opposition, amounts to 398.87 days. His real polar and equatorial diameters @@ -13501,13 +13462,13 @@ of the rotation period were made as follows:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcl"><i>Date.</i></td> <td class="tcl"> <i>Observer.</i></td> <td class="tcl">  <i>Period.</i></td> <td class="tcl"> <i>Place of Spot.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">1672</td> <td class="tcl">J. D. Cassini</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 50 s.</td> <td class="tcl">Lat. 16° S.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1672</td> <td class="tcl">J. D. Cassini</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 50 s.</td> <td class="tcl">Lat. 16° S.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">1692</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 50 m.</td> <td class="tcl">Equator.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">1708</td> <td class="tcl">J. P. Maraldi</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 48 s.</td> <td class="tcl">S. tropical zone</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">1773</td> <td class="tcl">J. Sylvabelle</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 56 m.</td> <td class="tcl">  ”    ”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">1788</td> <td class="tcl">J. H. Schröter</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 33.6 s.</td> <td class="tcl">Lat. 12° N.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">1788</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 17.6 s.</td> <td class="tcl">Lat. 20° S.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">1835</td> <td class="tcl">J. H. Mädler</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 26.5 s.</td> <td class="tcl">Lat. 5° N.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1788</td> <td class="tcl">J. H. Schröter</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 33.6 s.</td> <td class="tcl">Lat. 12° N.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1788</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 17.6 s.</td> <td class="tcl">Lat. 20° S.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1835</td> <td class="tcl">J. H. Mädler</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 26.5 s.</td> <td class="tcl">Lat. 5° N.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">1835</td> <td class="tcl">G. B. Airy</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 21.3 s.</td> <td class="tcl">N. tropical zone.</td></tr> </table> @@ -13518,14 +13479,14 @@ different latitudes of the planet are approximately as under:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcl"> <i>Latitude.</i></td> <td class="tcl">  <i>Rotation Period.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">+85° to +28°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 37.5 s.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">+28° to +24°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 54½ m. to 9 h. 56½ m.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">+24° to +20°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 48 m. to 9 h. 49½ m.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">+20° to +10°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 33.9 s.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">+10° to −12°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 50 m. 20 s.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">−12° to −18°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 40 s.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">−18° to −37°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 18.1 s.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">−37° to −55°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 5 s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">+85° to +28°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 37.5 s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">+28° to +24°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 54½ m. to 9 h. 56½ m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">+24° to +20°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 48 m. to 9 h. 49½ m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">+20° to +10°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 33.9 s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">+10° to −12°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 50 m. 20 s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">−12° to −18°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 40 s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">−18° to −37°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 18.1 s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">−37° to −55°</td> <td class="tcl">9 h. 55 m. 5 s.</td></tr> </table> <p class="noind">W. F. Denning gives the following relative periods for the years @@ -13569,14 +13530,14 @@ between 9 h. 55 m. 38 s. and 9 h. 55 m. 42 s. The motion of the various features is not therefore dependent upon their latitude, though at the equator the rate seems swifter as a rule than in other zones. But exceptions occur, for in 1880 some spots -appeared in about 23° N. which rotated in 9 h. 48 m. though in +appeared in about 23° N. which rotated in 9 h. 48 m. though in the region immediately N. of this the spot motion is ordinarily the slowest of all and averages 9 h. 55 m. 53.8 s. (from twenty determinations). These differences of speed remind us of the sun-spots and their proper motions. The solar envelope, however, appears to show a pretty regular retardation towards the -poles, for according to Gustav Spörer’s formula, while the equatorial -period is 25 d. 2 h. 15 m. the latitudes 46° N. and S. give +poles, for according to Gustav Spörer’s formula, while the equatorial +period is 25 d. 2 h. 15 m. the latitudes 46° N. and S. give a period of 28 d. 15 h. 0 m.</p> <p>The Jovian currents flow in a due east and west direction as @@ -13740,7 +13701,7 @@ times of rotation between the equatorial portions of the planet and the spots in temperate latitudes. The latter usually rotate in periods between 9 h. 55 m. and 9 h. 56 m., while the equatorial markings make a revolution in about five minutes less, 9 h. 50 m. -to 9 h. 51 m. The difference amounts to 7.5° in a terrestrial +to 9 h. 51 m. The difference amounts to 7.5° in a terrestrial day and proves that an equatorial spot will circulate right round the enormous sphere of Jupiter (circumference 283,000 m.) in 48 days. The motion is equivalent to about 6000 m. per day @@ -13824,7 +13785,7 @@ around the plane of the planet’s equator.</p> <p>The most marked feature of these bodies is a relation between the mean longitudes of Satellites I., II. and III. The mean longitude of I. plus twice that of III. minus three times that of II. is constantly -near to 180°. It follows that the same relations subsist among the +near to 180°. It follows that the same relations subsist among the mean motions. The cause of this was pointed out by Laplace. If we put L<span class="su">1</span> L<span class="su">2</span> and L<span class="su">3</span> for the mean longitudes, and define an angle U as follows:—</p> @@ -13833,17 +13794,17 @@ U as follows:—</p> <p class="noind">it was shown mathematically by Laplace that if the longitudes and mean motions were such that the angle U differed a little -from 180°, there was a minute residual force arising from the +from 180°, there was a minute residual force arising from the mutual actions of the several bodies tending to bring this angle -towards the value 180°. Consequently, if the mean motions were +towards the value 180°. Consequently, if the mean motions were such that this angle increased only with great slowness, it would -after a certain period tend back toward the value 180°, and then +after a certain period tend back toward the value 180°, and then beyond it, exactly as a pendulum drawn out of the perpendicular oscillates towards and beyond it. Thus an oscillation would be engendered in virtue of which the angle would oscillate very slowly on each side of the central value. Computation of the mean longitude from observations has indicated that the angle -does differ from 180°, but it is not certain whether this deviation +does differ from 180°, but it is not certain whether this deviation is greater than the possible result of the errors of observation. However this may be, the existence of the libration, and its period if it does exist, are still unknown.</p> @@ -13856,10 +13817,10 @@ referred to the equinox of the epoch, 1891, 2nd of October:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcc allb">Satellite</td> <td class="tcc allb">V.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I.</td> <td class="tcc allb">II.</td> <td class="tcc allb">III.</td> <td class="tcc allb">IV.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mean Long.</td> <td class="tcc rb">264°.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">313°.7193</td> <td class="tcc rb">39°.1187</td> <td class="tcc rb">171°.2448</td> <td class="tcc rb">62°.2000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mean Long.</td> <td class="tcc rb">264°.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">313°.7193</td> <td class="tcc rb">39°.1187</td> <td class="tcc rb">171°.2448</td> <td class="tcc rb">62°.2000</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Synodic Period</td> <td class="tcc rb">11 h. 58 m.