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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41902 ***
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+ printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+ underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+ paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+ inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+ letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+ ARTICLE LABYRINTHULIDEA: "From each cyst ultimately emerges a
+ single amoeba, or more rarely four (figs. 6, 7)." 'amoeba' amended
+ from 'amoebae'.
+
+ ARTICLE LACE: "... upon the lace-making industry in
+ Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire contains many
+ illustrations of laces made in these counties from the 17th century
+ to the present time." 'Bedfordshire' amended from 'Bedforshire'.
+
+ ARTICLE LACONIA: "The coast, especially on the east, is rugged and
+ dangerous." 'especially' amended from 'expecially'.
+
+ ARTICLE LA FARGE, JOHN: "Hokusai: A Talk about Hokusai (New York,
+ 1897), and An Artist's Letters from Japan (New York, 1897)."
+ 'Hokusai' amended from 'Hoksuai'.
+
+ ARTICLE LAMELLIBRANCHIA: "The series of oval holes on the back of
+ the lamella are the water-pores which open between the filaments in
+ irregular rows separated horizontally by the transverse
+ inter-filamentar junctions." 'filamentar' amended from 'filmentar'.
+
+
+
+
+ THE
+
+ ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
+
+ ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+
+
+ FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771.
+ SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784.
+ THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797.
+ FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810.
+ FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817.
+ SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824.
+ SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842.
+ EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860.
+ NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889.
+ TENTH " ninth edition and eleven
+ supplementary volumes, 1902-1903.
+ ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.
+
+
+ COPYRIGHT
+
+ in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention
+
+ by
+
+ THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
+ of the
+ UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
+
+ _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+ THE
+
+ ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
+
+ A DICTIONARY OF
+ ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+ ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+ VOLUME XVI
+ L to LORD ADVOCATE
+
+ New York
+
+ Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
+ 342 Madison Avenue
+
+ Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
+ by
+ The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.
+
+
+ VOLUME XVI, SLICE I
+
+ L to Lamellibranchia
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+ L LA FARINA, GIUSEPPE
+ LAACHER SEE LA FAYETTE, GILBERT MOTIER DE
+ LAAGER LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE
+ LAAS, ERNST LA FAYETTE, ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER
+ LA BADIE, JEAN DE LA FAYETTE, PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE
+ LABEL LAFAYETTE
+ LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS LA FERTÉ
+ LABERIUS, DECIMUS LA FERTÉ-BERNARD
+ LABIATAE LA FERTÉ-MILON
+ LABICANA, VIA LAFFITTE, JACQUES
+ LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN LAFFITTE, PIERRE
+ LABICI LA FLÈCHE
+ LABID LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI
+ LABIENUS LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE
+ LABLACHE, LUIGI LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE
+ LABOR DAY LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE
+ LA BOURBOULE LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE
+ LABOUR CHURCH, THE LAGASH
+ LA BOURDONNAIS, FRANÇOIS LAGHMAN
+ LABOUR EXCHANGE LAGOON
+ LABOUR LEGISLATION LAGOS (province of Nigeria)
+ LABOUR PARTY LAGOS (seaport of Nigeria)
+ LABRADOR LAGOS (seaport of Portugal)
+ LABRADORITE LA GRÂCE
+ LABRADOR TEA LA GRAND' COMBE
+ LABRUM LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS
+ LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE LAGRANGE-CHANCEL, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH
+ LABUAN LA GRANJA
+ LABURNUM LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS
+ LABYRINTH LA GUAIRA
+ LABYRINTHULIDEA LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, DUBREUIL HÉLION
+ LAC LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES
+ LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE LAGUNA
+ LACAITA, SIR JAMES LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE
+ LA CALLE LAHIRE, LAURENT DE
+ LA CALPRENÈDE, COSTES LAHN
+ LA CARLOTA LAHNDA
+ LACCADIVE ISLANDS LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF
+ LACCOLITE LAHORE
+ LACE LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE
+ LACE-BARK TREE LAHR
+ LACEDAEMON LAIBACH
+ LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD DE LA VILLE LAIDLAW, WILLIAM
+ LACEWING-FLY LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON
+ LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE LAING, DAVID
+ LA CHAISE-DIEU LAING, MALCOLM
+ LA CHALOTAIS, DE CARADEUC DE LAING, SAMUEL
+ LA CHARITÉ LAING'S NEK
+ LA CHAUSSÉE, NIVELLE DE LAIRD, MACGREGOR
+ LACHES LAÏS
+ LACHINE LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE
+ LACHISH LAI-YANG
+ LACHMANN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM LAKANAL, JOSEPH
+ LACINIUM, PROMUNTURIUM LAKE, GERARD LAKE
+ LA CIOTAT LAKE
+ LA CLOCHE, JAMES DE LAKE CHARLES
+ LA CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE DE LAKE CITY
+ LACONIA (Peloponnese district) LAKE DISTRICT
+ LACONIA (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) LAKE DWELLINGS
+ LACONICUM LAKE GENEVA
+ LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI LAKE OF THE WOODS
+ LACQUER LAKE PLACID
+ LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE LAKEWOOD
+ LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED LAKH
+ LACROIX, PAUL LAKHIMPUR
+ LACROMA LAKSHMI
+ LA CROSSE LALAING, JACQUES DE
+ LACROSSE LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE
+ LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE LALÍN
+ LACRYMATORY LA LINEA
+ LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS LALITPUR
+ LACTIC ACID LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR
+ LACTONES LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD
+ LA CUEVA, JUAN DE LALO, EDOUARD
+ LACUNAR LA MADDALENA
+ LACUZON LAMAISM
+ LACY, FRANZ MORITZ LAMALOU-LES-BAINS
+ LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH LAMA-MIAO
+ LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS
+ LACYDES OF CYRENE LAMARCK, ANTOINE DE MONET
+ LADAKH AND BALTISTAN LA MARGHERITA, CLEMENTE SOLARO
+ LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL LA MARMORA, ALFONSO FERRERO
+ LADDER LAMARTINE, LOUIS DE PRAT DE
+ LADING LAMB, CHARLES
+ LADISLAUS I LAMB
+ LADISLAUS IV. LAMBALLE, LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO
+ LADISLAUS V. LAMBALLE
+ LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE LAMBAYEQUE
+ LADO ENCLAVE LAMBEAUX, JEF
+ LADOGA LAMBERMONT, AUGUSTE
+ LADY LAMBERT, DANIEL
+ LADYBANK LAMBERT, FRANCIS
+ LADYBRAND LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH
+ LADY-CHAPEL LAMBERT, JOHN (English martyr)
+ LADY DAY LAMBERT, JOHN (English general)
+ LADYSMITH LAMBERT OF HERSFELD
+ LAELIUS LAMBESSA
+ LAENAS LAMBETH
+ LAER, PIETER VAN LAMBETH CONFERENCES
+ LAESTRYGONES LAMBINUS, DIONYSIUS
+ LAETUS, JULIUS POMPONIUS LAMBOURN
+ LAEVIUS LAMECH
+ LAEVULINIC ACID LAMEGO
+ LA FARGE, JOHN LAMELLIBRANCHIA
+
+
+
+
+INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1]
+WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
+
+
+ A. B. Ch.
+ A. B. CHATWOOD, B.SC., A.M.INST.C.E., M.INST.ELEC.E.
+
+ Lock.
+
+ A. B. R.
+ ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S., F.L.S.
+
+ Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of _Text Book
+ on Classification of Flowering Plants, &c._
+
+ Leaf.
+
+ A. C. F.
+ ALEXANDER CAMPBELL FRASER, LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: FRASER, A. C.
+
+ Locke, John.
+
+ A. C. S.
+ ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE.
+
+ See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C.
+
+ Landor.
+
+ A. D.
+ HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: Dobson, HENRY AUSTIN.
+
+ Locker-Lampson.
+
+ A. Fi.
+ PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON.
+
+ See the biographical article: FILON, P. M. A.
+
+ Labiche.
+
+ A. F. P.
+ ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC.
+
+ Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow
+ of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant editor of the Dictionary
+ of National Biography, 1893-1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892;
+ Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of _England under the Protector
+ Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c.
+
+ Lambert, Francis;
+ Lambert, Nicholson.
+
+ A. Gl.
+ ARNOLD GLOVER, M.A., LL.B. (d. 1905)
+
+ Trinity College, Cambridge; Joint-editor of _Beaumont and
+ Fletcher_ for the Cambridge University Press.
+
+ Layard.
+
+ A. Go.*
+ REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.
+
+ Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester.
+
+ Laurentius, Paul;
+ Libertines.
+
+ A. G. D.
+ ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S.,
+ F.R.S.(Canada).
+
+ Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of
+ Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint editor of
+ _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_.
+
+ Lafontaine.
+
+ A. H. S.
+ REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LITT.D., LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H.
+
+ Laodicea.
+
+ A. J. G.
+ REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D.
+
+ Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United
+ Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras
+ University, and Member of Mysore Educational Service.
+
+ Logos (_in part_).
+
+ A. J. L.
+ ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX.
+
+ Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of
+ the _Rio News_ (Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901.
+
+ Lima (_Peru_).
+
+ A. L.
+ ANDREW LANG.
+
+ See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW.
+
+ La Cloche.
+
+ A. M. An.
+ ADELAIDE MARY ANDERSON, M.A.
+
+ H.M. Principal Lady Inspector of Factories, Home Office. Clerk to
+ the Royal Commission on Labour, 1892-1894. Gamble Gold Medallist,
+ Girton College, Cambridge, 1893. Author of various articles on
+ Industrial Life and Legislation, &c.
+
+ Labour Legislation.
+
+ A. M. C.
+ AGNES MARY CLERKE.
+
+ See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M.
+
+ Lagrange;
+ Laplace;
+ Leverrier.
+
+ A. N.
+ ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
+
+ See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.
+
+ Lämmergeyer;
+ Lapwing;
+ Lark;
+ Linnet;
+ Loom.
+
+ A. P. C.
+ ARTHUR PHILEMON COLEMAN, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S.
+
+ Professor of Geology in the University of Toronto. Geologist,
+ Bureau of Mines, Toronto, 1893-1910. Author of _Reports of the
+ Bureau of Mines of Ontario_.
+
+ Labrador (_in part_).
+
+ A. P. Lo.
+ ALBERT PETER LOW.
+
+ Deputy Minister of Department of Mines, Canada. Member of
+ Geological Survey of Canada. Author of _Report on the Exploration
+ in the Labrador Peninsula_; &c.
+
+ Labrador (_in part_).
+
+ A. Se.*
+ ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S.
+
+ Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and
+ Technology, London. Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity
+ College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology in the University of
+ Cambridge, 1907-1909.
+
+ Larval Forms.
+
+ A. Sl.
+ ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P.
+
+ Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of _The
+ London Water-Supply_; _Industrial Efficiency_; _Drink, Temperance
+ and Legislation_.
+
+ Liquor Laws.
+
+ A. So.
+ ALBRECHT SOCIN, PH.D. (1844-1899).
+
+ Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of
+ Leipzig and Tübingen. Author of _Arabische Grammatik_; &c.
+
+ Lebanon (_in part_).
+
+ A. S. C.
+ ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B.
+
+ Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author
+ of _Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace_; _Embroidery and Lace_;
+ _Ornament in European Silks_; &c.
+
+ Lace.
+
+ A. St H. G.
+ ALFRED ST HILL GIBBONS.
+
+ Major, East Yorkshire Regiment. Explorer in South Central Africa.
+ Author of _Africa from South to North through Marotseland._
+
+ Lewanika.
+
+ A. S. M.
+ ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART.
+
+ Lamp.
+
+ A. S. W.
+ AUGUSTUS SAMUEL WILKINS, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. (1843-1905).
+
+ Professor of Latin, Owens College, Manchester, 1869-1905. Author
+ of _Roman Literature_; &c.
+
+ Latin Language (_in part_).
+
+ A. T. T.
+ A. T. THORSON.
+
+ Official in Life Saving Service, U.S.A.
+
+ Life-boat: _United States_.
+
+ A. W. H.*
+ ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.
+
+ Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of
+ Gray's Inn, 1900.
+
+ Leopold I. (_Roman Emperor_);
+ Levellers.
+
+ A. W. Hu.
+ REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON, M.A.
+
+ Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside. Librarian National Liberal Club,
+ 1889-1899. Author of _Life of Cardinal Newman_; _Life of Cardinal
+ Manning_; &c.
+
+ Leo XIII.
+
+ A. W. R.
+ ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.
+
+ Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of
+ _Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_.
+
+ Landlord and Tenant;
+ Letters Patent;
+ Lodger and Lodgings.
+
+ A. W. W.
+ ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM.
+
+ Lodge, Thomas.
+
+ B. D. J.
+ BENJAMIN DAYDON JACKSON, PH.D.
+
+ General Secretary of the Linnean Society. Secretary to
+ Departmental Committee of H.M. Treasury on Botanical Work,
+ 1900-1901. Author of _Glossary of Botanic Terms_; &c.
+
+ Linnaeus.
+
+ C.
+ THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF CREWE.
+
+ See the biographical article: CREWE, 1ST EARL OF.
+
+ Laprade.
+
+ C. C. W.
+ CHARLES CRAWFORD WHINERY, A.M.
+
+ Cornell University. Assistant editor 11th Edition of the
+ _Encyclopaedia Britannica_.
+
+ La Salle;
+ Lincoln, Abraham (_in part_).
+
+ C. Di.
+ CHARLES DIBDIN. F.R.G.S.
+
+ Secretary of the Royal National Life-boat Institution. Hon.
+ Secretary of the Civil Service Life-boat Fund, 1870-1906.
+
+ Life-boat: _British_.
+
+ C. D. W.
+ HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT.
+
+ See the biographical article: WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON.
+
+ Labour Legislation: _United States_.
+
+ C. E.*
+ CHARLES EVERITT. M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.
+
+ Formerly Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford.
+
+ Light: _Introduction and History_.
+
+ C. F. A.
+ CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.
+
+ Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of
+ London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold
+ Harbour_.
+
+ Long Island (_Battle_).
+
+ C. F.-Br.
+ CHARLES FORTESCUE-BRICKDALE.
+
+ Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Registrar of the Office of the
+ Land Registry, Lincoln's Inn Fields. Author of _Registration of
+ Title to Land_; _The Practice of the Land Registry_; _Land
+ Transfer in Various Countries_; &c.
+
+ Land Registration.
+
+ C. H.*
+ SIR CHARLES HOLROYD.
+
+ See the biographical article: HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES.
+
+ Legros.
+
+ C. H. Ha.
+ CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
+
+ Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York
+ City. Member of the American Historical Association.
+
+ Leo I.-X. (_Popes_).
+
+ C. J. B.*
+ REV. CHARLES JAMES BALL, M.A.
+
+ University Lecturer in Assyriology, Oxford. Author of _Light from
+ the East_.
+
+ Lamentations.
+
+ C. L. K.
+ CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, MA., F.R.HIST.S., F.S.A.
+
+ Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of _Life of Henry
+ V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_ and Stow's _Survey of
+ London_.
+
+ Lancaster, John of Gaunt, duke of.
+
+ C. M.
+ CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH.
+
+ Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author
+ of _Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII._; _Quellen zur Geschichte
+ des Papstthums_; &c.
+
+ Lateran Councils.
+
+ C. Mo.
+ WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE.
+
+ See the biographical article: MONKHOUSE, W. C.
+
+ Leighton, Lord.
+
+ C. R. B.
+ CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S.
+
+ Professor of Modem History in the University of Birmingham.
+ Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer
+ in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889.
+ Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_;
+ _The Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c.
+
+ Leif Ericsson;
+ Leo, Johannes.
+
+ De B.
+ HENRI G. S. A. DE BLOWITZ.
+
+ See the biographical article: BLOWITZ, H. DE.
+
+ Lesseps, Ferdinand de.
+
+ D. F. T.
+ DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.
+
+ Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_: comprising _The Classical
+ Concerto_, _The Goldberg Variations_, and analysis of many other
+ classical works.
+
+ Lasso, Orlando.
+
+ D. G. H.
+ DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
+
+ Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen
+ College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at
+ Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905;
+ Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900;
+ Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
+
+ Latakia;
+ Lebanon (_in part_).
+
+ D. H.
+ DAVID HANNAY.
+
+ Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short
+ History of the Royal Navy_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; &c.
+
+ La Hogue, Battle of;
+ Lauria, Roger de;
+ Lepanto, Battle of;
+ Lissa.
+
+ D. Ll. T.
+ DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS.
+
+ Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at
+ Pontypridd and Rhondda.
+
+ Llantwit Major.
+
+ D. Mn.
+ REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
+
+ Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of
+ _Constructive Congregational Ideals_; &c.
+
+ Leighton, Robert (_in part_).
+
+ D. M. W.
+ SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.
+
+ Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of
+ the Foreign Department of _The Times_, 1891-1899. Member of the
+ Institut de Droit International and Officier de l'Instruction
+ Publique (France). Joint-editor of New Volumes (10th ed.) of the
+ _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Author of _Russia_; _Egypt and the
+ Egyptian Question_; _The Web of Empire_; &c.
+
+ Lobánov-Rostovski.
+
+ E. B.*
+ ERNEST CHARLES FRANÇOIS BABELON.
+
+ Professor at the Collège de France. Keeper of the department of
+ Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliothèque Nationale. Member of
+ the Académie des Inscriptions et de Belles Lettres, Paris.
+ Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Descriptions
+ Historiques des Monnaies de la République Romaine_; _Traités des
+ Monnaies Grecques et Romaines_; _Catalogue des Camées de la
+ Bibliothèque Nationale_.
+
+ Leptis.
+
+ E. C. B.
+ EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. (Dublin).
+
+ Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "The Lausiac History of
+ Palladius," in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_, vol. vi.
+
+ Leo, Brother.
+
+ E. Da.
+ EDWARD GEORGE DANNREUTHER (1844-1905).
+
+ Member of Board of Professors, Royal College of Music, 1895-1905.
+ Conducted the first Wagner Concerts in London, 1873-1874. Author
+ of _The Music of the Future_; &c. Editor of a critical edition of
+ Liszt's _Etudes_.
+
+ Liszt.
+
+ E. D. J. W.
+ EDWARD D. J. WILSON.
+
+ Formerly Leader-writer on _The Times_.
+
+ Londonderry, 2nd Marquess of.
+
+ E. G.
+ EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.
+
+ See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.
+
+ Lampoon;
+ Lie, Jonas L. E.
+
+ E. Ga.
+ EMILE GARCKE, M.INST.E.E.
+
+ Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of
+ _Manual of Electrical Undertakings_; &c.
+
+ Lighting: _Electric (Commercial Aspects)_.
+
+ E. He.
+ EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A.
+
+ Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal
+ Geographical Society, London.
+
+ Livingstone Mountains.
+
+ E. J. D.
+ EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC.
+
+ Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Author of _A.
+ Scarlatti: his Life and Works_.
+
+ Leo, Leonardo.
+
+ E. O.*
+ EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC.
+
+ Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the
+ Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the
+ Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of
+ Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
+ Senior Students_.
+
+ Liver: _Surgery of Liver and Gall Bladder_.
+
+ E. Pr.
+ EDGAR PRESTAGE.
+
+ Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of
+ Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London,
+ Manchester, &c. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago.
+ Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon
+ Geographical Society, &c. Author of _Letters of a Portuguese Nun_;
+ _Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea_; &c.
+
+ Lobo, F. R.;
+ Lopes, Fernão.
+
+ E. R. L.
+ SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.SC.
+
+ Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Director of the Natural
+ History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. President of
+ the British Association, 1906. Professor of Zoology and
+ Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890.
+ Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898.
+ Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at
+ Oxford, 1905. Author of _Degeneration_; _The Advancement of
+ Science_; _The Kingdom of Man_; &c.
+
+ Lamellibranchia (_in part_).
+
+ E. V. L.
+ EDWARD VERRALL LUCAS.
+
+ Editor of _Works of Charles Lamb_. Author of _Life of Charles
+ Lamb_.
+
+ Lamb, Charles.
+
+ F. E. B.
+ FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S.
+
+ Prosector of Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in
+ Biology at Guy's Hospital, London. Naturalist to "Challenger"
+ Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. Author of _Monograph of the
+ Oligochaeta_; _Animal Colouration_; &c.
+
+ Leech.
+
+ F. E. W.
+ REV. FREDERICK EDWARD WARREN, M.A., B.D., F.S.A.
+
+ Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds. Fellow of St John's College,
+ Oxford, 1865-1882. Author of _The Old Catholic Ritual done into
+ English and compared with the Corresponding Offices in the Roman
+ and Old German Manuals_; _The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic
+ Church_; &c.
+
+ Lection, Lectionary;
+ Lector;
+ Litany;
+ Liturgy.
+
+ F. G. M. B.
+ FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.
+
+ Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.
+
+ Lombards (_in part_).
+
+ F. G. P.
+ FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.
+
+ Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
+ Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School
+ of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal
+ College of Surgeons.
+
+ Liver: _Anatomy_.
+
+ F. J. H.
+ FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
+
+ Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
+ Fellow of Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of
+ the British Academy. Author of Monographs on Roman History,
+ especially Roman Britain; &c.
+
+ Legion (_in part_);
+ Limes Germanicus.
+
+ F. L.*
+ SIR FRANKLIN LUSHINGTON, M.A.
+
+ Formerly Chief Police Magistrate for London. Author of Wagers of
+ Battle.
+
+ Lear, Edward.
+
+ F. V. B.
+ F. VINCENT BROOKS.
+
+ Lithography.
+
+ F. v. H.
+ BARON FRIEDRICH VON HÜGEL.
+
+ Member of Cambridge Philological Society; Member of Hellenic
+ Society. Author of _The Mystical Element of Religion_.
+
+ Loisy.
+
+ F. Wa.
+ FRANCIS WATT, M.A.
+
+ Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of _Law's Lumber Room_;
+ _Scotland of to-day_; &c.
+
+ Law, John.
+
+ F. W. R.*
+ FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S.
+
+ Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London,
+ 1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
+
+ Labradorite;
+ Lapis Lazuli.
+
+ F. W. Ra.
+ FRANCIS WILLIAM RAIKES, K.C., LL.D. (1842-1906).
+
+ Judge of County Courts, Hull, 1898-1906. Joint-author of _The New
+ Practice_; &c.
+
+ Lien.
+
+ G. A. Gr.
+ GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (Dubl.).
+
+ Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of
+ Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal
+ Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic
+ Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of _The
+ Languages of India_; &c.
+
+ Lahnda.
+
+ G. E.
+ REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON. M.A., F.R.HIST.S.
+
+ Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's
+ Lecturer, 1909-1910. Employed by British Government in preparation
+ of the British Case in the British Guiana-Venezuelan and British
+ Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations.
+
+ Limburg.
+
+ G. F. B.
+ GEORGE FREDERICK BARWICK.
+
+ Assistant-Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of
+ Reading-room, British Museum.
+
+ Lavigerie.
+
+ G. F. K.
+ GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ, A.M., PH.D., D.SC.
+
+ Gem Expert to Messrs Tiffany & Co., New York. Hon. Curator of
+ Precious Stones, American Museum of Natural History, New York.
+ Fellow of Geological Society of America. Author of _Precious
+ Stones of North America_; &c. Senior Editor of _Book of the
+ Pearl_.
+
+ Lapidary and Gem-cutting.
+
+ G. H. C.
+ GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.SC.
+
+ Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
+ Author of _Insects: Their Structure and Life_.
+
+ Lepidoptera.
+
+ G. Sa.
+ GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L., LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B.
+
+ La Bruyère;
+ La Fontaine;
+ Lamartine;
+ La Rochefoucauld;
+ Le Sage.
+
+ G. S. L.
+ GEORGE SOMES LAYARD.
+
+ Trinity College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Author
+ of _Charles Keene_; _Shirley Brooks_; &c.
+
+ Linton, William James.
+
+ G. W. T.
+ REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.
+
+ Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew
+ and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
+
+ Labid.
+
+ H. A. L.
+ HENDRIK ANTOON LORENTZ.
+
+ Professor of Physics in the University of Leiden. Author of _La
+ théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps
+ mouvants_.
+
+ Light: _Nature of_.
+
+ H. B. W.*
+ HENRY BENJAMIN WHEATLEY, F.S.A.
+
+ Assistant Secretary, Royal Society of Arts, 1879-1909. President
+ of the Samuel Pepys Club, 1903-1910. Vice-President of the
+ Bibliographical Society, 1908-1910. Author of _The Story of
+ London_; _London Past and Present_; &c.
+
+ London: _History_.
+
+ H. B. Wo.
+ HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.
+
+ Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England
+ and Wales. President Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston
+ Medallist, 1908.
+
+ Logan, Sir William E.;
+ Lonsdale, William.
+
+ H. Ch.
+ HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
+
+ Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the
+ 11th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; Co-editor of the
+ 10th edition.
+
+ Lloyd George, D.
+
+ H. De.
+ REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J.
+
+ Bollandist. Joint-author of the _Acta Sanctorum_.
+
+ Lawrence, St;
+ Linus.
+
+ H. F. G.
+ HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D.
+
+ Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of
+ Cambridge. Author of _Amphibia and Reptiles_ (Cambridge Natural
+ History).
+
+ Lizard.
+
+ H. F. P.
+ HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F.
+
+ Livy (_in part_).
+
+ H. H. J.
+ SIR HENRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON, K.C.B., G.C.M.G.
+
+ See the biographical article: JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON.
+
+ Liberia.
+
+ H. M. S.
+ HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., LITT.D.
+
+ Professor of History and Director of University Extension,
+ University of California. Author of _History of the French
+ Revolution_; _Revolutionary Europe_; &c.
+
+ Littré.
+
+ H. R. T.
+ HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A.
+
+ Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London.
+
+ Libraries (_in part_).
+
+ H. St.
+ HENRY STURT, M.A.
+
+ Author of _Idola Theatri_; _The Idea of a Free Church_; and
+ _Personal Idealism_.
+
+ Lange, Friedrich Albert.
+
+ H. T. A.
+ REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS.
+
+ Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author
+ of the "Commentary on Acts," in the _Westminster New Testament_;
+ _Handbook on the Apocryphal Books_ in the "Century Bible."
+
+ Logia.
+
+ H. W. B.*
+ HERBERT WILLIAM BLUNT, M.A.
+
+ Student, Tutor, and Librarian, Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly
+ Fellow of All Souls' College.
+
+ Logic: _History_.
+
+ H. W. C. D.
+ HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
+
+ Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls'
+ College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _Charlemagne_; _England
+ under the Normans and Angevins_; &c.
+
+ Lanfranc;
+ Langton, Stephen.
+
+ H. Y.
+ SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I.
+
+ See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY.
+
+ Lhasa (_in part_).
+
+ I. A.
+ ISRAEL ABRAHAMS.
+
+ Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of
+ Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of
+ England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish
+ Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c.
+
+ Lazarus, Emma;
+ Leon, Moses;
+ Leon of Modena.
+
+ J. An.
+ JOSEPH ANDERSON, LL.D.
+
+ Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. Assistant
+ Secretary to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and Rhind
+ Lecturer, 1879-1882 and 1892. Editor of Drummond's _Ancient
+ Scottish Weapons_; &c.
+
+ Lake Dwellings.
+
+ J. A. F.
+ JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S.
+
+ Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of
+ London. Fellow of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of
+ St John's College, Cambridge. Vice-President of the Institution of
+ Electrical Engineers. Author of _The Principles of Electric Wave
+ Telegraphy_; _Magnets and Electric Currents_; &c.
+
+ Leyden Jar;
+ Lighting: _Electric_.
+
+ J. A. F. M.
+ JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A.
+
+ Musical critic of _The Times_. Author of _Life of Schumann_; _The
+ Musician's Pilgrimage_; _Masters of German Music_; _English Music
+ in the Nineteenth Century_; _The Age of Bach and Handel_. Editor
+ of _Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians_; &c.
+
+ Lind, Jenny.
+
+ J. A. H.
+ JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC.
+
+ Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
+ Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_; &c.
+
+ Lias;
+ Llandovery Group.
+
+ J. Dr.
+ SIR JAMES DEWAR, F.R.S., LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: DEWAR, SIR J.
+
+ Liquid Gases.
+
+ J. D. B.
+ JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S.
+
+ King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of _The Times_ in
+ South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of
+ Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order
+ of St Alexander of Bulgaria.
+
+ Larissa.
+
+ J. D. Br.
+ JAMES DUFF BROWN.
+
+ Borough Librarian, Islington Public Libraries. Vice-President of
+ the Library Association. Author of _Guide to Librarianship_; &c.
+
+ Libraries (_in part_).
+
+ J. F.-K.
+ JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S.
+
+ Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool
+ University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow
+ of the British Academy. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy.
+ Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of _A
+ History of Spanish Literature_; &c.
+
+ La Cueva;
+ Larra;
+ Literature.
+
+ J. F. St.
+ JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A.
+
+ Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in
+ Aramaic, Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.
+
+ Leviticus.
+
+ J. Ga.
+ JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES.
+
+ Lancaster, House of;
+ Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of.
+
+ J. G. F.
+ SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR J. G.
+
+ Lancaster, Joseph.
+
+ J. G. N.
+ JOHN GEORGE NICOLAY (1832-1901).
+
+ Marshal of the U.S. Supreme Court, 1872-1887. Joint-author of
+ _Abraham Lincoln_: &c.
+
+ Lincoln, Abraham (_in part_).
+
+ J. G. P.*
+ JAMES GORDON PARKER, D.SC., F.C.S.
+
+ Principal of Leathersellers Technical College, London. Gold
+ Medallist, Society of Arts. Author of _Leather for Libraries_;
+ _Principles of Tanning_; &c.
+
+ Leather.
+
+ J. G. R.
+ JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D.
+
+ Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London.
+ Editor of the _Modern Language Journal_. Author of _History of
+ German Literature_; _Schiller after a Century_; &c.
+
+ Lessing (_in part_).
+
+ J. Hn.
+ JUSTUUS HASHAGEN, PH.D.
+
+ Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn.
+ Author of _Das Rheinland unter der französische Herrschaft_.
+
+ Lang, Karl Heinrich;
+ Ledochowski;
+ Leo, Heinrich.
+
+ J. H. F.
+ JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A.
+
+ Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
+
+ Leo VI. (_Emperor of the East_).
+
+ J. Hl. R.
+ JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D.
+
+ Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local
+ Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic
+ Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of
+ Pitt_; &c.
+
+ Las Casas.
+
+ J. J. L.*
+ REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A.
+
+ Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in
+ Divinity and Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge.
+
+ Langen.
+
+ J. K. I.
+ JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: INGRAM, J. K.
+
+ Leslie, Thomas E. C.
+
+ J. Le.
+ REV. JAMES LEGGE, M.A.
+
+ See the biographical article: LEGGE, JAMES.
+
+ Lâo-Tsze.
+
+ J. L. M.
+ JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
+
+ Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
+ Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient
+ Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical
+ Archaeology in University of Oxford.
+
+ Leleges;
+ Locri (_Greece_).
+
+ J. L. W.
+ JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON.
+
+ Author of _Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory_.
+
+ Lancelot.
+
+ J. Mu.
+ SIR JOHN MURRAY, K.C.B., F.R.S.
+
+ See the biographical article: MURRAY, SIR JOHN.
+
+ Lake.
+
+ J. M. C.
+ REV. JAMES M. CROMBIE.
+
+ Author of _Braemar: its Topography and Natural History_; _Lichenes
+ Britannici_.
+
+ Lichens (_in part_).
+
+ J. M. G.
+ JOHN MILLER GRAY (1850-1894).
+
+ Art Critic and Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery,
+ 1884-1894. Author of _David Scott, R.S.A._; _James and William
+ Tassie_.
+
+ Leech, John.
+
+ J. P. E.
+ JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHÉMAR ESMEIN.
+
+ Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion
+ of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of _Cours
+ élémentaire d'histoire du droit français_; &c.
+
+ Lettres de Cachet.
+
+ J. P. P.
+ JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D.
+
+ Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of
+ Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor
+ of the _Classical Quarterly_. Editor-in-chief of the _Corpus
+ Poetarum Latinorum_; &c.
+
+ Latin Literature (_in part_).
+
+ J. P. Pe.
+ REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D.
+
+ Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly
+ Professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. Director of
+ the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of
+ _Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates_;
+ _Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian_.
+
+ Lagash;
+ Larsa.
+
+ J. S.
+ JAMES SULLY, LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: SULLY, JAMES.
+
+ Lewes, George Henry (_in part_).
+
+ J. Si.
+ JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895).
+
+ Author of _A History of Germany_; &c.
+
+ Lessing (_in part_).
+
+ J. S. F.
+ JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S.
+
+ Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on
+ Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal
+ Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society
+ of London.
+
+ Laccolite;
+ Lamprophyres;
+ Laterite;
+ Leucite: _Leucite Rocks_;
+ Limestone.
+
+ J. S. K.
+ JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.).
+
+ Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Hon. Member, Geographical
+ Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of the _Statesman's
+ Year Book_. Editor of the _Geographical Journal_.
+
+ Livingstone.
+
+ J. S. W.
+ JOHN STEPHEN WILLISON, LL.D., F.R.S. (Canada).
+
+ Editor of _The News_ (Toronto). Canadian Correspondent of _The
+ Times_. Author of _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party_; &c.
+
+ Laurier.
+
+ J. T. Be.
+ JOHN THOMAS BEALBY.
+
+ Joint-author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the
+ _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's
+ _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c.
+
+ Ladoga (_in part_);
+ Livonia (_in part_);
+ Lop-nor.
+
+ J. T. Br.
+ J. TAYLOR BROWN.
+
+ Leighton, Robert (_in part_).
+
+ J. T. C.
+ JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S.
+
+ Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London.
+ Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor
+ of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to
+ the Marine Biological Association.
+
+ Lamellibranchia (_in part_).
+
+ J. T. S.*
+ JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.
+
+ Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.
+
+ Languedoc.
+
+ J. V.*
+ JULES VIARD.
+
+ Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public
+ Instruction. Author of _La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois_;
+ &c.
+
+ Le Maçon.
+
+ J. W. D.
+ CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N.
+
+ Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal.
+
+ Log.
+
+ J. W. He.
+ JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A.
+
+ Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education.
+ Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek
+ and Ancient History at Queen's College, London. Author of
+ _Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire_; &c.
+
+ Lasker.
+
+ J. W. L. G.
+ JAMES WHITBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S.
+
+ Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the
+ Cambridge Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical
+ Society. Editor of _Messenger of Mathematics_ and the _Quarterly
+ Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics_.
+
+ Legendre, A. M.;
+ Logarithm.
+
+ K. H.
+ KILLINGWORTH HEDGES, M.INST.C.E., M.INST.ELECT.E.
+
+ Hon. Secretary of the Lightning Research Committee. Author of
+ _Modern Lightning Conductors_; &c.
+
+ Lightning Conductor.
+
+ K. S.
+ KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
+
+ Editor of _The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. Author of _The
+ Instruments of the Orchestra_.
+
+ Lituus.
+
+ L. A. W.
+ LAURENCE AUSTINE WADDELL, C.B., C.I.E., LL.D., M.B.
+
+ Lieut.-Colonel I.M.S. (retired). Author of _Lhasa and its
+ Mysteries_; &c.
+
+ Lhasa (_in part_).
+
+ L. B.
+ LAURENCE BINYON.
+
+ See the biographical article: BINYON, L.
+
+ Lawson, Cecil Gordon.
+
+ L. D.*
+ LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE.
+
+ See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.
+
+ Liberius.
+
+ L. J. S.
+ LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.
+
+ Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum.
+ Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness
+ Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.
+
+ Leadhillite;
+ Lepidolite;
+ Leucite (_in part_);
+ Liroconite.
+
+ L. T. D.
+ SIR LEWIS TONNA DIBDIN, M.A., D.C.L., F.S.A.
+
+ Dean of the Arches; Master of the Faculties; and First Church
+ Estates Commissioner. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of
+ _Monasticism in England_; &c.
+
+ Lincoln Judgment, The.
+
+ L. V.*
+ LUIGI VILLARI.
+
+ Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper
+ Correspondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New
+ Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910.
+ Author of _Italian Life in Town and Country_; &c.
+
+ Leopold II. (_Grand Duke of Tuscany_).
+
+ M. Br.
+ MARGARET BRYANT.
+
+ Landor: _Bibliography_;
+ La Sale.
+
+ M. Ca.
+ MORITZ CANTOR, PH.D.
+
+ Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg.
+ Author of _Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Mathematik_; &c.
+
+ Leonardo of Pisa.
+
+ M. H. S.
+ MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A.
+
+ Formerly Editor of the _Magazine of Art_. Member of Fine Art
+ Committee of International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos
+ Aires, Rome, and the Franco-British Exhibition, London. Author of
+ _History of "Punch"_; _British Portrait Painting to the Opening of
+ the Nineteenth Century_; _Works of G. F. Watts, R.A._; _British
+ Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day_; _Henriette Ronner_; &c.
+
+ Line Engraving (_in part_).
+
+ M. N. T.
+ MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A.
+
+ Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in
+ Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_.
+
+ Laconia;
+ Leonidas;
+ Leotychides.
+
+ M. O. B. C.
+ MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.
+
+ Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek
+ at Birmingham University, 1905-1908.
+
+ Leo I.-V. (_Emperors of the East_);
+ Lesbos;
+ Leuctra.
+
+ M. P.*
+ LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET.
+
+ Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of
+ the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).
+
+ L'Aubespine.
+
+ N. G. G.
+ NICHOLAS G. GEDYE.
+
+ Chief Engineer to the Tyne Improvement Commission.
+
+ Lighthouse (_in part_).
+
+ O. Hr.
+ OTTO HENKER, PH.D.
+
+ On the Staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany.
+
+ Lens.
+
+ P. A. K.
+ PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
+
+ See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A.
+
+ Ladoga (_in part_);
+ Lithuanians and Letts: _History_;
+ Livonia (_in part_).
+
+ P. C. M.
+ PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., D.SC., LL.D.
+
+ Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University
+ Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre
+ Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology at Charing
+ Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1894. Examiner in
+ Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-1903.
+ Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.
+
+ Life;
+ Longevity.
+
+ P. C. Y.
+ PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
+
+ Magdalen College, Oxford.
+
+ Laud, Archbishop;
+ Lauderdale, Duke of;
+ Leeds, 1st Duke of.
+
+ P. G.
+ PERCY GARDNER. LITT.D., LL.D., F.S.A.
+
+ See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
+
+ Leochares.
+
+ P. Gi.
+ PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D.
+
+ Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and
+ University Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the
+ Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of Comparative
+ Philology_; &c.
+
+ L.
+
+ P. G. H.
+ PHILIP GILBERT HAMERTON.
+
+ See the biographical article: Hamerton, PHILIP GILBERT.
+
+ Line Engraving (_in part_).
+
+ R. A. S. M.
+ ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.
+
+ St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the
+ Palestine Exploration Fund.
+
+ Lachish.
+
+ R. G.
+ RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD.
+
+ Leopardi.
+
+ R. I. P.
+ REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S.
+
+ Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.
+
+ Leaf-insect;
+ Locust (_in part_).
+
+ R. J. M.
+ RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.
+
+ Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the
+ _St James's Gazette_, London.
+
+ Lawn Tennis;
+ Leicester, R. Sidney, earl of;
+ Lockhart, George.
+
+ R. K. D.
+ SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.
+
+ Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of
+ Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907.
+ Member of the Chinese Consular Service, 1858-1865. Author of _The
+ Language and Literature of China_; _Europe and the Far East_; &c.
+
+ Li Hung Chang.
+
+ R. L.*
+ RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
+
+ Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882.
+ Author of _Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the
+ British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of
+ Africa_; &c.
+
+ Langur;
+ Lemming (_in part_);
+ Lemur;
+ Leopard (_in part_);
+ Lion (_in part_);
+ Litopterna.
+
+ R. M'L.
+ ROBERT M'LACHLAN.
+
+ Editor of the _Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_.
+
+ Locust (_in part_).
+
+ R. M. B.
+ ROBERT MICHAEL BALLANTYNE.
+
+ See the biographical article: BALLANTYNE, R. M.
+
+ Life-boat: _British (in part)_.
+
+ R. N. B.
+ ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
+
+ Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of
+ _Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden,
+ 1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe: the
+ Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c.
+
+ Ladislaus I. and IV. of Hungary;
+ Laski.
+
+ R. S. C.
+ ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
+
+ Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University
+ of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College,
+ Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
+ Author of _The Italic Dialects_.
+
+ Latin Language (_in part_);
+ Liguria: _Archaeology and Philology_.
+
+ R. We.
+ RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M.
+
+ Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The
+ Elegies of Maximianus_; &c.
+
+ Long Island.
+
+ R. W. C.
+ THE VERY REV. R. W. CHURCH, D.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: CHURCH, R. W.
+
+ Lombards: _The Kingdom in Italy_.
+
+ S. A. C.
+ STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
+
+ Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and
+ Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund.
+ Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908.
+ Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses
+ and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament
+ History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c.
+
+ Levites.
+
+ S. C.
+ SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: COLVIN, SIDNEY.
+
+ Leonardo da Vinci.
+
+ St C.
+ VISCOUNT ST CYRES.
+
+ See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF.
+
+ Liguori.
+
+ S. D. F. S.
+ REV. STEWART DINGWALL FORDYCE SALMON, M.A., D.D. (1838-1905).
+
+ Professor of Systematic Theology and Exegesis of the Epistles,
+ U.F.C. College Aberdeen, 1876-1905. Author of _The Parables of our
+ Lord_; &c. Editor of _The International Library of Theology_; &c.
+
+ Logos (_in part_).
+
+ S. N.
+ SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.SC.
+
+ See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.
+
+ Latitude;
+ Light: _Velocity_.
+
+ T. As.
+ THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A.
+
+ Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome.
+ Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
+ Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven
+ Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of _The Classical Topography of the
+ Roman Campagna_; &c.
+
+ Labicana, Via;
+ Labici;
+ Lampedusa;
+ Lanciano;
+ Lanuvium;
+ Larino;
+ Latina, Via;
+ Latium;
+ Laurentina, Via;
+ Lavinium;
+ Lecce;
+ Leghorn;
+ Leontini;
+ Licodia Eubea;
+ Ligures Baebiani;
+ Liguria: _History_;
+ Locri: _Italy_.
+
+ T. A. I.
+ THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
+
+ Trinity College, Dublin.
+
+ Livery Companies;
+ London: _Finance_.
+
+ T. Ca.
+ THOMAS CASE, M.A.
+
+ President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete
+ Professor of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy at Oxford and
+ Fellow of Magdalen College. Author of _Physical Realism_; &c.
+
+ Logic.
+
+ T. C. A.
+ SIR THOMAS CLIFFORD ALLBUTT, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., D.SC., LL.D.,
+ F.R.S.
+
+ Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge.
+ Physician to Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville
+ and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor of _Systems of Medicine_.
+
+ Lister, 1st Baron.
+
+ T. Da.
+ THOMAS DAVIDSON, LL.D.
+
+ Longfellow.
+
+ T. F. C.
+ THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D.
+
+ Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown,
+ Mass., U.S.A.
+
+ Laodicea, Synod of.
+
+ T. F. H.
+ THOMAS F. HENDERSON.
+
+ Author of _Mary Queen of Scots and the Casket Letters_; &c.
+
+ Latimer.
+
+ T. H. H.*
+ SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC., F.R.G.S.
+
+ Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys,
+ India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M.
+ Commissioner for the Perso-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of _The
+ Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c.
+
+ Ladakh and Baltistan
+
+ T. K.
+ THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D.
+
+ Author of _An Inquiry into Socialism_; _Primer of Socialism_; &c.
+
+ Lassalle.
+
+ T. Mo.
+ THOMAS MOORE, F.L.S. (1821-1887).
+
+ Curator of the Garden of the Apothecaries Company at Chelsea,
+ 1848-1887. Editor of the _Gardeners' Magazine of Botany_; Author
+ of _Handbook of British Ferns_; _Index Filicum_; _Illustrations of
+ Orchidaceous Plants_.
+
+ Labyrinth.
+
+ T. M. L.
+ REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D.
+
+ Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly
+ Assistant to the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the
+ University of Edinburgh. Author of _History of the Reformation_;
+ _Life of Luther_; &c.
+
+ Lollards.
+
+ T. Se.
+ THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.
+
+ Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University
+ of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of
+ _Dictionary of National Biography_, 1891-1900. Author of _The Age
+ of Johnson_; &c.
+
+ Lever, Charles.
+
+ T. W. R. D.
+ THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.
+
+ Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University.
+ Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College,
+ London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of
+ the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic
+ Society, 1885-1902. Author of _Buddhism_; _Sacred Books of the
+ Buddhists_; _Early Buddhism_; _Buddhist India_; _Dialogues of the
+ Buddha_; &c.
+
+ Lamaism.
+
+ T. Wo.
+ THOMAS WOODHOUSE.
+
+ Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical
+ College, Dundee.
+
+ Linen and Linen Manufactures.
+
+ V. B. L.
+ VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S.
+
+ Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College. Chief Superintendent
+ Gas Examiner to the Corporation of the City of London.
+
+ Lighting: _Oil and Gas_.
+
+ V. H. B.
+ VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.SC.
+
+ Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of
+ St John's College, Cambridge.
+
+ Lichens (_in part_).
+
+ W. A. B. C.
+ REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S.
+
+ Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History,
+ St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to
+ Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor of
+ _The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889.
+
+ Lausanne;
+ Leuk;
+ Liechtenstein;
+ Linth;
+ Locarno;
+ Locle, Le.
+
+ W. A. P.
+ WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
+
+ Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St
+ John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c.
+
+ Laibach, Congress of;
+ Lights, Ceremonial use of.
+
+ W. E. Co.
+ THE RT. REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, M.A., D.D.
+
+ Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History,
+ King's College, London. Lecturer of Selwyn and St John's Colleges,
+ Cambridge. Author of _The Study of Ecclesiastical History_;
+ _Beginnings of English Christianity_; &c.
+
+ Libellatici.
+
+ W. F. I.
+ WILLIAM FERGUSSON IRVINE, HON. M.A. (Liverpool).
+
+ Hon. Secretary and General Editor of Historical Society of
+ Lancashire and Cheshire. Hon. Local Secretary for Cheshire of the
+ Society of Antiquaries. Author of _Liverpool in the reign of
+ Charles II._; _Old Halls of Wirral_; &c.
+
+ Liverpool.
+
+ W. H. Be.
+ WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
+
+ Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges,
+ London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer
+ in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the
+ Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c.
+
+ Lamech.
+
+ W. H. F.
+ SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S.
+
+ See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H.
+
+ Lemming (_in part_);
+ Leopard (_in part_);
+ Lion (_in part_).
+
+ W. M. R.
+ WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
+
+ See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
+
+ Lely, Sir Peter;
+ Lippi.
+
+ W. P. T.
+ WILLIAM PETERFIELD TRENT, LL.D., D.C.L.
+
+ Professor of English Literature. Columbia University. Author of
+ _English Culture in Virginia_; _A Brief History of American
+ Literature_; &c.
+
+ Lanier.
+
+ W. R. So.
+ WILLIAM RITCHIE SORLEY, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D.
+
+ Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge.
+ Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British
+ Academy. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College. Author of _The Ethics
+ of Naturalism_; _The Interpretation of Evolution_; &c.
+
+ Leibnitz.
+
+ W. R. S.-R.
+ WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A.
+
+ Formerly Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British
+ Museum. Author of _Russian Folk Tales_; &c.
+
+ Lermontov.
+
+ W. T. Ca.
+ WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN. D.SC., F.Z.S.
+
+ Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South
+ Kensington. Author of "Crustacea" in _A Treatise on Zoology_,
+ edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester.
+
+ Lobster.
+
+ W. T. D.
+ WILLIAM TREGARTHEN DOUGLASS, M.INST.C.E., M.I.M.E.
+
+ Consulting Engineer to Governments of Western Australia, New South
+ Wales, Victoria, Cape of Good Hope, &c. Erected the Eddystone and
+ Bishop Rock Lighthouses. Author of _The New Eddystone Lighthouse_;
+ &c.
+
+ Lighthouse (_in part_).
+
+ W. W. R.*
+ WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.
+
+ Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
+ New York.
+
+ Leo XI. and XII. (_popes_).
+
+ W. W. S.
+ WALTER WILLIAM SKEAT, LITT.D., LL.D., D.C.L.
+
+ See the biographical article: SKEAT, W. W.
+
+ Layamon.
+
+ W. Y. S.
+ WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.
+
+ See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG.
+
+ Latin Literature (_in part_).
+
+
+PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
+
+ Labiatae. Larch. Leprosy.
+ Lacrosse. Lead Poisoning. Libel.
+ Lagos. Leeds. Liberal Party.
+ Lahore. Legitimacy. Liliaceae.
+ Lake District. Leguminosae. Lille.
+ Lambeth Conferences. Leicestershire. Lily.
+ Lanarkshire. Leipzig. Limitation, Statutes of.
+ Lancashire. Leith. Lincoln.
+ Lantern. Lemnos. Lincolnshire.
+ Lapland. Lemon. Lippe.
+ Larceny. Lent. Lisbon.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+ [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in
+ the final volume.
+
+
+
+
+ ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
+
+ ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+ VOLUME XVI
+
+
+
+
+L a letter which was the twelfth letter of the Phoenician alphabet. It
+has in its history passed through many changes of form, ending curiously
+enough in its usual manuscript form with a shape almost identical with
+that which it had about 900 B.C. ([symbol] L). As was the case with B
+and some other letters the Greeks did not everywhere keep the symbol in
+the position in which they had borrowed it [symbol]. This, which was its
+oldest form in Attica and in the Chalcidian colonies of Italy, was the
+form adopted by the Romans, who in time converted it into the rectangle
+L, which passed from them to the nations of western Europe. In the Ionic
+alphabet, however, from which the ordinary Greek alphabet is derived it
+appeared as [symbol]. A still more common form in other parts of Greece
+was [symbol], with the legs of unequal length. The editors of Herodotus
+have not always recognized that the name of Labda, the mother of
+Cypselus, in the story (v. 92) of the founding of the great family of
+Corinthian despots, was derived from the fact that she was lame and so
+suggested the form of the Corinthian [symbol]. Another form [symbol] or
+[symbol] was practically confined to the west of Argolis. The name of
+the Greek letter is ordinarily given as _Lambda_, but in Herodotus
+(above) and in Athenaeus x. p. 453 _e_, where the names of the letters
+are given, the best authenticated form is _Labda_. The Hebrew name,
+which was probably identical with the Phoenician, is _Lamed_, which,
+with a final vowel added as usual, would easily become _Lambda_, _b_
+being inserted between m and another consonant. The pronunciation of _l_
+varies a great deal according to the point at which the tongue makes
+contact with the roof of the mouth. The contact, generally speaking, is
+at the same point as for _d_, and this accounts for an interchange
+between these sounds which occurs in various languages, e.g. in Latin
+_lacrima_ from the same root as the Greek [Greek: dakru] and the English
+_tear_. The change in Latin occurs in a very limited number of cases and
+one explanation of their occurrence is that they are borrowed (Sabine)
+words. In pronunciation the breath may be allowed to escape at one or
+both sides of the tongue. In most languages _l_ is a fairly stable
+sound. Orientals, however, have much difficulty in distinguishing
+between _l_ and _r_. In Old Persian _l_ is found in only two foreign
+words, and in Sanskrit different dialects employ _r_ and _l_ differently
+in the same words. Otherwise, however, the interchanges between _r_ and
+_l_ were somewhat exaggerated by the older philologists. Before other
+consonants _l_ becomes silent in not a few languages, notably in French,
+where it is replaced by _u_, and in English where it has occasionally
+been restored in recent times, e.g. in _fault_ which earlier was spelt
+without _l_ (as in French whence it was borrowed), and which Goldsmith
+could still rhyme with _aught_. In the 15th century the Scottish dialect
+of English dropped _l_ largely both before consonants and finally after
+_a_ and _u_, _a'_ = all, _fa'_ = fall, _pu'_ = pull, _'oo'_ = wool,
+_bulk_ pronounced like _book_, &c., while after _o_ it appears as _w_,
+_row_ (pronounced _rau_) = roll, _know_ = knoll, &c. It is to be
+observed that L = 50 does not come from this symbol, but was an
+adaptation of [symbol], the western Greek form of [chi], which had no
+corresponding sound in Latin and was therefore not included in the
+ordinary alphabet. This symbol was first rounded into [symbol] and then
+changed first to [symbol], and ultimately to L. (P. Gi.)
+
+
+
+
+LAACHER SEE, a lake of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 5 m. W.
+of Brohl on the Rhine, and N. of the village of Niedermendig. It
+occupies what is supposed to be a crater of the Eifel volcanic
+formation, and the pumice stone and basalt found in great quantities
+around it lend credence to this theory. It lies 850 ft. above the sea,
+is 5 m. in circumference and 160 ft. deep, and is surrounded by an
+amphitheatre of high hills. The water is sky blue in colour, very cold
+and bitter to the taste. The lake has no natural outlet and consequently
+is subjected to a considerable rise and fall. On the western side lies
+the Benedictine abbey of St Maria Laach (_Abballa Lacensis_) founded in
+1093 by Henry II., count palatine of the Rhine. The abbey church, dating
+from the 12th century, was restored in 1838. The history of the
+monastery down to modern times appears to have been uneventful. In 1802
+it was abolished and at the close of the Napoleonic wars it became a
+Prussian state demesne. In 1863 it passed into the hands of the Jesuits,
+who, down to their expulsion in 1873, published here a periodical, which
+still appears, entitled _Stimmen aus Maria Laach_. In 1892 the monastery
+was again occupied by the Benedictines.
+
+
+
+
+LAAGER, a South African Dutch word (Dutch _leger_, Ger. _lager_,
+connected with Eng. "lair") for a temporary defensive encampment, formed
+by a circle of wagons. The English word is "leaguer," an armed camp,
+especially that of a besieging or "beleaguering" army. The Ger. _lager_,
+in the sense of "store," is familiar as the name of a light beer (see
+BREWING).
+
+
+
+
+LAAS, ERNST (1837-1885), German philosopher, was born on the 16th of
+June 1837 at Fürstenwalde. He studied theology and philosophy under
+Trendelenburg at Berlin, and eventually became professor of philosophy
+in the new university of Strassburg. In _Kant's Analogien der Erfahrung_
+(1876) he keenly criticized Kant's transcendentalism, and in his chief
+work _Idealismus und Positivismus_ (3 vols., 1879-1884), he drew a
+clear contrast between Platonism, from which he derived
+transcendentalism, and positivism, of which he considered Protagoras the
+founder. Laas in reality was a disciple of Hume. Throughout his
+philosophy he endeavours to connect metaphysics with ethics and the
+theory of education.
+
+ His chief educational works were _Der deutsche Aufsatz in den obern
+ Gymnasialklassen_ (1868; 3rd ed., part i., 1898, part ii, 1894), and
+ _Der deutsche Unterricht auf höhern Lehranstalten_ (1872; 2nd ed.
+ 1886). He contributed largely to the _Vierteljahrsschr. f. wiss.
+ Philos._ (1880-1882); the _Litterarischer Nachlass_, a posthumous
+ collection, was published at Vienna (1887). See Hanisch, _Der
+ Positivismus von Ernst Laas_ (1902); Gjurits, _Die Erkenntnistheorie
+ des Ernst Laas_ (1903); Falckenberg, _Hist. of Mod. Philos._ (Eng.
+ trans., 1895).
+
+
+
+
+LA BADIE, JEAN DE (1610-1674), French divine, founder of the school
+known as the Labadists, was born at Bourg, not far from Bordeaux, on the
+13th of February 1610, being the son of Jean Charles de la Badie,
+governor of Guienne. He was sent to the Jesuit school at Bordeaux, and
+when fifteen entered the Jesuit college there. In 1626 he began to study
+philosophy and theology. He was led to hold somewhat extreme views about
+the efficacy of prayer and the direct influence of the Holy Spirit upon
+believers, and adopted Augustinian views about grace, free will and
+predestination, which brought him into collision with his order. He
+therefore separated from the Jesuits, and then became a preacher to the
+people, carrying on this work in Bordeaux, Paris and Amiens. At Amiens
+in 1640 he was appointed a canon and teacher of theology. The hostility
+of Cardinal Mazarin, however, forced him to retire to the Carmelite
+hermitage at Graville. A study of Calvin's _Institutes_ showed him that
+he had more in common with the Reformed than with the Roman Catholic
+Church, and after various adventures he joined the Reformed Church of
+France and became professor of theology at Montauban in 1650. His
+reasons for doing so he published in the same year in his _Déclaration
+de Jean de la Badie_. His accession to the ranks of the Protestants was
+deemed a great triumph; no such man since Calvin himself, it was said,
+had left the Roman Catholic Church. He was called to the pastorate of
+the church at Orange on the Rhone in 1657, and at once became noted for
+his severity of discipline. He set his face zealously against dancing,
+card-playing and worldly entertainments. The unsettled state of the
+country, recently annexed to France, compelled him to leave Orange, and
+in 1659 he became a pastor in Geneva. He then accepted a call to the
+French church in London, but after various wanderings settled at
+Middelburg, where he was pastor to the French-speaking congregation at a
+Walloon church. His peculiar opinions were by this time (1666) well
+known, and he and his congregation found themselves in conflict with the
+ecclesiastical authorities. The result was that la Badie and his
+followers established a separate church in a neighbouring town. In 1669
+he moved to Amsterdam. He had enthusiastic disciples, Pierre Yvon
+(1646-1707) at Montauban, Pierre Dulignon (d. 1679), François Menuret
+(d. 1670), Theodor Untereyk (d. 1693), F. Spanheim (1632-1701), and,
+more important than any, Anna Maria v. Schürman (1607-1678), whose book
+_Eucleria_ is perhaps the best exposition of the tenets of her master.
+At the head of his separatist congregation, la Badie developed his views
+for a reformation of the Reformed Churches: the church is a communion of
+holy people who have been born again from sin; baptism is the sign and
+seal of this regeneration, and is to be administered only to believers;
+the Holy Spirit guides the regenerate into all truth, and the church
+possesses throughout all time those gifts of prophecy which it had in
+the ancient days; the community at Jerusalem is the continual type of
+every Christian congregation, therefore there should be a community of
+goods, the disciples should live together, eat together, dance together;
+marriage is a holy ordinance between two believers, and the children of
+the regenerate are born without original sin, marriage with an
+unregenerate person is not binding. They did not observe the Sabbath,
+because--so they said--their life was a continual Sabbath. The life and
+separatism of the community brought them into frequent collision with
+their neighbours and with the magistrates, and in 1670 they accepted
+Society is in Miss Edith Sichel's _Women and Men of the French
+Renaissance_ (1901). See also J. Favre, _Olivier de Magny_ (1885).
+
+
+
+
+LABEL (a French word, now represented by _lambeau_, possibly a variant;
+it is of obscure origin and may be connected with a Teutonic word
+appearing in the English "lap," a flap or fold), a slip, ticket, or card
+of paper, metal or other material, attached to an object, such as a
+parcel, bottle, &c., and containing a name, address, description or
+other information, for the purpose of identification. Originally the
+word meant a band or ribbon of linen or other material, and was thus
+applied to the fillets (_infulae_) attached to a bishop's mitre. In
+heraldry the "label" is a mark of "cadency."
+
+In architecture the term "label" is applied to the outer projecting
+moulding over doors, windows, arches, &c., sometimes called "Dripstone"
+or "Weather Moulding," or "Hood Mould." The former terms seem scarcely
+applicable, as this moulding is often inside a building where no rain
+could come, and consequently there is no drip. In Norman times the label
+frequently did not project, and when it did it was very little, and
+formed part of the series of arch mouldings. In the Early English styles
+they were not very large, sometimes slightly undercut, sometimes deeply,
+sometimes a quarter round with chamfer, and very frequently a "roll" or
+"scroll-moulding," so called because it resembles the part of a scroll
+where the edge laps over the body of the roll. Labels generally resemble
+the string-courses of the period, and, in fact, often return
+horizontally and form strings. They are less common in Continental
+architecture than in English.
+
+
+
+
+LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS (c. 50 B.C.-A.D. 18), Roman jurist, was the son
+of Pacuvius Antistius Labeo, a jurist who caused himself to be slain
+after the defeat of his party at Philippi. A member of the plebeian
+nobility, and in easy circumstances, the younger Labeo early entered
+public life, and soon rose to the praetorship; but his undisguised
+antipathy to the new régime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in
+the senate he occasionally gave expression to his republican
+sympathies--what Tacitus (_Ann._ iii. 75) calls his _incorrupta
+libertas_--proved an obstacle to his advancement, and his rival, Ateius
+Capito, who had unreservedly given in his adhesion to the ruling powers,
+was promoted by Augustus to the consulate, when the appointment should
+have fallen to Labeo; smarting under the wrong done him, Labeo declined
+the office when it was offered to him in a subsequent year (Tac. _Ann._
+iii. 75; Pompon, in fr. 47, _Dig._ i. 2). From this time he seems to
+have devoted his whole time to jurisprudence. His training in the
+science had been derived principally from Trebatius Testa. To his
+knowledge of the law he added a wide general culture, devoting his
+attention specially to dialectics, philology (_grammatica_), and
+antiquities, as valuable aids in the exposition, expansion, and
+application of legal doctrine (Gell. xiii. 10). Down to the time of
+Hadrian his was probably the name of greatest authority; and several of
+his works were abridged and annotated by later hands. While Capito is
+hardly ever referred to, the dicta of Labeo are of constant recurrence
+in the writings of the classical jurists, such as Gaius, Ulpian and
+Paul; and no inconsiderable number of them were thought worthy of
+preservation in Justinian's _Digest_. Labeo gets the credit of being the
+founder of the Proculian sect or school, while Capito is spoken of as
+the founder of the rival Sabinian one (Pomponius in fr. 47, _Dig._ i.
+2); but it is probable that the real founders of the two _scholae_ were
+Proculus and Sabinus, followers respectively of the methods of Labeo and
+Capito.
+
+ Labeo's most important literary work was the _Libri Posteriorum_, so
+ called because published only after his death. It contained a
+ systematic exposition of the common law. His _Libri ad Edictum_
+ embraced a commentary, not only on the edicts of the urban and
+ peregrine praetors, but also on that of the curule aediles. His
+ _Probabilium_ ([Greek: pithanôn]) _lib. VIII._, a collection of
+ definitions and axiomatic legal propositions, seems to have been one
+ of his most characteristic productions.
+
+ See van Eck, "De vita, moribus, et studiis M. Ant. Labeonis"
+ (Franeker, 1692), in Oelrichs's _Thes. nov._, vol. i.; Mascovius, _De
+ sectis Sabinianor. et Proculianor._ (1728); Pernice, _M. Antistius
+ Labeo. Das röm. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit_
+ (Halle, 1873-1892).
+
+
+
+
+LABERIUS, DECIMUS (c. 105-43 B.C.), Roman knight and writer of mimes. He
+seems to have been a man of caustic wit, who wrote for his own pleasure.
