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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 09:24:57 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 09:24:57 -0800 |
| commit | dbb6c7e8904f17f1e8944abfbacec3438598ed68 (patch) | |
| tree | 83c2ebf2118a29137202f63439f2b929175d7798 /41902-h | |
| parent | 56076d910f3df8e23196523339d936595279a425 (diff) | |
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| -rw-r--r-- | 41902-h/41902-h.htm | 2362 |
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diff --git a/41902-h/41902-h.htm b/41902-h/41902-h.htm index e81a0a7..b72c1dc 100644 --- a/41902-h/41902-h.htm +++ b/41902-h/41902-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XVI Slice I - L to Lamellibranchia. @@ -165,45 +165,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 1, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 1 - "L" to "Lamellibranchia" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: January 23, 2013 [EBook #41902] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41902 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -364,50 +326,50 @@ L to Lamellibranchia</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">LAAS, ERNST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">LA FAYETTE, MARIE JOSEPH PAUL YVES ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">LA BADIE, JEAN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">LA FAYETTE, MARIE-MADELEINE PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">LABEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">LAFAYETTE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">LA FERTÉ</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">LABERIUS, DECIMUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">LA FERTÉ-BERNARD</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">LABIATAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">LA FERTÉ-MILON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">LA FERTÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">LABERIUS, DECIMUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">LA FERTÉ-BERNARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">LABIATAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">LA FERTÉ-MILON</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">LABICANA, VIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">LAFFITTE, JACQUES</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">LAFFITTE, PIERRE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">LABICI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">LA FLÈCHE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">LABĪD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">LAFFITTE, PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">LABICI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">LA FLÈCHE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">LABĪD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">LABIENUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">LABLACHE, LUIGI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">LABOR DAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">LA BOURBOULE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">LABOUR CHURCH, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">LAGASH</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">LAGHMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">LAGHMAN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">LABOUR EXCHANGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">LAGOON</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">LABOUR LEGISLATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">LAGOS</a> (province of Nigeria)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">LABOUR PARTY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">LAGOS</a> (seaport of Nigeria)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">LABRADOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">LAGOS</a> (seaport of Portugal)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">LABRADORITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">LA GRÂCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">LABRADORITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">LA GRÂCE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">LABRADOR TEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">LA GRAND’ COMBE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">LABRUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">LAGRANGE-CHANCEL, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">LAGRANGE-CHANCEL, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">LABUAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">LA GRANJA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">LABURNUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">LABURNUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">LABYRINTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">LA GUAIRA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">LABYRINTHULIDEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, LOUIS ÉTIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HÉLION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">LABYRINTHULIDEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, LOUIS ÉTIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HÉLION</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">LAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">LAGUNA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">LACAITA, SIR JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">LACAITA, SIR JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">LA CALLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">LAHIRE, LAURENT DE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">LA CALPRENÈDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">LAHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">LA CALPRENÈDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">LAHN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">LA CARLOTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">LAHNDA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">LACCADIVE ISLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">LACCOLITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">LAHORE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">LACE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">LACE-BARK TREE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">LAHR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">LACEDAEMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">LAIBACH</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ÉTIENNE DE LA VILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">LAIDLAW, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ÉTIENNE DE LA VILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">LAIDLAW, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">LACEWING-FLY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">LAING, DAVID</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">LAING, DAVID</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">LA CHAISE-DIEU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">LAING, MALCOLM</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENÉ DE CARADEUC DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">LAING, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">LA CHARITÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">LAING’S NEK</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">LA CHAUSSÉE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">LAIRD, MACGREGOR</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">LACHES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">LAÏS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENÉ DE CARADEUC DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">LAING, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">LA CHARITÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">LAING’S NEK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">LA CHAUSSÉE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">LAIRD, MACGREGOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">LACHES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">LAÃS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">LACHINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">LACHISH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">LAI-YANG</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">LAKANAL, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> @@ -421,16 +383,16 @@ L to Lamellibranchia</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">LAKE OF THE WOODS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">LACQUER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">LAKE PLACID</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">LAKEWOOD</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">LAKH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">LAKH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">LACROIX, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">LAKHIMPUR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">LACROMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">LAKSHMI</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">LA CROSSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">LALAING, JACQUES DE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">LACROSSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">LALÍN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">LACROSSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">LALÃN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">LACRYMATORY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">LA LINEA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">LALITPUR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">LACTIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">LACTONES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">LACTONES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">LA CUEVA, JUAN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">LALO, EDOUARD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">LACUNAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">LA MADDALENA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">LACUZON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">LĀMĀISM</a></td></tr> @@ -443,7 +405,7 @@ L to Lamellibranchia</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">LADDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE LOUIS DE PRAT DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">LADING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">LAMB, CHARLES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">LADISLAUS [I.]</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">LAMB</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">LADISLAUS IV.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">LADISLAUS IV.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">LADISLAUS V.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">LAMBALLE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">LAMBAYEQUE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">LADO ENCLAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">LAMBEAUX, JEF</a></td></tr> @@ -620,7 +582,7 @@ See the biographical article: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clerke, A. M. See the biographical article: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Newton, Alfred</a></span>.</td> - <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lämmergeyer;</b></p> + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lämmergeyer;</b></p> <p><b>Lapwing;</b></p> <p><b>Lark;</b></p> <p><b>Linnet;</b></p> @@ -667,7 +629,7 @@ Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of <i>The London Water-Supp <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Albrecht Socin, Ph.D. (1844-1899).</span><br /> -Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of Leipzig and Tübingen. +Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of Leipzig and Tübingen. Author of <i>Arabische Grammatik</i>; &c.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lebanon</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> @@ -956,17 +918,17 @@ and Officier de l’Instruction Publique (France). Joint-editor of New Volumes (10th ed.) of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>. Author of <i>Russia</i>; <i>Egypt and the Egyptian Question</i>; <i>The Web of Empire</i>; &c.</td> - <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lobánov-Rostovski.</b></p></td></tr> + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lobánov-Rostovski.</b></p></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tc1">E. B.*</td> - <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Ernest Charles François Babelon.</span><br /> + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Ernest Charles François Babelon.</span><br /> -Professor at the Collège de France. Keeper of the department of Medals and -Antiquities at the Bibliothèque Nationale. Member of the Académie des Inscriptions +Professor at the Collège de France. Keeper of the department of Medals and +Antiquities at the Bibliothèque Nationale. Member of the Académie des Inscriptions et de Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of -<i>Descriptions Historiques des Monnaies de la République Romaine</i>; <i>Traités des -Monnaies Grecques et Romaines</i>; <i>Catalogue des Camées de la Bibliothèque Nationale</i>.</td> +<i>Descriptions Historiques des Monnaies de la République Romaine</i>; <i>Traités des +Monnaies Grecques et Romaines</i>; <i>Catalogue des Camées de la Bibliothèque Nationale</i>.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Leptis.</b></p></td></tr> @@ -1054,7 +1016,7 @@ Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Author of <i>Let of a Portuguese Nun</i>; <i>Azurara’s Chronicle of Guinea</i>; &c.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lobo, F. R.;</b></p> -<p><b>Lopes, Fernão.</b></p></td></tr> +<p><b>Lopes, Fernão.</b></p></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tc1">E. R. L.</td> @@ -1147,7 +1109,7 @@ Formerly Chief Police Magistrate for London. Author of Wagers of Battle.</td> <tr> <td class="tc1">F. v. H.</td> - <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Baron Friedrich von Hügel.</span><br /> + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Baron Friedrich von Hügel.</span><br /> Member of Cambridge Philological Society; Member of Hellenic Society. Author of <i>The Mystical Element of Religion</i>.</td> @@ -1237,7 +1199,7 @@ Their Structure and Life</i>.</td> See the biographical article: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saintsbury, George E. B.</a></span></td> - <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>La Bruyère;</b></p> + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>La Bruyère;</b></p> <p><b>La Fontaine;</b></p> <p><b>Lamartine;</b></p> <p><b>La Rochefoucauld;</b></p> @@ -1265,7 +1227,7 @@ Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.</td> <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hendrik Antoon Lorentz.</span><br /> -Professor of Physics in the University of Leiden. Author of <i>La théorie electromagnétique +Professor of Physics in the University of Leiden. Author of <i>La théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants</i>.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Light:</b> <i>Nature of</i>.</p></td></tr> @@ -1339,7 +1301,7 @@ See the biographical article: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Johnston, Sir Professor of History and Director of University Extension, University of California. Author of <i>History of the French Revolution</i>; <i>Revolutionary Europe</i>; &c.</td> - <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Littré.</b></p></td></tr> + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Littré.</b></p></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tc1">H. R. T.</td> @@ -1549,7 +1511,7 @@ a Century</i>; &c.</td> <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Jŭstuŭs Hashagen, Ph.D.</span><br /> Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of -<i>Das Rheinland unter der französische Herrschaft</i>.</td> +<i>Das Rheinland unter der französische Herrschaft</i>.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lang, Karl Heinrich;</b></p> <p><b>Ledochowski;</b></p> @@ -1596,7 +1558,7 @@ See the biographical article: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ingram, J. K. See the biographical article: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Legge, James</a></span>.</td> - <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lâo-Tsze.</b></p></td></tr> + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lâo-Tsze.</b></p></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tc1">J. L. M.</td> @@ -1644,11 +1606,11 @@ of <i>David Scott, R.S.A.</i>; <i>James and William Tassie</i>.</td> <tr> <td class="tc1">J. P. E.</td> - <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel Adhémar Esmein.</span><br /> + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel Adhémar Esmein.</span><br /> Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. -Member of the Institute of France. Author of <i>Cours élémentaire d’histoire du droit -français</i>; &c.</td> +Member of the Institute of France. Author of <i>Cours élémentaire d’histoire du droit +français</i>; &c.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lettres de Cachet.</b></p></td></tr> @@ -1765,7 +1727,7 @@ Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.</td> Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public Instruction. Author of <i>La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois</i>; &c.</td> - <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Le Maçon.</b></p></td></tr> + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Le Maçon.</b></p></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tc1">J. W. D.</td> @@ -1884,7 +1846,7 @@ Tuscany</i>).</p></td></tr> <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Moritz Cantor, Ph.D.</span><br /> Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg. Author of -<i>Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Mathematik</i>; &c.</td> +<i>Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Mathematik</i>; &c.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Leonardo of Pisa.</b></p></td></tr> @@ -2633,7 +2595,7 @@ is familiar as the name of a light beer (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAAS, ERNST<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1837-1885), German philosopher, was born -on the 16th of June 1837 at Fürstenwalde. He studied theology +on the 16th of June 1837 at Fürstenwalde. He studied theology and philosophy under Trendelenburg at Berlin, and eventually became professor of philosophy in the new university of Strassburg. In <i>Kant’s Analogien der Erfahrung</i> (1876) he keenly @@ -2649,7 +2611,7 @@ with ethics and the theory of education.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>His chief educational works were <i>Der deutsche Aufsatz in den obern Gymnasialklassen</i> (1868; 3rd ed., part i., 1898, part ii, 1894), -and <i>Der deutsche Unterricht auf höhern Lehranstalten</i> (1872; 2nd ed. +and <i>Der deutsche Unterricht auf höhern Lehranstalten</i> (1872; 2nd ed. 1886). He contributed largely to the <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. wiss. Philos.</i> (1880-1882); the <i>Litterarischer Nachlass</i>, a posthumous collection, was published at Vienna (1887). See Hanisch, <i>Der Positivismus von @@ -2679,7 +2641,7 @@ showed him that he had more in common with the Reformed than with the Roman Catholic Church, and after various adventures he joined the Reformed Church of France and became professor of theology at Montauban in 1650. His reasons -for doing so he published in the same year in his <i>Déclaration +for doing so he published in the same year in his <i>Déclaration de Jean de la Badie</i>. His accession to the ranks of the Protestants was deemed a great triumph; no such man since Calvin himself, it was said, had left the Roman Catholic Church. @@ -2698,9 +2660,9 @@ ecclesiastical authorities. The result was that la Badie and his followers established a separate church in a neighbouring town. In 1669 he moved to Amsterdam. He had enthusiastic disciples, Pierre Yvon (1646-1707) at Montauban, Pierre Dulignon -(d. 1679), François Menuret (d. 1670), Theodor Untereyk (d. +(d. 1679), François Menuret (d. 1670), Theodor Untereyk (d. 1693), F. Spanheim (1632-1701), and, more important than -any, Anna Maria v. Schürman (1607-1678), whose book <i>Eucleria</i> +any, Anna Maria v. Schürman (1607-1678), whose book <i>Eucleria</i> is perhaps the best exposition of the tenets of her master. At the head of his separatist congregation, la Badie developed his views for a reformation of the Reformed Churches: the church @@ -2761,7 +2723,7 @@ caused himself to be slain after the defeat of his party at Philippi. A member of the plebeian nobility, and in easy circumstances, the younger Labeo early entered public life, and soon rose to the praetorship; but his undisguised antipathy to the new -régime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in the +régime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in the senate he occasionally gave expression to his republican sympathies—what Tacitus (<i>Ann.</i> iii. 75) calls his <i>incorrupta libertas</i>—proved an obstacle to his advancement, and his rival, Ateius @@ -2796,14 +2758,14 @@ so called because published only after his death. It contained a systematic exposition of the common law. His <i>Libri ad Edictum</i> embraced a commentary, not only on the edicts of the urban and peregrine praetors, but also on that of the curule aediles. His -<i>Probabilium</i> (<span class="grk" title="pithanôn">πιθανῶν</span>) <i>lib. VIII.</i>, a collection of definitions and +<i>Probabilium</i> (<span class="grk" title="pithanôn">πιθανῶν</span>) <i>lib. VIII.</i>, a collection of definitions and axiomatic legal propositions, seems to have been one of his most characteristic productions.</p> <p>See van Eck, “De vita, moribus, et studiis M. Ant. Labeonis” (Franeker, 1692), in Oelrichs’s <i>Thes. nov.</i>, vol. i.; Mascovius, <i>De sectis Sabinianor. et Proculianor.</i> (1728); Pernice, <i>M. Antistius -Labeo. Das röm. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit</i> +Labeo. Das röm. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit</i> (Halle, 1873-1892).</p> </div> @@ -3012,18 +2974,18 @@ buildings along its course.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1815-1888), French dramatist, +<p><span class="bold">LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1815-1888), French dramatist, was born on the 5th of May 1815, of <i>bourgeois</i> parentage. He read for the bar, but literature had more powerful attractions, -and he was hardly twenty when he gave to the <i>Chérubin</i>—an +and he was hardly twenty when he gave to the <i>Chérubin</i>—an impertinent little magazine, long vanished and forgotten—a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>5</span> short story, entitled, in the cavalier style of the period, <i>Les plus belles sont les plus fausses</i>. A few others followed much in the same strain, but failed to catch the attention of the public. -He tried his hand at dramatic criticism in the <i>Revue des théâtres</i>, +He tried his hand at dramatic criticism in the <i>Revue des théâtres</i>, and in 1838 made a double venture on the stage. The small -Théâtre du Panthéon produced, amid some signs of popular +Théâtre du Panthéon produced, amid some signs of popular favour, a drama of his, <i>L’Avocat Loubet</i>, while a vaudeville, <i>Monsieur de Coislin ou l’homme infiniment poli</i>, written in collaboration with Marc Michel, and given at the Palais Royal, @@ -3031,7 +2993,7 @@ introduced for the first time to the Parisians a provincial actor who was to become and to remain a great favourite with them, Grassot, the famous low comedian. In the same year Labiche, still doubtful about his true vocation, published a romance -called <i>La Clé des champs</i>. M. Léon Halévy, his successor at +called <i>La Clé des champs</i>. M. Léon Halévy, his successor at the Academy and his panegyrist, informs us that the publisher became a bankrupt soon after the novel was out. “A lucky misadventure, for,” the biographer concludes, “this timely @@ -3064,19 +3026,19 @@ between the hero and the scoundrel, between the saint and the profligate.” During the second period of his career Labiche had the collaboration of Delacour,<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Choler,<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and others. When it is asked what share in the authorship and success of the plays -may be claimed for those men, we shall answer in Émile Augier’s +may be claimed for those men, we shall answer in Émile Augier’s words: “The distinctive qualities which secured a lasting vogue for the plays of Labiche are to be found in all the comedies written by him with different collaborators, and are conspicuously absent from those which they wrote without him.” A more useful and more important collaborator he found in Jean Marie -Michel Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a <i>débutant</i> +Michel Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a <i>débutant</i> in his younger days, and who remained his faithful interpreter to the last. Geoffroy impersonated the <i>bourgeois</i> not only to the public, but to the author himself; and it may be assumed that Labiche, when writing, could see and hear Geoffroy acting the character and uttering, in his pompous, fussy way, the words -that he had just committed to paper. <i>Célimare le bien-aimé</i> +that he had just committed to paper. <i>Célimare le bien-aimé</i> (1863), <i>Le Voyage de M. Perrichon</i> (1860), <i>La Grammaire</i>, <i>Un Pied dans le crime</i>, <i>La Cagnotte</i> (1864), may be quoted as the happiest productions of Labiche.</p> @@ -3112,7 +3074,7 @@ his sterling qualities. But when the honour was bestowed upon him, he enjoyed it with his usual good sense and quiet modesty. He died in Paris on the 23rd of January 1888.</p> -<p>Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Molière, +<p>Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Molière, but it will be enough to say that he was something better than a public <i>amuseur</i>. Many of his plays have been transferred to the English stage. They are, on the whole, as sound as they @@ -3130,23 +3092,23 @@ unmeaning complexity.</p> <div class="author">(A. Fi.)</div> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His <i>Théâtre complet</i> (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by -Émile Augier.</p> +<p>His <i>Théâtre complet</i> (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by +Émile Augier.</p> </div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Victor Varin, pseudonym of Charles Voirin (1798-1869).</p> -<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Marc Antoine Amédée Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist.</p> +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Marc Antoine Amédée Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist.</p> -<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Louis François Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879), part-author +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Louis François Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879), part-author of the famous <i>Fille de Mme Angot</i> (1872).</p> -<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Philippe François Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865).</p> +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Philippe François Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865).</p> <p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Alfred Charlemagne Lartigue, called Delacour (1815-1885). -For a list of this author’s pieces see O. Lorenz, <i>Catalogue Général</i> +For a list of this author’s pieces see O. Lorenz, <i>Catalogue Général</i> (vol. ii., 1868).</p> <p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Adolphe Joseph Choler (1822-1889).</p> @@ -3193,7 +3155,7 @@ is contained in the <i>Mo‘allakat</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> another thirty-five, with fragments and a German translation of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>6</span> whole, were edited (partly from the remains of A. Huber) by C. -Brockelmann (Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, <i>Über die Gedichte +Brockelmann (Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, <i>Ãœber die Gedichte des Lebyd</i> (Vienna, 1881). Stories of Labīd are contained in the <i>Kitābul-Aghāni</i>, xiv. 93 ff. and xv. 137 ff.</p> </div> @@ -3250,13 +3212,13 @@ He was one of the thirty-two torch-bearers chosen to surround the coffin at Beethoven’s funeral in 1827. He died at Naples on the 23rd of January 1858 and was buried at Maison Lafitte, Paris. Lablache’s Leporello in <i>Don Giovanni</i> was perhaps his -most famous impersonation; among his principal other rôles +most famous impersonation; among his principal other rôles were Dandini in <i>Cenerentola</i> (Rossini), Assur in <i>Semiramide</i> (Rossini), Geronimo in <i>La Gazza Ladra</i> (Rossini), Henry VIII. in <i>Anna Bolena</i> (Donizetti), the Doge in <i>Marino Faliero</i> -(Donizetti), the title-rôle in <i>Don Pasquale</i> (Donizetti), Geronimo -in <i>Il Matrimonio Segreto</i> (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in <i>L’Étoile du -Nord</i> (Meyerbeer), Caliban in <i>The Tempest</i> (Halévy).</p> +(Donizetti), the title-rôle in <i>Don Pasquale</i> (Donizetti), Geronimo +in <i>Il Matrimonio Segreto</i> (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in <i>L’Étoile du +Nord</i> (Meyerbeer), Caliban in <i>The Tempest</i> (Halévy).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -3277,7 +3239,7 @@ be proclaimed as such in any year by the governor.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA BOURBOULE,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a watering-place of central France, in -the department of Puy-de-Dôme, 4½ m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore +the department of Puy-de-Dôme, 4½ m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore by road. Pop. (1906) 1401. La Bourboule is situated on the right bank of the Dordogne at a height of 2790 ft. Its waters, of which arsenic is the characteristic constituent, are used in @@ -3317,24 +3279,24 @@ changed to “Socialist Church.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count Mahé +<p><span class="bold">LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count Mahé de</span> (1699-1753), French naval commander, was born at Saint Malo on the 11th of February 1699. He went to sea when a boy, and in 1718 entered the service of the French India Company as a lieutenant. In 1724 he was promoted captain, and displayed -such bravery in the capture of Mahé of the Malabar coast that +such bravery in the capture of Mahé of the Malabar coast that the name of the town was added to his own. For two years he was in the service of the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, but in -1735 he returned to French service as governor of the Île de -France and the Île de Bourbon. His five years’ administration +1735 he returned to French service as governor of the ÃŽle de +France and the ÃŽle de Bourbon. His five years’ administration of the islands was vigorous and successful. A visit to France in 1740 was interrupted by the outbreak of hostilities with Great Britain, and La Bourdonnais was put at the head of a fleet in -Indian waters. He saved Mahé, relieved General Dupleix at +Indian waters. He saved Mahé, relieved General Dupleix at Pondicherry, defeated Lord Peyton, and in 1746 participated in the siege of Madras. He quarrelled with Dupleix over the conduct of affairs in India, and his anger was increased on his -return to the Île de France at finding a successor to himself +return to the ÃŽle de France at finding a successor to himself installed there by his rival. He set sail on a Dutch vessel to present his case at court, and was captured by the British, but allowed to return to France on parole. Instead of securing @@ -3348,9 +3310,9 @@ Dupleix. He died at Paris on the 10th of November 1753. The French government gave his widow a pension of 2400 livres.</p> -<p>La Bourdonnais wrote <i>Traité de la mâture des vaisseaux</i> +<p>La Bourdonnais wrote <i>Traité de la mâture des vaisseaux</i> (Paris 1723), and left valuable memoirs which were published -by his grandson, a celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahé +by his grandson, a celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahé de la Bourdonnais (1795-1840) (latest edition, Paris, 1890). His quarrel with Dupleix has given rise to much debate; for a long while the fault was generally laid to the arrogance and @@ -3361,19 +3323,19 @@ and over-ambitious.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>7</span></p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See P. de Gennes, <i>Mémoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais, avec -les pièces justificatives</i> (Paris, 1750); <i>The Case of Mde la Bourdonnais, +<p>See P. de Gennes, <i>Mémoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais, avec +les pièces justificatives</i> (Paris, 1750); <i>The Case of Mde la Bourdonnais, in a Letter to a Friend</i> (London, 1748); Fantin des Odoards, -<i>Révolutions de l’Inde</i> (Paris, 1796); Collin de Bar, <i>Histoire de l’Inde -ancienne et moderne</i> (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoën, <i>Histoire -de la conquête et de la fondation de l’empire anglais dans l’Inde</i> (Paris, +<i>Révolutions de l’Inde</i> (Paris, 1796); Collin de Bar, <i>Histoire de l’Inde +ancienne et moderne</i> (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoën, <i>Histoire +de la conquête et de la fondation de l’empire anglais dans l’Inde</i> (Paris, 1840); Margry, “Les Isles de France et de Bourbon sous le gouvernement de La Bourdonnais,” in <i>La Revue maritime et coloniale</i> (1862); -W. Cartwright, “Dupleix et l’Inde française,” in <i>La Revue britannique</i> +W. Cartwright, “Dupleix et l’Inde française,” in <i>La Revue britannique</i> (1882); G. B. Malleson, <i>Dupleix</i> (Oxford, 1895); Anandaranga -Pillai, <i>Les Français dans l’Inde</i>, <i>Dupleix et Labourdonnais, extraits -du journal d’Anandaran-gappoullé 1736-1748</i>, trans. in French by -Vinsor in <i>École spéciale des langues orientales vivantes</i>, séries 3, +Pillai, <i>Les Français dans l’Inde</i>, <i>Dupleix et Labourdonnais, extraits +du journal d’Anandaran-gappoullé 1736-1748</i>, trans. in French by +Vinsor in <i>École spéciale des langues orientales vivantes</i>, séries 3, vol. xv. (Paris, 1894).</p> </div> @@ -3748,7 +3710,7 @@ or engaged in art, science or letters, or being a “gentleman.” Persons leaving a service were bound to obtain a testimonial, and might not be taken into fresh employment without producing such testimonial, or, if in a new district, until after showing -it to the authorities of the place. A master might be fined £5, +it to the authorities of the place. A master might be fined £5, and a labourer imprisoned, and if contumacious, whipped, for breach of this rule. The carefully devised scheme for technical training of apprentices embodied to a considerable extent the @@ -3911,7 +3873,7 @@ by county justices for repression of contraventions, and were empowered to “direct the adoption of such sanitary regulations as they might on advice think proper.” The mills were to be registered by the clerk of the peace, and justices had power to -inflict fines of from £2 to £5 for contraventions. Although +inflict fines of from £2 to £5 for contraventions. Although enforcement of the very limited provisions of the act was in many cases poor or non-existent, in some districts excellent work was done by justices, and in 1803 the West Riding of @@ -4632,7 +4594,7 @@ have a proper safety valve, a steam gauge, and a water gauge, and every such boiler, valve and gauge must be maintained in proper condition. Examination by a competent person must take place at least once in every fourteen months. The occupier of any factory -or workshop may be liable for penal compensation not exceeding £100 +or workshop may be liable for penal compensation not exceeding £100 in case of injury or death due to neglect of any provision or special rule, the whole or any part of which may be applied for the benefit of the injured person or his family, as the secretary of state determines. @@ -5327,7 +5289,7 @@ named, but the act does not apply to such wages as are paid by the resident, owner or occupier of the public-house, beer-shop and other places included in the prohibition to any workman <i>bona fide</i> employed by him. The penalty for an offence against this act is one -not exceeding £10 (compare the limit of £20 for the corresponding +not exceeding £10 (compare the limit of £20 for the corresponding offence under the Coal Mines Act), and all offences may be prosecuted and penalties recovered in England and Scotland under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts. The act does not apply to Ireland, and no special @@ -5391,10 +5353,10 @@ a penalty of 40s. for failure of an employer to keep exhibited the notice of the provisions of the acts, which in the absence of a penalty it had been impossible to enforce. The penalty for employment contrary to the acts is a fine not exceeding -£1 for each person so employed, and for failure to comply with -the requirements as to seats, a fine not exceeding £3 for a first +£1 for each person so employed, and for failure to comply with +the requirements as to seats, a fine not exceeding £3 for a first offence, and for any subsequent offence a fine of not less than -£1 and not exceeding £5.</p> +£1 and not exceeding £5.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>A wide interpretation is given by the act of 1892 to the class @@ -5450,7 +5412,7 @@ default of the local authority.</p> clerical labour, come under the provisions of the Truck Acts 1831 to 1887, and in all circumstances they fall within the sections directed against unfair and unreasonable fines in the Truck Act of 1896; but, -unlike employés in factories, workshops, laundries and mines, they +unlike employés in factories, workshops, laundries and mines, they are left to apply these provisions so far as they can themselves, since neither Home Office inspectors nor officers of the local authority have any specially assigned powers to administer the Truck Acts in shops.</p> @@ -5666,10 +5628,10 @@ what constitutes “reasonableness” in a deduction, the average number of convictions obtained on prosecutions is not so high as under the Factory Acts, though the average penalty imposed is higher. In 1904, 61 cases were taken into court resulting in 34 -convictions with an average penalty of £1, 10s. In 1905, 38 cases +convictions with an average penalty of £1, 10s. In 1905, 38 cases resulting in 34 convictions were taken with an average penalty of -£1, 3s. In 1906, 37 cases resulting in 25 convictions were taken with -an average penalty of £1, 10s.</p> +£1, 3s. In 1906, 37 cases resulting in 25 convictions were taken with +an average penalty of £1, 10s.</p> <p>Reference should here be made to the Shop Clubs Act of 1902 as closely allied with some of the provisions of the Truck Acts by its @@ -5738,7 +5700,7 @@ furnaces and in heating workshops, manufacture of projectiles of war, and any work for the government in the interests of national defence or security. The limit of 12 hours was reduced, as regards works in which women or young workers are employed, in 1900 to 11, and was -to be successively reduced to 10½ hours and to 10 hours at intervals +to be successively reduced to 10½ hours and to 10 hours at intervals of two years from April 1900. This labour law for adults was preceded in 1841 by one for children, which prevented their employment in factories before 8 years of age and prohibited night labour for any @@ -5750,7 +5712,7 @@ labour is prohibited for children under 13 years, though they may begin at 12 if qualified by the prescribed educational certificate and medical certificate of fitness. The limit of daily hours of employment is the same as for adult labour, and, similarly, from the -1st of April 1902 was 10½, and two years later became 10 hours in the +1st of April 1902 was 10½, and two years later became 10 hours in the 24. Notice of the hours must be affixed, and meal-times or pauses with absolute cessation of work of at least one hour must be specified. By the act of 1892 one day in the week, not necessarily Sunday, had @@ -5840,17 +5802,17 @@ by local authorities in exceptional cases. The exceptions may be applied, generally, only to workers over 14 years, but in mines, by royal decree, boys over 12 years may be employed from 4 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> The law of 1889 fixes only a maximum of 12 hours of effective work, to be -interrupted by pauses for rest of not less than 1½ hours, empowering +interrupted by pauses for rest of not less than 1½ hours, empowering the king by decree to formulate more precise limits suited to the special circumstances of individual industries. Royal decrees have accordingly laid down the conditions for many groups, including textile trades, manufacture of paper, pottery, glass, clothing, mines, quarries, engineering and printing works. In some the daily limit -is 10 hours, but in more 10½ or 11 hours. In a few exceptionally unhealthy +is 10 hours, but in more 10½ or 11 hours. In a few exceptionally unhealthy trades, such as the manufacture of lucifer matches, vulcanization of india-rubber by means of carbon bi-sulphide, the age of exclusion from employment has been raised, and in the last-named -process hours have been reduced to 5, broken into two spells of 2½ +process hours have been reduced to 5, broken into two spells of 2½ hours each. As a rule the conditions of health and safeguarding of employments in exceptionally injurious trades have been sought by a series of decrees under the law of 1863 relating to public health in @@ -5937,7 +5899,7 @@ subsequent legislation rests. Such legislation is also cantonal as well as Federal, but in the latter there is only amplification or interpretation of the principles contained in the law of 1877, whereas cantonal legislation covers industries not included under the Federal -law, <i>e.g.</i> single workers employed in a trade (<i>métier</i>) and employment +law, <i>e.g.</i> single workers employed in a trade (<i>métier</i>) and employment in shops, offices and hotels. The Federal law is applied to factories, workshops employing young persons under 18 or more than 10 workers, and workshops in which unhealthy or dangerous processes @@ -5961,9 +5923,9 @@ work are forbidden, but exceptions are permitted conditionally. Night work is defined as 8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> to 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> in summer, 8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> to 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> in winter. Children are excluded from employment in workplaces under the law until 14 years of age, and until 16 must attend continuation -schools. Zürich canton has fixed the working day for +schools. Zürich canton has fixed the working day for women at 10 hours generally, and 9 hours on Saturdays and eves of -holidays. Bâle-Ville canton has the same limits and provides that +holidays. Bâle-Ville canton has the same limits and provides that the very limited Sunday employment permitted shall be compensated by double time off on another day. In the German-speaking cantons girls under 18 are not permitted to work overtime; in all @@ -5992,7 +5954,7 @@ The Federal Labour Law 1877 generally prohibits payment of wages otherwise than in current coin, and provides that no deduction shall be made without an express contract. Some of the cantonal laws go much farther than the British act of 1896 in forbidding -certain deductions; <i>e.g.</i> Zürich prohibits any charge for +certain deductions; <i>e.g.</i> Zürich prohibits any charge for cleaning, warming or lighting workrooms or for hire of machinery. By the Federal law fines may not exceed half a day’s wage. Administration of the Labour laws is divided between inspectors @@ -6029,7 +5991,7 @@ The Code (unlike the Austrian Industrial Code) lays down no general limit for a normal working day for adult male workers, but since 1891 full powers were given to the Imperial government to limit hours for any classes of workers in industries where excessive length of the -working day endangers the health of the worker (R.G.O. § 120<i>e</i>). +working day endangers the health of the worker (R.G.O. § 120<i>e</i>). Previously application had been made of powers to reduce the working day in such unhealthy industries as silvering of mirrors by mercury and the manufacture of white-lead. Separate states had, under @@ -6118,14 +6080,14 @@ for a parent or husband are not included; outworkers are covered. Control of fines and deductions from wages applies only in factory industries and shops employing at least 20 workers. Shop hours are regulated by requiring shops to be closed generally between -9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, by requiring a fixed mid-day rest of 1½ hours and +9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, by requiring a fixed mid-day rest of 1½ hours and at least 10 hours’ rest in the 24 for assistants. These limits can be modified by administrative authority. Notice of hours and working rules must be affixed. During the hours of compulsory closing sale of goods on the streets or from house to house is forbidden. Under the Commercial Code, as under the Civil Code, every employer is bound to adopt every possible measure for maintaining the safety, -health and good conduct of his employés. By an order of the +health and good conduct of his employés. By an order of the Imperial Chancellor under the Commercial Code seats must be provided for commercial assistants and apprentices.