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 d. 18 h. .48</td> <td class="tcc rb">3d. 13h. .30</td> <td class="tcc rb">7d. 3h. .99</td> <td class="tcc rb">16d. 18m. .09</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mean Distance</td> <td class="tcc rb">106,400 m.</td> <td class="tcc rb">260,000 m.</td> <td class="tcc rb">414,000 m.</td> <td class="tcc rb">661,000 m.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,162,000 m.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mass ÷ Mass of Jup.</td> <td class="tcc rb">(?)</td> <td class="tcc rb">.00002831</td> <td class="tcc rb">.00002324</td> <td class="tcc rb">.00008125</td> <td class="tcc rb">.00002149</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mass ÷ Mass of Jup.</td> <td class="tcc rb">(?)</td> <td class="tcc rb">.00002831</td> <td class="tcc rb">.00002324</td> <td class="tcc rb">.00008125</td> <td class="tcc rb">.00002149</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Stellar Mag.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.6</td></tr> </table> @@ -13873,14 +13834,14 @@ supplied mostly by Professor Hermann Struve.</p> <tr><td class="tcl">Equatorial diameter of Jupiter (Dist. 5.2028)</td> <td class="tcr">38″.50</td> <td class="tcr">37″.50</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Polar diameter of Jupiter</td> <td class="tcr">36″.02</td> <td class="tcr">35″.23</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Ellipticity</td> <td class="tcr">1 ÷ 15.5</td> <td class="tcr">1 ÷ 16.5</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Theoretical ellipticity from motion of 900″ in the pericentreof Sat. V</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1 ÷ 15.3</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Centrifugal force ÷ gravity at equator</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">0.0900</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Mass of Jupiter ÷ Mass of Sun, now used in tables</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1 ÷ 1047.34</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Inclination of planet’s equator to ecliptic</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">2° 9′.07 + 0.006<i>t</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Inclination of planet’s equator to orbit</td> <td class="tcr">3° 4′.80</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Long. of Node of equator on ecliptic</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">336° 21′.47 + 0′.762<i>t</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Long. of Node of equator on orbit</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">135°25′.81 + 0.729<i>t</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ellipticity</td> <td class="tcr">1 ÷ 15.5</td> <td class="tcr">1 ÷ 16.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Theoretical ellipticity from motion of 900″ in the pericentreof Sat. V</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1 ÷ 15.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Centrifugal force ÷ gravity at equator</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">0.0900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mass of Jupiter ÷ Mass of Sun, now used in tables</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1 ÷ 1047.34</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Inclination of planet’s equator to ecliptic</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">2° 9′.07 + 0.006<i>t</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Inclination of planet’s equator to orbit</td> <td class="tcr">3° 4′.80</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Long. of Node of equator on ecliptic</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">336° 21′.47 + 0′.762<i>t</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Long. of Node of equator on orbit</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">135°25′.81 + 0.729<i>t</i></td></tr> </table> <p>The longitudes are referred to the mean terrestrial equinox, and @@ -13920,13 +13881,13 @@ trans. G. E. E. Frewer (2nd ed., 1874); W. Junker, <i>Travels in Africa</i> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JURA,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> a department of France, on the eastern frontier, -formed from the southern portion of the old province of Franche-Comté. -It is bounded N by the department of Haute-Saône, -N.E. by Doubs, E. by Switzerland, S. by Ain, and W. by Saône-et-Loire -and Côte d’Or. Pop. (1906), 257,725. Area, 1951 sq. m. +formed from the southern portion of the old province of Franche-Comté. +It is bounded N by the department of Haute-Saône, +N.E. by Doubs, E. by Switzerland, S. by Ain, and W. by Saône-et-Loire +and Côte d’Or. Pop. (1906), 257,725. Area, 1951 sq. m. Jura comprises four distinct zones with a general direction from north to south. In the S.E. lie high eastern chains of the central -Jura, containing the Crêt Pela (4915 ft.), the highest point in +Jura, containing the Crêt Pela (4915 ft.), the highest point in the department. More to the west there is a chain of forest-clad plateaus bordered on the E. by the river Ain. Westward of these runs a range of hills, the slopes of which are covered @@ -13954,9 +13915,9 @@ pasture is abundant on the mountains. Forests, gorges, torrents and cascades are characteristic features of the scenery. Its minerals include iron and salt and there are stone-quarries. Peat is also worked. Lons-le-Saunier and Salins have mineral -springs. Industries include the manufacture of Gruyère, Septmoncel +springs. Industries include the manufacture of Gruyère, Septmoncel and other cheeses (made in co-operative cheese factories -or <i>fruitières</i>), metal founding and forging, saw-milling, flour-milling, +or <i>fruitières</i>), metal founding and forging, saw-milling, flour-milling, the cutting of precious stones (at Septmoncel and elsewhere), the manufacture of nails, tools and other iron goods, paper, leather, brier-pipes, toys and fancy wooden-ware and @@ -13965,18 +13926,18 @@ measures, which are largely exported, employs much labour in and around Morez. Imports consist of grain, cattle, wine, leaf-copper, horn, ivory, fancy-wood; exports of manufactured articles, wine, cheese, stone, timber and salt. The department -is served chiefly by the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway, the -main line from Paris to Neuchâtel traversing its northern region. +is served chiefly by the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway, the +main line from Paris to Neuchâtel traversing its northern region. The canal from the Rhone to the Rhine, which utilizes the channel of the Doubs over portions of its course, traverses it for 25 m. Lons-le-Saunier is the chief town of Jura, which embraces four -arrondissements named after the towns of Lons-le-Saunier, Dôle, +arrondissements named after the towns of Lons-le-Saunier, Dôle, Poligny and St Claude, with 32 cantons and 584 communes. The department forms the diocese of St Claude and part of the -ecclesiastical province of Besançon; it comes within the region +ecclesiastical province of Besançon; it comes within the region of the VIIth army corps and the educational circumscription -(académie) of Besançon, where is its court of appeal. Lons-le-Saunier, -Dôle, Arbois, Poligny, St Claude and Salins, the more +(académie) of Besançon, where is its court of appeal. Lons-le-Saunier, +Dôle, Arbois, Poligny, St Claude and Salins, the more noteworthy towns, receive separate notices. At Baume-les-Messieurs, 8 m. N.E. of Lons-le-Saunier, there is an ancient abbey with a fine church of the 12th century.</p> @@ -14014,7 +13975,7 @@ of mountains rising between the Rhine and the Rhone, and forming the frontier between France and Switzerland. The gorges by which these two rivers force their way to the plains cut off the Jura from the Swabian and Franconian ranges to the north -and those of Dauphiné to the south. But in very early days, +and those of Dauphiné to the south. But in very early days, before these gorges had been carved out, there were no openings in the Jura at all, and even now its three chief rivers—the Doubs, the Loue and the Ain—flow down the western slope, which is @@ -14056,14 +14017,14 @@ Cretaceous and Tertiary beds take part in its formation. It may be divided into three zones which run parallel to the length of the chain and differ from one another in their structure. The innermost zone, which rises directly from the plain of Switzerland, -is the <i>folded Jura</i> (<i>Jura plissé, Kettenjura</i>), formed of narrow +is the <i>folded Jura</i> (<i>Jura plissé, Kettenjura</i>), formed of narrow parallel undulations which diminish in intensity towards the French border. This is followed by the <i>Jura plateau</i> (<i>Jura tabulaire</i>, <i>Tafeljura</i>), in which the beds are approximately horizontal but are broken up into blocks by fractures or faults. Finally, along its western face there is a zone of numerous dislocations, -and the range descends abruptly to the plain of the Saône. -This is the <i>Région du vignoble</i> and is well shown at Arbois.</p> +and the range descends abruptly to the plain of the Saône. +This is the <i>Région du vignoble</i> and is well shown at Arbois.