+In 45 Julius Caesar ordered him to appear in one of his own mimes in a
+public contest with the actor Publilius Syrus. Laberius pronounced a
+dignified prologue on the degradation thus thrust on his sixty years,
+and directed several sharp allusions against the dictator. Caesar
+awarded the victory to Publilius, but restored Laberius to his
+equestrian rank, which he had forfeited by appearing as a mimus
+(Macrobius, _Sat._ ii. 7). Laberius was the chief of those who
+introduced the mimus into Latin literature towards the close of the
+republican period. He seems to have been a man of learning and culture,
+but his pieces did not escape the coarseness inherent to the class of
+literature to which they belonged; and Aulus Gellius (xvi. 7, 1) accuses
+him of extravagance in the coining of new words. Horace (_Sat._ i. 10)
+speaks of him in terms of qualified praise.
+
+ In addition to the prologue (in Macrobius), the titles of forty-four
+ of his mimi have been preserved; the fragments have been collected by
+ O. Ribbeck in his _Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1873).
+
+
+
+
+LABIATAE (i.e. "lipped," Lat. _labium_, lip), in botany, a natural order
+of seed-plants belonging to the series Tubiflorae of the dicotyledons,
+and containing about 150 genera with 2800 species. The majority are
+annual or perennial herbs inhabiting the temperate zone, becoming
+shrubby in warmer climates. The stem is generally square in section and
+the simple exstipulate leaves are arranged in decussating pairs (i.e.
+each pair is in a plane at right angles to that of the pairs immediately
+above and below it); the blade is entire, or toothed, lobed or more or
+less deeply cut. The plant is often hairy, and the hairs are frequently
+glandular, the secretion containing a scent characteristic of the genus
+or species. The flowers are borne in the axils of the leaves or bracts;
+they are rarely solitary as in _Scutellaria_ (skull-cap), and generally
+form an apparent whorl (_verticillaster_) at the node, consisting of a
+pair of cymose inflorescences each of which is a simple three-flowered
+dichasium as in _Brunella_, _Salvia_, &c., or more generally a dichasium
+passing over into a pair of monochasial cymes as in _Lamium_ (fig. 1),
+_Ballota_, _Nepeta_, &c. A number of whorls may be crowded at the apex
+of the stem and the subtending leaves reduced to small bracts, the whole
+forming a raceme- or spike-like inflorescence as in _Mentha_ (fig. 2, 5)
+_Brunella_, &c.; the bracts are sometimes large and coloured as in
+_Monarda_, species of _Salvia_, &c., in the latter the apex of the stem
+is sometimes occupied with a cluster of sterile coloured bracts. The
+plan of the flower is remarkably uniform (fig. 1, 3); it is bisexual,
+and zygomorphic in the median plane, with 5 sepals united to form a
+persistent cup-like calyx, 5 petals united to form a two-lipped gaping
+corolla, 4 stamens inserted on the corolla-tube, two of which, generally
+the anterior pair, are longer than the other two (didynamous
+arrangement)--sometimes as in _Salvia_, the posterior pair is
+aborted--and two superior median carpels, each very early divided by a
+constriction in a vertical plane, the pistil consisting of four cells
+each containing one erect anatropous ovule attached to the base of an
+axile placenta; the style springs from the centre of the pistil between
+the four segments (_gynobasic_), and is simple with a bifid apex. The
+fruit comprises four one-seeded nutlets included in the persistent
+calyx; the seed has a thin testa and the embryo almost or completely
+fills it. Although the general form and plan of arrangement of the
+flower is very uniform, there are wide variations in detail. Thus the
+calyx may be tubular, bell-shaped, or almost spherical, or straight or
+bent, and the length and form of the teeth or lobes varies also; it may
+be equally toothed as in mint (_Mentha_) (fig. 2, 3), and marjoram
+(_Origanum_), or two-lipped as in thyme (_Thymus_), _Lamium_ (fig. 1)
+and _Salvia_ (fig. 2, 1); the number of nerves affords useful characters
+for distinction of genera, there are normally five main nerves between
+which simple or forked secondary nerves are more or less developed. The
+shape of the corolla varies widely, the differences being doubtless
+intimately associated with the pollination of the flowers by
+insect-agency. The tube is straight or variously bent and often widens
+towards the mouth. Occasionally the limb is equally five-toothed, or
+forms, as in _Mentha_ (fig. 2, 3, 4) an almost regular four-toothed
+corolla by union of the two posterior teeth. Usually it is two-lipped,
+the upper lip being formed by the two posterior, the lower lip by the
+three anterior petals (see fig. 1, and fig. 2, 1, 6); the median lobe of
+the lower lip is generally most developed and forms a resting-place for
+the bee or other insect when probing the flower for honey, the upper lip
+shows great variety in form, often, as in _Lamium_ (fig. 1), _Stachys_,
+&c., it is arched forming a protection from rain for the stamens, or it
+may be flat as in thyme. In the tribe _Ocimoideae_ the four upper petals
+form the upper lip, and the single anterior one the lower lip, and in
+_Teucrium_ the upper lip is absent, all five lobes being pushed forward
+to form the lower. The posterior stamen is sometimes present as a
+staminode, but generally suppressed; the upper pair are often reduced to
+staminodes or more or less completely suppressed as in _Salvia_ (fig. 2,
+2, 6); rarely are these developed and the anterior pair reduced. In
+_Coleus_ the stamens are monadelphous. In _Nepeta_ and allied genera the
+posterior pair are the longer, but this is rare, the didynamous
+character being generally the result of the anterior pair being the
+longer. The anthers are two-celled, each cell splitting lengthwise; the
+connective may be more or less developed between the cells; an extreme
+case is seen in _Salvia_ (fig. 2, 2), where the connective is filiform
+and jointed to the filament, while the anterior anther-cell is reduced
+to a sterile appendage. Honey is secreted by a hypogynous disk. In the
+more general type of flower the anthers and stigmas are protected by the
+arching upper lip as in dead-nettle (fig. 1) and many other British
+genera; the lower lip affords a resting-place for the insect which in
+probing the flower for the honey, secreted on the lower side of the
+disk, collects pollen on its back. Numerous variations in detail are
+found in the different genera; in _Salvia_ (fig. 2), for instance, there
+is a lever mechanism, the barren half of each anther forming a knob at
+the end of a short arm which when touched by the head of an insect
+causes the anther at the end of the longer arm to descend on the
+insect's back. In the less common type, where the anterior part of the
+flower is more developed, as in the _Ocimoideae_, the stamens and style
+lie on the under lip and honey is secreted on the upper side of the
+hypogynous disk; the insect in probing the flower gets smeared with
+pollen on its belly and legs. Both types include brightly-coloured
+flowers with longer tubes adapted to the visits of butterflies and
+moths, as species of _Salvia_, _Stachys_, _Monarda_, &c.; some South
+American species of _Salvia_ are pollinated by humming-birds. In
+_Mentha_ (fig. 2, 3), thyme, marjoram (_Origanum_), and allied genera,
+the flowers are nearly regular and the stamens spread beyond the
+corolla.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Flowering Shoot of Dead-nettle (_Lamium album_).
+1, Flower cut lengthwise, enlarged; 2 calyx, enlarged; 3, floral
+diagram.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--1, Flower of Sage (_Salvia officinalis_); 2,
+Corolla of same cut open showing the two stamens; 3, flower of spearmint
+(_Mentha viridis_); 4, corolla of same cut open showing stamens; 5,
+flowering shoot of same, reduced; 6, floral diagram of _Salvia_.]
+
+The persistent calyx encloses the ripe nutlets, and aids in their
+distribution in various ways, by means of winged spiny or hairy lobes or
+teeth; sometimes it forms a swollen bladder. A scanty endosperm is
+sometimes present in the seed; the embryo is generally parallel to the
+fruit axis with a short inferior radicle and generally flat cotyledons.
+
+ The order occurs in all warm and temperate regions; its chief centre
+ is the Mediterranean region, where some genera such as _Lavandula_,
+ _Thymus_, _Rosmarinus_ and others form an important feature in the
+ vegetation. The tribe _Ocimoideae_ is exclusively tropical and
+ subtropical and occurs in both hemispheres. The order is well
+ represented in Britain by seventeen native genera; _Mentha_ (mint)
+ including also _M. piperita_ (peppermint) and _M. Pulegium_
+ (pennyroyal); _Origanum vulgare_ (marjoram); _Thymus Serpyllum_
+ (thyme); _Calamintha_ (calamint), including also _C. Clinopodium_
+ (wild basil) and _C. Acinos_ (basil thyme); _Salvia_ (sage), including
+ _S. Verbenaca_ (clary); _Nepeta Cataria_ (catmint), _N. Glechoma_
+ (ground-ivy); _Brunella_ (self-heal); _Scutellaria_ (skull-cap);
+ _Stachys (woundwort); _S. Betonica_ is wood betony; _Galeopsis_
+ (hemp-nettle); Lamium_ (dead-nettle); _Ballota_ (black horehound);
+ _Teucrium_ (germander); and _Ajuga_ (bugle).
+
+ Labiatae are readily distinguished from all other orders of the series
+ excepting Verbenaceae, in which, however, the style is terminal; but
+ several genera, e.g. _Ajuga_, _Teucrium_ and _Rosmarinus_, approach
+ Verbenaceae in this respect, and in some genera of that order the
+ style is more or less sunk between the ovary lobes. The
+ fruit-character indicates an affinity with Boraginaceae from which,
+ however, they differ in habit and by characters of ovule and embryo.
+
+ The presence of volatile oil renders many genera of economic use, such
+ are thyme, marjoram (_Origanum_), sage (_Salvia_), lavender
+ (_Lavandula_), rosemary (_Rosmarinus_), patchouli (_Pogostemon_). The
+ tubers of _Stachys Sieboldi_ are eaten in France.
+
+
+
+
+LABICANA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, leading E.S.E. from Rome.
+It seems possible that the road at first led to Tusculum, that it was
+then prolonged to Labici, and later still became a road for through
+traffic; it may even have superseded the Via Latina as a route to the
+S.E., for, while the distance from Rome to their main junction at Ad
+Bivium (or to another junction at Compitum Anagninum) is practically
+identical, the summit level of the former is 725 ft. lower than that of
+the latter, a little to the west of the pass of Algidus. After their
+junction it is probable that the road bore the name Via Latina rather
+than Via Labicana. The course of the road after the first six miles from
+Rome is not identical with that of any modern road, but can be clearly
+traced by remains of pavement and buildings along its course.
+
+ See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i. 215 sqq.
+ (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN (1815-1888), French dramatist, was born on the 5th
+of May 1815, of _bourgeois_ parentage. He read for the bar, but
+literature had more powerful attractions, and he was hardly twenty when
+he gave to the _Chérubin_--an impertinent little magazine, long vanished
+and forgotten--a short story, entitled, in the cavalier style of the
+period, _Les plus belles sont les plus fausses_. A few others followed
+much in the same strain, but failed to catch the attention of the
+public. He tried his hand at dramatic criticism in the _Revue des
+théâtres_, and in 1838 made a double venture on the stage. The small
+Théâtre du Panthéon produced, amid some signs of popular favour, a drama
+of his, _L'Avocat Loubet_, while a vaudeville, _Monsieur de Coislin ou
+l'homme infiniment poli_, written in collaboration with Marc Michel, and
+given at the Palais Royal, introduced for the first time to the
+Parisians a provincial actor who was to become and to remain a great
+favourite with them, Grassot, the famous low comedian. In the same year
+Labiche, still doubtful about his true vocation, published a romance
+called _La Clé des champs_. M. Léon Halévy, his successor at the Academy
+and his panegyrist, informs us that the publisher became a bankrupt soon
+after the novel was out. "A lucky misadventure, for," the biographer
+concludes, "this timely warning of Destiny sent him back to the stage,
+where a career of success was awaiting him." There was yet another
+obstacle in the way. When he married, he solemnly promised his wife's
+parents that he would renounce a profession then considered incompatible
+with moral regularity and domestic happiness. But a year afterwards his
+wife spontaneously released him from his vow, and Labiche recalled the
+incident when he dedicated the first edition of his complete works: "To
+my wife." Labiche, in conjunction with Varin,[1] Marc Michel,[2]
+Clairville,[3] Dumanoir,[4] and others contributed comic plays
+interspersed with couplets to various Paris theatres. The series
+culminated in the memorable farce in five acts, _Un Chapeau de paille
+d'Italie_ (August 1851). It remains an accomplished specimen of the
+French _imbroglio_, in which some one is in search of something, but
+does not find it till five minutes before the curtain falls. Prior to
+that date Labiche had been only a successful _vaudevilliste_ among a
+crowd of others; but a twelvemonth later he made a new departure in _Le
+Misanthrope et l'Auvergnat_. All the plays given for the next
+twenty-five years, although constructed on the old plan, contained a
+more or less appreciable dose of that comic observation and good sense
+which gradually raised the French farce almost to the level of the
+comedy of character and manners. "Of all the subjects," he said, "which
+offered themselves to me, I have selected the _bourgeois_. Essentially
+mediocre in his vices and in his virtues, he stands half-way between the
+hero and the scoundrel, between the saint and the profligate." During
+the second period of his career Labiche had the collaboration of
+Delacour,[5] Choler,[6] and others. When it is asked what share in the
+authorship and success of the plays may be claimed for those men, we
+shall answer in Émile Augier's words: "The distinctive qualities which
+secured a lasting vogue for the plays of Labiche are to be found in all
+the comedies written by him with different collaborators, and are
+conspicuously absent from those which they wrote without him." A more
+useful and more important collaborator he found in Jean Marie Michel
+Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a _débutant_ in his younger
+days, and who remained his faithful interpreter to the last. Geoffroy
+impersonated the _bourgeois_ not only to the public, but to the author
+himself; and it may be assumed that Labiche, when writing, could see and
+hear Geoffroy acting the character and uttering, in his pompous, fussy
+way, the words that he had just committed to paper. _Célimare le
+bien-aimé_ (1863), _Le Voyage de M. Perrichon_ (1860), _La Grammaire_,
+_Un Pied dans le crime_, _La Cagnotte_ (1864), may be quoted as the
+happiest productions of Labiche.
+
+In 1877 he brought his connexion with the stage to a close, and retired
+to his rural property in Sologne. There he could be seen, dressed as a
+farmer, with low-brimmed hat, thick gaiters and an enormous stick,
+superintending the agricultural work and busily engaged in reclaiming
+land and marshes. His lifelong friend, Augier, visited him in his
+principality, and, being left alone in the library, took to reading his
+host's dramatic productions, scattered here and there in the shape of
+theatrical _brochures_. He strongly advised Labiche to publish a
+collected and revised edition of his works. The suggestion, first
+declined as a joke and long resisted, was finally accepted and carried
+into effect. Labiche's comic plays, in ten volumes, were issued during
+1878 and 1879. The success was even greater than had been expected by
+the author's most sanguine friends. It had been commonly believed that
+these plays owed their popularity in great measure to the favourite
+actors who had appeared in them; but it was now discovered that all,
+with the exception of Geoffroy, had introduced into them a grotesque and
+caricatural element, thus hiding from the spectator, in many cases, the
+true comic vein and delightful delineation of human character. The
+amazement turned into admiration, and the _engouement_ became so general
+that very few dared grumble or appear scandalized when, in 1880, Labiche
+was elected to the French Academy. It was fortunate that, in former
+years, he had never dreamt of attaining this high distinction; for, as
+M. Pailleron justly observed, while trying to get rid of the little
+faults which were in him, he would have been in danger of losing some of
+his sterling qualities. But when the honour was bestowed upon him, he
+enjoyed it with his usual good sense and quiet modesty. He died in Paris
+on the 23rd of January 1888.
+
+Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Molière, but it
+will be enough to say that he was something better than a public
+_amuseur_. Many of his plays have been transferred to the English stage.
+They are, on the whole, as sound as they are entertaining. Love is
+practically absent from his theatre. In none of his plays did he ever
+venture into the depths of feminine psychology, and womankind is only
+represented in them by pretentious old maids and silly, insipid, almost
+dumb, young ladies. He ridiculed marriage according to the invariable
+custom of French playwrights, but in a friendly and good-natured manner
+which always left a door open to repentance and timely amendment. He is
+never coarse, never suggestive. After he died the French farce, which he
+had raised to something akin to literature, relapsed into its former
+grossness and unmeaning complexity. (A. Fi.)
+
+ His _Théâtre complet_ (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by
+ Émile Augier.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+ [1] Victor Varin, pseudonym of Charles Voirin (1798-1869).
+
+ [2] Marc Antoine Amédée Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist.
+
+ [3] Louis François Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879),
+ part-author of the famous _Fille de Mme Angot_ (1872).
+
+ [4] Philippe François Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865).
+
+ [5] Alfred Charlemagne Lartigue, called Delacour (1815-1885). For a
+ list of this author's pieces see O. Lorenz, _Catalogue Général_ (vol.
+ ii., 1868).
+
+ [6] Adolphe Joseph Choler (1822-1889).
+
+
+
+
+LABICI, an ancient city of Latium, the modern Monte Compatri, about 17
+m. S.E. from Rome, on the northern slopes of the Alban Hills, 1739 ft.
+above sea-level. It occurs among the thirty cities of the Latin League,
+and it is said to have joined the Aequi in 419 B.C. and to have been
+captured by the Romans in 418. After this it does not appear in history,
+and in the time of Cicero and Strabo was almost entirely deserted if not
+destroyed. Traces of its ancient walls have been noticed. Its place was
+taken by the _respublica Lavicanorum Quintanensium_, the post-station
+established in the lower ground on the Via Labicana (see LABICANA, VIA),
+a little S.W. of the modern village of Colonna, the site of which is
+attested by various inscriptions and by the course of the road itself.
+
+ See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i. 256 sqq.
+ (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+LABID (Abu 'Aqil Labid ibn Rabi'a) (_c._ 560-_c._ 661), Arabian poet,
+belonged to the Bani 'Amir, a division of the tribe of the Hawazin. In
+his younger years he was an active warrior and his verse is largely
+concerned with inter-tribal disputes. Later, he was sent by a sick uncle
+to get a remedy from Mahomet at Medina and on this occasion was much
+influenced by a part of the Koran. He accepted Islam soon after, but
+seems then to have ceased writing. In Omar's caliphate he is said to
+have settled in Kufa. Tradition ascribes to him a long life, but dates
+given are uncertain and contradictory. One of his poems is contained in
+the _Mo'allakat_ (q.v.).
+
+ Twenty of his poems were edited by Chalidi (Vienna, 1880); another
+ thirty-five, with fragments and a German translation of the whole,
+ were edited (partly from the remains of A. Huber) by C. Brockelmann
+ (Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, _Über die Gedichte des Lebyd_
+ (Vienna, 1881). Stories of Labid are contained in the
+ _Kitabul-Aghani_, xiv. 93 ff. and xv. 137 ff. (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+LABIENUS, the name of a Roman family, said (without authority) to belong
+to the gens Atia. The most important member was TITUS LABIENUS. In 63
+B.C., at Caesar's instigation, he prosecuted Gaius Rabirius (q.v.) for
+treason; in the same year, as tribune of the plebs, he carried a
+plebiscite which indirectly secured for Caesar the dignity of pontifex
+maximus (Dio Cassius xxxvii. 37). He served as a legatus throughout
+Caesar's Gallic campaigns and took Caesar's place whenever he went to
+Rome. His chief exploits in Gaul were the defeat of the Treviri under
+Indutiomarus in 54, his expedition against Lutetia (Paris) in 52, and
+his victory over Camulogenus and the Aedui in the same year. On the
+outbreak of the civil war, however, he was one of the first to desert
+Caesar, probably owing to an overweening sense of his own importance,
+not adequately recognized by Caesar. He was rapturously welcomed on the
+Pompeian side; but he brought no great strength with him, and his ill
+fortune under Pompey was as marked as his success had been under Caesar.
+From the defeat at Pharsalus, to which he had contributed by affecting
+to despise his late comrades, he fled to Corcyra, and thence to Africa.
+There he was able by mere force of numbers to inflict a slight check
+upon Caesar at Ruspina in 46. After the defeat at Thapsus he joined the
+younger Pompey in Spain, and was killed at Munda (March 17th, 45).
+
+
+
+
+LABLACHE, LUIGI (1794-1858), Franco-Italian singer, was born at Naples
+on the 6th of December 1794, the son of a merchant of Marseilles who had
+married an Irish lady. In 1806 he entered the Conservatorio della Pieta
+de Turchini, where he studied music under Gentili and singing under
+Valesi, besides learning to play the violin and violoncello. As a boy he
+had a beautiful alto voice, and by the age of twenty he had developed a
+magnificent bass with a compass of two octaves from E[flat] below to
+E[flat] above the bass stave. After making his first appearance at
+Naples he went to Milan in 1817, and subsequently travelled to Turin,
+Venice and Vienna. His first appearances in London and Paris in 1830 led
+to annual engagements in both the English and French capitals. His
+reception at St Petersburg a few years later was no less enthusiastic.
+In England he took part in many provincial musical festivals, and was
+engaged by Queen Victoria to teach her singing. On the operatic stage he
+was equally successful in comic or tragic parts, and with his
+wonderfully powerful voice he could express either humour or pathos.
+Among his friends were Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and Mercadante. He
+was one of the thirty-two torch-bearers chosen to surround the coffin at
+Beethoven's funeral in 1827. He died at Naples on the 23rd of January
+1858 and was buried at Maison Lafitte, Paris. Lablache's Leporello in
+_Don Giovanni_ was perhaps his most famous impersonation; among his
+principal other rôles were Dandini in _Cenerentola_ (Rossini), Assur in
+_Semiramide_ (Rossini), Geronimo in _La Gazza Ladra_ (Rossini), Henry
+VIII. in _Anna Bolena_ (Donizetti), the Doge in _Marino Faliero_
+(Donizetti), the title-rôle in _Don Pasquale_ (Donizetti), Geronimo in
+_Il Matrimonio Segreto_ (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in _L'Étoile du Nord_
+(Meyerbeer), Caliban in _The Tempest_ (Halévy).
+
+
+
+
+LABOR DAY, in the United States, a legal holiday in nearly all of the
+states and Territories, where the first Monday in September is observed
+by parades and meetings of labour organizations. In 1882 the Knights of
+Labor paraded in New York City on this day; in 1884 another parade was
+held, and it was decided that this day should be set apart for this
+purpose. In 1887 Colorado made the first Monday in September a legal
+holiday; and in 1909 Labor Day was observed as a holiday throughout the
+United States, except in Arizona and North Dakota; in Louisiana it is a
+holiday only in New Orleans (Orleans parish), and in Maryland, Wyoming
+and New Mexico it is not established as a holiday by statute, but in
+each may be proclaimed as such in any year by the governor.
+
+
+
+
+LA BOURBOULE, a watering-place of central France, in the department of
+Puy-de-Dôme, 4½ m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore by road. Pop. (1906) 1401. La
+Bourboule is situated on the right bank of the Dordogne at a height of
+2790 ft. Its waters, of which arsenic is the characteristic constituent,
+are used in cases of diseases of the skin and respiratory organs,
+rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. Though known to the Romans they were not in
+much repute till towards the end of the 19th century. The town has three
+thermal establishments and a casino.
+
+
+
+
+LABOUR CHURCH, THE, an organization intended to give expression to the
+religion of the labour movement. This religion is not theological--it
+leaves theological questions to private individual conviction--but
+"seeks the realization of universal well-being by the establishment of
+Socialism--a commonwealth founded upon justice and love." It asserts
+that "improvement of social conditions and the development of personal
+character are both essential to emancipation from social and moral
+bondage, and to that end insists upon the duty of studying the economic
+and moral forces of society." The first Labour Church was founded at
+Manchester (England) in October 1891 by a Unitarian minister, John
+Trevor. This has disappeared, but vigorous successors have been
+established not only in the neighbourhood, but in Bradford, Birmingham,
+Nottingham, London, Wolverhampton and other centres of industry, about
+30 in all, with a membership of 3000. Many branches of the Independent
+Labour Party and the Social Democratic Federation also hold Sunday
+gatherings for adults and children, using the Labour Church hymn-book
+and a similar form of service, the reading being chosen from Dr Stanton
+Coit's _Message of Man_. There are special forms for child-naming,
+marriages and burials. The separate churches are federated in a Labour
+Church Union, which holds an annual conference and business meeting in
+March. At the conference of 1909, held in Ashton-under-Lyne, the name
+"Labour Church" was changed to "Socialist Church."
+
+
+
+
+LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS, COUNT MAHÉ de (1699-1753), French
+naval commander, was born at Saint Malo on the 11th of February 1699. He
+went to sea when a boy, and in 1718 entered the service of the French
+India Company as a lieutenant. In 1724 he was promoted captain, and
+displayed such bravery in the capture of Mahé of the Malabar coast that
+the name of the town was added to his own. For two years he was in the
+service of the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, but in 1735 he returned to
+French service as governor of the Île de France and the Île de Bourbon.
+His five years' administration of the islands was vigorous and
+successful. A visit to France in 1740 was interrupted by the outbreak of
+hostilities with Great Britain, and La Bourdonnais was put at the head
+of a fleet in Indian waters. He saved Mahé, relieved General Dupleix at
+Pondicherry, defeated Lord Peyton, and in 1746 participated in the siege
+of Madras. He quarrelled with Dupleix over the conduct of affairs in
+India, and his anger was increased on his return to the Île de France at
+finding a successor to himself installed there by his rival. He set sail
+on a Dutch vessel to present his case at court, and was captured by the
+British, but allowed to return to France on parole. Instead of securing
+a settlement of his quarrel with Dupleix, he was arrested (1748) on a
+charge of gubernatorial peculation and maladministration, and secretly
+imprisoned for over two years in the Bastille. He was tried in 1751 and
+acquitted, but his health was broken by the imprisonment and by chagrin
+at the loss of his property. To the last he made unjust accusations
+against Dupleix. He died at Paris on the 10th of November 1753. The
+French government gave his widow a pension of 2400 livres.
+
+La Bourdonnais wrote _Traité de la mâture des vaisseaux_ (Paris 1723),
+and left valuable memoirs which were published by his grandson, a
+celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahé de la Bourdonnais (1795-1840)
+(latest edition, Paris, 1890). His quarrel with Dupleix has given rise
+to much debate; for a long while the fault was generally laid to the
+arrogance and jealousy of Dupleix, but W. Cartwright and Colonel
+Malleson have pointed out that La Bourdonnais was proud, suspicious and
+over-ambitious.
+
+ See P. de Gennes, _Mémoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais, avec les
+ pièces justificatives_ (Paris, 1750); _The Case of Mde la Bourdonnais,
+ in a Letter to a Friend_ (London, 1748); Fantin des Odoards,
+ _Révolutions de l'Inde_ (Paris, 1796); Collin de Bar, _Histoire de
+ l'Inde ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoën,
+ _Histoire de la conquête et de la fondation de l'empire anglais dans
+ l'Inde_ (Paris, 1840); Margry, "Les Isles de France et de Bourbon sous
+ le gouvernement de La Bourdonnais," in _La Revue maritime et
+ coloniale_ (1862); W. Cartwright, "Dupleix et l'Inde française," in
+ _La Revue britannique_ (1882); G. B. Malleson, _Dupleix_ (Oxford,
+ 1895); Anandaranga Pillai, _Les Français dans l'Inde_, _Dupleix et
+ Labourdonnais, extraits du journal d'Anandaran-gappoullé 1736-1748_,
+ trans. in French by Vinsor in _École spéciale des langues orientales
+ vivantes_, séries 3, vol. xv. (Paris, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+LABOUR EXCHANGE, a term very frequently applied to registries having for
+their principal object the better distribution of labour (see
+UNEMPLOYMENT). Historically the term is applied to the system of
+equitable labour exchanges established in England between 1832 and 1834
+by Robert Owen and his followers. The idea is said to have originated
+with Josiah Warren, who communicated it to Owen. Warren tried an
+experiment in 1828 at Cincinnati, opening an exchange under the title of
+a "time store." He joined in starting another at Tuscarawas, Ohio, and a
+third at Mount Vernon, Indiana, but none were quite on the same line as
+the English exchanges. The fundamental idea of the English exchanges was
+to establish a currency based upon labour; Owen in _The Crisis_ for June
+1832 laid down that all wealth proceeded from labour and knowledge; that
+labour and knowledge were generally remunerated according to the time
+employed, and that in the new exchanges it was proposed to make _time_
+the standard or measure of wealth. This new currency was represented by
+"labour notes," the notes being measured in hours, and the hour reckoned
+as being worth sixpence, this figure being taken as the mean between the
+wage of the best and the worst paid labour. Goods were then to be
+exchanged for the new currency. The exchange was opened in extensive
+premises in the Gray's Inn Road, near King's Cross, London, on the 3rd
+of September 1832. For some months the establishment met with
+considerable success, and a considerable number of tradesmen agreed to
+take labour notes in payment for their goods. At first, an enormous
+number of deposits was made, amounting in seventeen weeks to 445,501
+hours. But difficulties soon arose from the lack of sound practical
+valuators, and from the inability of the promoters to distinguish
+between the labour of the highly skilled and that of the unskilled.
+Tradesmen, too, were quick to see that the exchange might be worked to
+their advantage; they brought unsaleable stock from their shops,
+exchanged it for labour notes, and then picked out the best of the
+saleable articles. Consequently the labour notes began to depreciate;
+trouble also arose with the proprietors of the premises, and the
+experiment came to an untimely end early in 1834.
+
+ See F. Podmore's _Robert Owen_, ii. c. xvii. (1906); B. Jones,
+ _Co-operative Production_, c. viii. (1894); G. J. Holyoake, _History
+ of Co-operation_, c. viii. (1906).
+
+
+
+
+LABOUR LEGISLATION. Regulation of labour,[1] in some form or another,
+whether by custom, royal authority, ecclesiastical rules or by formal
+legislation in the interests of a community, is no doubt as old as the
+most ancient forms of civilization. And older than all civilization is
+the necessity for the greater part of mankind to labour for maintenance,
+whether freely or in bonds, whether for themselves and their families or
+for the requirements or superfluities of others. Even while it is clear,
+however, that manual labour, or the application of the bodily
+forces--with or without mechanical aid--to personal maintenance and the
+production of goods, remains the common lot of the majority of citizens
+of the most developed modern communities, still there is much risk of
+confusion if modern technical terms such as "labour," "employer,"
+"labour legislation" are freely applied to conditions in bygone
+civilizations with wholly different industrial organization and social
+relationships. In recent times in England there has been a notable
+disappearance from current use of correlative terms implying a social
+relationship which is greatly changed, for example, in the rapid passage
+from the Master and Servant Act 1867 to the Employer and Workman Act
+1875. In the 18th century the term "manufacturer" passed from its
+application to a working craftsman to its modern connotation of at least
+some command of capital, the employer being no longer a small working
+master. An even more significant later change is seen in the steady
+development of a labour legislation, which arose in a clamant social
+need for the care of specially helpless "protected" persons in factories
+and mines, into a wider legislation for the promotion of general
+industrial health, safety and freedom for the worker from fraud in
+making or carrying out wage contracts.
+
+If, then, we can discern these signs of important changes within so
+short a period, great caution is needed in rapidly reviewing long
+periods of time prior to that industrial revolution which is traced
+mainly to the application of mechanical power to machinery in aid of
+manual labour, practically begun and completed within the second half of
+the 18th century. "In 1740 save for the fly-shuttle the loom was as it
+had been since weaving had begun ... and the law of the land was" (under
+the Act of Apprentices of 1503) "that wages in each district should be
+assessed by Justices of the Peace."[2] Turning back to still earlier
+times, legislation--whatever its source or authority--must clearly be
+devoted to aims very different from modern aims in regulating labour,
+when it arose before the labourer, as a man dependent on an "employer"
+for the means of doing work, had appeared, and when migratory labour was
+almost unknown through the serfdom of part of the population and the
+special status secured in towns to the artisan.
+
+In the great civilizations of antiquity there were great aggregations of
+labour which was not solely, though frequently it was predominantly,
+slave labour; and some of the features of manufacture and mining on a
+great scale arose, producing the same sort of evils and industrial
+maladies known and regulated in our own times. Some of the maladies were
+described by Pliny and classed as "diseases of slaves." And he gave
+descriptions of processes, for example in the metal trades, as belonging
+entirely to his own day, which modern archaeological discoveries trace
+back through the earliest known Aryan civilizations to a prehistoric
+origin in the East, and which have never died out in western Europe, but
+can be traced in a concentrated manufacture with almost unchanged
+methods, now in France, now in Germany, now in England.
+
+Little would be gained in such a sketch as this by an endeavour to piece
+together the scattered and scanty materials for a comparative history of
+the varying conditions and methods of labour regulation over so enormous
+a range. While our knowledge continually increases of the remains of
+ancient craft, skill and massed labour, much has yet to be discovered
+that may throw light on methods of organization of the labourers. While
+much, and in some civilizations most, of the labour was compulsory or
+forced, it is clear that too much has been sometimes assumed, and it is
+by no means certain that even the pyramids of Egypt, much less the
+beautiful earliest Egyptian products in metal work, weaving and other
+skilled craft work, were typical products of slave labour. Even in Rome
+it was only at times that the proportion of slaves valued as property
+was greater than that of hired workers, or, apart from capture in war or
+self-surrender in discharge of a debt, that purchase of slaves by the
+trader, manufacturer or agriculturist was generally considered the
+cheapest means of securing labour. As in early England the various
+stages of village industrial life, medieval town manufacture, and
+organization in craft gilds, and the beginnings of the mercantile
+system, were parallel with a greater or less prevalence of serfdom and
+even with the presence in part of slavery, so in other ages and
+civilizations the various methods of organization of labour are found to
+some extent together. The Germans in their primitive settlements were
+accustomed to the notion of slavery, and in the decline of the Roman
+Empire Roman captives from among the most useful craftsmen were carried
+away by their northern conquerors.
+
+The history and present details of the labour laws of various countries
+are dealt with below in successive sections: (1) history of legislation
+in the United Kingdom; (2) the results as shown by the law in force in
+1909, with the corresponding facts for (3) Continental Europe and (4)
+the United States. Under other headings (TRADE-UNIONS, STRIKES AND
+LOCK-OUTS, ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION, &c., &c.) are many details on
+cognate subjects.
+
+
+I. HISTORY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
+
+1. _Until the Close of the 15th Century._--Of the main conditions of
+industrial labour in early Anglo-Saxon England details are scanty.
+Monastic industrial communities were added in Christian times to village
+industrial communities. While generally husbandry was the first object
+of toil, and developed under elaborate regulation in the manorial
+system, still a considerable variety of industries grew up, the aim
+being expressly to make each social group self-sufficing, and to protect
+and regulate village artisans in the interest of village resources. This
+protective system, resting on a communal or co-operative view of labour
+and social life, has been compared as analogous to the much later and
+wider system under which the main purpose was to keep England as a whole
+self-sufficing.[3] It has also been shown how greatly a fresh spirit of
+enterprise in industry and trade was stimulated first by the Danish and
+next by the Norman invasion; the former brought in a vigour shown in
+growth of villages, increase in number of freemen, and formation of
+trading towns; the latter especially opened up new communications with
+the most civilized continental people, and was followed by a
+considerable immigration of artisans, particularly of Flemings. In Saxon
+England slavery in the strictest sense existed, as is shown in the
+earliest English laws, but it seems that the true slave class as
+distinct from the serf class was comparatively small, and it may well be
+that the labour of an ordinary serf was not practically more severe, and
+the remuneration in maintenance and kind not much less than that of
+agricultural labourers in recent times. In spite of the steady protest
+of the Church, slavery (as the exception, not the general rule) did not
+die out for many centuries, and was apt to be revived as a punishment
+for criminals, e.g. in the fierce provisions of the statute of Edward
+VI. against beggars, not repealed until 1597. At no time, however, was
+it general, and as the larger village and city populations grew the
+ratio of serfs and slaves to the freemen in the whole population rapidly
+diminished, for the city populations "had not the habit and use of
+slavery," and while serfs might sometimes find a refuge in the cities
+from exceptionally severe taskmasters, "there is no doubt that freemen
+gradually united with them under the lord's protection, that strangers
+engaged in trade sojourned among them, and that a race of artisans
+gradually grew up in which original class feelings were greatly
+modified." From these conditions grew two parallel tendencies in
+regulation of labour. On the one hand there was, under royal charters,
+the burgh or municipal organization and control of artisan and craft
+labour, passing later into the more specialized organization in craft
+gilds; on the other hand, there was a necessity, sometimes acute, to
+prevent undue diminution in the numbers available for husbandry or
+agricultural labour. To the latter cause must be traced a provision
+appearing in a succession of statutes (see especially an act of Richard
+II., 1388), that a child under twelve years once employed in agriculture
+might never be transferred to apprenticeship in a craft. The steady
+development of England, first as a wool-growing, later as a
+cloth-producing country, would accentuate this difficulty. During the
+13th century, side by side with development of trading companies for the
+export of wool from England, may be noted many agreements on the part of
+monasteries to sell their wool to Florentines, and during the same
+century absorption of alien artisans into the municipal system was
+practically completed. Charters of Henry I. provided for naturalization
+of these aliens. From the time of Edward I. to Edward III. a gradual
+transference of burgh customs, so far as recognized for the common good,
+to statute law was in progress, together with an assertion of the rights
+of the crown against ecclesiastical orders. "The statutes of Edward I.,"
+says Dr. Cunningham, "mark the first attempt to deal with Industry and
+Trade as a public matter which concerns the whole state, not as the
+particular affair of leading men in each separate locality." The first
+direct legislation for labour by statute, however, is not earlier than
+the twenty-third year of the reign of Edward III., and it arose in an
+attempt to control the decay and ruin, both in rural and urban
+districts, which followed the Hundred Years' War, and the pestilence
+known as the Black Death. This first "Statute of Labourers" was designed
+for the benefit of the community, not for the protection of labour or
+prevention of oppression, and the policy of enforcing customary wages
+and compelling the able-bodied labourer, whether free or bond, not
+living in merchandise or exercising any craft, to work for hire at
+recognized rates of pay, must be reviewed in the circumstances and
+ideals of the time. Regulation generally in the middle ages aimed at
+preventing any individual or section of the community from making what
+was considered an exceptional profit through the necessity of others.[4]
+The scarcity of labour by the reduction of the population through
+pestilence was not admitted as a justification for the demands for
+increased pay, and while the unemployed labourer was liable to be
+committed to gaol if he refused service at current rates, the lords of
+the towns or manors who promised or paid more to their servants were
+liable to be sued treble the sum in question. Similar restrictions were
+made applicable to artificers and workmen. By another statute, two years
+later, labourers or artificers who left their work and went into another
+county were liable to be arrested by the sheriff and brought back. These
+and similar provisions with similar aims were confirmed by statutes of
+1360, 1368 and 1388, but the act of 1360, while prohibiting "all
+alliances and covins of masons, carpenters, congregations, chapters,
+ordinances and oaths betwixt them made," allowed "every lord to bargain
+or covenant for their works in gross with such labourers and artificers
+when it pleaseth them, so that they perform such works well and lawfully
+according to the bargain and covenant with them thereof made." Powers
+were given by the acts of 1368 and 1388 to justices to determine matters
+under these statutes and to fix wages. Records show that workmen of
+various descriptions were pressed by writs addressed to sheriffs to work
+for their king at wages regardless of their will as to terms and place
+of work. These proceedings were founded on notions of royal prerogative,
+of which impressment of seamen survived as an example to a far later
+date. By an act of 1388 no servant or labourer, man or woman, however,
+could depart out of the hundred to serve elsewhere unless bearing a
+letter patent under the king's seal stating the cause of going and time
+of return. Such provisions would appear to have widely failed in their
+purpose, for an act of 1414 declares that the servants and labourers
+fled from county to county, and justices were empowered to send writs to
+the sheriffs for fugitive labourers as for felons, and to examine
+labourers, servants and their masters, as well as artificers, and to
+punish them on confession. An act of 1405, while putting a property
+qualification on apprenticeship and requiring parents under heavy
+penalties to put their children to such labour as their estates
+required, made a reservation giving freedom to any person "to send their
+children to school to learn literature." Up to the end of the 15th
+century a monotonous succession of statutes strengthening, modifying,
+amending the various attempts (since the first Statute of Labourers) to
+limit free movement of labour, or demands by labourers for increased
+wages, may be seen in the acts of 1411, 1427, 1444, 1495. It was clearly
+found extremely difficult, if not impracticable, to carry out the minute
+control of wages considered desirable, and exceptions in favour of
+certain occupations were in some of the statutes themselves. In 1512 the
+penalties for giving wages contrary to law were repealed so far as
+related to masters, but it also appears that London workmen would not
+endure the prevalent restrictions as to wages, and that they secured in
+practice a greater freedom to arrange rates when working within the
+city. Several of these statutes, and especially one of 1514, fixed the
+hours of labour when limiting wages. During March to September the
+limits were 5 A.M. to 7 or 8 P.M., with half an hour off for breakfast
+and an hour and a half off for mid-day dinner. In winter the outside
+limits were fixed by the length of daylight.
+
+Throughout the 15th century the rapidly increasing manufacture of cloth
+was subject to a regulation which aimed at maintaining the standard of
+production and prevention of bad workmanship, and the noteworthy statute
+4 Edward IV. c. 1, while giving power to royal officers to supervise
+size of cloths, modes of sealing, &c., also repressed payment to workers
+in "pins, girdles and unprofitable wares," and ordained payment in true
+and lawful money. This statute (the first against "Truck") gives an
+interesting picture of the way in which clothiers--or, as we should call
+them, wholesale merchants and manufacturers--delivered wool to spinners,
+carders, &c., by weight, and paid for the work when brought back
+finished. It appears that the work was carried on in rural as well as
+town districts. While this industry was growing and thriving other
+trades remained backward, and agriculture was in a depressed condition.
+Craft gilds had primarily the same purpose as the Edwardian statutes,
+that is, of securing that the public should be well served with good
+wares, and that the trade and manufacture itself should be on a sound
+basis as to quality of products and should flourish. Incidentally there
+was considerable regulation by the gilds of the conditions of labour,
+but not primarily in the interests of the labourer. Thus night work was
+prohibited because it tended to secrecy and so to bad execution of work;
+working on holidays was prohibited to secure fair play between craftsmen
+and so on. The position of apprentices was made clear through
+indentures, but the position of journeymen was less certain. Signs are
+not wanting of a struggle between journeymen and masters, and towards
+the end of the 15th century masters themselves, in at least the great
+wool trade, tended to develop from craftsmen into something more like
+the modern capitalist employer; from an act of 1555 touching weavers it
+is quite clear that this development had greatly advanced and that
+cloth-making was carried on largely by employers with large capitals.
+Before this, however, while a struggle went on between the town
+authorities and the craft gilds, journeymen began to form companies of
+their own, and the result of the various conflicts may be seen in an act
+of Henry VI., providing that in future new ordinances of gilds shall be
+submitted to justices of the peace--a measure which was strengthened in
+1503.
+
+2. _From Tudor Days until the Close of the 18th Century._--A detailed
+history of labour regulation in the 16th century would include some
+account of the Tudor laws against vagrancy and methods of dealing with
+the increase of pauperism, attributable, at least in part, to the
+dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII., and to the
+confiscation of craft gild funds, which proceeded under Somerset and
+Edward VI. It is sufficient here to point to the general recognition of
+the public right to compel labourers to work and thus secure control of
+unemployed as well as employed. The statutes of Henry VIII. and Edward
+VI. against vagrancy differed rather in degree of severity than in
+principle from legislation for similar purposes in previous and
+subsequent reigns. The Statute of Labourers, passed in the fifth year of
+Elizabeth's reign (1562), as well as the poor law of the same year, was
+to a considerable extent both a consolidating and an amending code of
+law, and was so securely based on public opinion and deeply rooted
+custom that it was maintained in force for two centuries. It avowedly
+approves of principles and aims in earlier acts, regulating wages,
+punishing refusal to work, and preventing free migration of labour. It
+makes, however, a great advance in its express aim of protecting the
+poor labourer against insufficient wages, and of devising a machinery,
+by frequent meeting of justices, which might yield "unto the hired
+person both in time of scarcity and in time of plenty a convenient
+proportion of wages." Minute regulations were made governing the
+contract between master and servant, and their mutual rights and
+obligations on parallel lines for (a) artificers, (b) labourers in
+husbandry. Hiring was to be by the year, and any unemployed person
+qualified in either calling was bound to accept service on pain of
+imprisonment, if required, unless possessed of property of a specified
+amount or engaged in art, science or letters, or being a "gentleman."
+Persons leaving a service were bound to obtain a testimonial, and might
+not be taken into fresh employment without producing such testimonial,
+or, if in a new district, until after showing it to the authorities of
+the place. A master might be fined £5, and a labourer imprisoned, and if
+contumacious, whipped, for breach of this rule. The carefully devised
+scheme for technical training of apprentices embodied to a considerable
+extent the methods and experiences of the craft gilds. Hours of labour
+were as follows: "All artificers and labourers being hired for wages by
+the day or week shall, betwixt the midst of the months of March and
+September, be and continue at their work at or before 5 o'clock in the
+morning and continue at work and not depart until betwixt 7 and 8
+o'clock at night, except it be in the time of breakfast, dinner or
+drinking, the which time at the most shall not exceed two hours and a
+half in a day, that is to say, at every drinking half an hour, for his
+dinner one hour and for his sleep when he is allowed to sleep, the which
+is from the midst of May to the midst of August, half an hour; and all
+the said artificers and labourers betwixt the midst of September and the
+midst of March shall be and continue at their work from the spring of
+the day in the morning until the night of the same day, except it be in
+time afore appointed for breakfast and dinner, upon pain to lose and
+forfeit one penny for every hour's absence, to be deducted and defaulked
+out of his wages that shall so offend." Although the standpoint of the
+Factory Act and Truck Act in force at the beginning of the 20th century
+as regards hours of labour or regulation of fines deducted from wages is
+completely reversed, yet the difference is not great between the average
+length of hours of labour permissible under the present law for women
+and those hours imposed upon the adult labourer in Elizabeth's statute.
+Apart from the standpoint of compulsory imposition of fines, one
+advantage in the definiteness of amount deductable from wages would
+appear to lie on the side of the earlier statute.
+
+Three points remain to be touched on in connexion with the Elizabethan
+poor law. In addition to (a) consolidation of measures for setting
+vagrants to work, we find the first compulsory contributions from the
+well-to-do towards poor relief there provided for, (b) at least a
+theoretical recognition of a right as well as an obligation on the part
+of the labourer to be hired, (c) careful provision for the apprenticing
+of destitute children and orphans to a trade.
+
+One provision of considerable interest arose in Scotland, which was
+nearly a century later in organizing provisions for fixing conditions of
+hire and wages of workmen, labourers and servants, similar to those
+consolidated in the Elizabethan Statute of Labourers. In 1617 it was
+provided (and reaffirmed in 1661) that power should be given to the
+sheriffs to compel payment of wages, "that servants may be the more
+willing to obey the ordinance." The difficulties in regulation of
+compulsory labour in Scotland must, however, have been great, for in
+1672 houses of correction were erected for disobedient servants, and
+masters of these houses were empowered to force them to work and to
+correct them according to their demerits. While servants in manufacture
+were compelled to work at reasonable rates they might not enter on a new
+hire without their previous master's consent.
+
+Such legislation continued, at least theoretically, in force until the
+awakening effected by the beginning of the industrial revolution--that
+is, until the combined effects of steady concentration of capital in the
+hands of employers and expansion of trade, followed closely by an
+unexampled development of invention in machinery and application of
+power to its use. completely altered the face of industrial England.
+From time to time, in respect of particular trades, provisions against
+truck and for payment of wages in current coin, similar to the act of
+Edward IV. in the woollen industry, were found necessary, and this
+branch of labour legislation developed through the reigns of Anne and
+the four Georges until consolidation and amendment were effected, after
+the completion of the industrial revolution, in the Truck Act of 1831.
+From the close of the 17th century and during the 18th century the
+legislature is no longer mainly engaged in devising means for compelling
+labourers and artisans to enter into involuntary service, but rather in
+regulating the summary powers of justices of the peace in the matter of
+dispute between masters and servants in relation to contracts and
+agreements, express or implied, presumed to have been entered into
+voluntarily on both sides. While the movement to refer labour questions
+to the jurisdiction of the justices thus gradually developed, the main
+subject matter for their exercise of jurisdiction in regard to labour
+also changed, even when theoretically for a time the two sets of
+powers--such as (a) moderation of craft gild ordinances and punishment
+of workers refusing hire, or (b) fixing scales of wages and enforcement
+of labour contracts--might be concurrently exercised. Even in an act of
+George II. (1746) for settlement of disputes and differences as to wages
+or other conditions under a contract of labour, power was retained for
+the justices, on complaint of the masters of misdemeanour or
+ill-behaviour on the part of the servant, to discharge the latter from
+service or to send him to a house of correction "there to be corrected,"
+that is, to be held to hard labour for a term not exceeding a month or
+to be corrected by whipping. In an act with similar aims of George IV.
+(1823), with a rather wider scope, the power to order corporal
+punishment, and in 1867 to hard labour, for breach of labour contracts
+had disappeared, and soon after the middle of the 19th century the right
+to enforce contracts of labour also disappeared. Then breach of such
+labour contracts became simply a question of recovery of damages, unless
+both parties agreed that security for performance of the contract shall
+be given instead of damages.
+
+While the endeavour to enforce labour apart from a contract died out in
+the latter end of the 18th century, sentiment for some time had strongly
+grown in favour of developing early industrial training of children. It
+appears to have been a special object of charitable and philanthropic
+endeavour in the 17th century, as well as the 18th, to found houses of
+industry, in which little children, even under five years of age, might
+be trained for apprenticeship with employers. Connected as this
+development was with poor relief, one of its chief aims was to prevent
+future unemployment and vagrancy by training in habits and knowledge of
+industry, but not unavowed was another motive: "from children thus
+trained up to constant labour we may venture to hope the lowering of its
+price."[5] The evils and excesses which lay enfolded within such a
+movement gave the first impulse to the new ventures in labour
+legislation which are specially the work of the 19th century. Evident as
+it is "that before the Industrial Revolution very young children were
+largely employed both in their own homes and as apprentices under the
+Poor Law," and that "long before Peel's time there were misgivings about
+the apprenticeship system," still it needed the concentration and
+prominence of suffering and injury to child life in the factory system
+to lead to parliamentary intervention.
+
+3. _From 1800 to the Codes of 1872 and 1878._--A serious outbreak of
+fever in 1784 in cotton mills near Manchester appears to have first
+drawn widespread and influential public opinion to the overwork of
+children, under terribly dangerous and insanitary conditions, on which
+the factory system was then largely being carried on. A local inquiry,
+chiefly by a group of medical men presided over by Dr Percival, was
+instituted by the justices of the peace for Lancashire, and in the
+forefront of the resulting report stood a recommendation for limitation
+and control of the working hours of the children. A resolution by the
+county justices followed, in which they declared their intention in
+future to refuse "indentures of parish Apprentices whereby they shall be
+bound to Owners of Cotton Mills and other works in which children are
+obliged to work in the night or more than ten hours in the day." In 1795
+the Manchester Board of Health was formed, which, with fuller
+information, more definitely advised legislation for the regulation of
+the hours and conditions of labour in factories. In 1802 the Health and
+Morals of Apprentices Act was passed, which in effect formed the first
+step towards prevention of injury to and protection of labour in
+factories. It was directly aimed only at evils of the apprentice system,
+under which large numbers of pauper children were worked in cotton and
+woollen mills without education, for excessive hours, under wretched
+conditions. It did not apply to places employing fewer than twenty
+persons or three apprentices, and it applied the principle of limitation
+of hours (to twelve a day) and abolition of night work, as well as
+educational requirements, only to apprentices. Religious teaching and
+suitable sleeping accommodation and clothing were provided for in the
+act, also as regards apprentices. Lime-washing and ventilation
+provisions applied to all cotton and woollen factories employing more
+than twenty persons. "Visitors" were to be appointed by county justices
+for repression of contraventions, and were empowered to "direct the
+adoption of such sanitary regulations as they might on advice think
+proper." The mills were to be registered by the clerk of the peace, and
+justices had power to inflict fines of from £2 to £5 for contraventions.
+Although enforcement of the very limited provisions of the act was in
+many cases poor or non-existent, in some districts excellent work was
+done by justices, and in 1803 the West Riding of Yorkshire justices
+passed a resolution substituting the ten hours' limit for the twelve
+hours' limit of the act, as a condition of permission for indenturing of
+apprentices in mills.
+
+Rapid development of the application of steam power to manufacture led
+to growth of employment of children in populous centres, otherwise than
+on the apprenticeship system, and before long the evils attendant on
+this change brought the general question of regulation and protection of
+child labour in textile factories to the front. The act of 1819, limited
+as it was, was a noteworthy step forward, in that it dealt with this
+wider scope of employment of children in cotton factories, and it is
+satisfactory to record that it was the outcome of the efforts and
+practical experiments of a great manufacturer, Robert Owen. Its
+provisions fell on every point lower than the aims he put forward on his
+own experience as practicable, and notably in its application only to
+cotton mills instead of all textile factories. Prohibition of child
+labour under nine years of age and limitation of the working day to
+twelve in the twenty-four (without specifying the precise hour of
+beginning and closing) were the main provisions of this act. No
+provision was made for enforcement of the law beyond such as was
+attempted in the act of 1802. Slight amendments were attempted in the
+acts of 1825 and 1831, but the first really important factory act was in
+1833 applying to textile factories generally, limiting employment of
+young persons under eighteen years of age, as well as children,
+prohibiting night work between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M., and first
+providing for "inspectors" to enforce the law. This is the act which was
+based on the devoted efforts of Michael Sadler, with whose name in this
+connexion that of Lord Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, was from
+1832 associated. The importance of this act lay in its provision for
+skilled inspection and thus for enforcement of the law by an independent
+body of men unconnected with the locality in which the manufactures lay,
+whose specialization in their work enabled them to acquire information
+needed for further development of legislation for protection of labour.
+Their powers were to a certain extent judicial, being assimilated to
+those possessed by justices; they could administer oaths and make such
+"rules, regulations and orders" as were necessary for execution of the
+act, and could hear complaints and impose penalties under the act. In
+1844 a textile factory act modified these extensive inspectoral powers,
+organizing the service on lines resembling those of our own time, and
+added provision for certifying surgeons to examine workers under sixteen
+years of age as to physical fitness for employment and to grant
+certificates of age and ordinary strength. Hours of labour, by the act
+of 1833, were limited for children under eleven to 9 a day or 48 in the
+week, and for young persons under eighteen to 12 a day or 69 in the
+week. Between 1833 and 1844 the movement in favour of a ten hours' day,
+which had long been in progress, reached its height in a time of great
+commercial and industrial distress, but could not be carried into effect
+until 1847. By the act of 1844 the hours of adult women were first
+regulated, and were limited (as were already those of "young persons")
+to 12 a day; children were permitted either to work the same hours on
+alternate days or "half-time," with compulsory school attendance as a
+condition of their employment. The aim in thus adjusting the hours of
+the three classes of workers was to provide for a practical standard
+working-day. For the first time detailed provisions for health and
+safety began to make their appearance in the law. Penal compensation for
+preventible injuries due to unfenced machinery was also provided, and
+appears to have been the outcome of a discussion by witnesses before the
+Royal Commission on Labour of Young Persons in Mines and Manufactures in
+1841.
+
+From this date, 1841, begin the first attempts at protective legislation
+for labour in mining. The first Mines Act of 1842 following the terrible
+revelations of the Royal Commission referred to excluded women and girls
+from underground working, and limited the employment of boys, excluding
+from underground working those under ten years, but it was not until
+1850 that systematic reporting of fatal accidents and until 1855 that
+other safeguards for health, life and limb in mines were seriously
+provided by law. With the exception of regulations against truck there
+was no protection for the miner before 1842; before 1814 it was not
+customary to hold inquests on miners killed by accidents in mines. From
+1842 onwards considerable interaction in the development of the two sets
+of acts (mines and factories), as regards special protection against
+industrial injury to health and limb, took place, both in parliament and
+in the department (Home Office) administering them. Another strong
+influence tending towards ultimate development of scientific protection
+of health and life in industry began in the work and reports of the
+series of sanitary commissions and Board of Health reports from 1843
+onwards. In 1844 the mines inspector made his first report, but two
+years later women were still employed to some extent underground.
+Organized inspection began in 1850, and in 1854 the Select Committee on
+Accidents adopted a suggestion of the inspectors for legislative
+extension of the practice of several colliery owners in framing special
+safety rules for working in mines. The act of 1855 provided seven
+general rules, relating to ventilation, fencing of disused shafts,
+proper means for signalling, proper gauges and valve for steam-boiler,
+indicator and brake for machine lowering and raising; also it provided
+that detailed special rules submitted by mine-owners to the secretary of
+state, might, on his approval, have the force of law and be enforceable
+by penalty. The Mines Act of 1860, besides extending the law to
+ironstone mines, following as it did on a series of disastrous accidents
+and explosions, strengthened some of the provisions for safety. At
+several inquests strong evidence was given of incompetent management and
+neglect of rules, and a demand was made for enforcing employment only of
+certificated managers of coal mines. This was not met until the act of
+1872, but in 1860 certain sections relating to wages and education were
+introduced. Steady development of the coal industry, increasing
+association among miners, and increased scientific knowledge of means of
+ventilation and of other methods for securing safety, all paved the way
+to the Coal Mines Act of 1872, and in the same year health and safety in
+metalliferous mines received their first legislative treatment in a code
+of similar scope and character to that of the Coal Mines Act. This act
+was amended in 1886, and repealed and recodified in 1887; its principal
+provisions are still in force, with certain revised special rules and
+modifications as regards reporting of accidents (1906) and employment of
+children (1903). It was based on the recommendations of a Royal
+Commission, which had reported in 1864, and which had shown the grave
+excess of mortality and sickness among metalliferous miners, attributed
+to the inhalation of gritty particles, imperfect ventilation, great
+changes of temperature, excessive physical exertion, exposure to wet,
+and other causes. The prohibition of employment of women and of boys
+under ten years underground in this class of mines, as well as in coal
+mines, had been effected by the act of 1842, and inspection had been
+provided for in the act of 1860; these were in amended form included in
+the code of 1872, the age of employment of boys underground being raised
+to twelve. In the Coal Mines Act of 1872 we see the first important
+effort to provide a complete code of regulation for the special dangers
+to health, life and limb in coal mines apart from other mines; it
+applied to "mines of coal, mines of stratified ironstone, mines of shale
+and mines of fire-clay." Unlike the companion act--applying to all other
+mines--it maintained the age limit of entering underground employment
+for boys at ten years, but for those between ten and twelve it provided
+for a system of working analogous to the half-time system in factories,
+including compulsory school attendance. The limits of employment for
+boys from twelve to sixteen were 10 hours in any one day and 54 in
+anyone week. The chief characteristics of the act lay in extension of
+the "general" safety rules, improvement of the method of formulating
+"special" safety rules, provision for certificated and competent
+management, and increased inspection. Several important matters were
+transferred from the special to the general rules, such as compulsory
+use of safety lamps where needed, regulation of use of explosives, and
+securing of roofs and sides. Special rules, before being submitted to
+the secretary of state for approval, must be posted in the mine for two
+weeks, with a notice that objections might be sent by any person
+employed to the district inspector. Wilful neglect of safety provisions
+became punishable in the case of employers as well as miners by
+imprisonment with hard labour. But the most important new step lay in
+the sections relating to daily control and supervision of every mine by
+a manager holding a certificate of competency from the secretary of
+state, after examination by a board of examiners appointed by the
+secretary of state, power being retained for him to cause later inquiry
+into competency of the holder of the certificate, and to cancel or
+suspend the certificate in case of proved unfitness.
+
+Returning to the development of factory and workshop law from the year
+1844, the main line of effort--after the act of 1847 had restricted
+hours of women and young persons to 10 a day and fixed the daily limits
+between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M. (Saturday 6 A.M. to 2 P.M.)--lay in bringing
+trade after trade in some degree under the scope of this branch of law,
+which had hitherto only regulated conditions in textile factories.
+Bleaching and dyeing works were included by the acts of 1860 and 1862;
+lace factories by that of 1861; calendering and finishing by acts of
+1863 and 1864; bakehouses became partially regulated by an act of 1863,
+with special reference to local authorities for administration of its
+clauses. The report of the third Children's Employment Commission
+brought together in accessible form the miserable facts relating to
+child labour in a number of unregulated industries in the year 1862, and
+the act of 1864 brought some of (these earthenware-making, lucifer
+match-making, percussion cap and cartridge making, paper-staining, and
+fustian cutting) partly under the scope of the various textile factory
+acts in force. A larger addition of trades was made three years later,
+but the act of 1864 is particularly interesting in that it first
+embodied some of the results of inquiries of expert medical and sanitary
+commissioners, by requiring ventilation to be applied to the removal of
+injurious gases, dust, and other impurities generated in manufacture,
+and made a first attempt to engraft part of the special rules system
+from the mines acts. The provisions for framing such rules disappeared
+in the Consolidating Act of 1878, to be revived in a better form later.
+The Sanitary Act of 1866, administered by local authorities, provided
+for general sanitation in any factories and workshops not under existing
+factory acts, and the Workshops Regulation Act of 1867, similarly to be
+administered by local authorities, amended in 1870, practically
+completed the application of the main principle of the factory acts to
+all places in which manual labour was exercised for gain in the making
+or finishing of articles or parts of articles for sale. A few specially
+dangerous or injurious trades brought under regulation in 1864 and 1867
+(e.g. earthenware and lucifer match making, glass-making) ranked as
+"factories," although not using mechanical power, and for a time
+employment of less than fifty persons relegated certain workplaces to
+the category of "workshops," but broadly the presence or absence of such
+motor power in aid of process was made and has remained the distinction
+between factories and workshops. The Factory Act of 1874, the last of
+the series before the great Consolidating Act of 1878, raised the
+minimum age of employment for children to ten years in textile
+factories. In most of the great inquiries into conditions of child
+labour the fact has come clearly to light, in regard to textile and
+non-textile trades alike, that parents as much as any employers have
+been responsible for too early employment and excessive hours of
+employment of children, and from early times until to-day in factory
+legislation it has been recognized that they must to some extent be held
+responsible for due observation of the limits imposed. For example, in
+1831 it was found necessary to protect occupiers against parental
+responsibility for false certificates of age, and in 1833 parents of a
+child or "any Person having any benefit from the wages of such child"
+were made to share responsibility for employment of children without
+school attendance or beyond legal hours.