</p> @@ -6215,7 +6177,7 @@ and of elementary education. The hours of children are limited to 6, with pauses, and of young persons (of 14 to 18 years) to 10, with pauses. Night work between 8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> is prohibited. All workers are entitled to a copy of a code of factory rules containing the -terms of the contract of work drawn up by representatives of employés +terms of the contract of work drawn up by representatives of employés with the employers and sanctioned by the inspector. Health and safety in working are provided for in detail in the same law of 1892. Special rules may be made for dangerous trades, and in 1899 such @@ -6229,7 +6191,7 @@ strengthened by municipal regulation, and this has been done in Copenhagen by an order of the 23rd of May 1903. In Sweden the 12 years’ limit had for some time held in the larger factories; the scope has been extended so that it corresponds with the Norwegian -law. The hours of children are, in Denmark, 6½ for those under 14 +law. The hours of children are, in Denmark, 6½ for those under 14 years; in Sweden 6 for those under 13 years. Young persons may not in either country work more than 10 hours daily, and night work, which is forbidden for persons under 18 years, is now defined as in @@ -6311,7 +6273,7 @@ employed in this industry.</p> <p>Under the general head of Labour Legislation all American statute laws regulating labour, its conditions, and the relation -of employer and employé must be classed. It includes +of employer and employé must be classed. It includes what is properly known as factory legislation. Labour <span class="sidenote">History.</span> legislation belongs to the latter half of the 19th century, so far @@ -6497,7 +6459,7 @@ Union might be classified in two general branches: (A) protective labour legislation, or laws for the aid of workers who, on account of their economic dependence, are not in a position fully to protect themselves; (B) legislation having for its purpose the fixing of the -legal status of the worker as an employé, such as laws relating to the +legal status of the worker as an employé, such as laws relating to the making and breaking of the labour contract, the right to form organizations and to assemble peaceably, the settlement of labour disputes, the licensing of occupations, &c.</p> @@ -6505,13 +6467,13 @@ disputes, the licensing of occupations, &c.</p> <p>(A) The first class includes factory and workshop acts, laws relating to hours of labour, work on Sundays and holidays, the payment of wages, the liability of employers for injuries to their -employés, &c. Factory acts have been passed by +employés, &c. Factory acts have been passed by <span class="sidenote">Factory and workshop acts.</span> nearly all the states of the Union. These may be considered in two groups—first, laws which relate to conditions of employment and affect only children, young persons and women; and second, laws which relate to the sanitary condition of -factories and workshops and to the safety of employés generally. +factories and workshops and to the safety of employés generally. The states adopting such laws have usually made provision for factory inspectors, whose duties are to enforce these laws and who have power to enter and inspect factories and workshops. The most @@ -6549,7 +6511,7 @@ females and separate toilet facilities for the sexes, and prohibit employment in certain occupations as in mines, places where intoxicants are manufactured or sold, in cleaning or operating dangerous machinery, &c. Provisions of factory acts relating to the sanitary -condition of factories and workshops and the safety of employés +condition of factories and workshops and the safety of employés have been enacted in nearly all the manufacturing states of the Union. They prohibit overcrowding, and require proper ventilation, sufficient light and heat, the lime-washing or painting of walls @@ -6569,11 +6531,11 @@ occupations; and (5) laws which specify the hours per day or per week during which women and children may be employed. The statutes included in the first two groups place no restrictions upon the number of hours which may be agreed upon between employers -and employés, while those in the other three groups usually limit the +and employés, while those in the other three groups usually limit the freedom of contract and provide penalties for their violation. A considerable number of states have enacted laws which fix a day’s labour in the absence of any contract, some at eight and others at -ten hours, so that when an employer and an employé make a contract +ten hours, so that when an employer and an employé make a contract and they do not specify what shall constitute a day’s labour, eight or ten hours respectively would be ruled as the day’s labour in an action which might come before the courts. In a number of the states @@ -6582,7 +6544,7 @@ cash payments or by rendering personal service. In the latter case the length of the working day is defined by law, eight hours being usually specified. The Federal government and nearly one-half of the states have laws providing that eight hours shall constitute a day’s -work for employés on public works. Under the Federal Act it is +work for employés on public works. Under the Federal Act it is unlawful for any officer of the government or of any contractor or sub-contractor for public works to permit labourers and mechanics to work longer than eight hours per day. The state laws concerning @@ -6590,11 +6552,11 @@ hours of labour have similar provisions. Exceptions are provided for cases of extraordinary emergencies, such as danger to human life or property. In many states the hours of labour have been limited by law in occupations in which, on account of their dangerous or -insanitary character, the health of the employés would be jeopardized +insanitary character, the health of the employés would be jeopardized by long hours of labour, or in which the fatigue occasioned by long -hours would endanger the lives of the employés or of the public. +hours would endanger the lives of the employés or of the public. The occupations for which such special legislation has been enacted -are those of employés on steam and street railways, in mines and +are those of employés on steam and street railways, in mines and other underground workings, smelting and refining works, bakeries and cotton and woollen mills. Laws limiting the hours of labour of women and children have been considered under factory and workshop @@ -6605,12 +6567,12 @@ the employment of labour on Sunday. These laws usually make it <span class="sidenote">Sunday labour.</span> a misdemeanour for persons either to labour themselves or to compel or permit their apprentices, servants or other -employés, to labour on the first day of the week. Exceptions +employés, to labour on the first day of the week. Exceptions are made in the case of household duties or works of necessity or charity, and in the case of members of religious societies who observe some other than the first day of the week.</p> -<p>Statutes concerning the payment of wages of employés may be +<p>Statutes concerning the payment of wages of employés may be considered in two groups: (1) those which relate to the employment contract, such as laws fixing the maximum period of wage payments, prohibiting the payment of wages in scrip or @@ -6625,27 +6587,27 @@ such as laws exempting wages from attachment, preferring wage claims in assignments, and granting workmen liens upon buildings and other constructions on which they have been employed.</p> -<p>Employers’ liability laws have been passed to enable an employé +<p>Employers’ liability laws have been passed to enable an employé to recover damages from his employer under certain conditions when he has been injured through accident occurring in the works of the employer. The common-law maxim that the <span class="sidenote">Employers’ liability.</span> principal is responsible for the acts of his agent does not apply where two or more persons are working together under -the same employer and one of the employés is injured through the -carelessness of his fellow-employé, although the one causing the +the same employer and one of the employés is injured through the +carelessness of his fellow-employé, although the one causing the accident is the agent of the principal, who under the common law would be responsible. The old Roman law and the English and -American practice under it held that the co-employé was a party to +American practice under it held that the co-employé was a party to the accident. The injustice of this rule is seen by a single illustration. A weaver in a cotton factory, where there are hundreds of operatives, is injured by the neglect or carelessness of the engineer in charge of the motive power. Under the common law the weaver could not -recover damages from the employer, because he was the co-employé -of the engineer. So, one of thousands of employés of a railway +recover damages from the employer, because he was the co-employé +of the engineer. So, one of thousands of employés of a railway system, sustaining injuries through the carelessness of a switchman whom he never saw, could recover no damages from the railway -company, both being co-employés of the same employer. The +company, both being co-employés of the same employer. The injustice of this application of the common-law rule has been recognized, but the only way to avoid the difficulty was through specific legislation providing that under such conditions as those related, @@ -6657,22 +6619,22 @@ of the most notable distinctions of law.</p> <p>The first agitation for legislation of this character occurred in England in 1880. A number of states in the Union have now enacted statutes fixing the liability of employers under certain -conditions and relieving the employé from the application of the -common-law rule. Where the employé himself is contributory to +conditions and relieving the employé from the application of the +common-law rule. Where the employé himself is contributory to the injuries resulting from an accident he cannot recover, nor can he recover in some cases where he knows of the danger from the defects of tools or implements employed by him. The legislation upon the subject involves many features of legislation which need not be -described here, such as those concerning the power of employés to +described here, such as those concerning the power of employés to make a contract, and those defining the conditions, often elaborate, which lead to the liability of the employer and the duties of the -employé, and the relations in which damages for injuries sustained +employé, and the relations in which damages for injuries sustained in employment may be recovered from the employer.</p> <p>(B) The statutes thus far considered may be regarded as protective labour legislation. There is, besides, a large body of statutory laws enacted in the various states for the purpose of fixing the legal status -of employers and employés and defining their rights and privileges +of employers and employés and defining their rights and privileges as such.</p> <p>A great variety of statutes have been enacted in the various @@ -6683,7 +6645,7 @@ of contract, making it a misdemeanour to break a contract of service and thereby endanger human life or expose valuable property to serious injury, or to make a contract of service and accept transportation or pecuniary advancements with intent to -defraud, prohibiting contracts of employment whereby employés +defraud, prohibiting contracts of employment whereby employés waive the right to damages in case of injury, &c. A Federal statute makes it a misdemeanour for any one to prepay the transportation or in any way assist or encourage the importation of aliens under @@ -6702,11 +6664,11 @@ pilots, &c. The occupations for which examinations and licences are required by the various state laws are those of barbers, horseshoers, elevator operators, plumbers, stationary firemen, steam engineers, telegraph operators on railroads and certain classes of -mine workers and steam and street railway employés.</p> +mine workers and steam and street railway employés.</p> </div> <p>The right of combination and peaceable assembly on the part -of employés is recognized at common law throughout the United +of employés is recognized at common law throughout the United States. Organizations of working-men formed for their mutual benefit, protection and improvement, <span class="sidenote">Labour organizations.</span> @@ -6737,10 +6699,10 @@ Some of the states have now fairly complete statutory enactments concerning labour disturbances, while <span class="sidenote">Labour disputes.</span> others have little or no legislation of this class. The -right of employés to strike for any cause or for no cause is sustained +right of employés to strike for any cause or for no cause is sustained by the common law everywhere in the United States. Likewise an employer has a right to discharge any or all of his -employés when they have no contract with him, and he may +employés when they have no contract with him, and he may refuse to employ any person or class of persons for any reason or for no reason. Agreements among strikers to take peaceable means to induce others to remain away from the works of an @@ -6759,8 +6721,8 @@ established principles. The list of such statutory enactments is a large one, and includes laws relating to blacklisting, boycotting, conspiracy against working-men, interference with employment, intimidation, picketing and strikes of railway -employés; laws requiring statements of causes of discharge of -employés and notice of strikes in advertisements for labour; +employés; laws requiring statements of causes of discharge of +employés and notice of strikes in advertisements for labour; laws prohibiting deception in the employment of labour and the hiring of armed guards by employers; and laws declaring that certain labour agreements do not constitute conspiracy. Some of @@ -6769,7 +6731,7 @@ not yet been tested in the courts.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The laws just treated relate almost entirely to acts either of -employers or of employés, but there is another form of law, namely, +employers or of employés, but there is another form of law, namely, that providing for action to be taken by others in the effort to prevent working people from losing employment, either <span class="sidenote">Arbitration and conciliation.</span> @@ -6784,7 +6746,7 @@ for the appointment of state boards, and in others of local boards only. A number of states provide for local or special boards in addition to the regular state boards. In some states it is required that a member of a labour organization must be a member of the -board, and, in general, both employers and employés must be +board, and, in general, both employers and employés must be represented. Nearly all state boards are required to attempt to mediate between the parties to a dispute when information is received of an actual or threatened labour trouble. Arbitration may @@ -6799,7 +6761,7 @@ punishable as for contempt of court. The Federal statute applies only to common carriers engaged in interstate commerce, and provides for an attempt to be made at mediation by two designated government officials in controversies between common carriers and their -employés, and, in case of the failure of such an attempt, for the +employés, and, in case of the failure of such an attempt, for the formation of a board of arbitration consisting of the same officials together with certain other parties to be selected. Such arbitration boards are to be formed only at the request or upon the consent of @@ -6829,7 +6791,7 @@ by reason of such events that any portion or class of the people are deprived thereby of their rights and privileges under the constitution and laws of the country. Under this general power the United States forces have been used for the protection of -both employers and employés indirectly, the purpose being to +both employers and employés indirectly, the purpose being to protect mails and, as in the states, to see that the laws are carried out.</p> @@ -6845,7 +6807,7 @@ which issued it the power to punish for contempt. The doctrine is that something is necessary to be done to stop at once the destruction of property and the obstruction of business, and the injunction is immediate in its action. This writ has been resorted -to frequently for the indirect protection of employés and of +to frequently for the indirect protection of employés and of employers.</p> <div class="author">(C. D. W.)</div> @@ -6890,14 +6852,14 @@ and Checkweighing Clauses of the Coal Mines Acts 1896, Memorandum relating to the Truck Acts, by Sir Kenelm Digby, with text of Acts (1897).</p> -<p><span class="sc">Continental Europe</span>: <i>Annuaire de la législation du travail</i> -(Bruxelles, 1898-1905); <i>Hygiène et sécurité des travailleurs dans les +<p><span class="sc">Continental Europe</span>: <i>Annuaire de la législation du travail</i> +(Bruxelles, 1898-1905); <i>Hygiène et sécurité des travailleurs dans les ateliers industriels</i> (Paris, 1895); <i>Bulletin de l’inspection du travail</i> (Paris, 1895-1902); <i>Bulletin de l’office international du travail</i> (Paris, -1902-1906); <i>Congrès international de législation du travail</i> (1898); -<i>Die Gewerbeordnung für das deutsche Reich</i>. (1) Landmann (1897); +1902-1906); <i>Congrès international de législation du travail</i> (1898); +<i>Die Gewerbeordnung für das deutsche Reich</i>. (1) Landmann (1897); (2) Neukamp (1901); <i>Gesetz betr. Kinderarbeit in gewerblichen -Betrieben</i>, 30. <i>März 1903</i>; Konrad Agahd, <i>Manz’sche Gesetzausgabe</i>, +Betrieben</i>, 30. <i>März 1903</i>; Konrad Agahd, <i>Manz’sche Gesetzausgabe</i>, erster Band und siebenter Band (Wien, 1897-1898); <i>Legge sugli infortunii del lavoro</i> (Milan, 1900).</p> @@ -6906,12 +6868,12 @@ Commissioner of Labor</i> (1907) giving all labour laws in force in the United States in 1907, with annotations of decisions of courts; bimonthly <i>Bulletins</i> of the U.S. Bureau of Labor, containing laws passed since those published in the foregoing, and decisions of courts -relating to employers and employés; also special articles in these -<i>Bulletins</i> on “Employer and Employé under the Common Law” +relating to employers and employés; also special articles in these +<i>Bulletins</i> on “Employer and Employé under the Common Law” (No. 1), “Protection of Workmen in their Employment” (No. 26), “Government Industrial Arbitration” (No. 60), “Laws relating to the Employment of Women and Children, and to Factory Inspection -and the Health and Safety of Employés” (No. 74), +and the Health and Safety of Employés” (No. 74), “Wages and Hours of Labor in Manufacturing Industries, 1890 to 1907” (No. 77), “Review of Labor Legislation of 1908 and 1909” (No. 85); also “Report of the Industrial Commission on Labor Legislation” @@ -6994,10 +6956,10 @@ party, which after the election numbered 40 members of parliament.</p> <p><span class="bold">LABRADOR,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a great peninsula in British North America, bounded E. by the North Atlantic, N. by Hudson Strait, W. by Hudson and James Bays, and S. by an arbitrary line extending -eastwards from the south-east corner of Hudson Bay, near 51° +eastwards from the south-east corner of Hudson Bay, near 51° N., to the mouth of the Moisie river, on the Gulf of St Lawrence, -in 50° N., and thence eastwards by the Gulf of St Lawrence. It -extends from 50° to 63° N., and from 55° to 80° W., and embraces +in 50° N., and thence eastwards by the Gulf of St Lawrence. It +extends from 50° to 63° N., and from 55° to 80° W., and embraces an approximate area of 511,000 sq. m. Recent explorations and surveys have added greatly to the knowledge of this vast region, and have shown that much of the peninsula is not a @@ -7010,8 +6972,8 @@ in the Archaean protaxis of North America (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlin most of the highest parts of that area. Along some portions of the coasts of Hudson and also of Ungava Bay there is a fringe of lowland, but most of the interior is a plateau rising toward the south -and east. The highest portion extends east and west between 52° -and 54° N., where an immense granite area lies between the headwaters +and east. The highest portion extends east and west between 52° +and 54° N., where an immense granite area lies between the headwaters of the larger rivers of the four principal drainage basins; the lowest area is between Hudson Bay and Ungava Bay in the north-west, where the general level is not more than 500 ft. above the sea. @@ -7086,14 +7048,14 @@ nickel and lead; good prospects of these metals have been found.</p> <p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate ranges from cold temperate on the southern coasts to arctic on Hudson Strait, and is generally so rigorous that it -is doubtful if the country is fit for agriculture north of 51°, except +is doubtful if the country is fit for agriculture north of 51°, except on the low grounds near the coast. On James Bay good crops of -potatoes and other roots are grown at Fort George, 54° N., while +potatoes and other roots are grown at Fort George, 54° N., while about the head of Hamilton Inlet, on the east coast, and in nearly the same latitude, similar crops are easily cultivated. On the outer coasts the climate is more rigorous, being affected by the floating ice borne southwards on the Arctic current. In the interior at Mistassini, -50° 30′ N, a crop of potatoes is raised annually, but they rarely +50° 30′ N, a crop of potatoes is raised annually, but they rarely mature. No attempts at agriculture have been made elsewhere inland. Owing to the absence of grass plains, there is little likelihood that it will ever be a grazing district. There are only two @@ -7101,9 +7063,9 @@ seasons in the interior: winter begins early in October, with the freezing of the small lakes, and lasts until the middle of June, when the ice on rivers and lakes melts and summer suddenly bursts forth. From unconnected observations the lowest temperatures of the -interior range from −50° F. to −60° F., and are slightly higher along +interior range from −50° F. to −60° F., and are slightly higher along the coast. The mean summer temperature of the interior is about -55° F., with frosts during every month in the northern portion. +55° F., with frosts during every month in the northern portion. On the Atlantic coast and in Hudson Bay the larger bays freeze solid between the 1st and 15th of December, and these coasts remain ice-bound until late in June. Hudson Strait is usually sufficiently open @@ -7113,11 +7075,11 @@ for navigation about the 10th of July.</p> belt, and nine species of trees constitute the whole arborescent flora of this region; these species are the white birch, poplar, aspen, cedar. Banksian pine, white and black spruce, balsam fir and larch. The -forest is continuous over the southern portion to 53° N., the only +forest is continuous over the southern portion to 53° N., the only exceptions being the summits of rocky hills and the outer islands of the Atlantic and Hudson Bay, while the low margins and river valleys contain much valuable timber. To the northward the size -and number of barren areas rapidly increase, so that in 55° N. more +and number of barren areas rapidly increase, so that in 55° N. more than half the country is treeless, and two degrees farther north the limit of trees is reached, leaving, to the northward, only barrens covered with low Arctic flowering plants, sedges and lichens.</p> @@ -7204,7 +7166,7 @@ of Quebec. The government of Newfoundland, under Letters Patent of the 28th of March 1876, exercises jurisdiction along the Atlantic coast; the boundary between its territory and that of Canada is a line running due north and south from Anse -Sablon, on the north shore of the Strait of Belle Isle, to 52° N., +Sablon, on the north shore of the Strait of Belle Isle, to 52° N., the remainder of the boundary being as yet undetermined. The northern boundary of the province of Quebec follows the East Main river to its source in Patamisk lake, thence by a line due @@ -7262,7 +7224,7 @@ play of colours—blue, green, orange, purple or red; the colour in some specimens changing when the stone is viewed in different directions. This optical effect, known sometimes as “labradorescence,” seems due in some cases to the presence of minute -laminae of certain minerals, like göthite or haematite, arranged +laminae of certain minerals, like göthite or haematite, arranged parallel to the surface which reflects the colour; but in other cases it may be caused not so much by inclusions as by a delicate lamellar structure in the felspar. An aventurine effect is produced @@ -7280,7 +7242,7 @@ New York. The ornamental stone from south Norway, now largely used as a decorative material in architecture, owes its beauty to a felspar with a blue opalescence, often called labradorite, but really a kind of orthoclase which Professor W. C. -Brögger has termed cryptoperthite, whilst the rock in which +Brögger has termed cryptoperthite, whilst the rock in which it occurs is an augite-syenite called by him laurvigite, from its chief locality, Laurvik in Norway. Common labradorite, without play of colour, is an important constituent of such @@ -7289,7 +7251,7 @@ rocks as gabbro, diorite, andesite, dolerite and basalt. (See Monti Rossi, a double parasitic cone on Etna.</p> <p>The term labradorite is unfortunately used also as a rock-name, -having been applied by Fouqué and Lévy to a group +having been applied by Fouqué and Lévy to a group of basic rocks rich in augite and poor in olivine.</p> <div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div> @@ -7314,57 +7276,57 @@ the lower lip being termed <i>labium</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1643-1696), French essayist and +<p><span class="bold">LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1643-1696), French essayist and moralist, was born in Paris on the 16th of August 1645, and not as was once the common statement, at Dourdan (Seine-et-Oise) in 1639. His family was of the middle class, and his reference -to a certain Geoffroy de la Bruyère, a crusader, is only a satirical +to a certain Geoffroy de la Bruyère, a crusader, is only a satirical illustration of a method of self-ennoblement common in France as in some other countries. Indeed he himself always signed the -name Delabruyère in one word, thus avowing his <i>roture</i>. His +name Delabruyère in one word, thus avowing his <i>roture</i>. His progenitors, however, were of respectable position, and he could trace them back at least as far as his great-grandfather, who had -been a strong Leaguer. La Bruyère’s own father was controller-general -of finance to the Hôtel de Ville. The son was educated +been a strong Leaguer. La Bruyère’s own father was controller-general +of finance to the Hôtel de Ville. The son was educated by the Oratorians and at the university of Orleans; he was called to the bar, and in 1673 bought a post in the revenue department at Caen, which gave the status of noblesse and a certain income. In 1687 he sold this office. His predecessor in it was a relation of Bossuet, and it is thought that the transaction -was the cause of La Bruyère’s introduction to the great orator. +was the cause of La Bruyère’s introduction to the great orator. Bossuet, who from the date of his own preceptorship of the dauphin, was a kind of agent-general for tutorships in the royal family, introduced him in 1684 to the household of the great -Condé, to whose grandson Henri Jules de Bourbon as well as +Condé, to whose grandson Henri Jules de Bourbon as well as to that prince’s girl-bride Mlle de Nantes, one of Louis XIV.’s -natural children, La Bruyère became tutor. The rest of his life +natural children, La Bruyère became tutor. The rest of his life was passed in the household of the prince or else at court, and -he seems to have profited by the inclination which all the Condé +he seems to have profited by the inclination which all the Condé family had for the society of men of letters. Very little is known of the events of this part—or, indeed, of any part—of his life. The impression derived from the few notices of him is of a silent, observant, but somewhat awkward man, resembling in manners -Joseph Addison, whose master in literature La Bruyère undoubtedly +Joseph Addison, whose master in literature La Bruyère undoubtedly was. Yet despite the numerous enemies which his book raised up for him, most of these notices are favourable—notably that of Saint-Simon, an acute judge and one bitterly prejudiced against <i>roturiers</i> generally. There is, however, a curious passage in a letter from Boileau to Racine in which he -regrets that “nature has not made La Bruyère as agreeable as -he would like to be.” His <i>Caractères</i> appeared in 1688, and at +regrets that “nature has not made La Bruyère as agreeable as +he would like to be.” His <i>Caractères</i> appeared in 1688, and at once, as Nicolas de Malezieu had predicted, brought him “bien des lecteurs et bien des ennemis.” At the head of these were Thomas Corneille, Fontenelle and Benserade, who were pretty clearly aimed at in the book, as well as innumerable other persons, men and women of letters as well as of society, on whom -the cap of La Bruyère’s fancy-portraits was fitted by manuscript +the cap of La Bruyère’s fancy-portraits was fitted by manuscript “keys” compiled by the scribblers of the day. The friendship -of Bossuet and still more the protection of the Condés sufficiently +of Bossuet and still more the protection of the Condés sufficiently defended the author, and he continued to insert fresh portraits of his contemporaries in each new edition of his book, especially in the 4th (1689). Those, however, whom he had attacked were powerful in the Academy, and numerous defeats awaited La -Bruyère before he could make his way into that guarded hold. +Bruyère before he could make his way into that guarded hold. He was defeated thrice in 1691, and on one memorable occasion he had but seven votes, five of which were those of Bossuet, Boileau, Racine, Pellisson and Bussy-Rabutin. It was not @@ -7373,58 +7335,58 @@ considering his admitted insignificance in conversation, was not of the worst, <i>haesit lateri</i>:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Quand la Bruyère se présente</p> +<p>“Quand la Bruyère se présente</p> <p class="i2">Pourquoi faut il crier haro?</p> <p>Pour faire un nombre de quarante</p> - <p class="i2">Ne falloit il pas un zéro?”</p> + <p class="i2">Ne falloit il pas un zéro?”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p>His unpopularity was, however, chiefly confined to the subjects of his sarcastic portraiture, and to the hack writers of the time, of whom he was wont to speak with a disdain only surpassed by that of Pope. His description of the <i>Mercure galant</i> as -“<i>immédiatement au dessous de rien</i>” is the best-remembered +“<i>immédiatement au dessous de rien</i>” is the best-remembered specimen of these unwise attacks; and would of itself account for the enmity of the editors, Fontenelle and the younger -Corneille. La Bruyère’s discourse of admission at the Academy, +Corneille. La Bruyère’s discourse of admission at the Academy, one of the best of its kind, was, like his admission itself, severely criticized, especially by the partisans of the “Moderns” in the -“Ancient and Modern” quarrel. With the <i>Caractères</i>, the +“Ancient and Modern” quarrel. With the <i>Caractères</i>, the translation of Theophrastus, and a few letters, most of them -addressed to the prince de Condé, it completes the list of his +addressed to the prince de Condé, it completes the list of his literary work, with the exception of a curious and much-disputed -posthumous treatise. La Bruyère died very suddenly, and not +posthumous treatise. La Bruyère died very suddenly, and not long after his admission to the Academy. He is said to have been struck with dumbness in an assembly of his friends, and, being -carried home to the Hôtel de Condé, to have expired of apoplexy +carried home to the Hôtel de Condé, to have expired of apoplexy a day or two afterwards, on the 10th of May 1696. It is not surprising that, considering the recent panic about poisoning, the bitter personal enmities which he had excited and the peculiar circumstances of his death, suspicions of foul play should have been entertained, but there was apparently no foundation for them. Two years after his death appeared certain <i>Dialogues sur -le Quiétisme</i>, alleged to have been found among his papers incomplete, +le Quiétisme</i>, alleged to have been found among his papers incomplete, and to have been completed by the editor. As these -dialogues are far inferior in literary merit to La Bruyère’s other +dialogues are far inferior in literary merit to La Bruyère’s other works, their genuineness has been denied. But the straightforward and circumstantial account of their appearance given -by this editor, the Abbé du Pin, a man of acknowledged probity, -the intimacy of La Bruyère with Bossuet, whose views in his -contest with Fénelon these dialogues are designed to further, +by this editor, the Abbé du Pin, a man of acknowledged probity, +the intimacy of La Bruyère with Bossuet, whose views in his +contest with Fénelon these dialogues are designed to further, and the entire absence, at so short a time after the alleged author’s death, of the least protest on the part of his friends and representatives, seem to be decisive in their favour.</p> <p>Although it is permissible to doubt whether the value of the -<i>Caractères</i> has not been somewhat exaggerated by traditional +<i>Caractères</i> has not been somewhat exaggerated by traditional French criticism, they deserve beyond all question a high place. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>31</span> The plan of the book is thoroughly original, if that term may be accorded to a novel and skilful combination of existing elements. The treatise of Theophrastus may have furnished the first idea, but it gave little more. With the ethical generalizations and -social Dutch painting of his original La Bruyère combined the -peculiarities of the Montaigne essay, of the <i>Pensées</i> and <i>Maximes</i> +social Dutch painting of his original La Bruyère combined the +peculiarities of the Montaigne essay, of the <i>Pensées</i> and <i>Maximes</i> of which Pascal and La Rochefoucauld are the masters respectively, and lastly of that peculiar 17th-century product, the “portrait” or elaborate literary picture of the personal and @@ -7433,7 +7395,7 @@ unlike anything that had been before seen, and it has not been exactly reproduced since, though the essay of Addison and Steele resembles it very closely, especially in the introduction of fancy portraits. In the titles of his work, and in its extreme desultoriness, -La Bruyère reminds the reader of Montaigne, but he aimed +La Bruyère reminds the reader of Montaigne, but he aimed too much at sententiousness to attempt even the apparent continuity of the great essayist. The short paragraphs of which his chapters consist are made up of maxims proper, of criticisms @@ -7447,10 +7409,10 @@ or more frequently exquisite pain to the originals, who were in many cases unmistakable and in most recognizable.</p> <p>But there is something wanting in them. The criticism of -Charpentier, who received La Bruyère at the Academy, and +Charpentier, who received La Bruyère at the Academy, and who was of the opposite faction, is in fact fully justified as far -as it goes. La Bruyère literally “est [trop] descendu dans le -particulier.” He has neither, like Molière, embodied abstract +as it goes. La Bruyère literally “est [trop] descendu dans le +particulier.” He has neither, like Molière, embodied abstract peculiarities in a single life-like type, nor has he, like Shakespeare, made the individual pass <i>sub speciem aeternitatis</i>, and serve as a type while retaining his individuality. He is a photographer @@ -7459,8 +7421,8 @@ admirably as they are expressed, and exact as their truth often is, are on a lower level than those of La Rochefoucauld. Beside the sculpturesque precision, the Roman brevity, the profoundness of ethical intuition “piercing to the accepted hells beneath,” -of the great Frondeur, La Bruyère has the air of a literary -<i>petit-maître</i> dressing up superficial observation in the finery +of the great Frondeur, La Bruyère has the air of a literary +<i>petit-maître</i> dressing up superficial observation in the finery of <i>esprit</i>. It is indeed only by comparison that he loses, but then it is by comparison that he is usually praised. His abundant wit and his personal “malice” have done much to give him his @@ -7476,15 +7438,15 @@ now that, in point of matter, “tout est dit.” It ought to be added to his credit that he was sensible of the folly of impoverishing French by ejecting old words. His chapter on “Les ouvrages de l’esprit” contains much good criticism, though it shows that, -like most of his contemporaries except Fénelon, he was lamentably +like most of his contemporaries except Fénelon, he was lamentably ignorant of the literature of his own tongue.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The editions of La Bruyère, both partial and complete, have been -extremely numerous. <i>Les Caractères de Théophraste traduits du -Grec, avec les caractères et les mœurs de ce siècle</i>, appeared for the +<p>The editions of La Bruyère, both partial and complete, have been +extremely numerous. <i>Les Caractères de Théophraste traduits du +Grec, avec les caractères et les mœurs de ce siècle</i>, appeared for the first time in 1688, being published by Michallet, to whose little -daughter, according to tradition, La Bruyère gave the profits of the +daughter, according to tradition, La Bruyère gave the profits of the book as a dowry. Two other editions, little altered, were published in the same year. In the following year, and in each year until 1694, with the exception of 1693, a fresh edition appeared, and, in all these @@ -7492,18 +7454,18 @@ five, additions, omissions and alterations were largely made. A ninth edition, not much altered, was put forth in the year of the author’s death. The Academy speech appeared in the eighth edition. The Quietist dialogues were published in 1699; most of the letters, -including those addressed to Condé, not till 1867. In recent times +including those addressed to Condé, not till 1867. In recent times numerous editions of the complete works have appeared, notably those of Walckenaer (1845), Servois (1867, in the series of <i>Grands -écrivains de la France</i>), Asselineau (a scholarly reprint of the last +écrivains de la France</i>), Asselineau (a scholarly reprint of the last original edition, 1872) and finally Chassang (1876); the last is one of the most generally useful, as the editor has collected almost everything of value in his predecessors. The literature of “keys” to -La Bruyère is extensive and apocryphal. Almost everything that +La Bruyère is extensive and apocryphal. Almost everything that can be done in this direction and in that of general illustration was -done by Edouard Fournier in his learned and amusing <i>Comédie de -La Bruyère</i> (1866); M. Paul Morillot contributed a monograph on -La Bruyère to the series of <i>Grands écrivains français</i> in 1904.</p> +done by Edouard Fournier in his learned and amusing <i>Comédie de +La Bruyère</i> (1866); M. Paul Morillot contributed a monograph on +La Bruyère to the series of <i>Grands écrivains français</i> in 1904.</p> </div> <div class="author">(G. Sa.)</div> @@ -7511,7 +7473,7 @@ La Bruyère to the series of <i>Grands écrivains français</i> in 1904.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LABUAN<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (a corruption of the Malay word <i>labuh-an</i>, signifying an “anchorage”), an island of the Malay Archipelago, off the -north-west coast of Borneo in 5° 16′ N., 115° 15′ E. Its area +north-west coast of Borneo in 5° 16′ N., 115° 15′ E. Its area is 30.23 sq. m.; it is distant about 6 m. from the mainland of Borneo at the nearest point, and lies opposite to the northern end of the great Brunei Bay. The island is covered with low @@ -7545,7 +7507,7 @@ been expended. It was succeeded by the Labuan Coalfields Ltd. The harbour is a fine one, and the above-named company possesses three wharves capable of berthing the largest Eastern-going ocean steamers. To-day Labuan chiefly exists as a trading -depôt for the natives of the neighbouring coast of Borneo, who +depôt for the natives of the neighbouring coast of Borneo, who sell their produce—beeswax, edible birds-nests, camphor, gutta, trepang, &c.,—to Chinese shopkeepers, who resell it in Singapore. There is also a considerable trade in sago, much of @@ -7606,7 +7568,7 @@ its introduction into England appears to be unknown. In France it is called <i>l’aubour</i>—a corruption from laburnum according to Du Hamel—as also <i>arbois</i>, <i>i.e.</i> <i>arc-bois</i>, “the wood having been used by the ancient Gauls for bows. It -is still so employed in some parts of the Mâconnois, where the +is still so employed in some parts of the Mâconnois, where the bows are found to preserve their strength and elasticity for half a century” (Loudon, <i>Arboretum</i>, ii. 590).</p> @@ -7669,7 +7631,7 @@ four famous labyrinths of antiquity.</p> <p>1. The Egyptian: of which a description is given by Herodotus (ii. 148) and Strabo (xvii. 811). It was situated to the east of -Lake Moeris, opposite the ancient site of Arsinoë or Crocodilopolis. +Lake Moeris, opposite the ancient site of Arsinoë or Crocodilopolis. According to Egyptologists, the word means “the temple at the entrance of the lake.” According to Herodotus, the entire building, surrounded by a single wall, contained twelve @@ -7690,7 +7652,7 @@ its foundation, the extent of which is about 1000 ft. long by 800 ft. wide. Immediately to the north of it is the pyramid of Hawara, in which the mummies of the king and his daughter have been found (see W. M. Flinders Petrie, <i>Hawara, Biahmu, -and Arsinoë</i>, 1889).</p> +and Arsinoë</i>, 1889).</p> <p>2. The Cretan: said to have been built by Daedalus on the plan of the Egyptian, and famous for its connexion with the @@ -7727,13 +7689,13 @@ the ground or pavement, to some extent anticipating the modern or garden maze.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>On the Egyptian labyrinth see A. Wiedemann, <i>Ägyptische Geschichte</i> +<p>On the Egyptian labyrinth see A. Wiedemann, <i>Ägyptische Geschichte</i> (1884), p. 258, and his edition of the second book of -Herodotus (1890); on the Cretan, C. Höck, <i>Kreta</i> (1823-1829), and +Herodotus (1890); on the Cretan, C. Höck, <i>Kreta</i> (1823-1829), and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>33</span> A. J. Evans in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>; on the subject generally, articles in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i> and Daremberg and -Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p> +Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p> </div> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -7828,7 +7790,7 @@ the hedge from first to last, going round all the stops.</p> <p>The maze in the gardens at Somerleyton Hall, near Lowestoft (fig. 5), was designed by Mr John Thomas. The hedges are of English -yew, are about 6½ ft. high, and have been planted about sixty years. +yew, are about 6½ ft. high, and have been planted about sixty years. In the centre is a grass mound, raised to the height of the hedges, and on this mound is a pagoda, approached by a curved grass path. At the two corners on the western side are banks of laurels 15 or 16 ft. @@ -7947,10 +7909,10 @@ as <i>Mikrogromia</i>.</p> <p>See Cienkowsky, <i>Archiv f. Microscopische Anatomie</i>, iii. 274 (1867), xii. 44 (1876); W. Archer, <i>Quart. Jour. Microscopic Science</i>, xv. 107 (1875); E. R. Lankester, <i>Ibid.</i>, xxxix., 233 (1896); Hieronymus and -Jenkinson, <i>Ibid.</i>, xiii. 89 (1899); W. Zopf, <i>Beiträge zur Physiologie +Jenkinson, <i>Ibid.</i>, xiii. 89 (1899); W. Zopf, <i>Beiträge zur Physiologie und Morphologie niederer Organismen</i>, ii. 36 (1892), iv. 60 (1894); -Pènard, <i>Archiv für Protistenkunde</i>, iv. 296 (1904); F. Schaudinn -and Leyden, <i>Sitzungsberichte der Königlich preussischen Akademie +Pènard, <i>Archiv für Protistenkunde</i>, iv. 296 (1904); F. Schaudinn +and Leyden, <i>Sitzungsberichte der Königlich preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaft</i>, vi. (1896).</p> </div> @@ -8015,8 +7977,8 @@ although not identical with, cochineal.</p> <p><span class="bold">LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1713-1762), French astronomer, was born at Rumigny, in the Ardennes, on the 15th of March 1713. Left destitute by the death of his father, who held -a post in the household of the duchess of Vendôme, his theological -studies at the Collège de Lisieux in Paris were prosecuted at the +a post in the household of the duchess of Vendôme, his theological +studies at the Collège de Lisieux in Paris were prosecuted at the expense of the duke of Bourbon. After he had taken deacon’s orders, however, he devoted himself exclusively to science, and, through the patronage of J. Cassini, obtained employment, @@ -8051,26 +8013,26 @@ a standard catalogue of 398 stars, re-edited by F. Baily (<i>Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society</i>, v. 93); Tabulae Solares (1758); <i>Coelum australe stelliferum</i> (1763) (edited by J. D. Maraldi), giving zone-observations of 10,000 stars, and describing fourteen new constellations; -“Observations sur 515 étoiles du Zodiaque” (published in t. -vi. of his <i>Éphémérides</i>, 1763); <i>Leçons élémentaires de Mathématiques</i> -(1741), frequently reprinted; ditto <i>de Mécanique</i> (1743), &c.; ditto +“Observations sur 515 étoiles du Zodiaque” (published in t. +vi. of his <i>Éphémérides</i>, 1763); <i>Leçons élémentaires de Mathématiques</i> +(1741), frequently reprinted; ditto <i>de Mécanique</i> (1743), &c.; ditto <i>d’Astronomie</i> (1746), 4th edition augmented by Lalande (1779); ditto <i>d’Optique</i> (1750), &c. Calculations by him of eclipses for eighteen -hundred years were inserted in <i>L’Art de vérifier les dates</i> (1750); he +hundred years were inserted in <i>L’Art de vérifier les dates</i> (1750); he communicated to the Academy in 1755 a classed catalogue of forty-two -southern nebulae, and gave in t. ii. of his <i>Éphémérides</i> (1755) +southern nebulae, and gave in t. ii. of his <i>Éphémérides</i> (1755) practical rules for the employment of the lunar method of longitudes, -proposing in his additions to Pierre Bouguer’s <i>Traité de Navigation</i> +proposing in his additions to Pierre Bouguer’s <i>Traité de Navigation</i> (1760) the model of a nautical almanac.