</p> <p>Owing to the convergence of the faults which bound it, the plateau zone decreases in width towards the south, while towards @@ -14072,14 +14033,14 @@ zone is more constant. Along its inner margin the folds are frequently overthrown, leaning towards France, but elsewhere they are simple anticlinals and synclinals, parallel to the length of the chain, and as a rule there is a remarkable freedom from -dislocations of any importance, except towards Neuchâtel and +dislocations of any importance, except towards Neuchâtel and Bienne.</p> <p>The countless blocks of gneiss, granite and other crystalline formations which are found in such numbers on the slopes of the Jura, and go by the name of “erratic blocks” (of which the best -known instance—the Pierre à Bot—is 40 ft. in diameter, and -rests on the side of a hill 800 ft. above the Lake of Neuchâtel), +known instance—the Pierre à Bot—is 40 ft. in diameter, and +rests on the side of a hill 800 ft. above the Lake of Neuchâtel), have been transported thither from the Alps by ancient glaciers, which have left their mark on the Jura range itself in the shape of striations and moraines.</p> @@ -14092,7 +14053,7 @@ and the latter in the northern; and it was by the union of these two forces that the lines north-east to south-west (seen in the greater part of the chain), and north-west to south-east (seen in the Villebois range at the south-west extremity of the chain), -were produced. This is best realized if we take Besançon as a +were produced. This is best realized if we take Besançon as a centre; to the north the ridges run east and west, to the south, north and south, while to the east the direction is north-east to south-west.</p> @@ -14101,7 +14062,7 @@ south-west.</p> <p>Before considering the topography of the interior of the Jura, it may be convenient to take a brief survey of its outer slopes.</p> -<p>1. The <i>northern face</i> dominates on one side the famous “Trouée” +<p>1. The <i>northern face</i> dominates on one side the famous “Trouée” (or Trench) of Belfort, one of the great geographical centres of Europe, whence routes run north down the Rhine to the North Sea, south-east to the Danube basin and Black Sea, and south-west into @@ -14109,19 +14070,19 @@ France, and so to the Mediterranean basin. It is now so strongly fortified that it becomes a question of great strategical importance to prevent its being turned by means of the great central plateau of the Jura, which, as we shall see, is a network of roads and railways. -On the other side it overhangs the “Trouée” of the Black Forest -towns on the Rhine (Rheinfelden, Säckingen, Laufenburg and +On the other side it overhangs the “Trouée” of the Black Forest +towns on the Rhine (Rheinfelden, Säckingen, Laufenburg and Waldshut), through which the central plain of Switzerland is easily gained. On this north slope two openings offer routes into the interior of the chain—the valley of the Doubs belonging to France, and the valley of the Birse belonging to Switzerland. Belfort is -the military, Mülhausen the industrial, and Basel the commercial +the military, Mülhausen the industrial, and Basel the commercial centre of this slope.</p> <p>2. The <i>eastern and western faces</i> offer many striking parallels. -The plains through which flow the Aar and the Saône have each been +The plains through which flow the Aar and the Saône have each been the bed of an ancient lake, traces of which remain in the lakes of -Neuchâtel, Bienne and Morat. The west face runs mainly north +Neuchâtel, Bienne and Morat. The west face runs mainly north and south like its great river, and for a similar reason the east face runs north-east to south-west. Again, both slopes are pierced by many transverse gorges or “cluses” (due to fracture and not to @@ -14131,46 +14092,46 @@ on the west; thus the gorges at the exit from which Lons-le-Saunier, Poligny, Arbois and Salins are built balance those of the Suze, of the Val de Ruz, of the Val de Travers, and of the Val d’Orbe, though on the east face there is but one city which commands all these -important routes—Neuchâtel. This town is thus marked out by -nature as a great military and industrial centre, just as is Besançon +important routes—Neuchâtel. This town is thus marked out by +nature as a great military and industrial centre, just as is Besançon on the west, which has besides to defend the route from Belfort down the Doubs. These easy means of communicating with the -Free County of Burgundy or Franche-Comté account for the fact -that the dialect of Neuchâtel is Burgundian, and that it was held +Free County of Burgundy or Franche-Comté account for the fact +that the dialect of Neuchâtel is Burgundian, and that it was held generally by Burgundian nobles, though most of the country near it was in the hands of the house of Savoy until gradually annexed by Bern. The Chasseron (5286 ft.) is the central point of the eastern -face, commanding the two great railways which join Neuchâtel and +face, commanding the two great railways which join Neuchâtel and Pontarlier. This ridge is in a certain sense parallel to the valley of the Loue on the west face, which flows into the Doubs a little to -the south of Dôle, the only important town of the central portion -of the Saône basin. The Chasseron is wholly Swiss, as are the lower +the south of Dôle, the only important town of the central portion +of the Saône basin. The Chasseron is wholly Swiss, as are the lower summits of the Chasseral (5279 ft.), the Mont Suchet (5220 ft.), the Aiguille de Baulmes (5128 ft.), the Dent de Vaulion (4879 ft.), the Weissenstein (4223 ft.), and the Chaumont (3845 ft.), the two last-named points being probably the best-known points in the Jura, as they are accessible by carriage road from Soleure and -Neuchâtel respectively. South of the Orbe valley the east face +Neuchâtel respectively. South of the Orbe valley the east face becomes a rocky wall which is crowned by all the highest summits (the first and second Swiss, the rest French) of the chain—the Mont -Tendre (5512 ft.), the Dôle (5505 ft.), the Reculet (5643 ft.), the -Crêt de la Neige (5653 ft.) and the Grand Crédo (5328 ft.), the uniformity +Tendre (5512 ft.), the Dôle (5505 ft.), the Reculet (5643 ft.), the +Crêt de la Neige (5653 ft.) and the Grand Crédo (5328 ft.), the uniformity of level being as striking as on the west edge of the Jura, though there the absolute height is far less. The position of -the Dôle is similar to that of the Chasseron, as along the sides of it +the Dôle is similar to that of the Chasseron, as along the sides of it run the great roads of the Col de St Cergues (3973 ft.) and the Col -de la Faucille (4341 ft.), the latter leading through the Vallée des +de la Faucille (4341 ft.), the latter leading through the Vallée des Dappes, which was divided in 1862 between France and Switzerland, after many negotiations. The height of these roads shows that they are passages across the chain, rather than through natural depressions.</p> <p>3. The <i>southern face</i> is supported by two great pillars—on the -east by the Grand Crédo and on the west by the ridge of Revermont +east by the Grand Crédo and on the west by the ridge of Revermont (2529 ft.) above Bourg en Bresse; between these a huge bastion (the district of <i>Bugey</i>) stretches away to the south, forcing the -Rhone to make a long détour. On the two sides of this bastion the -plains in which Ambérieu and Culoz stand balance one another, and +Rhone to make a long détour. On the two sides of this bastion the +plains in which Ambérieu and Culoz stand balance one another, and are the meeting points of the routes which cut through the bastion by means of deep gorges. On the eastern side this great wedge is steep and rugged, ending in the Grand Colombier (5033 ft.) above @@ -14180,9 +14141,9 @@ Ain and the Surand at Pont d’Ain on the west balances that of the Valserine and the Rhone at Bellegarde on the east.</p> <p>The Jura thus dominates on the north one of the great highways -of Europe, on the east and west divides the valleys of the Saône and +of Europe, on the east and west divides the valleys of the Saône and the Aar, and stretches out to the south so as nearly to join hands -with the great mass of the Dauphiné Alps. It therefore commands +with the great mass of the Dauphiné Alps. It therefore commands the routes from France into Germany, Switzerland and Italy, and hence its enormous historical importance.</p> @@ -14193,7 +14154,7 @@ Ain.</p> <p>1. In the <i>northern division</i> it is the east and west line which prevails—the Lomont, the Mont Terrible, the defile of the Doubs -from St Ursanne to St Hippolyte, and the “Trouée” of the Black +from St Ursanne to St Hippolyte, and the “Trouée” of the Black Forest towns. It thus bars access to the central plateau from the north, and this natural wall does away with the necessity of artificial fortifications. This division falls again into two distinct portions.</p> @@ -14212,14 +14173,14 @@ machinery, and is therefore well fitted for a mountain district.</p> district east of the river Dessoubre, isolated in the interior of the range (unlike the Le Locle plateau), is called the Haute Montagne, and is given up to cheese-making, curing of hams, saw-mills, &c. -But little watch-making is carried on there, Besançon being the +But little watch-making is carried on there, Besançon being the chief French centre of this industry, and being connected with Geneva by a chain of places similarly occupied, which fringe the west plateau of the Jura. The part west of the Dessoubre, or the Moyenne Montagne, a huge plateau north of the Loue, is more especially devoted to agriculture, while along its north edge metal-working and manufacture of hardware are carried on, particularly -at Besançon and Audincourt.