+
+During the discussions on the bill which became law in 1874, it had
+become apparent that revision and consolidation of the multiplicity of
+statutes then regulating manufacturing industry had become pressingly
+necessary; modifications and exceptions for exceptional conditions in
+separate industries needed reconsideration and systematization on clear
+principles, and the main requirements of the law could with great
+advantage be applied more generally to all the industries. In
+particular, the daily limits as to period of employment, pauses for
+meals, and holidays, needed to be unified for non-textile factories and
+workshops, so as to bring about a standard working-day, and thus prevent
+the tendency in "the larger establishments to farm out work among the
+smaller, where it is done under less favourable conditions both sanitary
+and educational."[6] In these main directions, and that of simplifying
+definitions, summarizing special sanitary provisions that had been
+gradually introduced for various trades, and centralizing and improving
+the organization of the inspectorate, the Commission of 1876 on the
+Factory Acts made its recommendations, and the Factory Act of 1878 took
+effect. In the fixed working-day, provisions for pauses, holidays,
+general and special exceptions, distinctions between systems of
+employment for children, young persons and women, education of children
+and certificates of fitness for children and young persons, limited
+regulation of domestic workshops, general principles of administration
+and definitions, the law of 1878 was made practically the same as that
+embodied in the later principal act of 1901. More or less completely
+revised are: (a) the sections in the 1878 act relating to mode of
+controlling sanitary conditions in workshops (since 1891 primarily
+enforced by the local sanitary authority); (b) provision for reporting
+accidents and for enforcing safety (other than fencing of mill gearing
+and dangerous machinery); (c) detailed regulation of injurious and
+dangerous process and trades; (d) powers of certifying surgeons; (e)
+amount of overtime permissible (greatly reduced in amount and now
+confined to adults); (f) age for permissible employment of a child has
+been raised from ten years to twelve years. Entirely new since the act
+of 1878 are the provisions: (a) for control of outwork; (b) for
+supplying particulars of work and wages to piece-workers, enabling them
+to compute the total amount of wages payable to them; (e) extension of
+the act to laundries; (f) a tentative effort to limit the too early
+employment of mothers after childbirth.
+
+
+II. LAW OF UNITED KINGDOM, 1910
+
+_Factories and Workshops._--The act of 1878 remained until 1901,
+although much had been meanwhile superimposed, a monument to the efforts
+of the great factory reformers of the first half of the 19th century,
+and the general groundwork of safety for workers in factories and
+workshops in the main divisions of sanitation, security against
+accidents, physical fitness of workers, general limitation of hours and
+times of employment for young workers and women. The act of 1901, which
+came into force 1st January 1902 (and became the principal act), was an
+amending as well as a consolidating act. Comparison of the two acts
+shows, however, that, in spite of the advantages of further
+consolidation and helpful changes in arrangement of sections and
+important additions which tend towards a specialized hygiene for factory
+life, the fundamental features of the law as fought out in the 19th
+century remain undisturbed. So far as the law has altered in character,
+it has done so chiefly by gradual development of certain sanitary
+features, originally subordinate, and by strengthening provision for
+security against accidents and not by retreat from its earlier aims. At
+the same time a basis for possible new developments can be seen in the
+protection of "outworkers" as well as factory workers against fraudulent
+or defective particulars of piece-work rates of wages.
+
+Later acts directly and indirectly affecting the law are certain acts of
+1903, 1906, 1907, to be touched on presently.
+
+
+ Additions to act of 1878.
+
+The act of 1878, in a series of acts from 1883 to 1895, received
+striking additions, based (1) on the experience gained in other branches
+of protective legislation, e.g. development of the method of regulation
+of dangerous trades by "special rules" and administrative inquiry into
+accidents under Coal Mines Acts; (2) on the findings of royal
+commissions and parliamentary inquiries, e.g. increased control of
+"outwork" and domestic workshops, and limitation of "overtime"; (3) on
+the development of administrative machinery for enforcing the more
+modern law relating to public health, e.g. transference of
+administration of sanitary provisions in workshops to the local sanitary
+authorities; (4) on the trade-union demand for means for securing
+trustworthy records of wage-contracts between employer and workman, e.g.
+the section requiring particulars of work and wages for piece-workers.
+The first additions to the act of 1878 were, however, almost purely
+attempts to deal more adequately than had been attempted in the code of
+1878 with certain striking instances of trades injurious to health. Thus
+the Factory and Workshop Act of 1883 provided that white-lead factories
+should not be carried on without a certificate of conformity with
+certain conditions, and also made provision for special rules, on lines
+later superseded by those laid down in the act of 1891, applicable to
+any employment in a factory or workshop certified as dangerous or
+injurious by the secretary of state. The act of 1883 also dealt with
+sanitary conditions in bakehouses. Certain definitions and explanations
+of previous enactments touching overtime and employment of a child in
+any factory or workshop were also included in the act. A class of
+factories in which excessive heat and humidity seriously affected the
+health of operatives was next dealt with in the Cotton Cloth Factories
+Act 1889. This provided for special notice to the chief inspector from
+all occupiers of cotton cloth factories (i.e. any room, shed, or
+workshop or part thereof in which weaving of cotton cloth is carried on)
+who intend to produce humidity by artificial means; regulated both
+temperature of workrooms and amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and
+provided for tests and records of the same; and fixed a standard minimum
+volume of fresh air (600 cub. ft.) to be admitted in every hour for
+every person employed in the factory. Power was retained for the
+secretary of state to modify by order the standard for the maximum limit
+of humidity of the atmosphere at any given temperature. A short act in
+1870 extended this power to other measures for the protection of
+health.
+
+The special measures from 1878 to 1889 gave valuable precedents for
+further developments of special hygiene in factory life, but the next
+advance in the Factory and Workshop Act 1891, following the House of
+Lords Committee on the sweating system and the Berlin International
+Labour Conference, extended over much wider ground. Its principal
+objects were: (a) to render administration of the law relating to
+workshops more efficient, particularly as regards sanitation; with this
+end in view it made the primary controlling authority for sanitary
+matters in workshops the local sanitary authority (now the district
+council), acting by their officers, and giving them the powers of the
+less numerous body of factory inspectors, while at the same time the
+provisions of the Public Health Acts replaced in workshops the very
+similar sanitary provisions of the Factory Acts; (b) to provide for
+greater security against accidents and more efficient fencing of
+machinery in factories; (c) to extend the method of regulation of
+unhealthy or dangerous occupations by application of special rules and
+requirements to any incident of employment (other than in a domestic
+workshop) certified by the secretary of state to be dangerous or
+injurious to health or dangerous to life or limb; (d) to raise the age
+of employment of children and restrict the employment of women
+immediately after childbirth; (e) to require particulars of rate of
+wages to be given with work to piece-workers in certain branches of the
+textile industries; (f) to amend the act of 1878 in various subsidiary
+ways, with the view of improving the administration of its principles,
+e.g. by increasing the means of checking the amount of overtime worked,
+empowering inspectors to enter workplaces used as dwellings without a
+justice's warrant, and the imposition of minimum penalties in certain
+cases. On this act followed four years of greatly accelerated
+administrative activity. No fewer than sixteen trades were scheduled by
+the secretary of state as dangerous to health. The manner of preparing
+and establishing suitable rules was greatly modified by the act of 1901
+and will be dealt with in that connexion.
+
+The Factory and Workshop Act 1895 followed thus on a period of exercise
+of new powers of administrative regulation (the period being also that
+during which the Royal Commission on Labour made its wide survey of
+industrial conditions), and after two successive annual reports of the
+chief inspector of factories had embodied reports and recommendations
+from the women inspectors, who in 1893 were first added to the
+inspectorate. Again, the chief features of an even wider legislative
+effort than that of 1891 were the increased stringency and definiteness
+of the measures for securing hygienic and safe conditions of work. Some
+of these measures, however, involved new principles, as in the provision
+for the prohibition of the use of a dangerous machine or structure by
+the order of a magistrate's court, and the power to include in the
+special rules drawn up in pursuance of section 8 of the act of 1891, the
+prohibition of the employment of any class of persons, or the limitation
+of the period of employment of any class of persons in any process
+scheduled by order of the secretary of state. These last two powers have
+both been exercised, and with the exercise of the latter passed away,
+without opposition, the absolute freedom of the employer of the adult
+male labourer to carry on his manufacture without legislative limitation
+of the hours of labour. Second only in significance to these new
+developments was the addition, for the first time since 1867, of new
+classes of workplaces not covered by the general definitions in section
+93 of the Consolidating Act of 1878, viz.: (a) laundries (with special
+conditions as to hours, &c.); (b) docks, wharves, quays, warehouses and
+premises on which machinery worked by power is temporarily used for the
+purpose of the construction of a building or any structural work in
+connexion with the building (for the purpose only of obtaining security
+against accidents). Other entirely new provisions in the act of 1895,
+later strengthened by the act of 1901, were the requirement of a
+reasonable temperature in workrooms, the requirement of lavatories for
+the use of persons employed in any department where poisonous substances
+are used, the obligation on occupiers and medical practitioners to
+report cases of industrial poisoning; and the penalties imposed on an
+employer wilfully allowing wearing apparel to be made, cleaned or
+repaired in a dwelling-house where an inmate is suffering from
+infectious disease. Another provision empowered the secretary of state
+to specify classes of outwork and areas with a view to the regulation of
+the sanitary condition of premises in which outworkers are employed.
+Owing to the conditions attached to its exercise, no case was found in
+which this power could come into operation, and the act of 1901 deals
+with the matter on new lines. The requirement of annual returns from
+occupiers of persons employed, and the competency of the person charged
+with infringing the act to give evidence in his defence, were important
+new provisions, as was also the adoption of the powers to direct a
+formal investigation of any accident on the lines laid down in section
+45 of the Coal Mines Regulation Act 1887. Other sections, relating to
+sanitation and safety, were developments of previous regulations, e.g.
+the fixing of a standard of overcrowding, provision of sanitary
+accommodation separate for each sex where the standard of the Public
+Health Act Amendment Act of 1890 had not been adopted by the competent
+local sanitary authority, power to order a fan or other mechanical means
+to carry off injurious gas, vapour or other impurity (the previous power
+covering only dust). The fencing of machinery and definition of
+accidents were made more precise, young persons were prohibited from
+cleaning dangerous machinery, and additional safeguards against risk of
+injury by fire or panic were introduced. On the question of employment
+the foremost amendments lay in the almost complete prohibition of
+overtime for young persons, and the restriction of the power of an
+employer to employ protected persons outside his factory or workshop on
+the same day that he had employed them in the factory or workshop. Under
+the head of particulars of work and wages to piece-workers an important
+new power, highly valued by the workers, was given to apply the
+principle with the necessary modifications by order of the secretary of
+state to industries other than textile and to outworkers as well as to
+those employed inside factories and workshops.
+
+
+ The act of 1901.
+
+In 1899 an indirect modification of the limitation to employment of
+children was effected by the Elementary Education Amendment Act, which,
+by raising from eleven to twelve the minimum age at which a child may,
+by the by-laws of a local authority, obtain total or partial exemption
+from the obligation to attend school, made it unlawful for an occupier
+to take into employment any child under twelve in such a manner as to
+prevent full-time attendance at school. The age of employment became
+generally thereby the same as it has been for employment at a mine above
+ground since 1887. The act of 1901 made the prohibition of employment of
+a child under twelve in a factory or workshop direct and absolute. Under
+the divisions of sanitation, safety, fitness for employment, special
+regulation of dangerous trades, special control of bakehouses,
+exceptional treatment of creameries, new methods of dealing with home
+work and outworkers, important additions were made to the general law by
+the act of 1901, as also in regulations for strengthened administrative
+control. New general sanitary provisions were those prescribing: (a)
+ventilation _per se_ for every workroom, and empowering the secretary of
+state to fix a standard of sufficient ventilation; (b) drainage of wet
+floors; (c) the power of the secretary of state to define in certain
+cases what shall constitute sufficient and suitable sanitary
+accommodation. New safety provisions were those relating to--(a)
+Examination and report on steam boilers; (b) prohibition of employment
+of a child in cleaning below machinery in motion; (c) power of the
+district council to make by-laws for escape in case of fire. The most
+important administrative alterations were: (a) a justice engaged in the
+same trade as, or being officer of an association of persons engaged in
+the same trade as, a person charged with an offence may not act at the
+hearing and determination of the charge; (b) ordinary supervision of
+sanitary conditions under which outwork is carried on was transferred to
+the district council, power being reserved to the Home Office to
+intervene in case of neglect or default by any district council.
+
+
+ Acts of 1903, 1906, 1907.
+
+The Employment of Children Act 1903, while primarily providing for
+industries outside the scope of the Factory Act, incidentally secured
+that children employed as half-timers should not also be employed in
+other occupations. The Notice of Accidents Act 1906 amended the whole
+system of notification of accidents, simultaneously in mines, quarries,
+factories and workshops, and will be set out in following paragraphs.
+The Factory and Workshop Act of 1907 amended the law in respect of
+laundries by generally applying the provisions of 1901 to trade
+laundries while granting them choice of new exceptional periods, and by
+extending the provisions of the act (with certain powers to the Home
+Office by Orders laid before parliament to allow variations) to
+institution laundries carried on for charitable or reformatory purposes.
+The Employment of Women Act 1907 repealed an exemption in the act of
+1901 (and earlier acts) relating to employment of women in flax scutch
+mills, thus bringing this employment under the ordinary provisions as to
+period of employment.
+
+The following paragraphs aim at presenting an idea of the scope of the
+modified and amended law, as a whole, adding where clearly necessary
+reference to the effect of acts, which ceased to apply after the 31st of
+December 1901:--
+
+
+ Definitions.
+
+ The workplaces to which the act applies are, first, "factories" and
+ "workshops"; secondly, laundries, docks, wharves, &c., enumerated
+ above as introduced and regulated partially only by the act of 1895
+ and subsequent acts. Apart from this secondary list, and having regard
+ to workplaces which remain undefined by the law, the act may broadly
+ be said to apply to premises, rooms or places in which manual labour,
+ with or without the aid of mechanical power, is exercised for gain in
+ or incidental to the making, altering, repairing, ornamenting,
+ washing, cleaning or finishing or adapting for sale of any article or
+ part of any article. If steam, water or other mechanical power is used
+ in aid of the manufacturing process, the workplace is a factory; if
+ not, it is a workshop. There is, however, a list of eighteen classes
+ of works (brought under the factory law for reasons of safety, &c.,
+ before workshops generally were regulated) which are defined as
+ factories whether power is used in them or not. Factories are, again,
+ subdivided into textile and non-textile: they are textile if the
+ machinery is employed in preparing, manufacturing or finishing cotton,
+ wool, hair, silk, flax, hemp, jute, tow, China grass, cocoanut fibre
+ or other like material either separately or mixed together, or mixed
+ with any other material, or any fabric made thereof; all other
+ factories are non-textile. The distinction turns on the historical
+ origin of factory regulation and the regulations in textile factories
+ remain in some respects slightly more stringent than in the
+ non-textile factories and workshops, though the general provisions are
+ almost the same. Three special classes of workshops have for certain
+ purposes to be distinguished from ordinary workshops, which include
+ tenement workshops: (a) Domestic workshops, i.e. any private house,
+ room or place, which, though used as a dwelling, is by reason of the
+ work carried on there a workshop, and in which the only persons
+ employed are members of the same family, dwelling there alone--in
+ these women's hours are unrestricted; (b) Women's workshops, in which
+ neither children nor young persons are employed--in these a more
+ elastic arrangement of hours is permissible than in ordinary
+ workshops; (c) Workshops in which men only are employed--these come
+ under the same general regulations in regard to sanitation as other
+ workshops, also under the provisions of the Factory Act as regards
+ security, and, if certified by the secretary of state, may be brought
+ under special regulations. They are otherwise outside the scope of the
+ act of 1901.
+
+ The person to whom the regulations apply in the above-defined
+ workplaces are _children_, i.e. persons between the ages of twelve and
+ fourteen, _young persons_, i.e. boys or girls between the ages of
+ fourteen (or if an educational certificate has been obtained,
+ thirteen) and eighteen years of age, and _women_, i.e. females above
+ the age of eighteen; these are all "protected" persons to whom the
+ general provisions of the act, inclusive of the regulation of hours
+ and times of employment, apply. To adult men generally those
+ provisions broadly only apply which are aimed at securing sanitation
+ and safety in the conduct of the manufacturing process.
+
+ The person generally responsible for observance of the provisions of
+ the law, whether these relate to health, safety, limitation of the
+ hours of labour or other matters, is the _occupier_ (a term undefined
+ in the act) of the factory, workshop or laundry. There are, however,
+ limits to his responsibility: (a) generally, where the occupier has
+ used due diligence to enforce the execution of the act, and can show
+ that another person, whether agent, servant, workman or other person,
+ is the real offender; (b) specially in a factory the sections relating
+ to employment of protected persons, where the owner or hirer of a
+ machine or implement driven by mechanical power is some person other
+ than the occupier of the factory, the owner or hirer, so far as
+ respects any offence against the act committed in relation to a person
+ who is employed in connexion with the machine or implement, and is in
+ the employment or pay of the owner or hirer, shall be deemed to be the
+ occupier of the factory; (c) for the one purpose of reporting
+ accidents, the actual employer of the person injured in any factory or
+ workshop is bound under penalty immediately to report the same to the
+ occupier; (d) so far as relates to sanitary conditions, fencing of
+ machinery, affixing of notices in _tenement_ factories, the _owner_
+ (as defined by the Public Health Act 1875), generally speaking, takes
+ the place of the occupier.
+
+ Employment in a factory or workshop includes work whether for wages or
+ not: (a) in a manufacturing process or handicraft, (b) in cleaning any
+ place used for the same, (c) in cleaning or oiling any part of the
+ machinery, (d) any work whatsoever incidental to the process or
+ handicraft, or connected with the article made. Persons found in any
+ part of the factory or workshop, where machinery is used or
+ manufacture carried on, except at meal-times, or when machinery is
+ stopped, are deemed to be employed until the contrary is proved. The
+ act, however, does not apply to employment for the sole purpose of
+ repairing the premises or machinery, nor to the process of preserving
+ and curing fish immediately upon its arrival in the fishing boats in
+ order to prevent the fish from being destroyed or spoiled, nor to the
+ process of cleaning and preparing fruit so far as is necessary to
+ prevent it from spoiling during the months of June, July, August and
+ September. Certain light handicrafts carried on by a family only in a
+ private house or room at irregular intervals are also outside the
+ scope of the act.
+
+
+ Sanitation.
+
+ The foremost provisions are those relating to the sanitary condition
+ of the workplaces and the general security of every class of worker.
+ Every factory must be kept in a cleanly condition, free from noxious
+ effluvia, ventilated in such a manner as to render harmless, so far as
+ practicable, gases, vapours, dust or other impurities generated in the
+ manufacture; must be provided with sufficient and suitable sanitary
+ conveniences separate for the sexes; must not be overcrowded (not less
+ than 250 cubic ft. during the day, 400 during overtime, for each
+ worker). In these matters the law of public health takes in workshops
+ the place of the Factory Act, the requirements being substantially the
+ same. Although, however, primarily the officers of the district
+ council enforce the sanitary provisions in workshops, the government
+ factory inspectors may give notice of any defect in them to the
+ district council in whose district they are situate; and if
+ proceedings are not taken within one month by the latter, the factory
+ inspector may act in default and recover expenses from the district
+ council. This power does not extend to domestic workshops which are
+ under the law relating to public health so far as general sanitation
+ is concerned. General powers are reserved to the secretary of state,
+ where he is satisfied that the Factory Act or law relating to public
+ health as regards workplaces has not been carried out by any district
+ council, to authorize a factory inspector during a period named in his
+ order to act instead of the district council. Other general sanitary
+ provisions administered by the government inspectors are the
+ requirement in factories and workshops of washing conveniences where
+ poisonous substances are used; adequate measures for securing and
+ maintaining a reasonable temperature of such a kind as will not
+ interfere with the purity of the air in each room in which any person
+ is employed; maintenance of sufficient means of ventilation in every
+ room in a factory or workshop (in conformity with such standard as may
+ be prescribed by order of the secretary of state); provision of a fan
+ to carry off injurious dust, gas or other impurity, and prevent their
+ inhalation in any factory or workshop; drainage of floors where wet
+ processes are carried on. For laundries and bakehouses there are
+ further sanitary regulations; e.g. in laundries all stoves for heating
+ irons shall be sufficiently separated from any ironing-room or
+ ironing-table, and the floors shall be "drained in such a manner as
+ will allow the water to flow off freely"; and in bakehouses a cistern
+ supplying water to a bakehouse must be quite separate from that
+ supplying water to a water-closet, and the latter may not communicate
+ directly with the bakehouse. Use of underground bakehouses (i.e. a
+ baking room with floor more than 3 ft. below the ground adjoining) is
+ prohibited, except where already used at the passing of the act;
+ further, in these cases, after 1st January 1904, a certificate as to
+ suitability in light, ventilation, &c., must be obtained from the
+ district council. In other trades certified by the secretary of state
+ further sanitary regulations may be made to increase security for
+ health by special rules to be presently touched on. The secretary of
+ state may also make sanitary requirements a condition of granting such
+ exceptions to the general law as he is empowered to grant. In
+ factories, as distinct from workshops, a periodical lime washing (or
+ washing with hot water and soap where paint and varnish have been
+ used) of all inside walls and ceilings once at least in every fourteen
+ months is generally required (in bakehouses once in six months). As
+ regards sufficiency and suitability of sanitary accommodation, the
+ standards determined by order of the secretary of state shall be
+ observed in the districts to which it is made applicable. An order was
+ made called the Sanitary Accommodation Order, on the 4th of February
+ 1903, the definitions and standards in which have also been widely
+ adopted by local sanitary authorities in districts where the Order
+ itself has no legal force, the local authority having parallel power
+ under the Public Health Act of 1890.
+
+
+ Security and accidents.
+
+ Security in the use of machinery is provided for by precautions as
+ regards the cleaning of machinery in motion and working between the
+ fixed and traversing parts of self-acting machines driven by power, by
+ fencing of machinery, and by empowering inspectors to obtain an order
+ from a court of summary jurisdiction to prohibit the use, temporarily
+ or absolutely, of machinery, ways, works or plant, including use of a
+ steam boiler, which cannot be used without danger to life and limb.
+ Every hoist and fly-wheel directly connected with mechanical power,
+ and every part of a water-wheel or engine worked by mechanical power,
+ and every wheel race, must be fenced, whatever its position, and every
+ part of mill-gearing or dangerous machinery must either be fenced or
+ be in such position that it is as safe as if fenced. No protected
+ persons may clean any part of mill-gearing in motion, and children may
+ further not clean any part of or below manufacturing machinery in
+ motion by aid of mechanical power; young persons further may not clean
+ any machinery if the inspector notifies it to the occupier as
+ dangerous. Security as regards the use of dangerous premises is
+ provided for by empowering courts of summary jurisdiction, on the
+ application of an inspector, to prohibit their use until the danger
+ has been removed. The district council, or, in London, the county
+ council, or in case of their default the factory inspector, can
+ require certain provisions for escape in case of fire in factories and
+ workshops in which more than forty persons are employed; special
+ powers to make by-laws for means of escape from fire in any factory or
+ workshop are, in addition to any powers for prevention of fire that
+ they possess, given to every district council, in London to the county
+ council. The means of escape must be kept free from obstruction.
+ Provisions are made for doors to open outwards in each room in which
+ more than ten persons are employed, and to prevent the locking,
+ bolting or fastening of doors so that they cannot easily be opened
+ from inside when any person is employed or at meals inside the
+ workplace. Further, provisions for security may be provided in special
+ regulations. Every boiler for generating steam in a factory or
+ workshop or place where the act applies must have a proper safety
+ valve, a steam gauge, and a water gauge, and every such boiler, valve
+ and gauge must be maintained in proper condition. Examination by a
+ competent person must take place at least once in every fourteen
+ months. The occupier of any factory or workshop may be liable for
+ penal compensation not exceeding £100 in case of injury or death due
+ to neglect of any provision or special rule, the whole or any part of
+ which may be applied for the benefit of the injured person or his
+ family, as the secretary of state determines. When a death has
+ occurred by accident in a factory or workshop, the coroner must advise
+ the factory inspector for the district of the place and time of the
+ inquest. The secretary of state may order a formal investigation of
+ the circumstances of any accident as in the case of mines. Careful and
+ detailed provisions are made for the reporting by occupiers to
+ inspectors, and entry in the registers at factories and workshops of
+ accidents which occur in a factory or workshop and (a) cause loss of
+ life to a person employed there, or (b) are due to machinery moved by
+ mechanical power, molten metal, hot liquid, explosion, escape of gas
+ or steam, electricity, so disabling any person employed in the factory
+ or workshop as to cause him to be absent throughout at least one whole
+ day from his ordinary work, (c) are due to any other special cause
+ which the secretary of state may determine, (d) not falling under the
+ previous heads and yet cause disablement for more than seven days'
+ ordinary work to any person working in the factory or workshop. In the
+ case of (a) or (b) notice has also to be sent to the certifying
+ surgeon by the occupier. Cases of lead, phosphorus, arsenical and
+ mercurial poisoning, or anthrax, contracted in any factory or workshop
+ must similarly be reported and registered by the occupier, and the
+ duty of reporting these cases is also laid on medical practitioners
+ under whose observation they come. The list of classes of poisoning
+ can be extended by the secretary of state's order.
+
+
+ Physical fitness of workers.
+
+ Certificates of physical fitness for employment must be obtained by
+ the occupier from the certifying surgeon for the district for all
+ persons under sixteen years of age employed in a factory, and in any
+ class of workshops to which the requirement has been extended by order
+ of the secretary of state, and an inspector may suspend any such
+ persons for re-examination in a factory, or for examination in a
+ workshop, when "disease or bodily infirmity" unfits the person, in his
+ opinion, for the work of the place. The certifying surgeon may examine
+ the process as well as the person submitted, and may qualify the
+ certificate he grants by conditions as to the work on which the person
+ is fit to be employed. An occupier of a factory or workshop or laundry
+ shall not knowingly allow a woman to be employed therein within four
+ weeks after childbirth.
+
+
+ Hours of protected persons.
+
+ The employment of children, young persons and women is regulated as
+ regards ordinary and exceptional hours of work, ordinary and
+ exceptional meal-times, length of spells and holidays. The outside
+ limits of ordinary periods of employment and holidays are, broadly,
+ the same for textile factories as for non-textile factories and
+ workshops; the main difference lies in the requirement of not less
+ than a total two hours' interval for meals out of the twelve, and a
+ limit of four and a half hours for any spell of work, a longer weekly
+ half holiday, and a prohibition of overtime, in textile factories, as
+ compared with a total one and a half hours' interval for meals and a
+ limit of five hours for spells and (conditional) permission of
+ overtime in non-textile factories. The hours of work must be
+ specified, and from Monday to Friday may be between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M.,
+ or 7 A.M. to 7 P.M.; in non-textile factories and workshops the hours
+ also may be taken between 8 A.M. and 8 P.M. or by order of the
+ secretary of state for special industries 9 A.M. to 9 P.M. Between
+ these outside limits, with the proviso that meal-times must be fixed
+ and limits as to spells observed, women and young persons may be
+ employed the full time, children on the contrary only half time, on
+ alternate days, or in alternate sets attending school half time
+ regularly. On Saturdays, in textile factories in which the period
+ commences at 6 A.M. all manufacturing work must cease at 12 if not
+ less than one hour is given for meals, or 11.30 if less than one hour
+ is given for meals (half an hour extra allowed for cleaning), and in
+ non-textile factories and workshops at 2 P.M., 3 P.M. or 4 P.M.,
+ according as the hour of beginning is 6 A.M., 7 A.M. or 8 A.M. In
+ "domestic workshops" the total number of hours for young persons and
+ children must not exceed those allowed in ordinary workshops, but the
+ outside limits for beginning and ending are wider; and the case is
+ similar as regards hours of women in "women's workshops." Employment
+ outside a factory or workshop in the business of the same is limited
+ in a manner similar to that laid down in the Shop Hours Act, to be
+ touched on presently. Overtime in certain classes of factories,
+ workshops and warehouses attached to them is permitted, under
+ conditions specified in the acts, for women, to meet seasonal or
+ unforeseen pressure of business, or where goods of a perishable nature
+ are dealt with, for young persons only in a very limited degree in
+ factories liable to stoppage for drought or flood, or for an
+ unfinished process. These and other cases of exceptional working are
+ under minute and careful administrative regulations. Broadly these
+ same regulations as to exceptional overtime may apply in _laundries_
+ but the act of 1907 granted to laundries not merely ancillary to the
+ manufacture carried on in a factory or workshop (e.g. shirt and collar
+ factories), additional power to fix different periods of employment
+ for different days of the week, and to make use of one or other of two
+ exceptional methods of arranging the daily periods so as to permit of
+ periods of different length on different days; these exceptional
+ periods cannot be worked in addition to overtime permissible under the
+ general law. Laundries carried on in connexion with charitable or
+ reformatory institutions were brought in 1907 within the scope of the
+ law, but special schemes for regulation as to hours, meals, holidays,
+ &c., may be submitted by the managers to the secretary of state, who
+ is empowered to approve them if he is satisfied that they are not less
+ favourable than the corresponding provisions of the principal act;
+ such schemes shall be laid as soon as possible before both Houses of
+ Parliament.
+
+
+ Dangerous and unhealthy industries.
+
+ Night work is allowed in certain specified industries, under
+ conditions, for male young persons, but for no other workers under
+ eighteen, and overtime for women may never be later than 10 P.M. or
+ before 6 A.M. Sunday work is prohibited except, under conditions, for
+ Jews; and in factories, workshops and laundries six holidays
+ (generally the Bank holidays) must be allowed in the year. In
+ creameries in which women and young persons are employed the secretary
+ of state may by special order vary the beginning and end of the daily
+ period of employment, and allow employment for not more than three
+ hours on Sundays and holidays.
+
+ The general provisions of the act may be supplemented where specially
+ dangerous or unhealthy trades are carried on, by special regulations.
+ This was provided for in the law in force until 31st December 1901, as
+ in the existing principal act, and the power to establish rules had
+ been exercised between 1892 and 1901 in twenty-two trades or processes
+ where injury arose either from handling of dangerous substances, such
+ as lead and lead compounds, phosphorus, arsenic or various chemicals,
+ or where there is inhalation of irritant dust or noxious fumes, or
+ where there is danger of explosion or infection of anthrax. Before the
+ rule could be drawn up under the acts of 1891 to 1895, the secretary
+ of state had to certify that in the particular case or class of cases
+ in question (e.g. process or machinery), there was, in his opinion,
+ danger to life or limb or risk of injury to health; thereupon the
+ chief inspector might propose to the occupier of the factory or
+ workshop such special rules or measures as he thought necessary to
+ meet the circumstances. The occupier might object or propose
+ modifications, but if he did not the rules became binding in
+ twenty-one days; if he objected, and the secretary of state did not
+ assent to any proposed modification, the matters in difference had to
+ be referred to arbitration, the award in which finally settled the
+ rules or requirement to be observed. In November 1901, in the case of
+ the earthenware and china industry, the last arbitration of the kind
+ was opened and was finally concluded in 1903. The parties to the
+ arbitration were the chief inspector, on behalf of the secretary of
+ state, and the occupier or occupiers, but the workmen interested might
+ be and were represented on the arbitration. In the establishing of the
+ twenty-two sets of existing special rules only thrice has arbitration
+ been resorted to, and only on two of these occasions were workmen
+ represented. The provisions as to the arbitration were laid down in
+ the first schedule to the Act of 1891, and were similar to those under
+ the Coal Mines Regulation Acts. Many of these codes have still the
+ force of law and will continue until in due course revised under the
+ amended procedure of the act of 1901. They might not only regulate
+ conditions of employment, but also restrict or prohibit employment of
+ any class of workers; where such restriction or prohibition affected
+ adult workers the rules had to be laid for forty days before both
+ Houses of Parliament before coming into operation. The obligation to
+ observe the rules in detail lies on workers as well as on occupiers,
+ and the section in the act of 1891 providing a penalty for
+ non-observance was drafted, as in the case of the mines, so as to
+ provide for a simultaneous fine for each (not exceeding two pounds for
+ the worker, not exceeding ten pounds for the employer).
+
+ The provisions as to special regulations of the act of 1901 touch
+ primarily the method of procedure for making the regulations, but they
+ also covered for the first time domestic workshops and added a power
+ as to the kind of regulations that may be made; further, they
+ strengthened the sanction for observance of any rules that may be
+ established, by placing the occupier in the same general position as
+ regards penalty for non-observance as in other matters under the act.
+ On the certificate of the secretary of state that any manufacture,
+ machinery, plant, process or manual labour used in factories or
+ workshops is dangerous or injurious to life, health or limb, such
+ regulations as appear to the secretary of state to meet the necessity
+ of the case may be made by him after he has duly published notice: (1)
+ of his intention; (2) of the place where copies of the draft
+ regulations can be obtained; and (3) of the time during which
+ objections to them can be made by persons affected. The secretary of
+ state may modify the regulations to meet the objections made. If not,
+ unless the objection is withdrawn or appears to him frivolous, he
+ shall, before making the regulations, appoint a competent person to
+ hold a public inquiry with regard to the draft regulations and to
+ report to him thereon. The inquiry is to be made under such rules as
+ the secretary of state may lay down, and when the regulations are
+ made, they must be laid as soon as possible before parliament. Either
+ House may annul these regulations or any of them, without prejudice to
+ the power of the secretary of state to make new regulations. The
+ regulations may apply to all factories or workshops in which the
+ certified manufacture, process, &c., is used, or to a specified class.
+ They may, among other things, (a) prohibit or limit employment of any
+ person or class of persons; (b) prohibit, limit, or control use of any
+ material or process; (c) modify or extend special regulations
+ contained in the Act. Regulations have been established among others
+ in the following trades and processes: felt hat-making where any
+ inflammable solvent is used; file-cutting by hand; manufacture of
+ electric accumulators; docks, processes of loading, unloading, &c.;
+ tar distilling; factories in which self-acting mules are used; use of
+ locomotives; spinning and weaving of flax, hemp and jute; manufacture
+ of paints and colours; heading of yarn dyed by means of lead
+ compounds.
+
+
+ Measures and particulars to piece-workers.
+
+ Although the Factory and Workshop Acts have not directly regulated
+ wages, they have made certain provision for securing to the worker
+ that the amount agreed upon shall be received: (a) by extending every
+ act in force relating to the inspection of weights, measures and
+ weighing machines for use in the sale of goods to those used in a
+ factory or workshop for checking or ascertaining the wages of persons
+ employed; (b) by ensuring that piece-workers in the textile trades
+ (and other trades specified by the secretary of state) shall receive,
+ before commencing any piece of work, clear particulars of the wages
+ applicable to the work to be done and of the work to which that rate
+ is to be applied. Unless the particulars of work are ascertainable by
+ an automatic indicator, they must be given to textile workers in
+ writing, and in the case of weavers in the cotton, worsted and woollen
+ trades the particulars of wages must be supplied separately to each
+ worker, and also shown on a placard in a conspicuous position. In
+ other textile processes, it is sufficient to furnish the particulars
+ separately to each worker. The secretary of state has used his powers
+ to extend this protection to non-textile workers, with suitable
+ modifications, in various hardware industries, including pen-making,
+ locks, chains, in wholesale tailoring and making of wearing apparel,
+ in fustian cutting, umbrella-making, brush-making and a number of
+ other piece-work trades. He further has in most of these and other
+ trades used his power to extend this protection to outworkers.
+
+
+ Administration.
+
+ With a view to efficient administration of the act (a) certain notices
+ have to be conspicuously exhibited at the factory or workshop, (b)
+ registers and lists kept, and (c) notices sent to the inspector by the
+ occupier. Among the first the most important are the prescribed
+ abstract of the act, the names and addresses of the inspector and
+ certifying surgeon, the period of employment, and specified meal-times
+ (which may not be changed without fresh notice to the inspector), the
+ air space and number of persons who may legally be employed in each
+ room, and prescribed particulars of exceptional employment; among the
+ second are the general registers of children and young persons
+ employed, of accidents, of lime-washing, of overtime, and lists of
+ outworkers; among the third are the notice of beginning to occupy a
+ factory or workshop, which the occupier must send within one month,
+ report of overtime employment, notice of accident, poisoning or
+ anthrax, and returns of persons employed, with such other particulars
+ as may be prescribed. These must be sent to the chief inspector at
+ intervals of not less than one and not more than three years, as may
+ be directed by the secretary of state.
+
+ The secretary of state for the Home Department controls the
+ administration of the acts, appoints the inspectors referred to in the
+ acts, assigns to them their duties, and regulates the manner and cases
+ in which they are to exercise the powers of inspectors. The act,
+ however, expressly assigns certain duties and powers to a chief
+ inspector and certain to district inspectors. Many provisions of the
+ acts depend as to their operation on the making of orders by the
+ secretary of state. These orders may impose special obligations on
+ occupiers and increase the stringency of regulations, may apply
+ exceptions as to employment, and may modify or relax regulations to
+ meet special classes of circumstances. In certain cases, already
+ indicated, his orders guide or determine the action of district
+ councils, and, generally, in case of default by a council he may
+ empower his inspectors to act as regards workplaces, instead of the
+ council, both under the Factory Acts and Public Health Acts.
+
+ The powers of an inspector are to enter, inspect and examine, by day
+ or by night, at any reasonable time, any factory or workshop (or
+ laundry, dock, &c.), or part of one, when he has reason to believe
+ that any person is employed there; to take with him a constable if he
+ has reasonable cause to expect obstruction; to require production of
+ registers, certificates, &c., under the acts; to examine, alone or in
+ the presence of any other person, as he sees fit, every person in the
+ factory or workshop, or in a school where the children employed are
+ being educated; to prosecute, conduct or defend before a court of
+ summary jurisdiction any proceeding under the acts; and to exercise
+ such other powers as are necessary for carrying the act into effect.
+ The inspector has also the duty of enforcing the Truck Acts in places,
+ and in respect of persons, under the Factory Acts. Certifying surgeons
+ are appointed by the chief inspector subject to the regulations of the
+ secretary of state, and their chief duties are (a) to examine workers
+ under sixteen, and persons under special rules, as to physical fitness
+ for the daily work during legal periods, with power to grant qualified
+ certificates as to the work for which the young worker is fit, and (b)
+ to investigate and report on accidents and cases of lead, phosphorus
+ or other poisoning and anthrax.
+
+In 1907 there were registered as under inspection 110,276 factories,
+including laundries with power, 146,917 workshops (other than men's
+workshops), including laundries without power; of works under special
+rules or regulations (included in the figures just given) there were
+10,586 and 19,687 non-textile works under orders for supply of
+particulars to piece-workers. Of notices of accidents received there
+were 124,325, of which 1179 were fatal; of reported cases of poisoning
+there were 653, of which 40 were fatal. Prosecutions were taken by
+inspectors in 4474 cases and convictions obtained in 4211 cases. Of
+persons employed there were, according to returns of occupiers, 1904,
+4,165,791 in factories and 688,756 in workshops.
+
+_Coal Mines._--The mode of progress to be recorded in the regulation of
+coal mines since 1872 can be contrasted in one aspect with the progress
+just recorded of factory legislation since 1878. Consolidation was again
+earlier adopted when large amendments were found necessary, with the
+result that by far the greater part of the law is to be found in the act
+of 1887, which repealed and re-enacted, with amendments, the Coal Mines
+Acts of 1872 and 1886, and the Stratified Ironstone Mines (Gunpowder)
+Act, 1881. The act of 1881 was simply concerned with rules relating to
+the use of explosives underground. The act of 1886 dealt with three
+questions: (a) The election and payment of checkweighers (i.e. the
+persons appointed and paid by miners in pursuance of section 13 of the
+act of 1887 for the purpose of taking a correct account on their behalf
+of the weight of the mineral gotten by them, and for the correct
+determination of certain deductions for which they may be liable); (b)
+provision for new powers of the secretary of state to direct a formal
+investigation of any explosion or accident, and its causes and
+circumstances, a provision which was later adopted in the law relating
+to factories; (c) provision enabling any relatives of persons whose
+death may have been caused by explosions or accidents in or about mines
+to attend in person, or by agent, coroners' inquests thereon, and to
+examine witnesses. The act of 1887, which amended, strengthened and
+consolidated these acts and the earlier Consolidating Act of 1872, may
+also be contrasted in another aspect with the general acts of factory
+legislation. In scope it formed, as its principal forerunner had done, a
+general code; and in some measure it went farther in the way of
+consolidation than the Factory Acts had done, inasmuch as certain
+questions, which in factories are dealt with by statutes distinct from
+the Factory Acts, have been included in the Mines Regulation Acts, e.g.
+the prohibition of the payment of wages in public-houses, and the
+machinery relating to weights and measures whereby miners control their
+payment; further, partly from the less changing nature of the industry,
+but probably mainly from the power of expression gained for miners by
+their organization, the code, so far as it went, at each stage answered
+apparently on the whole more nearly to the views and needs of the
+persons protected than the parallel law relating to factories. This was
+strikingly seen in the evidence before the Royal Commission on Labour in
+1892-1894, where the repeated expression of satisfaction on the part of
+the miners with the provisions as distinct from the administration of
+the code ("with a few trifling exceptions") is in marked contrast with
+the long and varied series of claims and contentions put forward for
+amendment of the Factory Acts.
+
+Since the act of 1887 there have followed five minor acts, based on the
+recommendation of the officials acting under the acts, while two of them
+give effect to claims made by the miners before the Royal Commission on
+Labour. Thus, in 1894, the Coal Mines (Checkweigher) Act rendered it
+illegal for an employer ("owner, agent, or manager of any mine, or any
+person employed by or acting under the instructions of any such owner,
+agent, or manager") to make the removal of a particular checkweigher a
+condition of employment, or to exercise improper influence in the
+appointment of a checkweigher. The need for this provision was
+demonstrated by a decision of the Court of Session in Edinburgh, which
+upheld an employer in his claim to the right of dismissing all the
+workmen and re-engaging them on condition that they would dismiss a
+particular checkweigher. In 1896 a short act extended the powers to
+propose, amend and modify special rules, provided for representation of
+workmen on arbitration under the principal act on any matter in
+difference, modified the provision for plans of mines in working and
+abandoned mines, amended three of the general rules (inspection before
+commencing work, use of safety lamp and non-inflammable substances for
+stemming), and empowered the secretary of state by order to prohibit or
+regulate the use of any explosive likely to become dangerous. In 1900
+another brief act raised the age of employment of boys underground from
+twelve to thirteen. In 1903 another amending act allowed as an
+alternative qualification for a manager's certificate a diploma in
+scientific and mining training after at least two years' study at a
+university mining school or other educational institution approved by
+the secretary of state, coupled with practical experience of at least
+three years in a mine. In the same year the Employment of Children Act
+affected children in mines to the extent already indicated in connexion
+with factories. In 1905 a Coal Mines (Weighing of Minerals) Act improved
+some provisions relating to appointment and pay of checkweighers and
+facilities for them and their duly appointed deputies in carrying out
+their duties. In 1906 the Notice of Accidents Act provided for improved
+annual returns of accidents and for immediate reporting to the district
+inspector of accidents under newly-defined conditions as they arise in
+coal and metalliferous mines.
+
+
+ Act of 1887.
+
+ While the classes of mines regulated by the act of 1887 are the same
+ as those regulated by the act of 1872 (i.e. mines of coal, of
+ stratified ironstone, of shale and of fire-clay, including works above
+ ground where the minerals are prepared for use by screening, washing,
+ &c.) the interpretation of the term "mine" is wider and simpler,
+ including "every shaft in the course of being sunk, and every level
+ and inclined plane in the course of being driven, and all the shafts,
+ levels, planes, works, tramways and sidings, both below ground and
+ above ground, in and adjacent to and belonging to the mine." Of the
+ persons responsible under penalty for the observance of the acts the
+ term "owner" is defined precisely as in the act of 1872, but the term
+ "agent" is modified to mean "any person appointed as the
+ representative of the owner in respect of any mine or any part
+ thereof, and, as such, superior to a manager appointed in pursuance of
+ this act." Of the persons protected, the term "young person"
+ disappeared from the act, and "boy," i.e. "a male under the age of
+ sixteen years," and "girl," i.e. "a female under the age of sixteen
+ years," take their place, and the term "woman" means, as before, "a
+ female of the age of sixteen years and upwards." The prohibition of
+ employment underground of women and girls remains untouched, and the
+ prohibition of employment underground of boys has been successively
+ extended from boys of the age of ten in 1872 to boys of twelve in 1887
+ and to boys of thirteen in 1900. The age of employment of boys and
+ girls above ground in connexion with any mine is raised from ten years
+ in 1872 to twelve years since 1887. The hours of employment of a boy
+ below ground may not exceed fifty-four in any one week, nor ten in any
+ one day from the time of leaving the surface to the time of returning
+ to the surface. Above ground any boy or girl under thirteen (and over
+ twelve) may not be employed on more than six days in any one week; if
+ employed on more than three days in one week, the daily total must not
+ exceed six hours, or in any other case ten hours. Protected persons
+ above thirteen are limited to the same daily and weekly total of hours
+ as boys below ground, but there are further provisions with regard to
+ intervals for meals and prohibiting employment for more than five
+ hours without an interval of at least half an hour for a meal.
+ Registers must be kept of all protected persons, whether employed
+ above or below ground. Section 38 of the Public Health Act 1875, which
+ requires separate and sufficient sanitary conveniences for persons of
+ each sex, was first extended by the act of 1887 to the portions of
+ mines above ground in which girls and women are employed; underground
+ this matter is in metalliferous mines in Cornwall now provided for by
+ special rules. Ventilation, the only other requirement in the acts
+ that can be classed as sanitary, is provided for in every mine in the
+ "general rules" which are aimed at securing safety of mines, and
+ which, so far as ventilation is concerned, seek to dilute and render
+ harmless noxious or inflammable gases. The provision which prohibits
+ employment of any persons in mines not provided with at least two
+ shafts is made much more stringent by the act of 1887 than in the
+ previous code, by increasing the distance between the two shafts from
+ 10 to 15 yds., and increasing the height of communications between
+ them. Other provisions amended or strengthened are those relating to
+ the following points: (a) Daily personal supervision of the mine by
+ the certificated manager; (b) classes of certificates and constitution
+ of board for granting certificates of competency; (c) plan of workings
+ of any mine to be kept up to a date not more than three months
+ previously at the office of the mine; (d) notice to be given to the
+ inspector of the district by the owner, agent or manager, of accidents
+ in or about any mine which cause loss of life or serious personal
+ injury, or are caused by explosion of coal or coal dust or any
+ explosive or electricity or any other special cause that the secretary
+ of state specifies by order, and which causes any personal injury to
+ any person employed in or about the mine; it is provided that the
+ place where an explosion or accident occurs causing loss of life or
+ serious personal injury shall be left for inspection for at least
+ three days, unless this would tend to increase or continue a danger or
+ impede working of the mine: this was new in the act of 1887; (e)
+ notice to be given of opening and abandonment of any mine: this was
+ extended to the opening or abandonment of any seam; (f) plan of an
+ abandoned mine or seam to be sent within three months; (g) formal
+ investigation of any explosion or accident by direction of the
+ secretary of state: this provision, first introduced by the act of
+ 1886, was modified in 1887 to admit the appointment by the secretary
+ of state of "any competent person" to hold the investigation, whereas
+ under the earlier section only an inspector could be appointed.
+
+
+ General rules.
+
+ The "general rules" for safety in mines have been strengthened in many
+ ways since the act of 1872. Particular mention may be made of rule 4
+ of the act of 1887, relating to the inspection of conditions as to gas
+ ventilation beyond appointed stations at the entrance to the mine or
+ different parts of the mine; this rule generally removed the earlier
+ distinction between mines in which inflammable gas has been found
+ within the preceding twelve months, and mines in which it has not been
+ so found; of rules 8, 9, 10 and 11, relating to the construction, use,
+ &c., of safety lamps, which are more detailed and stringent than rule
+ 7 of the act of 1872, which they replaced; of rule 12, relating to the
+ use of explosives below ground; of rule 24, which requires the
+ appointment of a competent male person not less than twenty-two years
+ of age for working the machinery for lowering and raising persons at
+ the mine; of rule 34, which first required provision of ambulances or
+ stretchers with splints and bandages at the mine ready for immediate
+ use; of rule 38, which strengthened the provision for periodical
+ inspection of the mine by practical miners on behalf of the workmen at
+ their own cost. With reference to the last-cited rule, during 1898 a
+ Prussian mining commission visited Great Britain, France and Belgium,
+ to study and compare the various methods of inspection by working
+ miners established in these three countries. They found that, so far
+ as the method had been applied, it was most satisfactory in Great
+ Britain, where the whole cost is borne by the workers' own
+ organizations, and they attributed part of the decrease in number of
+ accidents per thousand employed since 1872 to the inauguration of this
+ system.
+
+
+ Special rules.
+
+ The provisions as to the proposal, amendment and modification of
+ "special rules," last extended by the act of 1896, may be contrasted
+ with those of the Factory Act. In the latter it is not until an
+ industry or process has been scheduled as dangerous or injurious by
+ the secretary of state's order that occasion arises for the formation
+ of special rules, and then the initiative rests with the Factory
+ Department whereas in mines it is incumbent in every case on the
+ owner, agent or manager to propose within three months of the
+ commencement of any working, for the approval of the secretary of
+ state, special rules best calculated to prevent dangerous accidents,
+ and to provide for the safety, convenience and proper discipline of
+ the persons employed in or about the mine. These rules may, if they
+ relate to lights and lamps used in the mine, description of
+ explosives, watering and damping of the mine, or prevention of
+ accidents from inflammable gas or coal dust, supersede any general
+ rule in the principal act. Apart from the initiation of the rules, the
+ methods of establishing them, whether by agreement or by resort to
+ arbitration of the parties (i.e. the mine owners and the secretary of
+ state), are practically the same as under the Factory Act, but there
+ is special provision in the Mines Acts for enabling the persons
+ working in the mine to transmit objections to the proposed rules, in
+ addition to their subsequent right to be represented on the
+ arbitration, if any.
+
+ Of the sections touching on wages questions, the prohibition of the
+ payment of wages in public-houses remains unaltered, being re-enacted
+ in 1887; the sections relating to payment by weight for amount of
+ mineral gotten by persons employed, and for checkweighing the amount
+ by a "checkweigher" stationed by the majority of workers at each place
+ appointed for the weighing of the material, were revised, particularly
+ as to the determination of deductions by the act of 1887, with a view
+ to meeting some problems raised by decisions on cases under the act of
+ 1872. The attempt seems not to have been wholly successful, the
+ highest legal authorities having expressed conflicting opinions on the
+ precise meaning of the terms "mineral contracted to be gotten." The
+ whole history of the development of this means of securing the
+ fulfilment of wage contract to the workers may be compared with the
+ history of the sections affording protection to piece-workers by
+ particulars of work and wages in the textile trades since the Factory
+ Act of 1891.
+
+
+ Administration.
+
+ As regards legal proceedings, the chief amendments of the act of 1872
+ are: the extension of the provision that the "owner, agent, or
+ manager" charged in respect of any contravention by another person
+ might be sworn and examined as an ordinary witness, to any person
+ charged with any offence under the act. The result of the proceedings
+ against workmen by the owner, agent or manager in respect of an
+ offence under the act is to be reported within twenty-one days to the
+ inspector of the district. The powers of inspectors were extended to
+ cover an inquiry as to the care and treatment of horses and other
+ animals in the mine, and as to the control, management or direction of
+ the mine by the manager.
+
+An important act was passed in 1908 (Coal Mines Regulation Act 1908)
+limiting the hours of work for workmen below ground. It enacted that,
+subject to various provisions, a workman was not to be below ground in a
+mine for the purpose of his work, and of going to and from his work, for
+more than eight hours in any consecutive twenty-four hours. Exception
+was made in the case of those below ground for the purpose of rendering
+assistance in the event of an accident, or for meeting any danger, or
+for dealing with any emergency or work incompleted, through unforeseen
+circumstances, which requires to be dealt with to avoid serious
+interference in the work of the mine. The authorities of every mine must
+fix the times for the lowering and raising of the men to begin and be
+completed, and such times must be conspicuously posted at the pit head.
+These times must be approved by an inspector. The term "workman" in the
+act means any person employed in a mine below ground who is not an
+official of the mine (other than a fireman, examiner or deputy), or a
+mechanic or a horse keeper or a person engaged solely in surveying or
+measuring. In the case of a fireman, examiner, deputy, onsetter, pump
+minder, fanman or furnace man, the maximum period for which he may be
+below ground is nine hours and a half. A register must be kept by the
+authorities of the mine of the times of descent and ascent, while the
+workmen may, at their own cost, station persons (whether holding the
+office of checkweigher or not) at the pit head to observe the times. The
+authorities of the mine may extend the hours of working by one hour a
+day on not more than sixty days in one calendar year (s. 3). The act may
+be suspended by order in council in the event of war or of imminent
+national danger or great emergency, or in the event of any grave
+economic disturbance due to the demand for coal exceeding the supply
+available at any time. The act came into force on the 1st of July 1909
+except for the counties of Northumberland and Durham where its operation
+was postponed until the 1st of January 1910.
+
+ In 1905 the number of coal-mines reported on was 3126, and the number
+ of persons employed below ground was 691,112 of whom 43,443 were under
+ 16 years of age. Above ground 167,261 were employed, of whom 6154 were
+ women and girls. The number of separate fatal accidents was 1006,
+ causing the loss of 1205 lives. Of prosecutions by far the greater
+ number were against workmen, numbering in coal and metalliferous mines
+ 953; owners and managers were prosecuted in 72 cases, and convictions
+ obtained in 43 cases.
+
+_Quarries._--From 1878 until 1894 open quarries (as distinct from
+underground quarries regulated by the Metalliferous Mines Regulation
+Act) were regulated only by the Factory Acts so far as they then
+applied. It was laid down in section 93 of the act of 1878 (41 Vict. c.
+16), that "any premises or place shall not be excluded from the
+definition of a factory or workshop by reason only that such premises,
+&c., are or is in the open air," thereby overruling the decision in
+_Kent_ v. _Astley_ that quarries in which the work, as a whole, was
+carried on in the open air were not factories; in a schedule to the same
+act quarries were defined as "any place not being a mine in which
+persons work in getting slate, stone, coprolites or other minerals." The
+Factory Act of 1891 made it possible to bring these places in part under
+"special rules" adapted to meet the special risks and dangers of the
+operations carried on in them, and by order of the secretary of state
+they were certified, December 1892, as dangerous, and thereby subject to
+special rules. Until then, as reported by one of the inspectors of
+factories, quarries had been placed under the Factory Acts without
+insertion of appropriate rules for their safe working, and many of them
+were "developed in a most dangerous manner without any regard for
+safety, but merely for economy," and managers of many had "scarcely seen
+a quarry until they became managers." In his report for 1892 it was
+recommended by the chief inspector of factories that quarries should be
+subject to the jurisdiction of the government inspectors of mines. At
+the same time currency was given, by the published reports of the
+evidence before the Royal Commission on Labour, to the wish of large
+numbers of quarrymen that open as well as underground quarries should
+come under more specialized government inspection. In 1893 a committee
+of experts, including inspectors of mines and of factories, was
+appointed by the Home Office to investigate the conditions of labour in
+open quarries, and in 1894 the Quarries Act brought every quarry, as
+defined in the Factory Act 1878, any part of which is more than 20 ft.
+deep, under certain of the provisions of the Metalliferous Mines Acts,
+and under the inspection of the inspectors appointed under those acts;
+further, it transferred the duty of enforcing the Factory and Workshop
+Acts, so far as they apply in quarries over 20 ft. deep, from the
+Factory to the Metalliferous Mines inspectors.
+
+The provisions of the Metalliferous Mines Acts 1872 and 1875, applied to
+quarries, are those relating to payment of wages in public-houses,
+notice of accidents to the inspector, appointment and powers of
+inspectors, arbitration, coroners' inquests, special rules, penalties,
+certain of the definitions, and the powers of the secretary of state
+finally to decide disputed questions whether places come within the
+application of the acts. For other matters, and in particular fencing of
+machinery and employment of women and young persons, the Factory Acts
+apply, with a proviso that nothing shall prevent the employment of young
+persons (boys) in three shifts for not more than eight hours each. In
+1899 it was reported by the inspectors of mines that special rules for
+safety had been established in over 2000 quarries. In the reports for
+1905 it was reported that the accounts of blasting accidents indicated
+that there was "still much laxity in observance of the Special rules,
+and that many irregular and dangerous practices are in vogue." The
+absence or deficiency of external fencing to a quarry dangerous to the
+public has been since 1887 (50 & 51 Vict. c. 19) deemed a nuisance
+liable to be dealt with summarily in the manner provided by the Public
+Health Act 1875.
+
+ In 1905, 94,819 persons were employed, of whom 59,978 worked inside
+ the actual pits or excavations, and 34,841 outside. Compared with
+ 1900, there was a total increase of 924 in the number of persons
+ employed. Fatal accidents resulted in 1900 in 127 deaths; compared
+ with 1899 there was an increase of 10 in the number of deaths, and, as
+ Professor Le Neve Foster pointed out, this exceeded the average
+ death-rate of underground workers at mines under the Coal Mines Acts
+ during the previous ten years, in spite of the quarrier "having
+ nothing to fear from explosions of gas, underground fires or
+ inundations." He attributed the difference to a lax observance of
+ precautions which might in time be remedied by stringent
+ administration of the law. In 1905 there were 97 fatal accidents
+ resulting in 99 deaths. In 1900 there were 92 prosecutions against
+ owners or agents, with 67 convictions, and 13 prosecutions of workers,
+ with 12 convictions, and in 1905 there were 45 prosecutions of owners
+ or agents with 43 convictions and 9 prosecutions of workmen with 5
+ convictions.
+
+
+ Payment of wages in public-houses.
+
+ In 1883 a short act extended to all "workmen" who are manual labourers
+ other than miners, with the exception of domestic or menial servants,
+ the prohibition of payment of wages in public-houses, beer-shops and
+ other places for the sale of spirituous or fermented liquor, laid down
+ in the Coal Mines Regulations and Metalliferous Mines Regulation Acts.
+ The places covered by the prohibition include any office, garden or
+ place belonging to or occupied with the places named, but the act does
+ not apply to such wages as are paid by the resident, owner or occupier
+ of the public-house, beer-shop and other places included in the
+ prohibition to any workman _bona fide_ employed by him. The penalty
+ for an offence against this act is one not exceeding £10 (compare the
+ limit of £20 for the corresponding offence under the Coal Mines Act),
+ and all offences may be prosecuted and penalties recovered in England
+ and Scotland under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts. The act does not
+ apply to Ireland, and no special inspectorate is charged with the duty
+ of enforcing its provisions.
+
+_Shop Hours._--In four brief acts, 1892 to 1899, still in force, the
+first very limited steps were taken towards the positive regulation of
+the employment of shop assistants. In the act of 1904 certain additional
+optional powers were given to any local authority making a "closing
+order" fixing the hour (not earlier than 7 P.M. or on one day in the
+week 1 P.M.) at which shops shall cease to serve customers throughout
+the area of the authority or any specified part thereof as regards all
+shops or as regards any specified class of shops. Before such an order
+can be made (1) a prima facie case for it must appear to the local
+authority; (2) the local authority must inquire and agree; (3) the order
+must be drafted and sent for confirmation or otherwise to the central
+authority, that is, the secretary of state for the Home Department; (4)
+the order must be laid before both Houses of Parliament. The Home Office
+has given every encouragement to the making of such orders, but their
+number in England is very small, and the act is practically inoperative
+in London and many large towns where the need is greatest. As the
+secretary of state pointed out in the House of Commons on the 1st of May
+1907, the local authorities have not taken enough initiative, but at the
+same time there is a great difficulty for them in obtaining the required
+two-thirds majority, among occupiers of the shops to be affected, in
+favour of the order, and at the same time shop assistants have no power
+to set the law in motion. In England 364 local authorities have taken no
+steps, but in Scotland rather better results have been obtained. The
+House resolved, on the date named, that more drastic legislation is
+required. As regards shops, therefore, in place of such general codes as
+apply to factories, laundries, mines--only three kinds of protective
+requirement are binding on employers of shop assistants: (1) Limitation
+of the weekly total of hours of work of persons under eighteen years of
+age to seventy-four inclusive of meal-times; (2) prohibition of the
+employment of such persons in a shop on the same day that they have, to
+the knowledge of the employer, been employed in any factory or workshop
+for a longer period than would, in both classes of employment together,
+amount to the number of hours permitted to such persons in a factory or
+workshop; (3) provision for the supply of seats by the employer, in all
+rooms of a shop or other premises where goods are retailed to the
+public, for the use of female assistants employed in retailing the
+goods--the seats to be in the proportion of not fewer than one to every
+three female assistants. The first two requirements are contained in the
+act of 1892, which also prescribed that a notice, referring to the
+provisions of the act, and stating the number of hours in the week
+during which a young person may be lawfully employed in the shop, shall
+be kept exhibited by the employer; the third requirement was first
+provided by the act of 1899. The intervening acts of 1893 and 1895 are
+merely supplementary to the act of 1892; the former providing for the
+salaries and expenses of the inspectors which the council of any county
+or borough (and in the City of London the Common Council) were
+empowered by the act of 1892 to appoint; the latter providing a penalty
+of 40s. for failure of an employer to keep exhibited the notice of the
+provisions of the acts, which in the absence of a penalty it had been
+impossible to enforce. The penalty for employment contrary to the acts
+is a fine not exceeding £1 for each person so employed, and for failure
+to comply with the requirements as to seats, a fine not exceeding £3 for
+a first offence, and for any subsequent offence a fine of not less than
+£1 and not exceeding £5.
+
+
+ Meaning of "shop."
+
+ A wide interpretation is given by the act of 1892 to the class of
+ workplace to which the limitation of hours applies. "Shop" means
+ retail and wholesale shops, markets, stalls and warehouses in which
+ assistants are employed for hire, and includes licensed public-houses
+ and refreshment houses of any kind. The person responsible for the
+ observance of the acts is the "employer" of the "young persons" (i.e.
+ persons under the age of eighteen years), whose hours are limited, and
+ of the "female assistants" for whom seats must be provided. Neither
+ the term "employer" nor "shop assistant" (used in the title of the act
+ of 1899) is defined; but other terms have the meaning assigned to them
+ in the Factory and Workshop Act 1878. The "employer" has, in case of
+ any contravention alleged, the same power as the "occupier" in the
+ Factory Acts to exempt himself from fine on proof of due diligence and
+ of the fact that some other person is the actual offender. The
+ provisions of the act of 1892 do not apply to members of the same
+ family living in a house of which the shop forms part, or to members
+ of the employer's family, or to any one wholly employed as a domestic
+ servant.