</p> -<p>See G. de Fouchy, “Éloge de Lacaille,” <i>Hist. de l’Acad. des Sciences</i>, +<p>See G. de Fouchy, “Éloge de Lacaille,” <i>Hist. de l’Acad. des Sciences</i>, p. 197 (1762); G. Brotier, Preface to Lacaille’s <i>Coelum australe</i>; Claude Carlier, <i>Discours historique</i>, prefixed to Lacaille’s <i>Journal historique du voyage fait au Cap</i> (1763); J. J. Lalande, <i>Connoissance des temps</i>, p. 185 (1767); <i>Bibl. astr.</i> pp. 422, 456, 461, 482; J. -Delambre, <i>Hist. de l’astr. au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, pp. 457-542; J. S. Bailly, +Delambre, <i>Hist. de l’astr. au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, pp. 457-542; J. S. Bailly, <i>Hist. de l’astr. moderne</i>, tomes ii., iii., <i>passim</i>; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. -Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>; R. Grant, <i>Hist. of Physical Astronomy</i>, pp. +Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>; R. Grant, <i>Hist. of Physical Astronomy</i>, pp. 486, &c.; R. Wolf, <i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i>. A catalogue of 9766 stars, reduced from Lacaille’s observations by T. Henderson, under the supervision of F. Baily, was published in London in 1847.</p> @@ -8158,7 +8120,7 @@ d’Afrique</i>—who owned the concession for the fishery was suppressed in 1798 on the outbreak of war between France and Algeria. In 1806 the British consul-general at Algiers obtained the right to occupy Bona and La Calle for an annual -rent of £11,000; but though the money was paid for several +rent of £11,000; but though the money was paid for several years no practical effect was given to the agreement. The French regained possession in 1817, were expelled during the wars of 1827, when La Calle was burnt, but returned and rebuilt @@ -8169,22 +8131,22 @@ vessels away. For some years the industry was abandoned, but was restarted on a small scale in 1903.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Abbé Poiret, <i>Voyage en Barbarie</i> ... (Paris, 1789); E. +<p>See Abbé Poiret, <i>Voyage en Barbarie</i> ... (Paris, 1789); E. Broughton, <i>Six Years’ Residence in Algiers</i> (London, 1839) and Sir R. L. Playfair, <i>Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce</i> (London, 1877).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA CALPRENÈDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur de</span> +<p><span class="bold">LA CALPRENÈDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur de</span> (<i>c.</i> 1610-1663), French novelist and dramatist, was born at the -Château of Tolgou, near Sarlat (Dordogne), in 1609 or 1610. +Château of Tolgou, near Sarlat (Dordogne), in 1609 or 1610. After studying at Toulouse, he came to Paris and entered the regiment of the guards, becoming in 1650 gentleman-in-ordinary of the royal household. He died in 1663 in consequence of a kick from his horse. He was the author of several long heroic romances ridiculed by Boileau. They are: <i>Cassandre</i> (10 vols., -1642-1650); <i>Cléopatre</i> (1648); <i>Faramond</i> (1661); and <i>Les +1642-1650); <i>Cléopatre</i> (1648); <i>Faramond</i> (1661); and <i>Les Nouvelles, ou les Divertissements de la princesse Alcidiane</i> (1661) published under his wife’s name, but generally attributed to him. His plays lack the spirit and force that occasionally redeem @@ -8210,8 +8172,8 @@ agricultural experiment station, known as “Government Farm.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LACCADIVE ISLANDS,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a group of coral reefs and islands in -the Indian Ocean, lying between 10° and 12° 20′ N. and 71° -40′ and 74° E. The name Laccadives (<i>laksha dwipa</i>, the “hundred +the Indian Ocean, lying between 10° and 12° 20′ N. and 71° +40′ and 74° E. The name Laccadives (<i>laksha dwipa</i>, the “hundred thousand isles”) is that given by the people of the Malabar coast, and was probably meant to include the Maldives; they are called by the natives simply <i>Divi</i>, “islands,” or <i>Amendivi</i>, @@ -8261,13 +8223,13 @@ industry is the manufacture of coir. The various processes are entrusted to the women. The men employ themselves with boatbuilding and in conveying the island produce to the coast. The exports from the Laccadives are of the annual -value of about £17,000.</p> +value of about £17,000.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><i>History</i>.—No data exist for determining at what period the Laccadives were first colonized. The earliest mention of them as -distinguished from the Maldives seems to be by Albírúní (<i>c.</i> 1030), -who divides the whole archipelago (Díbaját) into the <i>Dívah Kúzah</i> +distinguished from the Maldives seems to be by AlbÃrúnà (<i>c.</i> 1030), +who divides the whole archipelago (DÃbaját) into the <i>DÃvah Kúzah</i> or Cowrie Islands (the Maldives), and the <i>Divah Kanbar</i> or Coir Islands (the Laccadives). (See <i>Journ. Asiat. Soc.</i>, September 1844, p. 265). The islanders were converted to Islam by an Arab apostle @@ -8499,7 +8461,7 @@ labour as was capable of being converted into lace-making. And from the 16th century onwards the stimulus to the industry in Europe was afforded by regular trade demand, coupled with the exertions of those who encouraged their dependents or -protegés to give their spare time to remunerative home occupations. +protegés to give their spare time to remunerative home occupations. Thus the origin and perpetuation of the industry have come to be associated with the women folk of peasants and fishermen in circumstances which present little dissimilarity @@ -8508,7 +8470,7 @@ whitewashed cottages and cabins at Youghal and Kenmare in the south of Ireland, or those who produced their “punti in aria” during the 16th century about the lagoons of Venice, or Frenchwomen who made the sumptuous “Points de France” at -Alençon and elsewhere in the 17th and 18th centuries; or pillow +Alençon and elsewhere in the 17th and 18th centuries; or pillow lace workers to be seen at the present day at little seaside villages tucked away in Devonshire dells, or those who were engaged more than four hundred years ago in “merletti a piombini” in @@ -8628,7 +8590,7 @@ Dornach (Alsace), and Paris</i>.)</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"> <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.—Portion of a Flounce of Needlepoint Lace, French, early 18th century, “Point de France.” The honeycomb ground is considered to be a peculiarity of “Point d’Argentan”: some of the -fillings are made in the manner of the “Point d’Alençon” <i>réseau</i>.</td></tr></table> +fillings are made in the manner of the “Point d’Alençon” <i>réseau</i>.</td></tr></table> <p>France and England were not far behind Venice and Flanders in making needle and pillow lace. Henry III. of France (1574-1589) @@ -8641,8 +8603,8 @@ of the French art of lace-making was the aid officially given it in the following century by Louis XIV., acting on the advice of his minister Colbert. Intrigue and diplomacy were put into action to secure the services of Venetian lace-workers; and by -an edict dated 1665 the lace-making centres at Alençon, Quesnoy, -Arras, Reims, Sedan, Château Thierry, Loudun and elsewhere +an edict dated 1665 the lace-making centres at Alençon, Quesnoy, +Arras, Reims, Sedan, Château Thierry, Loudun and elsewhere were selected for the operations of a company in aid of which the state made a contribution of 36,000 francs; at the same time the importation of Venetian, Flemish and other laces was @@ -8656,7 +8618,7 @@ is the minister Colbert on his way to bring the ‘lavori d’aria&rsquo perfection.” Six years later an Italian, Domenigo Contarini, alludes to the “punto in aria,” “which the French can now do to admiration.” The styles of design which emanated from -the chief of the French lace centre, Alençon, were more fanciful +the chief of the French lace centre, Alençon, were more fanciful and less severe than the Venetian, and it is evident that the Flemish lace-makers later on adopted many of these French patterns for their own use. The provision of French designs @@ -8708,7 +8670,7 @@ to in Spanish ordinances of the 15th, 16th or 17th centuries, but traditions which throw its origin back to the Moors or Saracens are still current in Seville and its neighbourhood, where a twisted and knotted arrangement of fine cords is often worked<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> -under the name of “Morisco” fringe, elsewhere called macramé +under the name of “Morisco” fringe, elsewhere called macramé lace. Black and white silk pillow laces, or “blondes,” date from the 18th century. They were made in considerable quantity in the neighbourhood of Chantilly, and imported for mantillas @@ -8763,7 +8725,7 @@ rate of wages. The production of hand-made laces in Belgium was in 1900 greater than that of France. The principal modern needle-made lace of Belgium is the “Point de Gaze”; “Duchesse” and Bruges laces are the chief pillow-made laces; -whilst “Point Appliqué” and “Plat Appliqué” are frequently +whilst “Point Appliqué” and “Plat Appliqué” are frequently the results not only of combining needle-made and pillow work, but also of using them in conjunction with machine-made net. Ireland is the best producer of that substantial looped-thread @@ -8835,7 +8797,7 @@ pseudo-blossoms and leafs are specially characteristic.</td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:411px; height:554px" src="images/img40h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—MME VERBIEST, WEARING PILLOW-MADE -LACE <i>À RÉSEAU</i>.</td></tr> +LACE <i>À RÉSEAU</i>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption">From the family group by <span class="sc">Gonzales Coquer</span>. Buckingham Palace. About 1664.</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption">(<i>By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., @@ -8843,7 +8805,7 @@ Dornach (Alsace), and Paris</i>.)</td></tr> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:402px; height:508px" src="images/img40j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—PIECE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE USUALLY -KNOWN AS “POINT DE FLANDRES À BRIDES.”</td></tr> +KNOWN AS “POINT DE FLANDRES À BRIDES.”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90">Of the middle of the 17th century, the designs for which were often adaptations from those made for such needlepoint lace as that of the Jabot in fig. 12.</td></tr></table> @@ -8859,7 +8821,7 @@ THAT IN FIG. 17. Dated 1695.</td></tr> (<i>Photo by Emery Walker</i>.)</td></tr> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:303px" src="images/img40k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—FLOUNCE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE <i>À RÉSEAU</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—FLOUNCE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE <i>À RÉSEAU</i>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90">Flemish, of the middle of the 17th century. This lace is usually thought to be the earliest type of “Point d’Angleterre” in contradistinction to the “Point de Flandres” (fig. 14).</td></tr> @@ -8928,10 +8890,10 @@ time were developed. But it was the application of the celebrated Jacquard apparatus to such machines that enabled manufacturers to produce all sorts of patterns in thread-work in imitation of the patterns for hand-made lace. A French -machine called the “dentellière” was devised (see La Nature +machine called the “dentellière” was devised (see La Nature for the 3rd of March 1881), and the patterns produced by it were of plaited threads. The expense, however, attending the -production of plaited lace by the “dentellière” is as great as +production of plaited lace by the “dentellière” is as great as that of pillow lace made by the hand, and so the machine has not succeeded for ordinary trade purposes. More successful results have been secured by the new patent circular lace machine @@ -8959,9 +8921,9 @@ with clusters of small loops. For the most part all this elaboration was brought to a high pitch of variety and finish by French designers and workers; and French terms are more usual in speaking of details in laces. Thus the solid part of the pattern -is called the <i>toilé</i> or clothing, the links or ties are called <i>brides</i>, -the meshed grounds are called <i>réseaux</i>, the outline to the edges -of a pattern is called <i>cordonnet</i> or <i>brodé</i>, the insertions of +is called the <i>toilé</i> or clothing, the links or ties are called <i>brides</i>, +the meshed grounds are called <i>réseaux</i>, the outline to the edges +of a pattern is called <i>cordonnet</i> or <i>brodé</i>, the insertions of fanciful devices <i>modes</i>, the little loops <i>picots</i>. These terms are applicable to the various portions of laces made with the needle, on the pillow or by the machine.</p> @@ -8971,12 +8933,12 @@ referring to figs. 1 to 23) is roughly as follows. From about 1540 to 1590 they were composed of geometric forms set within squares, or of crossed and radiating line devices, resulting in a very open fabric, stiff and almost wiry in effect, without -<i>brides</i> or <i>réseaux</i>. From 1590 may be dated the introduction +<i>brides</i> or <i>réseaux</i>. From 1590 may be dated the introduction into patterns of very conventional floral and even human and animal forms and slender scrolls, rendered in a tape-like texture, held together by <i>brides</i>. To the period from 1620 to 1670 belongs the development of long continuous scroll patterns -with <i>réseaux</i> and <i>brides</i>, accompanied in the case of needle-made +with <i>réseaux</i> and <i>brides</i>, accompanied in the case of needle-made laces with an elaboration of details, <i>e.g.</i> <i>cordonnet</i> with massings of <i>picots</i>. Much of these laces enriched with fillings or <i>modes</i> was made at this time. From 1650 to 1700 the scroll @@ -8986,7 +8948,7 @@ important schemes or designs were made (as in Pl. fig. 19, and in fig. 24 in text), into which were introduced naturalistic renderings of garlands, flowers, birds, trophies, architectural ornament and human figures. Grounds composed entirely -of varieties of <i>modes</i> as in the case of the <i>réseau rosacé</i> (Pl. V. +of varieties of <i>modes</i> as in the case of the <i>réseau rosacé</i> (Pl. V. fig. 21) were sometimes made then. From 1760 to 1800 small details consisting of bouquets, sprays of flowers, single flowers, leaves, buds, spots and such like were adopted, and sprinkled @@ -9011,13 +8973,13 @@ thread pattern (see left-hand part of fig. 30). Those portions which are to be represented as -the “clothing” or <i>toilé</i> +the “clothing” or <i>toilé</i> are usually worked as indicated in the enlarged diagram (fig. 29), and then edged as a rule with buttonhole stitching (fig. 28). -Between these <i>toilé</i> portions of the pattern are worked ties -(<i>brides</i>) or meshes (<i>réseaux</i>), and thus the various parts united into +Between these <i>toilé</i> portions of the pattern are worked ties +(<i>brides</i>) or meshes (<i>réseaux</i>), and thus the various parts united into one fabric are wrought on to the face of the parchment pattern and reproducing it (see right-hand part of fig. 30). A knife is <span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>42</span> @@ -9062,16 +9024,16 @@ appears capable of being put in making ornaments. But about 1660 came laces with <i>brides</i> or ties arranged in a honeycomb reticulation or regular ground. To them succeeded lace in which the compact relief gave place to daintier and lighter -material combined with a ground of meshes or <i>réseau</i>. The +material combined with a ground of meshes or <i>réseau</i>. The needle-made meshes were sometimes of single and sometimes of double threads. A diagram is given of an ordinary method of making such meshes (fig. 31). At the end of the 17th century the lightest of the Venetian needlepoint laces were made; and this class which was of the filmiest texture is usually -known as “point de Venise à réseau” +known as “point de Venise à réseau” (Pl. V. fig. 20<i>a</i>). It was contemporary -with the needle-made French laces of Alençon +with the needle-made French laces of Alençon and Argentan<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> that became famous towards the latter part of the 17th century (Pl. V. fig. 20<i>b</i>). “Point d’Argentan” has been thought to @@ -9079,28 +9041,28 @@ be especially distinguished on account of its delicate honeycomb ground of hexagonally arranged <i>brides</i> (fig. 32), a peculiarity already referred to in certain antecedent Venetian point laces. Often intermixed with this hexagonal <i>brides</i> ground is the fine-meshed -ground or <i>réseau</i> (fig. 20<i>b</i>), which has been held to be -distinctive of “point d’Alençon.” But the styles of patterns +ground or <i>réseau</i> (fig. 20<i>b</i>), which has been held to be +distinctive of “point d’Alençon.” But the styles of patterns and the methods of working them, with rich variety of insertions -or <i>modes</i>, with the <i>brodé</i> or <i>cordonnet</i> of raised buttonhole stitched -edging, are alike in Argentan and Alençon needle-made laces +or <i>modes</i>, with the <i>brodé</i> or <i>cordonnet</i> of raised buttonhole stitched +edging, are alike in Argentan and Alençon needle-made laces (Pl. V. fig. 20<i>b</i> and fig. 32). Besides the hexagonal <i>brides</i> ground and the ground of meshes another variety of grounding -(<i>réseau rosacé</i>) was used in certain Alençon designs. This ground +(<i>réseau rosacé</i>) was used in certain Alençon designs. This ground consisted of buttonhole-stitched skeleton hexagons within each -of which was worked a small hexagon of <i>toilé</i> connected with the +of which was worked a small hexagon of <i>toilé</i> connected with the outer surrounding hexagon by means of six little ties or <i>brides</i> (Pl. V. fig. 21). Lace with this particular ground has been called “Argentella,” and some writers have thought that it was a specialty of Genoese or Venetian work. But the character of the work and the style of the floral patterns are those of -Alençon laces. The industry at Argentan was virtually an offshoot -of that nurtured at Alençon, where “lacis,” “cut work” -and “vélin” (work on parchment) had been made for years -before the well-developed needle-made “point d’Alençon” +Alençon laces. The industry at Argentan was virtually an offshoot +of that nurtured at Alençon, where “lacis,” “cut work” +and “vélin” (work on parchment) had been made for years +before the well-developed needle-made “point d’Alençon” came into vogue under the favouring patronage of the state-aided lace company mentioned as having been formed in 1665. -Madame Despierre in her <i>Histoire du point d’Alençon</i> gives an +Madame Despierre in her <i>Histoire du point d’Alençon</i> gives an interesting and trustworthy account of the industry.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -9112,7 +9074,7 @@ France made at Argentan.</td></tr></table> <p>In Belgium, Brussels has acquired some celebrity for needle-made laces. These, however, are chiefly in imitation of those -made at Alençon, but the <i>toilé</i> is of less compact texture and +made at Alençon, but the <i>toilé</i> is of less compact texture and sharpness in definition of pattern. Brussels needlepoint lace is often worked with meshed grounds made on a pillow, and a plain thread is used as a <i>cordonnet</i> for their patterns instead of a thread @@ -9139,7 +9101,7 @@ DESIGN SHOWN IN FIG. 19. About 1730.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.—PORTION OF FLOUNCE, NEEDLEPOINT LACE COPIED AT THE BURANO LACE SCHOOL FROM THE ORIGINAL OF THE SO-CALLED “POINT DE VENISE -À BRIDES PICOTÉES.”</td></tr> +À BRIDES PICOTÉES.”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90">17th century. Formerly belonging to Pope Clement XIII., but now the property of the queen of Italy. The design and work, however, are indistinguishable from those of important flounces of @@ -9147,7 +9109,7 @@ however, are indistinguishable from those of important flounces of vertically-arranged groups of fantastic pine-apples and vases with flowers, intermixed with bold rococo bands and large leaf devices. The hexagonal meshes of the ground, although similar to the -Venetian “brides picotées,” are much akin to the buttonhole +Venetian “brides picotées,” are much akin to the buttonhole stitched ground of “Point d’Argentan.” (Victoria and Albert Museum.)</td></tr></table> </td> @@ -9156,18 +9118,18 @@ Museum.)</td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:924px" src="images/img42g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="scs">A</span>    <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.    <span class="scs">B</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="scs">A</span>.—A LAPPET OF “POINT DE VENISE À RÉSEAU.”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="scs">A</span>.—A LAPPET OF “POINT DE VENISE À RÉSEAU.”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90">The conventional character of the pseudo-leaf and floral forms contrasts with that of the realistic designs of contemporary French laces. Italian. Early 18th century.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption pt1"><span class="scs">B</span>.—A LAPPET OF FINE “POINT D’ALENÇON.”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption pt1"><span class="scs">B</span>.—A LAPPET OF FINE “POINT D’ALENÇON.”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90">Louis XV. period. The variety of the fillings of geometric design is particularly remarkable in this specimen, as is the buttonhole stitched cordonnat or outline to the various ornamental forms.</td></tr> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:114px" src="images/img42h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.—BORDER OF FRENCH NEEDLEPOINT LACE, -WITH GROUND OF “RÉSEAU ROSACÉ.” 18th century.</td></tr></table> +WITH GROUND OF “RÉSEAU ROSACÉ.” 18th century.</td></tr></table> </td></tr></table> <p class="pt2 noind f90"><span class="sc">Plate VI</span>.</p> @@ -9196,7 +9158,7 @@ to the study of designs for it. The lace-making school at Burano near Venice produces hand-made laces which are, to a great extent, careful reproductions of the more celebrated classes of point laces, such as “punto in aria,” “rose point de Venise,” “point de -Venise à réseau,” “point d’Alençon,” “point d’Argentan” +Venise à réseau,” “point d’Alençon,” “point d’Argentan” and others. Some good needlepoint lace is made in Bohemia and elsewhere in the Austrian empire.</p> @@ -9289,7 +9251,7 @@ in the Style of a Mechlin design of the latter part of the 18th century.</td></t <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:156px" src="images/img43e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 38—Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, from a design -similar to such as was used for point d’Alençon of the Louis XV. +similar to such as was used for point d’Alençon of the Louis XV. period.</td></tr></table> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -9301,7 +9263,7 @@ middle of the 17th century, patterns and particular plaitings came to be identified with certain localities. Mechlin, for instance, enjoyed a high reputation for her productions. The chief technical features of this pillow lace lie in the plaiting of -the meshes, and the outlining of the clothing or <i>toilé</i> with a +the meshes, and the outlining of the clothing or <i>toilé</i> with a thread <i>cordonnet</i>. The ordinary Mechlin mesh is hexagonal in shape. Four of the sides are of double twisted threads, two @@ -9318,7 +9280,7 @@ are of four threads plaited four times lace are remarkable for the fidelity and grace with which the botanical forms in many of its patterns are rendered (Pl. VI. fig. 23). These are mainly reproductions or -adaptations of designs for point d’Alençon, and the soft quality +adaptations of designs for point d’Alençon, and the soft quality imparted to them in the texture of pillow-made lace contrasts with the harder and more crisp appearance in needlepoint <span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>44</span> @@ -9341,23 +9303,23 @@ of which consist in part of slightly raised <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:523px" src="images/img44c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 42.—Portion of a Wedding Veil, 7 ft. 6 in. × 6 ft. 6 in., of +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 42.—Portion of a Wedding Veil, 7 ft. 6 in. × 6 ft. 6 in., of Pillow-made Lace, Brussels, late 18th century. The design consists of light leafy garlands of orange blossoms and other flowers daintily festooned. Little feathery spirals and stars are powdered over the -ground, which is of Brussels <i>vrai réseau</i>. In the centre upon a more +ground, which is of Brussels <i>vrai réseau</i>. In the centre upon a more open ground of pillow-made hexagonal <i>brides</i> is a group of two birds, one flying towards the other which appears ready to take wing from its nest; an oval frame containing two hearts pierced by an arrow, and a hymeneal torch. Throughout this veil is a profusion of pillow -renderings of various <i>modes</i>, the <i>réseau rosacé</i>, star devices, &c. The +renderings of various <i>modes</i>, the <i>réseau rosacé</i>, star devices, &c. The ornamental devices are partly applied and partly worked into the ground (Victoria and Albert Museum).</td></tr></table> <p class="pt2">Honiton pillow lace resembles Brussels lace, but in most of the English pillow laces (Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, -Bedfordshire) the <i>réseau</i> is of a simple +Bedfordshire) the <i>réseau</i> is of a simple character (fig. 43). As a rule, English lace is made with a rather coarser thread than that used in the older Flemish @@ -9396,7 +9358,7 @@ Valenciennes, about 1750. The peculiarity of Valenciennes lace is the filmy cambric-like texture and the absence of any cordonnet to define the separate parts of the ornament such as is used in needlepoint lace -of Alençon, and in pillow Mechlin and Brussels lace.</td></tr></table> +of Alençon, and in pillow Mechlin and Brussels lace.</td></tr></table> <p class="pt2"><i>Guipure</i>.—This name is often applied to needlepoint and pillow laces in which the ground consists of ties or <i>brides</i>, but @@ -9544,7 +9506,7 @@ both warp and weft threads compress the twistings. Thus the texture of the clothing or -<i>toilé</i> in machine-made lace may generally be detected by +<i>toilé</i> in machine-made lace may generally be detected by its ribbed appearance, due to the compressed twisted threads. Figs. 47 and 48 are intended to show effects obtained by varying the tensions of weft and warp threads. For instance, @@ -9600,7 +9562,7 @@ very fine gauge machines, thus enabling a very close imitation of the real lace to be made by securing a very -open and clear <i>réseau</i> or net, +open and clear <i>réseau</i> or net, such as would be made on a coarse machine, and at the same time to keep the pattern fine and solid and standing out well from the net, as is the case with the @@ -9666,7 +9628,7 @@ Needlepoint Lace, “Gros point de Venise.”</td></tr></table> <p>Collections of hand-made lace chiefly exist in museums and technical institutions, as for instance the Victoria and Albert -Museum in London, the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris, and +Museum in London, the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris, and museums at Lyons, Nuremberg, Berlin, Turin and elsewhere. In such places the opportunity is presented of tracing in chronological sequence the stages of pattern and texture development.</p> @@ -9687,8 +9649,8 @@ essays upon the same subject to the <i>Gazette des Beaux-Arts</i> A. Merli wrote a pamphlet (with illustrations) entitled <i>Origine ed uso delle trine a filo di rete</i>; Mons F. de Fertiault compiled a brief and rather fanciful <i>Histoire de la dentelle</i> in 1843, in which he reproduced -statements to be found in Diderot’s <i>Encyclopédie</i>, subsequently -quoted by Roland de la Platière. The first <i>Report of the Department +statements to be found in Diderot’s <i>Encyclopédie</i>, subsequently +quoted by Roland de la Platière. The first <i>Report of the Department of Practical Art</i> (1853) contains a “Report on Cotton Print Works and Lace-Making” by Octavius Hudson, and in the first <i>Report of the Department of Science and Art</i> are some “Observations on Lace.” @@ -9732,27 +9694,27 @@ Layard, and published at Venice by Signor Ongania. The <i>History of Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufacture</i> (London, 1867), by Felkin, has already been referred to. There is also a technological essay upon lace made by machinery, with diagrams of lace stitches -and patterns (<i>Technologische Studien im sächsischen Erzgebirge</i>, +and patterns (<i>Technologische Studien im sächsischen Erzgebirge</i>, Leipzig, 1878), by Hugo Fischer. In 1886 the Libraire Renouard, -Paris, published a <i>History of Point d’Alençon</i>, written by Madame +Paris, published a <i>History of Point d’Alençon</i>, written by Madame G. Despierres, which gives a close and interesting account of the industry, together with a list, compiled from local records, of makers and dealers from 1602 onwards.—<i>Embroidery and Lace: their manufacture and history from the remotest antiquity to the present day</i>, by -Ernest Lefebure, lace-maker and administrator of the École des Arts -Décoratifs, translated and enlarged with notes by Alan S. Cole, was +Ernest Lefebure, lace-maker and administrator of the École des Arts +Décoratifs, translated and enlarged with notes by Alan S. Cole, was published in London in 1888. It is a well-illustrated handbook for amateurs, collectors and general readers.—Irish laces made from modern designs are illustrated in a <i>Renascence of the Irish Art of Lace-making</i>, published in 1888 (London).—<i>Anciennes Dentelles belges formant la collection de feue madame Augusta Baronne Liedts et -données au Musée de Grunthuis à Bruges</i>, published at Antwerp in +données au Musée de Grunthuis à Bruges</i>, published at Antwerp in 1889, consists of a folio volume containing upwards of 181 phototypes—many full size—of fine specimens of lace. The ascriptions of country and date of origin are occasionally inaccurate, on account of a too obvious desire to credit Bruges with being the birthplace of all sorts of lace-work, much of which shown in this work is distinctly -Italian in style.—The <i>Encyclopaedia of Needlework</i>, by Thérèse de +Italian in style.—The <i>Encyclopaedia of Needlework</i>, by Thérèse de Dillmont-Dornach (Alsace, 1891), is a detailed guide to several kinds of embroidery, knitting, crochet, tatting, netting and most of the essential stitches for needlepoint lace. It is well illustrated with @@ -9768,8 +9730,8 @@ of Italian, Flemish, French and English laces, as well as with magnified details of lace, enabling any one to identify the plaits, the twists and loops of threads in the actual making of the fabric.—<i>L’Industrie</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>48</span> -<i>des tulles et dentelles mécaniques dans le Pas de Calais</i>, 1815-1900, -by Henri Hénon (Paris, 1900), is an important volume of over 600 +<i>des tulles et dentelles mécaniques dans le Pas de Calais</i>, 1815-1900, +by Henri Hénon (Paris, 1900), is an important volume of over 600 pages of letterpress, interspersed with abundant process blocks of the several kinds of machine nets and laces made at Calais since 1815. It opens with a short account of the Arras hand-made laces, the production @@ -9778,19 +9740,19 @@ benefit of a public subscription towards the erection of a statue in Calais to Jacquard, the inventor of the apparatus by means of which all figured textile fabrics are manufactured. It is of some interest to note that machine net and lace-making at Calais owe their origin to -Englishmen, amongst whom “le sieur R. Webster arrivé à St Pierre-les-Calais -en Décembre, 1816, venant d’Angleterre, est l’un des -premiers qui ont établi dans la communauté une fabrique de tulles,” +Englishmen, amongst whom “le sieur R. Webster arrivé à St Pierre-les-Calais +en Décembre, 1816, venant d’Angleterre, est l’un des +premiers qui ont établi dans la communauté une fabrique de tulles,” &c. <i>Lace-making in the Midlands: Past and Present</i>, by C. C. Channer and M. E. Roberts (London, 1900) upon the lace-making industry in Buckinghamshire, <span class="correction" title="amended from Bedforshire">Bedfordshire</span> and Northamptonshire contains many illustrations of laces made in these counties from the -17th century to the present time. <i>Musée rétrospectif. Dentelles à -l’exposition universelle internationale de 1900 à Paris. Rapport de +17th century to the present time. <i>Musée rétrospectif. Dentelles à +l’exposition universelle internationale de 1900 à Paris. Rapport de Mons. E. Lefebvre</i> contains several good illustrations, especially of important specimens of Point de France of the 17th and 18th centuries. <i>Le Point de France et les autres dentelliers au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> et au -XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i>, by Madame Laurence de Laprade (Paris, 1905), brings +XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i>, by Madame Laurence de Laprade (Paris, 1905), brings together much hitherto scattered information throwing light upon operations in many localities in France where the industry has been carried on for considerable periods. The book is well and usefully @@ -9814,7 +9776,7 @@ during the 16th century is marked by the number of pattern-books then published. In Venice a work of this class was issued by Alessandro Pagannino in 1527; another of a similar nature, printed by Pierre Quinty, appeared in the same year at Cologne; and La -<i>Fleur de la science de pourtraicture et patrons de broderie, façon arabicque +<i>Fleur de la science de pourtraicture et patrons de broderie, façon arabicque et ytalique</i>, was published at Paris in 1530. From these early dates until the beginning of the 17th century pattern-books for embroidery in Italy, France, Germany and England were published in great @@ -9827,18 +9789,18 @@ none but practised lace-workers, such as those who arose a century later, could be expected to undertake.</p> <p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A very complete account of how these conditions began and -developed at Alençon, for instance, is given in Madame Despierre’s -<i>Histoire du Point d’Alençon</i> (1886) to which is appended an interesting +developed at Alençon, for instance, is given in Madame Despierre’s +<i>Histoire du Point d’Alençon</i> (1886) to which is appended an interesting and annotated list of merchants, designers and makers of Point -d’Alençon.</p> +d’Alençon.</p> -<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> The family of Camusat at Alençon from 1602 until 1795.</p> +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> The family of Camusat at Alençon from 1602 until 1795.</p> <p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The picture, however, as Seguin has pointed out, was probably painted some thirty years later, and by Jean Matsys.</p> -<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See the poetical skit <i>Révolte des passements et broderies</i>, written -by Mademoiselle de la Tousse, cousin of Madame de Sévigné, in the +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See the poetical skit <i>Révolte des passements et broderies</i>, written +by Mademoiselle de la Tousse, cousin of Madame de Sévigné, in the middle of the 17th century, which marks the favour which foreign laces at that time commanded amongst the leaders of French fashion. It is fairly evident too that the French laces themselves, known @@ -9851,11 +9813,11 @@ present article on lace by Mrs B. Wishaw of Seville.</p> <p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See Felkin’s <i>Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures</i>.</p> -<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> After 1650 the lace-workers at Alençon and its neighbourhood +<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> After 1650 the lace-workers at Alençon and its neighbourhood produced work of a daintier kind than that which was being made by -the Venetians. As a rule the hexagonal <i>bride</i> grounds of Alençon +the Venetians. As a rule the hexagonal <i>bride</i> grounds of Alençon laces are smaller than similar details in Venetian laces. The average -size of a diagonal taken from angle to angle in an Alençon (or so-called +size of a diagonal taken from angle to angle in an Alençon (or so-called Argentan) hexagon was about one-sixth of an inch, and each side of the hexagon was about one-tenth of an inch. An idea of the minuteness of the work can be formed from the fact that a side of a @@ -9878,8 +9840,8 @@ Thymelaeaceae, and is grown in hothouses in Britain.</p> <span class="sc">Laconia</span> (<i>q.v.</i>). Homer uses only the former, and in some passages seems to denote by it the Achaean citadel, the Therapnae of later times, in contrast to the lower town Sparta (G. Gilbert, -<i>Studien zur altspartanischen Geschichte</i>, Göttingen, 1872, p. 34 -foll.). It is described by the epithets <span class="grk" title="koilê">κοίλη</span> (hollow) and <span class="grk" title="kêtôessa">κητώεσσα</span> +<i>Studien zur altspartanischen Geschichte</i>, Göttingen, 1872, p. 34 +foll.). It is described by the epithets <span class="grk" title="koilê">κοίλη</span> (hollow) and <span class="grk" title="kêtôessa">κητώεσσα</span> (spacious or hollow), and is probably connected etymologically with <span class="grk" title="lakkos">λάκκος</span>, <i>lacus</i>, any hollow place. Lacedaemon is now the name of a separate department, which had in 1907 a population @@ -9887,7 +9849,7 @@ of 87,106.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ÉTIENNE DE LA VILLE,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> +<p><span class="bold">LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ÉTIENNE DE LA VILLE,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1756-1825), French naturalist, was born at Agen in Guienne on the 26th of December 1756. His education was carefully conducted by his father, and the early perusal of @@ -9897,30 +9859,30 @@ devoted to music, in which, besides becoming a good performer on the piano and organ, he acquired considerable mastery of composition, two of his operas (which were never published) meeting with the high approval of Gluck; in 1781-1785 he also -brought out in two volumes his <i>Poétique de la musique</i>. Meantime -he wrote two treaties, <i>Essai sur l’électricité</i> (1781) and -<i>Physique générale et particulière</i> (1782-1784), which gained him +brought out in two volumes his <i>Poétique de la musique</i>. Meantime +he wrote two treaties, <i>Essai sur l’électricité</i> (1781) and +<i>Physique générale et particulière</i> (1782-1784), which gained him the friendship of Buffon, who in 1785 appointed him subdemonstrator in the Jardin du Roi, and proposed to him to become the continuator of his <i>Histoire naturelle</i>. This continuation -was published under the titles <i>Histoire des quadrupèdes ovipares +was published under the titles <i>Histoire des quadrupèdes ovipares et des serpents</i> (2 vols., 1788-1789) and <i>Histoire naturelle des -reptiles</i> (1789). After the Revolution Lacépède became a +reptiles</i> (1789). After the Revolution Lacépède became a member of the legislative assembly, but during the Reign of Terror he left Paris, his life having become endangered by his disapproval of the massacres. When the Jardin du Roi was -reorganized as the Jardin des Plantes, Lacépède was appointed +reorganized as the Jardin des Plantes, Lacépède was appointed to the chair allocated to the study of reptiles and fishes. In 1798 he published the first volume of <i>Histoire naturelle des poissons</i>, the fifth volume appearing in 1803; and in 1804 -appeared his <i>Histoire des cétacés</i>. From this period till his death +appeared his <i>Histoire des cétacés</i>. From this period till his death the part he took in politics prevented him making any further contribution of importance to science. In 1799 he became a senator, in 1801 president of the senate, in 1803 grand chancellor of the legion of honour, in 1804 minister of state, and at the Restoration in 1819 he was created a peer of France. He died at -Épinay on the 6th of October 1825. During the latter part of -his life he wrote <i>Histoire générale physique et civile de l’Europe</i>, +Épinay on the 6th of October 1825. During the latter part of +his life he wrote <i>Histoire générale physique et civile de l’Europe</i>, published posthumously in 18 vols., 1826.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -9941,16 +9903,16 @@ are commonly called golden-eye flies.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1624-1709), father confessor of -Louis XIV., was born at the château of Aix in Forey on the +<p><span class="bold">LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1624-1709), father confessor of +Louis XIV., was born at the château of Aix in Forey on the 25th of August 1624, being the son of Georges d’Aix, seigneur -de la Chaise, and of Renée de Rochefort. On his mother’s side -he was a grandnephew of Père Coton, the confessor of Henry IV. +de la Chaise, and of Renée de Rochefort. On his mother’s side +he was a grandnephew of Père Coton, the confessor of Henry IV. He became a novice of the Society of Jesus before completing his studies at the university of Lyons, where, after taking the final vows, he lectured on philosophy to students attracted by his fame from all parts of France. Through the influence of -Camille de Villeroy, archbishop of Lyons, Père de la Chaise was +Camille de Villeroy, archbishop of Lyons, Père de la Chaise was nominated in 1674 confessor of Louis XIV., who intrusted him during the lifetime of Harlay de Champvallon, archbishop of Paris, with the administration of the ecclesiastical patronage of @@ -9966,7 +9928,7 @@ at Versailles, but there is no reason for supposing that the subsequent coolness between him and Madame de Maintenon arose from his insistence on secrecy in this matter. During the long strife over the temporalities of the Gallican Church between -Louis XIV. and Innocent XI. Père de la Chaise supported the +Louis XIV. and Innocent XI. Père de la Chaise supported the royal prerogative, though he used his influence at Rome to conciliate the papal authorities. He must be held largely responsible for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but not @@ -9974,17 +9936,17 @@ for the brutal measures applied against the Protestants. He exercised a moderating influence on Louis XIV.’s zeal against the Jansenists, and Saint-Simon, who was opposed to him in most matters, does full justice to his humane and honourable -character. Père de la Chaise had a lasting and unalterable -affection for Fénelon, which remained unchanged by the papal +character. Père de la Chaise had a lasting and unalterable +affection for Fénelon, which remained unchanged by the papal condemnation of the <i>Maximes</i>. In spite of failing faculties he continued his duties as confessor to Louis XIV. to the end of his long life. He died on the 20th of January 1709. The -cemetery of Père-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired +cemetery of Père-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired by the Jesuits in 1826, and not, as is often stated, on property personally granted to him.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See R. Chantelauze, <i>Le Père de la Chaize. Études d’histoire religieuse</i> +<p>See R. Chantelauze, <i>Le Père de la Chaize. Études d’histoire religieuse</i> (Paris and Lyons, 1859).</p> </div> @@ -9997,7 +9959,7 @@ woods, 3500 ft. above the sea, preserves remains of its ramparts and some houses of the 14th and 15th centuries, but owes its celebrity to a church, which, after the cathedral of Clermont-Ferrand, is the most remarkable Gothic building in Auvergne. -The west façade, approached by a flight of steps, is flanked by +The west façade, approached by a flight of steps, is flanked by two massive towers. The nave and aisles are of equal height and are separated from the choir by a stone rood screen. The <span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>49</span> @@ -10015,9 +9977,9 @@ inhabitants of the town.