</p> +at Besançon and Audincourt.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span></p> @@ -14230,14 +14191,14 @@ notches in the rim of which routes converge from every direction; this is the great characteristic of the middle region of the Jura. Hence its immense strategical and commercial importance. On the north-east roads run to Morteau and Le Locle, on the north-west to -Besançon, on the west to Salins, on the south-west to Dôle and +Besançon, on the west to Salins, on the south-west to Dôle and Lons-le-Saunier, on the east to the Swiss plain. The Pontarlier plateau is nearly horizontal, the slight indentations in it being due to erosion, <i>e.g.</i> by the river Drugeon. The keys to this important plateau are to the east the Fort de Joux, under the walls of which -meet the two lines of railway from Neuchâtel, and to the west +meet the two lines of railway from Neuchâtel, and to the west Salins, the meeting place of the routes from the Col de la Faucille, -from Besançon, and from the French plain.</p> +from Besançon, and from the French plain.</p> <p>The Ain rises on the south edge of this plateau, and on a lower shelf or step, which it waters, are situated two points of great @@ -14248,13 +14209,13 @@ which run down into the South Jura, and thus commands the southern routes as well as those by St Cergues and the Col de la Faucille from the Geneva region, and a branch route along the Orbe river from Jougne. The fort of Les Rousses, near the foot of the -Dôle, serves as an advanced post to Champagnole, just as the Fort +Dôle, serves as an advanced post to Champagnole, just as the Fort de Joux does to Pontarlier.</p> <p>The above sketch will serve to show the character of the central Jura as the meeting place of routes from all sides, and the importance to France of its being strongly fortified, lest an enemy approaching -from the north-east should try to turn the fortresses of the “Trouée +from the north-east should try to turn the fortresses of the “Trouée de Belfort.” It is in the western part of the central Jura that the north and south lines first appear strongly marked. There are said to be in this district no less than fifteen ridges running parallel to @@ -14273,7 +14234,7 @@ of roads which intersect it, despite its extreme irregularity. This is due to the great “cluses” of Nantua and Virieu, which traverse it from east to west. The north and south line is very clearly seen in the eastern part of this division; the north-east and south-west -is entirely wanting, but in the Villebois range south of Ambérieu +is entirely wanting, but in the Villebois range south of Ambérieu we have the principal example of the north-west to south-east line. The plateaus west of the Ain are cut through by the valleys of the Valouse and of the Surand, and like all the lowest terraces on the @@ -14293,7 +14254,7 @@ drainage of the lake of Nantua, a town noted for combs and silk weaving, and which communicates by the “cluse” of the Lac de Silan with the Valserine valley, and so with the Rhone at Bellegarde, and again with the various routes which meet under the walls of the -fort of Les Rousses, while by the Val Romey and the Séran Culoz is +fort of Les Rousses, while by the Val Romey and the Séran Culoz is easily gained.</p> <p>(<i>c</i>) The Albarine, connected with Culoz by the “cluse” of Virieu, @@ -14317,21 +14278,21 @@ synonym for a wood or forest. The German name is Leberberg, <p>Politically the Jura is French (departments of the Doubs, Jura and Ain) and Swiss (parts of the cantons of Geneva, Vaud, -Neuchâtel, Bern, Soleure and Basel); but at its north extremity +Neuchâtel, Bern, Soleure and Basel); but at its north extremity it takes in a small bit of Alsace (Pfirt or Ferrette). In the middle ages the southern, western and northern sides were parcelled out into a number of districts, all of which were gradually absorbed by the French crown, viz., Gex, Val Romey, Bresse and Bugey (exchanged in 1601 by Savoy for the marquisate of Saluzzo), -Franche-Comté, or the Free County of Burgundy, an imperial -fief till annexed in 1674, the county of Montbéliard (Mömpelgard) +Franche-Comté, or the Free County of Burgundy, an imperial +fief till annexed in 1674, the county of Montbéliard (Mömpelgard) acquired in 1793, and the county of Ferrette (French 1648-1871). The northern part of the eastern side was held till 1792 (part till 1797) by the bishop of Basel as a fief of the empire, and then belonged to France till 1814, but was given to Bern in 1815 (as a recompense for its loss of Vaud), and now forms the Bernese Jura, a French-speaking district. The centre of the eastern -slope formed the principality of Neuchâtel (<i>q.v.</i>) and the county +slope formed the principality of Neuchâtel (<i>q.v.</i>) and the county of Valangin, which were generally held by Burgundian nobles, came by succession to the kings of Prussia in 1707, and were formed into a Swiss canton in 1815, though they did not become @@ -14347,12 +14308,12 @@ of these portions of Savoyard territory.</p> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—E. F. Berlioux, <i>Le Jura</i> (Paris, 1880); F. Machacek, <i>Der Schweizer Jura</i> (Gotha, 1905); A. Magnin, <i>Les lacs du Jura</i> (Paris, 1895); J. Zimmerli, “Die Sprachgrenze im Jura” (vol. i. of -his <i>Die Deutsch-französische Sprachgrenze in der Schweiz</i> (Basel, -1891). For the French slope see Joanne’s large <i>Itinéraire</i> to +his <i>Die Deutsch-französische Sprachgrenze in der Schweiz</i> (Basel, +1891). For the French slope see Joanne’s large <i>Itinéraire</i> to the Jura, and the smaller volumes relating to the departments of -the Ain, Doubs and Jura, in his <i>Géographies départementales</i>. For +the Ain, Doubs and Jura, in his <i>Géographies départementales</i>. For the Swiss slope see 3 vols. in the series of the <i>Guides Monod</i> -(Geneva); A. Monnier, <i>La Chaux de Fonds et le Haut-Jura Neuchâtelois</i>; +(Geneva); A. Monnier, <i>La Chaux de Fonds et le Haut-Jura Neuchâtelois</i>; J. Monod, <i>Le Jura Bernois</i>; and E. J. P. de la Harpe, <i>Le Jura Vaudois</i>.</p> </div> @@ -14378,7 +14339,7 @@ Conybeare and W. Phillips. The Jurassic rocks of fossils of the European continent were described by d’Orbigny, 1840-1846; by L. von Buch, 1839; by F. A. Quenstedt, 1843-1888; by A. Oppel, 1856-1858; and since then by many other workers: -E. Benecke, E. Hébert, W. Waagen, and others. The study of +E. Benecke, E. Hébert, W. Waagen, and others. The study of Jurassic rocks has continued to attract the attention of geologists, partly because the bedding is so well defined and regular—the strata are little disturbed anywhere outside the Swiss Jura @@ -14420,7 +14381,7 @@ with the corals.</p> climatic belts—such as exist to-day—and in part, at least, he was probably correct. It should be borne in mind, however, that although Neumayr was able to trace a broad, warm belt, -some 60° in width, right round the earth, with a narrower mild +some 60° in width, right round the earth, with a narrower mild belt to the north and an arctic or boreal belt beyond, and certain indications of a repetition of the climatic zones on the southern side of the thermal equator, more recent discoveries of fossils @@ -14489,7 +14450,7 @@ the level spaces between.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Jurassic rocks cover a vast area in Central Europe. They rise from under the Cretaceous formations in the north-east of France, -whence they range southwards down the valleys of the Saône and +whence they range southwards down the valleys of the Saône and Rhone to the Mediterranean. They appear as a broken border round the old crystalline nucleus of Auvergne. Eastwards they range through the Jura Mountains up to the high grounds of Bohemia. @@ -14585,7 +14546,7 @@ from <i>Astarte supracorollina</i>. <i>Rauracien</i> from Rauracia (Jura). (Ardennes). <i>Divesien</i> from Dives (Calvados). <i>Bathonien</i> from Bath (England). <i>Bajocien</i> from Bayeux (Calvados). <i>Toarcien</i> from Toarcium (Tours). <i>Charmouthien</i> from Charmouth (England). -<i>Sinemourien</i> from Sinemurum, Semur (Côte d’Or). <i>Hettangien</i> from +<i>Sinemourien</i> from Sinemurum, Semur (Côte d’Or). <i>Hettangien</i> from Hettange (Lorraine).</p> </div> @@ -14720,13 +14681,13 @@ lime have been made from the Lias. The celebrated lithographic stone of Solenhofen in Bavaria belongs to the upper portion of this system.</p> -<p>See D’Orbigny, <i>Paléontologie française</i>, <i>Terrain Jurassique</i> (1840, -1846); L. von Buch, “Über den Jura in Deutschland” (<i>Abhand. d. -Berlin Akad.</i>, 1839); F. A. Quenstedt, <i>Flötzgebirge Württembergs</i> +<p>See D’Orbigny, <i>Paléontologie française</i>, <i>Terrain Jurassique</i> (1840, +1846); L. von Buch, “Ãœber den Jura in Deutschland” (<i>Abhand. d. +Berlin Akad.