+
+ In London, where the County Council has appointed men and women
+ inspectors to apply the acts of 1892 to 1899, there were, in 1900,
+ 73,929 premises, and in 1905, 84,269, under inspection. In the latter
+ year there were 22,035 employing persons under 18 years of age. In
+ 1900 the number of young persons under the acts were: indoors, 10,239
+ boys and 4428 girls; outdoors, 35,019 boys, 206 girls. In 1905 the
+ ratio between boys and girls had decidedly altered: indoors, 6602
+ boys, 4668 girls; outdoors, 22,654 boys, 308 girls. The number of
+ irregularities reported in 1900 were 9204 and the prosecutions were
+ 117; in 1905 the irregularities were 6966 and the prosecutions
+ numbered 34. As regards the act of 1899, in only 1088 of the 14,844
+ shops affected in London was there found in 1900 to be failure to
+ provide seats for the women employed in retailing goods. The chief
+ officer of the Public Control Department reported that with very few
+ exceptions the law was complied with at the end of the first year of
+ its application.
+
+ As regards cleanliness, ventilation, drainage, water-supply and
+ sanitary condition generally, shops have been since 1878 (by 41 Vict.
+ c. 16, s. 101) subject to the provisions of the Public Health Act
+ 1875, which apply to all buildings, except factories under the Factory
+ Acts, in which any persons, whatever their number be, are employed.
+ Thus, broadly, the same sanitary provisions apply in shops as in
+ workshops, but in the former these are enforced solely by the officers
+ of the local authority, without reservation of any power, as in
+ workshops for the Home Office inspectorate, to act in default of the
+ local authority.
+
+ Shop assistants, so far as they are engaged in manual, not merely
+ clerical labour, come under the provisions of the Truck Acts 1831 to
+ 1887, and in all circumstances they fall within the sections directed
+ against unfair and unreasonable fines in the Truck Act of 1896; but,
+ unlike employés in factories, workshops, laundries and mines, they are
+ left to apply these provisions so far as they can themselves, since
+ neither Home Office inspectors nor officers of the local authority
+ have any specially assigned powers to administer the Truck Acts in
+ shops.
+
+
+ The Truck Act 1887.
+
+ Persons benefited by Truck Acts.
+
+_Truck._--Setting aside the special Hosiery Manufacture (Wages) Act
+1874, aimed at a particular abuse appearing chiefly in the hosiery
+industry--the practice of making excessive charges on wages for
+machinery and frame rents--only two acts, those of 1887 and 1896, have
+been added to the general law against truck since the act of 1831, which
+repealed all prior Truck Acts and which remains the principal act.
+Further amendments of the law have been widely and strenuously demanded,
+and are hoped for as the result of the long inquiry by a departmental
+committee appointed early in 1906. The Truck Act Amendment Act 1887,
+amended and extended the act without adding any distinctly new
+principle; the Truck Act of 1896 was directed towards providing remedies
+for matters shown by decisions under the earlier Truck Acts to be
+outside the scope of the principles and provisions of those acts. Under
+the earlier acts the main objects were: (1) to make the wages of
+workmen, i.e. the reward of labour, payable only in current coin of the
+realm, and to prohibit whole or part payment of wages in food or drink
+or clothes or any other articles; (2) to forbid agreements, express or
+implied, between employer and workmen as to the manner or place in
+which, or articles on which, a workman shall expend his wages, or for
+the deduction from wages of the price of articles (other than materials
+to be used in the labour of the workmen) supplied by the employer. The
+act of 1887 added a further prohibition by making it illegal for an
+employer to charge interest on any advance of wages, "whenever by
+agreement, custom, or otherwise a workman is entitled to receive in
+anticipation of the regular period of the payment of his wages an
+advance as part or on account thereof." Further, it strengthened the
+section of the principal act which provided that no employer shall have
+any action against his workman for goods supplied at any shop belonging
+to the employer, or in which the employer is interested, by (a) securing
+any workman suing an employer for wages against any counter-claim in
+respect of goods supplied to the workman by any person under any order
+or direction of the employer, and (b) by expressly prohibiting an
+employer from dismissing any worker on account of any particular time,
+place or manner of expending his wages. Certain exemptions to the
+prohibition of payment otherwise than in coin were provided for in the
+act of 1831, if an agreement were made in writing and signed by the
+worker, viz. rent, victuals dressed and consumed under the employer's
+roof, medicine, fuel, provender for beasts of burden used in the trade,
+materials and tools for use by miners, advances for friendly societies
+or savings banks; in the case of fuel, provender and tools there was
+also a proviso that the charge should not exceed the real and true
+value. The act of 1887 amended these provisions by requiring a correct
+annual audit in the case of deductions for medicine or tools, by
+permitting part payment of servants in husbandry in food, drink (not
+intoxicants) or other allowances, and by prohibiting any deductions for
+sharpening or repairing workmen's tools except by agreement not forming
+part of the condition of hiring. Two important administrative amendments
+were made by the act of 1887: (1) a section similar to that in the
+Factory and Mines Acts was added, empowering the employer to exempt
+himself from penalty for contravention of the acts on proof that any
+other person was the actual offender and of his own due diligence in
+enforcing the execution of the acts; (2) the duty of enforcing the acts
+in factories, workshops, and mines was imposed upon the inspectors of
+the Factory and Mines Departments, respectively, of the Home Office, and
+to their task they were empowered to bring all the authorities and
+powers which they possessed in virtue of the acts under which they are
+appointed; these inspectors thus prosecute defaulting employers and
+recover penalties under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts, but they do not
+undertake civil proceedings for improper deductions or payments,
+proceedings for which would lie with workmen under the Employers and
+Workmen Act 1875. The persons to whom the benefits of the act applied
+were added to by the act of 1887, which repealed the complicated list of
+trades contained in the principal act and substituted the simpler
+definition of the Employers and Workmen Act, 1875. Thus the acts 1831 to
+1887, and also the act of 1896, apply to all workers (men, women and
+children) engaged in manual labour, except domestic servants; they apply
+not only in mines, factories and workshops, but, to quote the published
+Home Office Memorandum on the acts, "in all places where workpeople are
+engaged in manual labour under a contract with an employer, whether or
+no the employer be an owner or agent or a parent, or be himself a
+workman; and therefore a workman who employs and pays others under him
+must also observe the Truck Acts." The law thus in certain circumstances
+covers outworkers for a contractor or sub-contractor. A decision of the
+High Court at Dublin in 1900 (_Squire_ v. _Sweeney_) strengthened the
+inspectors in investigation of offences committed amongst outworkers by
+supporting the contention that inquiry and exercise of all the powers of
+an inspector could legally take place in parts of an employer's premises
+other than those in which the work is given out. It defined for Ireland,
+in a narrower sense than had hitherto been understood and acted upon by
+the Factory Department, the classes of outworkers protected, by
+deciding that only such as were under a contract personally to execute
+the work were covered. In 1905 the law in England was similarly declared
+in the decided case of _Squire_ v. _The Midland Lace Co._ The judges
+(Lord Alverstone, C.J.; and Kennedy and Ridley, J.J.) stated that they
+came to the conclusion with "reluctance," and said: "We venture to
+express the hope that some amendment of the law may be made so as to
+extend the protection of the Truck Act to a class of workpeople
+indistinguishable from those already within its provisions." The workers
+in question were lace-clippers taking out work to do in their homes, and
+in the words of the High Court decision "though they do sometimes employ
+assistants are evidently, as a class, wage-earning manual labourers and
+not contractors in the ordinary and popular sense." The principle relied
+on in the decision was that in the case of _Ingram_ v. _Barnes_.
+
+
+ Meaning of "wages."
+
+ The Truck Act 1896.
+
+ At the time of the passing of the act of 1887 it seems to have been
+ generally believed that the obligation under the principal act to pay
+ the "entire amount of wages earned" in coin rendered illegal any
+ deductions from wages in respect of fines. Important decisions in 1888
+ and 1889 showed this belief to have been ill-founded. The essential
+ point lies in the definition of the word "wages" as the "recompense,
+ reward or remuneration of labour," which implies not necessarily any
+ gross sum in question between employer and workmen where there is a
+ contract to perform a certain piece of work, but that part of it, the
+ real _net_ wage, which the workman was to get as his _recompense_ for
+ the labour performed. As soon as it became clear that excessive
+ deductions from wages as well as payments by workers for materials
+ used in the work were not illegal, and that deductions or payments by
+ way of compensation to employers or by way of discipline might legally
+ (with the single exception of fines for lateness for women and
+ children, regulated by the Employers and Workmen Act 1875) even exceed
+ the degree of loss, hindrance or damage to the employer, it also came
+ clearly into view that further legislation was desirable to extend the
+ principles at the root of the Truck Acts. It was desirable, that is to
+ say, to hinder more fully the unfair dealing that may be encouraged by
+ half-defined customs in workplaces, on the part of the employer in
+ making a contract, while at the same time leaving the principle of
+ freedom of contract as far as possible untouched. The Truck Act of
+ 1896 regulates the conditions under which deductions can be made by or
+ payments made to the employer, out of the "sum contracted to be paid
+ to the worker," i.e. out of any gross sum whatever agreed upon between
+ employer and workman. It makes such deductions or payments illegal
+ unless they are in pursuance of a contract; and it provides that
+ deductions (or payments) for (a) fines, (b) bad work and damaged
+ goods, (c) materials, machines, and any other thing provided by the
+ employer in relation to the work shall be reasonable, and that
+ particulars of the same in writing shall be given to the workman. In
+ none of the cases mentioned is the employer to make any profit;
+ neither by fines, for they may only be imposed in respect of acts or
+ omissions which cause, or are likely to cause, loss or damage; nor by
+ sale of materials, for the price may not exceed the cost to the
+ employer; nor by deductions or payments for damage, for these may not
+ exceed the actual or estimated loss to the employer. Fines and charges
+ for damage must be "fair and reasonable having regard to all the
+ circumstances of the case," and no contract could make legal a fine
+ which a court held to be unfair to the workman in the sense of the
+ act. The contract between the employer and workman must either be in
+ writing signed by the workman, or its terms must be clearly stated in
+ a notice constantly affixed in a place easily accessible to the
+ workman to whom, if a party to the contract, a copy shall be given at
+ the time of making the contract, and who shall be entitled, on
+ request, to obtain from the employer a copy of the notice free of
+ charge. On each occasion when a deduction or payment is made, full
+ particulars in writing must be supplied to the workman. The employer
+ is bound to keep a register of deductions or payments, and to enter
+ therein particulars of any fine made under the contract, specifying
+ the amount and nature of the act or omission in respect of which the
+ fine was imposed. This register must be at all times open to
+ inspectors of mines or factories, who are entitled to make a copy of
+ the contract or any part of it. This act as a whole applies to all
+ workmen included under the earlier Truck Acts; the sections relating
+ to fines apply also to shop assistants. The latter, however,
+ apparently are left to enforce the provisions of the law themselves,
+ as no inspectorate is empowered to intervene on their behalf. In these
+ and other cases a prosecution under the Truck Acts may be instituted
+ by any person. Any workman or shop assistant may recover any sum
+ deducted by or paid to his employer contrary to the act of 1896,
+ provided that proceedings are commenced within six months, and that
+ where he has acquiesced in the deduction or payment he shall only
+ recover the excess over the amount which the court may find to have
+ been fair and reasonable in all the circumstances of the case. It is
+ expressly declared in the act that nothing in it shall affect the
+ provisions of the Coal Mines Acts with reference to payment by
+ weight, or legalize any deductions, from payments made, in pursuance
+ of those provisions. The powers and duties of inspectors are extended
+ to cover the case of a laundry, and of any place where work is given
+ out by the occupier of a factory or workshop or by a contractor or
+ sub-contractor. Power is reserved for the secretary of state to exempt
+ by order specified trades or branches of them in specified areas from
+ the provisions of the act of 1896, if he is satisfied that they are
+ unnecessary for the protection of the workmen. This power has been
+ exercised only in respect of one highly organized industry, the
+ Lancashire cotton industry. The effect of the exemption is not to
+ prevent fines and deductions from being made, but the desire for it
+ demonstrated that there are cases where leaders among workers have
+ felt competent to make their own terms on their own lines without the
+ specific conditions laid down in this act. The reports of the
+ inspectors of factories have demonstrated that in other industries
+ much work has had to be done under this act, and knowledge of a highly
+ technical character to be gradually acquired, before opinions could be
+ formed as to the reasonableness and fairness, or the contrary, of many
+ forms of deduction. Owing partly to difficulties of legal
+ interpretation involving the necessity of taking test cases into
+ court, partly to the margin for differences of opinion as to what
+ constitutes "reasonableness" in a deduction, the average number of
+ convictions obtained on prosecutions is not so high as under the
+ Factory Acts, though the average penalty imposed is higher. In 1904,
+ 61 cases were taken into court resulting in 34 convictions with an
+ average penalty of £1, 10s. In 1905, 38 cases resulting in 34
+ convictions were taken with an average penalty of £1, 3s. In 1906, 37
+ cases resulting in 25 convictions were taken with an average penalty
+ of £1, 10s.
+
+ Reference should here be made to the Shop Clubs Act of 1902 as closely
+ allied with some of the provisions of the Truck Acts by its provision
+ that employers shall not make it a condition of employment that any
+ workman shall become a member of a shop club unless it is registered
+ under the Friendly Societies Act of 1896. As in the case of payment of
+ wages in Public Houses Act, no special inspectorate has the duty of
+ enforcing this act.
+
+
+III. CONTINENTAL EUROPE
+
+In comparing legislation affecting factories, mines, shops and truck in
+the chief industrial countries of the continent with that of Great
+Britain, it is essential to a just view that inquiry should be extended
+beyond the codes themselves to the general social order and system of
+law and administration in each country. Further, special comparison of
+the definitions and the sanctions of each industrial code must be
+recognized as necessary, for these vary in all. In so brief a summary as
+is appended here no more is possible than an outline indication of the
+main general requirements and prohibitions of the laws as regards: (1)
+hours and times of employment, (2) ordinary sanitation and special
+requirements for unhealthy and dangerous industries, (3) security
+against accidents, and (4) prevention of fraud and oppression in
+fulfilment of wage contracts. As regards the first of these
+subdivisions, in general in Europe the ordinary legal limit is rather
+wider than in Great Britain, being in several countries not less than 11
+hours a day, and while in some, as in France, the normal limit is 10
+hours daily, yet the administrative discretion in granting exceptions is
+rather more elastic. The weekly half-holiday is a peculiarly British
+institution. On the other hand, in several European countries, notably
+France, Austria, Switzerland and Russia, the legal maximum day applies
+to adult as well as youthful labour, and not only to specially protected
+classes of persons. As regards specialized sanitation for unhealthy
+factory industries, German regulations appear to be most nearly
+comparable with British. Mines' labour regulation in several countries,
+having an entirely different origin linked with ownership of mines, is
+only in few and most recent developments comparable with British Mines
+Regulation Acts. In regulation of shops, Germany, treating this matter
+as an integral part of her imperial industrial code, has advanced
+farther than has Great Britain. In truck legislation most European
+countries (with the exception of France) appear to have been influenced
+by the far earlier laws of Great Britain, although in some respects
+Belgium, with her rapid and recent industrial development, has made
+interesting original experiments. The rule of Sunday rest (see SUNDAY)
+has been extended in several countries, most recently in Belgium and
+Spain. In France this partially attempted rule has been so modified as
+to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday.
+
+ _France._--Hours of labour were, in France, first limited in factories
+ (_usines et manufactures_) for adults by the law of the 9th of
+ September 1848 to 12 in the 24. Much uncertainty existed as to the
+ class of workplaces covered. Finally, in 1885, an authoritative
+ decision defined them as including: (1) Industrial establishments with
+ motor power or continual furnaces, (2) workshops employing over 20
+ workers. In 1851, under condition of notification to the local
+ authorities, exceptions, still in force, were made to the general
+ limitation, in favour of certain industries or processes, among others
+ for letterpress and lithographic printing, engineering works, work at
+ furnaces and in heating workshops, manufacture of projectiles of war,
+ and any work for the government in the interests of national defence
+ or security. The limit of 12 hours was reduced, as regards works in
+ which women or young workers are employed, in 1900 to 11, and was to
+ be successively reduced to 10½ hours and to 10 hours at intervals of
+ two years from April 1900. This labour law for adults was preceded in
+ 1841 by one for children, which prevented their employment in
+ factories before 8 years of age and prohibited night labour for any
+ child under 13. This was strengthened in 1874, particularly as regards
+ employment of girls under 21, but it was not until 1892 that the
+ labour of women was specially regulated by a law, still in force, with
+ certain amendments in 1900. Under this law factory and workshop labour
+ is prohibited for children under 13 years, though they may begin at 12
+ if qualified by the prescribed educational certificate and medical
+ certificate of fitness. The limit of daily hours of employment is the
+ same as for adult labour, and, similarly, from the 1st of April 1902
+ was 10½, and two years later became 10 hours in the 24. Notice of the
+ hours must be affixed, and meal-times or pauses with absolute
+ cessation of work of at least one hour must be specified. By the act
+ of 1892 one day in the week, not necessarily Sunday, had to be given
+ for entire absence from work, in addition to eight recognized annual
+ holidays, but this was modified by a law of 1906 which generally
+ requires Sunday rest, but allows substitution of another day in
+ certain industries and certain circumstances. Night labour--work
+ between 9 P.M. and 5 A.M.--is prohibited for workers under 18, and
+ only exceptionally permitted, under conditions, for girls and women
+ over 18 in specified trades. In mines and underground quarries
+ employment of women and girls is prohibited except at surface works,
+ and at the latter is subject to the same limits as in factories. Boys
+ of 13 may be employed in certain work underground, but under 16 may
+ not be employed more than 8 hours in the 24 from bank to bank. A law
+ of 1905 provided for miners a 9 hours' day and in 1907 an 8 hours' day
+ from the foot of the entrance gallery back to the same point.
+
+ As in Great Britain, distinct services of inspection enforce the law
+ in factories and mines respectively. In factories and workshops an
+ inspector may order re-examination as to physical fitness for the work
+ imposed of any worker under 16; certain occupations and processes are
+ prohibited--e.g. girls under 16 at machines worked by treadles, and
+ the weights that may be lifted, pushed or carried by girls or boys
+ under 18 are carefully specified. The law applies generally to
+ philanthropic and religious institutions where industrial work is
+ carried on, as in ordinary trading establishments; and this holds good
+ even if the work is by way of technical instruction. Domestic
+ workshops are not controlled unless the industry is classed as
+ dangerous or unhealthy; introduction of motor power brings them under
+ inspection. General sanitation in industrial establishments is
+ provided for in a law of 1893, amended in 1903, and is supplemented by
+ administrative regulations for special risks due to poisons, dust,
+ explosive substances, gases, fumes, &c. Ventilation, both general and
+ special, lighting, provision of lavatories, cloakrooms, good drinking
+ water, drainage and cleanliness are required in all workplaces, shops,
+ warehouses, restaurant kitchens, and where workers are lodged by their
+ employers hygienic conditions are prescribed for dormitories. In many
+ industries women, children and young workers are either absolutely
+ excluded from specified unhealthy processes, or are admitted only
+ under conditions. As regards shops and offices, the labour laws are:
+ one which protects apprentices against overwork (law of 22nd February
+ 1851), one (law of 29th December 1900) which requires that seats shall
+ be provided for women and girls employed in retail sale of articles,
+ and a decree of the 28th of July 1904 defining in detail conditions of
+ hygiene in dormitories for workmen and shop assistants. The law
+ relating to seats is enforced by the inspectors of factories. In
+ France there is no special penal legislation against abuses of the
+ truck system, or excessive fines and deductions from wages, although
+ bills with that end in view have frequently been before parliament.
+ Indirect protection to workers is no doubt in many cases afforded in
+ organized industries by the action of the _Conseils de Prud'hommes_.
+
+ _Belgium._--In 1848 in Belgium the Commission on Labour proposed
+ legislation to limit, as in France, the hours of labour for adults,
+ but this proposal was never passed. Belgian regulation of labour in
+ industry remains essentially, in harmony with its earliest beginnings
+ in 1863 and onwards, a series of specialized provisions to meet
+ particular risks of individual trades, and did not, until 1889, give
+ any adherence to a common principle of limitation of hours and times
+ of labour for "protected" persons. This was in the law of the 13th of
+ December 1889, which applies to mines, quarries, factories, workshops
+ classed as unhealthy, wharves and docks, transports. As in France,
+ industrial establishments having a charitable or philanthropic or
+ educational character are included. The persons protected are girls
+ and women under 21 years, and boys under 16; and women over 21 only
+ find a place in the law through the prohibition of their employment
+ within four weeks after childbirth. As the hours of labour of adult
+ women remain ordinarily unlimited by law, so are the hours of boys
+ from 16 to 21. The law of Sunday rest dated the 17th of July 1905,
+ however, applies to labour generally in all industrial and commercial
+ undertakings except transport and fisheries, with certain regulated
+ exceptions for (a) cases of breakdown or urgency due to _force
+ majeure_, (b) certain repairs and cleaning, (c) perishable materials,
+ (d) retail food supply. Young workers are excluded from the
+ exceptions. The absolute prohibitions of employment are: for children
+ under 12 years in any industry, manufacturing or mining or transport,
+ and for women and girls under 21 years below the surface in working of
+ mines. Boys under 16 years and women and girls under 21 years may in
+ general not be employed before 5 A.M. or after 9 P.M., and one day in
+ the seven is to be set apart for rest from employment; to these rules
+ exception may be made either by royal decree for classes or groups of
+ processes, or by local authorities in exceptional cases. The
+ exceptions may be applied, generally, only to workers over 14 years,
+ but in mines, by royal decree, boys over 12 years may be employed from
+ 4 A.M. The law of 1889 fixes only a maximum of 12 hours of effective
+ work, to be interrupted by pauses for rest of not less than 1½ hours,
+ empowering the king by decree to formulate more precise limits suited
+ to the special circumstances of individual industries. Royal decrees
+ have accordingly laid down the conditions for many groups, including
+ textile trades, manufacture of paper, pottery, glass, clothing, mines,
+ quarries, engineering and printing works. In some the daily limit is
+ 10 hours, but in more 10½ or 11 hours. In a few exceptionally
+ unhealthy trades, such as the manufacture of lucifer matches,
+ vulcanization of india-rubber by means of carbon bi-sulphide, the age
+ of exclusion from employment has been raised, and in the last-named
+ process hours have been reduced to 5, broken into two spells of 2½
+ hours each. As a rule the conditions of health and safeguarding of
+ employments in exceptionally injurious trades have been sought by a
+ series of decrees under the law of 1863 relating to public health in
+ such industries. Special regulations for safety of workers have been
+ introduced in manufactures of white-lead, oxides of lead, chromate of
+ lead, lucifer match works, rag and shoddy works; and for dangers
+ common to many industries, provisions against dust, poisons, accidents
+ and other risks to health or limb have been codified in a decree of
+ 1896. A royal decree of the 31st of March 1903 prohibits employment of
+ persons under 16 years in fur-pulling and in carotting of rabbit
+ skins, and another of the 13th of May 1905 regulates use of lead in
+ house-painting. In 1898 a law was passed to enable the authorities to
+ deal with risks in quarries under the same procedure. Safety in mines
+ (which are not private property, but state concessions to be worked
+ under strict state control) has been provided for since 1810. In
+ matters of hygiene, until 1899 the powers of the public health
+ authorities to intervene were insufficient, and a law was passed
+ authorizing the government to make regulations for every kind of risk
+ in any undertaking, whether classed under the law of public health or
+ not. By a special law of 1888 children and young persons under 18
+ years are excluded from employment as pedlars, hawkers or in circuses,
+ except by their parents, and then only if they have attained 14 years.
+ Abuses of the truck system have, since 1887, been regulated with care.
+ The chief objects of the law of 1887 were to secure payment in full to
+ all workers, other than those in agriculture or domestic service, of
+ wages in legal tender, to prohibit payment of wages in public-houses,
+ and to secure prompt payment of wages. Certain deductions were
+ permitted under careful control for specific customary objects:
+ lodging, use of land, uniforms, food, firing. A royal order of the
+ 10th of October 1903 required use of automatic indicators for
+ estimating wages in certain cases in textile processes. The law of the
+ 15th of June 1896 regulates the affixing in workplaces, where at least
+ five workers are employed, of a notice of the working rules, the
+ nature and rate of fines, if any, and the mode of their application.
+ Two central services the mines inspectorate and the factory and
+ workshop inspectorate, divide the duties above indicated. There is
+ also a system of local administration of the regulations relating to
+ industries classed as unhealthy, but the tendency has been to give the
+ supreme control in these matters to the factory service, with its
+ expert staff.
+
+ _Holland._--The first law for regulation of labour in manufacture was
+ passed in 1874, and this related only to employment of children. The
+ basis of all existing regulations was established in the law of the
+ 5th of May 1889, which applies to all industrial undertakings,
+ excluding agriculture and forestry, fishing, stock-rearing. Employment
+ of children under 12 years is prohibited, and hours are limited for
+ young persons under 16 and for women of any age. These protected
+ persons may be excluded by royal decree from unhealthy industries, and
+ such industries are specified in a decree of 1897 which supersedes
+ other earlier regulations. Hours of employment must not exceed 11 in
+ the 24, and at least one hour for rest must be given between 11 A.M.
+ and 3 P.M., which hour must not be spent in a workroom. Work before 5
+ A.M. or after 7 P.M., Sunday work, and work on recognized holidays is
+ generally prohibited, but there are exceptions. Overtime from 7 to 10
+ P.M., under conditions, is allowed for women and young workers, and
+ Sunday work for women, for example, in butter and cheese making, and
+ night work for boys over 14 in certain industries. Employment of women
+ within four weeks of childbirth is prohibited. Notices of working
+ hours must be affixed in workplaces. Underground work in mines is
+ prohibited for women and young persons under 16, but in Holland mining
+ is a very small industry. In 1895 the first legislative provision was
+ made for protection of workers against risk of accident or special
+ injury to health. Sufficient cubic space, lighting, ventilation,
+ sanitary accommodation, reasonable temperature, removal of noxious
+ gases or dust, fencing of machinery, precautions against risk from
+ fire and other matters are provided for. The manufacture of lucifer
+ matches by means of white phosphorus was forbidden and the export,
+ importation and sale was regulated by a law of the 28th of May 1901.
+ By a regulation of the 16th of March 1904 provisions for safety and
+ health of women and young workers were strengthened in processes where
+ lead compounds or other poisons are used, and their employment at
+ certain dangerous machines and in cleaning machinery or near driving
+ belts was prohibited. No penal provision against truck exists in
+ Holland, but possibly abuses of the system are prevented by the
+ existence of industrial councils representing both employers and
+ workers, with powers to mediate or arbitrate in case of disputes.
+
+ _Switzerland._--In Switzerland separate cantonal legislation prepared
+ the way for the general Federal labour law of 1877 on which subsequent
+ legislation rests. Such legislation is also cantonal as well as
+ Federal, but in the latter there is only amplification or
+ interpretation of the principles contained in the law of 1877, whereas
+ cantonal legislation covers industries not included under the Federal
+ law, e.g. single workers employed in a trade (_métier_) and employment
+ in shops, offices and hotels. The Federal law is applied to factories,
+ workshops employing young persons under 18 or more than 10 workers,
+ and workshops in which unhealthy or dangerous processes are carried
+ on. Mines are not included, but are regulated in some respects as
+ regards health and safety by cantonal laws. Further, the Law of
+ Employers' Liability 1881-1887, which requires in all industries
+ precautions against accidents and reports of all serious accidents to
+ the cantonal governments, applies to mines. This led, in 1896, to the
+ creation of a special mining department, and mines, of which there are
+ few, have to be inspected once a year by a mining engineer. The
+ majority of the provisions of the Federal labour law apply to adult
+ workers of both sexes, and the general limit of the 11-hours' day,
+ exclusive of at least one hour for meals, applies to men as well as
+ women. The latter have, however, a legal claim, when they have a
+ household to manage, to leave work at the dinner-hour half an hour
+ earlier than the men. Men and unmarried women may be employed in such
+ subsidiary work as cleaning before or after the general legal limits.
+ On Saturdays and eves of the eight public holidays the 11-hours' day
+ is reduced to 10. Sunday work and night work are forbidden, but
+ exceptions are permitted conditionally. Night work is defined as 8
+ P.M. to 5 A.M. in summer, 8 P.M. to 6 A.M. in winter. Children are
+ excluded from employment in workplaces under the law until 14 years of
+ age, and until 16 must attend continuation schools. Zürich canton has
+ fixed the working day for women at 10 hours generally, and 9 hours on
+ Saturdays and eves of holidays. Bâle-Ville canton has the same limits
+ and provides that the very limited Sunday employment permitted shall
+ be compensated by double time off on another day. In the
+ German-speaking cantons girls under 18 are not permitted to work
+ overtime; in all cantons except Glarus the conditional overtime of 2
+ hours must be paid for at an enhanced wage.
+
+ Sanitary regulations and fencing of machinery are provided for with
+ considerable minuteness in a Federal decree of 1897. The plans of
+ every new factory must be submitted to the cantonal government. In the
+ case of lucifer match factories, not only the building but methods of
+ manufacture must be submitted. Since 1901 the manufacture, sale and
+ import of matches containing white phosphorus have been forbidden.
+ Women must be absent from employment during eight weeks before and
+ after childbirth. In certain dangerous occupations, e.g. where lead or
+ lead compounds are in use, women may not legally be employed during
+ pregnancy. A resolution of the federal council in 1901 classed
+ thirty-four different substances in use in industry as dangerous and
+ laid down that in case of clearly defined illness of workers directly
+ caused by use of any of these substances the liability provided by
+ article 3 of the law of the 25th of June 1881, and article 1 of the
+ law of the 26th of April 1887, should apply to the manufacture.
+ Legislative provision against abuses of the truck system appears to be
+ of earlier origin in Switzerland (17th century) than any other
+ European country outside England (15th century). The Federal Labour
+ Law 1877 generally prohibits payment of wages otherwise than in
+ current coin, and provides that no deduction shall be made without an
+ express contract. Some of the cantonal laws go much farther than the
+ British act of 1896 in forbidding certain deductions; e.g. Zürich
+ prohibits any charge for cleaning, warming or lighting workrooms or
+ for hire of machinery. By the Federal law fines may not exceed half a
+ day's wage. Administration of the Labour laws is divided between
+ inspectors appointed by the Federal Government and local authorities,
+ under supervision of the cantonal governments. The Federal Government
+ forms a court of appeal against decisions of the cantonal
+ governments.
+
+ _Germany._--Regulation of the conditions of labour in industry
+ throughout the German empire is provided for in the Imperial
+ Industrial Code and the orders of the Federal Council based thereon.
+ By far the most important recent amendment socially is the law
+ regulating child-labour, dated the 30th of March 1903, which relates
+ to establishments having industrial character in the sense of the
+ Industrial Code. This Code is based on earlier industrial codes of the
+ separate states, but more especially on the Code of 1869 of the North
+ German Confederation. It applies in whole or in part to all trades and
+ industrial occupations, except transport, fisheries and agriculture.
+ Mines are only included so far as truck, Sunday and holiday rest,
+ prohibition of employment underground of female labour, limitation of
+ the hours of women and young workers are concerned; otherwise the
+ regulations for protection of life and limb of miners vary, as do the
+ mining laws of the different states. To estimate the force of the
+ Industrial Code in working, it is necessary to bear in mind the
+ complicated political history of the empire, the separate
+ administration by the federated states, and the generally considerable
+ powers vested in administration of initiating regulations. The
+ Industrial Code expressly retains power for the states to initiate
+ certain additions or exceptions to the Code which in any given state
+ may form part of the law regulating factories there. The Code (unlike
+ the Austrian Industrial Code) lays down no general limit for a normal
+ working day for adult male workers, but since 1891 full powers were
+ given to the Imperial government to limit hours for any classes of
+ workers in industries where excessive length of the working day
+ endangers the health of the worker (R.G.O. § 120e). Previously
+ application had been made of powers to reduce the working day in such
+ unhealthy industries as silvering of mirrors by mercury and the
+ manufacture of white-lead. Separate states had, under mining laws,
+ also limited hours of miners. Sunday rest was, in 1891, secured for
+ every class of workers, commercial, industrial and mining. Annual
+ holidays were also secured on church festivals. These provisions,
+ however, are subject to exceptions under conditions. An important
+ distinction has to be shown when we turn to the regulations for hours
+ and times of labour for protected persons (women, young persons and
+ children). Setting aside for the moment hours of shop assistants
+ (which are under special sections since 1900), it is to "factory
+ workers" and not to industrial workers in general that these limits
+ apply, although they may be, and in some instances have been, further
+ extended--for instance, in ready-made clothing trades--by imperial
+ decree to workshops, and by the Child Labour Law of 1903 regulation of
+ the scope and duration of employment of children is much strengthened
+ in workshops, commerce, transport and domestic industries. The term
+ "factory" (_Fabrik_) is not defined in the Code, but it is clear from
+ various decisions of the supreme court that it only in part coincides
+ with the English term, and that some workplaces, where processes are
+ carried on by aid of mechanical power, rank rather as English
+ workshops. The distinction is rather between wholesale manufacturing
+ industry, with subdivision of labour, and small industry, where the
+ employer works himself. Certain classes of undertaking, viz. forges,
+ timber-yards, dockyards, brickfields and open quarries, are
+ specifically ranked as factories. Employment of protected persons at
+ the surface of mines and underground quarries, and in salt works and
+ ore-dressing works, and of boys underground comes under the factory
+ regulations. These exclude children from employment under 13 years,
+ and even later if an educational certificate has not been obtained;
+ until 14 years hours of employment may not exceed 6 in the 24. In
+ processes and occupations under the scope of the Child Labour Law
+ children may not be employed by their parents or guardians before 10
+ years of age or by other employers before 12 years of age; nor between
+ the hours of 8 P.M. and 8 A.M., nor otherwise than in full compliance
+ with requirements of educational authorities for school attendance and
+ with due regard to prescribed pauses. In school term time the daily
+ limit of employment for children is three hours, in holiday time three
+ hours. As regards factories Germany, unlike Great Britain, France and
+ Switzerland, requires a shorter day for young persons than for
+ women--10 hours for the former, 11 hours for the latter. Women over 16
+ years may be employed 11 hours. Night work is forbidden, i.e. work
+ between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M. Overtime may be granted to meet
+ unforeseen pressure or for work on perishable articles, under
+ conditions, by local authorities and the higher administrative
+ authorities. Prescribed meal-times are--an unbroken half-hour for
+ children in their 6 hours; for young persons a mid-day pause of one
+ hour, and half an hour respectively in the morning and afternoon
+ spells; for women, an hour at mid-day, but women with the care of a
+ household have the claim, on demand, to an extra half-hour, as in
+ Switzerland. No woman may be employed within four weeks after
+ childbirth, and unless a medical certificate can then be produced, the
+ absence must extend to six weeks. Notice of working periods and
+ meal-times must be affixed, and copies sent to the local authorities.
+ Employment of protected persons in factory industries where there are
+ special risks to health or morality may be forbidden or made dependent
+ on special conditions. By the Child Labour Law employment of children
+ is forbidden in brickworks, stone breaking, chimney sweeping, street
+ cleaning and other processes and occupations. By an order of the
+ Federal Council in 1902 female workers were excluded from main
+ processes in forges and rolling mills. All industrial employers alike
+ are bound to organize labour in such a manner as to secure workers
+ against injury to health and to ensure good conduct and propriety.
+ Sufficient light, suitable cloakrooms and sanitary accommodation, and
+ ventilation to carry off dust, vapours and other impurities are
+ especially required. Dining-rooms may be ordered by local authorities.
+ Fencing and provision for safety in case of fire are required in
+ detail. The work of the trade accident insurance associations in
+ preventing accidents is especially recognized in provisions for
+ special rules in dangerous or unhealthy industries. Officials of the
+ state factory departments are bound to give opportunity to trustees of
+ the trade associations to express an opinion on special rules. In a
+ large number of industries the Federal Council has laid down special
+ rules comparable with those for unhealthy occupations in Great
+ Britain. Among the regulations most recently revised and strengthened
+ are those for manufacture of lead colours and lead compounds, and for
+ horse-hair and brush-making factories. The relations between the state
+ inspectors of factories and the ordinary police authorities are
+ regulated in each state by its constitution. Prohibitions of truck in
+ its original sense--that is, payment of wages otherwise than in
+ current coin--apply to any persons under a contract of service with an
+ employer for a specified time for industrial purposes; members of a
+ family working for a parent or husband are not included; outworkers
+ are covered. Control of fines and deductions from wages applies only
+ in factory industries and shops employing at least 20 workers. Shop
+ hours are regulated by requiring shops to be closed generally between
+ 9 P.M. and 5 A.M., by requiring a fixed mid-day rest of 1½ hours and
+ at least 10 hours' rest in the 24 for assistants. These limits can be
+ modified by administrative authority. Notice of hours and working
+ rules must be affixed. During the hours of compulsory closing sale of
+ goods on the streets or from house to house is forbidden. Under the
+ Commercial Code, as under the Civil Code, every employer is bound to
+ adopt every possible measure for maintaining the safety, health and
+ good conduct of his employés. By an order of the Imperial Chancellor
+ under the Commercial Code seats must be provided for commercial
+ assistants and apprentices.
+
+ _Austria._--The Industrial Code of Austria, which in its present
+ outline (modified by later enactments) dates from 1883, must be
+ carefully distinguished from the Industrial Code of the kingdom of
+ Hungary. The latter is, owing to the predominantly agricultural
+ character of the population, of later origin, and hardly had practical
+ force before the law of 1893 provided for inspection and prevention of
+ accidents in factories. No separate mining code exists in Hungary, and
+ conditions of labour are regulated by the Austrian law of 1854. The
+ truck system is repressed on lines similar to those in Austria and
+ Germany. As regards limitation of hours of adult labour, Hungary may
+ be contrasted with both those empires in that no restriction of hours
+ applies either to men's or women's hours, whereas in Austrian
+ factories both are limited to an 11-hours' day with exceptional
+ overtime for which payment must always be made to the worker. The
+ Austrian Code has its origin, however, like the British Factory Acts,
+ in protection of child labour. Its present scope is determined by the
+ Imperial "Patent" of 1859, and all industrial labour is included
+ except mining, transport, fisheries, forestry, agriculture and
+ domestic industries. Factories are defined as including industries in
+ which a "manufacturing process is carried on in an enclosed place by
+ the aid of not less than twenty workers working with machines, with
+ subdivision of labour, and under an employer who does not himself
+ manually assist in the work." In smaller handicraft industries the
+ compulsory gild system of organization still applies. In every
+ industrial establishment, large or small, the sanitary and safety
+ provisions, general requirement of Sunday rest, and annual holidays
+ (with conditional exceptions), prohibition of truck and limitation of
+ the ages of child labour apply. Night work for women, 8 P.M. to 5
+ A.M., is prohibited only in factory industries; for young workers it
+ is prohibited in any industry. Pauses in work are required in all
+ industries; one hour at least must be given at mid-day, and if the
+ morning and afternoon spells exceed 5 hours each, another half-hour's
+ rest at least must be given. Children may not be employed in
+ industrial work before 12 years, and then only 8 hours a day at work
+ that is not injurious and if educational requirements are observed.
+ The age of employment is raised to 14 for "factories," and the work
+ must be such as will not hinder physical development. Women may not be
+ employed in regular industrial occupation within one month after
+ childbirth. In certain scheduled unhealthy industries, where
+ certificates of authorization from local authorities must be obtained
+ by intending occupiers, conditions of health and safety for workers
+ can be laid down in the certificate. The Minister of the Interior is
+ empowered to draw up regulations prohibiting or making conditions for
+ the employment of young workers or women in dangerous or unhealthy
+ industries. The provisions against truck cover not only all industrial
+ workers engaged in manual labour under a contract with an employer,
+ but also shop-assistants; the special regulations against fines and
+ deductions apply to factory workers and shops where at least 20
+ workers are employed. In mines under the law of 1884, which
+ supplements the general mining law, employment of women and girls
+ underground is prohibited; boys from 12 to 16 and girls from 12 to 18
+ may only be employed at light work above ground; 14 is the earliest
+ age of admission for boys underground. The shifts from bank to bank
+ must not exceed 12 hours, of which not more than 10 may be effective
+ work. Sunday rest must begin not later than 6 A.M., and must be of 24
+ hours' duration. These last two provisions do not hold in case of
+ pressing danger for safety, health or property. Sick and accident
+ funds and mining associations are legislated for in minutest detail.
+ The general law provides for safety in working, but special rules
+ drawn up by the district authorities lay down in detail the conditions
+ of health and safety. As regards manufacturing industry, the
+ Industrial Code lays no obligation on employers to report accidents,
+ and until the Accident Insurance Law of 1889 came into force no
+ statistics were available. In Austria, unlike Germany, the factory
+ inspectorate is organized throughout under a central chief inspector.
+
+ _Scandinavian Countries._--In Sweden the Factory Law was amended in
+ January 1901; in Denmark in July 1901. Until that year, however,
+ Norway was in some respects in advance of the other two countries by
+ its law of 1892, which applied to industrial works, including metal
+ works of all kinds and mining. Women were thereby prohibited from
+ employment: (a) underground; (b) in cleaning or oiling machinery in
+ motion; (c) during six weeks after childbirth, unless provided with a
+ medical certificate stating that they might return at the end of four
+ weeks without injury to health; (d) in dangerous, unhealthy or
+ exhausting trades during pregnancy. Further, work on Sundays and
+ public holidays is prohibited to all workers, adult and youthful, with
+ conditional exceptions under the authority of the inspectors. Children
+ over 12 are admitted to industrial work on obtaining certificates of
+ birth, of physical fitness and of elementary education. The hours of
+ children are limited to 6, with pauses, and of young persons (of 14 to
+ 18 years) to 10, with pauses. Night work between 8 P.M. and 6 A.M. is
+ prohibited. All workers are entitled to a copy of a code of factory
+ rules containing the terms of the contract of work drawn up by
+ representatives of employés with the employers and sanctioned by the
+ inspector. Health and safety in working are provided for in detail in
+ the same law of 1892. Special rules may be made for dangerous trades,
+ and in 1899 such rules were established for match factories, similar
+ to some of the British rules, but notably providing for a dental
+ examination four times yearly by a doctor. In Denmark, regulation
+ began with unhealthy industries, and it was not until the law of 1901
+ came into force, on the 1st of January 1902, that children under 12
+ years have been excluded from factory labour. Control of child labour
+ can be strengthened by municipal regulation, and this has been done in
+ Copenhagen by an order of the 23rd of May 1903. In Sweden the 12
+ years' limit had for some time held in the larger factories; the scope
+ has been extended so that it corresponds with the Norwegian law. The
+ hours of children are, in Denmark, 6½ for those under 14 years; in
+ Sweden 6 for those under 13 years. Young persons may not in either
+ country work more than 10 hours daily, and night work, which is
+ forbidden for persons under 18 years, is now defined as in Norway.
+ Women may not be employed in industry within four weeks of childbirth,
+ except on authority of a medical certificate. All factories in Sweden
+ where young workers are employed are subject to medical inspection
+ once a year. Fencing of machinery and hygienic conditions
+ (ventilation, cubic space, temperature, light) are regulated in
+ detail. In Denmark the use of white phosphorus in manufacture of
+ lucifer matches has been prohibited since 1874, and special
+ regulations have been drawn up by administrative orders which
+ strengthen control of various unhealthy or dangerous industries, e.g.
+ dry-cleaning works, printing works and type foundries, iron foundries
+ and engineering works. A special act of the 6th of April 1906
+ regulates labour and sanitary conditions in bakehouses and
+ confectionery works.
+
+ _Italy and Spain._--The wide difference between the industrial
+ development of these southern Latin countries and the two countries
+ with which this summary begins, and the far greater importance of the
+ agricultural interests, produced a situation, as regards labour
+ legislation until as recently as 1903, which makes it convenient to
+ touch on the comparatively limited scope of their regulations at the
+ close of the series. It was stated by competent and impartial
+ observers from each of the two countries, at the International
+ Congress on Labour Laws held at Brussels in 1897, that the lack of
+ adequate measures for protection of child labour and inefficient
+ administration of such regulations as exist was then responsible for
+ abuse of their forces that could be found in no other European
+ countries. "Their labour in factories, workshops, and mines
+ constitutes a veritable martyrdom" (Spain). "I believe that there is
+ no country where a sacrifice of child life is made that is comparable
+ with that in certain Italian factories and industries" (Italy). In
+ both countries important progress has since been made in organizing
+ inspection and preventing accidents. In Spain the first step in the
+ direction of limitation of women's hours of labour was taken by a law
+ of 1900, which took effect in 1902, in regulations for reduction of
+ hours of labour for adults to 11, normally, in the 24. Hours of
+ children under 14 must not exceed 6 in any industrial work nor 8 in
+ any commercial undertaking. Labour before the age of 10 years and
+ night work between 6 P.M. and 5 A.M. was prohibited, and powers were
+ taken to extend the prohibition of night work to young persons under
+ 16 years. The labour of children in Italy was until 1902 regulated in
+ the main by a law of 1886, but a royal decree of 1899 strengthened it
+ by classing night work for children under 12 years as "injurious,"
+ such work being thereby generally prohibited for them, though
+ exceptions are admitted; at the same time it was laid down that
+ children from 12 to 15 years might not be employed for more than 6
+ hours at night. The law of 1886 prohibits employment of children
+ under 9 years in industry and under 10 years in underground mining.
+ Night work for women was in Italy first prohibited by the law of the
+ 19th of June 1902, and at the same time also for boys under 15, but
+ this regulation was not to take full effect for 5 years as regards
+ persons already so employed; by the same law persons under 15 and
+ women of any age were accorded the claim to one day's complete rest of
+ 24 hours in the week; the age of employment of children in factories,
+ workshops, laboratories, quarries, mines, was raised to 12 years
+ generally and 14 years for underground work; the labour of female
+ workers of any age was prohibited in underground work, and power was
+ reserved to further restrict and regulate their employment as well as
+ that of male workers under 15. Spain and Italy, the former by the law
+ of the 13th of March 1900, the latter by the law of the 19th of June
+ 1902, prohibit the employment of women within a fixed period of
+ childbirth; in Spain the limit is three weeks, in Italy one month,
+ which may be reduced to three weeks on a medical certificate of
+ fitness. Sunday rest is secured in industrial works, with regulated
+ exceptions in Spain by the law of the 3rd of March 1904. It is in the
+ direction of fencing and other safeguards against accidents and as
+ regards sanitary provisions, both in industrial workplaces and in
+ mines, that Italy has made most advance since her law of 1890 for
+ prevention of accidents. Special measures for prevention of malaria
+ are required in cultivation of rice by a ministerial circular of the
+ 23rd of April 1903; work may not begin until an hour after sunrise and
+ must cease an hour before sunset; children under 13 may not be
+ employed in this industry. (A. M, An.)
+
+
+IV. UNITED STATES
+
+ History.
+
+Under the general head of Labour Legislation all American statute laws
+regulating labour, its conditions, and the relation of employer and
+employé must be classed. It includes what is properly known as factory
+legislation. Labour legislation belongs to the latter half of the 19th
+century, so far as the United States is concerned. Like England in the
+far past, the Americans in colonial days undertook to regulate wages and
+prices, and later the employment of apprentices. Legislation relating to
+wages and prices was long ago abandoned, but the laws affecting the
+employment of apprentices still exist in some form, although conditions
+of employment have changed so materially that apprenticeships are not
+entered as of old; but the laws regulating the employment of apprentices
+were the basis on which English legislation found a foothold when
+parliament wished to regulate the labour of factory operatives. The code
+of labour laws of the present time is almost entirely the result of the
+industrial revolution during the latter part of the 18th century, under
+which the domestic or hand-labour system was displaced through the
+introduction of power machinery. As this revolution took place in the
+United States at a somewhat later date than in England, the labour
+legislation necessitated by it belongs to a later date. The factory, so
+far as textiles are concerned, was firmly established in America during
+the period from 1820 to 1840, and it was natural that the English
+legislation found friends and advocates in the United States, although
+the more objectionable conditions accompanying the English factory were
+not to be found there.
+
+
+ Early attempts to regulate hours.
+
+The first attempt to secure legislation regulating factory employment
+related to the hours of labour, which were very long--from twelve to
+thirteen hours a day. As machinery was introduced it was felt that the
+tension resulting from speeded machines and the close attention required
+in the factory ought to be accompanied by a shorter work-day. This view
+took firm hold of the operatives, and was the chief cause of the
+agitation which has resulted in a great body of laws applying in very
+many directions. As early as 1806 the caulkers and shipbuilders of New
+York City agitated for a reduction of hours to ten per day, but no
+legislation followed. There were several other attempts to secure some
+regulation relative to hours, but there was no general agitation prior
+to 1831. As Massachusetts was the state which first recognized the
+necessity of regulating employment (following in a measure, and so far
+as conditions demanded, the English labour or factory legislation), the
+history of such legislation in that state is indicative of that in the
+United States, and as it would be impossible in this article to give a
+detailed history of the origin of laws in the different states, the
+dates of their enactment, and their provisions, it is best to follow
+primarily the course of the Eastern states, and especially that of
+Massachusetts, where the first general agitation took place and the
+first laws were enacted. That state in 1836 regulated by law the
+question of the education of young persons employed in manufacturing
+establishments. The regulation of hours of labour was warmly discussed
+in 1832, and several legislative committees and commissions reported
+upon it, but no specific action on the general question of hours of
+labour secured the indorsement of the Massachusetts legislature until
+1874, although the day's labour of children under twelve years of age
+was limited to ten hours in 1842. Ten hours constituted a day's labour,
+on a voluntary basis, in many trades in Massachusetts and other parts of
+the country as early as 1853, while in the shipbuilding trades this was
+the work-day in 1844. In April 1840 President Van Buren issued an order
+"that all public establishments will hereafter be regulated, as to
+working hours, by the ten-hours system." The real aggressive movement
+began in 1845, through numerous petitions to the Massachusetts
+legislature urging a reduction of the day's labour to eleven hours, but
+nothing came of these petitions at that time. Again, in 1850, a similar
+effort was made, and also in 1851 and 1852, but the bills failed. Then
+there was a period of quiet until 1865, when an unpaid commission made a
+report relative to the hours of labour, and recommended the
+establishment of a bureau of statistics for the purpose of collecting
+data bearing upon the labour question. This was the first step in this
+direction in any country. The first bureau of the kind was established
+in Massachusetts in 1869, but meanwhile, in accordance with reports of
+commissions and the address of Governor Bullock in 1866, and the general
+sentiment which then prevailed, the legislature passed an act regulating
+in a measure the conditions of the employment of children in
+manufacturing establishments; and this is one of the first laws of the
+kind in the United States, although the first legislation in the United
+States relating to the hours of labour which the writer has been able to
+find, and for which he can fix a date, was enacted by the state of
+Pennsylvania in 1849, the law providing that ten hours should be a day's
+work in cotton, woollen, paper, bagging, silk and flax factories.
+
+
+ Employment of children.
+
+The Massachusetts law of 1866 provided, firstly, that no child under ten
+should be employed in any manufacturing establishment, and that no child
+between ten and fourteen should be so employed unless he had attended
+some public or private school at least six months during the year
+preceding such employment, and, further, that such employment should not
+continue unless the child attended school at least six months in each
+and every year; secondly, a penalty not exceeding $50 for every owner or
+agent or other person knowingly employing a child in violation of the
+act; thirdly, that no child under the age of fourteen should be employed
+in any manufacturing establishment more than eight hours in any one day;
+fourthly, that any parent or guardian allowing or consenting to
+employment in violation of the act should forfeit a sum not to exceed
+$50 for each offence; fifthly, that the Governor instruct the state
+constable and his deputies to enforce the provisions of all laws for
+regulating the employment of children in manufacturing establishments.
+The same legislature also created a commission of three persons, whose
+duty it was to investigate the subject of hours of labour in relation to
+the social, educational and sanitary condition of the working classes.
+In 1867 a fundamental law relating to schooling and hours of labour of
+children employed in manufacturing and mechanical establishments was
+passed by the Massachusetts legislature. It differed from the act of the
+year previous in some respects, going deeper into the general question.
+It provided that no child under ten should be employed in any
+manufacturing or mechanical establishment of the commonwealth, and that
+no child between ten and fifteen should be so employed unless he had
+attended school, public or private, at least three months during the
+year next preceding his employment. There were provisions relating to
+residence, &c., and a further provision that no time less than 120
+half-days of actual schooling should be deemed an equivalent of three
+months, and that no child under fifteen should be employed in any
+manufacturing or mechanical establishment more than sixty hours any one
+week. The law also provided penalties for violation. It repealed the
+act of 1866.
+
+In 1869 began the establishment of that chain of offices in the United
+States, the principle of which has been adopted by other countries,
+known as bureaus of statistics of labour, their especial purpose being
+the collection and dissemination of information relating to all features
+of industrial employment. As a result of the success of the first
+bureau, bureaus are in existence in thirty-three states, in addition to
+the United States Bureau of Labour.
+
+A special piece of legislation which belongs to the commonwealth of
+Massachusetts, so far as experience shows, was that in 1872, providing
+for cheap morning and evening trains for the accommodation of working
+men living in the vicinity of Boston. Great Britain had long had such
+trains, which were called parliamentary trains. Under the Massachusetts
+law some of the railways running out of Boston furnished the
+accommodation required, and the system has since been in operation.
+
+
+ Factory legislation, 1877.
+
+In different parts of the country the agitation to secure legislation
+regulating the hours of labour became aggressive again in 1870 and the
+years immediately following, there being a constant repetition of
+attempts to secure the enactment of a ten-hours law, but in
+Massachusetts all the petitions failed till 1874, when the legislature
+of that commonwealth established the hours of labour at sixty per week
+not only for children under eighteen, but for women, the law providing
+that no minor under eighteen and no woman over that age should be
+employed by any person, firm or corporation in any manufacturing
+establishment more than ten hours in any one day. In 1876 Massachusetts
+reconstructed its laws relating to the employment of children, although
+it did not abrogate the principles involved in earlier legislation,
+while in 1877 the commonwealth passed Factory Acts covering the general
+provisions of the British laws. It provided for the general inspection
+of factories and public buildings, the provisions of the law relating to
+dangerous machinery, such as belting, shafting, gearing, drums, &c.,
+which the legislature insisted must be securely guarded, and that no
+machinery other than steam engines should be cleaned while running. The
+question of ventilation and cleanliness was also attended to. Dangers
+connected with hoistways, elevators and well-holes were minimized by
+their protection by sufficient trap-doors, while fire-escapes were made
+obligatory on all establishments of three or more storeys in height. All
+main doors, both inside and outside, of manufacturing establishments, as
+well as those of churches, school-rooms, town halls, theatres and every
+building used for public assemblies, should open outwardly whenever the
+factory inspectors of the commonwealth deemed it necessary. These
+provisions remain in the laws of Massachusetts, and other states have
+found it wise to follow them.
+
+ The labour legislation in force in 1910 in the various states of the
+ Union might be classified in two general branches: (A) protective
+ labour legislation, or laws for the aid of workers who, on account of
+ their economic dependence, are not in a position fully to protect
+ themselves; (B) legislation having for its purpose the fixing of the
+ legal status of the worker as an employé, such as laws relating to the
+ making and breaking of the labour contract, the right to form
+ organizations and to assemble peaceably, the settlement of labour
+ disputes, the licensing of occupations, &c.
+
+
+ Factory and workshop acts.
+
+ (A) The first class includes factory and workshop acts, laws relating
+ to hours of labour, work on Sundays and holidays, the payment of
+ wages, the liability of employers for injuries to their employés, &c.
+ Factory acts have been passed by nearly all the states of the Union.
+ These may be considered in two groups--first, laws which relate to
+ conditions of employment and affect only children, young persons and
+ women; and second, laws which relate to the sanitary condition of
+ factories and workshops and to the safety of employés generally. The
+ states adopting such laws have usually made provision for factory
+ inspectors, whose duties are to enforce these laws and who have power
+ to enter and inspect factories and workshops. The most common
+ provisions of the factory acts in the various states are those which
+ fix an age limit below which employment is unlawful. All but five
+ states have enacted such provisions, and these five states have
+ practically no manufacturing industries. In some states the laws
+ fixing an age limit are restricted in their application to factories,
+ while in others they extend also to workshops, bakeries, mercantile
+ establishments and other work places where children are employed. The
+ prescribed age limit varies from ten to fourteen years. Provisions
+ concerning the education of children in factories and workshops may be
+ considered in two groups, those relating to apprenticeship and those
+ requiring a certain educational qualification as a pre-requisite to
+ employment. Apprenticeship laws are numerous, but they do not now have
+ great force, because of the practical abrogation of the apprenticeship
+ system through the operation of modern methods of production. Most
+ states have provisions prohibiting illiterates under a specified age,
+ usually sixteen, from being employed in factories and workshops. The
+ provisions of the factory acts relating to hours of labour and night
+ work generally affect only the employment of women and young persons.
+ Most of the states have enacted such provisions, those limiting the
+ hours of children occurring more frequently than those limiting the
+ hours of women. The hour limit for work in such cases ranges from six
+ per day to sixty-six per week. Where the working time of children is
+ restricted, the minimum age prescribed for such children ranges from
+ twelve to twenty-one years. In some cases the restriction of the hours
+ of labour of women and children is general, while in others it applies
+ only to employment in one or more classes of industries. Other
+ provisions of law for the protection of women and children, but not
+ usually confined in their operation to factories and workshops, are
+ such as require seats for females and separate toilet facilities for
+ the sexes, and prohibit employment in certain occupations as in mines,
+ places where intoxicants are manufactured or sold, in cleaning or
+ operating dangerous machinery, &c. Provisions of factory acts relating
+ to the sanitary condition of factories and workshops and the safety of
+ employés have been enacted in nearly all the manufacturing states of
+ the Union. They prohibit overcrowding, and require proper ventilation,
+ sufficient light and heat, the lime-washing or painting of walls and
+ ceilings, the provision of exhaust fans and blowers in places where
+ dust or dangerous fumes are generated, guards on machinery, mechanical
+ belts and gearing shifters, guards on elevators and hoistways,
+ hand-rails on stairs, fire-escapes, &c.
+
+
+ Hours of labour.
+
+ The statutes relating to hours of labour may be considered under five
+ groups, namely: (1) general laws which merely fix what shall be
+ regarded as a day's labour in the absence of a contract; (2) laws
+ defining what shall constitute a day's work on public roads; (3) laws
+ limiting the hours of labour per day on public works; (4) laws
+ limiting the hours of labour in certain occupations; and (5) laws
+ which specify the hours per day or per week during which women and
+ children may be employed. The statutes included in the first two
+ groups place no restrictions upon the number of hours which may be
+ agreed upon between employers and employés, while those in the other
+ three groups usually limit the freedom of contract and provide
+ penalties for their violation. A considerable number of states have
+ enacted laws which fix a day's labour in the absence of any contract,
+ some at eight and others at ten hours, so that when an employer and an
+ employé make a contract and they do not specify what shall constitute
+ a day's labour, eight or ten hours respectively would be ruled as the
+ day's labour in an action which might come before the courts. In a
+ number of the states it is optional with the citizens to liquidate
+ certain taxes either by cash payments or by rendering personal
+ service. In the latter case the length of the working day is defined
+ by law, eight hours being usually specified. The Federal government
+ and nearly one-half of the states have laws providing that eight hours
+ shall constitute a day's work for employés on public works. Under the
+ Federal Act it is unlawful for any officer of the government or of any
+ contractor or sub-contractor for public works to permit labourers and
+ mechanics to work longer than eight hours per day. The state laws
+ concerning hours of labour have similar provisions. Exceptions are
+ provided for cases of extraordinary emergencies, such as danger to
+ human life or property. In many states the hours of labour have been
+ limited by law in occupations in which, on account of their dangerous
+ or insanitary character, the health of the employés would be
+ jeopardized by long hours of labour, or in which the fatigue
+ occasioned by long hours would endanger the lives of the employés or
+ of the public. The occupations for which such special legislation has
+ been enacted are those of employés on steam and street railways, in
+ mines and other underground workings, smelting and refining works,
+ bakeries and cotton and woollen mills. Laws limiting the hours of
+ labour of women and children have been considered under factory and
+ workshop acts.
+
+
+ Sunday labour.
+
+ Nearly all states and Territories of the Union have laws prohibiting
+ the employment of labour on Sunday. These laws usually make it a
+ misdemeanour for persons either to labour themselves or to compel or
+ permit their apprentices, servants or other employés, to labour on the
+ first day of the week. Exceptions are made in the case of household
+ duties or works of necessity or charity, and in the case of members of
+ religious societies who observe some other than the first day of the
+ week.
+
+
+ Payment of wages.
+
+ Statutes concerning the payment of wages of employés may be considered
+ in two groups: (1) those which relate to the employment contract, such
+ as laws fixing the maximum period of wage payments, prohibiting the
+ payment of wages in scrip or other evidences of indebtedness in lieu
+ of lawful money, prohibiting wage deductions on account of fines,
+ breakage of machinery, discounts for prepayments, medical attendance,
+ relief funds or other purposes, requiring the giving of notice of
+ reduction of wages, &c.; (2) legislation granting certain privileges
+ or affording special protection to working people with respect to
+ their wages, such as laws exempting wages from attachment, preferring
+ wage claims in assignments, and granting workmen liens upon buildings
+ and other constructions on which they have been employed.
+
+
+ Employers' liability.
+
+ Employers' liability laws have been passed to enable an employé to
+ recover damages from his employer under certain conditions when he has
+ been injured through accident occurring in the works of the employer.
+ The common-law maxim that the principal is responsible for the acts of
+ his agent does not apply where two or more persons are working
+ together under the same employer and one of the employés is injured
+ through the carelessness of his fellow-employé, although the one
+ causing the accident is the agent of the principal, who under the
+ common law would be responsible. The old Roman law and the English and
+ American practice under it held that the co-employé was a party to the
+ accident. The injustice of this rule is seen by a single illustration.
+ A weaver in a cotton factory, where there are hundreds of operatives,
+ is injured by the neglect or carelessness of the engineer in charge of
+ the motive power. Under the common law the weaver could not recover
+ damages from the employer, because he was the co-employé of the
+ engineer. So, one of thousands of employés of a railway system,
+ sustaining injuries through the carelessness of a switchman whom he
+ never saw, could recover no damages from the railway company, both
+ being co-employés of the same employer. The injustice of this
+ application of the common-law rule has been recognized, but the only
+ way to avoid the difficulty was through specific legislation providing
+ that under such conditions as those related, and similar ones, the
+ doctrine of co-employment should not apply, and that the workman
+ should have the same right to recover damages as a passenger upon a
+ railway train. This legislation has upset some of the most notable
+ distinctions of law.
+
+ The first agitation for legislation of this character occurred in
+ England in 1880. A number of states in the Union have now enacted
+ statutes fixing the liability of employers under certain conditions
+ and relieving the employé from the application of the common-law rule.