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENÉ DE CARADEUC DE<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1701-1785), +<p><span class="bold">LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENÉ DE CARADEUC DE<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1701-1785), French jurist, was born at Rennes, on the 6th of March -1701. He was for 60 years procureur général at the parliament +1701. He was for 60 years procureur général at the parliament of Brittany. He was an ardent opponent of the Jesuits; drew up in 1761 for the parliament a memoir on the constitutions of the Order, which did much to secure its suppression @@ -10037,20 +9999,20 @@ members of the parliament but twelve resigned (October 1764 to May 1765). The government considered La Chalotais one of the authors of this affair. At this time the secretary of state who administered the affairs of the province, Louis Philypeaux, -duc de la Vrillière, comte de Saint-Florentin (1705-1777), received +duc de la Vrillière, comte de Saint-Florentin (1705-1777), received two anonymous and abusive letters. La Chalotais was suspected of having written them, and three experts in handwriting declared that they were by him. The government therefore arrested him, his son and four other members of the parliament. The arrest made a great sensation. There was much talk of -“despotism.” Voltaire stated that the procureur général, in +“despotism.” Voltaire stated that the procureur général, in his prison of Saint Malo, was reduced, for lack of ink, to write his defence with a toothpick dipped in vinegar—which was apparently pure legend; but public opinion all over France was strongly aroused against the government. On the 16th of November 1765 a commission of judges was named to take charge of the trial. La Chalotais maintained that the trial was illegal; -being procureur général he claimed the right to be judged by +being procureur général he claimed the right to be judged by the parliament of Rennes, or failing this by the parliament of Bordeaux, according to the custom of the province. The judges did not dare to pronounce a condemnation on the evidence of @@ -10075,8 +10037,8 @@ who was personally a violent, haughty and unsympathetic character, died at Rennes on the 12th of July 1785.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See, besides the <i>Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jésuites</i> and -the <i>Essai d’éducation nationale</i>, the <i>Mémoires de la Chalotais</i> (3 vols., +<p>See, besides the <i>Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jésuites</i> and +the <i>Essai d’éducation nationale</i>, the <i>Mémoires de la Chalotais</i> (3 vols., 1766-1767). Two works containing detailed bibliographies are Marion, <i>La Bretagne et le duc d’Aiguillon</i> (Paris, 1893), and B. Pocquet, <i>Le Duc d’Aiguillon et La Chalotais</i> (Paris, 1901). See also @@ -10086,10 +10048,10 @@ a controversy between these two authors in the <i>Bulletin critique</i> for <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA CHARITÉ,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a town of central France in the department -of Nièvre, on the right bank of the Loire, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nevers -on the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906) 3990. -La Charité possesses the remains of a fine Romanesque basilica, +<p><span class="bold">LA CHARITÉ,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a town of central France in the department +of Nièvre, on the right bank of the Loire, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nevers +on the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906) 3990. +La Charité possesses the remains of a fine Romanesque basilica, the church of Sainte-Croix, dating from the 11th and early 12th centuries. The plan consists of a nave, rebuilt at the end of the 17th century, transept and choir with ambulatory and side @@ -10102,7 +10064,7 @@ and other fabrics are among the industries; trade is chiefly in wood and iron.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>La Charité owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in +<p>La Charité owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in the 8th century and reorganized as a dependency of the abbey of Cluny in 1052. It became the parent of many priories and monasteries, some of them in England and Italy. The possession of @@ -10112,53 +10074,53 @@ the town was hotly contested during the wars of religion of the <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA CHAUSSÉE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1692-1754), +<p><span class="bold">LA CHAUSSÉE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1692-1754), French dramatist, was born in Paris in 1692. In 1731 -he published an <i>Épître à Clio</i>, a didactic poem in defence of -Lériget de la Faye in his dispute with Antoine Houdart de la +he published an <i>Épître à Clio</i>, a didactic poem in defence of +Lériget de la Faye in his dispute with Antoine Houdart de la Motte, who had maintained that verse was useless in tragedy. -La Chaussée was forty years old before he produced his first -play, <i>La Fausse Antipathie</i> (1734). His second play, <i>Le Préjugé -à la mode</i> (1735) turns on the fear of incurring ridicule felt by +La Chaussée was forty years old before he produced his first +play, <i>La Fausse Antipathie</i> (1734). His second play, <i>Le Préjugé +à la mode</i> (1735) turns on the fear of incurring ridicule felt by a man in love with his own wife, a prejudice dispelled in France, -according to La Harpe, by La Chaussée’s comedy. <i>L’École +according to La Harpe, by La Chaussée’s comedy. <i>L’École des amis</i> (1737) followed, and, after an unsuccessful attempt -at tragedy in <i>Maximinien</i>, he returned to comedy in <i>Mélanide</i> -(1741). In <i>Mélanide</i> the type known as <i>comédie larmoyante</i> +at tragedy in <i>Maximinien</i>, he returned to comedy in <i>Mélanide</i> +(1741). In <i>Mélanide</i> the type known as <i>comédie larmoyante</i> is fully developed. Comedy was no longer to provoke laughter, but tears. The innovation consisted in destroying the sharp distinction then existing between tragedy and comedy in French literature. Indications of this change had been already offered -in the work of Marivaux, and La Chaussée’s plays led naturally +in the work of Marivaux, and La Chaussée’s plays led naturally to the domestic drama of Diderot and of Sedaine. The new method found bitter enemies. Alexis Piron nicknames the -author “<i>le Révérend Père Chaussée</i>,” and ridiculed him in one +author “<i>le Révérend Père Chaussée</i>,” and ridiculed him in one of his most famous epigrams. Voltaire maintained that the -<i>comédie larmoyante</i> was a proof of the inability of the author +<i>comédie larmoyante</i> was a proof of the inability of the author to produce either of the recognized kinds of drama, though he himself produced a play of similar character in <i>L’Enfant prodigue</i>. The hostility of the critics did not prevent the public from shedding -tears nightly over the sorrows of La Chaussée’s heroine. -<i>L’École des mères</i> (1744) and <i>La Gouvernante</i> (1747) form, with +tears nightly over the sorrows of La Chaussée’s heroine. +<i>L’École des mères</i> (1744) and <i>La Gouvernante</i> (1747) form, with those already mentioned, the best of his work. The strict -moral aims pursued by La Chaussée in his plays seem hardly +moral aims pursued by La Chaussée in his plays seem hardly consistent with his private preferences. He frequented the same gay society as did the comte de Caylus and contributed -to the <i>Recueils de ces messieurs</i>. La Chaussée died on the 14th +to the <i>Recueils de ces messieurs</i>. La Chaussée died on the 14th of May 1754. Villemain said of his style that he wrote prosaic verses with purity, while Voltaire, usually an adverse critic of -his work, said he was “<i>un des premiers après ceux qui ont du -génie</i>.”</p> +his work, said he was “<i>un des premiers après ceux qui ont du +génie</i>.”</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>For the <i>comédie larmoyante</i> see G. Lanson, <i>Nivelle de la Chaussée -et la comédie larmoyante</i> (1887).</p> +<p>For the <i>comédie larmoyante</i> see G. Lanson, <i>Nivelle de la Chaussée +et la comédie larmoyante</i> (1887).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LACHES<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (from Anglo-French <i>lachesse</i>, negligence, from -<i>lasche</i>, modern <i>lâche</i>, unloosed, slack), a term for slackness +<i>lasche</i>, modern <i>lâche</i>, unloosed, slack), a term for slackness or negligence, used particularly in law to signify negligence on the part of a person in doing that which he is by law bound to do, or unreasonable lapse of time in asserting a right, seeking @@ -10219,19 +10181,19 @@ of many Cities</i>, both published by the Palestine Exploration Fund.</p> <p><span class="bold">LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1793-1851), German philologist and critic, was born at Brunswick on the 4th of March 1793. He studied at Leipzig and -Göttingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies. +Göttingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies. In 1815 he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer <i>chasseur</i> and accompanied his detachment to Paris, but did not encounter the enemy. In 1816 he became an assistant master in the Friedrich Werder gymnasium at Berlin, and a <i>privat-docent</i> at the university. The same summer he became one of the principal masters in -the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of Königsberg, where he assisted -his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl Köpke (1785-1865) +the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of Königsberg, where he assisted +his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl Köpke (1785-1865) with his edition of Rudolf von Ems’ <i>Barlaam und Josaphat</i> (1818), and also assisted his friend in a contemplated edition of the works of Walther von der Vogelweide. In January 1818 he became professor extraordinarius of classical philology in -the university of Königsberg, and at the same time began to +the university of Königsberg, and at the same time began to lecture on Old German grammar and the Middle High German poets. He devoted himself during the following seven years to an extraordinarily minute study of those subjects, and in @@ -10246,10 +10208,10 @@ He died on the 13th of March 1851.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Lachmann, who was the translator of the first volume of P. E. -Müller’s <i>Sagabibliothek des skandinavischen Altertums</i> (1816), is a +Müller’s <i>Sagabibliothek des skandinavischen Altertums</i> (1816), is a figure of considerable importance in the history of German philology (see Rudolf von Raumer, <i>Geschichte der germanischen Philologie</i>, 1870). -In his “Habilitationsschrift” <i>Über die ursprüngliche Gestalt des +In his “Habilitationsschrift” <i>Ãœber die ursprüngliche Gestalt des Gedichts der Nibelunge Not</i> (1816), and still more in his review of Hagen’s <i>Nibelungen</i> and Benecke’s <i>Bonerius</i>, contributed in 1817 to the <i>Jenaische Literaturzeitung</i> he had already laid down the rules of @@ -10260,12 +10222,12 @@ of his method becomes increasingly apparent in the <i>Auswahl aus den hochdeutschen Dichtern des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts</i> (1820), in the edition of Hartmann’s <i>Iwein</i> (1827), in those of Walther von der Vogelweide (1827) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (1833), in -the papers “Über das Hildebrandslied,” “Über althochdeutsche -Betonung und Verskunst,” “Über den Eingang des Parzivals,” and -“Über drei Bruchstücke niederrheinischer Gedichte” published in +the papers “Ãœber das Hildebrandslied,” “Ãœber althochdeutsche +Betonung und Verskunst,” “Ãœber den Eingang des Parzivals,” and +“Ãœber drei Bruchstücke niederrheinischer Gedichte” published in the <i>Abhandlungen</i> of the Berlin Academy, and in <i>Der Nibelunge Not und die Klage</i> (1826, 11th ed., 1892), which was followed by a critical -commentary in 1836. Lachmann’s <i>Betrachtungen über Homer’s +commentary in 1836. Lachmann’s <i>Betrachtungen über Homer’s Ilias</i>, first published in the <i>Abhandlungen</i> of the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841, in which he sought to show that the <i>Iliad</i> consists of sixteen independent “lays” variously enlarged and interpolated, @@ -10290,7 +10252,7 @@ long as the Latin language continues to be studied.” Lachmann also translated Shakespeare’s sonnets (1820) and <i>Macbeth</i> (1829).</p> <p>See M. Hertz, <i>Karl Lachmann, eine Biographie</i> (1851), where a full -list of Lachmann’s works is given; F. Leo, <i>Rede zur Säcularfeier +list of Lachmann’s works is given; F. Leo, <i>Rede zur Säcularfeier K. Lachmanns</i> (1893); J. Grimm, biography in <i>Kleine Schriften</i>; W. Scherer in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, xvii., and J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i>, iii. (1908), pp. 127-131.</p> @@ -10323,7 +10285,7 @@ Unteritalien und Sicilien</i> (Berlin 1899, 41).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA CIOTAT,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> a coast town of south-eastern France in the -department of Bouches-du-Rhône, on the west shore of the Bay +department of Bouches-du-Rhône, on the west shore of the Bay of La Ciotat, 26 m. S.E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,562. The port is easily accessible and well sheltered. The large shipbuilding yards and repairing docks of the Messageries @@ -10406,7 +10368,7 @@ on his return to England. Charles says that James is to communicate certain matters to Oliva, and come back at once. Oliva is to give James all the money he needs, and Charles will later make an ample donation to the Jesuits. He acknowledges -a debt to Oliva of £800, to be paid in six months. The +a debt to Oliva of £800, to be paid in six months. The reader will remark that the king has never paid a penny to James or to Oliva, and that Oliva has never communicated directly with Charles. The truth is that all of Charles’s letters @@ -10476,7 +10438,7 @@ separated from the rest and made his way from Quito down the Amazon, ultimately reaching Cayenne. His was the first scientific exploration of the Amazon. He returned to Paris in 1744 and published the results of his measurements and travels -with a map of the Amazon in <i>Mém. de l’académie des sciences</i>, +with a map of the Amazon in <i>Mém. de l’académie des sciences</i>, 1745 (English translation 1745-1747). On a visit to Rome La Condamine made careful measurements of the ancient buildings with a view to a precise determination of the length of the Roman @@ -10487,7 +10449,7 @@ America. He died at Paris on the 4th of February 1774.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LACONIA<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Lakônikê">Λακωνική</span>), the ancient name of the south-eastern +<p><span class="bold">LACONIA<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Lakônikê">Λακωνική</span>), the ancient name of the south-eastern district of the Peloponnese, of which Sparta was the capital. It has an area of some 1,048,000 acres, slightly greater than that of Somersetshire, and consists of three well-marked @@ -10508,7 +10470,7 @@ Parnon, consisting for the most part of barren limestone uplands scantily watered. The Eurotas valley, however, is fertile, and produces at the present day maize, olives, oranges and mulberries in great abundance. Laconia has no rivers of importance except -the Eurotas and its largest tributary the Oenus (mod. Kelefína). +the Eurotas and its largest tributary the Oenus (mod. KelefÃna). The coast, <span class="correction" title="amended from expecially">especially</span> on the east, is rugged and dangerous. Laconia has few good harbours, nor are there any islands lying off its shores with the exception of Cythera (Cerigo), S. of Cape @@ -10541,8 +10503,8 @@ were freed from Spartan rule by the Roman general T. Quinctius Flamininus, and became members of the Achaean League. When this was dissolved in 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, they remained independent under the title of the “Confederation of the Lacedaemonians” or -“of the Free-Laconians” (<span class="grk" title="koinon tôn Lakedaimoniôn">κοινὸν τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων</span> or <span class="grk" title="Eleutherolakônôn">Ἐλευθερολακώνων</span>), -the supreme officer of which was a <span class="grk" title="stratêgos">στρατηγός</span> (general) +“of the Free-Laconians” (<span class="grk" title="koinon tôn Lakedaimoniôn">κοινὸν τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων</span> or <span class="grk" title="Eleutherolakônôn">Ἐλευθερολακώνων</span>), +the supreme officer of which was a <span class="grk" title="stratêgos">στρατηγός</span> (general) assisted by a <span class="grk" title="tamias">ταμίας</span> (treasurer). Augustus seems to have reorganized the league in some way, for Pausanias (iii. 21, 6) speaks of him as its founder. Of the twenty-four cities which @@ -10553,7 +10515,7 @@ subsequently it was overrun by large bands of Slavic immigrants. Throughout the middle ages it was the scene of vigorous struggles between Slavs, Byzantines, Franks, Turks and Venetians, the chief memorials of which are the ruined strongholds of Mistra -near Sparta, Geráki (anc. Geronthrae) and Monemvasia, “the +near Sparta, Geráki (anc. Geronthrae) and Monemvasia, “the Gibraltar of Greece,” on the east coast, and Passava near Gythium. A prominent part in the War of Independence was played by the Maniates or Mainotes, the inhabitants of the @@ -10570,13 +10532,13 @@ Gythium respectively. Pop. of Laconia (1907) 61,522.</p> was carried on only sporadically. Besides the excavations undertaken at Sparta, Gythium and Vaphio (<i>q.v.</i>), the most important were those at the Apollo sanctuary of Amyclae carried out by -C. Tsountas in 1890 (<span class="grk" title="Ephêm. archaiol.">Ἐφημ. ἀρχαιολ.</span> 1892, 1 ff.) and in 1904 by -A. Furtwängler. At Kampos, on the western side of Taygetus, +C. Tsountas in 1890 (<span class="grk" title="Ephêm. archaiol.">Ἐφημ. ἀρχαιολ.</span> 1892, 1 ff.) and in 1904 by +A. Furtwängler. At Kampos, on the western side of Taygetus, a small domed tomb of the “Mycenean” age was excavated in 1890 and yielded two leaden statuettes of great interest, while at Arkina a similar tomb of poor construction was unearthed in the previous year. Important inscriptions were found at -Geronthrae (Geráki), notably five long fragments of the <i>Edictum +Geronthrae (Geráki), notably five long fragments of the <i>Edictum Diocletiani</i>, and elsewhere. In 1904 the British Archaeological school at Athens undertook a systematic investigation of the ancient and medieval remains in Laconia. The results, of which @@ -10594,19 +10556,19 @@ works cited under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sparta</a></span>, see W. (Leipzig, 1868), ii. 102 ff.; Strabo viii. 5; Pausanias iii. and the commentary in J. G. Frazer, <i>Pausanias’s Description of Greece</i> (London, 1898), vol. iii.; W. G. Clark, <i>Peloponnesus</i> (London, 1858), -155 ff.; E. P. Boblaye, <i>Recherches géographiques sur les ruines de la -Morée</i> (Paris, 1835), 65 ff.; L. Ross, <i>Reisen im Peloponnes</i> (Berlin, -1841), 158 ff.; W. Vischer, <i>Erinnerungen u. Eindrücke aus Griechenland</i> +155 ff.; E. P. Boblaye, <i>Recherches géographiques sur les ruines de la +Morée</i> (Paris, 1835), 65 ff.; L. Ross, <i>Reisen im Peloponnes</i> (Berlin, +1841), 158 ff.; W. Vischer, <i>Erinnerungen u. Eindrücke aus Griechenland</i> (Basel, 1857), 360 ff.; J. B. G. M. Bory de Saint-Vincent, -<i>Relation du voyage de l’expédition scientifique de Morée</i> (Paris, 1836), -cc. 9, 10; G. A. Blouet, <i>Expédition scientifique de Morée</i> (Paris, +<i>Relation du voyage de l’expédition scientifique de Morée</i> (Paris, 1836), +cc. 9, 10; G. A. Blouet, <i>Expédition scientifique de Morée</i> (Paris, 1831-1838), ii. 58 ff.; A. Philippson, <i>Der Peloponnes</i> (Berlin, 1892), 155 ff.; <i>Annual</i> of British School at Athens, 1907-8.</p> -<p><i>Inscriptions</i>: Le Bas-Foucart, <i>Voyage archéologique: Inscriptions</i>, +<p><i>Inscriptions</i>: Le Bas-Foucart, <i>Voyage archéologique: Inscriptions</i>, Nos. 160-290; <i>Inscriptiones Graecae</i>, v.; <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum</i> (Berlin, 1828), Nos. 1237-1510; Collitz-Bechtel, <i>Sammlung -der griech. Dialektinschriften</i>, iii. 2 (Göttingen, 1898), Nos. 4400-4613. +der griech. Dialektinschriften</i>, iii. 2 (Göttingen, 1898), Nos. 4400-4613. <i>Coins</i>: <i>Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum: Peloponnesus</i> (London, 1887), xlvi. ff., 121 ff.; B. V. Head, <i>Historia Numorum</i> (Oxford, 1887), 363 ff. <i>Cults</i>: S. Wide, <i>Lakonische Kulte</i> @@ -10688,17 +10650,17 @@ still exist in the so-called Arco di Giambella.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1802-1861), French -ecclesiastic and orator, was born at Recey-sur-Ource, Côte d’Or, +ecclesiastic and orator, was born at Recey-sur-Ource, Côte d’Or, on the 12th of March 1802. He was the second of a family of -four, the eldest of whom, Jean Théodore (1801-1870), travelled +four, the eldest of whom, Jean Théodore (1801-1870), travelled a great deal in his youth, and was afterwards professor of comparative -anatomy at Liége. For several years Lacordaire studied +anatomy at Liége. For several years Lacordaire studied at Dijon, showing a marked talent for rhetoric; this led him to the pursuit of law, and in the local debates of the advocates he attained a high celebrity. At Paris he thought of going on the stage, but was induced to finish his legal training and began to practise as an advocate (1817-1824). Meanwhile Lamennais -had published his <i>Essai sur l’Indifférence</i>,—a passionate plea +had published his <i>Essai sur l’Indifférence</i>,—a passionate plea for Christianity and in particular for Roman Catholicism as necessary for the social progress of mankind. Lacordaire read, and his ardent and believing nature, weary of the theological @@ -10718,9 +10680,9 @@ instruction, opened an independent free school. It was closed in two days, and the teachers fined before the court of peers. These reverses Lacordaire accepted with quiet dignity; but they brought his relationship with Lamennais to a close. He now -began the course of Christian <i>conférences</i> at the Collége Stanislas, +began the course of Christian <i>conférences</i> at the Collége Stanislas, which attracted the art and intellect of Paris; thence he went -to Nôtre Dame, and for two years his sermons were the delight +to Nôtre Dame, and for two years his sermons were the delight of the capital. His presence was dignified, his voice capable of indefinite modulation, and his gestures animated and attractive. He still preached the gospel of the people’s sovereignty in civil @@ -10732,11 +10694,11 @@ to take a chair in the university of Louvain, but he declined both appointments, and in 1838 set out for Rome, revolving a great scheme for christianizing France by restoring the old order of St Dominic. At Rome he donned the habit of the preaching -friar and joined the monastery of Minerva. His <i>Mémoire pour -le rétablissement en France de l’ordre des frères prêcheurs</i> was then +friar and joined the monastery of Minerva. His <i>Mémoire pour +le rétablissement en France de l’ordre des frères prêcheurs</i> was then prepared and dedicated to his country; at the same time he collected the materials for the life of St Dominic. When he -returned to France in 1841 he resumed his preaching at Nôtre +returned to France in 1841 he resumed his preaching at Nôtre Dame, but he had small success in re-establishing the order of which he ever afterwards called himself monk. His funeral orations are the most notable in their kind of any delivered @@ -10748,35 +10710,35 @@ superiors for declaring himself a republican, he resigned his seat ten days after his election. In 1850 he went back to Rome and was made provincial of the order, and for four years laboured to make the Dominicans a religious power. In 1854 he retired -to Sorrèze to become director of a private lyceum, and remained +to Sorrèze to become director of a private lyceum, and remained there until he died on the 22nd of November 1861. He had been elected to the Academy in the preceding year.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The best edition of Lacordaire’s works is the <i>Œuvres complètes</i> +<p>The best edition of Lacordaire’s works is the <i>Œuvres complètes</i> (6 vols., Paris, 1872-1873), published by C. Poussielgue, which contains, -besides the <i>Conférences</i>, the exquisitely written, but uncritical, -Vie de Saint Dominique and the beautiful <i>Lettres à un jeune homme sur -la vie chrétienne</i>. For a complete list of his published correspondence -see L. Petit de Julleville’s <i>Histoire de la langue et de la littérature -française</i>, vii. 598.</p> +besides the <i>Conférences</i>, the exquisitely written, but uncritical, +Vie de Saint Dominique and the beautiful <i>Lettres à un jeune homme sur +la vie chrétienne</i>. For a complete list of his published correspondence +see L. Petit de Julleville’s <i>Histoire de la langue et de la littérature +française</i>, vii. 598.</p> <p>The authoritative biography is by Ch. Foisset (2 vols., Paris, 1870). -The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Père B. Chocarne’s -<i>Vie du Père Lacordaire</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1866—English translation +The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Père B. Chocarne’s +<i>Vie du Père Lacordaire</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1866—English translation by A. Th. Drane, London, 1868); see also Count C. F. R. de Montalembert’s -<i>Un Moine au XIX<span class="sp">ème</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1862—English translation +<i>Un Moine au XIX<span class="sp">ème</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1862—English translation by F. Aylward, London, 1867). There are lives by Mrs H. L. -Lear (London, 1882); by A. Ricard (1 vol. of <i>L’École menaisienne</i>, +Lear (London, 1882); by A. Ricard (1 vol. of <i>L’École menaisienne</i>, Paris, 1883); by Comte O. d’Haussonville (1 vol., <i>Les Grands -écrivains Français</i> series, Paris, 1897); by Gabriel Ledos (Paris, +écrivains Français</i> series, Paris, 1897); by Gabriel Ledos (Paris, 1901); by Dora Greenwell (1867); and by the duc de Broglie -(Paris, 1889). The <i>Correspondance inédite du Père Lacordaire</i>, edited +(Paris, 1889). The <i>Correspondance inédite du Père Lacordaire</i>, edited by H. Villard (Paris, 1870), may also be consulted. See also Saint-Beuve -in <i>Causeries de Lundi</i>. Several of Lacordaire’s <i>Conférences</i> have +in <i>Causeries de Lundi</i>. Several of Lacordaire’s <i>Conférences</i> have been translated into English, among these being, <i>Jesus Christ</i> (1869); <i>God</i> (1870); <i>God and Man</i> (1872); <i>Life</i> (1875). For a theological -study of the <i>Conférences de Nôtre Dame</i>, see an article by Bishop +study of the <i>Conférences de Nôtre Dame</i>, see an article by Bishop J. C. Hedley in <i>Dublin Review</i> (October 1870).</p> </div> @@ -10792,29 +10754,29 @@ tin, with prepared varnishes which will give them a golden, bronze-like or other lustre as desired. Throughout the East Indies the lacquering of wooden surfaces is universally practised, large articles of household furniture, as well as small boxes, trays, -toys and papier-mâché objects, being decorated with bright-coloured +toys and papier-mâché objects, being decorated with bright-coloured and variegated lacquer. The lacquer used in the East is, in general, variously coloured sealing-wax, applied, smoothed and polished in a heated condition; and by various devices intricate marbled, streaked and mottled designs are produced. Quite distinct from these, and from all other forms of lacquer, -is the lacquer work of Japan, for which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Japan</a></span>, § <i>Art</i>.</p> +is the lacquer work of Japan, for which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Japan</a></span>, § <i>Art</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1751-1824), French politician and writer, was born at Metz on the 9th of October 1751. He practised as a barrister in Paris; and under the -Revolution was elected as a <i>député suppléant</i> in the Constituent +Revolution was elected as a <i>député suppléant</i> in the Constituent Assembly, and later as deputy in the Legislative Assembly. He belonged to the moderate party known as the “Feuillants,” but after the 10th of August 1792 he ceased to take part in public life. In 1803 he became a member of the Institute, taking the place of La Harpe. Under the Restoration he was -one of the chief editors of the <i>Minerve française</i>; he wrote also +one of the chief editors of the <i>Minerve française</i>; he wrote also an essay, <i>Sur le 18 Brumaire</i> (1799), some <i>Fragments politiques -et littéraires</i> (1817), and a treatise <i>Des partis politiques et des -factions de la prétendue aristocratie d’aujourd’hui</i> (1819).</p> +et littéraires</i> (1817), and a treatise <i>Des partis politiques et des +factions de la prétendue aristocratie d’aujourd’hui</i> (1819).</p> <p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">Jean Charles Dominique de Lacretelle</span>, called Lacretelle <i>le jeune</i> (1766-1855), historian and @@ -10824,25 +10786,25 @@ Revolution belonged, like him, to the party of the <i>Feuillants</i>. He was for some time secretary to the duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, the celebrated philanthropist, and afterwards joined the staff of the <i>Journal de Paris</i>, then managed by Suard, and -where he had as colleagues André Chénier and Antoine Roucher. +where he had as colleagues André Chénier and Antoine Roucher. He made no attempt to hide his monarchist sympathies, and this, together with the way in which he reported the trial and death of Louis XVI., brought him in peril of his life; to avoid this <span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>54</span> danger he enlisted in the army, but after Thermidor he returned to Paris and to his newspaper work. He was involved in the -royalist movement of the 13th Vendémiaire, and condemned to +royalist movement of the 13th Vendémiaire, and condemned to deportation after the 18th Fructidor; but, thanks to powerful influence, he was left “forgotten” in prison till after the 18th Brumaire, -when he was set at liberty by Fouché. Under the Empire -he was appointed a professor of history in the <i>Faculté des lettres</i> -of Paris (1809), and elected as a member of the Académie française +when he was set at liberty by Fouché. Under the Empire +he was appointed a professor of history in the <i>Faculté des lettres</i> +of Paris (1809), and elected as a member of the Académie française (1811). In 1827 he was prime mover in the protest made by the French Academy against the minister Peyronnet’s law on the press, which led to the failure of that measure, but this step cost him, as it did Villemain, his post as <i>censeur royal</i>. Under Louis Philippe he devoted himself entirely to his teaching and literary -work. In 1848 he retired to Mâcon; but there, as in Paris, he +work. In 1848 he retired to Mâcon; but there, as in Paris, he was the centre of a brilliant circle, for he was a wonderful causeur, and an equally good listener, and had many interesting experiences to recall. He died on the 26th of March 1855. @@ -10851,11 +10813,11 @@ politician of purely contemporary interest.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>J. C. Lacretelle’s chief work is a series of histories of the 18th -century, the Revolution and its sequel: <i>Précis historique de la -Révolution française</i>, appended to the history of Rabaud St Étienne, +century, the Revolution and its sequel: <i>Précis historique de la +Révolution française</i>, appended to the history of Rabaud St Étienne, and partly written in the prison of La Force (5 vols., 1801-1806); -<i>Histoire de France pendant le XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (6 vols., 1808); <i>Histoire -de l’Assemblée Constituante</i> (2 vols., 1821); <i>L’Assemblée Législative</i> +<i>Histoire de France pendant le XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (6 vols., 1808); <i>Histoire +de l’Assemblée Constituante</i> (2 vols., 1821); <i>L’Assemblée Législative</i> (1822); <i>La Convention Nationale</i> (3 vols., 1824-1825); <i>Histoire de France depuis la restauration</i> (1829-1835); <i>Histoire du consulat et de l’empire</i> (4 vols., 1846). The author was a moderate and fair-minded @@ -10870,23 +10832,23 @@ testimony must be accepted with caution.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1863-  ), -French mineralogist and geologist, was born at Mâcon, Saône et +<p><span class="bold">LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1863-  ), +French mineralogist and geologist, was born at Mâcon, Saône et Loire, on the 4th of February 1863. He took the degree of -D. ès Sc. in Paris, 1889. In 1893 he was appointed professor of +D. ès Sc. in Paris, 1889. In 1893 he was appointed professor of mineralogy at the <i>Jardin des Plantes</i>, Paris, and in 1896 director -of the mineralogical laboratory in the <i>École des Hautes Études</i>. +of the mineralogical laboratory in the <i>École des Hautes Études</i>. He paid especial attention to minerals connected with volcanic phenomena and igneous rocks, to the effects of metamorphism, and to mineral veins, in various parts of the world, notably in the Pyrenees. In his numerous contributions to scientific journals he dealt with the mineralogy and petrology of Madagascar, and published an elaborate and exhaustive volume -on the eruptions in Martinique, <i>La Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions</i> +on the eruptions in Martinique, <i>La Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions</i> (1904). He also issued an important work entitled <i>Mineralogie de la France et de ses Colonies</i> (1893-1898), and other works -in conjunction with A. Michel Lévy. He was elected member -of the Académie des sciences in 1904.</p> +in conjunction with A. Michel Lévy. He was elected member +of the Académie des sciences in 1904.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -10899,8 +10861,8 @@ extremely prolific and varied writer. Over twenty historical romances alone came from his pen, and he also wrote a variety of serious historical works, including a history of Napoleon III., and the life and times of the Tsar Nicholas I. of Russia. He -was the joint author with Ferdinand Séré of a five-volume work, -<i>Le Moyen Âge et La Renaissance</i> (1847), a standard work on the +was the joint author with Ferdinand Séré of a five-volume work, +<i>Le Moyen Âge et La Renaissance</i> (1847), a standard work on the manners, customs and dress of those times, the chief merit of which lies in the great number of illustrations it contains. He also wrote many monographs on phases of the history of culture. @@ -10916,18 +10878,18 @@ Arsenal Library, Paris. He died in Paris on the 16th of October <p><span class="bold">LACROMA<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (Serbo-Croatian <i>Lokrum</i>), a small island in the Adriatic Sea, forming part of the Austrian kingdom of Dalmatia, and lying less than half a mile south of Ragusa. Though barely -1¼ m. in length, Lacroma is remarkable for the beauty of its subtropical +1¼ m. in length, Lacroma is remarkable for the beauty of its subtropical vegetation. It was a favourite resort of the archduke Maximilian, afterwards emperor of Mexico (1832-1867), who -restored the château and park; and of the Austrian crown prince +restored the château and park; and of the Austrian crown prince Rudolph (1857-1889). It contains an 11th-century Benedictine monastery; and the remains of a church, said by a very doubtful local tradition to have been founded by Richard I. of England -(1157-1199), form part of the imperial château.</p> +(1157-1199), form part of the imperial château.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See <i>Lacroma</i>, an illustrated descriptive work by the crown princess -Stéphanie (afterwards Countess Lónyay) (Vienna, 1892).</p> +Stéphanie (afterwards Countess Lónyay) (Vienna, 1892).</p> </div> @@ -10947,7 +10909,7 @@ Quincy, the La Crosse & South Eastern, and the Green Bay & Western railways, and by river steamboat lines on the Mississippi. The river is crossed here by a railway bridge (C.M. & St P.) and wagon bridge. The city is situated on a prairie, extending back -from the river about 2½ m. to bluffs, from which fine views may +from the river about 2½ m. to bluffs, from which fine views may be obtained. Among the city’s buildings and institutions are the Federal Building (1886-1887), the County Court House (1902-1903), the Public Library (with more than 20,000 volumes), @@ -10975,7 +10937,7 @@ products, copper and iron products, cooperage, pearl buttons, brooms and brushes. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $8,139,432, as against $7,676,581 in 1900. The city owns and operates its water-works system, the wagon -bridge (1890-1891) across the Mississippi, and a toll road (2½ m. +bridge (1890-1891) across the Mississippi, and a toll road (2½ m. long) to the village of La Crescent, Minn.</p> <p>Father Hennepin and du Lhut visited or passed the site of @@ -10992,7 +10954,7 @@ curved netted stick, to a bishop’s crozier. It was borrowed from the Indian tribes of North America. In the old days, according to Catlin, the warriors of two tribes in their war-paint would form the sides, often 800 or 1000 strong. The goals were -placed from 500 yds. to ½ m. apart with practically no side +placed from 500 yds. to ½ m. apart with practically no side boundaries. A solemn dance preceded the game, after which the ball was tossed into the air and the two sides rushed to catch it on “crosses,” similar to those now in use. The medicine-men @@ -11040,7 +11002,7 @@ A match between England and Ireland was played annually from <div class="condensed"> <p>Implements of the Game.—The ball is made of india-rubber sponge, -weighs between 4¼ and 4½ oz., and measures 8 to 8½ in. in circumference. +weighs between 4¼ and 4½ oz., and measures 8 to 8½ in. in circumference. The “crosse” is formed of a light staff of hickory wood, the top being bent to form a kind of hook, from the tip of which a thong is drawn and made fast to the shaft about 2 ft. from the other end. @@ -11104,7 +11066,7 @@ by George Catlin.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1731-1794), Spanish dramatist, was +<p><span class="bold">LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1731-1794), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on the 28th of March 1731. He was a clerk in the ministry of finance, and is the author of three hundred <i>sainetes</i>, little farcical sketches of city life, written to be played between @@ -11114,8 +11076,8 @@ best of his pieces, such as <i>Las Tertulias de Madrid</i>, are delightful specimens of satiric observation.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See E. Cotardo y Mori, <i>Don Ramón de la Cruz y sus obras</i> (Madrid, -1899); C. Cambronero, <i>Sainetes inédites existentes en la Biblioteca +<p>See E. Cotardo y Mori, <i>Don Ramón de la Cruz y sus obras</i> (Madrid, +1899); C. Cambronero, <i>Sainetes inédites existentes en la Biblioteca Municipal de Madrid</i> (Madrid, 1900).</p> </div> @@ -11142,7 +11104,7 @@ of the Scriptures was equally slight. About 290 he went to Nicomedia in Bithynia while Diocletian was emperor, to teach rhetoric, but found little work to do in that Greek-speaking city. In middle age he became a convert to Christianity, and -about 306 he went to Gaul (Trèves) on the invitation of Constantine +about 306 he went to Gaul (Trèves) on the invitation of Constantine the Great, and became tutor to his eldest son, Crispus. He probably died about 340.</p> @@ -11218,8 +11180,8 @@ guides to the copious literature on the subject.</p> acids are known, differing from each other in the position occupied by the hydroxyl group in the molecule; they are known respectively as α-hydroxypropionic acid (fermentation or -inactive lactic acid), CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, and β-hydroxypropionic -acid (hydracrylic acid), (<i>q.v.</i>), CH<span class="su">2</span>(OH)·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H. Although +inactive lactic acid), CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, and β-hydroxypropionic +acid (hydracrylic acid), (<i>q.v.</i>), CH<span class="su">2</span>(OH)·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H. Although on structural grounds there should be only two hydroxypropionic acids, as a matter of fact four lactic acids are known. The third isomer (sarcolactic acid) is found in meat extract (J. v. Liebig), @@ -11255,14 +11217,14 @@ the reduction of pyruvic acid with sodium amalgam; or from acetaldehyde by the cyanhydrin reaction (J. Wislicenus, <i>Ann.</i>, 1863, 128, p. 13)</p> -<p class="center">CH<span class="su">3</span>·CHO → CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CN → CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CO<span class="su">2</span>H.</p> +<p class="center">CH<span class="su">3</span>·CHO → CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CN → CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CO<span class="su">2</span>H.</p> -<p class="noind">It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1.2485 (15°/4°), and +<p class="noind">It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1.2485 (15°/4°), and decomposes on distillation under ordinary atmospheric pressure; -but at very low pressures (about 1 mm.) it distils at about 85° C., and -then sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about 18° C. It +but at very low pressures (about 1 mm.) it distils at about 85° C., and +then sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about 18° C. It possesses the properties both of an acid and of an alcohol. When -heated with dilute sulphuric acid to 130° C., under pressure, it is +heated with dilute sulphuric acid to 130° C., under pressure, it is resolved into formic acid and acetaldehyde. Chromic acid oxidizes it to acetic acid and carbon dioxide; potassium permanganate oxidizes it to pyruvic acid; nitric acid to oxalic acid, and a mixture @@ -11272,7 +11234,7 @@ and hydriodic acid into propionic acid.</p> <p><i>Lactide</i>, <img style="width:179px; height:35px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img56a.jpg" alt="" />, a crystalline solid, of melting-point -124° C., is one of the products obtained by the distillation of lactic +124° C., is one of the products obtained by the distillation of lactic acid.</p> </div> @@ -11284,7 +11246,7 @@ carboxyl groups, this reaction taking place when the hydroxy acid is liberated from its salts by a mineral acid. The α and β-hydroxy acids do not form lactones, the tendency for lactone formation appearing first with the γ-hydroxy acids, thus γ-hydroxybutyric -acid, CH<span class="su">2</span>OH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, yields γ-butyrolactone, +acid, CH<span class="su">2</span>OH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, yields γ-butyrolactone, <img style="width:177px; height:34px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img56b.jpg" alt="" /> These compounds may also be prepared by the distillation of the γ-halogen fatty acids, or by @@ -11301,11 +11263,11 @@ They are easily saponified by the caustic alkalis.</p> hydrazine hydrate, see R. Meyer, <i>Ber.</i>, 1893, 26, p. 1273; L. Gattermann, <i>Ber.</i>, 1899, 32, p. 1133, E. Fischer, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 1889.</p> -<p>γ-<i>Butyrolactone</i> is a liquid which boils at 206° C. It is miscible +<p>γ-<i>Butyrolactone</i> is a liquid which boils at 206° C. It is miscible with water in all proportions and is volatile in steam, γ-<i>valerolactone</i>, <img style="width:198px; height:29px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img56c.jpg" alt="" />, -is a liquid which boils at 207-208° +is a liquid which boils at 207-208° C. δ-<i>lactones</i> are also known, and may be prepared by distilling the δ-chlor acids.</p> </div> @@ -11326,21 +11288,21 @@ of the 17th century. A peculiar interest attaches to <i>El Infamador</i>, a play in which the character of Leucino anticipates the classic type of Don Juan. As an initiative force, Cueva is a figure of great historical importance; his epic poem, <i>La Conquista -de Bética</i> (1603), shows his weakness as an artist. The last -work to which his name is attached is the <i>Ejemplar poético</i> +de Bética</i> (1603), shows his weakness as an artist. The last +work to which his name is attached is the <i>Ejemplar poético</i> (1609), and he is believed to have died shortly after its publication.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See the editions of <i>Saco de Roma</i> and <i>El Infamador</i>, by E. de Ochoa, -in the <i>Tesoro del teatro español</i> (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285; -and of <i>Ejemplar poético</i>, by J. J. López de Sedano, in the <i>Parnaso -español</i>, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, “Juan de la Cueva et -son Ejemplar poético” in the <i>Acta Universitatis Lundensis</i> (Lund, -1904), vol. xxix.; “Poèmes inédits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de +in the <i>Tesoro del teatro español</i> (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285; +and of <i>Ejemplar poético</i>, by J. J. López de Sedano, in the <i>Parnaso +español</i>, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, “Juan de la Cueva et +son Ejemplar poético” in the <i>Acta Universitatis Lundensis</i> (Lund, +1904), vol. xxix.; “Poèmes inédits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de Sannio,)” edited by F. A. Wulff, in the <i>Acta Universitatis Lundensis</i> (Lund, 1886-1887), vol. xxiii.; F. A. Wulff, “De la rimas de Juan -de la Cueva, Primera Parte” in the <i>Homenaje á Menéndez y Pelayo</i> +de la Cueva, Primera Parte” in the <i>Homenaje á Menéndez y Pelayo</i> (Madrid, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 143-148.</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. F.