</i>, 1839); F. A. Quenstedt, <i>Flötzgebirge Württembergs</i> (1843) and other papers, also <i>Der Jura</i> (1883-1888); A. Oppel, <i>Die Juraformation Englands, Frankreichs und s.w. Deutschlands</i> (1856-1858). For a good general account of the formations with many -references to original papers, see A. de Lapparent, <i>Traité de géologie</i>, +references to original papers, see A. de Lapparent, <i>Traité de géologie</i>, vol. ii. 5th ed. (1906). The standard work for Great Britain is the series of <i>Memoirs of the Geological Survey</i> entitled <i>The Jurassic Rocks of Britain</i>, i and ii. “Yorkshire” (1892); iii. “The Lias of England @@ -14743,7 +14704,7 @@ M. Neumayr, “Die geographische Verbreitung der Juraformation,” <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JURAT<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (through Fr. from med. Lat. <i>juratus</i>, one sworn, Lat. <i>jurare</i>, to swear), a name given to the sworn holders of certain -offices. Under the <i>ancien régime</i> in France, in several towns, of +offices. Under the <i>ancien régime</i> in France, in several towns, of the south-west, such as Rochelle and Bordeaux, the <i>jurats</i> were members of the municipal body. The title was also borne by officials, corresponding to aldermen, in the Cinque Ports, but is @@ -14760,7 +14721,7 @@ the date, place and other necessary particulars.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JURIEN DE LA GRAVIÈRE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDMOND<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> +<p><span class="bold">JURIEN DE LA GRAVIÈRE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDMOND<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1812-1892), French admiral, son of Admiral Jurien, who served through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars and was a peer of France under Louis Philippe, was born on the 19th of November @@ -14781,7 +14742,7 @@ was continued on the active list. Jurien died on the 4th of March 1892. He was a voluminous author of works on naval history and biography, most of which first appeared in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>. Among the most noteworthy of these are -<i>Guerres maritimes sous la république et l’empire</i>, which was translated +<i>Guerres maritimes sous la république et l’empire</i>, which was translated by Lord Dunsany under the title of <i>Sketches of the Last Naval War</i> (1848); <i>Souvenirs d’un amiral</i> (1860), that is, of his father, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span> @@ -14792,30 +14753,30 @@ elected a member of the Academy.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JURIEU, PIERRE<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1637-1713), French Protestant divine, was -born at Mer, in Orléanais, where his father was a Protestant +born at Mer, in Orléanais, where his father was a Protestant pastor. He studied at Saumur and Sedan under his grandfather, Pierre Dumoulin, and under Leblanc de Beaulieu. After completing his studies in Holland and England, Jurieu received Anglican ordination; returning to France he was ordained again and succeeded his father as pastor of the church at Mer. Soon after this he published his first work, <i>Examen de livre de la -réunion du Christianisme</i> (1671). In 1674 his <i>Traité de la dévotion</i> +réunion du Christianisme</i> (1671). In 1674 his <i>Traité de la dévotion</i> led to his appointment as professor of theology and Hebrew at Sedan, where he soon became also pastor. A year later he -published his <i>Apologie pour la morale des Réformés</i>. He obtained +published his <i>Apologie pour la morale des Réformés</i>. He obtained a high reputation, but his work was impaired by his controversial temper, which frequently developed into an irritated fanaticism, though he was always entirely sincere. He was called by his adversaries “the Goliath of the Protestants.” On the suppression of the academy of Sedan in 1681, Jurieu received an invitation to a church at Rouen, but, afraid to remain in France -on account of his forthcoming work, <i>La Politique du clergé de +on account of his forthcoming work, <i>La Politique du clergé de France</i>, he went to Holland and was pastor of the Walloon church of Rotterdam till his death on the 11th of January 1713. -He was also professor at the école illustre. Jurieu did much to +He was also professor at the école illustre. Jurieu did much to help those who suffered by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). He himself turned for consolation to the Apocalypse, -and succeeded in persuading himself (<i>Accomplissement des prophéties</i>, +and succeeded in persuading himself (<i>Accomplissement des prophéties</i>, 1686) that the overthrow of Antichrist (<i>i.e.</i> the papal church) would take place in 1689. H. M. Baird says that “this persuasion, however fanciful the grounds on which it was based, @@ -14831,22 +14792,22 @@ attacks on his colleague Pierre Bayle led to the latter being deprived of his chair in 1693.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>One of Jurieu’s chief works is <i>Lettres pastorales adressées aux -fidèles de France</i> (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1686-1687; Eng. trans., 1689), +<p>One of Jurieu’s chief works is <i>Lettres pastorales adressées aux +fidèles de France</i> (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1686-1687; Eng. trans., 1689), which, notwithstanding the vigilance of the police, found its way into France and produced a deep impression on the Protestant population. His last important work was the <i>Histoire critique des dogmes et des cultes</i> (1704; Eng. trans., 1715). He wrote a great number of controversial works.</p> -<p>See the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>; also H. M. +<p>See the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>; also H. M. Baird, <i>The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes</i> (1895).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JURIS,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians, formerly occupying -the country between the rivers Iça (lower Putumayo) and Japura, +the country between the rivers Iça (lower Putumayo) and Japura, north-western Brazil. In ancient days they were the most powerful tribe of the district, but in 1820 their numbers did not exceed 2000. Owing to inter-marrying, the Juris are believed @@ -15998,7 +15959,7 @@ its analogue in a language. Legal systems are related together like languages and dialects, and the investigation in both cases brings us back at last to the meagre and obscure records of savage custom and speech. A great master of the science of -language (Max Müller) has indeed distinguished it from jurisprudence, +language (Max Müller) has indeed distinguished it from jurisprudence, as belonging to a totally different class of sciences. “It is perfectly true,” he says, “that if language be the work of man in the same sense in which a statue, or a temple, or a poem, @@ -16016,7 +15977,7 @@ man. The most complete acceptance of Austin’s theory that law everywhere and always is the command of the sovereign does not involve any withdrawal of laws from the domain of natural science, does not in the least interfere with the scientific study -of their affinities and relationships. Max Müller elsewhere +of their affinities and relationships. Max Müller elsewhere illustrates his conception of the different relations of words and laws to the individual will by the story of the emperor Tiberius, who was reproved for a grammatical mistake by Marcellus, @@ -16083,7 +16044,7 @@ we should assign separately to jurisprudence, analytical and historical, and to theories of legislation. There is not in Savigny’s system the faintest approach to the Austinian analysis. The range of it is not the analysis of law as a command, but that of a -<i>Rechtsverhältniss</i> or legal relation. Far from regarding law as +<i>Rechtsverhältniss</i> or legal relation. Far from regarding law as the creation of the will of individuals, he maintains it to be the natural outcome of the consciousness of the people, like their social habits or their language. And he assimilates changes in @@ -16223,8 +16184,8 @@ it may aim at discovering the principles regulating the development of legal systems, with a view to explain the origin of institutions and to study the conditions of their life. In the first sense, comparative jurisprudence resolves itself into a study of -home and foreign law (cf. Hofmann in the <i>Zeitschrift für das -private und öffentliche Recht der Gegenwart</i>, 1878). In the second +home and foreign law (cf. Hofmann in the <i>Zeitschrift für das +private und öffentliche Recht der Gegenwart</i>, 1878). In the second sense, comparative jurisprudence is one of the aspects of so-called sociology, being the study of social evolution in the special domain of law. From this point of view it is, in substance, @@ -16398,7 +16359,7 @@ matter of fact, the study in question arose and what its progress has been. The immediate incitement for the formation of comparative jurisprudence was given by the great discoveries of comparative philology. When the labours of Franz Bopp, -August Schleicher, Max Müller, W. D. Whitney and others +August Schleicher, Max Müller, W. D. Whitney and others revealed the profound connexion between the different branches of the Indo-European race in regard to their languages, and showed that the development of these languages proceeded on @@ -16414,7 +16375,7 @@ Germanistic revival in the beginning of the 19th century, Jacob Grimm, a compeer of Savigny in his own line, took up with fervent zeal and remarkable results not only the scientific study of the German language, but also that of Germanic mythology -and popular law. His <i>Rechtsalterthümer</i> are still unrivalled as a +and popular law. His <i>Rechtsalterthümer</i> are still unrivalled as a collection of data as to the legal lore of Teutonic tribes. Their basis is undoubtedly a narrow one: they treat of the varieties of legal custom among the continental Germans, the Scandinavians @@ -16424,19 +16385,19 @@ different subjects—property, contract, procedure, succession, crime, &c.