+ Where the employé himself is contributory to the injuries resulting
+ from an accident he cannot recover, nor can he recover in some cases
+ where he knows of the danger from the defects of tools or implements
+ employed by him. The legislation upon the subject involves many
+ features of legislation which need not be described here, such as
+ those concerning the power of employés to make a contract, and those
+ defining the conditions, often elaborate, which lead to the liability
+ of the employer and the duties of the employé, and the relations in
+ which damages for injuries sustained in employment may be recovered
+ from the employer.
+
+ (B) The statutes thus far considered may be regarded as protective
+ labour legislation. There is, besides, a large body of statutory laws
+ enacted in the various states for the purpose of fixing the legal
+ status of employers and employés and defining their rights and
+ privileges as such.
+
+
+ Labour contract.
+
+ A great variety of statutes have been enacted in the various states
+ relating to the labour contract. Among these are laws defining the
+ labour contract, requiring notice of termination of contract, making
+ it a misdemeanour to break a contract of service and thereby endanger
+ human life or expose valuable property to serious injury, or to make a
+ contract of service and accept transportation or pecuniary
+ advancements with intent to defraud, prohibiting contracts of
+ employment whereby employés waive the right to damages in case of
+ injury, &c. A Federal statute makes it a misdemeanour for any one to
+ prepay the transportation or in any way assist or encourage the
+ importation of aliens under contract to perform labour or service of
+ any kind in the United States, exceptions being made in the case of
+ skilled labour that cannot otherwise be obtained, domestic servants
+ and persons belonging to any of the recognized professions.
+
+
+ Licensed occupations.
+
+ The Federal government and nearly all the states and territories have
+ statutory provisions requiring the examination and licensing of
+ persons practising certain trades other than those in the class of
+ recognized professions. The Federal statute relates only to engineers
+ on steam vessels, masters, mates, pilots, &c. The occupations for
+ which examinations and licences are required by the various state laws
+ are those of barbers, horseshoers, elevator operators, plumbers,
+ stationary firemen, steam engineers, telegraph operators on railroads
+ and certain classes of mine workers and steam and street railway
+ employés.
+
+
+ Labour organizations.
+
+The right of combination and peaceable assembly on the part of employés
+is recognized at common law throughout the United States. Organizations
+of working-men formed for their mutual benefit, protection and
+improvement, such as for endeavouring to secure higher wages, shorter
+hours of labour or better working conditions, are nowhere regarded as
+unlawful. A number of states and the Federal government have enacted
+statutes providing for the incorporation of trade unions, but owing to
+the freedom from regulation or inspection enjoyed by unincorporated
+trade unions, very few have availed themselves of this privilege. A
+number of states have enacted laws tending to give special protection to
+and encourage trade unions. Thus, nearly one-half of the states have
+passed acts declaring it unlawful for employers to discharge workmen for
+joining labour organizations, or to make it a condition of employment
+that they shall not belong to such bodies. Laws of this kind have
+generally been held to be unconstitutional. Nearly all the states have
+laws protecting trade unions in the use of the union label, insignia of
+membership, credentials, &c., and making it a misdemeanour to
+counterfeit or fraudulently use them. A number of the states exempt
+labour organizations from the operations of the anti-trust and insurance
+acts.
+
+
+ Labour disputes.
+
+Until recent years all legal action concerning labour disturbances was
+based upon the principles of the common law. Some of the states have now
+fairly complete statutory enactments concerning labour disturbances,
+while others have little or no legislation of this class. The right of
+employés to strike for any cause or for no cause is sustained by the
+common law everywhere in the United States. Likewise an employer has a
+right to discharge any or all of his employés when they have no contract
+with him, and he may refuse to employ any person or class of persons for
+any reason or for no reason. Agreements among strikers to take peaceable
+means to induce others to remain away from the works of an employer
+until he yields to the demands of the strikers are not held to be
+conspiracies under the common law, and the carrying out of such a
+purpose by peaceable persuasion and without violence, intimidation or
+threats, is not unlawful. However, any interference with the
+constitutional rights of another to employ whom he chooses or to labour
+when, where or on what terms he pleases, is illegal. The boycott has
+been held to be an illegal conspiracy in restraint of trade. The
+statutory enactments of the various states concerning labour
+disturbances are in part re-enactments of the rules of common law and in
+part more or less departures from or additions to the established
+principles. The list of such statutory enactments is a large one, and
+includes laws relating to blacklisting, boycotting, conspiracy against
+working-men, interference with employment, intimidation, picketing and
+strikes of railway employés; laws requiring statements of causes of
+discharge of employés and notice of strikes in advertisements for
+labour; laws prohibiting deception in the employment of labour and the
+hiring of armed guards by employers; and laws declaring that certain
+labour agreements do not constitute conspiracy. Some of these laws have
+been held to be unconstitutional, and some have not yet been tested in
+the courts.
+
+
+ Arbitration and conciliation.
+
+ The laws just treated relate almost entirely to acts either of
+ employers or of employés, but there is another form of law, namely,
+ that providing for action to be taken by others in the effort to
+ prevent working people from losing employment, either by their own
+ acts or by those of their employers, or to settle any differences
+ which arise out of controversies relating to wages, hours of labour,
+ terms and conditions of employment, rules, &c. These laws provide for
+ the mediation and the arbitration of labour disputes (see ARBITRATION
+ AND CONCILIATION). Twenty-three states and the Federal government have
+ laws or constitutional provisions of this nature. In some cases they
+ provide for the appointment of state boards, and in others of local
+ boards only. A number of states provide for local or special boards in
+ addition to the regular state boards. In some states it is required
+ that a member of a labour organization must be a member of the board,
+ and, in general, both employers and employés must be represented.
+ Nearly all state boards are required to attempt to mediate between the
+ parties to a dispute when information is received of an actual or
+ threatened labour trouble. Arbitration may be undertaken in some
+ states on application from either party, in others on the application
+ of both parties. An agreement to maintain the _status quo_ pending
+ arbitration is usually required. The modes of enforcement of obedience
+ to the awards of the boards are various. Some states depend on
+ publicity alone, some give the decisions the effect of judgments of
+ courts of law which may be enforced by execution, while in other
+ states disobedience to such decisions is punishable as for contempt of
+ court. The Federal statute applies only to common carriers engaged in
+ interstate commerce, and provides for an attempt to be made at
+ mediation by two designated government officials in controversies
+ between common carriers and their employés, and, in case of the
+ failure of such an attempt, for the formation of a board of
+ arbitration consisting of the same officials together with certain
+ other parties to be selected. Such arbitration boards are to be formed
+ only at the request or upon the consent of both parties to the
+ controversy.
+
+
+ The judicial enforcement of labour laws.
+
+The enforcement of laws by executive or judicial action is an important
+matter relating to labour legislation, for without action such laws
+would remain dead letters. Under the constitutions of the states, the
+governor is the commander-in-chief of the military forces, and he has
+the power to order the militia or any part of it into active service in
+case of insurrection, invasion, tumult, riots or breaches of the peace
+or imminent danger thereof. Frequent action has been taken in the case
+of strikes with the view of preventing or suppressing violence
+threatened or happening to persons or property, the effect being,
+however, that the militia protects those working or desiring to work, or
+the employers. The president of the United States may use the land and
+naval forces whenever by reason of insurrection, domestic violence,
+unlawful obstructions, conspiracy, combinations or assemblages of
+persons it becomes impracticable to enforce the laws of the land by the
+ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or when the execution of the
+laws is so hindered by reason of such events that any portion or class
+of the people are deprived thereby of their rights and privileges under
+the constitution and laws of the country. Under this general power the
+United States forces have been used for the protection of both employers
+and employés indirectly, the purpose being to protect mails and, as in
+the states, to see that the laws are carried out.
+
+The power of the courts to interfere in labour disputes is through the
+injunction and punishment thereunder for contempt of court. It is a
+principle of law that when there are interferences, actual or
+threatened, with property or with rights of a pecuniary nature, and the
+common or statute law offers no adequate and immediate remedy for the
+prevention of injury, a court of equity may interpose and issue its
+order or injunction as to what must or must not be done, a violation of
+which writ gives the court which issued it the power to punish for
+contempt. The doctrine is that something is necessary to be done to stop
+at once the destruction of property and the obstruction of business, and
+the injunction is immediate in its action. This writ has been resorted
+to frequently for the indirect protection of employés and of employers.
+ (C. D. W.)
+
+ AUTHORITIES.--ENGLISH: (a) Factory Legislation: Abraham and Davies,
+ _Law relating to Factories and Workshops_ (London, 1897 and 1902);
+ Redgrave, _Factory Acts_ (London, 1897); Royal Commission on Labour,
+ _Minutes of Evidence and Digests_, Group "C" (3 vols., 1892-1893),
+ _Assistant Commissioner's Report on Employment of Women_ (1893),
+ _Fifth and Final Report of the Commission_ (1894); International
+ Labour Conference at Berlin, _Correspondence, Commercial Series_ (C,
+ 6042) (1890); House of Lords Committee on the Sweating System,
+ _Report_ (1891); _Home Office Reports_: Annual Reports of H.M. Chief
+ Inspector of Factories (1879 to 1901), Committee on White Lead and
+ Various Lead Industries (1894), Working of the Cotton Cloth Factories
+ Acts (1897), Dangerous Trades (Anthrax) Committee, Do., Miscellaneous
+ Trades (1896-97-98-99), Conditions of Work in Fish-Curing Trade
+ (1898), Lead Compounds in Pottery (1899), Phosphorus in Manufacture of
+ Lucifer Matches (1899), &c., &c.; Whately Cooke-Taylor, _Modern
+ Factory System_ (London, 1891); Oliver, _Dangerous Trades_ (London,
+ 1902); Cunningham, _Growth of English Commerce and Industry_ (1907);
+ Hutchins and Harrison, _History of Factory Legislation_ (1903);
+ Traill, _Social England, &c., &c._ (b) Mines and Quarries: _Statutes_:
+ Coal Mines Regulation Acts 1886, 1894, 1896, 1899; Metalliferous Mines
+ Regulation Acts 1872, 1875; Quarries Act 1894; Royal Commission on
+ Labour, _Minutes of Evidence and Digests_, Group "A" (1892-1893, 3
+ vols.); Royal Commission on Mining Royalties, _Appendices_ (1894);
+ _Home Office Reports_: Annual General Report upon the Mining Industry
+ (1894-1897), Mines and Quarries, General Reports and Statistics (1898
+ to 1899), Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories
+ (1893-1895) (Quarries); Macswinney and Bristowe, _Coal Mines
+ Regulation Act_ 1887 (London, 1888). (c) Shops: _Statutes_: Shop Hours
+ Acts 1892, 1893, 1896, Seats for Shop Assistants Act 1899; _Report of
+ Select Committee of House of Commons on the Shop Hours Regulation Bill
+ 1886_ (Eyre and Spottiswoode). (d) Truck: _Home Office Reports_:
+ Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories, especially
+ 1895-1900, Memorandum on the Law relating to Truck and Checkweighing
+ Clauses of the Coal Mines Acts 1896, Memorandum relating to the Truck
+ Acts, by Sir Kenelm Digby, with text of Acts (1897).
+
+ CONTINENTAL EUROPE: _Annuaire de la législation du travail_
+ (Bruxelles, 1898-1905); _Hygiène et sécurité des travailleurs dans les
+ ateliers industriels_ (Paris, 1895); _Bulletin de l'inspection du
+ travail_ (Paris, 1895-1902); _Bulletin de l'office international du
+ travail_ (Paris, 1902-1906); _Congrès international de législation du
+ travail_ (1898); _Die Gewerbeordnung für das deutsche Reich_. (1)
+ Landmann (1897); (2) Neukamp (1901); _Gesetz betr. Kinderarbeit in
+ gewerblichen Betrieben_, 30. _März 1903_; Konrad Agahd, _Manz'sche
+ Gesetzausgabe_, erster Band und siebenter Band (Wien, 1897-1898);
+ _Legge sugli infortunii del lavoro_ (Milan, 1900).
+
+ UNITED STATES: See the _Twenty-Second Annual Report of the
+ Commissioner of Labor_ (1907) giving all labour laws in force in the
+ United States in 1907, with annotations of decisions of courts;
+ bimonthly _Bulletins_ of the U.S. Bureau of Labor, containing laws
+ passed since those published in the foregoing, and decisions of courts
+ relating to employers and employés; also special articles in these
+ _Bulletins_ on "Employer and Employé under the Common Law" (No. 1),
+ "Protection of Workmen in their Employment" (No. 26), "Government
+ Industrial Arbitration" (No. 60), "Laws relating to the Employment of
+ Women and Children, and to Factory Inspection and the Health and
+ Safety of Employés" (No. 74), "Wages and Hours of Labor in
+ Manufacturing Industries, 1890 to 1907" (No. 77), "Review of Labor
+ Legislation of 1908 and 1909" (No. 85); also "Report of the Industrial
+ Commission on Labor Legislation" (vol. v., _U.S. Commission's
+ Report_); C. D. Wright, _Industrial Evolution in the United States_
+ (1887); Stimson, _Handbook to the Labor Laws of the United States_,
+ and _Labor in its Relation to Law_; Adams and Sumner, _Labor
+ Problems_; Labatt, _Commentaries on the Law of Master and Servant_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+ [1] The term "labour" (Lat. _labor_) means strictly any energetic
+ work, though in general it implies hard work, but in modern parlance
+ it is specially confined to industrial work of the kind done by the
+ "working-classes."
+
+ [2] H. D. Traill, _Social England_, v. 602 (1896).
+
+ [3] W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Commerce and Industry_.
+
+ [4] W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Commerce and Industry_.
+
+ [5] From an "Essay on Trade" (1770), quoted in _History of Factory
+ Legislation_, by B. L. Hutchins and A. Harrison (1903), pp. 5, 6.
+
+ [6] Minutes of Evidence, House of Commons, 1876; quoted in _History
+ of Factory Legislation_, by Harrison and Hutchinson, p. 179.
+
+
+
+
+LABOUR PARTY, in Great Britain, the name given to the party in
+parliament composed of working-class representatives. As the result of
+the Reform Act of 1884, extending the franchise to a larger new
+working-class electorate, the votes of "labour" became more and more a
+matter of importance for politicians; and the Liberal party, seeking for
+the support of organized labour in the trade unions, found room for a
+few working-class representatives, who, however, acted and voted as
+Liberals. It was not till 1893 that the Independent Labour party,
+splitting off under Mr J. Keir Hardie (b. 1856) from the socialist
+organization known as the Social Democratic Federation (founded 1881),
+was formed at Bradford, with the object of getting independent
+candidates returned to parliament on a socialist programme. In 1900 Mr
+Keir Hardie, who as secretary of the Lanarkshire Miners' Union had stood
+unsuccessfully as a labour candidate for Mid-Lanark in 1888, and sat as
+M.P. for West Ham in 1892-1895, was elected to parliament for
+Merthyr-Tydvil by its efforts, and in 1906 it obtained the return of 30
+members, Mr Keir Hardie being chairman of the group. Meanwhile in 1899
+the Trade Union Congress instructed its parliamentary committee to call
+a conference on the question of labour representation; and in February
+1900 this was attended by trade union delegates and also by
+representatives of the Independent Labour party, the Social Democratic
+Federation and the Fabian Society. A resolution was carried "to
+establish a distinct labour group in parliament, who shall have their
+own whips, and agree upon their own policy, which must embrace a
+readiness to co-operate with any party which for the time being may be
+engaged in promoting legislation in the direct interest of labour," and
+the committee (the Labour Representation Committee) was elected for the
+purpose. Under their auspices 29 out of 51 candidates were returned at
+the election of 1906. These groups were distinct from the Labour members
+("Lib.-Labs") who obeyed the Liberal whips and acted with the Liberals.
+In 1908 the attempts to unite the parliamentary representatives of the
+Independent Labour party with the Trades Union members were successful.
+In June of that year the Miners' Federation, returning 15 members,
+joined the Independent Labour party, now known for parliamentary
+purposes as the "Labour Party"; other Trades Unions, such as the
+Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, took the same step. This
+arrangement came into force at the general election of 1910, when the
+bulk of the miners' representatives signed the constitution of the
+Labour party, which after the election numbered 40 members of
+parliament.
+
+
+
+
+LABRADOR,[1] a great peninsula in British North America, bounded E. by
+the North Atlantic, N. by Hudson Strait, W. by Hudson and James Bays,
+and S. by an arbitrary line extending eastwards from the south-east
+corner of Hudson Bay, near 51° N., to the mouth of the Moisie river, on
+the Gulf of St Lawrence, in 50° N., and thence eastwards by the Gulf of
+St Lawrence. It extends from 50° to 63° N., and from 55° to 80° W., and
+embraces an approximate area of 511,000 sq. m. Recent explorations and
+surveys have added greatly to the knowledge of this vast region, and
+have shown that much of the peninsula is not a land of "awful
+desolation," but a well-wooded country, containing latent resources of
+value in its forests, fisheries and minerals.
+
+ _Physical Geography._--Labrador forms the eastern limb of the V in the
+ Archaean protaxis of North America (see CANADA), and includes most of
+ the highest parts of that area. Along some portions of the coasts of
+ Hudson and also of Ungava Bay there is a fringe of lowland, but most
+ of the interior is a plateau rising toward the south and east. The
+ highest portion extends east and west between 52° and 54° N., where an
+ immense granite area lies between the headwaters of the larger rivers
+ of the four principal drainage basins; the lowest area is between
+ Hudson Bay and Ungava Bay in the north-west, where the general level
+ is not more than 500 ft. above the sea. The only mountains are the
+ range along the Atlantic coast, extending from the Strait of Belle
+ Isle to Cape Chidley; in their southern half they rarely exceed 1500
+ ft., but increase in the northern half to a general elevation of
+ upwards of 2000 ft., with numerous sharp peaks between 3000 and 5000
+ ft., some say 7000 or 8000 ft. The coasts are deeply indented by
+ irregular bays and fringed with rocky islands, especially along the
+ high Atlantic coast, where long narrow fiords penetrate inland.
+ Hamilton Inlet, 250 m. north of the Strait of Belle Isle, is the
+ longest of these bays, with a length of 150 m. and a breadth varying
+ from 2 to 30 m. The surface of the outer portions of the plateau is
+ deeply seamed by valleys, cut into the crystalline rocks by the
+ natural erosion of rivers, depending for their length and depth upon
+ the volume of water flowing through them. The valley of the Hamilton
+ river is the greatest, forms a continuation of the valley of the Inlet
+ and extends 300 m. farther inland, while its bottom lies from 500 to
+ 1500 ft. below the surface of the plateau into which it is cut. The
+ depressions between the low ridges of the interior are occupied by
+ innumerable lakes, many of great size, including Mistassini,
+ Mishikamau, Clearwater, Kaniapiskau and Seal, all from 50 to 100 m.
+ long. The streams discharging these lakes, before entering their
+ valleys, flow on a level with the country and occupy all depressions,
+ so that they frequently spread out into lake-expansions and are often
+ divided into numerous channels by large islands. The descent into the
+ valleys is usually abrupt, being made by heavy rapids and falls; the
+ Hamilton, from the level interior, in a course of 12 m. falls 760 ft.
+ into the head of its valley, this descent including a sheer drop of
+ 315 ft. at the Grand Falls, which, taken with the large volume of the
+ river, makes it the greatest fall in North America. The rivers of the
+ northern and western watersheds drain about two-thirds of the
+ peninsula; the most important of the former are the Koksoak, the
+ largest river of Labrador (over 500 m. long), the George, Whale and
+ Payne rivers, all flowing into Ungava Bay. The large rivers flowing
+ westwards into Hudson Bay are the Povungnituk, Kogaluk, Great Whale,
+ Big, East Main and Rupert, varying in length from 300 to 500 m. The
+ rivers flowing south are exceedingly rapid, the Moisie, Romaine,
+ Natashkwan and St Augustine being the most important; all are about
+ 300 m. long. The Atlantic coast range throws most of the drainage
+ northwards into the Ungava basin, and only small streams fall into the
+ ocean, except the Hamilton, North-west and Kenamou, which empty into
+ the head of Hamilton Inlet.
+
+ _Geology._--The peninsula is formed largely of crystalline schists and
+ gneisses associated with granites and other igneous rocks, all of
+ archaean age; there are also large areas of non-fossiliferous,
+ stratified limestones, cherts, shales and iron ores, the unaltered
+ equivalents of part of the schists and gneisses. Narrow strips of
+ Animikie (Upper Huronian or perhaps Cambrian) rocks occur along the
+ low-lying southern and western shores, but there are nowhere else
+ indications of the peninsula having been below sea-level since an
+ exceedingly remote time. During the glacial period the country was
+ covered by a thick mantle of ice, which flowed out radially from a
+ central collecting-ground. Owing to the extremely long exposure to
+ denudation, to the subsequent removal of the greater part of the
+ decomposed rock by glaciers, and to the unequal weathering of the
+ component rocks, it is now a plateau, which ascends somewhat abruptly
+ within a few miles of the coast-line to heights of between 500 and
+ 2000 ft. The interior is undulating, and traversed by ridges of low,
+ rounded hills, seldom rising more than 500 ft. above the surrounding
+ general level.
+
+ _Minerals._--The mineral wealth is undeveloped. Thick beds of
+ excellent iron ore cover large areas in the interior and along the
+ shores of Hudson and Ungava Bays. Large areas of mineralized Huronian
+ rocks have also been discovered, similar to areas in other parts of
+ Canada, where they contain valuable deposits of gold, copper, nickel
+ and lead; good prospects of these metals have been found.
+
+ _Climate._--The climate ranges from cold temperate on the southern
+ coasts to arctic on Hudson Strait, and is generally so rigorous that
+ it is doubtful if the country is fit for agriculture north of 51°,
+ except on the low grounds near the coast. On James Bay good crops of
+ potatoes and other roots are grown at Fort George, 54° N., while about
+ the head of Hamilton Inlet, on the east coast, and in nearly the same
+ latitude, similar crops are easily cultivated. On the outer coasts the
+ climate is more rigorous, being affected by the floating ice borne
+ southwards on the Arctic current. In the interior at Mistassini, 50°
+ 30´ N, a crop of potatoes is raised annually, but they rarely mature.
+ No attempts at agriculture have been made elsewhere inland. Owing to
+ the absence of grass plains, there is little likelihood that it will
+ ever be a grazing district. There are only two seasons in the
+ interior: winter begins early in October, with the freezing of the
+ small lakes, and lasts until the middle of June, when the ice on
+ rivers and lakes melts and summer suddenly bursts forth. From
+ unconnected observations the lowest temperatures of the interior range
+ from -50° F. to -60° F., and are slightly higher along the coast. The
+ mean summer temperature of the interior is about 55° F., with frosts
+ during every month in the northern portion. On the Atlantic coast and
+ in Hudson Bay the larger bays freeze solid between the 1st and 15th of
+ December, and these coasts remain ice-bound until late in June. Hudson
+ Strait is usually sufficiently open for navigation about the 10th of
+ July.
+
+ _Vegetation._--The southern half is included in the sub-Arctic forest
+ belt, and nine species of trees constitute the whole arborescent flora
+ of this region; these species are the white birch, poplar, aspen,
+ cedar. Banksian pine, white and black spruce, balsam fir and larch.
+ The forest is continuous over the southern portion to 53° N., the only
+ exceptions being the summits of rocky hills and the outer islands of
+ the Atlantic and Hudson Bay, while the low margins and river valleys
+ contain much valuable timber. To the northward the size and number of
+ barren areas rapidly increase, so that in 55° N. more than half the
+ country is treeless, and two degrees farther north the limit of trees
+ is reached, leaving, to the northward, only barrens covered with low
+ Arctic flowering plants, sedges and lichens.
+
+ _Fisheries._--The fisheries along the shores of the Gulf of St
+ Lawrence and of the Atlantic form practically the only industry of the
+ white population scattered along the coasts, as well as of a large
+ proportion of the inhabitants of Newfoundland. The census (1891) of
+ Newfoundland gave 10,478 men, 2081 women and 828 children employed in
+ the Labrador fishery in 861 vessels, of which the tonnage amounted to
+ 33,689; the total catch being 488,788 quintals of cod, 1275 tierces of
+ salmon and 3828 barrels of herring, which, compared with the customs
+ returns for 1880, showed an increase of cod and decreases of salmon
+ and herring. The salmon fishery along the Atlantic coast is now very
+ small, the decrease being probably due to excessive use of cod-traps.
+ The cod fishery is now carried on along the entire Atlantic coast and
+ into the eastern part of Ungava Bay, where excellent catches have been
+ made since 1893. The annual value of the fisheries on the Canadian
+ portion of the coast is about $350,000. The fisheries of Hudson Bay
+ and of the interior are wholly undeveloped, though both the bay and
+ the large lakes of the interior are well stocked with several species
+ of excellent fish, including Arctic trout, brook trout, lake trout,
+ white fish, sturgeon and cod.
+
+_Population._--The population is approximately 14,500, or about one
+person to every 35 sq. m.; it is made up of 3500 Indians, 2000 Eskimo
+and 9000 whites. The last are confined to the coasts and to the Hudson
+Bay Company's trading posts of the interior. On the Atlantic coast they
+are largely immigrants from Newfoundland, together with descendants of
+English fishermen and Hudson Bay Company's servants. To the north of
+Hamilton Inlet they are of more or less mixed blood from marriage with
+Eskimo women. The Newfoundland census of 1901 gave 3634 as the number of
+permanent white residents along the Atlantic coast, and the Canadian
+census (1891) gave a white population of 5728, mostly French Canadians,
+scattered along the north shore of the Gulf of St Lawrence, while the
+whites living at the inland posts did not exceed fifty persons. It is
+difficult to give more than a rough approximation of the number of the
+native population, owing to their habits of roving from one trading post
+to another, and the consequent liability of counting the same family
+several times if the returns are computed from the books of the various
+posts, the only available data for an enumeration. The following
+estimate is arrived at in this manner: Indians--west coast, 1200;
+Ungava Bay, 200; east coast, 200; south coast, 1900. Eskimo--Atlantic
+coast, 1000; south shore of Hudson Strait, 800; east coast of Hudson
+Bay, 500. The Indians roam over the southern interior in small bands,
+their northern limit being determined by that of the trees on which they
+depend for fuel. They live wholly by the chase, and their numbers are
+dependent upon the deer and other animals; as a consequence there is a
+constant struggle between the Indian and the lower animals for
+existence, with great slaughter of the latter, followed by periodic
+famines among the natives, which greatly reduce their numbers and
+maintain an equilibrium. The native population has thus remained about
+stationary for the last two centuries. The Indians belong to the
+Algonquin family, and speak dialects of the Cree language. By contact
+with missionaries and fur-traders they are more or less civilized, and
+the great majority of them are Christians. Those living north of the St
+Lawrence are Roman Catholic, while the Indians of the western watershed
+have been converted by the missionaries of the Church Mission Society;
+the eastern and northern bands have not yet been reached by the
+missionaries, and are still pagans. The Eskimo of the Atlantic coast
+have long been under the guidance of the Moravian missionaries, and are
+well advanced in civilization; those of Hudson Bay have been taught by
+the Church Mission Society, and promise well; while the Eskimo of Hudson
+Strait alone remain without teachers, and are pagans. The Eskimo live
+along the coasts, only going inland for short periods to hunt the
+barren-ground caribou for their winter clothing; the rest of the year
+they remain on the shore or the ice, hunting seals and porpoises, which
+afford them food, clothing and fuel. The christianized Indians and
+Eskimo read and write in their own language; those under the teaching of
+the Church Mission Society use a syllabic character, the others make use
+of the ordinary alphabet.
+
+_Political Review._--The peninsula is divided politically between the
+governments of Canada, Newfoundland and the province of Quebec. The
+government of Newfoundland, under Letters Patent of the 28th of March
+1876, exercises jurisdiction along the Atlantic coast; the boundary
+between its territory and that of Canada is a line running due north and
+south from Anse Sablon, on the north shore of the Strait of Belle Isle,
+to 52° N., the remainder of the boundary being as yet undetermined. The
+northern boundary of the province of Quebec follows the East Main river
+to its source in Patamisk lake, thence by a line due east to the
+Ashuanipi branch of the Hamilton river; it then follows that river and
+Hamilton Inlet to the coast area under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland.
+The remainder of the peninsula, north of the province of Quebec, by
+order in council dated the 18th of December 1897, was constituted Ungava
+District, an unorganized territory under the jurisdiction of the
+government of the Dominion of Canada.
+
+ AUTHORITIES.--W. T. Grenfell and others, _Labrador: the Country and
+ the People_ (New York, 1909); R. F. Holmes, "A Journey in the Interior
+ of Labrador," Proc. _R.G.S._ x. 189-205 (1887); A. S. Packard, _The
+ Labrador Coast_ (New York, 1891); Austen Cary, "Exploration on Grand
+ River, Labrador," _Bul. Am. Geo. Soc._ vol. xxiv., 1892; R. Bell, "The
+ Labrador Peninsula," _Scottish Geo. Mag._ July 1895. Also the
+ following reports by the Geological Survey of Canada:--R. Bell,
+ "Report on an Exploration of the East Coast of Hudson Bay," 1877-1878;
+ "Observations on the Coast of Labrador and on Hudson Strait and Bay,"
+ 1882-1884; A. P. Low, "Report on the Mistassini Expedition," 1885;
+ "Report on James Bay and the Country East of Hudson Bay," 1887-1888;
+ "Report on Explorations in the Labrador Peninsula, 1892-1895," 1896;
+ "Report on a Traverse of the Northern Part of the Labrador Peninsula,"
+ 1898; "Report on the South Shore of Hudson Strait," 1899. For History:
+ W. G. Gosling, _Labrador_ (1910). (A. P. Lo.; A. P. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+ [1] From the Portuguese _llavrador_ (a yeoman farmer). The name was
+ originally given to Greenland (1st half of 16th century) and was
+ transferred to the peninsula in the belief that it formed part of the
+ same country as Greenland. The name was bestowed "because he who
+ first gave notice of seeing it [Greenland] was a farmer (_llavrador_)
+ from the Azores." See the historical sketch of Labrador by W. S.
+ Wallace in Grenfell's _Labrador, &c._, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+LABRADORITE, or LABRADOR SPAR, a lime-soda felspar of the plagioclase
+(q.v.) group, often cut and polished as an ornamental stone. It takes
+its name from the coast of Labrador, where it was discovered, as
+boulders, by the Moravian Mission about 1770, and specimens were soon
+afterwards sent to the secretary in London, the Rev. B. Latrobe. The
+felspar itself is generally of a dull grey colour, with a rather greasy
+lustre, but many specimens exhibit in certain directions a magnificent
+play of colours--blue, green, orange, purple or red; the colour in some
+specimens changing when the stone is viewed in different directions.
+This optical effect, known sometimes as "labradorescence," seems due in
+some cases to the presence of minute laminae of certain minerals, like
+göthite or haematite, arranged parallel to the surface which reflects
+the colour; but in other cases it may be caused not so much by
+inclusions as by a delicate lamellar structure in the felspar. An
+aventurine effect is produced by the presence of microscopic enclosures.
+The original labradorite was found in the neighbourhood of Nain, notably
+in a lagoon about 50 m. inland, and in St Paul's Island. Here it occurs
+with hypersthene, of a rich bronzy sheen, forming a coarse-grained
+norite. When wet, the stones are remarkably brilliant, and have been
+called by the natives "fire rocks." Russia has also yielded chatoyant
+labradorite, especially near Kiev and in Finland; a fine blue
+labradorite has been brought from Queensland; and the mineral is also
+known in several localities in the United States, as at Keeseville, in
+Essex county, New York. The ornamental stone from south Norway, now
+largely used as a decorative material in architecture, owes its beauty
+to a felspar with a blue opalescence, often called labradorite, but
+really a kind of orthoclase which Professor W. C. Brögger has termed
+cryptoperthite, whilst the rock in which it occurs is an augite-syenite
+called by him laurvigite, from its chief locality, Laurvik in Norway.
+Common labradorite, without play of colour, is an important constituent
+of such rocks as gabbro, diorite, andesite, dolerite and basalt. (See
+PLAGIOCLASE.) Ejected crystals of labradorite are found on Monti Rossi,
+a double parasitic cone on Etna.
+
+The term labradorite is unfortunately used also as a rock-name, having
+been applied by Fouqué and Lévy to a group of basic rocks rich in augite
+and poor in olivine. (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+LABRADOR TEA, the popular name for a species of _Ledum_, a small
+evergreen shrub growing in bogs and swamps in Greenland and the more
+northern parts of North America. The leaves are tough, densely covered
+with brown wool on the under face, fragrant when crushed and have been
+used as a substitute for tea. The plant is a member of the heath family
+(Ericaceae).
+
+
+
+
+LABRUM (Lat. for "lip"), the large vessel of the warm bath in the Roman
+thermae. These were cut out of great blocks of marble and granite, and
+have generally an overhanging lip. There is one in the Vatican of
+porphyry over 12 ft. in diameter. The term _labrum_ is used in zoology,
+of a lip or lip-like part; in entomology it is applied specifically to
+the upper lip of an insect, the lower lip being termed _labium_.
+
+
+
+
+LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE (1643-1696), French essayist and moralist, was born
+in Paris on the 16th of August 1645, and not as was once the common
+statement, at Dourdan (Seine-et-Oise) in 1639. His family was of the
+middle class, and his reference to a certain Geoffroy de la Bruyère, a
+crusader, is only a satirical illustration of a method of
+self-ennoblement common in France as in some other countries. Indeed he
+himself always signed the name Delabruyère in one word, thus avowing his
+_roture_. His progenitors, however, were of respectable position, and he
+could trace them back at least as far as his great-grandfather, who had
+been a strong Leaguer. La Bruyère's own father was controller-general of
+finance to the Hôtel de Ville. The son was educated by the Oratorians
+and at the university of Orleans; he was called to the bar, and in 1673
+bought a post in the revenue department at Caen, which gave the status
+of noblesse and a certain income. In 1687 he sold this office. His
+predecessor in it was a relation of Bossuet, and it is thought that the
+transaction was the cause of La Bruyère's introduction to the great
+orator. Bossuet, who from the date of his own preceptorship of the
+dauphin, was a kind of agent-general for tutorships in the royal family,
+introduced him in 1684 to the household of the great Condé, to whose
+grandson Henri Jules de Bourbon as well as to that prince's girl-bride
+Mlle de Nantes, one of Louis XIV.'s natural children, La Bruyère became
+tutor. The rest of his life was passed in the household of the prince or
+else at court, and he seems to have profited by the inclination which
+all the Condé family had for the society of men of letters. Very little
+is known of the events of this part--or, indeed, of any part--of his
+life. The impression derived from the few notices of him is of a silent,
+observant, but somewhat awkward man, resembling in manners Joseph
+Addison, whose master in literature La Bruyère undoubtedly was. Yet
+despite the numerous enemies which his book raised up for him, most of
+these notices are favourable--notably that of Saint-Simon, an acute
+judge and one bitterly prejudiced against _roturiers_ generally. There
+is, however, a curious passage in a letter from Boileau to Racine in
+which he regrets that "nature has not made La Bruyère as agreeable as he
+would like to be." His _Caractères_ appeared in 1688, and at once, as
+Nicolas de Malezieu had predicted, brought him "bien des lecteurs et
+bien des ennemis." At the head of these were Thomas Corneille,
+Fontenelle and Benserade, who were pretty clearly aimed at in the book,
+as well as innumerable other persons, men and women of letters as well
+as of society, on whom the cap of La Bruyère's fancy-portraits was
+fitted by manuscript "keys" compiled by the scribblers of the day. The
+friendship of Bossuet and still more the protection of the Condés
+sufficiently defended the author, and he continued to insert fresh
+portraits of his contemporaries in each new edition of his book,
+especially in the 4th (1689). Those, however, whom he had attacked were
+powerful in the Academy, and numerous defeats awaited La Bruyère before
+he could make his way into that guarded hold. He was defeated thrice in
+1691, and on one memorable occasion he had but seven votes, five of
+which were those of Bossuet, Boileau, Racine, Pellisson and
+Bussy-Rabutin. It was not till 1693 that he was elected, and even then
+an epigram, which, considering his admitted insignificance in
+conversation, was not of the worst, _haesit lateri_:--
+
+ "Quand la Bruyère se présente
+ Pourquoi faut il crier haro?
+ Pour faire un nombre de quarante
+ Ne falloit il pas un zéro?"
+
+His unpopularity was, however, chiefly confined to the subjects of his
+sarcastic portraiture, and to the hack writers of the time, of whom he
+was wont to speak with a disdain only surpassed by that of Pope. His
+description of the _Mercure galant_ as "_immédiatement au dessous de
+rien_" is the best-remembered specimen of these unwise attacks; and
+would of itself account for the enmity of the editors, Fontenelle and
+the younger Corneille. La Bruyère's discourse of admission at the
+Academy, one of the best of its kind, was, like his admission itself,
+severely criticized, especially by the partisans of the "Moderns" in the
+"Ancient and Modern" quarrel. With the _Caractères_, the translation of
+Theophrastus, and a few letters, most of them addressed to the prince de
+Condé, it completes the list of his literary work, with the exception of
+a curious and much-disputed posthumous treatise. La Bruyère died very
+suddenly, and not long after his admission to the Academy. He is said to
+have been struck with dumbness in an assembly of his friends, and, being
+carried home to the Hôtel de Condé, to have expired of apoplexy a day or
+two afterwards, on the 10th of May 1696. It is not surprising that,
+considering the recent panic about poisoning, the bitter personal
+enmities which he had excited and the peculiar circumstances of his
+death, suspicions of foul play should have been entertained, but there
+was apparently no foundation for them. Two years after his death
+appeared certain _Dialogues sur le Quiétisme_, alleged to have been
+found among his papers incomplete, and to have been completed by the
+editor. As these dialogues are far inferior in literary merit to La
+Bruyère's other works, their genuineness has been denied. But the
+straightforward and circumstantial account of their appearance given by
+this editor, the Abbé du Pin, a man of acknowledged probity, the
+intimacy of La Bruyère with Bossuet, whose views in his contest with
+Fénelon these dialogues are designed to further, and the entire absence,
+at so short a time after the alleged author's death, of the least
+protest on the part of his friends and representatives, seem to be
+decisive in their favour.
+
+Although it is permissible to doubt whether the value of the
+_Caractères_ has not been somewhat exaggerated by traditional French
+criticism, they deserve beyond all question a high place. The plan of
+the book is thoroughly original, if that term may be accorded to a novel
+and skilful combination of existing elements. The treatise of
+Theophrastus may have furnished the first idea, but it gave little more.
+With the ethical generalizations and social Dutch painting of his
+original La Bruyère combined the peculiarities of the Montaigne essay,
+of the _Pensées_ and _Maximes_ of which Pascal and La Rochefoucauld are
+the masters respectively, and lastly of that peculiar 17th-century
+product, the "portrait" or elaborate literary picture of the personal
+and mental characteristics of an individual. The result was quite unlike
+anything that had been before seen, and it has not been exactly
+reproduced since, though the essay of Addison and Steele resembles it
+very closely, especially in the introduction of fancy portraits. In the
+titles of his work, and in its extreme desultoriness, La Bruyère reminds
+the reader of Montaigne, but he aimed too much at sententiousness to
+attempt even the apparent continuity of the great essayist. The short
+paragraphs of which his chapters consist are made up of maxims proper,
+of criticisms literary and ethical, and above all of the celebrated
+sketches of individuals baptized with names taken from the plays and
+romances of the time. These last are the great feature of the work, and
+that which gave it its immediate if not its enduring popularity. They
+are wonderfully piquant, extraordinarily life-like in a certain sense,
+and must have given great pleasure or more frequently exquisite pain to
+the originals, who were in many cases unmistakable and in most
+recognizable.
+
+But there is something wanting in them. The criticism of Charpentier,
+who received La Bruyère at the Academy, and who was of the opposite
+faction, is in fact fully justified as far as it goes. La Bruyère
+literally "est [trop] descendu dans le particulier." He has neither,
+like Molière, embodied abstract peculiarities in a single life-like
+type, nor has he, like Shakespeare, made the individual pass _sub
+speciem aeternitatis_, and serve as a type while retaining his
+individuality. He is a photographer rather than an artist in his
+portraiture. So, too, his maxims, admirably as they are expressed, and
+exact as their truth often is, are on a lower level than those of La
+Rochefoucauld. Beside the sculpturesque precision, the Roman brevity,
+the profoundness of ethical intuition "piercing to the accepted hells
+beneath," of the great Frondeur, La Bruyère has the air of a literary
+_petit-maître_ dressing up superficial observation in the finery of
+_esprit_. It is indeed only by comparison that he loses, but then it is
+by comparison that he is usually praised. His abundant wit and his
+personal "malice" have done much to give him his rank in French
+literature, but much must also be allowed to his purely literary merits.
+With Racine and Massillon he is probably the very best writer of what is
+somewhat arbitrarily styled classical French. He is hardly ever
+incorrect--the highest merit in the eyes of a French academic critic. He
+is always well-bred, never obscure, rarely though sometimes "precious"
+in the turns and niceties of language in which he delights to indulge,
+in his avowed design of attracting readers by form, now that, in point
+of matter, "tout est dit." It ought to be added to his credit that he
+was sensible of the folly of impoverishing French by ejecting old words.
+His chapter on "Les ouvrages de l'esprit" contains much good criticism,
+though it shows that, like most of his contemporaries except Fénelon, he
+was lamentably ignorant of the literature of his own tongue.
+
+ The editions of La Bruyère, both partial and complete, have been
+ extremely numerous. _Les Caractères de Théophraste traduits du Grec,
+ avec les caractères et les moeurs de ce siècle_, appeared for the
+ first time in 1688, being published by Michallet, to whose little
+ daughter, according to tradition, La Bruyère gave the profits of the
+ book as a dowry. Two other editions, little altered, were published in
+ the same year. In the following year, and in each year until 1694,
+ with the exception of 1693, a fresh edition appeared, and, in all
+ these five, additions, omissions and alterations were largely made. A
+ ninth edition, not much altered, was put forth in the year of the
+ author's death. The Academy speech appeared in the eighth edition. The
+ Quietist dialogues were published in 1699; most of the letters,
+ including those addressed to Condé, not till 1867. In recent times
+ numerous editions of the complete works have appeared, notably those
+ of Walckenaer (1845), Servois (1867, in the series of _Grands
+ écrivains de la France_), Asselineau (a scholarly reprint of the last
+ original edition, 1872) and finally Chassang (1876); the last is one
+ of the most generally useful, as the editor has collected almost
+ everything of value in his predecessors. The literature of "keys" to
+ La Bruyère is extensive and apocryphal. Almost everything that can be
+ done in this direction and in that of general illustration was done by
+ Edouard Fournier in his learned and amusing _Comédie de La Bruyère_
+ (1866); M. Paul Morillot contributed a monograph on La Bruyère to the
+ series of _Grands écrivains français_ in 1904. (G. Sa.)
+
+
+
+
+LABUAN (a corruption of the Malay word _labuh-an_, signifying an
+"anchorage"), an island of the Malay Archipelago, off the north-west
+coast of Borneo in 5° 16´ N., 115° 15´ E. Its area is 30.23 sq. m.; it
+is distant about 6 m. from the mainland of Borneo at the nearest point,
+and lies opposite to the northern end of the great Brunei Bay. The
+island is covered with low hills rising from flats near the shore to an
+irregular plateau near the centre. About 1500 acres are under rice
+cultivation, and there are scattered patches of coco-nut and sago palms
+and a few vegetable gardens, the latter owned for the most part by
+Chinese. For the rest Labuan is covered over most of its extent by
+vigorous secondary growth, amidst which the charred trunks of trees rise
+at frequent intervals, the greater part of the forest of the island
+having been destroyed by great accidental conflagrations. Labuan was
+ceded to Great Britain in 1846, chiefly through the instrumentality of
+Sir James Brooke, the first raja of Sarawak, and was occupied two years
+later.
+
+At the time of its cession the island was uninhabited, but in 1881 the
+population numbered 5731, though it had declined to 5361 in 1891. The
+census returns for 1901 give the population at 8411. The native
+population consists of Malay fishermen, Chinese, Tamils and small
+shifting communities of Kadayans, Tutongs and other natives of the
+neighbouring Bornean coast. There are about fifty European residents. At
+the time of its occupation by Great Britain a brilliant future was
+predicted for Labuan, which it was thought would become a second
+Singapore. These hopes have not been realized. The coal deposits, which
+are of somewhat indifferent quality, have been worked with varying
+degrees of failure by a succession of companies, one of which, the
+Labuan & Borneo Ltd., liquidated in 1902 after the collapse of a shaft
+upon which large sums had been expended. It was succeeded by the Labuan
+Coalfields Ltd. The harbour is a fine one, and the above-named company
+possesses three wharves capable of berthing the largest Eastern-going
+ocean steamers. To-day Labuan chiefly exists as a trading depôt for the
+natives of the neighbouring coast of Borneo, who sell their
+produce--beeswax, edible birds-nests, camphor, gutta, trepang, &c.,--to
+Chinese shopkeepers, who resell it in Singapore. There is also a
+considerable trade in sago, much of which is produced on the mainland,
+and there are three small sago-factories on the island where the raw
+product is converted into flour. The Eastern Extension Telegraph Company
+has a central station at Labuan with cables to Singapore, Hong-Kong and
+British North Borneo. Monthly steam communication is maintained by a
+German firm between Labuan, Singapore and the Philippines. The colony
+joined the Imperial Penny Postage Union in 1889. There are a few miles
+of road on the island and a metre-gauge railway from the harbour to the
+coal mines, the property of the company. There is a Roman Catholic
+church with a resident priest, an Anglican church, visited periodically
+by a clergyman from the mainland, two native and Chinese schools, and a
+sailors' club, built by the Roman Catholic mission. The bishop of
+Singapore and Sarawak is also bishop of Labuan. The European graveyard
+has repeatedly been the scene of outrages perpetrated, it is believed,
+by natives from the mainland of Borneo, the graves being rifled and the
+hair of the head and other parts of the corpses being carried off to
+furnish ornaments to weapons and ingredients in the magic philtres of
+the natives. Pulau Dat, a small island in the near neighbourhood of
+Labuan, is the site of a fine coco-nut plantation whence nuts and copra
+are exported in bulk. The climate is hot and very humid.
+
+ Until 1869 the expenditure of the colony was partly defrayed by
+ imperial grants-in-aid, but after that date it was left to its own
+ resources. A garrison of imperial troops was maintained until 1871,
+ when the troops were withdrawn after many deaths from fever and
+ dysentery had occurred among them. Since then law and order have been
+ maintained without difficulty by a small mixed police force of
+ Punjabis and Malays. From the 1st of January 1890 to the 1st of
+ January 1906 Labuan was transferred for administrative purposes to the
+ British North Borneo Company, the governor for the time being of the
+ company's territories holding also the royal commission as governor of
+ Labuan. This arrangement did not work satisfactorily and called forth
+ frequent petitions and protests from the colonists. Labuan was then
+ placed under the government of the Straits Settlements, and is
+ administered by a deputy governor who is a member of the Straits Civil
+ Service.
+
+
+
+
+LABURNUM, known botanically as _Laburnum vulgare_ (or _Cytisus
+Laburnum_), a familiar tree of the pea family (Leguminosae); it is also
+known as "golden chain" and "golden rain." It is a native of the
+mountains of France, Switzerland, southern Germany, northern Italy, &c.,
+has long been cultivated as an ornamental tree throughout Europe, and
+was introduced into north-east America by the European colonists. Gerard
+records it as growing in his garden in 1597 under the names of anagyris,
+laburnum or beane trefoyle (_Herball_, p. 1239), but the date of its
+introduction into England appears to be unknown. In France it is called
+_l'aubour_--a corruption from laburnum according to Du Hamel--as also
+_arbois_, i.e. _arc-bois_, "the wood having been used by the ancient
+Gauls for bows. It is still so employed in some parts of the Mâconnois,
+where the bows are found to preserve their strength and elasticity for
+half a century" (Loudon, _Arboretum_, ii. 590).
+
+Several varieties of this tree are cultivated, differing in the size of
+the flowers, in the form of the foliage, &c., such as the "oak-leafed"
+(_quercifolium_), _pendulum_, _crispum_, &c.; var. _aureum_ has golden
+yellow leaves. One of the most remarkable forms is _Cytisus Adami (C.
+purpurascens)_, which bears three kinds of blossoms, viz. racemes of
+pure yellow flowers, others of a purple colour and others of an
+intermediate brick-red tint. The last are hybrid blossoms, and are
+sterile, with malformed ovules, though the pollen appears to be good.
+The yellow and purple "reversions" are fertile. It originated in Paris
+in 1828 by M. Adam, who inserted a "shield" of the bark of Cytisus
+purpureus into a stock of Laburnum. A vigorous shoot from this bud was
+subsequently propagated. Hence it would appear that the two distinct
+species became united by their cambium layers, and the trees propagated
+therefrom subsequently reverted to their respective parentages in
+bearing both yellow and purple flowers, but produce as well blossoms of
+an intermediate or hybrid character. Such a result may be called a
+"graft-hybrid." For full details see Darwin's _Animals and Plants under
+Domestication_.
+
+The laburnum has highly poisonous properties. The roots taste like
+liquorice, which is a member of the same family as the laburnum. It has
+proved fatal to cattle, though hares and rabbits eat the bark of it with
+avidity (_Gardener's Chronicle_, 1881, vol. xvi. p. 666). The seeds also
+are highly poisonous, possessing emetic as well as acrid narcotic
+principles, especially in a green state. Gerard (loc. cit.) alludes to
+the powerful effect produced on the system by taking the bruised leaves
+medicinally. Pliny states that bees will not visit the flowers (_N.H._
+xvi. 31), but this is an error, as bees and butterflies play an
+important part in the fertilization of the flowers, which they visit for
+the nectar.
+
+The heart wood of the laburnum is of a dark reddish-brown colour, hard
+and durable, and takes a good polish. Hence it is much prized by
+turners, and used with other coloured woods for inlaying purposes. The
+laburnum has been called false ebony from this character of its wood.
+
+
+
+
+LABYRINTH (Gr. [Greek: labyrinthos], Lat. _labyrinthus_), the name given
+by the Greeks and Romans to buildings, entirely or partly subterranean,
+containing a number of chambers and intricate passages, which rendered
+egress puzzling and difficult. The word is considered by some to be of
+Egyptian origin, while others connect it with the Gr. [Greek: laura],
+the passage of a mine. Another derivation suggested is from [Greek:
+labrys], a Lydian or Carian word meaning a "double-edged axe" (_Journal
+of Hellenic Studies_, xxi. 109, 268), according to which the Cretan
+labyrinth or palace of Minos was the house of the double axe, the symbol
+of Zeus.
+
+Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 19, 91) mentions the following as the four
+famous labyrinths of antiquity.
+
+1. The Egyptian: of which a description is given by Herodotus (ii. 148)
+and Strabo (xvii. 811). It was situated to the east of Lake Moeris,
+opposite the ancient site of Arsinoë or Crocodilopolis. According to
+Egyptologists, the word means "the temple at the entrance of the lake."
+According to Herodotus, the entire building, surrounded by a single
+wall, contained twelve courts and 3000 chambers, 1500 above and 1500
+below ground. The roofs were wholly of stone, and the walls covered with
+sculpture. On one side stood a pyramid 40 orgyiae, or about 243 ft.
+high. Herodotus himself went through the upper chambers, but was not
+permitted to visit those underground, which he was told contained the
+tombs of the kings who had built the labyrinth, and of the sacred
+crocodiles. Other ancient authorities considered that it was built as a
+place of meeting for the Egyptian nomes or political divisions; but it
+is more likely that it was intended for sepulchral purposes. It was the
+work of Amenemhe III., of the 12th dynasty, who lived about 2300 B.C. It
+was first located by the Egyptologist Lepsius to the north of Hawara in
+the Fayum, and (in 1888) Flinders Petrie discovered its foundation, the
+extent of which is about 1000 ft. long by 800 ft. wide. Immediately to
+the north of it is the pyramid of Hawara, in which the mummies of the
+king and his daughter have been found (see W. M. Flinders Petrie,
+_Hawara, Biahmu, and Arsinoë_, 1889).
+
+2. The Cretan: said to have been built by Daedalus on the plan of the
+Egyptian, and famous for its connexion with the legend of the Minotaur.
+It is doubtful whether it ever had any real existence and Diodorus
+Siculus says that in his time it had already disappeared. By the older
+writers it was placed near Cnossus, and is represented on coins of that
+city, but nothing corresponding to it has been found during the course
+of the recent excavations, unless the royal palace was meant. The rocks
+of Crete are full of winding caves, which gave the first idea of the
+legendary labyrinth. Later writers (for instance, Claudian, _De sexto
+Cons. Honorii_, 634) place it near Gortyna, and a set of winding
+passages and chambers close to that place is still pointed out as the
+labyrinth; these are, however, in reality ancient quarries.
+
+3. The Lemnian: similar in construction to the Egyptian. Remains of it
+existed in the time of Pliny. Its chief feature was its 150 columns.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Labyrinth of London and Wise.]
+
+4. The Italian: a series of chambers in the lower part of the tomb of
+Porsena at Clusium. This tomb was 300 ft. square and 50 ft. high, and
+underneath it was a labyrinth, from which it was exceedingly difficult
+to find an exit without the assistance of a clew of thread. It has been
+maintained that this tomb is to be recognized in the mound named Poggio
+Gajella near Chiusi.
+
+Lastly, Pliny (xxxvi. 19) applies the word to a rude drawing on the
+ground or pavement, to some extent anticipating the modern or garden
+maze.
+
+ On the Egyptian labyrinth see A. Wiedemann, _Ägyptische Geschichte_
+ (1884), p. 258, and his edition of the second book of Herodotus
+ (1890); on the Cretan, C. Höck, _Kreta_ (1823-1829), and A. J. Evans
+ in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_; on the subject generally, articles
+ in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ and Daremberg and Saglio's
+ _Dictionnaire des antiquités_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Labyrinth of Batty Langley.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Labyrinth at Versailles.]
+
+In gardening, a labyrinth or _maze_ means an intricate network of
+pathways enclosed by hedges or plantations, so that those who enter
+become bewildered in their efforts to find the centre or make their
+exit. It is a remnant of the old geometrical style of gardening. There
+are two methods of forming it. That which is perhaps the more common
+consists of walks, or alleys as they were formerly called, laid out and
+kept to an equal width or nearly so by parallel hedges, which should be
+so close and thick that the eye cannot readily penetrate them. The task
+is to get to the centre, which is often raised, and generally contains
+a covered seat, a fountain, a statue or even a small group of trees.
+After reaching this point the next thing is to return to the entrance,
+when it is found that egress is as difficult as ingress. To every design
+of this sort there should be a key, but even those who know the key are
+apt to be perplexed. Sometimes the design consists of alleys only, as in
+fig. 1, published in 1706 by London and Wise. In such a case, when the
+farther end is reached, there only remains to travel back again. Of a
+more pretentious character was a design published by Switzer in 1742.
+This is of octagonal form, with very numerous parallel hedges and paths,
+and "six different entrances, whereof there is but one that leads to the
+centre, and that is attended with some difficulties and a great many
+stops." Some of the older designs for labyrinths, however, avoid this
+close parallelism of the alleys, which, though equally involved and
+intricate in their windings, are carried through blocks of thick
+planting, as shown in fig. 2, from a design published in 1728 by Batty
+Langley. These blocks of shrubbery have been called wildernesses. To
+this latter class belongs the celebrated labyrinth at Versailles (fig.
+3), of which Switzer observes, that it "is allowed by all to be the
+noblest of its kind in the world."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Maze at Hampton Court.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Maze at Somerleyton Hall.]
+
+ Whatever style be adopted, it is essential that there should be a
+ thick healthy growth of the hedges or shrubberies that confine the
+ wanderer. The trees used should be impenetrable to the eye, and so
+ tall that no one can look over them; and the paths should be of gravel
+ and well kept. The trees chiefly used for the hedges, and the best for
+ the purpose, are the hornbeam among deciduous trees, or the yew among
+ evergreens. The beech might be used instead of the hornbeam on
+ suitable soil. The green holly might be planted as an evergreen with
+ very good results, and so might the American arbor vitae if the
+ natural soil presented no obstacle. The ground must be well prepared,
+ so as to give the trees a good start, and a mulching of manure during
+ the early years of their growth would be of much advantage. They must
+ be kept trimmed in or clipped, especially in their earlier stages;
+ trimming with the knife is much to be preferred to clipping with
+ shears. Any plants getting much in advance of the rest should be
+ topped, and the whole kept to some 4 ft. or 5 ft. in height until the
+ lower parts are well thickened, when it may be allowed to acquire the
+ allotted height by moderate annual increments. In cutting, the hedge
+ (as indeed all hedges) should be kept broadest at the base and
+ narrowed upwards, which prevents it from getting thin and bare below
+ by the stronger growth being drawn to the tops.
+
+ The maze in the gardens at Hampton Court Palace (fig. 4) is considered
+ one of the finest examples in England. It was planted in the early
+ part of the reign of William III., though it has been supposed that a
+ maze had existed there since the time of Henry VIII. It is constructed
+ on the hedge and alley system, and was, it is believed, originally
+ planted with hornbeam, but many of the plants have been replaced by
+ hollies, yews, &c., so that the vegetation is mixed. The walks are
+ about half a mile in length, and the ground occupied is a little over
+ a quarter of an acre. The centre contains two large trees, with a seat
+ beneath each. The key to reach this resting place is to keep the right
+ hand continuously in contact with the hedge from first to last, going
+ round all the stops.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Labyrinth in Horticultural Society's Garden.]
+
+ The maze in the gardens at Somerleyton Hall, near Lowestoft (fig. 5),
+ was designed by Mr John Thomas. The hedges are of English yew, are
+ about 6½ ft. high, and have been planted about sixty years. In the
+ centre is a grass mound, raised to the height of the hedges, and on
+ this mound is a pagoda, approached by a curved grass path. At the two
+ corners on the western side are banks of laurels 15 or 16 ft. high. On
+ each side of the hedges throughout the labyrinth is a small strip of
+ grass.
+
+ There was also a labyrinth at Theobald's Park, near Cheshunt, when
+ this place passed from the earl of Salisbury into the possession of
+ James I. Another is said to have existed at Wimbledon House, the seat
+ of Earl Spencer, which was probably laid out by Brown in the 18th
+ century. There is an interesting labyrinth, somewhat after the plan of
+ fig. 2, at Mistley Place, Manningtree.
+
+ When the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at South
+ Kensington were being planned, Albert, Prince Consort, the president
+ of the society, especially desired that there should be a maze formed
+ in the ante-garden, which was made in the form shown in fig. 6. This
+ labyrinth, designed by Lieut. W. A. Nesfield, was for many years the
+ chief point of attraction to the younger visitors to the gardens; but
+ it was allowed to go to ruin, and had to be destroyed. The gardens
+ themselves are now built over. (T. Mo.)
+
+
+
+
+LABYRINTHULIDEA, the name given by Sir Ray Lankester (1885) to Sarcodina
+(q.v.) forming a reticulate plasmodium, the denser masses united by fine
+pseudopodical threads, hardly distinct from some Proteomyxa, such as
+_Archerina_.
+
+This is a small and heterogeneous group. _Labyrinthula_, discovered by
+L. Cienkowsky, forms a network of relatively stiff threads on which are
+scattered large spindle-shaped enlargements, each representing an
+amoeba, with a single nucleus. The threads are pseudopods, very slowly
+emitted and withdrawn. The amoebae multiply by fission in the active
+state. The nearest approach to a "reproductive" state is the
+approximation of the amoebae, and their separate encystment in an
+irregular heap, recalling the Acrasieae. From each cyst ultimately
+emerges a single amoeba, or more rarely four (figs. 6, 7). The
+saprophyte _Diplophrys (?) stercorea_ (Cienk.) appears closely allied to
+this.
+
+[Illustration: Labyrinthulidea.
+
+ 1. A colony or "cell-heap" of _Labyrinthula vitellina_, Cienk.,
+ crawling upon an Alga.
+
+ 2. A colony or "cell-heap" of _Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides_, Archer,
+ with fully expanded network of threads on which the oat-shaped
+ corpuscles (cells) are moving. o, Is an ingested food particle; at c a
+ portion of the general protoplasm has detached itself and become
+ encysted.
+
+ 3 A portion of the network of _Labyrinthula vitellina_, Cienk., more
+ highly magnified. p, Protoplasmic mass apparently produced by fusion
+ of several filaments. p´, Fusion of several cells which have lost
+ their definite spindle-shaped contour. s, Corpuscles which have become
+ spherical and are no longer moving (perhaps about to be encysted).
+
+ 4. A single spindle cell and threads of _Labyrinthula macrocystis_,
+ Cienk. n, Nucleus.
+
+ 5. A group of encysted cells of _L. Macrocystis_, embedded in a tough
+ secretion.
+
+ 6, 7. Encysted cells of _L. macrocystis_, with enclosed protoplasm
+ divided into four spores.
+
+ 8, 9. Transverse division of a non-encysted spindle-cell of _L.
+ macrocystis_.]
+
+_Chlamydomyxa_ (W. Archer) resembles _Labyrinthula_ in its freely
+branched plasmodium, but contains yellowish chromatophores, and minute
+oval vesicles ("physodes") filled with a substance allied to
+tannin--possibly phloroglucin--which glide along the plasmodial tracks.
+The cell-body contains numerous nuclei; but in its active state is not
+resolvable into distinct oval amoeboids. It is amphitrophic, ingesting
+and digesting other Protista, as well as "assimilating" by its
+chromatophores, the product being oil, not starch. The whole body may
+form a laminated cellulose resting cyst, from which it may only
+temporarily emerge (fig. 2), or it may undergo resolution into nucleate
+cells which then encyst, and become multinucleate before rupturing the
+cyst afresh.
+
+_Leydenia_ (F. Schaudinn) is a parasite in malignant diseases of the
+pleura. The pseudopodia of adjoining cells unite to form a network; but
+its affinities seem to such social naked Foraminifera as _Mikrogromia_.
+
+ See Cienkowsky, _Archiv f. Microscopische Anatomie_, iii. 274 (1867),
+ xii. 44 (1876); W. Archer, _Quart. Jour. Microscopic Science_, xv. 107
+ (1875); E. R. Lankester, _Ibid._, xxxix., 233 (1896); Hieronymus and
+ Jenkinson, _Ibid._, xiii. 89 (1899); W. Zopf, _Beiträge zur
+ Physiologie und Morphologie niederer Organismen_, ii. 36 (1892), iv.
+ 60 (1894); Pènard, _Archiv für Protistenkunde_, iv. 296 (1904); F.
+ Schaudinn and Leyden, _Sitzungsberichte der Königlich preussischen
+ Akademie der Wissenschaft_, vi. (1896).