-K.)</div> @@ -11362,7 +11324,7 @@ the French invaded Burgundy in 1636, harrying the French <span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>57</span> troops from the castles of Montaigu and St Laurent-la-Roche, and devastating the frontier districts of Bresse and Bugey with -fire and sword (1640-1642). In the first invasion of Franche-Comté +fire and sword (1640-1642). In the first invasion of Franche-Comté by Louis XIV. in 1668 Lacuzon was unable to make any effective resistance, but he played an important part in Louis’s second invasion. In 1673 he defended Salins for some time; @@ -11500,7 +11462,7 @@ Euander and Telecles. Apart from a number of anecdotes distinguished rather for sarcastic humour than for probability, Lacydes exists for us as a man of refined character, a hard worker and an accomplished orator. According to Athenaeus (x. 438) -and Diogenes Laërtius (iv. 60) he died from excessive drinking, +and Diogenes Laërtius (iv. 60) he died from excessive drinking, but the story is discredited by the eulogy of Eusebius (<i>Praep. Ev.</i> xiv. 7), that he was in all things moderate.</p> @@ -11516,7 +11478,7 @@ The name Ladak, commonly but less correctly spelt Ladakh, and sometimes Ladag, belongs primarily to the broad valley of the upper Indus in West Tibet, but includes several surrounding districts in political connexion with it; the present limits are -between 75° 40′ and 80° 30′ E., and between 32° 25′ and 36° N. +between 75° 40′ and 80° 30′ E., and between 32° 25′ and 36° N. It is bounded N. by the Kuenlun range and the slopes of the Karakoram, N.W. and W. by the dependency of Baltistan or Little Tibet, S.W. by Kashmir proper, S. by British Himalayan @@ -11539,7 +11501,7 @@ The former predominates in the east, diminishing gradually westwards. There, although the vast alluvial deposits which once filled the valley to a remarkably uniform height of about 15,000 ft. have left their traces on the mountain sides, they have -undergone immense denudation, and their débris now forms +undergone immense denudation, and their débris now forms secondary deposits, flat bottoms or shelving slopes, the only spots available for cultivation or pasture. These masses of alluvium are often either metamorphosed to a subcrystalline @@ -11601,20 +11563,20 @@ crossing the divide between these rivers north of Lake Manasarowar.</p> <p>The observatory at Leh is the most elevated observatory in Asia. “The atmosphere of the Indus valley is remarkably clear and transparent, and the heat of the sun is very great. -There is generally a difference of more than 60° between the reading +There is generally a difference of more than 60° between the reading of the exposed sun thermometer <i>in vacuo</i> and the air temperature in the shade, and this difference has occasionally exceeded -90°.... The mean annual temperature at Leh is 40°, that of -the coldest months (January and February) only 18° and 19°, +90°.... The mean annual temperature at Leh is 40°, that of +the coldest months (January and February) only 18° and 19°, but it rises rapidly from February to July, in which month it -reaches 62° with a mean diurnal maximum of 80° both in that -month and August, and an average difference of 29° or 30° +reaches 62° with a mean diurnal maximum of 80° both in that +month and August, and an average difference of 29° or 30° between the early morning and afternoon. The mean highest -temperature of the year is 90°, varying between 84° and 93° +temperature of the year is 90°, varying between 84° and 93° in the twelve years previous to 1893. On the other hand, in the winter the minimum thermometer falls occasionally below -0°, and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme -range of recorded temperature is therefore not less than 110°. +0°, and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme +range of recorded temperature is therefore not less than 110°. The air is as dry as Quetta, and rather more uniformly so.... The amount of rain and snow is insignificant. The average rain (and snow) fall is only 2.7 in. in the year.”<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The winds are @@ -11664,7 +11626,7 @@ it to be a great trade mart.</p> <p>The adjoining territory of Baltistan forms the west extremity of Tibet, whose natural limits here are the Indus from its abrupt southward -bend in 74° 45′ E., and the mountains to the north and west, +bend in 74° 45′ E., and the mountains to the north and west, separating a comparatively peaceful Tibetan population from the fiercer Aryan tribes beyond. Mahommedan writers about the 16th century speak of Baltistan as “Little Tibet,” and of Ladakh as @@ -11808,7 +11770,7 @@ as a guarantee for their safe delivery to the consignee. (See <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LADISLAUS [I.],<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> Saint (1040-1095), king of Hungary, the -son of Béla I., king of Hungary, and the Polish princess Richeza, +son of Béla I., king of Hungary, and the Polish princess Richeza, was born in Poland, whither his father had sought refuge, but was recalled by his elder brother Andrew I. to Hungary (1047) and brought up there. He succeeded to the throne @@ -11833,9 +11795,9 @@ the 11th century. Ladislaus himself had fought valiantly in his youth against the Pechenegs, and to defend the land against the Kumanians, who now occupied Moldavia and Wallachia as far as the Alt, he built the fortresses of Turnu-Severin and -Gyula Féhervár. He also planted in Transylvania the Szeklers, +Gyula Féhervár. He also planted in Transylvania the Szeklers, the supposed remnant of the ancient Magyars from beyond the -Dnieper, and founded the bishoprics of Nagy-Várad, or Gross-Wardein, +Dnieper, and founded the bishoprics of Nagy-Várad, or Gross-Wardein, and of Agram, as fresh foci of Catholicism in south Hungary and the hitherto uncultivated districts between the Drave and the Save. He subsequently conquered Croatia, @@ -11848,8 +11810,8 @@ saint long before his canonization. A whole cycle of legends is associated with his name.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See J. Babik, <i>Life of St Ladislaus</i> (Hung.) (Eger, 1892); György -Pray, <i>Dissertatio de St Ladislao</i> (Pressburg, 1774); Antál Gánóczy, +<p>See J. Babik, <i>Life of St Ladislaus</i> (Hung.) (Eger, 1892); György +Pray, <i>Dissertatio de St Ladislao</i> (Pressburg, 1774); Antál Gánóczy, <i>Diss. hist. crit. de St Ladislao</i> (Vienna, 1775).</p> </div> <div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> @@ -11879,14 +11841,14 @@ itself a large party was in favour of the Germans, but the civil wars which raged between the two factions from 1276 to 1278 did not prevent Ladislaus, at the head of 20,000 Magyars and Kumanians, from co-operating with Rudolph of Habsburg in the -great battle of Durnkrüt (August 26th, 1278), which destroyed, +great battle of Durnkrüt (August 26th, 1278), which destroyed, once for all, the empire of the Přemyslidae. A month later a papal legate arrived in Hungary to inquire into the conduct of the king, who was accused by his neighbours, and many of his own subjects, of adopting the ways of his Kumanian kinsfolk and thereby undermining Christianity. Ladislaus was not really a pagan, or he would not have devoted his share of the spoil of -Durnkrüt to the building of the Franciscan church at Pressburg, +Durnkrüt to the building of the Franciscan church at Pressburg, nor would he have venerated as he did his aunt St Margaret. Political enmity was largely responsible for the movement against him, yet the result of a very careful investigation (1279-1281) @@ -11897,7 +11859,7 @@ Christians; wore, and made his court wear, Kumanian dress; surrounded himself with Kumanian concubines, and neglected and ill-used his ill-favoured Neapolitan consort. He was finally compelled to take up arms against his Kumanian friends, whom -he routed at Hodmézö (May 1282) with fearful loss; but, +he routed at Hodmézö (May 1282) with fearful loss; but, previously to this, he had arrested the legate, whom he subsequently attempted to starve into submission, and his conduct generally was regarded as so unsatisfactory that, after repeated @@ -11916,8 +11878,8 @@ at Korosszeg by the Kumanians, who never forgave him for deserting them.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Karoly Szabó, <i>Ladislaus the Cumanian</i> (Hung.), (Budapest, -1886); and Acsády, <i>History of the Hungarian Realm</i>, i. 2 (Budapest, +<p>See Karoly Szabó, <i>Ladislaus the Cumanian</i> (Hung.), (Budapest, +1886); and Acsády, <i>History of the Hungarian Realm</i>, i. 2 (Budapest, 1903). The latter is, however, too favourable to Ladislaus.</p> </div> <div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> @@ -11926,13 +11888,13 @@ deserting them.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LADISLAUS V.<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1440-1457), king of Hungary and Bohemia, the only son of Albert, king of Hungary, and Elizabeth, daughter -of the emperor Sigismund, was born at Komárom on the 22nd +of the emperor Sigismund, was born at Komárom on the 22nd of February 1440, four months after his father’s death, and was hence called Ladislaus Posthumus. The estates of Hungary had already elected Wladislaus III. of Poland their king, but Ladislaus’s mother caused the holy crown to be stolen from its guardians at Visegrad, and compelled the primate to crown the -infant king at Székesfejérvár on the 15th of May 1440; whereupon, +infant king at Székesfejérvár on the 15th of May 1440; whereupon, for safety’s sake, she placed the child beneath the guardianship of his uncle the emperor Frederick III. On the death of Wladislaus III. (Nov. 10th, 1444), Ladislaus V. was elected @@ -11951,7 +11913,7 @@ defensive preparations of the great Hunyadi, and fled from the country on the tidings of the siege of Belgrade. On the death of Hunyadi he made Cillei governor of Hungary at the diet of Futtak (October 1456), and when that traitor paid with his life -for his murderous attempt on Laszló Hunyadi at Belgrade, +for his murderous attempt on Laszló Hunyadi at Belgrade, Ladislaus procured the decapitation of young Hunyadi (16th of March 1457), after a mock trial which raised such a storm in Hungary that the king fled to Prague, where he died suddenly @@ -11961,8 +11923,8 @@ supposed to have been poisoned by his political opponents in Bohemia.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See F. Palacky, <i>Zeugenverhör über den Tod König Ladislaus von -Ungarn u. Böhmen</i> (Prague, 1856); Ignacz Acsády, <i>History of the +<p>See F. Palacky, <i>Zeugenverhör über den Tod König Ladislaus von +Ungarn u. Böhmen</i> (Prague, 1856); Ignacz Acsády, <i>History of the Hungarian State</i> (Hung.), vol. i. (Budapest, 1903).</p> </div> @@ -11973,10 +11935,10 @@ French man of letters, was born at Lamothe (Haute-Marne). While still young he removed to Paris, where the rest of his life was spent in literary activity. He died on the 26th of November 1791. His numerous works include <i>Contes philosophiques -et moraux</i> (1765), <i>Les Deux Âges du goût et du génie +et moraux</i> (1765), <i>Les Deux Âges du goût et du génie sous Louis XIV. et sous Louis XV.</i> (1769), a parallel and contrast, in which the decision is given in favour of the latter; <i>L’Espagne -littéraire</i> (1774); <i>Éloge de Voltaire</i> (1779) and <i>Éloge de Montaigne</i> +littéraire</i> (1774); <i>Éloge de Voltaire</i> (1779) and <i>Éloge de Montaigne</i> (1781).</p> @@ -11989,9 +11951,9 @@ of Bari, Madi, Kuku and other Nilotic Negroes. The enclave is bounded S.E. by the north-west shores of Albert Nyanza—as far south as the port of Mahagi—E. by the western bank of the Nile (Bahr-el-Jebel) to the point where the river is intersected -by 5° 30′ N., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the -Nile westward to 30° E. This meridian forms the west frontier -to 4° N., the frontier thence being the Nile-Congo watershed to +by 5° 30′ N., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the +Nile westward to 30° E. This meridian forms the west frontier +to 4° N., the frontier thence being the Nile-Congo watershed to the point nearest to Mahagi and from that point direct to Albert Nyanza.</p> @@ -12004,12 +11966,12 @@ direction. One chain, the Kuku Mountains (average height 2000 ft.), approaches close to the Nile and presents, as seen from the river, several apparently isolated peaks. At other places these mountains form precipices which stretch in a continuous -line like a huge wall. From Dufile in 3° 34′ N. to below the -Bedden Rapids in 4° 40′ N. the bed of the Nile is much obstructed +line like a huge wall. From Dufile in 3° 34′ N. to below the +Bedden Rapids in 4° 40′ N. the bed of the Nile is much obstructed and the river throughout this reach is unnavigable (see Nile). Below the Bedden Rapids rises the conical hill of Rejaf, and north of that point the Nile valley becomes flat. Ranges of hill, -however, are visible farther westwards, and a little north of 5° N. +however, are visible farther westwards, and a little north of 5° N. is Jebel Lado, a conspicuous mountain 2500 ft. high and some 12 m. distant from the Nile. It has given its name to the district, being the first hill seen from the Nile in the ascent of some @@ -12056,7 +12018,7 @@ May of the same year Great Britain granted to Leopold II., as sovereign of the Congo State, a lease of large areas lying west of the upper Nile inclusive of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Fashoda. Pressed however by France, Leopold II. agreed to occupy only -that part of the leased area east of 30° E. and south of 5° 30′ N., +that part of the leased area east of 30° E. and south of 5° 30′ N., and in this manner the actual limits of the Lado Enclave, as it was thereafter called, were fixed. Congo State forces had penetrated to the Nile valley as early as 1891, but it was not @@ -12066,21 +12028,21 @@ occupation of the Lado Enclave was assured. After the withdrawal of the French from Fashoda, Leopold II. revived (1899) his claim to the whole of the area, leased to him in 1894. In this claim he was unsuccessful, and the lease, by a new agreement -made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>, § 5). +made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>, § 5). The king however retained the enclave, with the stipulation that six months after the termination of his reign it should be handed over to the Anglo-Sudanese government (see <i>Treaty Series</i>, No. 4, 1906).</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Le Mouvement géographique</i> (Brussels) <i>passim</i>, and especially +<p>See <i>Le Mouvement géographique</i> (Brussels) <i>passim</i>, and especially articles in the 1910 issues.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LADOGA<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (formerly <span class="sc">Nevo</span>), a lake of northern Russia, between -59° 56′ and 61° 46′ N., and 29° 53′ and 32° 50′ E., surrounded +59° 56′ and 61° 46′ N., and 29° 53′ and 32° 50′ E., surrounded by the governments of St Petersburg and Olonets, and of Viborg in Finland. It has the form of a quadrilateral, elongated from N.W. to S.E. Its eastern and southern shores are flat and @@ -12105,7 +12067,7 @@ afford a variety of granites and crystalline slates of the Laurentian system, whilst Valamo island is made up of a rock which Russian geologists describe as orthoclastic hypersthenite. The granite and marble of Serdobol, and the sandstone of Putilovo, are much used -for buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkäranta +for buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkäranta mine are exported.</p> <p>No fewer than seventy rivers enter Ladoga, pouring into it the @@ -12120,9 +12082,9 @@ corner into the Gulf of Finland, rolling down its broad channel 104,000 cubic ft. of water per second.</p> <p>The water of Ladoga is very pure and cold; in May the surface -temperature does not exceed 36° Fahr., and even in August it reaches -only 50° and 53°, the average yearly temperature of the air at -Valamo being 36.8°. The lake begins to freeze in October, but it is +temperature does not exceed 36° Fahr., and even in August it reaches +only 50° and 53°, the average yearly temperature of the air at +Valamo being 36.8°. The lake begins to freeze in October, but it is only about the end of December that it is frozen in its deeper parts; and it remains ice-bound until the end of March, though broad icefields continue to float in the middle of the lake until broken up by @@ -12152,17 +12114,17 @@ two directions from St Petersburg—to the monasteries of Konnevitz and Valamo, and to the mouth of the Svir, whence they go up that river to Lake Onega and Petrozavodsk; and small vessels transport timber, firewood, planks, iron, kaolin, granite, marble, fish, hay and -various small wares from the northern shore to Schlüsselburg, and +various small wares from the northern shore to Schlüsselburg, and thence to St Petersburg. Navigation on the lake being too dangerous for small craft, canals with an aggregate length of 104 m. were dug in 1718-1731, and others in 1861-1886 having an aggregate length of 101 m. along its southern shore, uniting with the Neva at -Schlüsselburg the mouths of the rivers Volkhov, Syas and Svir, all +Schlüsselburg the mouths of the rivers Volkhov, Syas and Svir, all links in the elaborate system of canals which connect the upper Volga with the Gulf of Finland.</p> <p>The population (35,000) on the shores of the lake is sparse, and the -towns—Schlüsselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga +towns—Schlüsselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga (4144); Kexholm (1325) and Serdobol—are small. The monasteries of Valamo, founded in 992, on the island of the same name, and Konnevskiy, on Konnevitz island, founded in 1393, are visited every @@ -12172,8 +12134,8 @@ year by many thousands of pilgrims.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LADY<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hlaéfdige</i>, Mid. Eng. <i>láfdi</i>, <i>lāvedi</i>; the first part -of the word is <i>hláf</i>, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding <i>hláford</i>, +<p><span class="bold">LADY<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hlaéfdige</i>, Mid. Eng. <i>láfdi</i>, <i>lāvedi</i>; the first part +of the word is <i>hláf</i>, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding <i>hláford</i>, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in “dough”; the sense development from bread-kneader, bread-maker, to the ordinary meaning, though @@ -12185,7 +12147,7 @@ The primary meaning of mistress of a household is, if not obsolete, in present usage only a vulgarism. The special use of the word as a title of the Virgin Mary, usually “Our Lady,” represents the Lat. <i>Domina Nostra</i>. In Lady Day and Lady Chapel the -word is properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. <i>hlaéfdigan</i>. +word is properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. <i>hlaéfdigan</i>. As a title of nobility the uses of “lady” are mainly paralleled by those of “lord.” It is thus a less formal alternative to the full title giving the specific rank, of marchioness, countess, viscountess @@ -12222,15 +12184,15 @@ It is the general word for any woman of a certain social position <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LADYBANK,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 5½ m. -S.W. of Cupar by the North British railway, ½ m. from the left +<p><span class="bold">LADYBANK,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 5½ m. +S.W. of Cupar by the North British railway, ½ m. from the left bank of the Eden. Pop. (1901) 1340. Besides having a station on the main line to Dundee, it is also connected with Perth and Kinross and is a railway junction of some importance and possesses a locomotive depot. It is an industrial centre, linen weaving, coal mining and malting being the principal industries. <span class="sc">Kettle</span>, a village 1 m. S., has prehistoric barrows and a fort. -At <span class="sc">Collessie</span>, 2½ m. N. by W., a standing stone, a mound and +At <span class="sc">Collessie</span>, 2½ m. N. by W., a standing stone, a mound and traces of ancient camps exist, while urns and coins have been found. Between the parishes of Collessie and Monimail the boundary line takes the form of a crescent known as the Bow @@ -12576,8 +12538,8 @@ Laevius Milissus there referred to is the same person. Definite references do not occur before the 2nd century (Fronto, <i>Ep. ad M. Caes.</i> i. 3; Aulus Gellius, <i>Noct. Att.</i> ii. 24, xii. 10, xix. 9; Apuleius, <i>De magia</i>, 30; Porphyrion, <i>Ad Horat. carm.</i> iii. 1, 2). -Some sixty miscellaneous lines are preserved (see Bährens, -<i>Fragm. poët. rom.</i> pp. 287-293), from which it is difficult to see +Some sixty miscellaneous lines are preserved (see Bährens, +<i>Fragm. poët. rom.</i> pp. 287-293), from which it is difficult to see how ancient critics could have regarded him as the master of Ovid or Catullus. Gellius and Ausonius state that he composed an <i>Erotopaegnia</i>, and in other sources he is credited with <i>Adonis</i>, @@ -12587,20 +12549,20 @@ They were not serious poems, but light and often licentious skits on the heroic myths.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See O. Ribbeck, <i>Geschichte der römischen Dichtung</i>, i.; H. de la -Ville de Mirmont, <i>Étude biographique et littéraire sur le poète Laevius</i> +<p>See O. Ribbeck, <i>Geschichte der römischen Dichtung</i>, i.; H. de la +Ville de Mirmont, <i>Étude biographique et littéraire sur le poète Laevius</i> (Paris, 1900), with critical ed. of the fragments, and remarks on -vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, <i>Poëtarum latinorum reliquiae</i> -(Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, <i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</i> +vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, <i>Poëtarum latinorum reliquiae</i> +(Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, <i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</i> (2nd ed.), pt. i. p. 163; W. Teuffel, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i> (Eng. -tr.), § 150, 4; a convenient summary in F. Plessis, <i>La Poésie latine</i> +tr.), § 150, 4; a convenient summary in F. Plessis, <i>La Poésie latine</i> (1909), pp. 139-142.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAEVULINIC ACID<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (β-acetopropionic acid), C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">3</span> or -CH<span class="su">3</span>CO·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose, +CH<span class="su">3</span>CO·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose, inulin, starch, &c., by boiling them with dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acids. It may be synthesized by condensing sodium acetoacetate with monochloracetic ester, the acetosuccinic ester @@ -12612,7 +12574,7 @@ produced being then hydrolysed with dilute hydrochloric acid <p class="noind">It may also be prepared by heating the anhydride of γ-methyloxy-glutaric acid with concentrated sulphuric acid, and by oxidation of methyl heptenone and of geraniol. It crystallizes in plates, -which melt at 32.5-33° C. and boil at 148-149° (15 mm.) (A. +which melt at 32.5-33° C. and boil at 148-149° (15 mm.) (A. Michael, <i>Jour. prak. Chem.</i>, 1891 [2], 44, p. 114). It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and water. The acid, when distilled slowly, is decomposed and yields α- and β-angelica lactones. @@ -12620,7 +12582,7 @@ When heated with hydriodic acid and phosphorus, it yields n-valeric acid; and with iodine and caustic soda solution it gives iodoform, even in the cold. With hydroxylamine it yields an oxime, which by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid -rearranges itself to N-methylsuccinimide [CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO]<span class="su">2</span>N·CH<span class="su">3</span>.</p> +rearranges itself to N-methylsuccinimide [CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO]<span class="su">2</span>N·CH<span class="su">3</span>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -12692,7 +12654,7 @@ del 1848-1849</i>, and in 1851-1852 his <i>Storia d’ Italia dal 1815 al 1848</i>, in 6 vols. He returned to Italy in 1854 and settled at Turin, and in 1856 he founded the <i>Piccolo Corriere d’ Italia</i>, an organ which had great influence in propagating the political -sentiments of the Società Nazionale Italiana, of which he ultimately +sentiments of the Società Nazionale Italiana, of which he ultimately was chosen president. With Daniele Manin (<i>q.v.</i>), one of the founders of that society, he advocated the unity of Italy under Victor Emmanuel even before Cavour, with whom at @@ -12721,7 +12683,7 @@ of Bourbon. He served under Marshal Boucicaut in Italy, and on his return to France after the evacuation of Genoa in 1409 became seneschal of the Bourbonnais. In the English wars he was with John I., 4th duke of Bourbon, at the capture of Soubise -in 1413, and of Compiègne in 1415. The duke then made him +in 1413, and of Compiègne in 1415. The duke then made him lieutenant-general in Languedoc and Guienne. He failed to defend Caen and Falaise in the interest of the dauphin (afterwards Charles VII.) against Henry V. in 1417 and 1418, but in @@ -12731,14 +12693,14 @@ Peur, duke of Burgundy. A series of successes over the English and Burgundians on the Loire was rewarded in 1420 with the government of Dauphiny and the office of marshal of France. La Fayette commanded the Franco-Scottish troops at the battle -of Baugé (1422), though he did not, as has been sometimes stated, +of Baugé (1422), though he did not, as has been sometimes stated, slay Thomas, duke of Clarence, with his own hand. In 1424 he was taken prisoner by the English at Verneuil, but was released shortly afterwards, and fought with Joan of Arc at Orleans and Patay in 1429. The marshal had become a member of the grand council of Charles VII., and with the exception of a short disgrace about 1430, due to the ill-will of Georges de la -Trémouille, he retained the royal favour all his life. He took +Trémouille, he retained the royal favour all his life. He took an active part in the army reform initiated by Charles VII., and the establishment of military posts for the suppression of brigandage. His last campaign was against the English in Normandy @@ -12771,20 +12733,20 @@ of her death in January 1665 Mlle de La Fayette was superior of a convent of her order which she had founded at Chaillot.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Mémoires de Madame de Motteville</i>; Victor Cousin, <i>Madame de -Hautefort</i> (Paris, 1868); L’Abbé Sorin, <i>Louise-Angèle de La Fayette</i> +<p>See <i>Mémoires de Madame de Motteville</i>; Victor Cousin, <i>Madame de +Hautefort</i> (Paris, 1868); L’Abbé Sorin, <i>Louise-Angèle de La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1893).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA FAYETTE, MARIE JOSEPH PAUL YVES ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER.<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> -<span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1757-1834), was born at the château +<span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1757-1834), was born at the château of Chavaniac in Auvergne, France, on the 6th of September 1757. His father<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> was killed at Minden in 1759, and his mother and his grandfather died in 1770, and thus at the age of thirteen he was left an orphan with a princely fortune. He married at sixteen -Marie Adrienne Françoise de Noailles (d. 1807), daughter of the +Marie Adrienne Françoise de Noailles (d. 1807), daughter of the duc d’Ayen and granddaughter of the duc de Noailles, then one of the most influential families in the kingdom. La Fayette chose to follow the career of his father, and entered the Guards.</p> @@ -12909,7 +12871,7 @@ the British West India Islands, of which he had been appointed chief of staff, and a formidable fleet assembled at Cadiz, but the armistice signed on the 20th of January 1783 between the belligerents put a stop to the expedition. He had been promoted -(1781) to the rank of <i>maréchal de camp</i> (major-general) +(1781) to the rank of <i>maréchal de camp</i> (major-general) in the French army, and he received every token of regard from his sovereign and his countrymen. He visited the United States again in 1784, and remained some five months as the @@ -12929,7 +12891,7 @@ part in its proceedings. He was chosen vice-president of the National Assembly, and on the 11th of July 1789 presented a declaration of rights, modelled on Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence in 1776. On the 15th of July, the second day of -the new régime, La Fayette was chosen by acclamation colonel-general +the new régime, La Fayette was chosen by acclamation colonel-general of the new National Guard of Paris. He also proposed the combination of the colours of Paris, red and blue, and the royal white, into the famous tricolour cockade of modern France @@ -12955,17 +12917,17 @@ command of the National Guard of the kingdom. In May he founded the “Society of 1789” which afterwards became the Feuillants Club. He took a prominent part in the celebration of July 14, 1790, the first anniversary of the destruction of the -Bastille. After suppressing an <i>émeute</i> in April 1791 he again +Bastille. After suppressing an <i>émeute</i> in April 1791 he again resigned his commission, and was again compelled to retain it. He was the friend of liberty as well as of order, and when Louis XVI. fled to Varennes he issued orders to stop him. Shortly afterwards he was made lieutenant-general in the army. He -commanded the troops in the suppression of another <i>émeute</i>, +commanded the troops in the suppression of another <i>émeute</i>, on the occasion of the proclamation of the constitution (September 18, 1791), after which, feeling that his task was done, he retired into private life. This did not prevent his friends from proposing him for the mayoralty of Paris in -opposition to Pétion.</p> +opposition to Pétion.</p> <p>When, in December 1791, three armies were formed on the western frontier to attack Austria, La Fayette was placed in @@ -12976,7 +12938,7 @@ in danger, he definitely opposed himself to the further advance of the Jacobin party, intending eventually to use his army for the restoration of a limited monarchy. On the 19th of August 1792 the Assembly declared him a traitor. He was compelled -to take refuge in the neutral territory of Liége, whence as one +to take refuge in the neutral territory of Liége, whence as one of the prime movers in the Revolution he was taken and held as a prisoner of state for five years, first in Prussian and afterwards in Austrian prisons, in spite of the intercession of @@ -13032,7 +12994,7 @@ He was away from Paris during the revolution of July 1830, but he took an active part in the “campaign of the banquets,” which led up to that of 1848. He died in December of the next year. His son, <span class="sc">Oscar Thomas Gilbert Motier de La Fayette</span> -(1815-1881), was educated at the École Polytechnique, and +(1815-1881), was educated at the École Polytechnique, and served as an artillery officer in Algeria. He entered the Chamber of Representatives in 1846 and voted, like his father, with the extreme Left. After the revolution of 1848 he received a post @@ -13047,18 +13009,18 @@ opinions. He was one of the secretaries of the Constituent Assembly, and a member of the senate from 1876 to 1888.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Mémoires historiques et pièces authentiques sur M. de La -Fayette pour servir à l’histoire des révolutions</i> (Paris, An II., 1793-1794); -B. Sarrans, <i>La Fayette et la Révolution de 1830, histoire des -choses et des hommes de Juillet</i> (Paris, 1834); <i>Mémoires, correspondances +<p>See <i>Mémoires historiques et pièces authentiques sur M. de La +Fayette pour servir à l’histoire des révolutions</i> (Paris, An II., 1793-1794); +B. Sarrans, <i>La Fayette et la Révolution de 1830, histoire des +choses et des hommes de Juillet</i> (Paris, 1834); <i>Mémoires, correspondances et manuscrits de La Fayette</i>, published by his family (6 vols., -Paris, 1837-1838); Regnault Warin, <i>Mémoires pour servir à la vie du -général La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1824); A. Bardoux, <i>La jeunesse de La -Fayette</i> (Paris, 1892); <i>Les Dernières années de La Fayette</i> (Paris, -1893); E. Charavaray, <i>Le Général La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1895); A. -Levasseur, <i>La Fayette en Amérique</i> 1824 (Paris, 1829); J. Cloquet, -<i>Souvenirs de la vie privée du général La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1836); Max -Büdinger, <i>La Fayette in Oesterreich</i> (Vienna, 1898); and M. M. +Paris, 1837-1838); Regnault Warin, <i>Mémoires pour servir à la vie du +général La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1824); A. Bardoux, <i>La jeunesse de La +Fayette</i> (Paris, 1892); <i>Les Dernières années de La Fayette</i> (Paris, +1893); E. Charavaray, <i>Le Général La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1895); A. +Levasseur, <i>La Fayette en Amérique</i> 1824 (Paris, 1829); J. Cloquet, +<i>Souvenirs de la vie privée du général La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1836); Max +Büdinger, <i>La Fayette in Oesterreich</i> (Vienna, 1898); and M. M. Crawford, <i>The Wife of Lafayette</i> (1908); Bayard Tuckerman, <i>Life of Lafayette</i> (New York, 1889); Charlemagne Tower, <i>The Marquis de La Fayette in the American Revolution</i> (Philadelphia, 1895).</p> @@ -13079,14 +13041,14 @@ baptized in Paris, on the 18th of March 1634. Her father, Marc Pioche de la Vergne, commandant of Havre, died when she was sixteen, and her mother seems to have been more occupied with her own than her daughter’s interests. Mme de la Vergne -married in 1651 the chevalier de Sévigné, and Marie thus became -connected with Mme de Sévigné, who was destined to be a +married in 1651 the chevalier de Sévigné, and Marie thus became +connected with Mme de Sévigné, who was destined to be a lifelong friend. She studied Greek, Latin and Italian, and inspired -in one of her tutors, Gilles de Ménage, an enthusiastic +in one of her tutors, Gilles de Ménage, an enthusiastic admiration which he expressed in verse in three or four languages. -Marie married in 1655 François Motier, comte de La Fayette. +Marie married in 1655 François Motier, comte de La Fayette. They lived on the count’s estates in Auvergne, according to her -own account (in a letter to Ménage) quite happily; but after +own account (in a letter to Ménage) quite happily; but after the birth of her two sons her husband disappeared so effectually that it was long supposed that he died about 1660, though he really lived until 1683. Mme de La Fayette had returned @@ -13098,12 +13060,12 @@ died Mme de La Fayette received the sincerest sympathy. Her first novel, <i>La Princesse de Montpensier</i>, was published anonymously in 1662; <i>Zayde</i> appeared in 1670 under the name of J. R. de Segrais; and in 1678 her masterpiece, <i>La Princesse -de Clèves</i>, also under the name of Segrais. The history of the -modern novel of sentiment begins with the <i>Princesse de Clèves</i>. -The interminable pages of Mlle de Scudéry with the <i>Précieuses</i> +de Clèves</i>, also under the name of Segrais. The history of the +modern novel of sentiment begins with the <i>Princesse de Clèves</i>. +The interminable pages of Mlle de Scudéry with the <i>Précieuses</i> and their admirers masquerading as Persians or ancient Romans had already been discredited by the burlesques of Paul Scarron -and Antoine Furetière. It remained for Mme de La Fayette +and Antoine Furetière. It remained for Mme de La Fayette to achieve the more difficult task of substituting something more satisfactory than the disconnected episodes of the <i>roman comique</i>. This she accomplished in a story offering in its shortness @@ -13114,8 +13076,8 @@ They act in a perfectly reasonable way and their motives are analysed with the finest discrimination. No doubt the semi-autobiographical character of the material partially explains Mme de La Fayette’s refusal to acknowledge the book. Contemporary -critics, even Mme de Sévigné amongst them, found -fault with the avowal made by Mme de Clèves to her husband. +critics, even Mme de Sévigné amongst them, found +fault with the avowal made by Mme de Clèves to her husband. In answer to these criticisms, which her anonymity prevented her from answering directly, Mme de La Fayette wrote her last novel, the <i>Comtesse de Tende</i>.</p> @@ -13136,10 +13098,10 @@ Madame de La Fayette died on the 25th of May 1692.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Sainte-Beuve, <i>Portraits de femmes</i>; the comte d’Haussonville, -<i>Madame de La Fayette</i> (1891), in the series of <i>Grands écrivains -français</i>; M. de Lescure’s notice prefixed to an edition of the -<i>Princesse de Clèves</i> (1881); and a critical edition of the historical -memoirs by Eugène Asse (1890). See also L. Rea, <i>Marie Madeleine, +<i>Madame de La Fayette</i> (1891), in the series of <i>Grands écrivains +français</i>; M. de Lescure’s notice prefixed to an edition of the +<i>Princesse de Clèves</i> (1881); and a critical edition of the historical +memoirs by Eugène Asse (1890). See also L. Rea, <i>Marie Madeleine, comtesse de La Fayette</i> (1908).</p> </div> @@ -13207,34 +13169,34 @@ Lafayette was incorporated.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA FERTÉ<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span>, the name of a number of localities in France, -differentiated by agnomens. La Ferté Imbault (department of -Loir-et-Cher) was in the possession of Jacques d’Étampes +<p><span class="bold">LA FERTÉ<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span>, the name of a number of localities in France, +differentiated by agnomens. La Ferté Imbault (department of +Loir-et-Cher) was in the possession of Jacques d’Étampes (1590-1668), marshal of France and ambassador in England, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>68</span> -who was known as the marquis of La Ferté Imbault. La -Ferté Nabert (the modern La Ferté Saint Aubin, department +who was known as the marquis of La Ferté Imbault. La +Ferté Nabert (the modern La Ferté Saint Aubin, department of Loiret) was acquired in the 16th century by the house of Saint Nectaire (corrupted to Senneterre), and erected into a duchy -in the peerage of France (<i>duché-pairie</i>) in 1665 for Henri de Saint -Nectaire, marshal of France. It was called La Ferté Lowendal +in the peerage of France (<i>duché-pairie</i>) in 1665 for Henri de Saint +Nectaire, marshal of France. It was called La Ferté Lowendal after it had been acquired by Marshal Lowendal in 1748.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA FERTÉ-BERNARD<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span>, a town of western France, in the +<p><span class="bold">LA FERTÉ-BERNARD<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span>, a town of western France, in the department of Sarthe, on the Huisne, 27 m. N.E. of Le Mans, on the railway from Paris to that town. Pop. (1906) 4358. -La Ferté carries on cloth manufacture and flour-milling and -has trade in horses and cattle. Its church of Nôtre Dame has +La Ferté carries on cloth manufacture and flour-milling and +has trade in horses and cattle. Its church of Nôtre Dame has a choir (16th century) with graceful apse-chapels of Renaissance architecture and remarkable windows of the same period; the remainder of the church is in the Flamboyant Gothic style. The town hall occupies the superstructure and flanking towers of a fortified gateway of the 15th century.</p> -<p>La Ferté-Bernard owes its origin and name to a stronghold -(<i>fermeté</i>) built about the 11th century and afterwards held by +<p>La Ferté-Bernard owes its origin and name to a stronghold +(<i>fermeté</i>) built about the 11th century and afterwards held by the family of Bernard. In 1424 it did not succumb to the English troops till after a four months’ siege. It belonged in the 16th century to the family of Guise and supported the League, but @@ -13242,7 +13204,7 @@ was captured by the royal forces in 1590.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA FERTÉ-MILON<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span>, a town of northern France in the department +<p><span class="bold">LA FERTÉ-MILON<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span>, a town of northern France in the department of Aisne on the Ourcq, 47 m. W. by S. of Reims by rail. Pop. (1906) 1563. The town has imposing remains comprising one side flanked by four towers of an unfinished castle built @@ -13292,7 +13254,7 @@ Louis Philippe’s oath to the new constitution. The clamour of the Paris mob for the death of the imprisoned ministers of Charles X., which in October culminated in riots, induced the more moderate members of the government—including Guizot, -the duc de Broglie and Casimir-Périer—to hand over the +the duc de Broglie and Casimir-Périer—to hand over the administration to a ministry which, possessing the confidence of the revolutionary Parisians, should be in a better position to save the ministers from their fury. On the 5th of November, @@ -13330,82 +13292,82 @@ as long as he lived, but failed in 1848. He died in Paris on the <p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Apollinaire Antoine Maurice, comte d’Argout (1782-1858), afterwards reconciled to the July monarchy, and a member of the Laffitte -Casimir-Périer and Thiers cabinets.</p> +Casimir-Périer and Thiers cabinets.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAFFITTE, PIERRE<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1823-1903), French Positivist, was -born on the 21st of February 1823 at Béguey (Gironde). Residing +born on the 21st of February 1823 at Béguey (Gironde). Residing at Paris as a teacher of mathematics, he became a disciple of Comte, who appointed him his literary executor. On the schism of the Positivist body which followed Comte’s death, he was recognized as head of the section which accepted the full -Comtian doctrine; the other section adhering to Littré, who +Comtian doctrine; the other section adhering to Littré, who rejected the religion of humanity as inconsistent with the materialism of Comte’s earlier period. From 1853 Laffitte delivered Positivist lectures in the room formerly occupied by Comte in the rue Monsieur le Prince. He published <i>Les Grands -Types de l’humanité</i> (1875) and <i>Cours de philosophie première</i> +Types de l’humanité</i> (1875) and <i>Cours de philosophie première</i> (1889). In 1893 he was appointed to the new chair founded -at the Collège de France for the exposition of the general history +at the Collège de France for the exposition of the general history of science, and it was largely due to his inspiration that a statue to Comte was erected in the Place de la Sorbonne in 1902. He died on the 4th of January 1903.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA FLÈCHE<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span>, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement +<p><span class="bold">LA FLÈCHE<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span>, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Sarthe on the Loire, 31 m. S.S.W. of Le Mans by rail. Pop. (1906) town 7800; commune 10,663. -The chief interest of the town lies in the Prytanée, a famous +The chief interest of the town lies in the Prytanée, a famous school for the sons of officers, originally a college founded for the Jesuits in 1607 by Henry IV. The buildings, including a fine chapel, were erected from 1620 to 1653 and are surrounded by a park. A bronze statue of Henry IV. stands in the marketplace. -La Flèche is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal +La Flèche is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of first instance, and carries on tanning, flour-milling, and the manufacture of paper, starch, wooden shoes and gloves. It is an agricultural market.</p> -<p>The lords of La Flèche became counts of Maine about 1100, +<p>The lords of La Flèche became counts of Maine about 1100, but the lordship became separate from the county and passed in the 16th century to the family of Bourbon and thus to Henry IV.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1797-1873), French actor, was +<p><span class="bold">LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1797-1873), French actor, was born at Bordeaux on the 15th of May 1797. Abandoning his profession as assistant ship’s doctor in the navy, he went to Paris to study singing and acting. He had some experience at -a small theatre, and was preparing to appear at the Opéra +a small theatre, and was preparing to appear at the Opéra Comique when the director of the Vaudeville offered him an -engagement. Here he made his <i>début</i> in 1821 in <i>La Somnambule</i>, +engagement. Here he made his <i>début</i> in 1821 in <i>La Somnambule</i>, and his good looks and excellent voice soon brought him into <span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>69</span> -public favour. After several years at the Nouveautés and the +public favour. After several years at the Nouveautés and the Vaudeville, on the burning of the latter in 1838 he went to England, and married, at Gretna Green, Jenny Colon, from whom he was soon divorced. On his return to Paris he joined -the Variétés, where he acted for fifteen years in such plays as -<i>Le Chevalier de Saint Georges</i>, <i>Le Lion empaillé</i>, <i>Une dernière -conquête</i>, &c. Another engagement at the Vaudeville followed, -and one at the Gaiété, and he ended his brilliant career at the +the Variétés, where he acted for fifteen years in such plays as +<i>Le Chevalier de Saint Georges</i>, <i>Le Lion empaillé</i>, <i>Une dernière +conquête</i>, &c. Another engagement at the Vaudeville followed, +and one at the Gaiété, and he ended his brilliant career at the Gymnase in the part of the noble father in such plays as Les -<i>Vieux Garçons</i> and <i>Nos bons villageois</i>. He died in Paris on the +<i>Vieux Garçons</i> and <i>Nos bons villageois</i>. He died in Paris on the 19th of April 1873.