—and examines them in the light of national, provincial and local customs, sometimes noticing expressly affinities with Roman and Greek law (<i>e.g.</i> the subject of imprisonment for -debt, <i>Rechtsalterthümer</i>, 4th ed., vol. ii., p. 165).</p> +debt, <i>Rechtsalterthümer</i>, 4th ed., vol. ii., p. 165).</p> <p>A broader basis was taken up by a linguist who tried to trace the primitive institutions and customs of the early Aryans before their separation into divers branches. Adolphe Pictet (<i>Les -Origines indo-européennes</i>, i. 1859; ii. 1863) had to touch constantly +Origines indo-européennes</i>, i. 1859; ii. 1863) had to touch constantly on questions of family law, marriage, property, public authority, in his attempt to reconstruct the common civilization of the Aryan race, and he did so on the strength of a comparative study of terms used in the different Indo-European languages. He showed, for instance, how the idea of protection was the predominant element in the position of the father in the Aryan -household. The names <i>pîtar</i>, <i>pater</i>, <span class="grk" title="patêr">πατήρ</span>, <i>father</i>, which +household. The names <i>pîtar</i>, <i>pater</i>, <span class="grk" title="patêr">πατήρ</span>, <i>father</i>, which recur in most branches of the Aryan race, go back to a root <i>pā</i>-, pointing to guardianship or protection. Thus we are led to consider the <i>patria potestas</i>, so stringently formulated in Roman @@ -16447,7 +16408,7 @@ have been given several times since in connexion with linguistic observations. An example is W. E. Hearn’s <i>Aryan Household</i> (1879). Fustel de Coulanges’ famous volume on the ancient city and Rudolf von Jhering’s studies of primitive Indo-European -institutions (<i>Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer</i>) start from similar +institutions (<i>Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer</i>) start from similar observations, although the first of these scholars is chiefly interested in tracing the influence of religion on the material arrangements of life, while the latter draws largely on principles @@ -16501,7 +16462,7 @@ original unity is reflected and proved by the unity of legal terminology itself.</p> <p>The same leading idea is embodied in the books of Otto -Schräder—<i>Urgeschichte und Sprachvergleichung</i> (1st ed., 1883; +Schräder—<i>Urgeschichte und Sprachvergleichung</i> (1st ed., 1883; 2nd ed., 1890) and <i>Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde</i> (1901). In this case we have to do not with a jurist <span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span> @@ -16512,7 +16473,7 @@ between the growth of institutions on one side, of words and linguistic forms on the other, underlies all his investigations. But Schrader testifies also to another powerful influence—to that of Victor Hehn, the author of a remarkable book on early civilization, -<i>Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere in ihrem Übergang aus Asien +<i>Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere in ihrem Ãœbergang aus Asien in Europa</i> (1st ed., 1870; 7th ed., 1902), dealing with the migrations of tribes and their modes of acquiring material civilization. Although the linguistic and archaeological sides naturally predominate @@ -16522,7 +16483,7 @@ common-sense view of the early legal notions of the Aryans. Speaking of the “ordeals,” the “waging of God’s law,” for example, he traces the customs of purification by fire, water, iron, &c., to the practice of oaths (Sans. <i>am</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="omnymi">ὄμνυμι</span>; O. Ital. -<i>omr</i> = first group; O. Ger. <i>aiþs</i>, Ir. <i>óeth</i> = second group; O. +<i>omr</i> = first group; O. Ger. <i>aiþs</i>, Ir. <i>óeth</i> = second group; O. Norse <i>rota</i>, Arm. <i>erdnum</i> = I swear = third group). The central idea of the ordeal is thus shown to be the imprecation—“Let him be cursed whose assertion is false.”</p> @@ -16704,7 +16665,7 @@ jurisprudence. An interesting example of the passage from one line of investigation to another, from the historical to the anthropological line, if the expression may be used for the sake of brevity, is presented in the works of one of the founders of the -<i>Zeitschrift für vgl. Rechtswissenschaft</i>—Franz Bernhöft. He +<i>Zeitschrift für vgl. Rechtswissenschaft</i>—Franz Bernhöft. He appears in his earlier books as an exponent of the comparative study of Greek and Roman antiquities, more or less in the style of Leist. Like the latter he was gradually incited to draw India @@ -16712,7 +16673,7 @@ into the range of his observations, but unlike Leist, he ended by fully recognizing the importance of ethnological evidence, and although he did not do much original research in that direction himself, the influence of Bachofen and of the ethnologists made -itself felt in Bernhöft’s treatment of classical antiquity itself: +itself felt in Bernhöft’s treatment of classical antiquity itself: in his <i>State and Law in Rome at the Time of the Kings</i> he starts from the view that patricians and plebeians represent two ethnological layers of society—a patriarchal Aryan and a @@ -16889,10 +16850,10 @@ utilize a psychological analysis of the feelings of revenge in his criticisms and more exact methods is now recognized, and it is characteristic that the foremost contemporary representative of comparative jurisprudence, Joseph Kohler of Berlin, principal -editor of the <i>Zeitschrift für vgl. Rechtswissenschaft</i>, often +editor of the <i>Zeitschrift für vgl. Rechtswissenschaft</i>, often gives expression to this view. Beginning with studies of procedure and private law in the provinces of Germany where -the French law of the Code Napoléon was still applied, he has +the French law of the Code Napoléon was still applied, he has thrown his whole energy into monographic surveys and investigations in all the departments of historical and ethnological jurisprudence. The code of Khammurabi and the Babylonian @@ -16928,7 +16889,7 @@ that some highly peculiar arrangement entirely different from what we are practising nowadays—say sexual promiscuity or communism in the treatment of property—must be made out as a universal clue to earlier stages of development. Kohler’s -occasional remarks on matters of method (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Zeitschift für +occasional remarks on matters of method (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Zeitschift für vgl. Rechtswissenschaft</i>, xii. 193 seq.) seem hardly adequate to dispel this impression. But in his own work and in that of some of his compeers and followers, J. E. Hitzig, Hellwig, Max Huber, @@ -16940,7 +16901,7 @@ three tendencies: (<i>a</i>) the growing disinclination to accept superficial analysis between phenomena belonging to widely different spheres of culture as necessarily produced by identical causes (<i>e.g.</i> Darinsky’s review of Kovalevsky’s assumptions as to group -marriage among the Caucasian tribes, <i>Z. für vgl. Rw.</i>, xiv. 151 +marriage among the Caucasian tribes, <i>Z. für vgl. Rw.</i>, xiv. 151 seq.); (<i>b</i>) the selection of definite historical or ethnological territories for monographic inquiries, in the course of which arrangements observed elsewhere are treated as suggestive material @@ -16950,7 +16911,7 @@ of selected subjects by an intensive legal analysis, bringing out the principles underlying one or the other rule, its possible differentiation, the means of its application in practice, &c.: Hellwig’s monograph on the right of sanctuary in savage communities -(<i>Das Asylrecht der Naturvölker</i>) may be named in illustration +(<i>Das Asylrecht der Naturvölker</i>) may be named in illustration of this analytical tendency. Altogether, there can be no doubt that the stage has been reached by comparative jurisprudence when, after a hasty, one might almost say a voracious @@ -17018,7 +16979,7 @@ part in the history of institutions and ideas. The Japanese have in our days engrafted many European institutions on their perfectly distinct civilization; the Germans have used for centuries what was termed euphemistically the Roman law of the -present time (<i>heutiges römisches Recht</i>); the Romans absorbed +present time (<i>heutiges römisches Recht</i>); the Romans absorbed an enormous amount of Greek and Oriental law in their famous jurisprudence. A check upon explanation by direct loan will, of course, lie in the fact that two societies are entirely disconnected, @@ -17044,17 +17005,17 @@ Romans and Greeks, the <i>sacramentum</i> and the <span class="grk" title="pruta a similar growth of the sum laid down by the parties in proportion to the interests at stake, has been explained by a direct borrowing by the Romans from the Greeks at the time of the Twelve -Tables legislation (Hofmann, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte des -griechischen und römischen Rechts</i>). No direct proof is available +Tables legislation (Hofmann, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte des +griechischen und römischen Rechts</i>). No direct proof is available for this hypothesis, and the question in dispute might have lain for ever between this explanation and that based on the analogous development in the two closely related branches of law. The further study of the legal antiquities of other branches of the Aryan race leads one to suppose, however, that we have actually to do with the latter and not with the former -eventuality. Why should the popular custom of the <i>Vzdání</i> in -Bohemia (Kapras, “Das Pfandrecht in altböhmischen Landrecht,” -<i>Z. für vgl. R.