+
+
+
+
+LAC, a resinous incrustation formed on the twigs and young branches of
+various trees by an insect, _Coccus lacca_, which infests them. The term
+lac (_laksha_, Sanskrit; _lakh_, Hindi) is the same as the numeral
+lakh--a hundred thousand--and is indicative of the countless hosts of
+insects which make their appearance with every successive generation.
+Lac is a product of the East Indies, coming especially from Bengal,
+Pegu, Siam and Assam, and is produced by a number of trees of the
+species _Ficus_, particularly _F. religiosa_. The insect which yields it
+is closely allied to the cochineal insect, _Coccus cacti_; kermes, _C.
+ilicis_ and Polish grains, _C. polonicus_, all of which, like the lac
+insect, yield a red colouring matter. The minute larval insects fasten
+in myriads on the young shoots, and, inserting their long proboscides
+into the bark, draw their nutriment from the sap of the plant. The
+insects begin at once to exude the resinous secretion over their entire
+bodies; this forms in effect a cocoon, and, the separate exudations
+coalescing, a continuous hard resinous layer regularly honeycombed with
+small cavities is deposited over and around the twig. From this living
+tomb the female insects, which form the great bulk of the whole, never
+escape. After their impregnation, which takes place on the liberation of
+the males, about three months from their first appearance, the females
+develop into a singular amorphous organism consisting in its main
+features of a large smooth shining crimson-coloured sac--the ovary--with
+a beak stuck into the bark, and a few papillary processes projected
+above the resinous surface. The red fluid in the ovary is the substance
+which forms the lac dye of commerce. To obtain the largest amount of
+both resin and dye-stuff it is necessary to gather the twigs with their
+living inhabitants in or near June and November. Lac encrusting the
+twigs as gathered is known in commerce as "stick lac"; the resin crushed
+to small fragments and washed in hot water to free it from colouring
+matter constitutes "seed lac"; and this, when melted, strained through
+thick canvas, and spread out into thin layers, is known as "shellac,"
+and is the form in which the resin is usually brought to European
+markets. Shellac varies in colour from a dark amber to an almost pure
+black; the palest, known as "orange-lac," is the most valuable; the
+darker varieties--"liver-coloured," "ruby," "garnet," &c.--diminish in
+value as the colour deepens. Shellac may be bleached by dissolving it in
+a boiling lye of caustic potash and passing chlorine through the
+solution till all the resin is precipitated, the product being known as
+white shellac. Bleached lac takes light delicate shades of colour, and
+dyed a golden yellow it is much used in the East Indies for working into
+chain ornaments for the head and for other personal adornments. Lac is
+a principal ingredient in sealing-wax, and forms the basis of some of
+the most valuable varnishes, besides being useful in various cements,
+&c. Average stick lac contains about 68% of resin, 10 of lac dye and 6
+of a waxy substance. Lac dye is obtained by evaporating the water in
+which stick lac is washed, and comes into commerce in the form of small
+square cakes. It is in many respects similar to, although not identical
+with, cochineal.
+
+
+
+
+LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE (1713-1762), French astronomer, was born at
+Rumigny, in the Ardennes, on the 15th of March 1713. Left destitute by
+the death of his father, who held a post in the household of the duchess
+of Vendôme, his theological studies at the Collège de Lisieux in Paris
+were prosecuted at the expense of the duke of Bourbon. After he had
+taken deacon's orders, however, he devoted himself exclusively to
+science, and, through the patronage of J. Cassini, obtained employment,
+first in surveying the coast from Nantes to Bayonne, then, in 1739, in
+remeasuring the French arc of the meridian. The success of this
+difficult operation, which occupied two years, and achieved the
+correction of the anomalous result published by J. Cassini in 1718, was
+mainly due to Lacaille's industry and skill. He was rewarded by
+admission to the Academy and the appointment of mathematical professor
+in Mazarin college, where he worked in a small observatory fitted for
+his use. His desire to observe the southern heavens led him to propose,
+in 1750, an astronomical expedition to the Cape of Good Hope, which was
+officially sanctioned, and fortunately executed. Among its results were
+determinations of the lunar and of the solar parallax (Mars serving as
+an intermediary), the first measurement of a South African arc of the
+meridian, and the observation of 10,000 southern stars. On his return to
+Paris in 1754 Lacaille was distressed to find himself an object of
+public attention; he withdrew to Mazarin college, and there died, on the
+21st of March 1762, of an attack of gout aggravated by unremitting toil.
+Lalande said of him that, during a comparatively short life, he had made
+more observations and calculations than all the astronomers of his time
+put together. The quality of his work rivalled its quantity, while the
+disinterestedness and rectitude of his moral character earned him
+universal respect.
+
+ His principal works are: _Astronomiae Fundamenta_ (1757), containing a
+ standard catalogue of 398 stars, re-edited by F. Baily (_Memoirs Roy.
+ Astr. Society_, v. 93); Tabulae Solares (1758); _Coelum australe
+ stelliferum_ (1763) (edited by J. D. Maraldi), giving
+ zone-observations of 10,000 stars, and describing fourteen new
+ constellations; "Observations sur 515 étoiles du Zodiaque" (published
+ in t. vi. of his _Éphémérides_, 1763); _Leçons élémentaires de
+ Mathématiques_ (1741), frequently reprinted; ditto _de Mécanique_
+ (1743), &c.; ditto _d'Astronomie_ (1746), 4th edition augmented by
+ Lalande (1779); ditto _d'Optique_ (1750), &c. Calculations by him of
+ eclipses for eighteen hundred years were inserted in _L'Art de
+ vérifier les dates_ (1750); he communicated to the Academy in 1755 a
+ classed catalogue of forty-two southern nebulae, and gave in t. ii. of
+ his _Éphémérides_ (1755) practical rules for the employment of the
+ lunar method of longitudes, proposing in his additions to Pierre
+ Bouguer's _Traité de Navigation_ (1760) the model of a nautical
+ almanac.
+
+ See G. de Fouchy, "Éloge de Lacaille," _Hist. de l'Acad. des
+ Sciences_, p. 197 (1762); G. Brotier, Preface to Lacaille's _Coelum
+ australe_; Claude Carlier, _Discours historique_, prefixed to
+ Lacaille's _Journal historique du voyage fait au Cap_ (1763); J. J.
+ Lalande, _Connoissance des temps_, p. 185 (1767); _Bibl. astr._ pp.
+ 422, 456, 461, 482; J. Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siècle_,
+ pp. 457-542; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. moderne_, tomes ii.,
+ iii., _passim_; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch_; R.
+ Grant, _Hist. of Physical Astronomy_, pp. 486, &c.; R. Wolf,
+ _Geschichte der Astronomie_. A catalogue of 9766 stars, reduced from
+ Lacaille's observations by T. Henderson, under the supervision of F.
+ Baily, was published in London in 1847.
+
+
+
+
+LACAITA, SIR JAMES [GIACOMO] (1813-1895), Anglo-Italian politician and
+writer. Born at Manduria in southern Italy, he practised law in Naples,
+and having come in contact with a number of prominent Englishmen and
+Americans in that city, he acquired a desire to study the English
+language. Although a moderate Liberal in politics, he never joined any
+secret society, but in 1851 after the restoration of Bourbon autocracy
+he was arrested for having supplied Gladstone with information on
+Bourbon misrule. Through the intervention of the British and Russian
+ministers he was liberated, but on the publication of Gladstone's
+famous letters to Lord Aberdeen he was obliged to leave Naples. He first
+settled in Edinburgh, where he married Maria Carmichael, and then in
+London where he made numerous friends in literary and political circles,
+and was professor of Italian at Queen's College from 1853 to 1856. In
+the latter year he accompanied Lord Minto to Italy, on which occasion he
+first met Cavour. From 1857 to 1863 he was private secretary
+(non-political) to Lord Lansdowne, and in 1858 he accompanied Gladstone
+to the Ionian Islands as secretary, for which services he was made a
+K.C.M.G. the following year. In 1860 Francis II. of Naples had implored
+Napoleon III. to send a squadron to prevent Garibaldi from crossing over
+from Sicily to Calabria; the emperor expressed himself willing to do so
+provided Great Britain co-operated, and Lord John Russell was at first
+inclined to agree. At this juncture Cavour, having heard of the scheme,
+entrusted Lacaita, at the suggestion of Sir James Hudson, the British
+minister at Turin, with the task of inducing Russell to refuse
+co-operation. Lacaita, who was an intimate friend both of Russell and
+his wife, succeeded, with the help of the latter, in winning over the
+British statesman just as he was about to accept the Franco-Neapolitan
+proposal, which was in consequence abandoned. He returned to Naples late
+in 1860 and the following year was elected member of parliament for
+Bitonto, although he had been naturalized a British subject in 1855. He
+took little part in parliamentary politics, but in 1876 was created
+senator. He was actively interested in a number of English companies
+operating in Italy, and was made one of the directors of the Italian
+Southern Railway Co. He had a wide circle of friends in many European
+countries and in America, including a number of the most famous men in
+politics and literature. He died in 1895 at Posilipo near Naples.
+
+ An authority on Dante, he gave many lectures on Italian literature and
+ history while in England; and among his writings may be mentioned a
+ large number of articles on Italian subjects in the _Encyclopaedia
+ Britannica_ (1857-1860), and an edition of Benvenuto da Imola's Latin
+ lectures on Dante delivered in 1375; he co-operated with Lord Vernon
+ in the latter's great edition of Dante's _Inferno_ (London,
+ 1858-1865), and he compiled a catalogue in four volumes of the duke of
+ Devonshire's library at Chatsworth (London, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+LA CALLE, a seaport of Algeria, in the arrondissement of Bona,
+department of Constantine, 56 m. by rail E. of Bona and 10 m. W. of the
+Tunisian frontier. It is the centre of the Algerian and Tunisian coral
+fisheries and has an extensive industry in the curing of sardines; but
+the harbour is small and exposed to the N.E. and W. winds. The old
+fortified town, now almost abandoned, is built on a rocky peninsula
+about 400 yds. long, connected with the mainland by a bank of sand.
+Since the occupation of La Calle by the French in 1836 a new town has
+grown up along the coast. Pop. (1906) of the town, 2774; of the commune,
+4612.
+
+La Calle from the times of its earliest records in the 10th century has
+been the residence of coral merchants. In the 16th century exclusive
+privileges of fishing for coral were granted by the dey of Algiers to
+the French, who first established themselves on a bay to the westward of
+La Calle, naming their settlement Bastion de France; many ruins still
+exist of this town. In 1677 they moved their headquarters to La Calle.
+The company--_Compagnie d'Afrique_--who owned the concession for the
+fishery was suppressed in 1798 on the outbreak of war between France and
+Algeria. In 1806 the British consul-general at Algiers obtained the
+right to occupy Bona and La Calle for an annual rent of £11,000; but
+though the money was paid for several years no practical effect was
+given to the agreement. The French regained possession in 1817, were
+expelled during the wars of 1827, when La Calle was burnt, but returned
+and rebuilt the place in 1836. The boats engaged in the fishery were
+mainly Italian, but the imposition, during the last quarter of the 19th
+century, of heavy taxes on all save French boats drove the foreign
+vessels away. For some years the industry was abandoned, but was
+restarted on a small scale in 1903.
+
+ See Abbé Poiret, _Voyage en Barbarie_ ... (Paris, 1789); E. Broughton,
+ _Six Years' Residence in Algiers_ (London, 1839) and Sir R. L.
+ Playfair, _Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce_ (London, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+LA CALPRENÈDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES, SEIGNEUR DE (_c._ 1610-1663), French
+novelist and dramatist, was born at the Château of Tolgou, near Sarlat
+(Dordogne), in 1609 or 1610. After studying at Toulouse, he came to
+Paris and entered the regiment of the guards, becoming in 1650
+gentleman-in-ordinary of the royal household. He died in 1663 in
+consequence of a kick from his horse. He was the author of several long
+heroic romances ridiculed by Boileau. They are: _Cassandre_ (10 vols.,
+1642-1650); _Cléopatre_ (1648); _Faramond_ (1661); and _Les Nouvelles,
+ou les Divertissements de la princesse Alcidiane_ (1661) published under
+his wife's name, but generally attributed to him. His plays lack the
+spirit and force that occasionally redeem the novels. The best is _Le
+Comte d'Essex_, represented in 1638, which supplied some ideas to Thomas
+Corneille for his tragedy of the same name.
+
+
+
+
+LA CARLOTA, a town of the province of Negros Occidental, Philippine
+Islands, on the W. coast of the island and the left bank of San Enrique
+river, about 18 m. S. of Bacolod, the capital of the province. Pop.
+(1903), after the annexation of San Enrique, 19,192. There are
+fifty-four villages or barrios in the town; the largest had a population
+in 1903 of 3254 and two others had each more than 1000 inhabitants. The
+Panayano dialect of the Visayan language is spoken by most of the
+inhabitants. At La Carlota the Spanish government established a station
+for the study of the culture of sugar-cane; by the American government
+this has been converted into a general agricultural experiment station,
+known as "Government Farm."
+
+
+
+
+LACCADIVE ISLANDS, a group of coral reefs and islands in the Indian
+Ocean, lying between 10° and 12° 20´ N. and 71° 40´ and 74° E. The name
+Laccadives (_laksha dwipa_, the "hundred thousand isles") is that given
+by the people of the Malabar coast, and was probably meant to include
+the Maldives; they are called by the natives simply _Divi_, "islands,"
+or _Amendivi_, from the chief island. There are seventeen separate
+reefs, "round each of which the 100-fathom line is continuous" (J. S.
+Gardiner). There are, however, only thirteen islands, and of these only
+eight are inhabited. They fall into two groups--the northern, belonging
+to the collectorate of South Kanara, and including the inhabited islands
+of Amini, Kardamat, Kiltan and Chetlat; and the southern, belonging to
+the administrative district of Malabar, and including the inhabited
+islands of Agatti, Kavaratti, Androth and Kalpeni. Between the
+Laccadives and the Maldives to the south lies the isolated Minikoi,
+which physically belongs to neither group, though somewhat nearer to the
+Maldives (q.v.). The principal submerged banks lie north of the northern
+group of islands; they are Munyal, Coradive and Sesostris, and are of
+greater extent than those on which the islands lie. The general depth
+over these is from 23 to 28 fathoms, but Sesostris has shallower
+soundings "indicating patches growing up, and some traces of a rim" (J.
+S. Gardiner). The islands have in nearly all cases emerged from the
+eastern and protected side of the reef, the western being completely
+exposed to the S.W. monsoon. The islands are small, none exceeding a
+mile in breadth, while the total area is only about 80 sq. m. They lie
+so low that they would be hardly discernible but for the coco-nut groves
+with which they are thickly covered. The soil is light coral sand,
+beneath which, a few feet down, lies a stratum of coral stretching over
+the whole of the islands. This coral, generally a foot to a foot and a
+half in thickness, has been in the principal islands wholly excavated,
+whereby the underlying damp sand is rendered available for cereals.
+These excavations--a work of vast labour--were made at a remote period,
+and according to the native tradition by giants. In these spaces
+(_totam_, "garden") coarse grain, pulse, bananas and vegetables are
+cultivated; coco-nuts grow abundantly everywhere. For rice the natives
+depend upon the mainland.
+
+_Population and Trade._--The population in 1901 was 10,274. The people
+are Moplas, i.e. of mixed Hindu and Arab descent, and are Mahommedans.
+Their manners and customs are similar to those of the coast Moplas; but
+they maintain their own ancient caste distinctions. The language spoken
+is Malayalim, but it is written in the Arabic character. Reading and
+writing are common accomplishments among the men. The chief industry is
+the manufacture of coir. The various processes are entrusted to the
+women. The men employ themselves with boatbuilding and in conveying the
+island produce to the coast. The exports from the Laccadives are of the
+annual value of about £17,000.
+
+ _History._--No data exist for determining at what period the
+ Laccadives were first colonized. The earliest mention of them as
+ distinguished from the Maldives seems to be by Albírúní (c. 1030), who
+ divides the whole archipelago (Díbaját) into the _Dívah Kúzah_ or
+ Cowrie Islands (the Maldives), and the _Divah Kanbar_ or Coir Islands
+ (the Laccadives). (See _Journ. Asiat. Soc._, September 1844, p. 265).
+ The islanders were converted to Islam by an Arab apostle named Mumba
+ Mulyaka, whose grave at Androth still imparts a peculiar sanctity to
+ that island. The kazee of Androth was in 1847 still a member of his
+ family, and was said to be the twenty-second who had held the office
+ in direct line from the saint. This gives colour to the tradition that
+ the conversion took place about 1250. It is also further corroborated
+ by the story given by the Ibn Batuta of the conversion of the
+ Maldives, which occurred, as he heard, four generations (say one
+ hundred and twenty years) before his visit to these islands in 1342.
+ The Portuguese discovered the Laccadives in May 1498, and built forts
+ upon them, but about 1545 the natives rose upon their oppressors. The
+ islands subsequently became a suzerainty of the raja of Cannanore, and
+ after the peace of Seringapatam, 1792 the southern group was permitted
+ to remain under the management of the native chief at a yearly
+ tribute. This was often in arrear, and on this account these islands
+ were sequestrated by the British government in 1877.
+
+ See _The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive
+ Archipelagoes_, ed. J. Stanley Gardiner (Cambridge 1901-1905);
+ _Malabar District Gazetteer_ (Madras, 1908); G. Pereira, "As Ilhas de
+ Dyve" (_Boletim da Soc. Geog._, Lisbon, 1898-1899) gives details
+ relating to the Laccadives from the 16th-century MS. volume _De
+ insulis et peregrinatione lusitanorum_ in the National Library,
+ Lisbon.
+
+
+
+
+LACCOLITE (Gr. [Greek: lakkos], cistern, [Greek: lithos], stone), in
+geology, the name given by Grove K. Gilbert to intrusive masses of
+igneous rock possessing a cake-like form, which he first described from
+the Henry Mountains of southern Utah. Their characteristic is that they
+have spread out along the bedding planes of the strata, but are not so
+broad and thin as the sheets or intrusive sills which, consisting
+usually of basic rocks, have spread over immense distances without
+attaining any great thickness. Laccolites cover a comparatively small
+area and have greater thickness. Typically they have a domed upper
+surface while their base is flat. In the Henry Mountains they are from 1
+to 5 m. in diameter and range in thickness up to about 5000 ft. The
+cause of their peculiar shape appears to be the viscosity of the rock
+injected, which is usually of intermediate character and comparatively
+rich in alkalis, belonging to the trachytes and similar lithological
+types. These are much less fluid than the basalts, and the latter in
+consequence spread out much more readily along the bedding planes,
+forming thin flat-topped sills. At each side the laccolites thin out
+rapidly so that their upper surface slopes steeply to the margins. The
+strata above them which have been uplifted and bent are often cracked by
+extension, and as the igneous materials well into the fissures a large
+number of dikes is produced. At the base of the laccolite, on the other
+hand, the strata are flat and dikes are rare, though there may be a
+conduit up which the magma has flowed into the laccolite. The rocks
+around are often much affected by contact alteration, and great masses
+of them have sometimes sunk into the laccolite, where they may be partly
+melted and absorbed.
+
+Gilbert obtained evidence that these laccolites were filled at depths of
+7000 to 10,000 ft. and did not reach the surface, giving rise to
+volcanoes. From the effects on the drainage of the country it seemed
+probable that above the laccolites the strata swelled up in flattish
+eminences. Often they occur side by side in groups belonging to a single
+period, though all the members of each group are not strictly of the
+same age. One laccolite may be formed on the side of an earlier one, and
+compound laccolites also occur. When exposed by erosion they give rise
+to hills, and their appearance varies somewhat with the stage of
+development.
+
+ In the western part of South America laccolites agreeing in all
+ essential points with those described by Gilbert occur in considerable
+ numbers and present some diversity of types. Occasionally they are
+ asymmetrical, or have one steep or vertical side while the other is
+ gently inclined. In other cases they split into a number of sheets
+ spreading outwards through the rocks around. But the term laccolite
+ has also been adopted by geologists in Britain and elsewhere to
+ describe a variety of intrusive masses not strictly identical in
+ character with those of the Henry Mountains. Some of these rest on a
+ curved floor, like the gabbro masses of the Cuillin Hills in Skye;
+ others are injected along a flattish plane of unconformability where
+ one system of rocks rests on the upturned and eroded edges of an older
+ series. An example of the latter class is furnished by the felsite
+ mass of the Black Hill in the Pentlands, near Edinburgh, which has
+ followed the line between the Silurian and the Old Red Sandstone,
+ forcing the rocks upwards without spreading out laterally to any great
+ extent.
+
+ The term laccolite has also been applied to many granite intrusions,
+ such as those of Cornwall. We know from the evidence of mining shafts
+ which have been sunk in the country near the edge of these granites
+ that they slope downwards underground with an angle of twenty to
+ thirty degrees. They have been proved also to have been injected along
+ certain wall-marked horizons; so that although the rocks of the
+ country have been folded in a very complicated manner the granite can
+ often be shown to adhere closely to certain members of the
+ stratigraphical sequence for a considerable distance. Hence it is
+ clear that their upper surfaces are convex and gently arched, and it
+ is conjectured that the strata must extend below them, though at a
+ great depth, forming a floor. The definite proof of this has not been
+ attained for no borings have penetrated the granites and reached
+ sedimentary rocks beneath them. But often in mountainous countries
+ where there are deep valleys the bases of great granite laccolites are
+ exposed to view in the hill sides. These granite sills have a
+ considerable thickness in proportion to their length, raise the rocks
+ above them and fill them with dikes, and behave generally like typical
+ laccolites. In contradistinction to intrusions of this type with a
+ well-defined floor we may place the batholiths, bysmaliths, plutonic
+ plugs and stocks, which have vertical margins and apparently descend
+ to unknown depths. It has been conjectured that masses of this type
+ eat their way upwards by dissolving the rock above them and absorbing
+ it, or excavate a passage by breaking up the roof of the space they
+ occupy while the fragments detached sink downwards and are lost in the
+ ascending magma. (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+LACE (corresponding to Ital. _merletto_, _trina_; Genoese _pizzo_; Ger.
+_spitzen_; Fr. _dentelle_; Dutch _kanten_; Span. _encaje_; the English
+word owes something to the Fr. _lassis_ or _lacis_, but both are
+connected with the earlier Lat. _laqueus_; early French laces were also
+called _passements_ or insertions and _dents_ or edgings), the name
+applied to ornamental open work formed of threads of flax, cotton, silk,
+gold or silver, and occasionally of mohair or aloe fibre, looped or
+plaited or twisted together by hand, (1) with a needle, when the work is
+distinctively known as "needlepoint lace"; (2) with bobbins, pins and a
+pillow or cushion, when the work is known as "pillow lace"; and (3) by
+steam-driven machinery, when imitations of both needlepoint and pillow
+laces are produced. Lace-making implies the production of ornament and
+fabric concurrently. Without a pattern or design the fabric of lace
+cannot be made.
+
+The publication of patterns for needlepoint and pillow laces dates from
+about the middle of the 16th century. Before that period lace described
+such articles as cords and narrow braids of plaited and twisted threads,
+used not only to fasten shoes, sleeves and corsets together, but also in
+a decorative manner to braid the hair, to wind round hats, and to be
+sewn as trimmings upon costumes. In a Harleian MS. of the time of Henry
+VI. and Edward IV., about 1471, directions are given for the making of
+"lace Bascon, lace indented, lace bordered, lace covert, a brode lace, a
+round lace, a thynne lace, an open lace, lace for hattys," &c. The MS.
+opens with an illuminated capital letter, in which is the figure of a
+woman making these articles. The MS. supplies a clear description how
+threads in combinations of twos, threes, fours, fives, to tens and
+fifteens, were to be twisted and plaited together. Instead of the
+pillow, bobbins and pins with which pillow lace soon afterwards was
+made, the hands were used, each finger of a hand serving as a peg upon
+which was placed a "bowys" or "bow," or little ball of thread. Each ball
+might be of different colour from the other. The writer of the MS. says
+that the first finger next the thumb shall be called A, the next B, and
+so on. According to the sort of cord or braid to be made, so each of the
+four fingers, A, B, C, D might be called into service. A "thynne lace"
+might be made with three threads, and then only fingers A, B, C would be
+required. A "round" lace, stouter than the "thynne" lace, might require
+the service of four or more fingers. By occasionally dropping the use of
+threads from certain fingers a sort of indented lace or braid might be
+made. But when laces of more importance were wanted, such as a broad
+lace for "hattys," the fingers on the hands of assistants were required.
+The smaller cords or "thynne laces," when fastened in simple or
+fantastic loops along the edges of collars and cuffs, were called
+"purls" (see the small edge to the collar worn by Catherine de' Medici,
+Pl. II. fig. 4). In another direction from which some suggestion may be
+derived as to the evolution of lace-making, notice should be taken of
+the fact that at an early period the darning of varied ornamental
+devices, stiff and geometric in treatment into hand-made network of
+small square meshes (see squares of "lacis," Pl. I. fig. 1) became
+specialized in many European countries. This is held by some writers to
+be "opus filatorium," or "opus araneum" (spider work). Examples of this
+"opus filatorium," said to date from the 13th century exist in public
+collections. The productions of this darning in the early part of the
+16th century came to be known as "punto a maglia quadra" in Italy and as
+"lacis" in France, and through a growing demand for household and
+wearing linen, very much of the "lacis" was made in white threads not
+only in Italy and France but also in Spain. In appearance it is a filmy
+fabric. With white threads also were the "purlings" above mentioned
+made, by means of leaden bobbins or "fuxii," and were called "merletti a
+piombini" (see lower border, Pl. II. fig. 3). Cut and drawn thread linen
+work (the latter known as "tela tirata" in Italy and as "deshilado" in
+Spain) were other forms of embroidery as much in vogue as the darning on
+net and the "purling." The ornament of much of this cut and drawn linen
+work (see collar of Catherine de' Medici, Pl. II. fig. 4), more
+restricted in scope than that of the darning on net, was governed by the
+recurrence of open squares formed by the withdrawal of the threads.
+Within these squares and rectangles radiating devices usually were
+worked by means of whipped and buttonhole stitches (Pl. fig. 5). The
+general effect in the linen was a succession of insertions or borders of
+plain or enriched reticulations, whence the name "punto a reticella"
+given to this class of embroidery in Italy. Work of similar style and
+especially that with whipped stitches was done rather earlier in the
+Grecian islands, which derived it from Asia Minor and Persia. The close
+connexion of the Venetian republic with Greece and the eastern islands,
+as well as its commercial relations with the East, sufficiently explains
+an early transplanting of this kind of embroidery into Venice, as well
+as in southern Spain. At Venice besides being called "reticella," cut
+work was also called "punto tagliato." Once fairly established as home
+industries such arts were quickly exploited with a beauty and variety of
+pattern, complexity of stitch and delicacy of execution, until
+insertions and edgings made independently of any linen as a starting
+base (see first two borders, Pl. II. fig. 3) came into being under the
+name of "Punto in aria" (Pl. II. fig. 7). This was the first variety of
+Venetian and Italian needlepoint lace in the middle of the 16th
+century,[1] and its appearance then almost coincides in date with that
+of the "merletti a piombini," which was the earliest Italian cushion or
+pillow lace (see lower edging, Pl. II. fig. 3).
+
+The many varieties of needlepoint and pillow laces will be touched on
+under the heading allotted to each of these methods of making lace.
+Here, however, the general circumstances of their genesis may be briefly
+alluded to. The activity in cord and braid-making and in the particular
+sorts of ornamental needlework already mentioned clearly postulated such
+special labour as was capable of being converted into lace-making. And
+from the 16th century onwards the stimulus to the industry in Europe was
+afforded by regular trade demand, coupled with the exertions of those
+who encouraged their dependents or protegés to give their spare time to
+remunerative home occupations. Thus the origin and perpetuation of the
+industry have come to be associated with the women folk of peasants and
+fishermen in circumstances which present little dissimilarity whether in
+regard to needle lace workers now making lace in whitewashed cottages
+and cabins at Youghal and Kenmare in the south of Ireland, or those who
+produced their "punti in aria" during the 16th century about the lagoons
+of Venice, or Frenchwomen who made the sumptuous "Points de France" at
+Alençon and elsewhere in the 17th and 18th centuries; or pillow lace
+workers to be seen at the present day at little seaside villages tucked
+away in Devonshire dells, or those who were engaged more than four
+hundred years ago in "merletti a piombini" in Italian villages or on
+"Dentelles au fuseau" in Flemish lowlands. The ornamental character,
+however, of these several laces would be found to differ much; but
+methods, materials, appliances and opportunities of work would in the
+main be alike. As fashion in wearing laces extended, so workers came to
+be drawn together into groups by employers who acted as channels for
+general trade.[2] Nuns in the past as in the present have also devoted
+attention to the industry, often providing in the convent precincts
+workrooms not only for peasant women to carry out commissions in the
+service of the church or for the trade, but also for the purpose of
+training children in the art. Elsewhere lace schools have been founded
+by benefactors or organized by some leading local lace-maker[3] as much
+for trading as for education. In all this variety of circumstance,
+development of finer work has depended upon the abilities of the workers
+being exercised under sound direction, whether derived through their own
+intuitions, or supplied by intelligent and tasteful employers. Where any
+such direction has been absent the industry viewed commercially has
+suffered, its productions being devoid of artistic effect or
+adaptability to the changing tastes of demand.
+
+It is noteworthy that the two widely distant regions of Europe where
+pictorial art first flourished and attained high perfection, north Italy
+and Flanders, were precisely the localities where lace-making first
+became an industry of importance both from an artistic and from a
+commercial point of view. Notwithstanding more convincing evidence as to
+the earlier development of pillow lace making in Italy the invention of
+pillow lace is often credited to the Flemings; but there is no distinct
+trace of the time or the locality. In a picture said to exist in the
+church of St Gomar at Lierre, and sometimes attributed to Quentin Matsys
+(1495), is introduced a girl apparently working at some sort of lace
+with pillow, bobbins, &c., which are somewhat similar to the implements
+in use in more recent times.[4] From the very infancy of Flemish art an
+active intercourse was maintained between the Low Countries and the
+great centres of Italian art; and it is therefore only what might be
+expected that the wonderful examples of the art and handiwork of Venice
+in lace-making should soon have come to be known to and rivalled among
+the equally industrious, thriving and artistic Flemings. At the end of
+the 16th century pattern-books were issued in Flanders having the same
+general character as those published for the guidance of the Venetian
+and other Italian lace-makers.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+ FIG. 1.--PORTION OF A COVERLET COMPOSED OF SQUARES OF "LACIS" OR
+ DARNED NETTING, DIVIDED BY LINEN CUT-WORK BANDS.
+
+ The squares are worked with groups representing the twelve months, and
+ with scenes from the old Spanish dramatic story "Celestina." Spanish
+ or Portuguese. 16th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)
+
+ FIG. 2.--CORNER OF A BED-COVER OF PILLOW-MADE LACE OF A TAPE-LIKE
+ TEXTURE WITH CHARACTERISTICS IN THE TWISTED AND PLAITED THREADS
+ RELATING THE WORK TO ITALIAN "MERLETTI A PIOMBINI" OR EARLY ENGLISH
+ "BONE LACE."
+
+ Possibly made in Flanders or Italy during the early part of the 17th
+ or at the end of the 16th century. The design includes the Imperial
+ double-headed eagle of Austria with the ancient crown of the German
+ Empire. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+ FIG. 3.--THREE VANDYKE OR DENTATED BORDERS OF ITALIAN LACE OF THE LATE
+ 16TH CENTURY.
+
+ Style usually called "Reticella" on account of the patterns being
+ based on repeated squares or reticulations. The two first borders are
+ of needlepoint work; the lower border is of such pillow lace as was
+ known in Italy as "merletti a piombini."
+
+ FIG. 4.--CATHERINE DE MEDICI, WEARING A LINEN UPTURNED COLLAR OF CUT
+ WORK AND NEEDLEPOINT LACE.
+
+ Louvre. About 1540.
+
+ FIG. 5.--CORNER OF A NAPKIN OR HANDKERCHIEF BORDERED WITH "RETICELLA"
+ NEEDLEPOINT LACE IN THE DESIGN OF WHICH ACORNS AND CARNATIONS ARE
+ MINGLED WITH GEOMETRIC RADIATIONS.
+
+ Probably of English early 17th century.
+
+ FIG. 6.--AMELIE ELISABETH, COMTESSE DE HAINAULT, WEARING A RUFF OF
+ NEEDLEPOINT RETICELLA LACE.
+
+ By Morcelse. The Hague. About 1600.
+
+ FIG. 7.--BORDER OF FLAT NEEDLEPOINT LACE OF FULLER TEXTURE THAN THAT
+ OF FIG. 3, AND FROM A FREER STYLE OF DESIGN IN WHICH CONVENTIONALIZED
+ FLORAL FORMS HELD TOGETHER BY SMALL BARS OR TYES ARE USED.
+
+ Style called "Punto in Aria," chiefly on account of its independence
+ of squares or reticulations. Italian. Early 17th century.
+
+ (_Figs._ 4 _and_ 6 _by permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co.,
+ Dornach (Alsace), and Paris_.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Portion of a Flounce of Needlepoint Lace,
+French, early 18th century, "Point de France." The honeycomb ground is
+considered to be a peculiarity of "Point d'Argentan": some of the
+fillings are made in the manner of the "Point d'Alençon" _réseau_.]
+
+France and England were not far behind Venice and Flanders in making
+needle and pillow lace. Henry III. of France (1574-1589) appointed a
+Venetian, Frederic Vinciolo, pattern maker for varieties of linen needle
+works and laces to his court. Through the influence of this fertile
+designer the seeds of a taste for lace in France were principally sown.
+But the event which _par excellence_ would seem to have fostered the
+higher development of the French art of lace-making was the aid
+officially given it in the following century by Louis XIV., acting on
+the advice of his minister Colbert. Intrigue and diplomacy were put into
+action to secure the services of Venetian lace-workers; and by an edict
+dated 1665 the lace-making centres at Alençon, Quesnoy, Arras, Reims,
+Sedan, Château Thierry, Loudun and elsewhere were selected for the
+operations of a company in aid of which the state made a contribution of
+36,000 francs; at the same time the importation of Venetian, Flemish and
+other laces was strictly forbidden.[5] The edict contained instructions
+that the lace-makers should produce all sorts of thread work, such as
+those done on a pillow or cushion and with the needle, in the style of
+the laces made at Venice, Genoa, Ragusa and other places; these French
+imitations were to be called "points de France." By 1671 the Italian
+ambassador at Paris writes, "Gallantly is the minister Colbert on his
+way to bring the 'lavori d'aria' to perfection." Six years later an
+Italian, Domenigo Contarini, alludes to the "punto in aria," "which the
+French can now do to admiration." The styles of design which emanated
+from the chief of the French lace centre, Alençon, were more fanciful
+and less severe than the Venetian, and it is evident that the Flemish
+lace-makers later on adopted many of these French patterns for their own
+use. The provision of French designs (fig. 24) which owes so much to the
+state patronage, contrasts with the absence of corresponding provision
+in England and was noticed early in the 18th century by Bishop Berkeley.
+"How," he asks, "could France and Flanders have drawn so much money from
+other countries for figured silk, lace and tapestry, if they had not had
+their academies of design?"
+
+The humble endeavours of peasantry in England (which could boast of no
+schools of design), Germany, Sweden, Russia and Spain could not result
+in work of so high artistic pretension as that of France and Flanders.
+In the 18th century good lace was made in Devonshire, but it is only in
+recent years that to some extent the hand lace-makers of England and
+Ireland have become impressed with the necessity of well-considered
+designs for their work. Pillow lace making under the name of "bone lace
+making" was pursued in the 17th century in Buckinghamshire,
+Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire, and in 1724 Defoe refers to the
+manufacture of bone lace in which villagers were "wonderfully exercised
+and improved within these few years past." "Bone" lace dates from the
+17th century in England and was practically the counterpart of Flemish
+"dentelles au fuseau," and related also to the Italian "merletti a
+piombini" (see Pl. fig. 10). In Germany, Barbara Uttmann, a native of
+Nuremberg, instructed peasants of the Harz mountains to twist and plait
+threads in 1561. She was assisted by certain refugees from Flanders. A
+sort of "purling" or imitation of the Italian "merletti a piombini" was
+the style of work produced then.
+
+Lace of comparatively simple design has been made for centuries in
+villages of Andalusia as well as in Spanish conventual establishments.
+The "point d'Espagne," however, appears to have been a commercial name
+given by French manufacturers of a class of lace made in France with
+gold or silver threads on the pillow and greatly esteemed by Spaniards
+in the 17th century. No lace pattern-books have been found to have been
+published in Spain. The needle-made laces which came out of Spanish
+monasteries in 1830, when these institutions were dissolved, were mostly
+Venetian needle-made laces. The lace vestments preserved at the
+cathedral at Granada hitherto presumed to be of Spanish work are
+verified as being Flemish of the 17th century (similar in style to Pl.
+fig. 14). The industry is not alluded to in Spanish ordinances of the
+15th, 16th or 17th centuries, but traditions which throw its origin back
+to the Moors or Saracens are still current in Seville and its
+neighbourhood, where a twisted and knotted arrangement of fine cords is
+often worked[6] under the name of "Morisco" fringe, elsewhere called
+macramé lace. Black and white silk pillow laces, or "blondes," date from
+the 18th century. They were made in considerable quantity in the
+neighbourhood of Chantilly, and imported for mantillas by Spain, where
+corresponding silk lace making was started. Although after the 18th
+century the making of silk laces more or less ceased at Chantilly and
+the neighbourhood, the craft is now carried on in Normandy--at Bayeux
+and Caen--as well as in Auvergne, which is also noted for its simple
+"torchon" laces. Silk pillow lace making is carried on in Spain,
+especially at Barcelona. The patterns are almost entirely imitations
+from 18th-century French ones of a large and free floral character.
+Lace-making is said to have been promoted in Russia through the
+patronage of the court, after the visit of Peter the Great to Paris in
+the early days of the 18th century. Peasants in the districts of
+Vologda, Balakhua (Nijni-Novgorod), Bieleff (Tula) and Mzensk (Orel)
+make pillow laces of simple patterns. Malta is noted for producing a
+silk pillow lace of black or white, or red threads, chiefly of patterns
+in which repetitions of circles, wheels and radiations of shapes
+resembling grains of wheat are the main features. This characteristic of
+design, appearing in white linen thread laces of similar make which have
+been identified as Genoese pillow laces of the early 17th century,
+reappears in Spanish and Paraguayan work. Pillow lace in imitation of
+Maltese, Buckinghamshire and Devonshire laces is made to a small extent
+in Ceylon, in different parts of India and in Japan. A successful effort
+has also been made to re-establish the industry in the island of Burano
+near Venice, and pillow and needlepoint lace of good design is made
+there.
+
+At present the chief sources of hand-made lace are France, Belgium,
+Ireland and England.
+
+France is faithful to her traditions in maintaining a lively and
+graceful taste in lace-making. Fashion of late years has called for
+ampler and more boldly effective laces, readily produced with both
+braids and cords and far less intricate needle or pillow work than was
+required for the dainty and smaller laces of earlier date.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Collar and Berthe of Irish Crochet Lace.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Collar of Irish Crochet Lace.]
+
+In Belgium the social and economic conditions are, as they have been in
+the past, more conducive and more favourable than elsewhere to
+lace-making at a sufficiently remunerative rate of wages. The production
+of hand-made laces in Belgium was in 1900 greater than that of France.
+The principal modern needle-made lace of Belgium is the "Point de Gaze";
+"Duchesse" and Bruges laces are the chief pillow-made laces; whilst
+"Point Appliqué" and "Plat Appliqué" are frequently the results not only
+of combining needle-made and pillow work, but also of using them in
+conjunction with machine-made net. Ireland is the best producer of that
+substantial looped-thread work known as crochet (see figs. 25, 26, 27),
+which must be regarded as a hand-made lace fabric although not
+classifiable as a needlepoint or pillow lace. It is also quite distinct
+in character from pseudo-laces, which are really embroideries with a
+lace-like appearance, e.g. embroideries on net, cut and embroidered
+cambrics and fine linen. For such as these Ireland maintains a
+reputation in its admirable Limerick and Carrickmacross laces, made not
+only in Limerick and Carrickmacross, but also in Kinsale, Newry,
+Crossmaglen and elsewhere. The demand from France for Irish crochet is
+now far beyond the supply, a condition which leads not only to the rapid
+repetition by Irish workers of old patterns, but tends also to a gradual
+debasement of both texture and ornament. Attempts have been made to
+counteract this tendency, with some success, as the specimens of Irish
+crochet in figs. 25, 26 and 27 indicate.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.
+
+ FIG. 8.--MARY, COUNTESS OF PEMBROKE, WEARING A COIF AND CUFFS OF
+ RETICELLA LACE.
+
+ National Portrait Gallery. Dated 1614.
+
+ FIG. 9.--HENRI II., DUC DE MONTMORENCY, WEARING A FALLING LACE COLLAR.
+ By LE NAIN. Louvre. About 1628.
+
+ (_By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., Dornach (Alsace), and
+ Paris_.)
+
+ FIG. 10.--SCALLOPPED COLLAR OF TAPE-LIKE PILLOW-MADE LACE.
+
+ Possibly of English early 17th-century work. Its texture is typical of
+ a development in pillow-lace-making later than that of the lower edge
+ of "merletti a piombini" in Pl. II. fig. 3.
+
+ FIG. 11.--JAMES II. WEARING A JABOT AND CUFFS OF RAISED NEEDLEPOINT
+ LACE.
+
+ By RILEY. National Portrait Gallery. About 1685.
+
+ FIG. 12.--JABOT OF NEEDLEPOINT LACE WORKED PARTLY IN RELIEF, AND
+ USUALLY KNOWN AS "GROS POINT DE VENISE."
+
+ Middle of 17th century. Conventional scrolling stems with off-shooting
+ pseudo-blossoms and leafs are specially characteristic.
+
+ (_Figs._ 8 _and_ 11, _photo by Emery Walker_.)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.
+
+ FIG. 13.--MME VERBIEST, WEARING PILLOW-MADE LACE _À RÉSEAU_.
+
+ From the family group by GONZALES COQUER. Buckingham Palace. About
+ 1664.
+
+ (_By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., Dornach (Alsace), and
+ Paris_.)
+
+ FIG. 14.--PIECE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE USUALLY KNOWN AS "POINT DE
+ FLANDRES À BRIDES."
+
+ Of the middle of the 17th century, the designs for which were often
+ adaptations from those made for such needlepoint lace as that of the
+ Jabot in fig. 12.
+
+ FIG. 15.--PRINCESS MARIA TERESA STUART, WEARING A FLOUNCE OR TABLIER
+ OF LACE SIMILAR TO THAT IN FIG. 17. Dated 1695.
+
+ From a group by LARGILLIERE. National Portrait Gallery. (_Photo by
+ Emery Walker_.)
+
+ FIG. 16.--FLOUNCE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE _À RÉSEAU_.
+
+ Flemish, of the middle of the 17th century. This lace is usually
+ thought to be the earliest type of "Point d'Angleterre" in
+ contradistinction to the "Point de Flandres" (fig. 14).
+
+ FIG. 17--VERY DELICATE NEEDLEPOINT LACE WITH CLUSTERS OF SMALL RELIEF
+ WORK.
+
+ Venetian, middle of the 17th century, and often called "rose-point
+ lace," and sometimes "Point de Neige."]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Lady's Sleeve of Irish Crochet Lace.]
+
+An appreciable amount of pillow-made lace is annually supplied from
+Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and Northampton, but it is
+bought almost wholly for home use. The English laces are made almost
+entirely in accordance with the precedents of the 19th century--that is
+to say, in definite lengths and widths, as for borders, insertions and
+flounces, although large shaped articles, such as panels for dresses,
+long sleeves complete skirts, jackets, blouses, and fancifully shaped
+collars of considerable dimensions have of late been freely made
+elsewhere. To make such things entirely of lace necessitates many
+modifications in the ordinary methods; the English lace-workers are slow
+to adapt their work in the manner requisite, and hence are far behind in
+the race to respond to the fashionable demand. No countries succeed so
+well in promptly answering the variable call of fashion as France and
+Belgium.
+
+ As regards trade in lace, America probably buys more from Belgium than
+ from France; France and England come next as purchasers of nearly
+ equal quantities, after which come Russia and Italy.
+
+ The greatest amount of lace now made is that which issues from
+ machines in England, France and Germany. The total number of persons
+ employed in the lace industry in England in 1871 was 49,370, and in
+ 1901 about 34,929, of whom not more than 5000 made lace by hand.
+
+The early history[7] of the lace-making machine coincides with that of
+the stocking frame, that machine having been adapted about the year 1768
+for producing open-looped fabrics which had a net-like appearance. About
+1786 frames for making point nets by machinery first appear at Mansfield
+and later at Ashbourne and Nottingham and soon afterwards modifications
+were introduced into such frames in order to make varieties of meshes in
+the point nets which were classed as figured nets. In 1808 and 1809 John
+Heathcoat of Nottingham obtained patents for machines for making bobbin
+net with a simpler and more readily produced mesh than that of the point
+net just mentioned. For at least thirty years thousands of women had
+been employed in and about Nottingham in the embroidery of simple
+ornament on net. In 1813 John Leavers began to improve the figured net
+weaving machines above mentioned, and from these the lace-making
+machines in use at the present time were developed. But it was the
+application of the celebrated Jacquard apparatus to such machines that
+enabled manufacturers to produce all sorts of patterns in thread-work in
+imitation of the patterns for hand-made lace. A French machine called
+the "dentellière" was devised (see La Nature for the 3rd of March 1881),
+and the patterns produced by it were of plaited threads. The expense,
+however, attending the production of plaited lace by the "dentellière"
+is as great as that of pillow lace made by the hand, and so the machine
+has not succeeded for ordinary trade purposes. More successful results
+have been secured by the new patent circular lace machine of Messrs.
+Birkin & Co. of Nottingham, the productions of which, all of simple
+design, cannot be distinguished from hand-made pillow lace of the same
+style (see figs. 57, 58, 59).
+
+Before dealing with technical details in processes of making lace
+whether by hand or by the machine, the component parts of different
+makes of lace may be considered. These are governed by the ornaments or
+patterns, which may be so designed, as they were in the earlier laces,
+that the different component parts may touch one another without any
+intervening groundwork. But as a wish arose to vary the effect of the
+details in a pattern ground-works were gradually developed and at first
+consisted of links or ties between the substantial parts of the pattern.
+The bars or ties were succeeded by grounds of meshes, like nets.
+Sometimes the substantial parts of a pattern were outlined with a single
+thread or by a strongly marked raised edge of buttonhole-stitched or of
+plaited work. Minute fanciful devices were then introduced to enrich
+various portions of the pattern. Some of the heavier needle-made laces
+resemble low relief carving in ivory, and the edges of the relief
+portions are often decorated with clusters of small loops. For the most
+part all this elaboration was brought to a high pitch of variety and
+finish by French designers and workers; and French terms are more usual
+in speaking of details in laces. Thus the solid part of the pattern is
+called the _toilé_ or clothing, the links or ties are called _brides_,
+the meshed grounds are called _réseaux_, the outline to the edges of a
+pattern is called _cordonnet_ or _brodé_, the insertions of fanciful
+devices _modes_, the little loops _picots_. These terms are applicable
+to the various portions of laces made with the needle, on the pillow or
+by the machine.
+
+The sequence of patterns in lace (which may be verified upon referring
+to figs. 1 to 23) is roughly as follows. From about 1540 to 1590 they
+were composed of geometric forms set within squares, or of crossed and
+radiating line devices, resulting in a very open fabric, stiff and
+almost wiry in effect, without _brides_ or _réseaux_. From 1590 may be
+dated the introduction into patterns of very conventional floral and
+even human and animal forms and slender scrolls, rendered in a tape-like
+texture, held together by _brides_. To the period from 1620 to 1670
+belongs the development of long continuous scroll patterns with
+_réseaux_ and _brides_, accompanied in the case of needle-made laces
+with an elaboration of details, e.g. _cordonnet_ with massings of
+_picots_. Much of these laces enriched with fillings or _modes_ was made
+at this time. From 1650 to 1700 the scroll patterns gave way to
+arrangements of detached ornamental details (as in Pl. VI. fig. 22): and
+about 1700 to 1760 more important schemes or designs were made (as in
+Pl. fig. 19, and in fig. 24 in text), into which were introduced
+naturalistic renderings of garlands, flowers, birds, trophies,
+architectural ornament and human figures. Grounds composed entirely of
+varieties of _modes_ as in the case of the _réseau rosacé_ (Pl. V. fig.
+21) were sometimes made then. From 1760 to 1800 small details consisting
+of bouquets, sprays of flowers, single flowers, leaves, buds, spots and
+such like were adopted, and sprinkled over meshed grounds, and the
+character of the texture was gauzy and filmy (as in figs. 40 and 42).
+Since that time variants of the foregoing styles of pattern and textures
+have been used according to the bent of fashion in favour of simple or
+complex ornamentation, or of stiff, compact or filmy textures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.]
+
+_Needlepoint Lace._--The way in which the early Venetian "punto in aria"
+was made corresponds with that in which needlepoint lace is now worked.
+The pattern is first drawn upon a piece of parchment. The parchment is
+then stitched to two pieces of linen. Upon the leading lines drawn on
+the parchment a thread is laid, and fastened through to the parchment
+and linen by means of stitches, thus constructing a skeleton thread
+pattern (see left-hand part of fig. 30). Those portions which are to be
+represented as the "clothing" or _toilé_ are usually worked as indicated
+in the enlarged diagram (fig. 29), and then edged as a rule with
+buttonhole stitching (fig. 28). Between these _toilé_ portions of the
+pattern are worked ties (_brides_) or meshes (_réseaux_), and thus the
+various parts united into one fabric are wrought on to the face of the
+parchment pattern and reproducing it (see right-hand part of fig. 30). A
+knife is passed between the two pieces of linen at the back of the
+parchment, cutting the stitches which have passed through the parchment
+and linen, and so releasing the lace itself from its pattern parchment.
+In the earlier stages, the lace was made in lengths to serve as
+insertions (_passements_) and also in vandykes (_dentelles_) to serve as
+edgings. Later on insertions and vandykes were made in one piece. All of
+such were at first of a geometric style of pattern (Pl. figs. 3-5 and
+6).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Parchment Pattern showing work in progress: the
+more complete lace is on the right half of the pattern.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.]
+
+Following closely upon them came the freer style of design already
+mentioned, without and then with links or ties--_brides_--interspersed
+between the various details of the patterns (Pl. II. fig. 7), which were
+of flat tape-like texture. In elaborate specimens of this flat point
+lace some lace workers occasionally used gold thread with the white
+thread. These flat laces ("Punto in Aria") are also called "flat
+Venetian point." About 1640 "rose (raised) point" laces began to be made
+(Pl. III. fig. 12). They were done in relief and those of bold design
+with stronger reliefs are called "gros point de Venise." Lace of this
+latter class was used for altar cloths, flounces, _jabots_ or neckcloths
+which hung beneath the chin over the breast (Pl. III. fig. 11), as well
+as for trimming the turned-over tops of jack boots. _Tabliers_ and
+ladies' aprons were also made of such lace. In these no regular ground
+was introduced. All sorts of minute embellishments, like little knots,
+stars and loops or _picots_, were worked on to the irregularly arranged
+_brides_ or ties holding the main patterns together, and the more dainty
+of these raised laces (Pl. fig. 17) exemplify the most subtle uses to
+which the buttonhole stitch appears capable of being put in making
+ornaments. But about 1660 came laces with _brides_ or ties arranged in a
+honeycomb reticulation or regular ground. To them succeeded lace in
+which the compact relief gave place to daintier and lighter material
+combined with a ground of meshes or _réseau_. The needle-made meshes
+were sometimes of single and sometimes of double threads. A diagram is
+given of an ordinary method of making such meshes (fig. 31). At the end
+of the 17th century the lightest of the Venetian needlepoint laces were
+made; and this class which was of the filmiest texture is usually known
+as "point de Venise à réseau" (Pl. V. fig. 20a). It was contemporary
+with the needle-made French laces of Alençon and Argentan[8] that became
+famous towards the latter part of the 17th century (Pl. V. fig. 20b).
+"Point d'Argentan" has been thought to be especially distinguished on
+account of its delicate honeycomb ground of hexagonally arranged
+_brides_ (fig. 32), a peculiarity already referred to in certain
+antecedent Venetian point laces. Often intermixed with this hexagonal
+_brides_ ground is the fine-meshed ground or _réseau_ (fig. 20b), which
+has been held to be distinctive of "point d'Alençon." But the styles of
+patterns and the methods of working them, with rich variety of
+insertions or _modes_, with the _brodé_ or _cordonnet_ of raised
+buttonhole stitched edging, are alike in Argentan and Alençon
+needle-made laces (Pl. V. fig. 20b and fig. 32). Besides the hexagonal
+_brides_ ground and the ground of meshes another variety of grounding
+(_réseau rosacé_) was used in certain Alençon designs. This ground
+consisted of buttonhole-stitched skeleton hexagons within each of which
+was worked a small hexagon of _toilé_ connected with the outer
+surrounding hexagon by means of six little ties or _brides_ (Pl. V. fig.
+21). Lace with this particular ground has been called "Argentella," and
+some writers have thought that it was a specialty of Genoese or Venetian
+work. But the character of the work and the style of the floral patterns
+are those of Alençon laces. The industry at Argentan was virtually an
+offshoot of that nurtured at Alençon, where "lacis," "cut work" and
+"vélin" (work on parchment) had been made for years before the
+well-developed needle-made "point d'Alençon" came into vogue under the
+favouring patronage of the state-aided lace company mentioned as having
+been formed in 1665. Madame Despierre in her _Histoire du point
+d'Alençon_ gives an interesting and trustworthy account of the industry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Border of Needlepoint Lace made in France about
+1740-1750, the clear hexagonal mesh ground, which is compactly stitched,
+being usually regarded as characteristic of the point de France made at
+Argentan.]
+
+In Belgium, Brussels has acquired some celebrity for needle-made laces.
+These, however, are chiefly in imitation of those made at Alençon, but
+the _toilé_ is of less compact texture and sharpness in definition of
+pattern. Brussels needlepoint lace is often worked with meshed grounds
+made on a pillow, and a plain thread is used as a _cordonnet_ for their
+patterns instead of a thread overcast with buttonhole stitches as in the
+French needlepoint laces. Note the bright sharp outline to the various
+ornamental details in Pl. V. fig. 20b.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Shirt decorated with Insertions of Flat
+Needlepoint Lace. (English, 17th century. Victoria and Albert Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.
+
+ FIG. 18.--CHARLES GASPARD GUILLAUME DE VINTI-MILLE, WEARING LACE
+ SIMILAR IN STYLE OF DESIGN SHOWN IN FIG. 19. About 1730.
+
+ FIG. 19.--PORTION OF FLOUNCE, NEEDLEPOINT LACE COPIED AT THE BURANO
+ LACE SCHOOL FROM THE ORIGINAL OF THE SO-CALLED "POINT DE VENISE À
+ BRIDES PICOTÉES."
+
+ 17th century. Formerly belonging to Pope Clement XIII., but now the
+ property of the queen of Italy. The design and work, however, are
+ indistinguishable from those of important flounces of "Point de
+ France." The pattern consists of repetitions of two
+ vertically-arranged groups of fantastic pine-apples and vases with
+ flowers, intermixed with bold rococo bands and large leaf devices. The
+ hexagonal meshes of the ground, although similar to the Venetian
+ "brides picotées," are much akin to the buttonhole stitched ground of
+ "Point d'Argentan." (Victoria and Albert Museum.)
+
+ FIG. 20.
+
+ A.--A LAPPET OF "POINT DE VENISE À RÉSEAU."
+
+ The conventional character of the pseudo-leaf and floral forms
+ contrasts with that of the realistic designs of contemporary French
+ laces. Italian. Early 18th century.
+
+ B.--A LAPPET OF FINE "POINT D'ALENÇON." Louis XV. period. The variety
+ of the fillings of geometric design is particularly remarkable in this
+ specimen, as is the buttonhole stitched cordonnat or outline to the
+ various ornamental forms.
+
+ FIG. 21.--BORDER OF FRENCH NEEDLEPOINT LACE, WITH GROUND OF "RÉSEAU
+ ROSACÉ." 18th century.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.
+
+ FIG. 22.--JABOT OR CRAVAT OF PILLOW-MADE LACE. Brussels. Late 17th
+ century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)
+
+ FIG. 23.--JABOT OR CRAVAT OF PILLOW-MADE LACE OF FANTASTIC FLORAL
+ DESIGN, THE GROUND OF WHICH IS COMPOSED OF LITTLE FLOWERS AND LEAVES
+ ARRANGED WITHIN SMALL OPENWORK VERTICAL STRIPS.
+
+ Brussels. 18th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]
+
+Needlepoint lace has also been occasionally produced in England. Whilst
+the character of its design in the early 17th century was rather more
+primitive, as a rule, than that of the contemporary Italian, the method
+of its workmanship is virtually the same and an interesting specimen of
+English needle-made lace inset into an early 17th-century shirt is
+illustrated in fig. 33. Specimens of needle-made work done by English
+school children may be met with in samplers of the 17th and 18th
+centuries. Needlepoint lace is successfully made at Youghal, Kenmare and
+New Ross in Ireland, where of late years attention has been given to the
+study of designs for it. The lace-making school at Burano near Venice
+produces hand-made laces which are, to a great extent, careful
+reproductions of the more celebrated classes of point laces, such as
+"punto in aria," "rose point de Venise," "point de Venise à réseau,"
+"point d'Alençon," "point d'Argentan" and others. Some good needlepoint
+lace is made in Bohemia and elsewhere in the Austrian empire.
+
+_Pillow-made Lace._--Pillow-made lace is built upon no substructure
+corresponding with a skeleton thread pattern such as is used for
+needlepoint lace, but is the representation of a pattern obtained by
+twisting and plaiting threads.
+
+These patterns were never so strictly geometric in style as those
+adopted for the earliest point lace making from the antecedent cut linen
+and drawn thread embroideries. Curved forms, almost at the outset of
+pillow lace, seem to have been found easy of execution (see lower
+border, Pl. II. fig. 3); its texture was more lissom and less crisp and
+wiry in appearance than that of contemporary needle-made lace. The early
+twisted and plaited thread laces, which had the appearance of small
+cords merging into one another, were soon succeeded by laces of similar
+make but with flattened and broader lines more like fine braids or tapes
+(Pl. I. fig. 2, and Pl. fig. 10). But pillow laces of this tapey
+character must not be confused with laces in which actual tape or braid
+is used. That peculiar class of lace-work does not arise until after the
+beginning of the 17th century when the weaving of tape is said to have
+commenced in Flanders. In England this sort of tape-lace dates no
+farther back than 1747, when two Dutchmen named Lanfort were invited by
+an English firm to set up tape looms in Manchester.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Diagram showing six Bobbins in use.]
+
+The process by which lace is made on the pillow is roughly and briefly
+as follows. A pattern is first drawn upon a piece of paper or parchment.
+It is then pricked with holes by a skilled "pattern pricker," who
+determines where the principal pins shall be stuck for guiding the
+threads. This pricked pattern is then fastened to the pillow. The pillow
+or cushion varies in shape in different countries. Some lace-makers use
+a circular pad, backed with a flat board, in order that it may be placed
+upon a table and easily moved. Other lace-workers use a well-stuffed
+round pillow or short bolster, flattened at the two ends, so that they
+may hold it conveniently on their laps. From the upper part of pillow
+with the pattern fastened on it hang the threads from the bobbins. The
+bobbin threads thus hang across the pattern. Fig. 34 shows the
+commencement, for instance, of a double set of three-thread plaitings.
+The compact portion in a pillow lace has a woven appearance (fig. 35).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.]
+
+About the middle of the 17th century pillow lace of formal scroll
+patterns somewhat in imitation of those for point lace was made, chiefly
+in Flanders. The earlier of these had grounds of ties or _brides_ and
+was often called "point de Flandres" (Pl. fig. 14) in contradistinction
+to scroll patterns with a mesh ground, which were called "point
+d'Angleterre" (Pl. fig. 16). Into Spain and France much lace from Venice
+and Flanders was imported as well as into England, where from the 16th
+century the manufacture of the simple pattern "bone lace" by peasants in
+the midland and southern counties was still being carried on. In Charles
+II.'s time its manufacture was threatened with extinction by the
+preference given to the more artistic and finer Flemish laces. The
+importation of the latter was accordingly prohibited. Dealers in Flemish
+lace sought to evade the prohibitions by calling certain of their laces
+"point d'Angleterre," and smuggling them into England. But smuggling was
+made so difficult that English dealers were glad to obtain the services
+of Flemish lace-makers and to induce them to settle in England. It is
+from some such cause that the better 17th- and 18th-century English
+pillow laces bear resemblance to pillow laces of Brussels, of Mechlin
+and of Valenciennes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Border of English Pillow-made (Devonshire) Lace
+in the style of a Brussels design of the middle of the 18th century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37--Border of English (Bucks. or Beds.) Pillow-made
+Lace in the Style of a Mechlin design of the latter part of the 18th
+century.]
+
+As skill in the European lace-making developed soon after the middle of
+the 17th century, patterns and particular plaitings came to be
+identified with certain localities. Mechlin, for instance, enjoyed a
+high reputation for her productions. The chief technical features of
+this pillow lace lie in the plaiting of the meshes, and the outlining of
+the clothing or _toilé_ with a thread _cordonnet_. The ordinary Mechlin
+mesh is hexagonal in shape. Four of the sides are of double twisted
+threads, two are of four threads plaited three times (fig. 39).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38--Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, from a
+design similar to such as was used for point d'Alençon of the Louis XV.
+period.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Mechlin Mesh.]
+
+In Brussels pillow lace, which has greater variety of design, the mesh
+is also hexagonal; but in contrast with the Mechlin mesh whilst four of
+its sides are of double-twisted threads the other two are of four
+threads plaited four times (fig. 41). The finer specimens of Brussels
+lace are remarkable for the fidelity and grace with which the botanical
+forms in many of its patterns are rendered (Pl. VI. fig. 23). These are
+mainly reproductions or adaptations of designs for point d'Alençon, and
+the soft quality imparted to them in the texture of pillow-made lace
+contrasts with the harder and more crisp appearance in needlepoint
+lace. An example of dainty Brussels pillow lace is given in fig. 42. In
+the Brussels pillow lace a delicate modelling effect is often imparted
+to the close textures of the flowers by means of pressing them with a
+bone instrument which gives concave shapes to petals and leaves, the
+edges of which consist in part of slightly raised _cordonnet_ of compact
+plaited work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, end of the
+18th century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Enlargement of Brussels Mesh.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Portion of a Wedding Veil, 7 ft. 6 in. × 6 ft.