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1621-1695), French poet, was -born at Château Thierry in Champagne, probably on the 8th of -July 1621. His father was Charles de La Fontaine, “maître -des eaux et forêts”—a kind of deputy-ranger—of the duchy of -Château Thierry; his mother was Françoise Pidoux. On +born at Château Thierry in Champagne, probably on the 8th of +July 1621. His father was Charles de La Fontaine, “maître +des eaux et forêts”—a kind of deputy-ranger—of the duchy of +Château Thierry; his mother was Françoise Pidoux. On both sides his family was of the highest provincial middle class, but was not noble; his father was also fairly wealthy. -Jean, the eldest child, was educated at the <i>collège</i> (grammar-school) +Jean, the eldest child, was educated at the <i>collège</i> (grammar-school) of Reims, and at the end of his school days he entered the Oratory in May 1641, and the seminary of Saint-Magloire in October of the same year; but a very short sojourn proved @@ -13414,7 +13376,7 @@ studied law, and is said to have been admitted as <i>avocat</i>, though there does not seem to be actual proof of this. He was, however, settled in life, or at least might have been so, somewhat early. In 1647 his father resigned his rangership in his favour, and -arranged a marriage for him with Marie Héricart, a girl of sixteen, +arranged a marriage for him with Marie Héricart, a girl of sixteen, who brought him twenty thousand livres, and expectations. She seems to have been both handsome and intelligent, but the two did not get on well together. There appears to be absolutely @@ -13425,12 +13387,12 @@ her is that she was a negligent housewife and an inveterate novel reader; La Fontaine himself was constantly away from home, was certainly not strict in point of conjugal fidelity, and was so bad a man of business that his affairs became involved -in hopeless difficulty, and a <i>séparation de biens</i> had to take +in hopeless difficulty, and a <i>séparation de biens</i> had to take place in 1658. This was a perfectly amicable transaction for the benefit of the family; by degrees, however, the pair, still without any actual quarrel, ceased to live together, and for the greater part of the last forty years of La Fontaine’s life he lived -in Paris while his wife dwelt at Château Thierry, which, however, +in Paris while his wife dwelt at Château Thierry, which, however, he frequently visited. One son was born to them in 1653, and was educated and taken care of wholly by his mother.</p> @@ -13459,7 +13421,7 @@ to him. In the same year he wrote a ballad, <i>Les Rieurs du Beau-Richard</i>, and this was followed by many small pieces of occasional poetry addressed to various personages from the king downwards. Fouquet soon incurred the royal displeasure, but -La Fontaine, like most of his literary protégés, was not unfaithful +La Fontaine, like most of his literary protégés, was not unfaithful to him, the well-known elegy <i>Pleurez, nymphes de Vaux</i>, being by no means the only proof of his devotion. Indeed it is thought not improbable that a journey to Limoges in 1663 in company @@ -13471,7 +13433,7 @@ to which they were not strictly entitled, and, some old edicts on the subject having been put in force, an informer procured a sentence against the poet fining him 2000 livres. He found, however, a new protector in the duke and still more in the -duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors at Château Thierry, +duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors at Château Thierry, and nothing more is heard of the fine. Some of La Fontaine’s liveliest verses are addressed to the duchess, Anne Mancini, the youngest of Mazarin’s nieces, and it is even probable that @@ -13483,7 +13445,7 @@ had been comparatively trivial, though much of his work was handed about in manuscript long before it was regularly published. It was about this time that the quartette of the Rue du Vieux Colombier, so famous in French literary history, was formed. -It consisted of La Fontaine, Racine, Boileau and Molière, the +It consisted of La Fontaine, Racine, Boileau and Molière, the last of whom was almost of the same age as La Fontaine, the other two considerably younger. Chapelle was also a kind of outsider in the coterie. There are many anecdotes, some pretty @@ -13499,7 +13461,7 @@ regularly commissioned and sworn in as gentleman to the duchess dowager of Orleans, and was installed in the Luxembourg. He still retained his rangership, and in 1666 we have something like a reprimand from Colbert suggesting that he should look -into some malpractices at Château Thierry. In the same year +into some malpractices at Château Thierry. In the same year appeared the second book of the <i>Contes</i>, and in 1668 the first six books of the <i>Fables</i>, with more of both kinds in 1671. In this latter year a curious instance of the docility with which the @@ -13510,7 +13472,7 @@ his situation, which had for some time been decidedly flourishing, showed signs of changing very much for the worse. The duchess of Orleans died, and he apparently had to give up his rangership, probably selling it to pay debts. But there was -always a providence for La Fontaine. Madame de la Sablière, +always a providence for La Fontaine. Madame de la Sablière, a woman of great beauty, of considerable intellectual power and of high character, invited him to make his home in her house, where he lived for some twenty years. He seems to have had @@ -13519,7 +13481,7 @@ devote himself to his two different lines of poetry, as well as to that of theatrical composition.</p> <p>In 1682 he was, at more than sixty years of age, recognized -as one of the first men of letters of France. Madame de Sévigné, +as one of the first men of letters of France. Madame de Sévigné, one of the soundest literary critics of the time, and by no means given to praise mere novelties, had spoken of his second collection of <i>Fables</i> published in the winter of 1678 as divine; and it is @@ -13541,12 +13503,12 @@ and the election was left pending. Another vacancy occurred, however, some months later, and to this Boileau was elected. The king hastened to approve the choice effusively, adding, “Vous pouvez incessamment recevoir La Fontaine, il a promis -d’être sage.” His admission was indirectly the cause of the +d’être sage.” His admission was indirectly the cause of the only serious literary quarrel of his life. A dispute took place -between the Academy and one of its members, Antoine Furetière, +between the Academy and one of its members, Antoine Furetière, on the subject of the latter’s French dictionary, which was decided to be a breach of the Academy’s corporate privileges. -Furetière, a man of no small ability, bitterly assailed those whom +Furetière, a man of no small ability, bitterly assailed those whom he considered to be his enemies, and among them La Fontaine, whose unlucky <i>Contes</i> made him peculiarly vulnerable, his second collection of these tales having been the subject of a @@ -13562,8 +13524,8 @@ of the last of his many hosts and protectors, Monsieur and Madame d’Hervart, and fell in love with a certain Madame Ulrich, a lady of some position but of doubtful character. This acquaintance was accompanied by a great familiarity with -Vendôme, Chaulieu and the rest of the libertine coterie of the -Temple; but, though Madame de la Sablière had long given +Vendôme, Chaulieu and the rest of the libertine coterie of the +Temple; but, though Madame de la Sablière had long given herself up almost entirely to good works and religious exercises, La Fontaine continued an inmate of her house until her death in 1693. What followed is told in one of the best known of @@ -13577,14 +13539,14 @@ M. Poucet, had brought him, not indeed to understand, but to acknowledge the impropriety of the <i>Contes</i>, and it is said that the destruction of a new play of some merit was demanded and submitted to as a proof of repentance. A pleasant story is told -of the young duke of Burgundy, Fénelon’s pupil, who was then +of the young duke of Burgundy, Fénelon’s pupil, who was then only eleven years old, sending 50 louis to La Fontaine as a present of his own motion. But, though La Fontaine recovered for the time, he was broken by age and infirmity, and his new hosts had to nurse rather than to entertain him, which they did very carefully and kindly. He did a little more work, completing his <i>Fables</i> among other things; but he did not survive -Madame de la Sablière much more than two years, dying on the +Madame de la Sablière much more than two years, dying on the 13th of April 1695, at the age of seventy-three. He was buried in the cemetery of the Holy Innocents. His wife survived him nearly fifteen years.</p> @@ -13592,7 +13554,7 @@ nearly fifteen years.</p> <p>The curious personal character of La Fontaine, like that of some other men of letters, has been enshrined in a kind of legend by literary tradition. At an early age his absence of mind and -indifference to business gave a subject to Tallemant des Réaux. +indifference to business gave a subject to Tallemant des Réaux. His later contemporaries helped to swell the tale, and the 18th century finally accepted it, including the anecdotes of his meeting his son, being told who he was, and remarking, “Ah, yes, I @@ -13602,15 +13564,15 @@ him to visit at his house just as before; of his going into company with his stockings wrong side out, &c., with, for a contrast, those of his awkwardness and silence, if not positive rudeness, in company. It ought to be remembered, as a comment on the -unfavourable description by La Bruyère, that La Fontaine was a -special friend and ally of Benserade, La Bruyère’s chief literary +unfavourable description by La Bruyère, that La Fontaine was a +special friend and ally of Benserade, La Bruyère’s chief literary enemy. But after all deductions much will remain, especially when it is remembered that one of the chief authorities for these anecdotes is Louis Racine, a man who possessed intelligence and moral worth, and who received them from his father, La Fontaine’s attached friend for more than thirty years. Perhaps the best worth recording of all these stories is one of the Vieux -Colombier quartette, which tells how Molière, while Racine +Colombier quartette, which tells how Molière, while Racine and Boileau were exercising their wits upon “le bonhomme” or “le bon” (by both which titles La Fontaine was familiarly known), remarked to a bystander, “Nos beaux esprits ont beau @@ -13630,9 +13592,9 @@ It was thought by contemporary judges who were both competent and friendly that La Fontaine attempted too many styles, and there is something in the criticism. His dramatic efforts are especially weak. The best pieces usually published under his name—<i>Ragotin</i>, -<i>Le Florentin</i>, <i>La Coupe enchantée</i>, were originally fathered not by -him but by Champmeslé, the husband of the famous actress who -captivated Racine and Charles de Sévigné. His avowed work was +<i>Le Florentin</i>, <i>La Coupe enchantée</i>, were originally fathered not by +him but by Champmeslé, the husband of the famous actress who +captivated Racine and Charles de Sévigné. His avowed work was chiefly in the form of opera, a form of no great value at its best. <i>Psyche</i> has all the advantages of its charming story and of La Fontaine’s style, but it is perhaps principally interesting nowadays @@ -13646,7 +13608,7 @@ but its best things, such as the description of night—</p> though as in this case sometimes very beautiful conceits. The elegies, the epistles, the epigrams, the ballades, contain many things which would be very creditable to a minor poet or a writer of vers de -société, but even if they be taken according to the wise rule of modern +société, but even if they be taken according to the wise rule of modern criticism, each in its kind, and judged simply according to their rank in that kind, they fall far below the merits of the two great collections of verse narratives which have assured La Fontaine’s immortality.</p> @@ -13664,7 +13626,7 @@ a writer who does not choose indecent subjects from a deliberate knowledge that they are considered indecent, and with a deliberate desire to pander to a vicious taste. No one who followed him in the style can claim this excuse; he can, and the way in which contemporaries -of stainless virtue such as Madame de Sévigné speak of his work +of stainless virtue such as Madame de Sévigné speak of his work shows that, though the new public opinion was growing up, it was not finally accepted. In the <i>Contes</i> La Fontaine for the most part attempts little originality of theme. He takes his stories (varying @@ -13677,12 +13639,12 @@ certain drawbacks. They are not penetrated by the half pagan ardour for physical beauty and the delights of sense which animates and excuses the early Italian Renaissance. They have not the subtle mixture of passion and sensuality, of poetry and appetite, which -distinguishes the work of Marguerite and of the Pléiade. They are +distinguishes the work of Marguerite and of the Pléiade. They are emphatically <i>contes pour rire</i>, a genuine expression of the <i>esprit gaulois</i> of the fabliau writers and of Rabelais, destitute of the grossness of envelope which had formerly covered that spirit. A comparison -of “La Fiancée du roi de Garbe” with its original in -Boccaccio (especially if the reader takes M. Émile Montégut’s admirable +of “La Fiancée du roi de Garbe” with its original in +Boccaccio (especially if the reader takes M. Émile Montégut’s admirable essay as a commentary) will illustrate better than anything else what they have and what they have not. Some writers have pleaded hard for the admission of actual passion of the poetical sort @@ -13725,15 +13687,15 @@ like Lamartine, denied that the moral tone of the whole is as fresh and healthy as its literary interest is vivid. The book has therefore naturally become the standard reading book of French both at home and abroad, a position which it shares in verse with the -<i>Télémaque</i> of Fénelon in prose. It is no small testimony to its merit +<i>Télémaque</i> of Fénelon in prose. It is no small testimony to its merit that not even this use or misuse has interfered with its popularity.</p> <p>The general literary character of La Fontaine is, with allowance made for the difference of subject, visible equally in the <i>Fables</i> and in the <i>Contes</i>. Perhaps one of the hardest sayings in French literature for an English student is the dictum of Joubert to the effect that -“<i>Il y a dans La Fontaine une plénitude de poésie qu’on ne trouve nulle -part dans les autres auteurs français.</i>” The difficulty arises from the +“<i>Il y a dans La Fontaine une plénitude de poésie qu’on ne trouve nulle +part dans les autres auteurs français.</i>” The difficulty arises from the ambiguity of the terms. For inventiveness of fancy and for diligent observation of the rules of art La Fontaine deserves, if not the first, almost the first place among French poets. In his hands the oldest @@ -13745,10 +13707,10 @@ his licences in rhyme and orthography, were merely ingenious devices for the sake of easy writing, intended to evade the trammels of the stately couplet and <i>rimes difficiles</i> enjoined by Boileau. Lamartine in the attack already mentioned affects contempt of the “vers -boiteux, disloqués, inégaux, sans symmétrie ni dans l’oreille ni sur la +boiteux, disloqués, inégaux, sans symmétrie ni dans l’oreille ni sur la page.” This opinion may be said to have been finally exploded by the most accurate metrical critic and one of the most skilful metrical -practitioners that France has ever had, Théodore de Banville; and +practitioners that France has ever had, Théodore de Banville; and it is only surprising that it should ever have been entertained by any professional maker of verse. La Fontaine’s irregularities are strictly regulated, his cadences carefully arranged, and the whole effect may @@ -13775,9 +13737,9 @@ never likely to be surpassed.</p> <p>La Fontaine did not during his life issue any complete edition of his works, nor even of the two greatest and most important divisions of them. The most remarkable of his separate publications have -already been noticed. Others were the <i>Poëme de la captivité de St +already been noticed. Others were the <i>Poëme de la captivité de St Malc</i> (1673), one of the pieces inspired by the Port-Royalists, the -<i>Poëme du Quinquina</i> (1692), a piece of task work also, though of a +<i>Poëme du Quinquina</i> (1692), a piece of task work also, though of a very different kind, and a number of pieces published either in small pamphlets or with the works of other men. Among the latter may be singled out the pieces published by the poet with the works of @@ -13789,24 +13751,24 @@ and published as <i>Œuvres diverses</i> (1729). During the 18th century two of the most magnificent illustrated editions ever published of any poet reproduced the two chief works of La Fontaine. The <i>Fables</i> were illustrated by Oudry (1755-1759), the <i>Contes</i> by Eisen -(1762). This latter under the title of “Edition des Fermiers-Généraux” +(1762). This latter under the title of “Edition des Fermiers-Généraux” fetches a high price. During the first thirty years of the 19th century Walckenaer, a great student of French 17th-century classics, published for the house of Didot three successive editions of La Fontaine, the last (1826-1827) being perhaps entitled to the rank of the standard edition, as his <i>Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de La Fontaine</i> is the standard biography and bibliography. The later -editions of M. Marty-Laveaux in the <i>Bibliothèque elzévirienne</i>, A. -Pauly in the <i>Collection des classiques françaises</i> of M. Lemerre and +editions of M. Marty-Laveaux in the <i>Bibliothèque elzévirienne</i>, A. +Pauly in the <i>Collection des classiques françaises</i> of M. Lemerre and L. Moland in that of M. Garnier supply in different forms all that can be wished. The second is the handsomest, the third, which is complete, perhaps the most generally useful. Editions, selections, translations, &c., of the <i>Fables</i>, especially for school use, are innumerable; but an illustrated edition published by the <i>Librairie des Bibliophiles</i> (1874) deserves to be mentioned as not unworthy of its 18th-century -predecessors. The works of M. Grouchy, <i>Documents inédits sur +predecessors. The works of M. Grouchy, <i>Documents inédits sur La Fontaine</i> (1893); of G. Lafenestre, <i>Jean de La Fontaine</i> (1895); -and of Émile Faguet, <i>Jean de La Fontaine</i> (1900), should be +and of Émile Faguet, <i>Jean de La Fontaine</i> (1900), should be mentioned.</p> </div> <div class="author">(G. Sa.)</div> @@ -13814,13 +13776,13 @@ mentioned.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Bart.</span> (1807-1864), -Canadian statesman and judge, third son of Antoine Ménard +Canadian statesman and judge, third son of Antoine Ménard LaFontaine (1772-1813) and Marie-J-Fontaine Bienvenue, was born at Boucherville in the province of Quebec on the 4th of -October 1807. LaFontaine was educated at the Collège de -Montréal under the direction of the Sulpicians, and was called +October 1807. LaFontaine was educated at the Collège de +Montréal under the direction of the Sulpicians, and was called to the bar of the province of Lower Canada on the 18th of August -1829. He married firstly Adèle, daughter of A. Berthelot of +1829. He married firstly Adèle, daughter of A. Berthelot of Quebec; and, secondly, Jane, daughter of Charles Morrison, of Berthier, by whom he had two sons. In 1830 he was elected a member of the House of Assembly for the county of Terrebonne, @@ -13864,7 +13826,7 @@ law; he reasoned closely and presented his conclusions with directness. He was upright in his conduct, sincerely attached to the traditions of his race, and laboured conscientiously to establish responsible government in Canada. His principal works are: <i>L’Analyse de l’ordonnance -du conseil spécial sur les bureaux d’hypothèques</i> (Montreal, 1842); +du conseil spécial sur les bureaux d’hypothèques</i> (Montreal, 1842); <i>Observations sur les questions seigneuriales</i> (Montreal, 1854); see <i>LaFontaine</i>, by A. DeCelles (Toronto, 1906).</p> </div> @@ -13903,7 +13865,7 @@ he died on the 13th of December 1716.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1827-1891), German biblical scholar and orientalist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of -November 1827. His real name was Bötticher, Lagarde being +November 1827. His real name was Bötticher, Lagarde being his mother’s name. At Berlin (1844-1846) and Halle (1846-1847) he studied theology, philosophy and oriental languages. In 1852 his studies took him to London and Paris. In 1854 he @@ -13912,7 +13874,7 @@ interrupt his biblical studies. He edited the <i>Didascalia apostolorum syriace</i> (1854), and other Syriac texts collected in the British Museum and in Paris. In 1866 he received three years’ leave of absence to collect fresh materials, and in 1869 succeeded -Heinrich Ewald as professor of oriental languages at Göttingen. +Heinrich Ewald as professor of oriental languages at Göttingen. Like Ewald, Lagarde was an active worker in a variety of subjects and languages; but his chief aim, the elucidation of the Bible, was almost always kept in view. He edited the @@ -13938,10 +13900,10 @@ should also be made of the valuable <i>Onomastica sacra</i> (1870; 2nd ed., 1887). Lagarde also took some part in politics. He belonged to the Prussian Conservative party, and was a violent anti-Semite. The bitterness which he felt appeared in his -writings. He died at Göttingen on the 22nd of December 1891.</p> +writings. He died at Göttingen on the 22nd of December 1891.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>; and cf. Anna +<p>See the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>; and cf. Anna de Lagarde, <i>Paul de Lagarde</i> (1894).</p> </div> @@ -14027,7 +13989,7 @@ objects found at Tello are the most valuable art treasures up to this time discovered in Babylonia.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See E. de Sarzec, <i>Découvertes en Chaldée</i> (1887 foll.).</p> +<p>See E. de Sarzec, <i>Découvertes en Chaldée</i> (1887 foll.).</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div> @@ -14072,14 +14034,14 @@ being the former colony of Lagos; (2) small native states adjacent to the colony; and (3) the Yoruba country, farther inland. The total area is some 27,000 sq. m., or about the size of Scotland. The province is bounded S. by the Gulf of Guinea, -(from 2° 46′ 55″ to 4° 30′ E.); W. by the French colony of +(from 2° 46′ 55″ to 4° 30′ E.); W. by the French colony of Dahomey; N. and E. by other provinces of Nigeria.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The coast is low, marshy and malarious, and all along the shore the great Atlantic billows cause a dangerous surf. Behind the coast-line stretches a series of lagoons, in which are small -islands, that of Lagos having an area of 3¾ sq. m. Beyond the +islands, that of Lagos having an area of 3¾ sq. m. Beyond the lagoons and mangrove swamps is a broad zone of dense primeval forest—“the bush”—which completely separates the arable lands from the coast lagoons. The water-parting of the streams flowing @@ -14114,8 +14076,8 @@ In the northern districts it is probably considerably less than at Lagos, where it is about 70 in. a year. The variation is, however, very great. In 1901 the rainfall was 112 in., in 1902 but 47, these figures being respectively the highest and lowest recorded in a period of -seventeen years. The mean temperature at Lagos is 82.5° F., the -range being from 68° to 91°. At certain seasons sudden heavy squalls +seventeen years. The mean temperature at Lagos is 82.5° F., the +range being from 68° to 91°. At certain seasons sudden heavy squalls of wind and rain that last for a few hours are common. The hurricane and typhoon are unknown. The principal diseases are malarial fever, smallpox, rheumatism, peripheral neuritis, dysentery, chest @@ -14167,7 +14129,7 @@ large areas are covered with timber trees, the wood chiefly cut for commercial purposes being a kind of mahogany. The destruction of immature trees and the fluctuations in price render this a very uncertain trade. The rubber industry was started in 1894, -and in 1896 the rubber exported was valued at £347,000. In +and in 1896 the rubber exported was valued at £347,000. In 1899, owing to reckless methods of tapping the vines, 75% of the rubber plants died. Precautions were then taken to preserve the remainder and allow young plants to grow. The collection @@ -14195,9 +14157,9 @@ minerals in the country.</p> is native to the country, the soil of which is capable of producing the very finest grades of cotton. The Egba branch of the Yoruba have always grown the plant. In 1869 the cotton exported was -valued at £76,957, but owing to low prices the natives ceased to +valued at £76,957, but owing to low prices the natives ceased to grow cotton for export, so that in 1879 the value of exported -cotton was only £526. In 1902 planting for export was recommenced +cotton was only £526. In 1902 planting for export was recommenced by the Egba on scientific lines, and was started in the Abeokuta district with encouraging results.</p> @@ -14228,10 +14190,10 @@ called “alcohol,” introduced (1901) to meet the growing taste of the people for stronger liquor. This stuff contained 90% of pure alcohol and sometimes over 4% of fusel oil. To hinder the sale of this noxious compound legislation was passed in 1903 -prohibiting the import of liquor containing more than ½% +prohibiting the import of liquor containing more than ½% of fusel oil, whilst the states of Abeokuta and Ibadan prohibited the importation of liquor stronger than proof. The total trade -of the country in 1905 was valued at £2,224,754, the imports +of the country in 1905 was valued at £2,224,754, the imports slightly exceeding the exports. There is a large transit trade with Dahomey.</p> @@ -14241,12 +14203,12 @@ A 3 ft. 6 in. gauge railway starts from Iddo Island, and extends past Abeokuta, 64 m. from Lagos, Ibadan (123 m.), Oshogbo (175 m.), to Illorin (247 m.) in Northern Nigeria, whence the line is continued to Jebba and Zunguru (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>). Abeokuta is served -by a branch line, 1½ m. long, from Aro on the main line. Railway +by a branch line, 1½ m. long, from Aro on the main line. Railway bridges connect Iddo Island both with the mainland and with Lagos Island (see Lagos, town). This line was begun in 1896 and opened to Ibadan in 1901. In 1905 the building of the section Ibadan-Illorin was undertaken. The railway was built by the government -and cost about £7000 per mile. The lagoons offer convenient channels +and cost about £7000 per mile. The lagoons offer convenient channels for numerous small craft, which, with the exception of steam-launches, are almost entirely native-built canoes. Branch steamers run between the Forcados mouth of the Niger and Lagos, and also @@ -14273,9 +14235,9 @@ from the duties on imported spirits. From the railways, a government monopoly, a considerable net profit is earned. Expenditure is mainly under the heads of railway administration, other public works, military and police, health, and education. The -revenue increased in the ten years 1895-1905 from £142,049 to -£410,250. In the same period the expenditure rose from £144,484 -to £354,254.</p> +revenue increased in the ten years 1895-1905 from £142,049 to +£410,250. In the same period the expenditure rose from £144,484 +to £354,254.</p> <p>The defence of the province is entrusted to the Lagos battalion of the West African Frontier Force, a body under the control of the @@ -14315,7 +14277,7 @@ under which Akitoye bound himself to put down the slave trade. This treaty was not adhered to, and in 1861 Akitoye’s son and successor, King Docemo, was induced to give up his territorial jurisdiction and accept a pension of 1200 bags of -cowries, afterwards commuted to £1000 a year, which pension +cowries, afterwards commuted to £1000 a year, which pension he drew until his death in 1885. Immediately after the proclamation of the British annexation, a steady current of immigration from the mainland set in, and a flourishing town arose on Lagos @@ -14369,7 +14331,7 @@ Office, London; A. B. Ellis, <i>The Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i> (London, <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAGOS<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span>, a seaport of West Africa, capital of the British colony -and protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in 6° 26′ N., 3° 23′ E. on +and protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in 6° 26′ N., 3° 23′ E. on an island in a lagoon named Lagos also. Between Lagos and the mainland is Iddo Island. An iron bridge for road and railway traffic 2600 ft. long connects Lagos and Iddo Islands, and @@ -14383,7 +14345,7 @@ police quarters. There are many substantial villas that serve as quarters for the officers of the civil service, as well as numerous solidly-built handsome private buildings. The streets are well kept; the town is supplied with electric light, and there is a -good water service. The chief stores and depôts for goods are +good water service. The chief stores and depôts for goods are <span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>75</span> all on the banks of the lagoon. The swamps of which originally Lagos Island entirely consisted have been reclaimed. In @@ -14438,9 +14400,9 @@ a large part of the city.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA GRÂCE,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Les Grâces</span>, a game invented in France during +<p><span class="bold">LA GRÂCE,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Les Grâces</span>, a game invented in France during the first quarter of the 19th century and called there <i>le jeu des -Grâces</i>. It is played with two light sticks about 16 in. long and +Grâces</i>. It is played with two light sticks about 16 in. long and a wicker ring, which is projected into the air by placing it over the sticks crossed and then separating them rapidly. The ring is caught upon the stick of another player and thrown back, @@ -14449,7 +14411,7 @@ the object being to prevent it from falling to the ground.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA GRAND’ COMBE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a town of southern France, in the department -of Gard on the Gardon, 39 m. N.N.W. of Nîmes by rail. +of Gard on the Gardon, 39 m. N.N.W. of Nîmes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 6406; commune, 11,292. There are extensive coal mines in the vicinity.</p> @@ -14509,8 +14471,8 @@ of echoes and the mixture of sounds, and explained the phenomenon of grave harmonics as due to the occurrence of beats so rapid as to generate a musical note. This was followed, in the second volume of the <i>Miscellanea Taurinensia</i> (1762) by his -“Essai d’une nouvelle méthode pour déterminer les maxima et -les minima des formules intégrales indéfinies,” together with the +“Essai d’une nouvelle méthode pour déterminer les maxima et +les minima des formules intégrales indéfinies,” together with the application of this important development of analysis to the solution of several dynamical problems, as well as to the demonstration of the mechanical principle of “least action.” The @@ -14550,7 +14512,7 @@ theory of cometary perturbations.</p> <p>He had in the meantime gratified a long felt desire by a visit to Paris, where he enjoyed the stimulating delight of conversing with such mathematicians as A. C. Clairault, d’Alembert, -Condorcet and the Abbé Marie. Illness prevented him from +Condorcet and the Abbé Marie. Illness prevented him from visiting London. The post of director of the mathematical department of the Berlin Academy (of which he had been a member since 1759) becoming vacant by the removal of Euler @@ -14577,7 +14539,7 @@ of medical knowledge, to her care.</p> <p>The long series of memoirs—some of them complete treatises of great moment in the history of science—communicated by Lagrange to the Berlin Academy between the years 1767 and -1787 were not the only fruits of his exile. His <i>Mécanique +1787 were not the only fruits of his exile. His <i>Mécanique analytique</i>, in which his genius most fully displayed itself, was produced during the same period. This great work was the perfect realization of a design conceived by the author almost @@ -14616,11 +14578,11 @@ title of “veteran pensioner” in lieu of that of “foreign assoc Academy. In the midst of these distinctions, a profound melancholy seized upon him. His mathematical enthusiasm was for the time completely quenched, and during two years -the printed volume of his <i>Mécanique</i>, which he had seen only in +the printed volume of his <i>Mécanique</i>, which he had seen only in manuscript, lay unopened beside him. He relieved his dejection with miscellaneous studies, especially with that of chemistry, -which, in the new form given to it by Lavoisier, he found “aisée -comme l’algèbre.” The Revolution roused him once more to +which, in the new form given to it by Lavoisier, he found “aisée +comme l’algèbre.” The Revolution roused him once more to activity and cheerfulness. Curiosity impelled him to remain and watch the progress of such a novel phenomenon; but curiosity was changed into dismay as the terrific character of the @@ -14648,9 +14610,9 @@ specially exempted from the operation of the decree of October at the fate of J. S. Bailly and A. L. Lavoisier, and prepared to resume his former situation in Berlin. His design was frustrated by the establishment of and his official connexion with -the École Normale, and the École Polytechnique. The former +the École Normale, and the École Polytechnique. The former institution had an ephemeral existence; but amongst the -benefits derived from the foundation of the École Polytechnique +benefits derived from the foundation of the École Polytechnique one of the greatest, it has been observed,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> was the restoration of Lagrange to mathematics. The remembrance of his teachings was long treasured by such of his auditors—amongst whom @@ -14661,7 +14623,7 @@ and ascended with them by almost insensible gradations from elementary to abstruse conceptions. He seemed, not a professor amongst students, but a learner amongst learners; pauses for thought alternated with luminous exposition; invention -accompanied demonstration; and thus originated his <i>Théorie +accompanied demonstration; and thus originated his <i>Théorie des fonctions analytiques</i> (Paris, 1797). The leading idea of this work was contained in a paper published in the <i>Berlin Memoirs</i> for 1772.<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Its object was the elimination of the, to some minds, @@ -14676,7 +14638,7 @@ that the attempt was successful. The validity of his fundamental position was impaired by the absence of a well-constituted theory of series; the notation employed was inconvenient, and was abandoned by its inventor in the second edition of his -<i>Mécanique</i>; while his scruples as to the admission into analytical +<i>Mécanique</i>; while his scruples as to the admission into analytical investigations of the idea of limits or vanishing ratios have long since been laid aside as idle. Nowhere, however, were the keenness and clearness of his intellect more conspicuous than @@ -14685,7 +14647,7 @@ was highly effective in secondary results. His purely abstract mode of regarding functions, apart from any mechanical or geometrical considerations, led the way to a new and sharply characterized development of the higher analysis in the hands -of A. Cauchy, C. G. Jacobi, and others.<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The <i>Théorie des +of A. Cauchy, C. G. Jacobi, and others.<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The <i>Théorie des fonctions</i> is divided into three parts, of which the first explains the general doctrine of functions, the second deals with its <span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>77</span> @@ -14704,23 +14666,23 @@ residence in Turin, to congratulate him on the merits of his son, whom they declared “to have done honour to mankind by his genius, and whom Piedmont was proud to have produced, and France to possess.” Bonaparte, who styled him “la haute -pyramide des sciences mathématiques,” loaded him with personal +pyramide des sciences mathématiques,” loaded him with personal favours and official distinctions. He became a senator, a count of the empire, a grand officer of the legion of honour, and just -before his death received the grand cross of the order of réunion.</p> +before his death received the grand cross of the order of réunion.</p> -<p>The preparation of a new edition of his <i>Mécanique</i> exhausted +<p>The preparation of a new edition of his <i>Mécanique</i> exhausted his already falling powers. Frequent fainting fits gave presage of a speedy end, and on the 8th of April 1813 he had a final -interview with his friends B. Lacépède, G. Monge and J. A. +interview with his friends B. Lacépède, G. Monge and J. A. Chaptal. He spoke with the utmost calm of his approaching -death; “c’est une dernière fonction,” he said, “qui n’est ni -pénible ni désagréable.” He nevertheless looked forward to a +death; “c’est une dernière fonction,” he said, “qui n’est ni +pénible ni désagréable.” He nevertheless looked forward to a future meeting, when he promised to complete the autobiographical details which weakness obliged him to interrupt. They remained untold, for he died two days later on the 10th of April, and was buried in the Pantheon, the funeral oration being -pronounced by Laplace and Lacépède.</p> +pronounced by Laplace and Lacépède.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Amongst the brilliant group of mathematicians whose magnanimous @@ -14782,7 +14744,7 @@ rotation of the planets by external action on their equatorial protuberances, but was anticipated by Poisson, who gave formulae for the variation of the elements of rotation strictly corresponding with those found by Lagrange for the variation of the elements of revolution. -The revision of the <i>Mécanique analytique</i> was undertaken +The revision of the <i>Mécanique analytique</i> was undertaken mainly for the purpose of embodying in it these new methods and final results, but was interrupted, when two-thirds completed, by the death of its author.</p> @@ -14863,34 +14825,34 @@ embodiment denied to them in the troubled world of politics.</p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Lagrange’s numerous scattered memoirs have been collected and published in seven 4to volumes, under the title <span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>78</span> -<i>Œuvres de Lagrange, publiées sous les soins de M. J. A. Serret</i> (Paris, +<i>Œuvres de Lagrange, publiées sous les soins de M. J. A. Serret</i> (Paris, 1867-1877). The first, second and third sections of this publication comprise respectively the papers communicated by him to the Academies of Sciences of Turin, Berlin and Paris; the fourth includes his miscellaneous contributions to other scientific collections, -together with his additions to Euler’s <i>Algebra</i>, and his <i>Leçons -élémentaires</i> at the École Normale in 1795. Delambre’s notice of his -life, extracted from the <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, 1812, is prefixed to the -first volume. Besides the separate works already named are <i>Résolution -des équations numériques</i> (1798, 2nd ed., 1808, 3rd ed., 1826), -and <i>Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions</i> (1805, 2nd ed., 1806), designed -as a commentary and supplement to the first part of the <i>Théorie des -fonctions</i>. The first volume of the enlarged edition of the <i>Mécanique</i> +together with his additions to Euler’s <i>Algebra</i>, and his <i>Leçons +élémentaires</i> at the École Normale in 1795. Delambre’s notice of his +life, extracted from the <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, 1812, is prefixed to the +first volume. Besides the separate works already named are <i>Résolution +des équations numériques</i> (1798, 2nd ed., 1808, 3rd ed., 1826), +and <i>Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions</i> (1805, 2nd ed., 1806), designed +as a commentary and supplement to the first part of the <i>Théorie des +fonctions</i>. The first volume of the enlarged edition of the <i>Mécanique</i> appeared in 1811, the second, of which the revision was completed by MM Prony and Binet, in 1815. A third edition, in 2 vols., 4to, was -issued in 1853-1855, and a second of the <i>Théorie des fonctions</i> in 1813.</p> +issued in 1853-1855, and a second of the <i>Théorie des fonctions</i> in 1813.</p> -<p>See also J. J. Virey and Potel, <i>Précis historique</i> (1813); Th. +<p>See also J. J. Virey and Potel, <i>Précis historique</i> (1813); Th. Thomson’s <i>Annals of Philosophy</i> (1813-1820), vols. ii. and iv.; -H. Suter, <i>Geschichte der math. Wiss.</i> (1873); E. Dühring, <i>Kritische +H. Suter, <i>Geschichte der math. Wiss.</i> (1873); E. Dühring, <i>Kritische Gesch. der allgemeinen Principien der Mechanik</i> (1877, 2nd ed.); -A. Gautier, <i>Essai historique sur le problème des trois corps</i> (1817); -R. Grant, <i>History of Physical Astronomy</i>, &c.; Pietro Cossali, <i>Éloge</i> -(Padua, 1813); L. Martini, <i>Cenni biográfici</i> (1840); <i>Moniteur du 26 -Février</i> (1814); W. Whewell, <i>Hist. of the Inductive Sciences</i>, ii. +A. Gautier, <i>Essai historique sur le problème des trois corps</i> (1817); +R. Grant, <i>History of Physical Astronomy</i>, &c.; Pietro Cossali, <i>Éloge</i> +(Padua, 1813); L. Martini, <i>Cenni biográfici</i> (1840); <i>Moniteur du 26 +Février</i> (1814); W. Whewell, <i>Hist. of the Inductive Sciences</i>, ii. <i>passim</i>; J. Clerk Maxwell, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, ii. 184; A. Berry, <i>Short Hist. of Astr.</i>, p. 313; J. S. Bailly, <i>Hist. de l’astr. -moderne</i>, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>.</p> +moderne</i>, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>.</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> @@ -14898,16 +14860,16 @@ moderne</i>, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch <p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, i. 15.</p> -<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Méc. An.</i>, Advertisement to 1st ed.</p> +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Méc. An.</i>, Advertisement to 1st ed.</p> -<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> E. Dühring, <i>Kritische Gesch. der Mechanik</i>, 220, 367; Lagrange, -<i>Méc. An.</i> i. 166-172, 3rd ed.</p> +<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> E. Dühring, <i>Kritische Gesch. der Mechanik</i>, 220, 367; Lagrange, +<i>Méc. An.</i> i. 166-172, 3rd ed.</p> <p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Notice by J. Delambre, <i>Œuvres de Lagrange</i>, i. p. xlii.</p> <p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, iii. 441.</p> -<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Théorie des fonctions</i>, p. 6.</p> +<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Théorie des fonctions</i>, p. 6.</p> <p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> H. Suter, <i>Geschichte der math. Wiss.</i> ii. 222-223.</p> @@ -14920,8 +14882,8 @@ moderne</i>, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAGRANGE-CHANCEL<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Chancel</span>], <span class="bold">FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</span> -(1677-1758), French dramatist and satirist, was born at Périgueux +<p><span class="bold">LAGRANGE-CHANCEL<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Chancel</span>], <span class="bold">FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</span> +(1677-1758), French dramatist and satirist, was born at Périgueux on the 1st of January 1677. He was an extremely precocious boy, and at Bordeaux, where he was educated, he produced a play when he was nine years old. Five years later his mother @@ -14930,11 +14892,11 @@ de Conti, to whom he dedicated his tragedy of <i>Jugurtha</i> or, as it was called later, <i>Adherbal</i> (1694). Racine had given him advice and was present at the first performance, although he had long lived in complete retirement. Other plays followed: <i>Oreste et -Pylade</i> (1697), <i>Méléagre</i> (1699), <i>Amasis</i> (1701), and <i>Ino et Mélicerte</i> +Pylade</i> (1697), <i>Méléagre</i> (1699), <i>Amasis</i> (1701), and <i>Ino et Mélicerte</i> (1715). Lagrange hardly realized the high hopes raised by his precocity, although his only serious rival on the tragic stage was Campistron, but he obtained high favour at court, becoming -<i>maître d’hôtel</i> to the duchess of Orleans. This prosperity ended +<i>maître d’hôtel</i> to the duchess of Orleans. This prosperity ended with the publication in 1720 of his <i>Philippiques</i>, odes accusing the regent, Philip, duke of Orleans, of the most odious crimes. He might have escaped the consequences of this libel but for @@ -14945,11 +14907,11 @@ and sent as a prisoner to the isles of Sainte Marguerite. He contrived, however, to escape to Sardinia and thence to Spain and Holland, where he produced his fourth and fifth <i>Philippiques</i>. On the death of the Regent he was able to return to France. -He was part author of a <i>Histoire de Périgord</i> left unfinished, and +He was part author of a <i>Histoire de Périgord</i> left unfinished, and made a further contribution to history, or perhaps, more exactly, -to romance, in a letter to Élie Fréron on the identity of the Man +to romance, in a letter to Élie Fréron on the identity of the Man with the Iron Mask. Lagrange’s family life was embittered -by a long lawsuit against his son. He died at Périgueux at the +by a long lawsuit against his son. He died at Périgueux at the end of December 1758.