-wissenschaft</i>, xvii. 424 seq.), regulating the +eventuality. Why should the popular custom of the <i>VzdánÃ</i> in +Bohemia (Kapras, “Das Pfandrecht in altböhmischen Landrecht,” +<i>Z. für vgl. R.-wissenschaft</i>, xvii. 424 seq.), regulating the wager of litigation in the case of two parties submitting their dispute to the decision of a public tribunal, turn out to be so similar to the Greek and the Roman process? And the Teutonic @@ -17088,11 +17049,11 @@ Goth. <i>valdan</i>. The Finnish <i>kihla</i>, a compact secured by solemn promise, is akin with O. N. <i>gisl</i>, A.-S. <i>gīsel</i>, O. H. Ger. <i>gīsal</i>, “hostage.” The explanation for Finnish <i>vuokra</i>, “interest,” “usury,” is to be found in Gothic <i>vokrs</i>, O. N. <i>okr</i>, Ger. <i>Wucher</i>, &c. -(W. Thomsen, <i>Über den Einfluss der germanischen Sprachen auf +(W. Thomsen, <i>Ãœber den Einfluss der germanischen Sprachen auf die Finnisch-lappischen</i>, trans. E. Sievers, 1870, p. 166 seq.; cf. W. Thomsen, <i>The Relations between Ancient Russia and Scandinavia and the Origin of the Russian State</i>, p. 127 seq.; Miklosich, -“Die Fremdwörter in den slavischen Sprachen,” <i>Denkschriften +“Die Fremdwörter in den slavischen Sprachen,” <i>Denkschriften der Wiener Akademie</i>, Ph. hist. Klasse, XV.).</p> <p>(<i>c</i>) The next group of analogies is formed by cases which @@ -17329,22 +17290,22 @@ the field.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Of the principal works of reference may be -mentioned: <i>Zeitschrift für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft</i>, edited by -Bernhöft, Cohn and Kohler (1878-  ); <i>Nouvelle revue historique de -droit français et étranger</i>, edited by Dareste, Esmein, Appert, Fournier, -Tardiff and Prou (1877-  ); A. Pictet, <i>Les Origines indo-européennes</i> -(i. 1859, ii. 1863); Fustel de Coulanges, <i>La Cité antique</i> (1890); +mentioned: <i>Zeitschrift für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft</i>, edited by +Bernhöft, Cohn and Kohler (1878-  ); <i>Nouvelle revue historique de +droit français et étranger</i>, edited by Dareste, Esmein, Appert, Fournier, +Tardiff and Prou (1877-  ); A. Pictet, <i>Les Origines indo-européennes</i> +(i. 1859, ii. 1863); Fustel de Coulanges, <i>La Cité antique</i> (1890); W. E. Hearn, <i>The Aryan Household</i> (1879); R. v. Jhering, <i>Vorgeschichte -der Indoeuropäer</i> (1894); B. W. Leist, <i>Graekoitalische Rechtsgeschichte</i> +der Indoeuropäer</i> (1894); B. W. Leist, <i>Graekoitalische Rechtsgeschichte</i> (1884), <i>Alt-arisches Jus Gentium</i> (1889), <i>Alt-arisches Jus Civile</i> -(1892-1896); Hruza, <i>Geschichte des griechischen und römischen Familienrechtes</i> +(1892-1896); Hruza, <i>Geschichte des griechischen und römischen Familienrechtes</i> (1893); O. Schrader, <i>Urgeschichte und Sprachvergleichung</i> (1890), <i>Reallexikon des indo-germanischen Altertumskunde</i> (1901); -B. Delbrück, <i>Die indo-germanischen Verwandtschaftsnamen</i> (1889), +B. Delbrück, <i>Die indo-germanischen Verwandtschaftsnamen</i> (1889), <i>Das Mutterrecht bei den Indogermanen</i>; Sir H. S. Maine, <i>Ancient Law</i>, with notes by Sir F. Pollock (1906), <i>Village Communities</i> (1871), <i>Early History of Institutions</i> (1875), <i>Early Law and Custom</i> (1883); -M. H. d’Arbois de Jubainville, <i>Études de droit celtique</i> (1895), <i>La +M. H. d’Arbois de Jubainville, <i>Études de droit celtique</i> (1895), <i>La Famille celtique</i> (1905); J. J. Bachofen, <i>Das Mutterrecht</i> (1861), <i>Antiquarische Briefe</i> (1880); J. F. McLennan, <i>Studies in Ancient History</i> (1876), <i>Patriarchal Theory</i> (1885), <i>Studies in Ancient History</i> @@ -17354,19 +17315,19 @@ of the Smithsonian Institution, vol. xvii. (1869); <i>Ancient Society</i> (1877); E. B. Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i> (1871); Lord Avebury (Sir J. Lubbock), <i>Origin of Civilization</i> (1870); J. Lippert, <i>Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit</i> (1887); W. Robertson Smith, <i>Kinship and Marriage -in Arabia</i> (1885); F. Bernhöft, <i>Staat und Recht der römischen Königszeit -im Verhältniss zu verwandten Rechten</i> (1882); A. H. Post, <i>Aufgaben -einer allgemeinen Rechtswissenschaft</i> (1891), <i>Die Anfänge des Staatsund +in Arabia</i> (1885); F. Bernhöft, <i>Staat und Recht der römischen Königszeit +im Verhältniss zu verwandten Rechten</i> (1882); A. H. Post, <i>Aufgaben +einer allgemeinen Rechtswissenschaft</i> (1891), <i>Die Anfänge des Staatsund Rechtslebens</i> (1878), <i>Bausteine einer allgemeinen Rechtsgeschichte auf vergleichend-ethnologischer Basis</i> (1881), <i>Einleitung in das Studium der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz</i> (1886), <i>Grundlagen des Rechts und -Grundzüge seiner Entwickelungsgeschichte</i> (1882), <i>Studien zur Entwicklungsgeschichte +Grundzüge seiner Entwickelungsgeschichte</i> (1882), <i>Studien zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Familienrechts</i> (1889), <i>Afrikanische Jurisprudenz</i> (1887), <i>Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz</i> (1894); Wilken, <i>Das Matriarchat im alten Arabien</i> (1884); M. M. Kovalevsky, <i>Coutume contemporaine et loi ancienne</i> (1893), <i>Gesetz und Gewohnheit -im Kaukasus</i> (1890), <i>Tableau du développement de la famille et de la -propriété</i> (1889); Dargun, “Mutterrecht und Raubehe,” in Otto +im Kaukasus</i> (1890), <i>Tableau du développement de la famille et de la +propriété</i> (1889); Dargun, “Mutterrecht und Raubehe,” in Otto Gierke’s <i>Untersuchungen zur deutschen Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte</i> (1883); R. Hildebrand, <i>Das Problem einer allgemeinen Entwicklungsgeschichte des Rechts und der Sitte</i> (1894), <i>Recht und Sitte auf den @@ -17379,7 +17340,7 @@ G. Tarde, <i>Les Transformations du droit</i> (2nd ed., 1894); Steinmetz, J. Kohler, <i>Das Recht als Kulturerscheinung: Einleitung in die vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft</i> (1885), <i>Shakespeare vor dem Forum der Jurisprudenz</i> (1884), “Das chinesische Strafrecht,” <i>Beitrag zur Universalgeschichte -des Strafrechts</i> (1886), <i>Rechtsvergleichende Studien über +des Strafrechts</i> (1886), <i>Rechtsvergleichende Studien über islamitisches Recht, Recht der Berbern, chinesisches Recht und Recht auf Ceylon</i> (1889), <i>Altindisches Prozessrecht</i> (1892), <i>Zur Urgeschichte der Ehe</i> (1897), <i>Kulturrechte des Alten Amerikas, das Recht der Azteken</i> @@ -17387,12 +17348,12 @@ Ehe</i> (1897), <i>Kulturrechte des Alten Amerikas, das Recht der Azteken</i> Rechtsleben</i> (1890), <i>Hammurubi’s Gesetz</i> (1904); A. Lang, <i>The Secret of the Totem</i> (1905); P. J. H. Grierson, <i>The Silent Trade</i> (1903); J. G. Frazer, <i>Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship</i> (1905); -R. Dareste, <i>Études d’histoire de droit</i> (1889), <i>Nouvelles études d’histoire -de droit</i> (1896); Lambert, <i>La Fonction du droit civil comparé</i> (1903); +R. Dareste, <i>Études d’histoire de droit</i> (1889), <i>Nouvelles études d’histoire +de droit</i> (1896); Lambert, <i>La Fonction du droit civil comparé</i> (1903); Fritz Hommel, <i>Semitische Alterthumskunde</i> (Eng. trans., <i>The Ancient Hebrew Tradition as illustrated by the Monuments</i>, 1897); H. C. Lea, <i>Superstition and Force</i> (1866); A. Hellwig, <i>Das Asylrecht -der Naturvölker</i> (Berliner juristische Beiträge, 1893); F. Seebohm, +der Naturvölker</i> (Berliner juristische Beiträge, 1893); F. Seebohm, <i>Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law</i> (1902).</p> </div> <div class="author">(P. Vi.)</div> @@ -17423,7 +17384,7 @@ professor in Shīrāz. When this city was plundered by Tīmūr (1387) he removed to Samarkand, but returned to Shīrāz in 1405, and remained there until his death. Of his thirty-one extant works, many being commentaries on other works, one of the best -known is the <i>Ta‘rifāt</i> (<i>Definitions</i>), which was edited by G. Flügel +known is the <i>Ta‘rifāt</i> (<i>Definitions</i>), which was edited by G. Flügel (Leipzig, 1845), published also in Constantinople (1837), Cairo (1866, &c.), and St Petersburg (1897).</p> <div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> @@ -17573,7 +17534,7 @@ i. 119-128; ii. 601, 615, 621).</p> <p><i>The Grand Jury.</i>—In Anglo-Saxon times there was an institution analogous to the grand jury in criminal cases, viz. the twelve -senior thegns, who, according to an ordinance of Æthelred II., +senior thegns, who, according to an ordinance of Æthelred II., were sworn in the county court that they would accuse no innocent man and acquit no guilty one. The twelve thegns were a jury of presentment or accusation, like the grand jury of @@ -17883,17 +17844,17 @@ special juries thus: Every man whose name shall be on the jurors’ book for any county, &c., and who shall be legally entitled to be called an esquire, or shall be a person of higher degree, or a banker or merchant, or who shall occupy a house of -a certain rateable value (<i>e.g.