+6 in., of Pillow-made Lace, Brussels, late 18th century. The design
+consists of light leafy garlands of orange blossoms and other flowers
+daintily festooned. Little feathery spirals and stars are powdered over
+the ground, which is of Brussels _vrai réseau_. In the centre upon a
+more open ground of pillow-made hexagonal _brides_ is a group of two
+birds, one flying towards the other which appears ready to take wing
+from its nest; an oval frame containing two hearts pierced by an arrow,
+and a hymeneal torch. Throughout this veil is a profusion of pillow
+renderings of various _modes_, the _réseau rosacé_, star devices, &c.
+The ornamental devices are partly applied and partly worked into the
+ground (Victoria and Albert Museum).]
+
+Honiton pillow lace resembles Brussels lace, but in most of the English
+pillow laces (Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire) the _réseau_ is
+of a simple character (fig. 43). As a rule, English lace is made with a
+rather coarser thread than that used in the older Flemish laces. In real
+Flemish Valenciennes lace there are no twisted sides to the mesh; all
+are closely plaited (fig. 44) and as a rule the shape of the mesh is
+diamond but without the openings as shown in fig. 44. No outline or
+_cordonnet_ to define the pattern is used in Valenciennes lace (see fig.
+45). Much lace of the Valenciennes type (fig. 54) is made at Ypres.
+Besides these distinctive classes of pillow-like laces, there are others
+in which equal care in plaiting and twisting threads is displayed,
+though the character of the design is comparatively simple, as for
+instance in ordinary pillow laces from Italy, from the Auvergne, from
+Buckinghamshire, or rude and primitive as in laces from Crete, southern
+Spain and Russia. Pillow lace-making in Crete is now said to be extinct.
+The laces were made chiefly of silk. The patterns in many specimens are
+outlined with one, two or three bright-coloured silken threads.
+Uniformity in simple character of design may also be observed in many
+Italian, Spanish, Bohemian, Swedish and Russian pillow laces (see the
+lower edge of fig. 46).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Lappet of delicate Pillow-made Lace,
+Valenciennes, about 1750. The peculiarity of Valenciennes lace is the
+filmy cambric-like texture and the absence of any cordonnet to define
+the separate parts of the ornament such as is used in needlepoint lace
+of Alençon, and in pillow Mechlin and Brussels lace.]
+
+_Guipure._--This name is often applied to needlepoint and pillow laces
+in which the ground consists of ties or _brides_, but it more properly
+designates a kind of lace or "passementerie," made with gimp of fine
+wires whipped round with silk, and with cotton thread. An earlier kind
+of gimp was formed with "Cartisane," a little strip of thin parchment or
+vellum covered with silk, gold or silver thread. These stiff gimp
+threads, formed into a pattern, were held together by stitches worked
+with the needle. Gold and silver thread laces have been usually made on
+the pillow, though gold thread has been used with fine effect in
+17th-century Italian needlepoint laces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Border to a Cloth. The wide part bearing the
+double-headed eagle of Russia is of drawn thread embroidery: the
+scalloped edging is of Russian pillow-made lace, though the style of its
+pattern is often seen in pillow laces made by peasants in Danubian
+provinces as well as in the south of Spain.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Section of Lace Machine.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Machine-made Lace in imitation of 16th-century
+Needlepoint "Reticella" Lace.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Border of Machine-made Lace in the style of
+17th-century Pillow Guipure Lace.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Border of Machine-made Lace in imitation of
+17th-century Pillow Lace.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Machine-made Trimming Border in imitation of
+Irish Crochet Lace.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--A Piece of Hand-made Pillow Lace, Belgian
+(Ypres), 20th century. (The machine imitation is given in fig. 55.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Machine-made Lace in imitation of the Hand-made
+Specimen of fig. 54. (Nottingham, 20th century.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Small Borders (a) Hand-made and (b)
+Machine-made Lace Valenciennes. (Nottingham, 20th century.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Specimen of Hand-made Pillow Lace.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Specimen of Machine-made Lace in which the
+twisting and plaiting of the threads are identical with those of the
+hand-made specimen of fig. 57. (Nottingham, 20th century.)]
+
+_Machine-made Lace._--We have already seen that a technical peculiarity
+in making needlepoint lace is that a single thread and needle are alone
+used to form the pattern, and that the buttonhole stitch and other
+loopings which can be worked by means of a needle and thread mark a
+distinction between lace made in this manner and lace made on the
+pillow. For the process of pillow lace making a series of threads are in
+constant employment, plaited and twisted the one with another. A
+buttonhole stitch is not producible by it. The Leavers lace machine does
+not make either a buttonhole stitch or a plait. An essential principle
+of this machine-made work is that the threads are twisted together as in
+stocking net. The Leavers lace machine is that generally in use at
+Nottingham and Calais. French ingenuity has developed improvements in
+this machine whereby laces of delicate thread are made; but as fast as
+France makes an improvement England follows with another, and both
+countries virtually maintain an equal position in this branch of
+industry. The number of threads brought into operation in a Leavers
+machine is regulated by the pattern to be produced, the threads being of
+two sorts, beam or warp threads and bobbin or weft threads. Upwards of
+8880 are sometimes used, sixty pieces of lace being made simultaneously,
+each piece requiring 148 threads--100 beam threads and 48 bobbin
+threads. The ends of both sets of threads are fixed to a cylinder upon
+which as the manufacture proceeds the lace becomes wound. The supply of
+the beam or warp threads is held upon reels, and that of the bobbins or
+weft threads is held in bobbins. The beam or warp thread reels are
+arranged in frames or trays beneath the stage, above which and between
+it and the cylinder the twisting of the bobbin or weft with beam or warp
+threads takes place. The bobbins containing the bobbin or weft threads
+are flattened in shape so as to pass conveniently between the stretched
+beam or warp threads. Each bobbin can contain about 120 yds. of thread.
+By most ingenious mechanism varying degrees of tension can be imparted
+to warp and weft threads as required. As the bobbins or weft threads
+pass like pendulums between the warp threads the latter are made to
+oscillate, thus causing them to become twisted with the bobbin threads.
+As the twistings take place, combs passing through both warp and weft
+threads compress the twistings. Thus the texture of the clothing or
+_toilé_ in machine-made lace may generally be detected by its ribbed
+appearance, due to the compressed twisted threads. Figs. 47 and 48 are
+intended to show effects obtained by varying the tensions of weft and
+warp threads. For instance, if the weft, as threads b, b, b, b in fig.
+47, be tight and the warp thread slack, the warp thread a will be
+twisted upon the weft threads. But if the warp thread a be tight and the
+weft threads b, b, b, b, be slack, as in fig. 48, then the weft threads
+will be twisted on the warp thread. At the same time the twisting in
+both these cases arises from the conjunction of movements given to the
+two sets of threads, namely, an oscillation or movement from side to
+side of the beam or warp threads, and the swinging or pendulum-like
+movement of the bobbin or weft threads between the warp threads. Fig. 49
+is a diagram of a sectional elevation of a lace machine representing its
+more essential parts. E is the cylinder or beam upon which the lace is
+rolled as made, and upon which the ends of both warp and weft threads
+are fastened at starting. Beneath are w, w, w, a series of trays or
+beams, one above the other, containing the reels of the supplies of warp
+threads; c, c represent the slide bars for the passage of the bobbin b
+with its thread from k to k, the landing bars, one on each side of the
+rank of warp threads; s, t are the combs which take it in turns to press
+together the twistings as they are made. The combs come away clear from
+the threads as soon as they have pressed them together and fall into
+positions ready to perform their pressing operations again. The
+contrivances for giving each thread a particular tension and movement at
+a certain time are connected with an adaptation of the Jacquard system
+of pierced cards. The machine lace pattern drafter has to calculate how
+many holes shall be punched in a card, and to determine the position of
+such holes. Each hole regulates the mechanism for giving movement to a
+thread. Fig. 54 displays a piece of hand-made Valenciennes (Ypres) lace
+and fig. 55 a corresponding piece woven by the machine. The latter shows
+the advantage that can be gained by using very fine gauge machines, thus
+enabling a very close imitation of the real lace to be made by securing
+a very open and clear _réseau_ or net, such as would be made on a coarse
+machine, and at the same time to keep the pattern fine and solid and
+standing out well from the net, as is the case with the real lace, which
+cannot be done by using a coarse gauge machine. In this example the
+machine used is a 16 point (that is 32 carriages to the inch), and the
+ground is made half gauge, that is 8 point, and the weaving is made the
+full gauge of the machine, that is 16 point. Fig. 56 gives other
+examples of hand- and machine-made Valenciennes lace. The machine-made
+lace (b) imitating the real (a) is made on a 14-point machine (that is
+28 carriages to the inch), the ground being 7 point and the pattern
+being full gauge or 14 point. Although the principle in these examples
+of machine work is exactly the same, in so far that they use half gauge
+net and full gauge clothing to produce the contrast as mentioned above,
+the fabrication of these two examples is quite different, that in fig.
+55 being an example of tight bobbins or weft, and slack warp threads as
+shown in fig. 47. Whereas the example in fig. 56 is made with slack
+bobbins or weft threads and tight warp threads as in fig. 48. In fig. 57
+is a piece of hand-made lace of stout thread, very similar to much Cluny
+lace made in the Auvergne and to the Buckinghamshire "Maltese" lace.
+Close to it are specimens of lace (figs. 58 and 59) made by the new
+patent circular lace machine of Messrs Birkin of Nottingham. This
+machine although very slow in production actually reproduces the real
+lace, at a cost slightly below that of the hand-made lace. In another
+branch of lace-making by machinery, mechanical ingenuity, combined with
+chemical treatment, has led to surprising results (figs. 53 and 50).
+Swiss, German and other manufacturers use machines in which a principle
+of the sewing-machine is involved. A fine silken tissue is thereby
+enriched with an elaborately raised cotton or thread embroidery. The
+whole fabric is then treated with chemical mordants which, whilst
+dissolving the silky web, do not attack the cotton or thread embroidery.
+A relief embroidery possessing the appearance of hand-made raised
+needlepoint lace is thus produced. Figs. 60 and 61 give some idea of
+the high quality to which this admirable counterfeit has been brought.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Specimens of Machine-made Torchon Lace, in the
+same manner as such lace is made on the pillow by hand. (Nottingham,
+20th century.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Machine-made Lace of Modern Design.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Machine-made Lace in imitation of 17th-century
+Needlepoint Lace, "Gros point de Venise."]
+
+Collections of hand-made lace chiefly exist in museums and technical
+institutions, as for instance the Victoria and Albert Museum in London,
+the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris, and museums at Lyons, Nuremberg,
+Berlin, Turin and elsewhere. In such places the opportunity is presented
+of tracing in chronological sequence the stages of pattern and texture
+development.
+
+ _Literature._--The literature of the art of lace-making is
+ considerable. The series of 16th- and 17th-century lace pattern-books,
+ of which the more important are perhaps those by F. Vinciolo (Paris,
+ 1587), Cesare Vecellio (Venice, 1592), and Isabetta Catanea Parasole
+ (Venice, 1600), not to mention several kindred works of earlier and
+ later date published in Germany and the Netherlands, supplies a large
+ field for exploration. Signor Ongania of Venice published a limited
+ number of facsimiles of the majority of such works. M. Alvin of
+ Brussels issued a brochure in 1863 upon these patterns, and in the
+ same year the marquis Girolamo d'Adda contributed two bibliographical
+ essays upon the same subject to the _Gazette des Beaux-Arts_ (vol. xv.
+ p. 342 seq., and vol. xvii. p. 421 seq.). In 1864 Cavaliere A. Merli
+ wrote a pamphlet (with illustrations) entitled _Origine ed uso delle
+ trine a filo di rete_; Mons F. de Fertiault compiled a brief and
+ rather fanciful _Histoire de la dentelle_ in 1843, in which he
+ reproduced statements to be found in Diderot's _Encyclopédie_,
+ subsequently quoted by Roland de la Platière. The first _Report of the
+ Department of Practical Art_ (1853) contains a "Report on Cotton
+ Print Works and Lace-Making" by Octavius Hudson, and in the first
+ _Report of the Department of Science and Art_ are some "Observations
+ on Lace." Reports upon the International Exhibitions of 1851 (London)
+ and 1867 (Paris), by M. Aubry, Mrs Palliser and others contain
+ information concerning lace-making. The most important work first
+ issued upon the history of lace-making is that by Mrs Bury Palliser
+ (_History of Lace_, 1869). In this work the history is treated rather
+ from an antiquarian than a technical point of view; and wardrobe
+ accounts, inventories, state papers, fashionable journals, diaries,
+ plays, poems, have been laid under contribution with surprising
+ diligence. A new edition published in 1902 presents the work as
+ entirely revised, rewritten and enlarged under the editorship of M.
+ Jourdain and Alice Dryden. In 1875 the Arundel Society brought out
+ _Ancient Needlepoint and Pillow Lace_, a folio volume of permanently
+ printed photographs taken from some of the finest specimens of ancient
+ lace collected for the International Exhibition of 1874. These were
+ accompanied by a brief history of lace, written from the technical
+ aspect of the art, by Alan S. Cole. At the same time appeared a bulky
+ imperial 4to volume by Seguin, entitled _La Dentelle_, illustrated
+ with wood-cuts and fifty photo-typographical plates. Seguin divides
+ his work into four sections. The first is devoted to a sketch of the
+ origin of laces; the second deals with pillow laces, bibliography of
+ lace and a review of sumptuary edicts; the third relates to
+ needle-made lace; and the fourth contains an account of places where
+ lace has been and is made, remarks upon commerce in lace, and upon the
+ industry of lace makers. Without sufficient conclusive evidence Seguin
+ accords to France the palm for having excelled in producing
+ practically all the richer sorts of laces, notwithstanding that both
+ before and since the publication of his otherwise valuable work, many
+ types of them have been identified as being Italian in origin.
+ Descriptive catalogues are issued of the lace collections at South
+ Kensington Museum, at the Science and Art Museum, Dublin, and at the
+ Industrial Museum, Nuremberg. In 1881 a series of four Cantor Lectures
+ on the art of lace-making were delivered before the Society of Arts by
+ Alan S. Cole.
+
+ _A Technical History of the Manufacture of Venetian Laces_, by G. M.
+ Urbani de Gheltof, with plates, was translated by Lady Layard, and
+ published at Venice by Signor Ongania. The _History of Machine-wrought
+ Hosiery and Lace Manufacture_ (London, 1867), by Felkin, has already
+ been referred to. There is also a technological essay upon lace made
+ by machinery, with diagrams of lace stitches and patterns
+ (_Technologische Studien im sächsischen Erzgebirge_, Leipzig, 1878),
+ by Hugo Fischer. In 1886 the Libraire Renouard, Paris, published a
+ _History of Point d'Alençon_, written by Madame G. Despierres, which
+ gives a close and interesting account of the industry, together with a
+ list, compiled from local records, of makers and dealers from 1602
+ onwards.--_Embroidery and Lace: their manufacture and history from the
+ remotest antiquity to the present day_, by Ernest Lefebure, lace-maker
+ and administrator of the École des Arts Décoratifs, translated and
+ enlarged with notes by Alan S. Cole, was published in London in 1888.
+ It is a well-illustrated handbook for amateurs, collectors and general
+ readers.--Irish laces made from modern designs are illustrated in a
+ _Renascence of the Irish Art of Lace-making_, published in 1888
+ (London).--_Anciennes Dentelles belges formant la collection de feue
+ madame Augusta Baronne Liedts et données au Musée de Grunthuis à
+ Bruges_, published at Antwerp in 1889, consists of a folio volume
+ containing upwards of 181 phototypes--many full size--of fine
+ specimens of lace. The ascriptions of country and date of origin are
+ occasionally inaccurate, on account of a too obvious desire to credit
+ Bruges with being the birthplace of all sorts of lace-work, much of
+ which shown in this work is distinctly Italian in style.--The
+ _Encyclopaedia of Needlework_, by Thérèse de Dillmont-Dornach (Alsace,
+ 1891), is a detailed guide to several kinds of embroidery, knitting,
+ crochet, tatting, netting and most of the essential stitches for
+ needlepoint lace. It is well illustrated with wood-cuts and process
+ blocks.--An exhaustive history of Russian lace-making is given in _La
+ Dentelle russe_, by Madame Sophie Davidoff, published at Leipzig,
+ 1895. Russian lace is principally pillow-work with rather heavy
+ thread, and upwards of eighty specimens are reproduced by
+ photo-lithography in this book.
+
+ A short account of the best-known varieties of _Point and Pillow
+ Lace_, by A. M. S. (London, 1899), is illustrated with typical
+ specimens of Italian, Flemish, French and English laces, as well as
+ with magnified details of lace, enabling any one to identify the
+ plaits, the twists and loops of threads in the actual making of the
+ fabric.--_L'Industrie des tulles et dentelles mécaniques dans le
+ Pas de Calais_, 1815-1900, by Henri Hénon (Paris, 1900), is an
+ important volume of over 600 pages of letterpress, interspersed with
+ abundant process blocks of the several kinds of machine nets and laces
+ made at Calais since 1815. It opens with a short account of the Arras
+ hand-made laces, the production of which is now almost extinct. The
+ book was sold for the benefit of a public subscription towards the
+ erection of a statue in Calais to Jacquard, the inventor of the
+ apparatus by means of which all figured textile fabrics are
+ manufactured. It is of some interest to note that machine net and
+ lace-making at Calais owe their origin to Englishmen, amongst whom "le
+ sieur R. Webster arrivé à St Pierre-les-Calais en Décembre, 1816,
+ venant d'Angleterre, est l'un des premiers qui ont établi dans la
+ communauté une fabrique de tulles," &c. _Lace-making in the Midlands:
+ Past and Present_, by C. C. Channer and M. E. Roberts (London, 1900)
+ upon the lace-making industry in Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and
+ Northamptonshire contains many illustrations of laces made in these
+ counties from the 17th century to the present time. _Musée
+ rétrospectif. Dentelles à l'exposition universelle internationale de
+ 1900 à Paris. Rapport de Mons. E. Lefebvre_ contains several good
+ illustrations, especially of important specimens of Point de France of
+ the 17th and 18th centuries. _Le Point de France et les autres
+ dentelliers au XVII^e et au XVIII^e siècles_, by Madame Laurence de
+ Laprade (Paris, 1905), brings together much hitherto scattered
+ information throwing light upon operations in many localities in
+ France where the industry has been carried on for considerable
+ periods. The book is well and usefully illustrated.
+
+ See also _Irische Spitzen_ (30 half-tone plates), with a short
+ historical introduction by Alan S. Cole (Stuttgart, 1902); _Pillow
+ Lace_, a practical handbook by Elizabeth Mincoff and Margaret S.
+ Marriage (London, 1907); _The Art of Bobbin Lace_, a practical
+ text-book of workmanship, &c., by Louisa Tebbs (London, 1907);
+ _Antiche trine italiane_, by Elisa Ricci (Bergamo, 1908), well
+ illustrated; _Seven Centuries of Lace_, by Mrs John Hungerford Pollen
+ (London and New York, 1908), very fully illustrated. (A. S. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+ [1] The prevalence of fashion in the above-mentioned sorts of
+ embroidery during the 16th century is marked by the number of
+ pattern-books then published. In Venice a work of this class was
+ issued by Alessandro Pagannino in 1527; another of a similar nature,
+ printed by Pierre Quinty, appeared in the same year at Cologne; and
+ La _Fleur de la science de pourtraicture et patrons de broderie,
+ façon arabicque et ytalique_, was published at Paris in 1530. From
+ these early dates until the beginning of the 17th century
+ pattern-books for embroidery in Italy, France, Germany and England
+ were published in great abundance. The designs contained in many of
+ those dating from the early 16th century were to be worked for
+ costumes and hangings, and consisted of scrolls, arabesques, birds,
+ animals, flowers, foliage, herbs and grasses. So far, however, as
+ their reproduction as laces might be concerned, the execution of
+ complicated work was involved which none but practised lace-workers,
+ such as those who arose a century later, could be expected to
+ undertake.
+
+ [2] A very complete account of how these conditions began and
+ developed at Alençon, for instance, is given in Madame Despierre's
+ _Histoire du Point d'Alençon_ (1886) to which is appended an
+ interesting and annotated list of merchants, designers and makers of
+ Point d'Alençon.
+
+ [3] _E.g._ The family of Camusat at Alençon from 1602 until 1795.
+
+ [4] The picture, however, as Seguin has pointed out, was probably
+ painted some thirty years later, and by Jean Matsys.
+
+ [5] See the poetical skit _Révolte des passements et broderies_,
+ written by Mademoiselle de la Tousse, cousin of Madame de Sévigné, in
+ the middle of the 17th century, which marks the favour which foreign
+ laces at that time commanded amongst the leaders of French fashion.
+ It is fairly evident too that the French laces themselves, known as
+ "bisette," "gueuse," "campane" and "mignonette," were small and
+ comparatively insignificant works, without pretence to design.
+
+ [6] Useful information has been communicated to the writer of the
+ present article on lace by Mrs B. Wishaw of Seville.
+
+ [7] See Felkin's _Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures_.
+
+ [8] After 1650 the lace-workers at Alençon and its neighbourhood
+ produced work of a daintier kind than that which was being made by
+ the Venetians. As a rule the hexagonal _bride_ grounds of Alençon
+ laces are smaller than similar details in Venetian laces. The average
+ size of a diagonal taken from angle to angle in an Alençon (or
+ so-called Argentan) hexagon was about one-sixth of an inch, and each
+ side of the hexagon was about one-tenth of an inch. An idea of the
+ minuteness of the work can be formed from the fact that a side of a
+ hexagon would be overcast with some nine or ten buttonhole stitches.
+
+
+
+
+LACE-BARK TREE, a native of Jamaica, known botanically as _Lagetta
+lintearia_, from its native name lagetto. The inner bark consists of
+numerous concentric layers of interlacing fibres resembling in
+appearance lace. Collars and other articles of apparel have been made of
+the fibre, which is also used in the manufacture of whips, &c. The tree
+belongs to the natural order Thymelaeaceae, and is grown in hothouses in
+Britain.
+
+
+
+
+LACEDAEMON, in historical times an alternative name of LACONIA (q.v.).
+Homer uses only the former, and in some passages seems to denote by it
+the Achaean citadel, the Therapnae of later times, in contrast to the
+lower town Sparta (G. Gilbert, _Studien zur altspartanischen
+Geschichte_, Göttingen, 1872, p. 34 foll.). It is described by the
+epithets [Greek: koilê] (hollow) and [Greek: kêtôessa] (spacious or
+hollow), and is probably connected etymologically with [Greek: lakkos],
+_lacus_, any hollow place. Lacedaemon is now the name of a separate
+department, which had in 1907 a population of 87,106.
+
+
+
+
+LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ÉTIENNE DE LA VILLE, COMTE DE (1756-1825),
+French naturalist, was born at Agen in Guienne on the 26th of December
+1756. His education was carefully conducted by his father, and the early
+perusal of Buffon's _Natural History_ awakened his interest in that
+branch of study, which absorbed his chief attention. His leisure he
+devoted to music, in which, besides becoming a good performer on the
+piano and organ, he acquired considerable mastery of composition, two of
+his operas (which were never published) meeting with the high approval
+of Gluck; in 1781-1785 he also brought out in two volumes his _Poétique
+de la musique_. Meantime he wrote two treaties, _Essai sur
+l'électricité_ (1781) and _Physique générale et particulière_
+(1782-1784), which gained him the friendship of Buffon, who in 1785
+appointed him subdemonstrator in the Jardin du Roi, and proposed to him
+to become the continuator of his _Histoire naturelle_. This continuation
+was published under the titles _Histoire des quadrupèdes ovipares et des
+serpents_ (2 vols., 1788-1789) and _Histoire naturelle des reptiles_
+(1789). After the Revolution Lacépède became a member of the legislative
+assembly, but during the Reign of Terror he left Paris, his life having
+become endangered by his disapproval of the massacres. When the Jardin
+du Roi was reorganized as the Jardin des Plantes, Lacépède was appointed
+to the chair allocated to the study of reptiles and fishes. In 1798 he
+published the first volume of _Histoire naturelle des poissons_, the
+fifth volume appearing in 1803; and in 1804 appeared his _Histoire des
+cétacés_. From this period till his death the part he took in politics
+prevented him making any further contribution of importance to science.
+In 1799 he became a senator, in 1801 president of the senate, in 1803
+grand chancellor of the legion of honour, in 1804 minister of state, and
+at the Restoration in 1819 he was created a peer of France. He died at
+Épinay on the 6th of October 1825. During the latter part of his life he
+wrote _Histoire générale physique et civile de l'Europe_, published
+posthumously in 18 vols., 1826.
+
+ A collected edition of his works on natural history was published in
+ 1826.
+
+
+
+
+LACEWING-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of the families
+_Hemerobiidae_ and _Chrysopidae_, related to the ant-lions,
+scorpion-flies, &c., with long filiform antennae, longish bodies and two
+pairs of large similar richly veined wings. The larvae are short grubs
+beset with hair-tufts and tubercles. They feed upon _Aphidae_ or "green
+fly" and cover themselves with the emptied skins of their prey.
+Lacewing-flies of the genus _Chrysopa_ are commonly called golden-eye
+flies.
+
+
+
+
+LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE (1624-1709), father confessor of Louis XIV., was
+born at the château of Aix in Forey on the 25th of August 1624, being
+the son of Georges d'Aix, seigneur de la Chaise, and of Renée de
+Rochefort. On his mother's side he was a grandnephew of Père Coton, the
+confessor of Henry IV. He became a novice of the Society of Jesus before
+completing his studies at the university of Lyons, where, after taking
+the final vows, he lectured on philosophy to students attracted by his
+fame from all parts of France. Through the influence of Camille de
+Villeroy, archbishop of Lyons, Père de la Chaise was nominated in 1674
+confessor of Louis XIV., who intrusted him during the lifetime of Harlay
+de Champvallon, archbishop of Paris, with the administration of the
+ecclesiastical patronage of the crown. The confessor united his
+influence with that of Madame de Maintenon to induce the king to abandon
+his liaison with Madame de Montespan. More than once at Easter he is
+said to have had a convenient illness which dispensed him from granting
+absolution to Louis XIV. With the fall of Madame de Montespan and the
+ascendancy of Madame de Maintenon his influence vastly increased. The
+marriage between Louis XIV. and Madame de Maintenon was celebrated in
+his presence at Versailles, but there is no reason for supposing that
+the subsequent coolness between him and Madame de Maintenon arose from
+his insistence on secrecy in this matter. During the long strife over
+the temporalities of the Gallican Church between Louis XIV. and Innocent
+XI. Père de la Chaise supported the royal prerogative, though he used
+his influence at Rome to conciliate the papal authorities. He must be
+held largely responsible for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but
+not for the brutal measures applied against the Protestants. He
+exercised a moderating influence on Louis XIV.'s zeal against the
+Jansenists, and Saint-Simon, who was opposed to him in most matters,
+does full justice to his humane and honourable character. Père de la
+Chaise had a lasting and unalterable affection for Fénelon, which
+remained unchanged by the papal condemnation of the _Maximes_. In spite
+of failing faculties he continued his duties as confessor to Louis XIV.
+to the end of his long life. He died on the 20th of January 1709. The
+cemetery of Père-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired by the
+Jesuits in 1826, and not, as is often stated, on property personally
+granted to him.
+
+ See R. Chantelauze, _Le Père de la Chaize. Études d'histoire
+ religieuse_ (Paris and Lyons, 1859).
+
+
+
+
+LA CHAISE-DIEU, a town of central France, in the department of Haute
+Loire, 29 m. N.N.W. of Le Puy by rail. Pop. (1906) 1203. The town, which
+is situated among fir and pine woods, 3500 ft. above the sea, preserves
+remains of its ramparts and some houses of the 14th and 15th centuries,
+but owes its celebrity to a church, which, after the cathedral of
+Clermont-Ferrand, is the most remarkable Gothic building in Auvergne.
+The west façade, approached by a flight of steps, is flanked by two
+massive towers. The nave and aisles are of equal height and are
+separated from the choir by a stone rood screen. The choir, terminating
+in an apse with radiating chapel, contains the fine tomb and statue of
+Clement VI., carved stalls and some admirable Flemish tapestries of the
+early 16th century. There is a ruined cloister on the south side. The
+church, which dates from the 14th century, was built at the expense of
+Pope Clement VI., and belonged to a powerful Benedictine abbey founded
+in 1043. There are spacious monastic buildings of the 18th century. The
+abbey was formerly defended by fortifications, the chief survival of
+which is a lofty rectangular keep to the south of the choir. Trade in
+timber and the making of lace chiefly occupy the inhabitants of the
+town.
+
+
+
+
+LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENÉ DE CARADEUC DE (1701-1785), French jurist, was
+born at Rennes, on the 6th of March 1701. He was for 60 years procureur
+général at the parliament of Brittany. He was an ardent opponent of the
+Jesuits; drew up in 1761 for the parliament a memoir on the
+constitutions of the Order, which did much to secure its suppression in
+France; and in 1763 published a remarkable "Essay on National
+Education," in which he proposed a programme of scientific studies as a
+substitute for those taught by the Jesuits. The same year began the
+conflict between the Estates of Brittany and the governor of the
+province, the duc d'Aiguillon (q.v.). The Estates refused to vote the
+extraordinary imposts demanded by the governor in the name of the king.
+La Chalotais was the personal enemy of d'Aiguillon, who had served him
+an ill turn with the king, and when the parliament of Brittany sided
+with the Estates, he took the lead in its opposition. The parliament
+forbade by decrees the levy of imposts to which the Estates had not
+consented. The king annulling these decrees, all the members of the
+parliament but twelve resigned (October 1764 to May 1765). The
+government considered La Chalotais one of the authors of this affair. At
+this time the secretary of state who administered the affairs of the
+province, Louis Philypeaux, duc de la Vrillière, comte de
+Saint-Florentin (1705-1777), received two anonymous and abusive letters.
+La Chalotais was suspected of having written them, and three experts in
+handwriting declared that they were by him. The government therefore
+arrested him, his son and four other members of the parliament. The
+arrest made a great sensation. There was much talk of "despotism."
+Voltaire stated that the procureur général, in his prison of Saint Malo,
+was reduced, for lack of ink, to write his defence with a toothpick
+dipped in vinegar--which was apparently pure legend; but public opinion
+all over France was strongly aroused against the government. On the 16th
+of November 1765 a commission of judges was named to take charge of the
+trial. La Chalotais maintained that the trial was illegal; being
+procureur général he claimed the right to be judged by the parliament of
+Rennes, or failing this by the parliament of Bordeaux, according to the
+custom of the province. The judges did not dare to pronounce a
+condemnation on the evidence of experts in handwriting, and at the end
+of a year, things remained where they were at the first. Louis XV. then
+decided on a sovereign act, and brought the affair before his council,
+which without further formality decided to send the accused into exile.
+That expedient but increased the popular agitation; _philosophes_,
+members of the parliament, patriot Bretons and Jansenists all declared
+that La Chalotais was the victim of the personal hatred of the duc
+d'Aiguillon and of the Jesuits. The government at last gave way, and
+consented to recall the members of the parliament of Brittany who had
+resigned. This parliament, when it met again, after the formal
+accusation of the duc d'Aiguillon, demanded the recall of La Chalotais.
+This was accorded in 1775, and La Chalotais was allowed to transmit his
+office to his son. In this affair public opinion showed itself stronger
+than the absolutism of the king. The opposition to the royal power
+gained largely through it, and it may be regarded as one of the preludes
+to the revolution of 1789. La Chalotais, who was personally a violent,
+haughty and unsympathetic character, died at Rennes on the 12th of July
+1785.
+
+ See, besides the _Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jésuites_ and
+ the _Essai d'éducation nationale_, the _Mémoires de la Chalotais_ (3
+ vols., 1766-1767). Two works containing detailed bibliographies are
+ Marion, _La Bretagne et le duc d'Aiguillon_ (Paris, 1893), and B.
+ Pocquet, _Le Duc d'Aiguillon et La Chalotais_ (Paris, 1901). See also
+ a controversy between these two authors in the _Bulletin critique_ for
+ 1902.
+
+
+
+
+LA CHARITÉ, a town of central France in the department of Nièvre, on the
+right bank of the Loire, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nevers on the
+Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906) 3990. La Charité possesses
+the remains of a fine Romanesque basilica, the church of Sainte-Croix,
+dating from the 11th and early 12th centuries. The plan consists of a
+nave, rebuilt at the end of the 17th century, transept and choir with
+ambulatory and side chapels. Surmounting the transept is an octagonal
+tower of one story, and a square Romanesque tower of much beauty flanks
+the main portal. There are ruins of the ramparts, which date from the
+14th century. The manufacture of hosiery, boots and shoes, files and
+iron goods, lime and cement and woollen and other fabrics are among the
+industries; trade is chiefly in wood and iron.
+
+ La Charité owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in the
+ 8th century and reorganized as a dependency of the abbey of Cluny in
+ 1052. It became the parent of many priories and monasteries, some of
+ them in England and Italy. The possession of the town was hotly
+ contested during the wars of religion of the 16th century, at the end
+ of which its fortifications were dismantled.
+
+
+
+
+LA CHAUSSÉE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE (1692-1754), French dramatist, was
+born in Paris in 1692. In 1731 he published an _Épître à Clio_, a
+didactic poem in defence of Lériget de la Faye in his dispute with
+Antoine Houdart de la Motte, who had maintained that verse was useless
+in tragedy. La Chaussée was forty years old before he produced his first
+play, _La Fausse Antipathie_ (1734). His second play, _Le Préjugé à la
+mode_ (1735) turns on the fear of incurring ridicule felt by a man in
+love with his own wife, a prejudice dispelled in France, according to La
+Harpe, by La Chaussée's comedy. _L'École des amis_ (1737) followed, and,
+after an unsuccessful attempt at tragedy in _Maximinien_, he returned to
+comedy in _Mélanide_ (1741). In _Mélanide_ the type known as _comédie
+larmoyante_ is fully developed. Comedy was no longer to provoke
+laughter, but tears. The innovation consisted in destroying the sharp
+distinction then existing between tragedy and comedy in French
+literature. Indications of this change had been already offered in the
+work of Marivaux, and La Chaussée's plays led naturally to the domestic
+drama of Diderot and of Sedaine. The new method found bitter enemies.
+Alexis Piron nicknames the author "_le Révérend Père Chaussée_," and
+ridiculed him in one of his most famous epigrams. Voltaire maintained
+that the _comédie larmoyante_ was a proof of the inability of the author
+to produce either of the recognized kinds of drama, though he himself
+produced a play of similar character in _L'Enfant prodigue_. The
+hostility of the critics did not prevent the public from shedding tears
+nightly over the sorrows of La Chaussée's heroine. _L'École des mères_
+(1744) and _La Gouvernante_ (1747) form, with those already mentioned,
+the best of his work. The strict moral aims pursued by La Chaussée in
+his plays seem hardly consistent with his private preferences. He
+frequented the same gay society as did the comte de Caylus and
+contributed to the _Recueils de ces messieurs_. La Chaussée died on the
+14th of May 1754. Villemain said of his style that he wrote prosaic
+verses with purity, while Voltaire, usually an adverse critic of his
+work, said he was "_un des premiers après ceux qui ont du génie_."
+
+ For the _comédie larmoyante_ see G. Lanson, _Nivelle de la Chaussée et
+ la comédie larmoyante_ (1887).
+
+
+
+
+LACHES (from Anglo-French _lachesse_, negligence, from _lasche_, modern
+_lâche_, unloosed, slack), a term for slackness or negligence, used
+particularly in law to signify negligence on the part of a person in
+doing that which he is by law bound to do, or unreasonable lapse of time
+in asserting a right, seeking relief, or claiming a privilege. Laches is
+frequently a bar to a remedy which might have been had if prosecuted in
+proper time. Statutes of limitation specify the time within which
+various classes of actions may be brought. Apart from statutes of
+limitation courts of equity will often refuse relief to those who have
+allowed unreasonable time to elapse in seeking it, on the principle
+_vigilantibus ac non dormientibus jura subveniunt_.
+
+
+
+
+LACHINE, an incorporated town in Jacques Cartier county, Quebec, Canada,
+8 m. W. of Montreal, on Lake St Louis, an expansion of the St Lawrence
+river, and at the upper end of the Lachine canal. Pop. (1901) 5561. It
+is a station on the Grand Trunk railway and a port of call for steamers
+plying between Montreal and the Great Lakes. It is a favourite summer
+resort for the people of Montreal. It was named in 1669 in mockery of
+its then owner, Robert Cavelier de la Salle (1643-1687), who dreamed of
+a westward passage to China. In 1689 it was the scene of a terrible
+massacre of the French by the Iroquois.
+
+
+
+
+LACHISH, a town of great importance in S. Palestine, often mentioned in
+the Tell el-Amarna tablets. It was destroyed by Joshua for joining the
+league against the Gibeonites (Joshua x. 31-33) and assigned to the
+tribe of Judah (xv. 39). Rehoboam fortified it (2 Chron. xi. 9). King
+Amaziah having fled hither, was here murdered by conspirators (2 Kings
+xiv. 19). Sennacherib here conducted a campaign (2 Kings xviii. 13)
+during which Hezekiah endeavoured to make terms with him: the campaign
+is commemorated by bas-reliefs found in Nineveh, now in the British
+Museum (see G. Smith's _History of Sennacherib_, p. 69). It was one of
+the last cities that resisted Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xxxiv. 7). The
+meaning of Micah's denunciation (i. 13) of the city is unknown. The
+_Onomasticon_ places it 7 m. from Eleutheropolis on the S. road, which
+agrees with the generally received identification, Tell el-Hesi, an
+important mound excavated for the Palestine Exploration Fund by Petrie
+and Bliss, 1890-1893. The name is preserved in a small Roman site in the
+neighbourhood, Umm Lakis, which probably represents a later
+dwelling-place of the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the
+city.
+
+ See W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Tell el-Hesy_, and F. J. Bliss, _A Mound
+ of many Cities_, both published by the Palestine Exploration Fund.
+ (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1793-1851), German philologist
+and critic, was born at Brunswick on the 4th of March 1793. He studied at
+Leipzig and Göttingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies.
+In 1815 he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer _chasseur_ and
+accompanied his detachment to Paris, but did not encounter the enemy. In
+1816 he became an assistant master in the Friedrich Werder gymnasium at
+Berlin, and a _privat-docent_ at the university. The same summer he
+became one of the principal masters in the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of
+Königsberg, where he assisted his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl
+Köpke (1785-1865) with his edition of Rudolf von Ems' _Barlaam und
+Josaphat_ (1818), and also assisted his friend in a contemplated edition
+of the works of Walther von der Vogelweide. In January 1818 he became
+professor extraordinarius of classical philology in the university of
+Königsberg, and at the same time began to lecture on Old German grammar
+and the Middle High German poets. He devoted himself during the following
+seven years to an extraordinarily minute study of those subjects, and in
+1824 obtained leave of absence in order that he might search the
+libraries of middle and south Germany for further materials. In 1825
+Lachmann was nominated extraordinary professor of classical and German
+philology in the university of Berlin (ordinary professor 1827); and in
+1830 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences. The remainder
+of his laborious and fruitful life as an author and a teacher was
+uneventful. He died on the 13th of March 1851.
+
+ Lachmann, who was the translator of the first volume of P. E. Müller's
+ _Sagabibliothek des skandinavischen Altertums_ (1816), is a figure of
+ considerable importance in the history of German philology (see Rudolf
+ von Raumer, _Geschichte der germanischen Philologie_, 1870). In his
+ "Habilitationsschrift" _Über die ursprüngliche Gestalt des Gedichts
+ der Nibelunge Not_ (1816), and still more in his review of Hagen's
+ _Nibelungen_ and Benecke's _Bonerius_, contributed in 1817 to the
+ _Jenaische Literaturzeitung_ he had already laid down the rules of
+ textual criticism and elucidated the phonetic and metrical principles
+ of Middle High German in a manner which marked a distinct advance in
+ that branch of investigation. The rigidly scientific character of his
+ method becomes increasingly apparent in the _Auswahl aus den
+ hochdeutschen Dichtern des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts_ (1820), in the
+ edition of Hartmann's _Iwein_ (1827), in those of Walther von der
+ Vogelweide (1827) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (1833), in the papers
+ "Über das Hildebrandslied," "Über althochdeutsche Betonung und
+ Verskunst," "Über den Eingang des Parzivals," and "Über drei
+ Bruchstücke niederrheinischer Gedichte" published in the
+ _Abhandlungen_ of the Berlin Academy, and in _Der Nibelunge Not und
+ die Klage_ (1826, 11th ed., 1892), which was followed by a critical
+ commentary in 1836. Lachmann's _Betrachtungen über Homer's Ilias_,
+ first published in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Berlin Academy in 1837
+ and 1841, in which he sought to show that the _Iliad_ consists of
+ sixteen independent "lays" variously enlarged and interpolated, have
+ had considerable influence on modern Homeric criticism (see HOMER),
+ although his views are no longer accepted. His smaller edition of the
+ New Testament appeared in 1831, 3rd ed. 1846; the larger, in two
+ volumes, in 1842-1850. The plan of Lachmann's edition, explained by
+ himself in the _Stud. u. Krit._ of 1830, is a modification of the
+ unaccomplished project of Bentley. It seeks to restore the most
+ ancient reading current in Eastern MSS., using the consent of the
+ Latin authorities (Old Latin and Greek Western Uncials) as the main
+ proof of antiquity of a reading where the oldest Eastern authorities
+ differ. Besides _Propertius_ (1816), Lachmann edited _Catullus_
+ (1829); _Tibullus_ (1829); _Genesius_ (1834); _Terentianus Maurus_
+ (1836); _Babrius_ (1845); _Avianus_ (1845); _Gaius_ (1841-1842); the
+ _Agrimensores Romani_ (1848-1852); _Lucilius_ (edited after his death
+ by Vahlen, 1876); and _Lucretius_ (1850). The last, which was the main
+ occupation of the closing years of his life, from 1845, was perhaps
+ his greatest achievement, and has been characterized by Munro as "a
+ work which will be a landmark for scholars as long as the Latin
+ language continues to be studied." Lachmann also translated
+ Shakespeare's sonnets (1820) and _Macbeth_ (1829).
+
+ See M. Hertz, _Karl Lachmann, eine Biographie_ (1851), where a full
+ list of Lachmann's works is given; F. Leo, _Rede zur Säcularfeier K.
+ Lachmanns_ (1893); J. Grimm, biography in _Kleine Schriften_; W.
+ Scherer in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xvii., and J. E. Sandys,
+ _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. (1908), pp. 127-131.
+
+
+
+
+LACINIUM, PROMUNTURIUM (mod. Capo delle Colonne), 7 m S.E. of Crotona
+(mod. Cotrone); the easternmost point of Bruttii (mod. Calabria). On the
+cape still stands a single column of the temple erected to Hera Lacinia,
+which is said to have been fairly complete in the 16th century, but to
+have been destroyed to build the episcopal palace at Cotrone. It is a
+Doric column with capital, about 27 ft. in height. Remains of marble
+roof-tiles have been seen on the spot (Livy xlii. 3) and architectural
+fragments were excavated in 1886-1887 by the Archaeological Institute of
+America. The sculptures found were mostly buried again, but a few
+fragments, some decorative terra-cottas and a dedicatory inscription to
+Hera of the 6th century B.C., in private possession at Cotrone, are
+described by F. von Duhn in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1897, 343 seq. The
+date of the erection of the temple may be given as 480-440 B.C.; it is
+not recorded by any ancient writer.
+
+ See R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, _Die griechischen Tempel in
+ Unteritalien und Sicilien_ (Berlin 1899, 41).
+
+
+
+
+LA CIOTAT, a coast town of south-eastern France in the department of
+Bouches-du-Rhône, on the west shore of the Bay of La Ciotat, 26 m. S.E.
+of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,562. The port is easily accessible
+and well sheltered. The large shipbuilding yards and repairing docks of
+the Messageries Maritimes Company give employment to between 2000 and
+3000 workmen. Fishing and an active coasting trade are carried on; the
+town is frequented for sea-bathing. La Ciotat was in ancient times the
+port of the neighbouring town of _Citharista_ (now the village of
+Ceyreste).
+
+
+
+
+LA CLOCHE, JAMES DE ["Prince James Stuart"] (1644?-1669), a character
+who was brought into the history of England by Lord Acton in 1862 (_Home
+and Foreign Review_, i. 146-174: "The Secret History of Charles II.").
+From information discovered by Father Boero in the archives of the
+Jesuits in Rome, Lord Acton averred that Charles II., when a lad at
+Jersey, had a natural son, James. The evidence follows. On the 2nd of
+April 1668, as the register of the Jesuit House of Novices at Rome
+attests, "there entered Jacobus de la Cloche." His baggage was exiguous,
+his attire was clerical. He is described as "from the island of Jersey,
+under the king of England, aged 24." He possessed two documents in
+French, purporting to have been written by Charles II. at Whitehall, on
+the 25th of September 1665, and on the 7th of February 1667. In both
+Charles acknowledges James to be his natural son, he styles him "James
+de la Cloche de Bourg du Jersey," and avers that to recognize him
+publicly "would imperil the peace of the kingdoms"--why is not apparent.
+A third certificate of birth, in Latin, undated, was from Christina of
+Sweden, who declares that James, previously a Protestant, has been
+received into the church of Rome at Hamburg (where in 1667-1668 she was
+residing) on the 29th of July 1667. The next paper purports to be a
+letter from Charles II. of August 3/13 to Oliva, general of the Jesuits.
+The king writes, in French, that he has long wished to be secretly
+received into the church. He therefore desires that James, his son by a
+young lady "of the highest quality," and born to him when he was about
+sixteen, should be ordained a priest, come to England and receive him.
+Charles alludes to previous attempts of his own to be secretly admitted
+(1662). James must be sent secretly to London at once, and Oliva must
+say nothing to Christina of Sweden (then meditating a journey to Rome),
+and must never write to Charles except when James carries the letter.
+Charles next writes on August 29/September 9. He is most anxious that
+Christina should not meet James; if she knows Charles's design of
+changing his creed she will not keep it secret, and Charles will
+infallibly lose his life. With this letter there is another, written
+when the first had been sealed. Charles insists that James must not be
+accompanied, as novices were, when travelling, by a Jesuit socius or
+guardian. Charles's wife and mother have just heard that this is the
+rule, but the rule must be broken. James, who is to travel as "Henri de
+Rohan," must not come by way of France. Oliva will supply him with
+funds. On the back of this letter Oliva has written the draft of his
+brief reply to Charles (from Leghorn, October 14, 1668). He merely says
+that the bearer, a French gentleman (James spoke only French), will
+inform the king that his orders have been executed. Besides these two
+letters is one from Charles to James, of date August 4/14. It is
+addressed to "Le Prince Stuart," though none of Charles's bastards was
+allowed to bear the Stuart name. James is told that he may desert the
+clerical profession if he pleases. In that case "you may claim higher
+titles from us than the duke of Monmouth." (There was no higher title
+save prince of Wales!) If Charles and his brother, the duke of York, die
+childless, "the kingdoms belong to you, and parliament cannot legally
+oppose you, unless as, at present, they can only elect Protestant
+kings." This letter ought to have opened the eyes of Lord Acton and
+other historians who accept the myth of James de la Cloche. Charles knew
+that the crown of England was not elective, that there was no Exclusion
+Act, and that there were legal heirs if he and his brother died without
+issue. The last letter of Charles is dated November 18/28, and purports
+to have been brought from England to Oliva by James de la Cloche on his
+return to Rome. It reveals the fact that Oliva, despite Charles's
+orders, did send James by way of France, with a _socius_ or guardian
+whom he was to pick up in France on his return to England. Charles says
+that James is to communicate certain matters to Oliva, and come back at
+once. Oliva is to give James all the money he needs, and Charles will
+later make an ample donation to the Jesuits. He acknowledges a debt to
+Oliva of £800, to be paid in six months. The reader will remark that the
+king has never paid a penny to James or to Oliva, and that Oliva has
+never communicated directly with Charles. The truth is that all of
+Charles's letters are forgeries. This is certain because in all he
+writes frequently as if his mother, Henrietta Maria, were in London, and
+constantly in company with him. Now she had left England for France in
+1665, and to England she never returned. As the letters--including that
+to "Prince Stuart"--are all forged, it is clear that de la Cloche was an
+impostor. His aim had been to get money from Oliva, and to pretend to
+travel to England, meaning to enjoy himself. He did not quite succeed,
+for Oliva sent a socius with him into France. His precautions to avoid a
+meeting with Christina of Sweden were necessary. She knew no more of him
+than did Charles, and would have exposed him.
+
+The name of James de la Cloche appears no more in documents. He reached
+Rome in December 1668, and in January a person calling himself "Prince
+James Stuart" appears in Naples, accompanied by a _socius_ styling
+himself a French knight of Malta. Both are on their way to England, but
+Prince James falls ill and stays in Naples, while his companion departs.
+The knight of Malta may be a Jesuit. In Naples, Prince James marries a
+girl of no position, and is arrested on suspicion of being a coiner. To
+his confessors (he had two in succession) he says that he is a son of
+Charles II. Our sources are the despatches of Kent, the English agent at
+Naples, and the _Lettere_, vol. iii., of Vincenzo Armanni (1674), who
+had his information from one of the confessors of the "Prince." The
+viceroy of Naples communicated with Charles II., who disowned the
+impostor; Prince James, however, was released, and died at Naples in
+August 1669, leaving a wild will, in which he claims for his son, still
+unborn, the "apanage" of Monmouth or Wales, "which it is usual to bestow
+on natural sons of the king." The son lived till about 1750, a penniless
+pretender, and writer of begging letters.
+
+It is needless to pursue Lord Acton's conjectures about later mysterious
+appearances of James de la Cloche at the court of Charles, or to discuss
+the legend that his mother was a lady of Jersey--or a sister of Charles!
+The Jersey myths may be found in _The Man of the Mask_ (1908), by
+Monsignor Barnes, who argued that James was the man in the iron mask
+(see IRON MASK). Later Monsignor Barnes, who had observed that the
+letter of Charles to Prince James Stuart is a forgery, noticed the
+impossibility that Charles, in 1668, should constantly write of his
+mother as resident in London, which she left for ever in 1665.
+
+Who de la Cloche really was it is impossible to discover, but he was a
+bold and successful swindler, who took in, not only the general of the
+Jesuits, but Lord Acton and a generation of guileless historians.
+ (A. L.)
+
+
+
+
+LA CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE DE (1701-1774), French geographer and
+mathematician, was born at Paris on the 28th of January 1701. He was
+trained for the military profession, but turned his attention to science
+and geographical exploration. After taking part in a scientific
+expedition in the Levant (1731), he became a member with Louis Godin and
+Pierre Bouguer of the expedition sent to Peru in 1735 to determine the
+length of a degree of the meridian in the neighbourhood of the equator.
+His associations with his principals were unhappy; the expedition was
+beset by many difficulties, and finally La Condamine separated from the
+rest and made his way from Quito down the Amazon, ultimately reaching
+Cayenne. His was the first scientific exploration of the Amazon. He
+returned to Paris in 1744 and published the results of his measurements
+and travels with a map of the Amazon in _Mém. de l'académie des
+sciences_, 1745 (English translation 1745-1747). On a visit to Rome La
+Condamine made careful measurements of the ancient buildings with a view
+to a precise determination of the length of the Roman foot. The journal
+of his voyage to South America was published in Paris in 1751. He also
+wrote in favour of inoculation, and on various other subjects, mainly
+connected with his work in South America. He died at Paris on the 4th of
+February 1774.
+
+
+
+
+LACONIA (Gr. [Greek: Lakônikê]), the ancient name of the south-eastern
+district of the Peloponnese, of which Sparta was the capital. It has an
+area of some 1,048,000 acres, slightly greater than that of
+Somersetshire, and consists of three well-marked zones running N. and S.
+The valley of the Eurotas, which occupies the centre, is bounded W. by
+the chain of Taygetus (mod. Pentedaktylon, 7900 ft.), which starts from
+the Arcadian mountains on the N., and at its southern extremity forms
+the promontory of Taenarum (Cape Matapan). The eastern portion of
+Laconia consists of a far more broken range of hill country, rising in
+Mt. Parnon to a height of 6365 ft. and terminating in the headland of
+Malea. The range of Taygetus is well watered and was in ancient times
+covered with forests which afforded excellent hunting to the Spartans,
+while it had also large iron mines and quarries of an inferior bluish
+marble, as well as of the famous _rosso antico_ of Taenarum. Far poorer
+are the slopes of Parnon, consisting for the most part of barren
+limestone uplands scantily watered. The Eurotas valley, however, is
+fertile, and produces at the present day maize, olives, oranges and
+mulberries in great abundance. Laconia has no rivers of importance
+except the Eurotas and its largest tributary the Oenus (mod. Kelefína).
+The coast, especially on the east, is rugged and dangerous. Laconia has
+few good harbours, nor are there any islands lying off its shores with
+the exception of Cythera (Cerigo), S. of Cape Malea. The most important
+towns, besides Sparta and Gythium, were Bryseae, Amyclae and Pharis in
+the Eurotas plain, Pellana and Belbina on the upper Eurotas, Sellasia on
+the Oenus, Caryae on the Arcadian frontier, Prasiae, Zarax and Epidaurus
+Limera on the east coast, Geronthrae on the slopes of Parnon, Boeae,
+Asopus, Helos, Las and Teuthrone on the Laconian Gulf, and Hippola,
+Messa and Oetylus on the Messenian Gulf.
+
+The earliest inhabitants of Laconia, according to tradition, were the
+autochthonous Leleges (q.v.). Minyan immigrants then settled at various
+places on the coast and even appear to have penetrated into the interior
+and to have founded Amyclae. Phoenician traders, too, visited the shores
+of the Laconian Gulf, and there are indications of trade at a very early
+period between Laconia and Crete, e.g. a number of blocks of green
+Laconian porphyry from the quarries at Croceae have been found in the
+palace of Minos at Cnossus. In the Homeric poems Laconia appears as the
+realm of an Achaean prince, Menelaus, whose capital was perhaps Therapne
+on the left bank of the Eurotas, S.E. of Sparta; the Achaean conquerors,
+however, probably contented themselves with a suzerainty over Laconia
+and part of Messenia (q.v.) and were too few to occupy the whole land.
+The Achaean kingdom fell before the incoming Dorians, and throughout the
+classical period the history of Laconia is that of its capital Sparta
+(q.v.). In 195 B.C. the Laconian coast towns were freed from Spartan
+rule by the Roman general T. Quinctius Flamininus, and became members of
+the Achaean League. When this was dissolved in 146 B.C., they remained
+independent under the title of the "Confederation of the Lacedaemonians"
+or "of the Free-Laconians" ([Greek: koinon tôn Lakedaimoniôn] or [Greek:
+Eleutherolakônôn]), the supreme officer of which was a [Greek:
+stratêgos] (general) assisted by a [Greek: tamias] (treasurer). Augustus
+seems to have reorganized the league in some way, for Pausanias (iii.
+21, 6) speaks of him as its founder. Of the twenty-four cities which
+originally composed the league, only eighteen remained as members by the
+reign of Hadrian (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE). In A.D. 395 a Gothic horde under
+Alaric devastated Laconia, and subsequently it was overrun by large
+bands of Slavic immigrants. Throughout the middle ages it was the scene
+of vigorous struggles between Slavs, Byzantines, Franks, Turks and
+Venetians, the chief memorials of which are the ruined strongholds of
+Mistra near Sparta, Geráki (anc. Geronthrae) and Monemvasia, "the
+Gibraltar of Greece," on the east coast, and Passava near Gythium. A
+prominent part in the War of Independence was played by the Maniates or
+Mainotes, the inhabitants of the rugged peninsula formed by the southern
+part of Taygetus. They had all along maintained a virtual independence
+of the Turks and until quite recently retained their medieval customs,
+living in fortified towers and practising the vendetta or blood-feud.
+
+The district has been divided into two departments (nomes), Lacedaemon
+and Laconia, with their capitals at Sparta and Gythium respectively.
+Pop. of Laconia (1907) 61,522.
+
+_Archaeology._--Until 1904 archaeological research in Laconia was
+carried on only sporadically. Besides the excavations undertaken at
+Sparta, Gythium and Vaphio (q.v.), the most important were those at the
+Apollo sanctuary of Amyclae carried out by C. Tsountas in 1890 ([Greek:
+Ephêm. archaiol.] 1892, 1 ff.) and in 1904 by A. Furtwängler. At Kampos,
+on the western side of Taygetus, a small domed tomb of the "Mycenean"
+age was excavated in 1890 and yielded two leaden statuettes of great
+interest, while at Arkina a similar tomb of poor construction was
+unearthed in the previous year. Important inscriptions were found at
+Geronthrae (Geráki), notably five long fragments of the _Edictum
+Diocletiani_, and elsewhere. In 1904 the British Archaeological school
+at Athens undertook a systematic investigation of the ancient and
+medieval remains in Laconia. The results, of which the most important
+are summarized in the article SPARTA, are published in the British
+School _Annual_, x. ff. The acropolis of Geronthrae, a hero-shrine at
+Angelona in the south-eastern highlands, and the sanctuary of
+Ino-Pasiphae at Thalamae have also been investigated.
+
+ BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the Greek histories and many of the works cited
+ under SPARTA, see W. M. Leake, _Travels in the Morea_ (London, 1830),
+ cc. iv.-viii., xxii., xxiii.; E. Curtius, _Peloponnesos_ (Gotha,
+ 1852), ii. 203 ff.; C. Bursian, _Geographie von Griechenland_
+ (Leipzig, 1868), ii. 102 ff.; Strabo viii. 5; Pausanias iii. and the
+ commentary in J. G. Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_
+ (London, 1898), vol. iii.; W. G. Clark, _Peloponnesus_ (London, 1858),
+ 155 ff.; E. P. Boblaye, _Recherches géographiques sur les ruines de la
+ Morée_ (Paris, 1835), 65 ff.; L. Ross, _Reisen im Peloponnes_ (Berlin,
+ 1841), 158 ff.; W. Vischer, _Erinnerungen u. Eindrücke aus
+ Griechenland_ (Basel, 1857), 360 ff.; J. B. G. M. Bory de
+ Saint-Vincent, _Relation du voyage de l'expédition scientifique de
+ Morée_ (Paris, 1836), cc. 9, 10; G. A. Blouet, _Expédition
+ scientifique de Morée_ (Paris, 1831-1838), ii. 58 ff.; A. Philippson,
+ _Der Peloponnes_ (Berlin, 1892), 155 ff.; _Annual_ of British School
+ at Athens, 1907-8.
+
+ _Inscriptions_: Le Bas-Foucart, _Voyage archéologique: Inscriptions_,
+ Nos. 160-290; _Inscriptiones Graecae_, v.; _Corpus Inscriptionum
+ Graecarum_ (Berlin, 1828), Nos. 1237-1510; Collitz-Bechtel, _Sammlung
+ der griech. Dialektinschriften_, iii. 2 (Göttingen, 1898), Nos.
+ 4400-4613. _Coins: Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum:
+ Peloponnesus_ (London, 1887), xlvi. ff., 121 ff.; B. V. Head,
+ _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), 363 ff. _Cults_: S. Wide,
+ _Lakonische Kulte_ (Leipzig, 1893). _Ancient roads_: W. Loring, "Some
+ Ancient Routes in the Peloponnese" in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_,
+ xv. 25 ff. (M. N. T.)
+
+
+
+
+LACONIA, a city and the county-seat of Belknap county, New Hampshire,
+U.S.A., on both sides of the Winnepesaukee river, 28 m. N.N.E. of
+Concord. Pop. (1900) 8042 (1770 foreign-born); (1910) 10,183. Laconia is
+served by two divisions of the Boston & Maine railway, which has a very
+handsome granite passenger station (1892) and repair shops here. It is
+pleasantly situated in the lake district of central New Hampshire, and
+in the summer season Lake Winnisquam on the S. and W. and Lake
+Winnepesaukee on the N.E. attract many visitors. The city covers an area
+of 24.65 sq. m. (5.47 sq. m. annexed since 1890). Within the city
+limits, and about 6 m. from its centre, are the grounds of the
+Winnepesaukee Camp-Meeting Association, and the camping place for the
+annual reunions of the New Hampshire Veterans of the Civil War, both at
+The Weirs, the northernmost point in the territory claimed by colonial
+Massachusetts; about 2 m. from the centre of Laconia is Lakeport (pop.
+1900, 2137), which, like The Weirs, is a summer resort and a ward in the
+city of Laconia. Among the public institutions are the State School for
+Feeble-minded Children, a cottage hospital and the Laconia Public
+Library, lodged in the Gale Memorial Library building (1903). Another
+fine building is the Congregational Church (1906). The New Hampshire
+State Fish Hatchery is in Laconia. Water-power is furnished by the
+river. In 1905 Laconia ranked first among the cities of the state in the
+manufacture of hosiery and knit goods, and the value of these products
+for the year was 48.4% of the total value of the city's factory product;
+among its other manufactures are yarn, knitting machines, needles,
+sashes and blinds, axles, paper boxes, boats, gas and gasolene engines,
+and freight, passenger and electric cars. The total value of the factory
+products increased from $2,152,379 in 1900 to $3,096,878 in 1905, or
+43.9%. The portion of the city N. of the river, formerly known as
+Meredith Bridge, was set apart from the township of Meredith and
+incorporated as a township under the name of Laconia in 1855; a section
+S. of the river was taken from the township of Gilford in 1874; and
+Lakeport was added in 1893, when Laconia was chartered as a city. The
+same Laconia was first applied in New England to the region granted in
+1629 to Mason and Gorges (see MASON, JOHN).
+
+
+
+
+LACONICUM (i.e. Spartan, _sc. balneum_, bath), the dry sweating room of
+the Roman thermae, contiguous to the caldarium or hot room. The name was
+given to it as being the only form of warm bath that the Spartans
+admitted. The laconicum was usually a circular room with niches in the
+axes of the diagonals and was covered by a conical roof with a circular
+opening at the top, according to Vitruvius (v. 10), "from which a
+brazen shield is suspended by chains, capable of being so lowered and
+raised as to regulate the temperature." The walls of the laconicum were
+plastered with marble stucco and polished, and the conical roof covered
+with plaster and painted blue with gold stars. Sometimes, as in the old
+baths at Pompeii, the laconicum was provided in an apse at one end of
+the caldarium, but as a rule it was a separate room raised to a higher
+temperature and had no bath in it. In addition to the hypocaust under
+the floor the wall was lined with flue tiles. The largest laconicum,
+about 75 ft. in diameter, was that built by Agrippa in his thermae on
+the south side of the Pantheon, and is referred to by Cassius (liii.