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -14971,7 +14933,7 @@ nearly resembles the highlands of northern Europe than any other part of Spain. La Granja has an almost alpine climate, with a clear, cool atmosphere and abundant sunshine. Above the palace rise the wooded summits of the Guadarrama, culminating -in the peak of Peñalara (7891 ft.); in front of it the wide +in the peak of Peñalara (7891 ft.); in front of it the wide plains of Segovia extend northwards. The village of San Ildefonso, the oldest part of the estate, was founded in 1450 by Henry IV., who built a hunting lodge and chapel here. In @@ -14982,7 +14944,7 @@ was purchased in 1719 by Philip V., after the destruction of his summer palace at Valsain, the ancient <i>Vallis Sapinorum</i>, 2 m. S. Philip determined to convert the estate into a second Versailles. The palace was built between 1721 and 1723. Its -façade is fronted by a colonnade in which the pillars reach to the +façade is fronted by a colonnade in which the pillars reach to the roof. The state apartments contain some valuable 18th-century furniture, but the famous collection of sculptures was removed to Madrid in 1836, and is preserved there in the Museo del Prado. @@ -15019,7 +14981,7 @@ Christina to restore the constitution of 1812.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1724-1805), French +<p><span class="bold">LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1724-1805), French painter, was a pupil of Carle Vanloo. Born at Paris on the 30th of December 1724, in 1755 he became a member of the Royal Academy, presenting as his diploma picture the “Rape of @@ -15035,7 +14997,7 @@ honorary keeper.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA GUAIRA<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">La Guayra</span> (sometimes <span class="sc">Laguaira</span>, &c.), a town and port of Venezuela, in the Federal district, 23 m. -by rail and 6½ m. in a direct line N. of Caracas. Pop. (1904, +by rail and 6½ m. in a direct line N. of Caracas. Pop. (1904, estimate) 14,000. It is situated between a precipitous mountain side and a broad, semicircular indentation of the coast line which forms the roadstead of the port. The anchorage was long considered @@ -15043,8 +15005,8 @@ one of the most dangerous on the Caribbean coast, and landing was attended with much danger. The harbour has been improved by the construction of a concrete breakwater running out from the eastern shore line 2044 ft., built up from an extreme -depth of 46 ft. or from an average depth of 29½ ft., and rising -19½ ft. above sea-level. This encloses an area of 76½ acres, +depth of 46 ft. or from an average depth of 29½ ft., and rising +19½ ft. above sea-level. This encloses an area of 76½ acres, having an average depth of nearly 28 ft. The harbour is further improved by 1870 ft. of concrete quays and 1397 ft. of retaining sea-wall, with several piers (three covered) projecting into deep @@ -15062,7 +15024,7 @@ entries of that year numbered 217, of which 203 entered with general cargo and 14 with coal exclusively. The exports included 152,625 bags coffee, 114,947 bags cacao and 152,891 hides. For 1905-1906 the imports at La Guaira were valued officially -at £767,365 and the exports at £663,708. The city stands on +at £767,365 and the exports at £663,708. The city stands on sloping ground stretching along the circular coast line with a varying width of 130 to 330 ft. and having the appearance of an amphitheatre. The port improvements added 18 acres of @@ -15073,7 +15035,7 @@ cabins, and narrow, badly-paved streets, but with good business houses on its principal street. From the mountain side, reddish-brown in colour and bare of vegetation, the solar heat is reflected with tremendous force, the mean annual temperature -being 84° F. The seaside towns of Maiquetia, 2 m. W. and +being 84° F. The seaside towns of Maiquetia, 2 m. W. and Macuto, 3 m. E., which have better climatic and sanitary conditions and are connected by a narrow-gauge railway, are the residences of many of the wealthier merchants of La Guaira.</p> @@ -15088,7 +15050,7 @@ Guaira was blockaded by a British-German-Italian fleet.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, LOUIS ÉTIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HÉLION<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span>, +<p><span class="bold">LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, LOUIS ÉTIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HÉLION<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Vicomte de</span> (1816-1875), French politician, was the scion of a noble Poitevin family. Although by birth and education attached to Legitimist principles, he became closely @@ -15096,19 +15058,19 @@ associated with Lamartine, to whose organ, <i>Le Bien Public</i>, he was a principal contributor. After the stoppage of this paper he wrote for <i>La Presse</i>, and in 1850 edited <i>Le Pays</i>. A character sketch of Louis Napoleon in this journal caused differences with -Lamartine, and La Guéronnière became more and more closely +Lamartine, and La Guéronnière became more and more closely identified with the policy of the prince president. Under the Empire he was a member of the council of state (1853), senator (1861), ambassador at Brussels (1868), and at Constantinople (1870), and grand officer of the legion of honour (1866). He -died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1875. Besides his <i>Études +died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1875. Besides his <i>Études et portraits politiques contemporains</i> (1856) his most important works are those on the foreign policy of the Empire: <i>La France, Rome et Italie</i> (1851), <i>L’Abandon de Rome</i> (1862), <i>De la politique -intérieure et extérieure de la France</i> (1862).</p> +intérieure et extérieure de la France</i> (1862).</p> -<p>His elder brother, <span class="sc">Alfred Dubreuil Hélion</span>, Comte de La -Guéronnière (1810-1884), who remained faithful to the Legitimist +<p>His elder brother, <span class="sc">Alfred Dubreuil Hélion</span>, Comte de La +Guéronnière (1810-1884), who remained faithful to the Legitimist party, was also a well-known writer and journalist. He was consistent in his opposition to the July Monarchy and the Empire, but in a series of books on the crisis of 1870-1871 showed a @@ -15124,7 +15086,7 @@ defending Prince Kropotkine at Lyons in 1883, Louise Michel in the same year; and in 1886, with A. Millerand as colleague he defended Ernest Roche and Duc Quercy, the instigators of the Decazeville strike. His strictures on the <i>procureur de la -République</i> on this occasion being declared libellous he was suspended +République</i> on this occasion being declared libellous he was suspended for six months and in 1890 he again incurred suspension for an attack on the attorney-general, Quesnay de Beaurepaire. He also pleaded in the greatest criminal cases of his time, though @@ -15152,7 +15114,7 @@ capital of the island of Teneriffe, in the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands. Pop. (1900) 13,074. Laguna is 4 m. N. by W. of Santa Cruz, in a plain 1800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by mountains. Snow is unknown here, and the mean -annual temperature exceeds 63° F.; but the rainfall is very +annual temperature exceeds 63° F.; but the rainfall is very heavy, and in winter the plain is sometimes flooded. The humidity of the atmosphere, combined with the warm climate and rich volcanic soil, renders the district exceptionally fertile; @@ -15168,13 +15130,13 @@ plants.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1739-1803), French critic, +<p><span class="bold">LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1739-1803), French critic, was born in Paris of poor parents on the 20th of November 1739. His father, who signed himself Delharpe, was a descendant of a noble family originally of Vaud. Left an orphan at the age of nine, La Harpe was taken care of for six months by the sisters of charity, and his education was provided for by a scholarship -at the Collège d’Harcourt. When nineteen he was imprisoned +at the Collège d’Harcourt. When nineteen he was imprisoned for some months on the charge of having written a satire against his protectors at the college. La Harpe always denied his guilt, but this culminating misfortune of an early life spent entirely @@ -15184,8 +15146,8 @@ of <i>Warwick</i> was played before the court. This, his first play, was perhaps the best he ever wrote. The many authors whom he afterwards offended were always able to observe that the critic’s own plays did not reach the standard of excellence he set up. -<i>Timoléon</i> (1764), <i>Pharamond</i> (1765) and <i>Gustave Wasa</i> (1766) were -failures. <i>Mélanie</i> was a better play, but was never represented. +<i>Timoléon</i> (1764), <i>Pharamond</i> (1765) and <i>Gustave Wasa</i> (1766) were +failures. <i>Mélanie</i> was a better play, but was never represented. The success of <i>Warwick</i> led to a correspondence with Voltaire, who conceived a high opinion of La Harpe, even allowing him to correct his verses. In 1764 La Harpe married the daughter @@ -15209,11 +15171,11 @@ disposition. The speech was punctuated by the applause of the audience, who chose to regard it as a series of sarcasms on the new member. Eventually La Harpe was compelled to resign from the <i>Mercure</i>, which he had edited from 1770. On the -stage he produced <i>Les Barmécides</i> (1778), <i>Philoctète</i>, <i>Jeanne de +stage he produced <i>Les Barmécides</i> (1778), <i>Philoctète</i>, <i>Jeanne de Naples</i> (1781), <i>Les Brames</i> (1783), <i>Coriolan</i> (1784), <i>Virginie</i> (1786). In 1786 he began a course of literature at the newly-established -Lycée. In these lectures, published as the <i>Cours de -littérature ancienne et moderne</i>, La Harpe is at his best, for he +Lycée. In these lectures, published as the <i>Cours de +littérature ancienne et moderne</i>, La Harpe is at his best, for he found a standpoint more or less independent of contemporary polemics. He is said to be inexact in dealing with the ancients, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>80</span> @@ -15228,16 +15190,16 @@ But in April 1794 he was nevertheless seized as a “suspect.” In prison he underwent a spiritual crisis which he described in convincing language, and he emerged an ardent Catholic and a reactionist in politics. When he resumed his chair at the -Lycée, he attacked his former friends in politics and literature. +Lycée, he attacked his former friends in politics and literature. He was imprudent enough to begin the publication (1801-1807) -of his <i>Correspondance littéraire</i> (1774-1791) with the grand-duke, +of his <i>Correspondance littéraire</i> (1774-1791) with the grand-duke, afterwards the emperor Paul of Russia. In these letters he surpassed the brutalities of the <i>Mercure</i>. He contracted a second marriage, which was dissolved after a few weeks by his wife. He died on the 11th of February 1803 in Paris, leaving in his will an incongruous exhortation to his fellow countrymen to maintain peace and concord. Among his posthumous works -was a <i>Prophétie de Cazotte</i> which Sainte-Beuve pronounces his +was a <i>Prophétie de Cazotte</i> which Sainte-Beuve pronounces his best work. It is a sombre description of a dinner-party of notables long before the Revolution, when Jacques Cazotte is made to prophesy the frightful fates awaiting the various @@ -15245,12 +15207,12 @@ individuals of the company.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Among his works not already mentioned are:—<i>Commentaire sur -Racine</i> (1795-1796), published in 1807; <i>Commentaire sur le théâtre de +Racine</i> (1795-1796), published in 1807; <i>Commentaire sur le théâtre de Voltaire</i> of earlier date (published posthumously in 1814), and an epic -poem <i>La Religion</i> (1814). His <i>Cours de littérature</i> has been often +poem <i>La Religion</i> (1814). His <i>Cours de littérature</i> has been often reprinted. To the edition of 1825-1826 is prefixed a notice by Pierre Daunou. See also Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. v.; -G. Peignot, <i>Recherches historiques, bibliographiques et littéraires ... +G. Peignot, <i>Recherches historiques, bibliographiques et littéraires ... sur La Harpe</i> (1820).</p> </div> @@ -15272,13 +15234,13 @@ of which the British Museum possesses a fine example, “Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple,” are treated as seriously as his paintings, and sometimes show simplicity and dignity of effect. The example of the Capuchins, for whom he executed -several other works in Paris, Rouen and Fécamp, was followed +several other works in Paris, Rouen and Fécamp, was followed by the goldsmiths’ company, for whom he produced in 1635 “St Peter healing the Sick” (Louvre) and the “Conversion of St Paul” in 1637. In 1646, with eleven other artists, he founded the French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. Richelieu -called Lahire to the Palais Royal; Chancellor Séguier, Tallemant -de Réaux and many others entrusted him with important +called Lahire to the Palais Royal; Chancellor Séguier, Tallemant +de Réaux and many others entrusted him with important works of decoration; for the Gobelins he designed a series of large compositions. Lahire painted also a great number of portraits, and in 1654 united in one work for the town-hall of @@ -15431,7 +15393,7 @@ to be known by the name of La Hogue.</p> <p>Sufficient accounts of the battle may be found in Lediard’s <i>Naval History</i> (London, 1735), and for the French side in Tronde’s <i>Batailles navales de la France</i> (Paris, 1867). The escape of D’Amfreville’s -squadron is the subject of Browning’s poem “Hervé Riel.”</p> +squadron is the subject of Browning’s poem “Hervé Riel.”</p> </div> <div class="author">(D. H.)</div> @@ -15439,13 +15401,13 @@ squadron is the subject of Browning’s poem “Hervé Riel.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAHORE,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> an ancient city of British India, the capital of the Punjab, which gives its name to a district and division. It lies -in 31° 35′ N. and 74° 20′ E. near the left bank of the River Ravi, +in 31° 35′ N. and 74° 20′ E. near the left bank of the River Ravi, 1706 ft. above the sea, and 1252 m. by rail from Calcutta. It is thus in about the same latitude as Cairo, but owing to its inland position is considerably hotter than that city, being one of the hottest places in India in the summer time. In the cold season the climate is pleasantly cool and bright. The native -city is walled, about 1¼ m. in length W. to E. and about ¾ m. +city is walled, about 1¼ m. in length W. to E. and about ¾ m. in breadth N. to S. Its site has been occupied from early times, and much of it stands high above the level of the surrounding country, raised on the remains of a succession of former habitations. @@ -15460,7 +15422,7 @@ of mention of Lahore by Alexander’s historians, and the fact that coins of the Graeco-Bactrian kings are not found among the ruins, lead to the belief that it was not a place of any importance during the earliest period of Indian history. On the other -hand, Hsüan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist, notices the city in +hand, Hsüan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist, notices the city in his <i>Itinerary</i> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 630); and it seems probable, therefore, that Lahore first rose into prominence between the 1st and 7th centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Governed originally by a family of Chauhan @@ -15566,11 +15528,11 @@ rural population and of artisans is Punjabi; while Urdu or Hindustani is spoken by the educated classes. So far from the seaboard, the range between extremes of winter and summer temperature in the sub-tropics is great. The mean temperature -in the shade in June is about 92° F., in January about 50°. In -midsummer the thermometer sometimes rises to 115° in the -shade, and remains on some occasions as high as 105° throughout +in the shade in June is about 92° F., in January about 50°. In +midsummer the thermometer sometimes rises to 115° in the +shade, and remains on some occasions as high as 105° throughout the night. In winter the morning temperature is sometimes -as low as 20°. The rainfall is uncertain, ranging from 8 in. to +as low as 20°. The rainfall is uncertain, ranging from 8 in. to 25, with an average of 15 in. The country as a whole is parched and arid, and greatly dependent on irrigation.</p> @@ -15587,8 +15549,8 @@ to have died in the following year. Hoz is not remarkable for originality of conception, but his recasts of plays by earlier writers are distinguished by an adroitness which accounts for the esteem in which he was held by his contemporaries. -<i>El Montañés Juan Pascal</i> and <i>El castigo de la miseria</i>, reprinted -in the <i>Biblioteca de Autores Españoles</i>, give a just idea of his +<i>El Montañés Juan Pascal</i> and <i>El castigo de la miseria</i>, reprinted +in the <i>Biblioteca de Autores Españoles</i>, give a just idea of his adaptable talent.</p> @@ -15605,7 +15567,7 @@ in 1803.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Stein, <i>Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Lahr</i> (Lahr, 1827); -and Sütterlin, <i>Lahr und seine Umgebung</i> (Lahr, 1904).</p> +and Sütterlin, <i>Lahr und seine Umgebung</i> (Lahr, 1904).</p> </div> @@ -15855,7 +15817,7 @@ and it is related that, on recovering consciousness, he looked about and asked if a proof of Wyntoun had been sent from the printers. He died a few days afterwards, on the 18th of October, in his eighty-sixth year. His library was sold by auction, and -realized £16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he bequeathed +realized £16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he bequeathed his collection of MSS.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -16009,7 +15971,7 @@ death.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAÏS,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distinguished +<p><span class="bold">LAÃS,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distinguished as follows. (1) The elder, a native of Corinth, born <i>c.</i> 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was famous for her greed and hardheartedness, which gained her the nickname of <i>Axinē</i> (the axe). Among her lovers @@ -16024,7 +15986,7 @@ water from the fountain of Peirene, was struck by her beauty, and took her as a model. Having followed a handsome Thessalian to his native land, she was slain in the temple of Aphrodite by women who were jealous of her beauty. Many anecdotes are -told of a Laïs by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she forms +told of a Laïs by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she forms the subject of many epigrams in the Greek Anthology; but, owing to the similarity of names, there is considerable uncertainty to whom they refer. The name itself, like Phryne, was used @@ -16038,7 +16000,7 @@ as a general term for a courtesan.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1841-  ), French politician, was born at Nantes on the 1st of November 1841, and was -educated at the École Polytechnique as a military engineer. +educated at the École Polytechnique as a military engineer. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>85</span> He defended the fort of Issy at the siege of Paris, and served in Corsica and in Algeria in 1873. In 1876 he resigned his @@ -16055,21 +16017,21 @@ He was elected Boulangist deputy for the 18th Parisian arrondissement in 1889. He did not seek re-election in 1893, but devoted himself thenceforward to mathematics, helping to make known in France the theories of Giusto Bellavitis. He was -attached to the staff of the École Polytechnique, and in 1903-1904 +attached to the staff of the École Polytechnique, and in 1903-1904 was president of the French Association for the Advancement of Science.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>In addition to his political pamphlets <i>Pourquoi et comment je suis Boulangiste</i> (1887) and <i>L’Anarchie bourgeoise</i> (1887), he published -mathematical works, among them <i>Introduction à l’étude des quarternions</i> -(1881) and <i>Théorie et applications des équipollences</i> (1887).</p> +mathematical works, among them <i>Introduction à l’étude des quarternions</i> +(1881) and <i>Théorie et applications des équipollences</i> (1887).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAI-YANG,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a city in the Chinese province of Shan-tung, -in 37° N., 120° 55′ E., about the middle of the eastern peninsula, +in 37° N., 120° 55′ E., about the middle of the eastern peninsula, on the highway running south from Chi-fu to Kin-Kia or Ting-tsu harbour. It is surrounded by well-kept walls of great antiquity, and its main streets are spanned by large <i>pailous</i> @@ -16084,7 +16046,7 @@ the la-shu or wax-tree insect is largely carried on in the vicinity.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAKANAL, JOSEPH<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1762-1845), French politician, was born -at Serres (Ariège) on the 14th of July 1762. His name, originally +at Serres (Ariège) on the 14th of July 1762. His name, originally Lacanal, was altered to distinguish him from his Royalist brothers. He joined one of the teaching congregations, and for fourteen years taught in their schools. When elected by his @@ -16098,13 +16060,13 @@ of the Committee of Public Instruction early in 1793, and after carrying many useful decrees on the preservation of national monuments, on the military schools, on the reorganization of the Museum of Natural History and other matters, he brought -forward on the 26th of June his <i>Projet d’éducation nationale</i> +forward on the 26th of June his <i>Projet d’éducation nationale</i> (printed at the Imprimerie Nationale), which proposed to lay the burden or primary education on the public funds, but to leave secondary education to private enterprise. Provision was also made for public festivals, and a central commission was to be entrusted with educational questions. The scheme, in the -main the work of Sieyès, was refused by the Convention, who +main the work of Sieyès, was refused by the Convention, who submitted the whole question to a special commission of six, which under the influence of Robespierre adopted a report by Michel le Peletier de Saint Fargeau shortly before his tragic @@ -16130,19 +16092,19 @@ of Louisiana. He returned to France in 1834, and shortly afterwards, in spite of his advanced age, married a second time. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1845; his widow survived till 1881. Lakanal was an original member of the -Institute of France. He published in 1838 an <i>Exposé sommaire +Institute of France. He published in 1838 an <i>Exposé sommaire des travaux de Joseph Lakanal</i>.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His <i>éloge</i> at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which -he was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Rémusat +<p>His <i>éloge</i> at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which +he was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Rémusat (February 16, 1845), and a <i>Notice historique</i> by F. A. M. Mignet was -read on the 2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Émile Darnaud +read on the 2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Émile Darnaud (Paris, 1874), “Marcus” (Paris, 1879), P. Legendre in <i>Hommes de la -révolution</i> (Paris, 1882), E. Guillon, <i>Lakanal et l’instruction publique</i> +révolution</i> (Paris, 1882), E. Guillon, <i>Lakanal et l’instruction publique</i> (Paris, 1881). For details of the reports submitted by him to the government see M. Tourneux, “Histoire de l’instruction publique, -actes et déliberations de la convention, &c.” in <i>Bibliog. de l’hist. de +actes et déliberations de la convention, &c.” in <i>Bibliog. de l’hist. de Paris</i> (vol. iii., 1900); also A. Robert and G. Cougny, <i>Dictionnaire des parlementaires</i> (vol. ii., 1890).</p> </div> @@ -16227,7 +16189,7 @@ J. Grant Duff, <i>History of the Mahrattas</i> (1873); short memoir in <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAKE.<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> Professor Forel of Switzerland, the founder of the -science of limnology (Gr. <span class="grk" title="limnê">λίμνη</span>, a lake), defines a lake (Lat. +science of limnology (Gr. <span class="grk" title="limnê">λίμνη</span>, a lake), defines a lake (Lat. <i>lacus</i>) as a mass of still water situated in a depression of the ground, without direct communication with the sea. The term is sometimes applied to widened parts of rivers, and sometimes @@ -16287,7 +16249,7 @@ dormant volcanoes may be from a few yards to several miles in width, have generally a circular form, and are often without visible outlet. Excellent examples of such lakes are to be seen in the province of Rome (Italy) and in the central plateau of France, where -M. Delebecque found the Lake of Issarlès 329 ft. in depth. The most +M. Delebecque found the Lake of Issarlès 329 ft. in depth. The most splendid crater-lake is found on the summit of the Cascade range of Southern Oregon (U.S.A.). This lake is 2000 ft. in depth.</p> @@ -16317,7 +16279,7 @@ and Pyrenees are formed by a river being dammed back in this way.</p> <p>2. <i>By a Glacier.</i>—In Alaska, in Scandinavia and in the Alps a glacier often bars the mouth of a tributary valley, the stream flowing therein is dammed back, and a lake is thus formed. The best-known -lake of this kind is the Märjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great +lake of this kind is the Märjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great Aletsch Glacier. Lake Castain in Alaska is barred by the Malaspina Glacier; it is 2 or 3 m. long and 1 m. in width when at its highest level; it discharges through a tunnel 9 m. in length beneath the ice-sheet. @@ -16411,12 +16373,12 @@ subsequently became divided into three different basins by the deposition of sediment. Loch Doine has been separated from Loch Voil by alluvial cones laid down by two opposite streams. At the head of Loch Doine there is an alluvial flat that stretches -for 1½ m., formed by the Lochlarig river and its tributaries. +for 1½ m., formed by the Lochlarig river and its tributaries. The long stretch of alluvium that separates Loch Voil from Loch Lubnaig has been laid down by Calair Burn in Glen Buckie, by the Kirkton Burn at Balquhidder, and by various streams on both sides of Strathyre. Loch Lubnaig once extended to a -point ¾ m. beyond its present outlet, the level of the loch being +point ¾ m. beyond its present outlet, the level of the loch being lowered about 20 ft. by the denuding action of the river Leny on its rocky barrier.</p> @@ -16530,7 +16492,7 @@ inhabitants for domestic and commercial purposes.</p> composition of the water of fresh-water lakes in grams per litre:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Tanay.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Bleu.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Märjelen.</td> <td class="tcc allb">St Gothard.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Tanay.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Bleu.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Märjelen.</td> <td class="tcc allb">St Gothard.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">SiO<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.003 </td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0042</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0014</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0008 </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> + Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0012</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0006</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0008</td> <td class="tcc rb">trace</td></tr> @@ -16584,17 +16546,17 @@ brought about by insolation, by terrestrial radiation, by contract with the atmosphere, by rain, by the inflow of rivers and other factors, but the most important of all these are insolation and terrestrial radiation. Fresh water has its greatest density at a temperature of -39.2° F., so that water both above and below this temperature floats +39.2° F., so that water both above and below this temperature floats to the surface, and this physical fact largely determines the water stratification in a lake. In salt lakes the maximum density point is much lower, and does not come into play. In the tropical type of -fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39° F., and the +fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39° F., and the temperature decreases as the depth increases. In the polar type the -temperature is always lower than 39° F., and the temperature +temperature is always lower than 39° F., and the temperature increases from the surface downwards. In the temperate type the distribution of temperature in winter resembles the polar type, and in summer the tropical type. In Loch Ness and other deep -Scottish lochs the temperature in March and April is 41° to 42° F., +Scottish lochs the temperature in March and April is 41° to 42° F., and is then nearly uniform from top to bottom. As the sun comes north, and the mean air temperature begins to be higher than the surface temperature, the surface waters gain heat, and this heating @@ -16603,8 +16565,8 @@ temperature falls below the surface temperature, and the loch begins to part with its heat by radiation and conduction. The temperature of the deeper layers beyond 300 ft. is only slightly affected throughout the whole year. In the autumn the waters of the loch are divided -into two compartments, the upper having a temperature from 49° to -55° F., the deeper a temperature from 41° to 45°. Between these lies +into two compartments, the upper having a temperature from 49° to +55° F., the deeper a temperature from 41° to 45°. Between these lies the discontinuity-layer (<i>Sprungschicht</i> of the Germans), where there is a rapid fall of temperature within a very short distance. In August this discontinuity-layer is well marked, and lies at a depth of @@ -16749,7 +16711,7 @@ was recorded:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcl">1 Mollusc:</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Pisidium pusillum</i> (Gmel).</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">3 Crustacea:</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Cyclops viridis</i>, Jurine.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl"><i>Candona candida</i> (Müll).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl"><i>Candona candida</i> (Müll).</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl"><i>Cypria ophthalmica</i>, Jurine.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">3 Worms:</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Stylodrilus gabreteae</i>, Vejd.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">Oligochaete, not determined.</td></tr> @@ -16771,7 +16733,7 @@ Some of these species of plankton organisms are almost universal in the Scottish lochs, while others are quite local. Some of the species occur all the year through, while others have only been recorded in summer or in winter. The great development of Algae in the surface -waters, called “flowering of the water” (<i>Wasserblüthe</i>), was observed +waters, called “flowering of the water” (<i>Wasserblüthe</i>), was observed in August in Loch Lomond; a distinct “flowering,” due to Chlorophyceae, has been observed in shallow lochs as early as July. It is most common in August and September, but has also been @@ -16906,7 +16868,7 @@ globe at 6524 cub. m.</p> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Vener</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">292</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">2149</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,357,000</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Geneva</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">1015</td> <td class="tcr rb">506</td> <td class="tcr rb">225</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,175,000</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Vetter</td> <td class="tcr rb">68</td> <td class="tcr rb">413</td> <td class="tcr rb">128</td> <td class="tcr rb">733</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,543,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mjösen</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcr rb">1483</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,882,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mjösen</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcr rb">1483</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,882,000</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Garda</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">1124</td> <td class="tcr rb">446</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,766,000</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Constance</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">827</td> <td class="tcr rb">295</td> <td class="tcr rb">208</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,711,000</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ochrida</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">942</td> <td class="tcr rb">479</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,391,000</td></tr> @@ -16971,20 +16933,20 @@ globe at 6524 cub. m.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—F. A. Forel, “Handbuch der Seenkunde: allgemeine -Limnologie,” <i>Bibliothek geogr. Handbücher</i> (Stuttgart, 1901), -<i>Le Léman, monographie limnologique</i> (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1901); -A. Delebecque, <i>Les Lacs français</i>, text and plates (Paris, 1898); +Limnologie,” <i>Bibliothek geogr. Handbücher</i> (Stuttgart, 1901), +<i>Le Léman, monographie limnologique</i> (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1901); +A. Delebecque, <i>Les Lacs français</i>, text and plates (Paris, 1898); H. R. Mill, “Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes,” <i>Geogr. Journ.</i> vol. vi. pp. 46 and 135 (1895); Jehu, “Bathymetrical and Geological Study of the Lakes of Snowdonia,” <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i> vol. xl. p. 419 (1902); Sir John Murray and Laurence Pullar, “Bathymetrical Survey of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland,” <i>Geogr. Journ.</i> (1900 to 1908, re-issued in six volumes, Edinburgh, 1910); -W. Halbfass, “Die Morphometrie der europäischen Seen,” <i>Zeitschr. +W. Halbfass, “Die Morphometrie der europäischen Seen,” <i>Zeitschr. Gesell. Erdkunde Berlin</i> (Jahrg. 1903, p. 592; 1904, p. 204); I. C. Russell, <i>Lakes of North America</i> (Boston and London, 1895); O. Zacharias, “Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station -zu Plön” (Stuttgart); F. E. Bourcart, <i>Les Lacs alpins suisses: étude +zu Plön” (Stuttgart); F. E. Bourcart, <i>Les Lacs alpins suisses: étude chimique et physique</i> (Geneva, 1906); G. P. Magrini, <i>Limnologia</i> (Milan, 1907).</p> </div> @@ -17063,7 +17025,7 @@ of remarkable and strongly individual physical beauty, its area is only some 700 sq. m., a circle with radius of 15 m. from the central point covering practically the whole. Within this circle, besides the largest lake, Windermere, is the highest point in -England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but 10½ m. in length, +England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but 10½ m. in length, and covers an area of 5.69 sq. m., while Scafell Pike is only 3210 ft. in height. But the lakes show a wonderful variety of character, from open expanse and steep rock-bound shores to @@ -17139,7 +17101,7 @@ which the Duddon runs south through a vale of peculiar richness in its lower parts; while the range continues south to culminate in the Old Man of Coniston (2633) with the splendid Dow Crags above Goats Water. The pleasant vale of Yewdale drains south to Coniston -Lake (5½ m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), east of which a lower, well-wooded +Lake (5½ m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), east of which a lower, well-wooded tract, containing two beautiful lesser lakes, Tarn Hows and Esthwaite Water, extends to Windermere (<i>q.v.</i>). This lake collects waters by the Brathay from Langdale, the head of which, between @@ -17317,14 +17279,14 @@ in Mecklenburg and Pomerania—were peopled, so to speak, by lake-dwelling communities, living in villages constructed on platforms supported by piles at varying distances from the shores. The principal groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget, -Geneva, Neuchâtel, Bienne, Zürich and Constance lying to the +Geneva, Neuchâtel, Bienne, Zürich and Constance lying to the north of the Alps, and in the Lakes Maggiore, Varese, Iseo and Garda lying to the south of that mountain range. Many smaller lakes, however, contain them, and they are also found in peat moors on the sites of ancient lakes now drained or silted up, as at Laibach in Carniola. In some of the larger lakes the number of settlements has been very great. Fifty are enumerated in the -Lake of Neuchâtel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four +Lake of Neuchâtel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four in the Lake of Geneva, and twenty in the Lake of Bienne. The site of the lake dwelling of Wangen, in the Untersee, Lake of Constance, forms a parallelogram more than 700 paces in length @@ -17431,7 +17393,7 @@ bison were also found.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>93</span></p> <p>The settlement of Robenhausen, in the moor which was -formerly the bed of the ancient Lake of Pfäffikon, seems to have +formerly the bed of the ancient Lake of Pfäffikon, seems to have continued in occupation after the introduction of bronze. The site covers nearly 3 acres, and is estimated to have contained 100,000 piles. In some parts three distinct successions of @@ -17467,7 +17429,7 @@ varieties of domestic dishes, cups and pipkins, and crucibles or melting pots made of clay and horse dung and still retaining the drossy coating of the melted bronze.</p> -<p>The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchâtel is one +<p>The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchâtel is one of the richest and most considerable stations of the Bronze age. It has yielded four bronze swords, ten socketed spear-heads, forty celts or axe-heads and sickles, fifty knives, twenty socketed @@ -17585,17 +17547,17 @@ of occupation in post-Roman and medieval times.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The materials for the investigation of this singular phase of prehistoric life were first collected and systematized by Dr -Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zürich, and printed in <i>Mittheilungen -der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zürich</i>, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to (1855-1886). +Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zürich, and printed in <i>Mittheilungen +der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zürich</i>, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to (1855-1886). The substance of these reports has been issued as a separate work in England, <i>The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other parts of Europe</i>, by Dr Ferdinand Keller, translated and arranged by John Edward Lee, 2nd ed. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1878). Other works -on the same subject are Frédéric Troyon, <i>Habitations lacustres des +on the same subject are Frédéric Troyon, <i>Habitations lacustres des temps anciens et modernes</i> (Lausanne, 1860); E. Desor, <i>Les Palafittes -ou constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchâtel</i> (Paris, 1865); E. Desor -and L. Favre, <i>Le Bel Âge du bronze lacustre en Suisse</i> (Paris, 1874); -A. Perrin, <i>Étude préhistorique sur la Savoie spécialement à l’époque +ou constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchâtel</i> (Paris, 1865); E. Desor +and L. Favre, <i>Le Bel Âge du bronze lacustre en Suisse</i> (Paris, 1874); +A. Perrin, <i>Étude préhistorique sur la Savoie spécialement à l’époque lacustre</i> (<i>Les Palafittes du lac de Bourget</i>, Paris, 1870); Ernest Chantre, <i>Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Paladru</i> (Chambery, 1871); Bartolomeo Gastaldi, <i>Lake Habitations and @@ -17614,7 +17576,7 @@ U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom 468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449; (1910) 3079. It is served by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The city is picturesquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long and -1½ to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed +1½ to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick groves of hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer resort, particularly for Chicago people. The city is the seat @@ -17656,7 +17618,7 @@ golf courses here, and the village has a well-built club house, called the “Neighborhood House.” The village lies on the narrow strip of land (about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> m.) between Mirror Lake (about 1 m. long, N. and S., and <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> m. wide), and Lake Placid, about -5 m. long (N.N.E. by S.S.W.), and about 1½ m. (maximum) +5 m. long (N.N.E. by S.S.W.), and about 1½ m. (maximum) broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. The lake is roughly divided, from N. to S. by three islands—Moose, the largest, and Hawk, both privately owned, and Buck—and is a beautiful sheet of @@ -17688,7 +17650,7 @@ Pop. (1900) of the township, including the village, 3094; (1905) winter resort, and is situated in the midst of a pine forest, with two small lakes, and many charming walks and drives. In the village there are a number of fine residences, large hotels, -a library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12° F. +a library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12° F. warmer than in New York. The township of Lakewood was incorporated in 1892.</p> @@ -17697,7 +17659,7 @@ incorporated in 1892.</p> <p><span class="bold">LAKH<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (from the Sans. <i>laksha</i>, one hundred thousand), a term used in British India, in a colloquial sense to signify a lakh of rupees (written 1,00,000), which at the face value of the -rupee would be worth £10,000, but now is worth only £6666. +rupee would be worth £10,000, but now is worth only £6666. The term is also largely used in trade returns. A hundred lakhs make a crore.</p> @@ -17780,16 +17742,16 @@ the revolt of the inhabitants of Ghent, in which expedition he was killed. His biography, <i>Le Livre des faits de messire Jacques de Lalaing</i>, which has been published several times, is mainly the work of the Burgundian herald and chronicler Jean le -Fèvre, better known as <i>Toison d’or</i>; the Flemish historiographer +Fèvre, better known as <i>Toison d’or</i>; the Flemish historiographer Georges Chastellain and the herald Charolais also took part in its compilation.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1732-1807), +<p><span class="bold">LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1732-1807), French astronomer, was born at Bourg (department of Ain), on the 11th of July 1732. His parents sent him to Paris to -study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hôtel Cluny, where +study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hôtel Cluny, where J. N. Delisle had his observatory, drew him to astronomy, and he became the zealous and favoured pupil of both Delisle and Pierre Lemonnier. He, however, completed his legal studies, @@ -17804,7 +17766,7 @@ improvement of the planetary theory, publishing in 1759 a corrected edition of Halley’s tables, with a history of the celebrated comet whose return in that year he had aided Clairault to calculate. In 1762 J. N. Delisle resigned in his favour the -chair of astronomy in the Collège de France, the duties of which +chair of astronomy in the Collège de France, the duties of which were discharged by Lalande for forty-six years. His house became an astronomical seminary, and amongst his pupils were J. B. J. Delambre, G. Piazzi, P. Mechain, and his own @@ -17824,34 +17786,34 @@ introduced corrections for mutual perturbations, were the best available up to the end of the 18th century; and the Lalande prize, instituted by him in 1802 for the chief astronomical performance of each year, still testifies to his enthusiasm for his favourite pursuit. -Amongst his voluminous works are <i>Traité d’astronomie</i> (2 vols., 1764; +Amongst his voluminous works are <i>Traité d’astronomie</i> (2 vols., 1764; enlarged edition, 4 vols., 1771-1781; 3rd ed., 3 vols., 1792); <i>Histoire -céleste française</i> (1801), giving the places of 50,000 stars; <i>Bibliographie +céleste française</i> (1801), giving the places of 50,000 stars; <i>Bibliographie astronomique</i> (1803), with a history of astronomy from 1781 -to 1802; <i>Astronomie des dames</i> (1785); <i>Abrégé de navigation</i> (1793); -<i>Voyage d’un françois en Italie</i> (1769), a valuable record of his travels +to 1802; <i>Astronomie des dames</i> (1785); <i>Abrégé de navigation</i> (1793); +<i>Voyage d’un françois en Italie</i> (1769), a valuable record of his travels in 1765-1766. He communicated above one hundred and fifty papers to the Paris Academy of Sciences, edited the <i>Connoissance des temps</i> (1759-1774), and again (1794-1807), and wrote the concluding -2 vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla’s <i>Histoire des mathématiques</i> +2 vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla’s <i>Histoire des mathématiques</i> (1802).