</i> £100 in a town of 20,000 inhabitants, -£50 elsewhere), or a farm of £300 or other premises at £100. +a certain rateable value (<i>e.g.</i> £100 in a town of 20,000 inhabitants, +£50 elsewhere), or a farm of £300 or other premises at £100. A special juryman receives a fee of a guinea for each cause. Either party may obtain an order for a special jury, but must pay the additional expenses created thereby unless the judge certifies that it was a proper case to be so tried. For the common jury any man is qualified and liable to serve who has -£10 by the year in land or tenements of freehold, copyhold or -customary tenure; or £20 on lands or tenement held by lease +£10 by the year in land or tenements of freehold, copyhold or +customary tenure; or £20 on lands or tenement held by lease for twenty-one years or longer, or who being a householder is -rated at £30 in the counties of London and Middlesex, or £20 +rated at £30 in the counties of London and Middlesex, or £20 in any other county. A special jury cannot be ordered in cases of treason or felony, and may be ordered in cases of misdemeanour only when the trial is in the king’s bench division of the High @@ -17922,7 +17883,7 @@ juror may be interrogated to show want of qualification; but in other cases the person making the challenge must prove it without questioning the juror, and the courts do not allow the protracted examination on the <i>voir dire</i> which precedes every -<i>cause célèbre</i> in the United States. On indictments for treason +<i>cause célèbre</i> in the United States. On indictments for treason the accused has a right peremptorily to challenge thirty-five of the jurors on the panel; in cases of felony the number is limited to twenty, and in cases of misdemeanour there is no right @@ -18328,7 +18289,7 @@ the <i>jus</i> was once an established custom.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The whole subject has been exhaustively treated by Louis Veuillot -in <i>Le Droit du seigneur au moyen âge</i> (1854).</p> +in <i>Le Droit du seigneur au moyen âge</i> (1854).</p> </div> @@ -18355,14 +18316,14 @@ Tunis he returned to London in 1887 as a member of the French Embassy. In 1890 he became French minister at Copenhagen, and in 1902 was transferred to Washington. A close student of English literature, he produced some very lucid and vivacious -monographs on comparatively little-known subjects: <i>Le Théâtre -en Angleterre depuis la conquête jusqu’ aux prédécesseurs immédiats +monographs on comparatively little-known subjects: <i>Le Théâtre +en Angleterre depuis la conquête jusqu’ aux prédécesseurs immédiats de Shakespeare</i> (1878); <i>Le Roman au temps de Shakespeare</i> (1887; -Eng. trans. by Miss E. Lee, 1890); <i>Les Anglais au moyen âge: la -vie nomade et les routes d’Angleterre au XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1884; Eng. +Eng. trans. by Miss E. Lee, 1890); <i>Les Anglais au moyen âge: la +vie nomade et les routes d’Angleterre au XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1884; Eng. trans., <i>English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages</i>, by L. T. Smith, -1889); and <i>L’Épopée de Langland</i> (1893; Eng. trans., <i>Piers Plowman</i>, -by M. C. R., 1894). His <i>Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais</i>, +1889); and <i>L’Épopée de Langland</i> (1893; Eng. trans., <i>Piers Plowman</i>, +by M. C. R., 1894). His <i>Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais</i>, the first volume of which was published in 1895, was completed in three volumes in 1909. In English he wrote <i>A French Ambassador at the Court of Charles II.</i> (1892), from the unpublished @@ -18378,7 +18339,7 @@ The following are its more eminent members:—</p> <p>1. <span class="sc">Antoine de Jussieu</span> (1686-1758), born at Lyons on the 6th of July 1686, was the son of Christophe de Jussieu (or Dejussieu), an apothecary of some repute, who published a -<i>Nouveau traité de la thériaque</i> (1708). Antoine studied at the +<i>Nouveau traité de la thériaque</i> (1708). Antoine studied at the university of Montpellier, and travelled with his brother Bernard through Spain, Portugal and southern France. He went to Paris in 1708, J. P. de Tournefort, whom he succeeded at the @@ -18394,12 +18355,12 @@ Paris on the 22nd of April 1758.</p> the above, was born at Lyons on the 17th of August 1699. He took a medical degree at Montpellier and began practice in 1720, but finding the work uncongenial he gladly accepted his brother’s -invitation to Paris in 1722, when he succeeded Sébastien Vaillant +invitation to Paris in 1722, when he succeeded Sébastien Vaillant as sub-demonstrator of plants in the Jardin du Roi. In 1725 he brought out a new edition of Tournefort’s <i>Histoire des plantes qui naissent aux environs de Paris</i>, 2 vols., which was afterwards translated into English by John Martyn, the original work being -incomplete. In the same year he was admitted into the académie +incomplete. In the same year he was admitted into the académie des sciences, and communicated several papers to that body. Long before Abraham Trembley (1700-1784) published his <i>Histoire des polypes d’eau douce</i>, Jussieu maintained the doctrine @@ -18443,7 +18404,7 @@ of modern classification; more than this, it is certain that Cuvier derived much help in his zoological classification from its perusal. Hardly had the last sheet passed through the press, when the French Revolution broke out, and the author was installed in -charge of the hospitals of Paris. The muséum d’histoire naturelle +charge of the hospitals of Paris. The muséum d’histoire naturelle was organized on its present footing mainly by him in 1793, and he selected for its library everything relating to natural history from the vast materials obtained from the convents then broken @@ -18574,7 +18535,7 @@ justice for a wrongful conviction until it has been quashed. By the Justices’ Qualification Act 1744, every justice for a county was required to have an estate of freehold, copyhold, or customary tenure in fee, for life or a given term, of the yearly value of -£100. By an act of 1875 the occupation of a house rated at £100 +£100. By an act of 1875 the occupation of a house rated at £100 was made a qualification. No such qualifications were ever required for a borough justice, and it was not until 1906 that county justices were put on the same footing in this respect. @@ -18820,10 +18781,10 @@ was sometimes confounded with Justin Martyr.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Ed. princeps (1470); J. G. Graevius (1668); J. F. Gronovius (1719); -C. H. Frotscher (1827-1830); J. Jeep (1859); F. Rühl (1886, with prologues); -see also J. F. Fischer, <i>De elocutione Justini</i> (1868); F. Rühl, -<i>Die Verbreitung des J. im Mittelalter</i> (1871); O. Eichert, <i>Wörterbuch -zu</i> J. (1881); Köhler and Rühl in <i>Neue Jahrbücher für Philologie</i>, +C. H. Frotscher (1827-1830); J. Jeep (1859); F. Rühl (1886, with prologues); +see also J. F. Fischer, <i>De elocutione Justini</i> (1868); F. Rühl, +<i>Die Verbreitung des J. im Mittelalter</i> (1871); O. Eichert, <i>Wörterbuch +zu</i> J. (1881); Köhler and Rühl in <i>Neue Jahrbücher für Philologie</i>, xci., ci., cxxxiii. There are translations in the chief European languages; in English by A. Goldyng (1564); R. Codrington (1682); Brown-Dykes (1712); G. Turnbull (1746); J. Clarke (1790); @@ -19256,7 +19217,7 @@ but copies of the <i>Corpus Juris</i> were extremely rare, nor did the study of it revive until the end of the 11th century.</p> <p>The best edition of the <i>Digest</i> is that of Mommsen (Berlin -1868-1870), and of the <i>Codex</i> that of Krüger (Berlin 1875-1877).</p> +1868-1870), and of the <i>Codex</i> that of Krüger (Berlin 1875-1877).</p> </div> <p>2. In his financial administration of the empire, Justinian is @@ -19687,8 +19648,8 @@ Justinien</i> by Isambert (2 vols., Paris, 1856). See also Hutton’s <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1w" id="ft1w" href="#fa1w"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is commonly identified with the modern Küstendil, but -Usküb (the ancient Skupi) has also been suggested. See Tozer, +<p><a name="ft1w" id="ft1w" href="#fa1w"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is commonly identified with the modern Küstendil, but +Usküb (the ancient Skupi) has also been suggested. See Tozer, <i>Highlands of European Turkey</i>, ii. 370.</p> <p><a name="ft2w" id="ft2w" href="#fa2w"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The name Uprauda is said to be derived from the word <i>prauda</i>, @@ -19714,383 +19675,7 @@ in Savigny’s <i>Zeitschr. f. gesch. Rechtswissenschaft</i>, vol. iv.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 15, Slice 5, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 40956-h.htm or 40956-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/9/5/40956/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at - www.gutenberg.org/license. - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 -North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email -contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the -Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40956 ***</div> </body> </html> |