</p> -<p>See <i>Mémoires de l’Institut</i>, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre); -Delambre, <i>Hist. de l’astr. au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, p. 547; <i>Magazin encyclopédique</i>, +<p>See <i>Mémoires de l’Institut</i>, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre); +Delambre, <i>Hist. de l’astr. au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, p. 547; <i>Magazin encyclopédique</i>, ii. 288 (1810) (Mme de Salm); J. S. Bailly, <i>Hist. de l’astr. -moderne</i>, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Mädler, <i>Geschichte der Himmelskunde</i>, +moderne</i>, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Mädler, <i>Geschichte der Himmelskunde</i>, ii. 141; R. Wolf, <i>Gesch. der Astronomie</i>; J. J. Lalande, <i>Bibl. astr.</i> -p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>; M. Marie, +p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>; M. Marie, <i>Hist. des sciences</i>, ix. 35.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LALÍN,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> a town of north-western Spain, in the province of -Pontevedra. Pop. (1900) 16,238. Lalín is the centre of the +<p><span class="bold">LALÃN,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> a town of north-western Spain, in the province of +Pontevedra. Pop. (1900) 16,238. LalÃn is the centre of the trade in agricultural products of the fertile highlands between the Deza and Arnego rivers. The local industries are tanning -and the manufacture of paper. Near Lalín are the ruins of the +and the manufacture of paper. Near LalÃn are the ruins of the Gothic abbey of Carboeiro.</p> @@ -17887,7 +17849,7 @@ the district was pacified.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span>, Baron de Tollendal -(1702-1766), French general, was born at Romans, Dauphiné, +(1702-1766), French general, was born at Romans, Dauphiné, in January 1702, being the son of Sir Gerard O’Lally, an Irish Jacobite who married a French lady of noble family, from whom the son inherited his titles. Entering the French army @@ -17899,7 +17861,7 @@ been mixed up in several Jacobite plots, and in 1745 accompanied Charles Edward to Scotland, serving as aide-de-camp at the battle of Falkirk (January 1746). Escaping to France, he served with Marshal Saxe in the Low Countries, -and at the capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a <i>maréchal +and at the capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a <i>maréchal de camp</i>. When war broke out with England in 1756 Lally was given the command of a French expedition to India. He reached Pondicherry in April 1758, and at the outset met with @@ -17927,13 +17889,13 @@ foreigner.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See G. B. Malleson, <i>The Career of Count Lally</i> (1865); “Z’s” (the marquis de Lally-Tollendal) article in the <i>Biographie Michaud</i>; -and Voltaire’s <i>Œuvres complètes</i>. The legal documents are preserved -in the Bibliothèque Nationale.</p> +and Voltaire’s <i>Œuvres complètes</i>. The legal documents are preserved +in the Bibliothèque Nationale.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> +<p><span class="bold">LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1751-1830), was born at Paris on the 5th of March 1751. He was the legitimized son of the comte de Lally and only discovered <span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>96</span> @@ -17945,7 +17907,7 @@ comte de Lally; but the parlement of Rouen, to which the case was referred back, in 1784 again decided in favour of Lally’s guilt. The case was retried by other courts, but Lally’s innocence was never fully admitted by the French judges. In 1779 Lally-Tollendal -bought the office of <i>Grand bailli</i> of Étampes, and in +bought the office of <i>Grand bailli</i> of Étampes, and in 1789 was a deputy to the states-general for the <i>noblesse</i> of Paris. He played some part in the early stages of the Revolution, but was too conservative to be in sympathy with all even of its @@ -17964,13 +17926,13 @@ especially identifying himself with prison reform.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See his <i>Plaidoyer pour Louis XVI.</i> (London, 1793); Lally-Tollendal -was also in part responsible for the <i>Mémoires</i>, attributed +was also in part responsible for the <i>Mémoires</i>, attributed to Joseph Weber, concerning Marie Antoinette (1804); he further edited the article on his father in the <i>Biographie Michaud</i>; see also -Arnault, <i>Discours prononcé aux funérailles de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal -le 13 mars 1830</i> (Paris); Gauthier de Brecy, <i>Nécrologie de +Arnault, <i>Discours prononcé aux funérailles de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal +le 13 mars 1830</i> (Paris); Gauthier de Brecy, <i>Nécrologie de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal</i> (Paris, undated); Voltaire, <i>Œuvres -complètes</i> (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of contents, +complètes</i> (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of contents, vol. ii.</p> </div> @@ -17986,9 +17948,9 @@ chamber music. His early works include two trios, a quartet, and several pieces for violin and pianoforte. In 1867 he took part in an operatic competition, an opera from his pen, entitled <i>Fiesque</i>, obtaining the third place out of forty-three. This -work was accepted for production at the Paris Opéra, but delays +work was accepted for production at the Paris Opéra, but delays occurred, and nothing was done. <i>Fiesque</i> was next offered to the -Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels, and was about to be produced +Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels, and was about to be produced there when the manager became bankrupt. Thus, when nearly fifty years of age, Lalo found himself in difficulties. <i>Fiesque</i> was never performed, but the composer published the pianoforte @@ -18001,15 +17963,15 @@ his pen were produced, among them a sonata for violoncello, a <i>Symphonie Espagnole</i> for violin and orchestra, one of his best-known compositions. In the meanwhile he had written a second opera, <i>Le Roi d’Ys</i>, which he hoped would be produced at the -Opéra. The administration offered him the “scenario” of a +Opéra. The administration offered him the “scenario” of a ballet instead. Lalo was obliged to be content with this, and set to work with so much energy that he fell ill, the last scenes of the ballet being orchestrated by Gounod. <i>Namouna</i>, the -ballet in question, was produced at the Opéra in 1882. Six +ballet in question, was produced at the Opéra in 1882. Six years later, on the 7th of May 1888, <i>Le Roi d’Ys</i> was brought -out at the Opéra Comique, and Lalo was at last enabled to taste +out at the Opéra Comique, and Lalo was at last enabled to taste the sweets of success. Unfortunately, fame came to him too -late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to <i>Néron</i>, a +late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to <i>Néron</i>, a pantomimic piece played at the Hippodrome in 1891, were his last two works. He had begun a new opera, but had only written the first act when, on the 23rd of April 1892, he died. @@ -18021,7 +17983,7 @@ ingenious and brilliantly effective.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA MADDALENA,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> an island 2½ m. from the N.E. coast of +<p><span class="bold">LA MADDALENA,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> an island 2½ m. from the N.E. coast of Sardinia. Pop. (1901) 8361. Napoleon bombarded it in 1793 without success, and Nelson made it his headquarters for some time. It is now an important naval station of the Italian fleet, @@ -18129,7 +18091,7 @@ in the middle ages in Europe, was the literary <i>lingua franca</i>. The new literature therefore, which the new movement called forth, was written, and has been preserved, in Sanskrit—its principal books of <i>Dharma</i>, or doctrine, being the following nine: -(1) <i>Prajñā-pāramitā</i>; (2) <i>Gaṇḍa-vyūha</i>; (3) <i>Daśa-bhūmīś-vara</i>; +(1) <i>Prajñā-pāramitā</i>; (2) <i>Gaṇḍa-vyūha</i>; (3) <i>Daśa-bhūmīś-vara</i>; (4) <i>Samādhi-rāja</i>; (5) <i>Lankāvatāra</i>; (6) <i>Saddharma-puṇḍarīka</i>; (7) <i>Tathāgata-guhyaka</i>; (8) <i>Lalita-vistara</i>; (9) <i>Suvarṇa-prabhāsa</i>. The date of none of these works is known with any certainty, @@ -18182,7 +18144,7 @@ of the two, a conclusion supported also by other considerations.</p> <p>Among the Bodhisats mentioned in the <i>Saddharma Puṇḍarīka</i>, and not mentioned in the <i>Lalita Vistara</i>, as attendant on the -Buddha are Mañju-śrī and Avalokiteśvara. That these saints +Buddha are Mañju-śrī and Avalokiteśvara. That these saints were already acknowledged by the followers of the Great Vehicle at the beginning of the 5th century is clear from the fact that Fa Hien, who visited India about that time, says that “men @@ -18201,7 +18163,7 @@ them to be temporary beings liable, like men, to sin and ignorance, and requiring, like men, the salvation of Arahatship. Among them the later Buddhists seem to have placed their numerous Bodhisats; and to have paid especial reverence to -Mañju-śrī as the personification of wisdom, and to Avalokiteśwara +Mañju-śrī as the personification of wisdom, and to Avalokiteśwara as the personification of overruling love. The former was afterwards identified with the mythical first Buddhist missionary, who is supposed to have introduced civilization @@ -18274,7 +18236,7 @@ incorporated into the corrupted Buddhism.</p> <p>The founder of this system seems to have been Asanga, an influential monk of Peshāwar, who wrote the first text-book of the creed, the <i>Yogāchchāra Bhūmi Śāstra</i>, in the 6th -century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Hsüan Tsang, who travelled in the first +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Hsüan Tsang, who travelled in the first <span class="sidenote">The Tantra system.</span> half of the 7th, found the monastery where Asanga had lived in ruins, and says that he had lived one thousand @@ -18322,7 +18284,7 @@ capital of Tibet, now known as Lhasa; and in the year 622 (the same year as that in which Mahomet fled from Mecca) he began the formal introduction of Buddhism into Tibet. For this purpose he sent the minister Thumi Sambhota, -afterwards looked upon as an incarnation of Mañju-śrī, to India, +afterwards looked upon as an incarnation of Mañju-śrī, to India, there to collect the sacred books, and to learn and translate them. Thumi Sambhota accordingly invented an alphabet for the Tibetan language on the model of the Indian alphabets then in @@ -18345,7 +18307,7 @@ and supported by his two queens, Bribsun, a princess from Nepāl, and Wen Ching, a princess from China. They are related to have brought with them sacred relics, books and pictures, for whose better preservation two large monasteries were erected. -These are the cloisters of La Brang (Jokhang) and Ra Moché, +These are the cloisters of La Brang (Jokhang) and Ra Moché, still, though much changed and enlarged, the most sacred abbeys in Tibet, and the glory of Lhasa. The two queens have become semi-divine personages, and are worshipped under the name of @@ -18354,7 +18316,7 @@ as incarnations of the wife of Śiva, representing respectively two of the qualities which she personifies, divine vengeance and divine love. The former is worshipped by the Mongolians as <i>Okkin Tengri</i>, “the Virgin Goddess”; but in Tibet and -China the rôle of the divine virgin is filled by <i>Kwan Yin</i>, a +China the rôle of the divine virgin is filled by <i>Kwan Yin</i>, a personification of Avalokiteśvara as the heavenly word, who is often represented with a child in her arms. Srong Tsan Gampo has also become a saint, being looked upon as an incarnation @@ -18386,9 +18348,9 @@ regarded as their sacred books—the <i>Kandjur</i>. It consists of 100 volumes containing 689 works, of which there are two or three complete sets in Europe, one of them in the India Office library. A detailed analysis of these scriptures has been published -by the celebrated Hungarian scholar Csoma de Körös, +by the celebrated Hungarian scholar Csoma de Körös, whose authoritative work has been republished in French with -complete indices and very useful notes by M. Léon Feer. These +complete indices and very useful notes by M. Léon Feer. These volumes contain about a dozen works of the oldest school of Buddhism, the Hīnayāna, and about 300 works, mostly very short, belonging to the Tantra school. But the great bulk of @@ -18541,7 +18503,7 @@ Lāmāism of to-day. And first as to the mode of electing successors to the two Great Lāmas. It will have been noticed that it was an old idea of the northern Buddhists to look upon distinguished members of the order as -incarnations of Avalokiteśvara, of Mañju-śrī, or of Amitābha. +incarnations of Avalokiteśvara, of Mañju-śrī, or of Amitābha. These beings were supposed to possess the power, whilst they continued to live in heaven, of appearing on earth in a <i>Nirmāna-kāya</i>, or apparitional body. In the same way the Pantshen Lāma @@ -18598,21 +18560,21 @@ there are many Buddhists who are not practically under his control or influence.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The best work on Lāmāism is still Köppen’s <i>Die Lamaische Hierarchie +<p>The best work on Lāmāism is still Köppen’s <i>Die Lamaische Hierarchie und Kirche</i> (Berlin, 1859). See also Bushell, “The Early History of Tibet,” in the <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, 1879-1880, vol. xii.; Sanang Setzen’s <i>History of the East Mongols</i> (in Mongolian, translated into German by J. Schmidt, <i>Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen</i>); -“Analyse du Kandjur,” by M. Léon Feer, in <i>Annales du Musée +“Analyse du Kandjur,” by M. Léon Feer, in <i>Annales du Musée Gaimet</i> (1881); Schott, <i>Ueber den Buddhismus in Hoch-Asien</i>; Gutzlaff, <i>Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches</i>; Hue and Gabet, <i>Souvenirs d’un voyage dans la Tartarie, le Tibet, et la Chine</i> -(Paris, 1858); Pallas’s <i>Sammlung historischer Nachrichten über die -Mongolischen Völkerschaften</i>; Bābu Sarat Chunder Das’s “Contributions +(Paris, 1858); Pallas’s <i>Sammlung historischer Nachrichten über die +Mongolischen Völkerschaften</i>; Bābu Sarat Chunder Das’s “Contributions on the Religion and History of Tibet,” in the <i>Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society</i>, 1881; L. A. Waddell, <i>The Buddhism of Tibet</i> (London, 1895); A. H. Francke, <i>History of Western Tibet</i> -(London, 1907); A. Grünwedel, <i>Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet +(London, 1907); A. Grünwedel, <i>Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei</i> (Berlin, 1900).</p> </div> <div class="author">(T. W. R. D.)</div> @@ -18635,8 +18597,8 @@ China (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tibet</a></span>).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAMALOU-LES-BAINS,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> a watering-place of southern France -in the department of Hérault, 53½ m. W. of Montpellier by rail, -in a valley of the southern Cévennes. Pop. (1906) 720. The +in the department of Hérault, 53½ m. W. of Montpellier by rail, +in a valley of the southern Cévennes. Pop. (1906) 720. The waters, which are both hot and cold, are used in cases of rheumatism, sciatica, locomotor ataxy and nervous maladies.</p> @@ -18766,7 +18728,7 @@ to Paris and began the study of medicine, supporting himself by working in a banker’s office. He early became interested in meteorology and in physical and chemical speculations of a chimerical kind, but happily threw his main strength into -botany, and in 1778 published his <i>Flore française</i>, a work in +botany, and in 1778 published his <i>Flore française</i>, a work in which by a dichotomous system of contrasting characters he enabled the student with facility to determine species. This work, which went through several editions and long kept the field, @@ -18780,7 +18742,7 @@ his knowledge of natural history; and on his return he began those elaborate contributions to botany on which his reputation in that science principally rests, namely, the <i>Dictionnaire de Botanique</i> and the <i>Illustrations de Genres</i>, voluminous works -contributed to the <i>Encyclopédie Méthodique</i> (1785). In 1793, in +contributed to the <i>Encyclopédie Méthodique</i> (1785). In 1793, in consequence of changes in the organization of the natural history department at the Jardin du Roi, where he had held a botanical appointment since 1788, Lamarck was presented to a zoological @@ -18791,11 +18753,11 @@ principal attention to zoology instead of botany, he had the misfortune soon after to suffer from impaired vision; and the malady resulted subsequently in total blindness. Yet his greatest zoological work, the <i>Histoire naturelle des animaux -sans vertèbres</i>, was published from 1815 to 1822, with the +sans vertèbres</i>, was published from 1815 to 1822, with the assistance, in the last two volumes, of his eldest daughter and of P. A. Latreille (1762-1833). A volume of plates of the fossil shells of the neighbourhood of Paris was collected in 1823 from -his memoirs in the <i>Annales des Muséums</i>. He died on the 18th +his memoirs in the <i>Annales des Muséums</i>. He died on the 18th of December 1829.</p> <p>The character of Lamarck as a naturalist is remarkable alike @@ -18823,7 +18785,7 @@ of plants, interesting, though crude and falling immeasurably short of the system which grew in the hands of his intimate friend A. L. de Jussieu. The problem of taxonomy has never been put more philosophically than he subsequently put it in his -<i>Animaux sans vertèbres</i>: “What arrangement must be given +<i>Animaux sans vertèbres</i>: “What arrangement must be given to the general distribution of animals to make it conformable to the order of nature in the production of these beings?”</p> @@ -18833,7 +18795,7 @@ tendency furnished a powerful incentive to work, but it outran the legitimate deductions from observation, and led him into the production of volumes of worthless chemistry without experimental basis, as well as into spending much time on fruitless -meteorological predictions. His <i>Annuaires Météorologiques</i> were +meteorological predictions. His <i>Annuaires Météorologiques</i> were published yearly from 1800 to 1810, and were not discontinued until after an unnecessarily public and brutal tirade from Napoleon, administered on the occasion of being presented @@ -18849,11 +18811,11 @@ a belief or, as he imagined, a demonstration. Spontaneous generation, he considered, might be easily conceived as resulting from such agencies as heat and electricity causing in small gelatinous bodies an utricular structure, and inducing a “singular -tension,” a kind of “éréthisme” or “orgasme”; and, having +tension,” a kind of “éréthisme” or “orgasme”; and, having thus accounted for the first appearance of life, he explained the whole organization of animals and formation of different organs by four laws (introduction to his <i>Histoire naturelle des -animaux sans vertèbres</i>, 1815):—</p> +animaux sans vertèbres</i>, 1815):—</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>1. “Life by its proper forces tends continually to increase the @@ -18957,7 +18919,7 @@ war in June, took command of an army corps, but was defeated at Custozza on the 23rd of June. Accused of treason by his fellow-countrymen, and of duplicity by the Prussians, he eventually published in defence of his tactics (1873) a series of documents -entitled <i>Un po’ più di luce sugli eventi dell’ anno</i> 1866 (More +entitled <i>Un po’ più di luce sugli eventi dell’ anno</i> 1866 (More light on the events of 1866) a step which caused irritation in Germany, and exposed him to the charge of having violated state secrets. Meanwhile he had been sent to Paris in 1867 to @@ -18976,14 +18938,14 @@ stato nel governo constituzionale</i> (Florence, 1877).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE LOUIS DE PRAT DE<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1790-1869), French poet, historian and statesman, was born at -Mâcon on the 21st of October 1790. The order of his surnames +Mâcon on the 21st of October 1790. The order of his surnames is a controversial matter, and they are sometimes reversed. The family of Lamartine was good, and the title of Prat was -taken from an estate in Franche Comté. His father was imprisoned +taken from an estate in Franche Comté. His father was imprisoned during the Terror, and only released owing to the events of the 9th Thermidor. Lamartine’s early education was received from his mother. He was sent to school at Lyons in 1805, but -not being happy there was transferred to the care of the Pères de +not being happy there was transferred to the care of the Pères de la Foi at Belley, where he remained until 1809. For some time afterwards he lived at home, reading romantic and poetical literature, but in 1811 he set out for Italy, where he seems to @@ -18995,20 +18957,20 @@ abundant results of the poetical kind. After Waterloo he returned to Paris. In 1818-1819 he revisited Switzerland, Savoy and Italy, the death of his beloved affording him new subjects for verse. After some difficulties he had his first book, the -<i>Méditations, poétiques et religieuses</i>, published (1820). It was +<i>Méditations, poétiques et religieuses</i>, published (1820). It was exceedingly popular, and helped him to make a position. He had left the army for some time; he now entered the diplomatic service and was appointed secretary to the embassy at Naples. On his way to his post he married, in 1823, at Geneva a young English lady, Marianne Birch, who had both money and beauty, -and in the same year his <i>Nouvelles méditations poétiques</i> appeared.</p> +and in the same year his <i>Nouvelles méditations poétiques</i> appeared.</p> <p>In 1824 he was transferred to Florence, where he remained five years. His <i>Last Canto of Childe Harold</i> appeared in 1825, and he had to fight a duel (in which he was wounded) with an Italian officer, Colonel Pepe, in consequence of a phrase in it. Charles X., on whose coronation he wrote a poem, gave him the order of the -Legion of Honour. The <i>Harmonies poétiques et religieuses</i> +Legion of Honour. The <i>Harmonies poétiques et religieuses</i> appeared in 1829, when he had left Florence. Having refused an appointment in Paris under the Polignac ministry, he went on a special mission to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In the same @@ -19091,8 +19053,8 @@ succeeded in placing him in a position of independence; and at last, in 1867, the government of the Empire (from which he had perforce stood aloof, though he never considered it necessary to adopt the active protesting attitude of Edgar Quinet and Victor -Hugo) came to his assistance, a vote of £20,000 being proposed -in April of that year for his benefit by Émile Ollivier. This was +Hugo) came to his assistance, a vote of £20,000 being proposed +in April of that year for his benefit by Émile Ollivier. This was creditable to both parties, for Lamartine, both as a distinguished man of letters and as a past servant of the state, had every claim to the bounty of his country. But he was reproached for @@ -19123,20 +19085,20 @@ of coming at a time when the literary field, at least in the departments of belles lettres, was almost empty. The feeble school of descriptive writers, epic poets of the extreme decadence, fabulists and miscellaneous verse-makers, which the Empire had nourished -could satisfy no one. Madame de Staël was dead; Chateaubriand, +could satisfy no one. Madame de Staël was dead; Chateaubriand, though alive, was something of a classic, and had not effected a full revolution. Lamartine did not himself go the complete length of the Romantic revival, but he went far in that direction. He availed himself of the reviving interest in legitimism and Catholicism which was represented by Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, of the nature worship of Rousseau and Bernardin de Saint Pierre, of the sentimentalism -of Madame de Staël, of the medievalism and the romance -of Chateaubriand and Scott, of the <i>maladie du siècle</i> of Chateaubriand +of Madame de Staël, of the medievalism and the romance +of Chateaubriand and Scott, of the <i>maladie du siècle</i> of Chateaubriand and Byron. Perhaps if his matter be very closely analysed it will be found that he added hardly anything of his own. But if the parts of the mixture were like other things the mixture itself was not. It seemed indeed to the immediate generation so original that tradition -has it that the <i>Méditations</i> were refused by a publisher because they +has it that the <i>Méditations</i> were refused by a publisher because they were in none of the accepted styles. They appeared when Lamartine was nearly thirty years old. The best of them, and the best thing that Lamartine ever did, is the famous <i>Lac</i>, describing his return to @@ -19148,7 +19110,7 @@ want of vigour, but to readers of that day the want of vigour was entirely compensated by the presence of freshness and grace. Lamartine’s chief misfortune in poetry was not only that his note was a somewhat weak one, but that he could strike but one. -The four volumes of the <i>Méditations</i>, the <i>Harmonies</i> and the <i>Recueillements</i>, +The four volumes of the <i>Méditations</i>, the <i>Harmonies</i> and the <i>Recueillements</i>, which contained the prime of his verse, are perhaps the most monotonous reading to be found anywhere in work of equal bulk by a poet of equal talent. They contain nothing but meditative lyrical @@ -19188,7 +19150,7 @@ power of initiative in poetry was very small, and the range of poetic ground which he could cover strictly limited. He could only carry the picturesque sentimentalism of Rousseau, Bernardin de Saint Pierre and Chateaubriand a little farther, and clothe it in language -and verse a little less antiquated than that of Chênedollé and Millevoye. +and verse a little less antiquated than that of Chênedollé and Millevoye. He has been said to be a French Cowper, and the parallel holds good in respect of versification and of his relative position to the more daringly innovating school that followed, though not in respect @@ -19198,7 +19160,7 @@ and he never got any farther. When Matthew Arnold questioned his importance in conversation with Sainte-Beuve, the answer was, “He is important to <i>us</i>,” and it was a true answer; but the limitation is obvious. In more recent years, however, efforts -have been made by Brunetière and others to remove it. The usual +have been made by Brunetière and others to remove it. The usual revolution of critical as of other taste, the oblivion of personal and political unpopularity, and above all the reaction against Hugo and the extreme Romantics, have been the main agents in this. Lamartine @@ -19214,12 +19176,12 @@ take rank among the first order of poets.</p> <p>The edition mentioned is the most complete one of Lamartine, but there are many issues of his separate works. After his death some -poems and <i>Mémoires inédits</i> of his youth were published, and also +poems and <i>Mémoires inédits</i> of his youth were published, and also two volumes of correspondence, while in 1893 Mlle V. de Lamartine added a volume of <i>Lettres</i> to him. The change of views above referred -to may be studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetière, +to may be studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetière, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>104</span> -Faguet, Lemaître, &c., and in the more substantive work of Ch. de +Faguet, Lemaître, &c., and in the more substantive work of Ch. de Pomairols, <i>Lamartine</i> (1889); E. Deschanel, <i>Lamartine</i> (1893); E. Zyrowski, <i>Lamartine</i> (1896); and perhaps best of all in the Preface to Emile Legouis’ Clarendon Press edition of <i>Jocelyn</i> (1906), @@ -19313,7 +19275,7 @@ Coleridge’s <i>Poems</i>. In 1797 his short summer holiday was spent with Coleridge at Nether Stowey, where he met the Wordsworths, William and Dorothy, and established a friendship with both which only his own death terminated. In 1798, under -the influence of Henry Mackenzie’s novel <i>Julie de Roubigné</i>, +the influence of Henry Mackenzie’s novel <i>Julie de Roubigné</i>, he published a short and pathetic prose tale entitled <i>Rosamund Gray</i>, in which it is possible to trace beneath disguised conditions references to the misfortunes of the author’s own family, and @@ -19400,7 +19362,7 @@ occasion was retained for the subsequent contributions, which appeared collectively in a volume of essays called <i>Elia</i>, in 1823. After a career of five years the <i>London Magazine</i> came to an end; and about the same period Lamb’s long connexion with -the India House terminated, a pension of £450 (£441 net) having +the India House terminated, a pension of £450 (£441 net) having been assigned to him. The increased leisure, however, for which he had long sighed, did not prove favourable to literary production, which henceforth was limited to a few trifling contributions @@ -19525,19 +19487,19 @@ Sedgmoor, lent irony to the nickname.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span>, +<p><span class="bold">LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Princesse de</span> (1749-1792), fourth daughter of Louis Victor of Carignano (d. 1774) (great-grandfather of King Charles Albert of Sardinia), and of Christine Henriette of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rothenburg, was born at Turin on the 8th of September 1749. In 1767 she was married to Louis Alexandre Stanislaus de -Bourbon, prince of Lamballe, son of the duke of Penthièvre, a +Bourbon, prince of Lamballe, son of the duke of Penthièvre, a grandson of Louis XIV.’s natural son the count of Toulouse. Her husband dying the following year, she retired with her father-in-law to Rambouillet, where she lived until the marriage of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>106</span> dauphin, when she returned to court. Marie Antoinette, -charmed by her gentle and naïve manners, singled her out for +charmed by her gentle and naïve manners, singled her out for a companion and confidante. The impetuous character of the dauphiness found in Madame de Lamballe that submissive temperament which yields to force of environment, and the two @@ -19565,8 +19527,8 @@ placed on a pike and carried before the windows of the queen.</p> <p>See George Bertin, <i>Madame de Lamballe</i> (Paris, 1888); Austin Dobson, <i>Four Frenchwomen</i> (1890); B. C. Hardy, <i>Princesse de Lamballe</i> (1908); Comte de Lescure, <i>La Princesse de Lamballe ... -d’après des documents inédits</i> (1864); some letters of the princess -published by Ch. Schmidt in <i>La Révolution française</i> (vol. xxxix., +d’après des documents inédits</i> (1864); some letters of the princess +published by Ch. Schmidt in <i>La Révolution française</i> (vol. xxxix., 1900); L. Lambeau, <i>Essais sur la mort de madame la princesse de Lamballe</i> (1902); Sir F. Montefiore, <i>The Princesse de Lamballe</i> (1896). <i>The Secret Memoirs of the Royal Family of France ... now first @@ -19579,18 +19541,18 @@ Hyde, Marchioness Govion-Broglio-Solari, and are apocryphal.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAMBALLE<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span>, a town of north-western France, in the department -of Côtes-du-Nord, on the Gouessant 13 m. E.S.E. of St +of Côtes-du-Nord, on the Gouessant 13 m. E.S.E. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop. (1906) 4347. Crowning the eminence on which the town is built is a beautiful Gothic church (13th and 14th centuries), once the chapel of the castle of the counts of -Penthièvre. La Noue, the famous Huguenot leader, was mortally +Penthièvre. La Noue, the famous Huguenot leader, was mortally wounded in 1591 in the siege of the castle, which was dismantled in 1626 by Richelieu. Of the other buildings, the church of St Martin (11th, 15th and 16th centuries) is the chief. Lamballe has an important <i>haras</i> (depot for stallions) and carries on trade in grain, tanning and leather-dressing; earthenware is manufactured in the environs. Lamballe was the capital of the territory -of the counts of Penthièvre, who in 1569 were made dukes.</p> +of the counts of Penthièvre, who in 1569 were made dukes.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -19600,12 +19562,12 @@ Area, 4614 sq. m. Pop. (1906 estimate) 93,070. It belongs to the arid region of the coast, and is settled along the river valleys where irrigation is possible. It is one of the chief sugar-producing departments of Peru, and in some valleys, especially near -Ferreñafe, rice is largely produced. Four railways connect its +Ferreñafe, rice is largely produced. Four railways connect its principal producing centres with the small ports of Eten and -Pimentel, viz.: Eten to Ferreñafe, 27 m.; Eten to Cayalti, 23 m.; -Pimentel to Lambayeque, 15 m.; and Chiclayo to Pátapo, 15 m. +Pimentel, viz.: Eten to Ferreñafe, 27 m.; Eten to Cayalti, 23 m.; +Pimentel to Lambayeque, 15 m.; and Chiclayo to Pátapo, 15 m. The principal towns are Chiclayo, the departmental capital, -with a population (1906 estimate) of 10,500, Ferreñafe 6000, +with a population (1906 estimate) of 10,500, Ferreñafe 6000, and Lambayeque 4500.</p> @@ -19625,7 +19587,7 @@ predilection for effects of force and motion. Other notable works are his fountain at Antwerp (1886), “Robbing the Eagle’s Eyrie” (1890), “Drunkenness” (1893), “The Triumph of Woman,” “The Bitten Faun” (which created a great stir at the -Exposition Universelle at Liége in 1905), and “The Human +Exposition Universelle at Liége in 1905), and “The Human Passions,” a colossal marble bas-relief, elaborated from a sketch exhibited in 1889. Of his numerous busts may be mentioned those of Hendrik Conscience, and of Charles Bals, the burgomaster @@ -19691,7 +19653,7 @@ weighed in 1793 thirty-two stone (448 ℔). In 1806 he resolved to profit by his notoriety, and resigning his office went up to London and exhibited himself. He died on the 21st of July 1809, and at the time measured 5 ft. 11 in. in height and weighed -52¾ stone (739 ℔). His waistcoat, now in the Kings Lynn +52¾ stone (739 ℔). His waistcoat, now in the Kings Lynn Museum, measures 102 in. round the waist. His coffin contained 112 ft. of elm and was built on wheels. His name has been used as a synonym for immensity. George Meredith describes @@ -19714,7 +19676,7 @@ Catholic theology, and by 1522 he had abandoned his order, and became known to the leaders of the Reformation in Switzerland and Germany. He did not, however, identify himself either with Zwinglianism or Lutheranism; he disputed with -Zwingli at Zürich in 1522, and then made his way to Eisenach +Zwingli at Zürich in 1522, and then made his way to Eisenach and Wittenberg, where he married in 1523. He returned to Strassburg in 1524, being anxious to spread the doctrines of the Reformation among the French-speaking population of the @@ -19765,14 +19727,14 @@ physicist, mathematician and astronomer, was born at Mulhausen, Alsace, on the 26th of August 1728. He was the son of a tailor; and the slight elementary instruction he obtained at the free school of his native town was supplemented by his -own private reading. He became book-keeper at Montbéliard +own private reading. He became book-keeper at Montbéliard ironworks, and subsequently (1745) secretary to Professor Iselin, the editor of a newspaper at Basel, who three years later recommended him as private tutor to the family of Count A. von Salis of Coire. Coming thus into virtual possession of a good library, Lambert had peculiar opportunities for improving himself in his literary and scientific studies. In 1759, after completing with -his pupils a tour of two years’ duration through Göttingen, +his pupils a tour of two years’ duration through Göttingen, Utrecht, Paris, Marseilles and Turin, he resigned his tutorship and settled at Augsburg. Munich, Erlangen, Coire and Leipzig became for brief successive intervals his home. In 1764 he @@ -19806,7 +19768,7 @@ geocentric path of a comet.</p> systematic treatise on heat, containing the records and full discussion of many of his own experiments. Worthy of special notice also are <i>Photometria</i> (Augsburg, 1760), <i>Insigniores orbitae cometarum -proprietates</i> (Augsburg, 1761), and <i>Beiträge zum Gebrauche +proprietates</i> (Augsburg, 1761), and <i>Beiträge zum Gebrauche der Mathematik und deren Anwendung</i> (4 vols., Berlin, 1765-1772).</p> <p>The <i>Memoirs</i> of the Berlin Academy from 1761 to 1784 contain @@ -19816,7 +19778,7 @@ meteorology, &c. In the <i>Acta Helvetica</i> (1752-1760) and in the <i>Nova acta erudita</i> (1763-1769) several of his contributions appear. In Bode’s <i>Jahrbuch</i> (1776-1780) he discusses nutation, aberration of light, Saturn’s rings and comets; in the <i>Nova acta Helvetica</i> (1787) -he has a long paper “Sur le son des corps élastiques,” in Bernoulli +he has a long paper “Sur le son des corps élastiques,” in Bernoulli and Hindenburg’s <i>Magazin</i> (1787-1788) he treats of the roots of equation and of parallel lines; and in Hindenburg’s <i>Archiv</i> (1798-1799) he writes on optics and perspective. Many of these pieces @@ -19929,7 +19891,7 @@ greatest energy and did not cease to harass the invaders till Cromwell came up from Wales and with him destroyed the Scottish army in the three days’ fighting from Preston to Warrington. After the battle Lambert’s cavalry headed the chase, -pursuing the defeated army <i>à outrance</i>, and finally surrounded +pursuing the defeated army <i>à outrance</i>, and finally surrounded it at Uttoxeter, where Hamilton surrendered to Lambert on the 25th of August. He then led the advance of Cromwell’s army into Scotland, where he was left in charge on Cromwell’s return. @@ -19954,7 +19916,7 @@ quickly followed, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Rebellion</a></ the general plan was carried out most brilliantly, and in the crowning victory of Worcester he commanded the right wing of the English army, and had his horse shot under him. Parliament -now conferred on him a grant of lands in Scotland worth £1000 +now conferred on him a grant of lands in Scotland worth £1000 per annum.</p> <p>In October 1651 Lambert was made a commissioner to settle @@ -20028,7 +19990,7 @@ personal as well as political, followed. On his refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the protector, Lambert was deprived of his commissions, receiving, however, a pension of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>109</span> -£2000 a year. He retired to his garden at Wimbledon, and +£2000 a year. He retired to his garden at Wimbledon, and appeared no more in public during Oliver Cromwell’s lifetime; but shortly before his death Cromwell sought a reconciliation, and Lambert and his wife visited him at Whitehall.</p> @@ -20125,7 +20087,7 @@ the emperor Henry IV., including the visit to Canossa and the battle of Hohenburg, are vividly described. Their tone is hostile to Henry IV. and friendly to the papacy; their Latin style is excellent. The <i>Annales</i> were first published in 1525 and -are printed in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, Bände +are printed in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, Bände iii. and v. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). Formerly Lambert’s reputation for accuracy and impartiality was very high, but both qualities have been somewhat discredited.</p> @@ -20138,7 +20100,7 @@ founder of the abbey of Hersfeld; and of a <i>Carmen de bello Saxonico</i>. His <i>Opera</i> have been edited with an introduction by O. Holder-Egger (Hanover, 1894).</p> -<p>See H. Delbrück, <i>Über die Glaubwürdigkeit Lamberts von Hersfeld</i> +<p>See H. Delbrück, <i>Ãœber die Glaubwürdigkeit Lamberts von Hersfeld</i> (Bonn, 1873); A. Eigenbrodt, <i>Lampert von Hersfeld und die neuere Quellenforschung</i> (Cassel, 1896); L. von Ranke, <i>Zur Kritik frankisch-deutscher Reichsannalisten</i> (Berlin, 1854); W. Wattenbach, @@ -20167,8 +20129,8 @@ standing in their original alignments; to the west is a similar area, from which, however, the stones have been largely removed for building the modern village. Of the temple of Aesculapius only one column is standing, though in the middle of the 19th -century its façade was entire. The capitol or temple dedicated -to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which has been cleared of débris, +century its façade was entire. The capitol or temple dedicated +to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which has been cleared of débris, has a portico with eight columns. On level ground about two-thirds of a mile from the centre of the ancient town stands the camp, its site now partly occupied by the penitentiary and its @@ -20176,7 +20138,7 @@ gardens. It measures 1640 ft. N. to S. by 1476 ft. E. to W., and in the middle rise the ruins of a building commonly called, but incorrectly, the praetorium. This noble building, which dates from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 268, is 92 ft. long by 66 ft. broad and 49 ft. high; -its southern façade has a splendid peristyle half the height +its southern façade has a splendid peristyle half the height of the wall, consisting of a front row of massive Ionic columns and an engaged row of Corinthian pilasters. Behind this building (which was roofed), is a large court giving access to @@ -20213,9 +20175,9 @@ have been found among the ruins.</p> <p>About 2 m. S. of Lambessa are the ruins of Markuna, the ancient Verecunda, including two triumphal arches.</p> -<p>See S. Gsell, <i>Les Monuments antiques de l’Algérie</i> (Paris, 1901) and -<i>L’Algérie dans l’antiquité</i> (Algiers, 1903); L. Renier, <i>Inscriptions -romaines de l’Algérie</i> (Paris, 1855); Gustav Wilmann, “Die röm. +<p>See S. Gsell, <i>Les Monuments antiques de l’Algérie</i> (Paris, 1901) and +<i>L’Algérie dans l’antiquité</i> (Algiers, 1903); L. Renier, <i>Inscriptions +romaines de l’Algérie</i> (Paris, 1855); Gustav Wilmann, “Die röm. Lagerstadt Afrikas,” in <i>Commentationes phil. in honorem Th. Mommseni</i> (Berlin, 1877); Sir L. Playfair, <i>Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce</i> (London, 1877); A. Graham, <i>Roman Africa</i> (London, 1902).</p> @@ -20246,7 +20208,7 @@ is bordered by the fine Albert Embankment.</p> The suffix is common along the river in the meaning of a haven, but the prefix is less clear; a Saxon word signifying mud is suggested. Brixton and Kennington are mentioned in Domesday; -and in Vauxhall is concealed the name of Falkes de Breauté, +and in Vauxhall is concealed the name of Falkes de Breauté, an unscrupulous adventurer of the time of John and Henry III. exiled in 1225. The manor of North Lambeth was given to the bishopric of Rochester in the time of Edward the Confessor, @@ -20492,12 +20454,12 @@ Communion, Encyclical Letter</i>, &c. (London, 1897 and 1908).</p> Lambin</span> (1520-1572), French classical scholar, born at Montreuil-sur-mer in Picardy. Having devoted several years to classical studies during a residence in Italy, he was invited to Paris in -1650 to fill the professorship of Latin in the Collège de France, +1650 to fill the professorship of Latin in the Collège de France, which he soon afterwards exchanged for that of Greek. His lectures were frequently interrupted by his ill-health and the religious disturbances of the time. His death (September 1572) is said to have been caused by his apprehension that he might -share the fate of his friend Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramée), +share the fate of his friend Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramée), who had been killed in the massacre of St Bartholomew. Lambinus was one of the greatest scholars of his age, and his editions of classical authors are still useful. In textual criticism @@ -20521,7 +20483,7 @@ of Guillaume Morel; Plautus (1576).</p> <i>Onomasticon Tullianum</i> (i. 1836), and <i>Trium disertissimorum virorum praefationes ac epistolae familiares aliquot: Mureti, Lambini, Regii</i> (Paris, 1579); also Sandys, <i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i> -(1908, ii. 188), and A. Horawitz in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>.</p> +(1908, ii. 188), and A. Horawitz in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>.</p> </div> @@ -20574,7 +20536,7 @@ sometimes derived from <span title="yuval">יבל</span> in the s they would be three different words for “son,” and there are numerous other theories as to their etymology. Lamech has also a daughter Naamah (“gracious,” “pleasant,” “comely”; -cf. No’mân, a name of the deity Adonis). This narrative clearly +cf. No’mân, a name of the deity Adonis). This narrative clearly intends to account for the origin of these various arts as they existed in the narrator’s time; it is not likely that he thought of these discoveries as separated from his own age by a universal @@ -23173,382 +23135,6 @@ E. Ray Lankester, pt. v.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 1, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 41902-h.htm or 41902-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/9/0/41902/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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