+23), who states that, in addition to other works, "he constructed the
+hot bath chamber which he called the Laconicum Gymnasium." All traces of
+this building are lost; but in the additions made to the thermae of
+Agrippa by Septimius Severus another laconicum was built farther south,
+portions of which still exist in the so-called Arco di Giambella.
+
+
+
+
+LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI (1802-1861), French ecclesiastic and
+orator, was born at Recey-sur-Ource, Côte d'Or, on the 12th of March
+1802. He was the second of a family of four, the eldest of whom, Jean
+Théodore (1801-1870), travelled a great deal in his youth, and was
+afterwards professor of comparative anatomy at Liége. For several years
+Lacordaire studied at Dijon, showing a marked talent for rhetoric; this
+led him to the pursuit of law, and in the local debates of the advocates
+he attained a high celebrity. At Paris he thought of going on the stage,
+but was induced to finish his legal training and began to practise as an
+advocate (1817-1824). Meanwhile Lamennais had published his _Essai sur
+l'Indifférence_,--a passionate plea for Christianity and in particular
+for Roman Catholicism as necessary for the social progress of mankind.
+Lacordaire read, and his ardent and believing nature, weary of the
+theological negations of the Encyclopaedists, was convinced. In 1823 he
+became a theological student at the seminary of Saint Sulpice; four
+years later he was ordained and became almoner of the college Henri IV.
+He was called from it to co-operate with Lamennais in the editorship of
+_L'Avenir_, a journal established to advocate the union of the
+democratic principle with ultramontanism. Lacordaire strove to show that
+Catholicism was not bound up with the idea of dynasty, and definitely
+allied it with a well-defined liberty, equality and fraternity. But the
+new propagandism was denounced from Rome in an encyclical. In the
+meantime Lacordaire and Montalembert, believing that, under the charter
+of 1830, they were entitled to liberty of instruction, opened an
+independent free school. It was closed in two days, and the teachers
+fined before the court of peers. These reverses Lacordaire accepted with
+quiet dignity; but they brought his relationship with Lamennais to a
+close. He now began the course of Christian _conférences_ at the Collége
+Stanislas, which attracted the art and intellect of Paris; thence he
+went to Nôtre Dame, and for two years his sermons were the delight of
+the capital. His presence was dignified, his voice capable of indefinite
+modulation, and his gestures animated and attractive. He still preached
+the gospel of the people's sovereignty in civil life and the pope's
+supremacy in religion, but brought to his propagandism the full
+resources of a mind familiar with philosophy, history and literature,
+and indeed led the reaction against Voltairean scepticism. He was asked
+to edit the _Univers_, and to take a chair in the university of Louvain,
+but he declined both appointments, and in 1838 set out for Rome,
+revolving a great scheme for christianizing France by restoring the old
+order of St Dominic. At Rome he donned the habit of the preaching friar
+and joined the monastery of Minerva. His _Mémoire pour le rétablissement
+en France de l'ordre des frères prêcheurs_ was then prepared and
+dedicated to his country; at the same time he collected the materials
+for the life of St Dominic. When he returned to France in 1841 he
+resumed his preaching at Nôtre Dame, but he had small success in
+re-establishing the order of which he ever afterwards called himself
+monk. His funeral orations are the most notable in their kind of any
+delivered during his time, those devoted to Marshal Drouet and Daniel
+O'Connell being especially marked by point and clearness. He next
+thought that his presence in the National Assembly would be of use to
+his cause; but being rebuked by his ecclesiastical superiors for
+declaring himself a republican, he resigned his seat ten days after his
+election. In 1850 he went back to Rome and was made provincial of the
+order, and for four years laboured to make the Dominicans a religious
+power. In 1854 he retired to Sorrèze to become director of a private
+lyceum, and remained there until he died on the 22nd of November 1861.
+He had been elected to the Academy in the preceding year.
+
+ The best edition of Lacordaire's works is the _Oeuvres complètes_ (6
+ vols., Paris, 1872-1873), published by C. Poussielgue, which contains,
+ besides the _Conférences_, the exquisitely written, but uncritical,
+ Vie de Saint Dominique and the beautiful _Lettres à un jeune homme sur
+ la vie chrétienne_. For a complete list of his published
+ correspondence see L. Petit de Julleville's _Histoire de la langue et
+ de la littérature française_, vii. 598.
+
+ The authoritative biography is by Ch. Foisset (2 vols., Paris, 1870).
+ The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Père B.
+ Chocarne's _Vie du Père Lacordaire_ (2 vols., Paris, 1866--English
+ translation by A. Th. Drane, London, 1868); see also Count C. F. R. de
+ Montalembert's _Un Moine au XIX^(ème) siècle_ (Paris, 1862--English
+ translation by F. Aylward, London, 1867). There are lives by Mrs H. L.
+ Lear (London, 1882); by A. Ricard (1 vol. of _L'École menaisienne_,
+ Paris, 1883); by Comte O. d'Haussonville (1 vol., _Les Grands
+ écrivains Français_ series, Paris, 1897); by Gabriel Ledos (Paris,
+ 1901); by Dora Greenwell (1867); and by the duc de Broglie (Paris,
+ 1889). The _Correspondance inédite du Père Lacordaire_, edited by H.
+ Villard (Paris, 1870), may also be consulted. See also Saint-Beuve in
+ _Causeries de Lundi_. Several of Lacordaire's _Conférences_ have been
+ translated into English, among these being, _Jesus Christ_ (1869);
+ _God_ (1870); _God and Man_ (1872); _Life_ (1875). For a theological
+ study of the _Conférences de Nôtre Dame_, see an article by Bishop J.
+ C. Hedley in _Dublin Review_ (October 1870).
+
+
+
+
+LACQUER, or LACKER, a general term for coloured and frequently opaque
+varnishes applied to certain metallic objects and to wood. The term is
+derived from the resin lac, which substance is the basis of lacquers
+properly so called. Technically, among Western nations, lacquering is
+restricted to the coating of polished metals or metallic surfaces, such
+as brass, pewter and tin, with prepared varnishes which will give them a
+golden, bronze-like or other lustre as desired. Throughout the East
+Indies the lacquering of wooden surfaces is universally practised, large
+articles of household furniture, as well as small boxes, trays, toys and
+papier-mâché objects, being decorated with bright-coloured and
+variegated lacquer. The lacquer used in the East is, in general,
+variously coloured sealing-wax, applied, smoothed and polished in a
+heated condition; and by various devices intricate marbled, streaked and
+mottled designs are produced. Quite distinct from these, and from all
+other forms of lacquer, is the lacquer work of Japan, for which see
+JAPAN, § _Art_.
+
+
+
+
+LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE (1751-1824), French politician and writer,
+was born at Metz on the 9th of October 1751. He practised as a barrister
+in Paris; and under the Revolution was elected as a _député suppléant_
+in the Constituent Assembly, and later as deputy in the Legislative
+Assembly. He belonged to the moderate party known as the "Feuillants,"
+but after the 10th of August 1792 he ceased to take part in public life.
+In 1803 he became a member of the Institute, taking the place of La
+Harpe. Under the Restoration he was one of the chief editors of the
+_Minerve française_; he wrote also an essay, _Sur le 18 Brumaire_
+(1799), some _Fragments politiques et littéraires_ (1817), and a
+treatise _Des partis politiques et des factions de la prétendue
+aristocratie d'aujourd'hui_ (1819).
+
+His younger brother, JEAN CHARLES DOMINIQUE DE LACRETELLE, called
+Lacretelle _le jeune_ (1766-1855), historian and journalist, was also
+born at Metz on the 3rd of September 1766. He was called to Paris by his
+brother in 1787, and during the Revolution belonged, like him, to the
+party of the _Feuillants_. He was for some time secretary to the duc de
+la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, the celebrated philanthropist, and
+afterwards joined the staff of the _Journal de Paris_, then managed by
+Suard, and where he had as colleagues André Chénier and Antoine Roucher.
+He made no attempt to hide his monarchist sympathies, and this, together
+with the way in which he reported the trial and death of Louis XVI.,
+brought him in peril of his life; to avoid this danger he enlisted in
+the army, but after Thermidor he returned to Paris and to his newspaper
+work. He was involved in the royalist movement of the 13th Vendémiaire,
+and condemned to deportation after the 18th Fructidor; but, thanks to
+powerful influence, he was left "forgotten" in prison till after the
+18th Brumaire, when he was set at liberty by Fouché. Under the Empire he
+was appointed a professor of history in the _Faculté des lettres_ of
+Paris (1809), and elected as a member of the Académie française (1811).
+In 1827 he was prime mover in the protest made by the French Academy
+against the minister Peyronnet's law on the press, which led to the
+failure of that measure, but this step cost him, as it did Villemain,
+his post as _censeur royal_. Under Louis Philippe he devoted himself
+entirely to his teaching and literary work. In 1848 he retired to Mâcon;
+but there, as in Paris, he was the centre of a brilliant circle, for he
+was a wonderful causeur, and an equally good listener, and had many
+interesting experiences to recall. He died on the 26th of March 1855.
+His son Pierre Henri (1815-1899) was a humorous writer and politician of
+purely contemporary interest.
+
+ J. C. Lacretelle's chief work is a series of histories of the 18th
+ century, the Revolution and its sequel: _Précis historique de la
+ Révolution française_, appended to the history of Rabaud St Étienne,
+ and partly written in the prison of La Force (5 vols., 1801-1806);
+ _Histoire de France pendant le XVIII^e siècle_ (6 vols., 1808);
+ _Histoire de l'Assemblée Constituante_ (2 vols., 1821); _L'Assemblée
+ Législative_ (1822); _La Convention Nationale_ (3 vols., 1824-1825);
+ _Histoire de France depuis la restauration_ (1829-1835); _Histoire du
+ consulat et de l'empire_ (4 vols., 1846). The author was a moderate
+ and fair-minded man, but possessed neither great powers of style, nor
+ striking historical insight, nor the special historian's power of
+ writing minute accuracy of detail with breadth of view. Carlyle's
+ sarcastic remark on Lacretelle's history of the Revolution, that it
+ "exists, but does not profit much," is partly true of all his books.
+ He had been an eyewitness of and an actor in the events which he
+ describes, but his testimony must be accepted with caution.
+
+
+
+
+LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED (1863- ), French mineralogist and
+geologist, was born at Mâcon, Saône et Loire, on the 4th of February
+1863. He took the degree of D. ès Sc. in Paris, 1889. In 1893 he was
+appointed professor of mineralogy at the _Jardin des Plantes_, Paris,
+and in 1896 director of the mineralogical laboratory in the _École des
+Hautes Études_. He paid especial attention to minerals connected with
+volcanic phenomena and igneous rocks, to the effects of metamorphism,
+and to mineral veins, in various parts of the world, notably in the
+Pyrenees. In his numerous contributions to scientific journals he dealt
+with the mineralogy and petrology of Madagascar, and published an
+elaborate and exhaustive volume on the eruptions in Martinique, _La
+Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions_ (1904). He also issued an important
+work entitled _Mineralogie de la France et de ses Colonies_ (1893-1898),
+and other works in conjunction with A. Michel Lévy. He was elected
+member of the Académie des sciences in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+LACROIX, PAUL (1806-1884), French author and journalist, was born in
+Paris on the 27th of April 1806, the son of a novelist. He is best known
+under his pseudonym of P. L. Jacob, _bibliophile_, or "Bibliophile
+Jacob," suggested by the constant interest he took in public libraries
+and books generally. Lacroix was an extremely prolific and varied
+writer. Over twenty historical romances alone came from his pen, and he
+also wrote a variety of serious historical works, including a history of
+Napoleon III., and the life and times of the Tsar Nicholas I. of Russia.
+He was the joint author with Ferdinand Séré of a five-volume work, _Le
+Moyen Âge et La Renaissance_ (1847), a standard work on the manners,
+customs and dress of those times, the chief merit of which lies in the
+great number of illustrations it contains. He also wrote many monographs
+on phases of the history of culture. Over the signature Pierre Dufour
+was published an exhaustive _Histoire de la Prostitution_ (1851-1852),
+which has always been attributed to Lacroix. His works on bibliography
+were also extremely numerous. In 1885 he was appointed librarian of the
+Arsenal Library, Paris. He died in Paris on the 16th of October 1884.
+
+
+
+
+LACROMA (Serbo-Croatian _Lokrum_), a small island in the Adriatic Sea,
+forming part of the Austrian kingdom of Dalmatia, and lying less than
+half a mile south of Ragusa. Though barely 1¼ m. in length, Lacroma is
+remarkable for the beauty of its subtropical vegetation. It was a
+favourite resort of the archduke Maximilian, afterwards emperor of
+Mexico (1832-1867), who restored the château and park; and of the
+Austrian crown prince Rudolph (1857-1889). It contains an 11th-century
+Benedictine monastery; and the remains of a church, said by a very
+doubtful local tradition to have been founded by Richard I. of England
+(1157-1199), form part of the imperial château.
+
+ See _Lacroma_, an illustrated descriptive work by the crown princess
+ Stéphanie (afterwards Countess Lónyay) (Vienna, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+LA CROSSE, a city and the county-seat of La Crosse county, Wisconsin,
+U.S.A., about 180 m. W.N.W. of Milwaukee, and about 120 m. S.E. of St
+Paul, Minnesota, on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, at the mouth
+of the Black and of the La Crosse rivers. Pop. (1900) 28,895; (1910
+census) 30,417. Of the total population in 1900, 7222 were foreign-born,
+3130 being German and 2023 Norwegian, and 17,555 were of
+foreign-parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 7853 of German
+parentage, 4422 of Norwegian parentage, and 1062 of Bohemian parentage.
+La Crosse is served by the Chicago & North Western, the Chicago,
+Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the La Crosse &
+South Eastern, and the Green Bay & Western railways, and by river
+steamboat lines on the Mississippi. The river is crossed here by a
+railway bridge (C.M. & St P.) and wagon bridge. The city is situated on
+a prairie, extending back from the river about 2½ m. to bluffs, from
+which fine views may be obtained. Among the city's buildings and
+institutions are the Federal Building (1886-1887), the County Court
+House (1902-1903), the Public Library (with more than 20,000 volumes),
+the City Hall (1891), the High School Building (1905-1906), the St
+Francis, La Crosse and Lutheran hospitals, a Young Men's Christian
+Association Building, a Young Women's Christian Association Building, a
+U.S. Weather Station (1907), and a U.S. Fish Station (1905). La Crosse
+is the seat of a state Normal School (1909). Among the city's parks are
+Pettibone (an island in the Mississippi), Riverside, Burns, Fair Ground
+and Myrick. The city is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. La Crosse is
+an important lumber and grain market, and is the principal wholesale
+distributing centre for a large territory in S.W. Wisconsin, N. Iowa and
+Minnesota. Proximity to both pine and hardwood forests early made it one
+of the most important lumber manufacturing places in the North-west; but
+this industry has now been displaced by other manufactures. The city has
+grain elevators, flour mills (the value of flour and grist mill products
+in 1905 was $2,166,116), and breweries (product value in 1905,
+$1,440,659). Other important manufactures are agricultural implements
+($542,425 in 1905), lumber and planing mill products, leather, woollen,
+knit and rubber goods, tobacco, cigars and cigarettes, carriages,
+foundry and machine-shop products, copper and iron products, cooperage,
+pearl buttons, brooms and brushes. The total value of the factory
+product in 1905 was $8,139,432, as against $7,676,581 in 1900. The city
+owns and operates its water-works system, the wagon bridge (1890-1891)
+across the Mississippi, and a toll road (2½ m. long) to the village of
+La Crescent, Minn.
+
+Father Hennepin and du Lhut visited or passed the site of La Crosse as
+early as 1680, but it is possible that adventurous _coureurs-des-bois_
+preceded them. The first permanent settlement was made in 1841, and La
+Crosse was made the county-seat in 1855 and was chartered as a city in
+1856.
+
+
+
+
+LACROSSE, the national ball game of Canada. It derives its name from the
+resemblance of its chief implement used, the curved netted stick, to a
+bishop's crozier. It was borrowed from the Indian tribes of North
+America. In the old days, according to Catlin, the warriors of two
+tribes in their war-paint would form the sides, often 800 or 1000
+strong. The goals were placed from 500 yds. to ½ m. apart with
+practically no side boundaries. A solemn dance preceded the game, after
+which the ball was tossed into the air and the two sides rushed to catch
+it on "crosses," similar to those now in use. The medicine-men acted as
+umpires, and the squaws urged on the men by beating them with switches.
+The game attracted much attention from the early French settlers in
+Canada. In 1763, after Canada had become British, the game was used by
+the aborigines to carry out an ingenious piece of treachery. On the 4th
+of June, when the garrison of Fort Michilimackinac (now Mackinac) was
+celebrating the king's birthday, it was invited by the Ottawas, under
+their chief Pontiac, to witness a game of "baggataway" (lacrosse). The
+players gradually worked their way close to the gates, when, throwing
+aside their crosses and seizing their tomahawks which the squaws
+suddenly produced from under their blankets, they rushed into the fort
+and massacred all the inmates except a few Frenchmen.
+
+The game found favour among the British settlers, but it was not until
+1867, the year in which Canada became a Dominion, that G. W. Beers, a
+prominent player, suggested that Lacrosse should be recognized as the
+national game, and the National Lacrosse Association of Canada was
+formed. From that time the game has flourished vigorously in Canada and
+to a less extent in the United States. In 1868 an English Lacrosse
+Association was formed, but, although a team of Indians visited the
+United Kingdom in 1867, it was not until sometime later that the game
+became at all popular in Great Britain. Its progress was much encouraged
+by visits of teams representing the Toronto Lacrosse Club in 1888 and
+1902, the methods of the Canadians and their wonderful "short-passing"
+exciting much admiration. In 1907 the Capitals of Ottawa visited
+England, playing six matches, all of which were won by the Canadians.
+The match North v. South has been played annually in England since 1882.
+A county championship was inaugurated in 1905. A North of England
+League, embracing ten clubs, began playing league matches in 1897; and a
+match between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge has been played
+annually since 1903. A match between England and Ireland was played
+annually from 1881 to 1904.
+
+[Illustration: The Crosse.]
+
+ _Implements of the Game._--The ball is made of india-rubber sponge,
+ weighs between 4¼ and 4½ oz., and measures 8 to 8½ in. in
+ circumference. The "crosse" is formed of a light staff of hickory
+ wood, the top being bent to form a kind of hook, from the tip of which
+ a thong is drawn and made fast to the shaft about 2 ft. from the other
+ end. The oval triangle thus formed is covered with a network of gut or
+ rawhide, loose enough to hold the ball but not to form a bag. At no
+ part must the crosse measure more than 12 in. in breadth, and no metal
+ must be used in its manufacture. It may be of any length to suit the
+ player. The goals are set up not less than 100 nor more than 150 yds.
+ apart, the goal-posts being 6 ft. high and the same distance apart.
+ They are set up in the middle of the "goal-crease," a space of 12 ft.
+ square marked with chalk. A net extends from the top rail and sides of
+ the posts back to a point 6 ft. behind the middle of the line between
+ the posts. Boundaries are agreed upon by the captains. Shoes may have
+ india-rubber soles, but must be without spikes.
+
+ _The Game._--The object of the game is to send the ball, by means of
+ the crosse, through the enemy's goal-posts as many times as possible
+ during the two periods of play, precisely as in football and hockey.
+ There are twelve players of each side. In every position save that of
+ goal there are two men, one of each side, whose duties are to "mark"
+ and neutralize each other's efforts. The game is opened by the act of
+ "facing," in which the two centres, each with his left shoulder
+ towards his opponents' goal, hold their crosses, wood downwards, on
+ the ground, the ball being placed between them. When the signal is
+ given the centres draw their crosses sharply inwards in order to gain
+ possession of the ball. The ball may be kicked or struck with the
+ crosse, as at hockey, but the goal-keeper alone may handle it, and
+ then only to block and not to throw it. Although the ball may be
+ thrown with the crosse for a long distance--220 yds. is about the
+ limit--long throws are seldom tried, it being generally more
+ advantageous for a player to run with the ball resting on the crosse,
+ until he can pass it to a member of his side who proceeds with the
+ attack, either by running, passing to another, or trying to throw the
+ ball through the opponents' goal. The crosse, usually held in both
+ hands, is made to retain the ball by an ingenious rocking motion only
+ acquired by practice. As there is no "off-side" in Lacrosse, a player
+ may pass the ball to the front, side or rear. No charging is allowed,
+ but one player may interfere with another by standing directly in
+ front of him ("body-check"), though without holding, tripping or
+ striking with the crosse. No one may interfere with a player who is
+ not in possession of the ball. Fouls are penalized either by the
+ suspension of the offender until a goal has been scored or until the
+ end of the game; or by allowing the side offended against a "free
+ position." When a "free position" is awarded each player must stand in
+ the position where he is, excepting the goal-keeper who may get back
+ to his goal, and any opponent who may be nearer the player getting the
+ ball than 5 yds.; this player must retire to that distance from the
+ one who has been given the "free position," who then proceeds with the
+ game as he likes when the referee says "play." This penalty may not be
+ carried out nearer than 10 yds. from the goal. If the ball crosses a
+ boundary the referee calls "stand," and all players stop where they
+ are, the ball being then "faced" not less than 4 yds. within the
+ boundary line by the two nearest players.
+
+ See the official publications of the English Lacrosse Union; and
+ _Lacrosse_ by W. C. Schmeisser, in Spalding's "Athletic Library." Also
+ _Manners, Customs and Condition of the North American Indians_, by
+ George Catlin.
+
+
+
+
+LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE (1731-1794), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on
+the 28th of March 1731. He was a clerk in the ministry of finance, and
+is the author of three hundred _sainetes_, little farcical sketches of
+city life, written to be played between the acts of a longer play. He
+published a selection in ten volumes (Madrid, 1786-1791), and died on
+the 5th of March 1794. The best of his pieces, such as _Las Tertulias de
+Madrid_, are delightful specimens of satiric observation.
+
+ See E. Cotardo y Mori, _Don Ramón de la Cruz y sus obras_ (Madrid,
+ 1899); C. Cambronero, _Sainetes inédites existentes en la Biblioteca
+ Municipal de Madrid_ (Madrid, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+LACRYMATORY (from Lat. _lacrima_, a tear), a class of small vessels of
+terra-cotta, or, more frequently, of glass, found in Roman and late
+Greek tombs, and supposed to have been bottles into which mourners
+dropped their tears. They contained unguents, and to the use of unguents
+at funeral ceremonies the finding of so many of these vessels in tombs
+is due. They are shaped like a spindle, or a flask with a long small
+neck and a body in the form of a bulb.
+
+
+
+
+LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS (c. 260-c. 340), also called Lucius Caelius (or
+Caecilius) Lactantius Firmianus, was a Christian writer who from the
+beauty of his style has been called the "Christian Cicero." His history
+is very obscure. He was born of heathen parents in Africa about 260, and
+became a pupil of Arnobius, whom he far excelled in style though his
+knowledge of the Scriptures was equally slight. About 290 he went to
+Nicomedia in Bithynia while Diocletian was emperor, to teach rhetoric,
+but found little work to do in that Greek-speaking city. In middle age
+he became a convert to Christianity, and about 306 he went to Gaul
+(Trèves) on the invitation of Constantine the Great, and became tutor to
+his eldest son, Crispus. He probably died about 340.
+
+Lactantius' chief work, _Divinarum Institutionum Libri Septem_, is an
+"apology" for and an introduction to Christianity, written in exquisite
+Latin, but displaying such ignorance as to have incurred the charge of
+favouring the Arian and Manichaean heresies. It seems to have been begun
+in Nicomedia about 304 and finished in Gaul before 311. Two long
+eulogistic addresses and most of the brief apostrophes to the emperor
+are from a later hand, which has added some dualistic touches. The seven
+books of the institutions have separate titles given to them either by
+the author or by a later editor. The first, _De Falsa Religione_, and
+the second, _De Origine Erroris_, attack the polytheism of heathendom,
+show the unity of the God of creation and providence, and try to explain
+how men have been corrupted by demons. The third book, _De Falsa
+Sapientia_, describes and criticizes the various systems of prevalent
+philosophy. The fourth book, _De Vera Sapientia et Religione_, insists
+upon the inseparable union of true wisdom and true religion, and
+maintains that this union is made real in the person of Christ. The
+fifth book, _De Justitia_, maintains that true righteousness is not to
+be found apart from Christianity, and that it springs from piety which
+consists in the knowledge of God. The sixth book, _De Vero Cultu_,
+describes the true worship of God, which is righteousness, and consists
+chiefly in the exercise of Christian love towards God and man. The
+seventh book, _De Vita Beata_, discusses, among a variety of subjects,
+the chief good, immortality, the second advent and the resurrection.
+Jerome states that Lactantius wrote an epitome of these _Institutions_,
+and such a work, which may well be authentic, was discovered in MS. in
+the royal library at Turin in 1711 by C. M. Pfaff.
+
+Besides the _Institutions_ Lactantius wrote several treatises: (1) _De
+Ira Dei_, addressed to one Donatus and directed against the Epicurean
+philosophy. (2) _De Opificio Dei sive de Formatione Hominis_, his
+earliest work, and one which reveals very little Christian influence. He
+exhorts a former pupil, Demetrianus, not to be led astray by wealth from
+virtue; and he demonstrates the providence of God from the adaptability
+and beauty of the human body. (3) A celebrated incendiary treatise, _De
+Mortibus Persecutorum_, which describes God's judgments on the
+persecutors of his church from Nero to Diocletian, and has served as a
+model for numberless writings. _De Mort. Persecut._ is not in the
+earlier editions of Lactantius; it was discovered and printed by Baluze
+in 1679. Many critics ascribe it to an unknown Lucius Caecilius; there
+are certainly serious differences of grammar, style and temper between
+it and the writings already mentioned. It was probably composed in
+Nicomedia, c. 315. Jerome speaks of Lactantius as a poet, and several
+poems have been attributed to him:--_De Ave Phoenice_ (which Harnack
+thinks makes use of 1 Clement), _De Passione Domini_ and _De
+Resurrectione (Domini)_ or _De Pascha ad Felicem Episcopum_. The first
+of these may belong to Lactantius's heathen days, the second is a
+product of the Renaissance (c. 1500), the third was written by Venantius
+Fortunatus in the 6th century.
+
+ Editions: O. F. Fritzsche in E. G. Gersdorf's _Bibl. patr. eccl._ x.,
+ xi. (Leipzig, 1842-1844); Migne, _Patr. Lat._ vi., vii.; S. Brandt and
+ G. Laubmann in the Vienna _Corpus Script. Eccles. Lat._ xix., xxvii. 1
+ and 2 (1890-93-97). Translation: W. Fletcher in _Ante-Nicene Fathers_,
+ vii. Literature: the German histories of early Christian literature,
+ by A. Harnack, O. Bardenhewer, A. Ebert, A. Ehrhard, G. Kruger's
+ _Early Chr. Lit._ p. 307 and Hauck-Herzog's R_ealencyk._ vol. xi.,
+ give guides to the copious literature on the subject.
+
+
+
+
+LACTIC ACID (hydroxypropionic acid), C3H6O3. Two lactic acids are known,
+differing from each other in the position occupied by the hydroxyl group
+in the molecule; they are known respectively as [alpha]-hydroxypropionic
+acid (fermentation or inactive lactic acid), CH3·CH(OH)·CO2H, and
+[beta]-hydroxypropionic acid (hydracrylic acid), (q.v.),
+CH2(OH)·CH2·CO2H. Although on structural grounds there should be only
+two hydroxypropionic acids, as a matter of fact four lactic acids are
+known. The third isomer (sarcolactic acid) is found in meat extract (J.
+v. Liebig), and may be prepared by the action of _Penicillium glaucum_
+on a solution of ordinary ammonium lactate. It is identical with
+[alpha]-hydroxypropionic acid in almost every respect, except with
+regard to its physical properties. The fourth isomer, formed by the
+action of _Bacillus laevo-lacti_ on cane-sugar, resembles sarcolactic
+acid in every respect, except in its action on polarized light (see
+STEREOISOMERISM).
+
+ _Fermentation_, or _ethylidene lactic acid_, was isolated by K. W.
+ Scheele (_Trans. Stockholm Acad._ 1780) from sour milk (Lat. _lac_,
+ _lactis_, milk, whence the name). About twenty-four years later
+ Bouillon Lagrange, and independently A. F. de Fourcroy and L. N.
+ Vauquelin, maintained that Scheele's new acid was nothing but impure
+ acetic acid. This notion was combated by J. Berzelius, and finally
+ refuted (in 1832) by J. v. Liebig and E. Mitscherlich, who, by the
+ elementary analyses of lactates, proved the existence of this acid as
+ a distinct compound. It may be prepared by the lactic fermentation of
+ starches, sugars, gums, &c., the sugar being dissolved in water and
+ acidified by a small quantity of tartaric acid and then fermented by
+ the addition of sour milk, with a little putrid cheese. Zinc carbonate
+ is added to the mixture (to neutralize the acid formed), which is kept
+ warm for some days and well stirred. On boiling and filtering the
+ product, zinc lactate crystallizes out of the solution. The acid may
+ also be synthesized by the decomposition of alanine
+ ([alpha]-aminopropionic acid) by nitrous acid (K. Strecker, _Ann._,
+ 1850, 75, p. 27); by the oxidation of propylene glycol (A. Wurtz); by
+ boiling [alpha]-chlorpropionic acid with caustic alkalis, or with
+ silver oxide and water; by the reduction of pyruvic acid with sodium
+ amalgam; or from acetaldehyde by the cyanhydrin reaction (J.
+ Wislicenus, _Ann._, 1863, 128, p. 13)
+
+ CH3·CHO --> CH3·CH(OH)·CN --> CH3·CH(OH)·CO2H.
+
+ It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1.2485 (15°/4°), and
+ decomposes on distillation under ordinary atmospheric pressure; but at
+ very low pressures (about 1 mm.) it distils at about 85° C., and then
+ sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about 18° C. It possesses
+ the properties both of an acid and of an alcohol. When heated with
+ dilute sulphuric acid to 130° C., under pressure, it is resolved into
+ formic acid and acetaldehyde. Chromic acid oxidizes it to acetic acid
+ and carbon dioxide; potassium permanganate oxidizes it to pyruvic
+ acid; nitric acid to oxalic acid, and a mixture of manganese dioxide
+ and sulphuric acid to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide. Hydrobromic
+ acid converts it into [alpha]-brompropionic acid, and hydriodic acid
+ into propionic acid.
+
+ CH(CH3)·CO
+ / \
+ _Lactide_, O O,
+ \ /
+ CO·CH(CH3)
+
+ a crystalline solid, of melting-point 124° C., is one of the products
+ obtained by the distillation of lactic acid.
+
+
+
+
+LACTONES, the cyclic esters of hydroxy acids, resulting from the
+internal elimination of water between the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups,
+this reaction taking place when the hydroxy acid is liberated from its
+salts by a mineral acid. The [alpha] and [beta]-hydroxy acids do not
+form lactones, the tendency for lactone formation appearing first with
+the [gamma]-hydroxy acids, thus [gamma]-hydroxybutyric acid,
+CH2OH·CH2·CH2·CO2H, yields [gamma]-butyrolactone,
+
+ +--------------+
+ | |
+ CH2·CH2·CH2·CO·O.
+
+These compounds may also be prepared by the distillation of the
+[gamma]-halogen fatty acids, or by the action of alkaline carbonates on
+these acids, or from [beta][gamma]- or [gamma][delta]-unsaturated acids
+by digestion with hydrobromic acid or dilute sulphuric acid. The
+lactones are mostly liquids which are readily soluble in alcohol, ether
+and water. On boiling with water, they are partially reconverted into
+the hydroxy acids. They are easily saponified by the caustic alkalis.
+
+ On the behaviour of lactones with ammonia, see H. Meyer,
+ _Monatshefte_, 1899, 20, p. 717; and with phenylhydrazine and
+ hydrazine hydrate, see R. Meyer, _Ber._, 1893, 26, p. 1273; L.
+ Gattermann, _Ber._, 1899, 32, p. 1133, E. Fischer, Ber., 1889, 22, p.
+ 1889.
+
+ [gamma]-_Butyrolactone_ is a liquid which boils at 206° C. It is
+ miscible with water in all proportions and is volatile in steam,
+ [gamma]-_valerolactone_,
+
+ +-----------------+
+ | |
+ CH3·CH·CH2·CH2·CO·O,
+
+ is a liquid which boils at 207-208° C. [delta]-_lactones_ are also
+ known, and may be prepared by distilling the [delta]-chlor acids.
+
+
+
+
+LA CUEVA, JUAN DE (1550?-1609?), Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at
+Seville, and towards 1579 began writing for the stage. His plays,
+fourteen in number, were published in 1588, and are the earliest
+manifestations of the dramatic methods developed by Lope de Vega.
+Abandoning the Senecan model hitherto universal in Spain, Cueva took for
+his themes matters of national legend, historic tradition, recent
+victories and the actualities of contemporary life: this amalgam of
+epical and realistic elements, and the introduction of a great variety
+of metres, prepared the way for the Spanish romantic drama of the 17th
+century. A peculiar interest attaches to _El Infamador_, a play in which
+the character of Leucino anticipates the classic type of Don Juan. As an
+initiative force, Cueva is a figure of great historical importance; his
+epic poem, _La Conquista de Bética_ (1603), shows his weakness as an
+artist. The last work to which his name is attached is the _Ejemplar
+poético_ (1609), and he is believed to have died shortly after its
+publication.
+
+ See the editions of _Saco de Roma_ and _El Infamador_, by E. de Ochoa,
+ in the _Tesoro del teatro español_ (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285;
+ and of _Ejemplar poético_, by J. J. López de Sedano, in the _Parnaso
+ español_, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, "Juan de la Cueva et
+ son Ejemplar poético" in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_ (Lund,
+ 1904), vol. xxix.; "Poèmes inédits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de
+ Sannio,)" edited by F. A. Wulff, in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_
+ (Lund, 1886-1887), vol. xxiii.; F. A. Wulff, "De la rimas de Juan de
+ la Cueva, Primera Parte" in the _Homenaje á Menéndez y Pelayo_
+ (Madrid, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 143-148. (J. F.-K.)
+
+
+
+
+LACUNAR, the Latin name in architecture for a panelled or coffered
+ceiling or soffit. The word is derived from _lacuna_, a cavity or
+hollow, a blank, hiatus or gap. The panels or coffers of a ceiling are
+by Vitruvius called _lacunaria_.
+
+
+
+
+LACUZON (O. Fr. _la cuzon_, disturbance), the name given to the
+Franc-Comtois leader CLAUDE PROST (1607-1681), who was born at
+Longchaumois (department of Jura) on the 17th of June 1607. He gained
+his first military experience when the French invaded Burgundy in 1636,
+harrying the French troops from the castles of Montaigu and St
+Laurent-la-Roche, and devastating the frontier districts of Bresse and
+Bugey with fire and sword (1640-1642). In the first invasion of
+Franche-Comté by Louis XIV. in 1668 Lacuzon was unable to make any
+effective resistance, but he played an important part in Louis's second
+invasion. In 1673 he defended Salins for some time; after the
+capitulation of the town he took refuge in Italy. He died at Milan on
+the 21st of December 1681.
+
+
+
+
+LACY, FRANZ MORITZ, Count (1725-1801), Austrian field marshal, was born
+at St Petersburg on the 21st of October 1725. His father, Peter, Count
+Lacy, was a distinguished Russian soldier, who belonged to an Irish
+family, and had followed the fortunes of the exiled James II. Franz
+Moritz was educated in Germany for a military career, and entered the
+Austrian service. He served in Italy, Bohemia, Silesia and the
+Netherlands during the War of the Austrian Succession, was twice
+wounded, and by the end of the war was a lieut.-colonel. At the age of
+twenty-five he became full colonel and chief of an infantry regiment. In
+1756 with the opening of the Seven Years' War he was again on active
+service, and in the first battle (Lobositz) he distinguished himself so
+much that he was at once promoted major-general. He received his third
+wound on this occasion and his fourth at the battle of Prague in 1757.
+Later in 1757 Lacy bore a conspicuous part in the great victory of
+Breslau, and at Leuthen, where he received his fifth wound, he covered
+the retreat of the defeated army. Soon after this began his association
+with Field-Marshal Daun, the new generalissimo of the empress's forces,
+and these two commanders, powerfully assisted later by the genius of
+Loudon, made head against Frederick the Great for the remainder of the
+war. A general staff was created, and Lacy, a lieutenant field-marshal
+at thirty-two, was made chief of staff (quartermaster-general) to Daun.
+That their cautiousness often degenerated into timidity may be
+admitted--Leuthen and many other bitter defeats had taught the Austrians
+to respect their great opponent--but they showed at any rate that,
+having resolved to wear out the enemy by Fabian methods, they were
+strong enough to persist in their resolve to the end. Thus for some
+years the life of Lacy, as of Daun and Loudon, is the story of the war
+against Prussia (see Seven Years' War). After Hochkirch (October 15,
+1758) Lacy received the grand cross of the Maria Theresa order. In 1759
+both Daun and Lacy fell into disfavour for failing to win victories, and
+Lacy owed his promotion to Feldzeugmeister only to the fact that Loudon
+had just received this rank for the brilliant conduct of his detachment
+at Kunersdorf. His responsibilities told heavily on Lacy in the ensuing
+campaigns, and his capacity for supreme command was doubted even by
+Daun, who refused to give him the command when he himself was wounded at
+the battle of Torgau.
+
+After the peace of Hubertusburg a new sphere of activity was opened, in
+which Lacy's special gifts had the greatest scope. Maria Theresa having
+placed her son, the emperor Joseph II., at the head of Austrian military
+affairs, Lacy was made a field-marshal, and given the task of reforming
+and administering the army (1766). He framed new regulations for each
+arm, a new code of military law, a good supply system. As the result of
+his work the Austrian army was more numerous, far better equipped, and
+cheaper than it had ever been before. Joseph soon became very intimate
+with his military adviser, but this did not prevent his mother, after
+she became estranged from the young emperor, from giving Lacy her full
+confidence. His activities were not confined to the army. He was in
+sympathy with Joseph's innovations, and was regarded by Maria Theresa as
+a prime mover in the scheme for the partition of Poland. But his
+self-imposed work broke down Lacy's health, and in 1773, in spite of the
+remonstrances of Maria Theresa and of the emperor, he laid down all his
+offices and went to southern France. On returning he was still unable to
+resume office, though as an unofficial adviser in political and military
+matters he was far from idle. In the brief and uneventful War of the
+Bavarian Succession, Lacy and Loudon were the chief Austrian commanders
+against the king of Prussia, and when Joseph II. at Maria Theresa's
+death, became the sovereign of the Austrian dominions as well as
+emperor, Lacy remained his most trusted friend. More serious than the
+War of the Bavarian Succession was the Turkish war which presently broke
+out. Lacy was now old and worn out, and his tenure of command therein
+was not marked by any greater measure of success than in the case of the
+other Austrian generals. His active career was at an end, although he
+continued his effective interest in the affairs of the state and the
+army throughout the reign of Joseph's successor, Leopold I. His last
+years were spent in retirement at his castle of Neuwaldegg near Vienna.
+He died at Vienna on the 24th of November 1801.
+
+ See memoir by A. v. Arneth in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_
+ (Leipzig, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH (1807-1874), English actress, was born in
+London, the daughter of a tradesman named Taylor. Her first appearance
+on the stage was at Bath in 1827 as Julia in _The Rivals_, and she was
+immediately given leading parts there in both comedy and tragedy. Her
+first London appearance was in 1830 as Nina, in Dimond's _Carnival of
+Naples_. Her Rosalind, Aspatia (to Macready's Melantius) in _The
+Bridal_, and Lady Teazle to the Charles Surface of Walter Lacy
+(1809-1898)--to whom she was married in 1839--confirmed her position and
+popularity. She was the original Helen in _The Hunchback_ (1832), and
+also created Nell Gwynne in Jerrold's play of that name, and the heroine
+in his _Housekeeper_. She was considered the first Ophelia of her day.
+She retired in 1848.
+
+
+
+
+LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO (1795-1867), Irish musician, son of a merchant,
+was born at Bilbao and appeared there in public as a violinist in 1801.
+He was sent to study in Paris under Kreutzer, and soon began a
+successful career, being known as "_Le Petit Espagnol_." He played in
+London for some years after 1805, and then became an actor, but in 1818
+resumed the musical profession, and in 1820 became leader of the ballet
+at the King's theatre, London. He composed or adapted from other
+composers a number of operas and an oratorio, _The Israelites in Egypt_.
+He died in London on the 20th of September 1867.
+
+
+
+
+LACYDES OF CYRENE, Greek philosopher, was head of the Academy at Athens
+in succession to Arcesilaus about 241 B.C. Though some regard him as the
+founder of the New Academy, the testimony of antiquity is that he
+adhered in general to the theory of Arcesilaus, and, therefore, that he
+belonged to the Middle Academy. He lectured in a garden called the
+Lacydeum, which was presented to him by Attalus I. of Pergamum, and for
+twenty-six years maintained the traditions of the Academy. He is said to
+have written treatises, but nothing survives. Before his death he
+voluntarily resigned his position to his pupils, Euander and Telecles.
+Apart from a number of anecdotes distinguished rather for sarcastic
+humour than for probability, Lacydes exists for us as a man of refined
+character, a hard worker and an accomplished orator. According to
+Athenaeus (x. 438) and Diogenes Laërtius (iv. 60) he died from excessive
+drinking, but the story is discredited by the eulogy of Eusebius
+(_Praep. Ev._ xiv. 7), that he was in all things moderate.
+
+ See Cicero, _Acad._ ii. 6; and Aelian, _V.H._ ii. 41; also articles
+ ACADEMY, ARCESILAUS, CARNEADES.
+
+
+
+
+LADAKH AND BALTISTAN, a province of Kashmir, India. The name Ladak,
+commonly but less correctly spelt Ladakh, and sometimes Ladag, belongs
+primarily to the broad valley of the upper Indus in West Tibet, but
+includes several surrounding districts in political connexion with it;
+the present limits are between 75° 40´ and 80° 30´ E., and between 32°
+25´ and 36° N. It is bounded N. by the Kuenlun range and the slopes of
+the Karakoram, N.W. and W. by the dependency of Baltistan or Little
+Tibet, S.W. by Kashmir proper, S. by British Himalayan territory, and E.
+by the Tibetan provinces of Ngari and Rudok. The whole region lies very
+high, the valleys of Rupshu in the south-east being 15,000 ft., and the
+Indus near Leh 11,000 ft., while the average height of the surrounding
+ranges is 19,000 ft. The proportion of arable and even possible pasture
+land to barren rock and gravel is very small. Pop., including Baltistan
+(1901) 165,992, of whom 30,216 in Ladakh proper are Buddhists, whereas
+the Baltis have adopted the Shiah form of Islam.
+
+The natural features of the country may be best explained by reference
+to two native terms, under one or other of which every part is included;
+viz. _changtang_, i.e. "northern, or high plain," where the amount of
+level ground is considerable, and _rong_, i.e. "deep valley," where the
+contrary condition prevails. The former predominates in the east,
+diminishing gradually westwards. There, although the vast alluvial
+deposits which once filled the valley to a remarkably uniform height of
+about 15,000 ft. have left their traces on the mountain sides, they have
+undergone immense denudation, and their débris now forms secondary
+deposits, flat bottoms or shelving slopes, the only spots available for
+cultivation or pasture. These masses of alluvium are often either
+metamorphosed to a subcrystalline rock still showing the composition of
+the strata, or simply consolidated by lime.
+
+Grand scenery is exceptional, for the valleys are confined, and from the
+higher points the view is generally of a confused mass of brown or
+yellow hills, absolutely barren, and of no great apparent height. The
+parallelism characteristic of the Himalayan ranges continues here, the
+direction being north-west and south-east. A central range divides the
+Indus valley, here 4 to 8 m. wide, from that of its north branch the
+Shyok, which with its fertile tributary valley of Nubra is again bounded
+on the north by the Karakoram. This central ridge is mostly syenitic
+gneiss, and north-east from it are found, successively, Silurian slates,
+Carboniferous shales and Triassic limestones, the gneiss recurring at
+the Turkestan frontier. The Indus lies along the line which separates
+the crystalline rocks from the Eocene sandstones and shales of the lower
+range of hills on the left bank, the lofty mountains behind them
+consisting of parallel bands of rocks from Silurian to Cretaceous.
+
+Several lakes in the east districts at about 14,000 ft. have been of
+much greater extent, and connected with the river systems of the
+country, but they are now mostly without outlet, saline, and in process
+of desiccation.
+
+Leh is the capital of Ladakh, and the road to Leh from Srinagar lies up
+the lovely Sind valley to the sources of the river at the Zoji La Pass
+(11,300 ft.) in the Zaskar range. This is the range which, skirting the
+southern edge of the upland plains of Deosai in Baltistan, divides them
+from the valley of Kashmir, and then continues to Nanga Parbat (26,620
+ft.) and beyond that mountain stretches to the north of Swat and Bajour.
+To the south-east it is an unbroken chain till it merges into the line
+of snowy peaks seen from Simla and the plains of India--the range which
+reaches past Chini to the famous peaks of Gangotri, Nandadevi and Nampa.
+It is the most central and conspicuous range in the Himalaya. The Zoji
+La, which curves from the head of the Sind valley on to the bleak
+uplands of Dras (where lies the road to the trough of the Indus and
+Leh), is, in spite of its altitude, a pass on which little snow lies;
+but for local accumulations, it would be open all the year round. It
+affords a typical instance of that cutting-back process by which a
+river-head may erode a channel through a watershed into the plateau
+behind, there being no steep fall towards the Indus on the northern side
+of the range. From the Zoji La the road continues by easy gradients,
+following the line of the Dras drainage, to the Indus, when it turns up
+the valley to Leh. From Leh there are many routes into Tibet, the best
+known being that from the Indus valley to the Tibetan plateau, by the
+Chang La, to Lake Pangkong and Rudok (14,000 ft.). Rudok occupies a
+forward position on the western Tibetan border analogous to that of Leh
+in Kashmir. The chief trade route to Lhasa from Leh, however, follows
+the line offered by the valleys of the Indus and the Brahmaputra (or
+Tsanpo), crossing the divide between these rivers north of Lake
+Manasarowar.
+
+The observatory at Leh is the most elevated observatory in Asia. "The
+atmosphere of the Indus valley is remarkably clear and transparent, and
+the heat of the sun is very great. There is generally a difference of
+more than 60° between the reading of the exposed sun thermometer _in
+vacuo_ and the air temperature in the shade, and this difference has
+occasionally exceeded 90°.... The mean annual temperature at Leh is 40°,
+that of the coldest months (January and February) only 18° and 19°, but
+it rises rapidly from February to July, in which month it reaches 62°
+with a mean diurnal maximum of 80° both in that month and August, and an
+average difference of 29° or 30° between the early morning and
+afternoon. The mean highest temperature of the year is 90°, varying
+between 84° and 93° in the twelve years previous to 1893. On the other
+hand, in the winter the minimum thermometer falls occasionally below 0°,
+and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme range of
+recorded temperature is therefore not less than 110°. The air is as dry
+as Quetta, and rather more uniformly so.... The amount of rain and snow
+is insignificant. The average rain (and snow) fall is only 2.7 in. in
+the year."[1] The winds are generally light, and depend on the local
+direction of the valleys. At Leh, which stands at the entrance of the
+valley leading to the Kardang Pass, the most common directions are
+between south and west in the daytime and summer, and from north-east in
+the night, especially in the later months of the year. In January and
+February the air is generally calm, and April and May are the most windy
+months of the year.
+
+ Vegetation is confined to valleys and sheltered spots, where a stunted
+ growth of tamarisk and _Myricaria_, _Hippophae_ and _Elaeagnus_,
+ furze, and the roots of _burtsi_, a salsolaceous plant, supply the
+ traveller with much-needed firewood. The trees are the pencil cedar
+ (_Juniperus excelsa_), the poplar and willow (both extensively
+ planted, the latter sometimes wild), apple, mulberry, apricot and
+ walnut. Irrigation is skilfully managed, the principal products being
+ wheat, a beardless variety of barley called _grim_, millet, buckwheat,
+ pease, beans and turnips. Lucerne and prangos (an umbelliferous plant)
+ are used as fodder.
+
+ Among domestic animals are the famous shawl goat, two kinds of sheep,
+ of which the larger (_huniya_) is used for carrying burdens, and is a
+ principal source of wealth, the yak and the dso, a valuable hybrid
+ between the yak and common cow. Among wild animals are the kiang or
+ wild ass, ibex, several kinds of wild sheep, antelope (_Pantholops_),
+ marmot, hare and other Tibetan fauna.
+
+ The present value of the trade between British India and Tibet passing
+ through Ladakh is inconsiderable. Ladakh, however, is improving in its
+ trade prospects apart from Tibet. It is curious that both Ladakh and
+ Tibet import a considerable amount of treasure, for on the borders of
+ western Tibet and within a radius of 100 or 200 m. of Leh there
+ centres a gold-mining industry which apparently only requires
+ scientific development to render it enormously productive. Here the
+ surface soil has been for many centuries washed for gold by bands of
+ Tibetan miners, who never work deeper than 20 to 50 ft., and whose
+ methods of washing are of the crudest description. They work in
+ winter, chiefly because of the binding power of frost on the friable
+ soil, suffering great hardships and obtaining but a poor return for
+ their labour. But the remoteness of Ladakh and its extreme altitude
+ still continue to bar the way to substantial progress, though its
+ central position naturally entitles it to be a great trade mart.
+
+ The adjoining territory of Baltistan forms the west extremity of
+ Tibet, whose natural limits here are the Indus from its abrupt
+ southward bend in 74° 45´ E., and the mountains to the north and west,
+ separating a comparatively peaceful Tibetan population from the
+ fiercer Aryan tribes beyond. Mahommedan writers about the 16th century
+ speak of Baltistan as "Little Tibet," and of Ladakh as "Great Tibet,"
+ thus ignoring the really Great Tibet altogether. The Balti call Gilgit
+ "a Tibet," and Dr Leitner says that the Chilasi call themselves Bot or
+ Tibetans; but, although these districts may have been overrun by the
+ Tibetans, or have received rulers of that race, the ethnological
+ frontier coincides with the geographical one given. Baltistan is a
+ mass of lofty mountains, the prevailing formation being gneiss. In the
+ north is the Baltoro glacier, the largest out of the arctic regions,
+ 35 m. long, contained between two ridges whose highest peaks to the
+ south are 25,000 and to the north 28,265 ft. The Indus, as in Lower
+ Ladakh, runs in a narrow gorge, widening for nearly 20 m. after
+ receiving the Shyok. The capital, Skardu, a scattered collection of
+ houses, stands here, perched on a rock 7250 ft. above the sea. The
+ house roofs are flat, occupied only in part by a second story, the
+ remaining space being devoted to drying apricots, the chief staple of
+ the main valley, which supports little cultivation. But the rapid
+ slope westwards is seen generally in the vegetation. Birch, plane,
+ spruce and _Pinus excelsa_ appear; the fruits are finer, including
+ pomegranate, pear, peach, vine and melon, and where irrigation is
+ available, as in the North Shigar, and at the deltas of the tributary
+ valleys, the crops are more luxuriant and varied.
+
+_History._--The earliest notice of Ladakh is by the Chinese pilgrim
+Fa-hien, A.D. 400, who, travelling in search of a purer faith, found
+Buddhism flourishing there, the only novelty to him being the
+prayer-cylinder, the efficacy of which he declares is incredible. Ladakh
+formed part of the Tibetan empire until its disruption in the 10th
+century, and since then has continued ecclesiastically subject, and
+sometimes tributary, to Lhasa. Its inaccessibility saved it from any
+Mussulman invasion until 1531, when Sultan Said of Kashgar marched an
+army across the Karakoram, one division fighting its way into Kashmir
+and wintering there. Next year they invaded eastern Tibet, where nearly
+all perished from the effects of the climate.
+
+Early in the 17th century Ladakh was invaded by its Mahommedan
+neighbours of Baltistan, who plundered and destroyed the temples and
+monasteries; and again, in 1685-1688, by the Sokpa, who were expelled
+only by the aid of the lieutenant of Aurangzeb in Kashmir, Ladakh
+thereafter becoming tributary. The gyalpo or king then made a nominal
+profession of Islam, and allowed a mosque to be founded at Leh, and the
+Kashmiris have ever since addressed his successors by a Mahommedan
+title. When the Sikhs took Kashmir, Ladakh, dreading their approach,
+offered allegiance to Great Britain. It was, however, conquered and
+annexed in 1834-1841 by Gulab Singh of Jammu--the unwar-like Ladakhis,
+even with nature fighting on their side, and against indifferent
+generalship, being no match for the Dogra troops. These next turned
+their arms successfully against the Baltis (who in the 18th century were
+subject to the Mogul), and were then tempted to revive the claims of
+Ladakh to the Chinese provinces of Rudok and Ngari. This, however,
+brought down an army from Lhasa, and after a three days' fight the
+Indian force was almost annihilated--chiefly indeed by frostbite and
+other sufferings, for the battle was fought in mid-winter, 15,000 ft.
+above the sea. The Chinese then marched on Leh, but were soon driven out
+again, and peace was finally made on the basis of the old frontier. The
+widespread prestige of China is illustrated by the fact that tribute,
+though disguised as a present, is paid to her, for Ladakh, by the
+maharaja of Kashmir.
+
+ The principal works to be consulted are F. Drew, _The Jummoo and
+ Kashmir Territories_; Cunningham, _Ladak_; Major J. Biddulph, _The
+ Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_; Ramsay, _Western Tibet_; Godwin-Austen,
+ "The Mountain Systems of the Himalaya," vol. vi., _Proc. R.G.S._
+ (1884); W. Lawrence, _The Valley of Kashmir_ (1895); H. F. Blandford,
+ _The Climate and Weather of India_ (1889). (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+ [1] H. F. Blandford, _Climate and Weather of India_ (London, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL (1842- ), American philosopher, was born in
+Painesville, Lake county, Ohio, on the 19th of January 1842. He
+graduated at Western Reserve College in 1864 and at Andover Theological
+Seminary in 1869; preached in Edinburg, Ohio, in 1869-1871, and in the
+Spring Street Congregational Church of Milwaukee in 1871-1879; and was
+professor of philosophy at Bowdoin College in 1879-1881, and Clark
+professor of metaphysics and moral philosophy at Yale from 1881 till
+1901, when he took charge of the graduate department of philosophy and
+psychology; he became professor emeritus in 1905. In 1879-1882 he
+lectured on theology at Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1883 at
+Harvard, where in 1895-1896 he conducted a graduate seminary in ethics.
+He lectured in Japan in 1892, 1899 (when he also visited the
+universities of India) and 1906-1907. He was much influenced by Lotze,
+whose _Outlines of Philosophy_ he translated (6 vols., 1877), and was
+one of the first to introduce (1879) the study of experimental
+psychology into America, the Yale psychological laboratory being founded
+by him.
+
+ PUBLICATIONS.--_The Principles of Church Polity_ (1882); _The Doctrine
+ of Sacred Scripture_ (1884); _What is the Bible?_ (1888); _Essays on
+ the Higher Education_ (1899), defending the "old" (Yale) system
+ against the Harvard or "new" education, as praised by George H.
+ Palmer; _Elements of Physiological Psychology_ (1889, rewritten as
+ _Outlines of Physiological Psychology_, in 1890); _Primer of
+ Psychology_ (1894); _Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory_ (1894);
+ and _Outlines of Descriptive Psychology_ (1898); in a "system of
+ philosophy," _Philosophy of the Mind_ (1891); _Philosophy of
+ Knowledge_ (1897); _A Theory of Reality_ (1899); _Philosophy of
+ Conduct_ (1902); and _Philosophy of Religion_ (2 vols., 1905); _In
+ Korea with Marquis Ito_ (1908); and _Knowledge, Life and Reality_
+ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+LADDER, (O. Eng. _hlaeder_; of Teutonic origin, cf. Dutch _leer_, Ger.
+_Leiter_; the ultimate origin is in the root seen in "lean," Gr. [Greek:
+klimax]), a set of steps or "rungs" between two supports to enable one
+to get up and down; usually made of wood and sometimes of metal or rope.
+Ladders are generally movable, and differ from a staircase also in
+having only treads and no "risers." The term "Jacob's ladder," taken
+from the dream of Jacob in the Bible, is applied to a rope ladder with
+wooden steps used at sea to go aloft, and to a common garden plant of
+the genus _Polemonium_ on account of the ladder-like formation of the
+leaves. The flower known in England as Solomon's seal is in some
+countries called the "ladder of heaven."
+
+
+
+
+LADING (from "to lade," O. Eng. _hladan_, to put cargo on board; cf.
+"load"), BILL OF, the document given as receipt by the master of a
+merchant vessel to the consignor of goods, as a guarantee for their safe
+delivery to the consignee. (See AFFREIGHTMENT.)
+
+
+
+
+LADISLAUS I, Saint (1040-1095), king of Hungary, the son of Béla I.,
+king of Hungary, and the Polish princess Richeza, was born in Poland,
+whither his father had sought refuge, but was recalled by his elder
+brother Andrew I. to Hungary (1047) and brought up there. He succeeded
+to the throne on the death of his uncle Geza in 1077, as the eldest
+member of the royal family, and speedily won for himself a reputation
+scarcely inferior to that of Stephen I., by nationalizing Christianity
+and laying the foundations of Hungary's political greatness.
+Instinctively recognizing that Germany was the natural enemy of the
+Magyars, Ladislaus formed a close alliance with the pope and all the
+other enemies of the emperor Henry IV., including the anti-emperor
+Rudolph of Swabia and his chief supporter Welf, duke of Bavaria, whose
+daughter Adelaide he married. She bore him one son and three daughters,
+one of whom, Piriska, married the Byzantine emperor John Comnenus. The
+collapse of the German emperor in his struggle with the pope left
+Ladislaus free to extend his dominions towards the south, and colonize
+and Christianize the wildernesses of Transylvania and the lower Danube.
+Hungary was still semi-savage, and her native barbarians were being
+perpetually recruited from the hordes of Pechenegs, Kumanians and other
+races which swept over her during the 11th century. Ladislaus himself
+had fought valiantly in his youth against the Pechenegs, and to defend
+the land against the Kumanians, who now occupied Moldavia and Wallachia
+as far as the Alt, he built the fortresses of Turnu-Severin and Gyula
+Féhervár. He also planted in Transylvania the Szeklers, the supposed
+remnant of the ancient Magyars from beyond the Dnieper, and founded the
+bishoprics of Nagy-Várad, or Gross-Wardein, and of Agram, as fresh foci
+of Catholicism in south Hungary and the hitherto uncultivated districts
+between the Drave and the Save. He subsequently conquered Croatia,
+though here his authority was questioned by the pope, the Venetian
+republic and the Greek emperor. Ladislaus died suddenly in 1095 when
+about to take part in the first Crusade. No other Hungarian king was so
+generally beloved. The whole nation mourned for him for three years, and
+regarded him as a saint long before his canonization. A whole cycle of
+legends is associated with his name.
+
+ See J. Babik, _Life of St Ladislaus_ (Hung.) (Eger, 1892); György
+ Pray, _Dissertatio de St Ladislao_ (Pressburg, 1774); Antál Gánóczy,
+ _Diss. hist. crit. de St Ladislao_ (Vienna, 1775). (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+LADISLAUS IV., The Kumanian (1262-1290), king of Hungary, was the son of
+Stephen V., whom he succeeded in 1272. From his tenth year, when he was
+kidnapped from his father's court by the rebellious vassals, till his
+assassination eighteen years later, his whole life, with one bright
+interval of military glory was unrelieved tragedy. His minority,
+1272-1277, was an alternation of palace revolutions and civil wars, in
+the course of which his brave Kumanian mother Elizabeth barely contrived
+to keep the upper hand. In this terrible school Ladislaus matured
+precociously. At fifteen he was a man, resolute, spirited, enterprising,
+with the germs of many talents and virtues, but rough, reckless and very
+imperfectly educated. He was married betimes to Elizabeth of Anjou, who
+had been brought up at the Hungarian court. The marriage was a purely
+political one, arranged by his father and a section of the Hungarian
+magnates to counterpoise hostile German and Czech influences. During
+the earlier part of his reign, Ladislaus obsequiously followed the
+direction of the Neapolitan court in foreign affairs. In Hungary itself
+a large party was in favour of the Germans, but the civil wars which
+raged between the two factions from 1276 to 1278 did not prevent
+Ladislaus, at the head of 20,000 Magyars and Kumanians, from
+co-operating with Rudolph of Habsburg in the great battle of Durnkrüt
+(August 26th, 1278), which destroyed, once for all, the empire of the
+Premyslidae. A month later a papal legate arrived in Hungary to inquire
+into the conduct of the king, who was accused by his neighbours, and
+many of his own subjects, of adopting the ways of his Kumanian kinsfolk
+and thereby undermining Christianity. Ladislaus was not really a pagan,
+or he would not have devoted his share of the spoil of Durnkrüt to the
+building of the Franciscan church at Pressburg, nor would he have
+venerated as he did his aunt St Margaret. Political enmity was largely
+responsible for the movement against him, yet the result of a very
+careful investigation (1279-1281) by Philip, bishop of Fermo, more than
+justified many of the accusations brought against Ladislaus. He clearly
+preferred the society of the semi-heathen Kumanians to that of the
+Christians; wore, and made his court wear, Kumanian dress; surrounded
+himself with Kumanian concubines, and neglected and ill-used his
+ill-favoured Neapolitan consort. He was finally compelled to take up
+arms against his Kumanian friends, whom he routed at Hodmézö (May 1282)
+with fearful loss; but, previously to this, he had arrested the legate,
+whom he subsequently attempted to starve into submission, and his
+conduct generally was regarded as so unsatisfactory that, after repeated
+warnings, the Holy See resolved to supersede him by his Angevin
+kinsfolk, whom he had also alienated, and on the 8th of August 1288 Pope
+Nicholas IV. proclaimed a crusade against him. For the next two years
+all Hungary was convulsed by a horrible civil war, during which the
+unhappy young king, who fought for his heritage to the last with
+desperate valour, was driven from one end of his kingdom to the other
+like a hunted beast. On the 25th of December 1289 he issued a manifesto
+to the lesser gentry, a large portion of whom sided with him, urging
+them to continue the struggle against the magnates and their foreign
+supporters; but on the 10th of July 1290 he was murdered in his camp at
+Korosszeg by the Kumanians, who never forgave him for deserting them.
+
+ See Karoly Szabó, _Ladislaus the Cumanian_ (Hung.), (Budapest, 1886);
+ and Acsády, _History of the Hungarian Realm_, i. 2 (Budapest, 1903).
+ The latter is, however, too favourable to Ladislaus. (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+LADISLAUS V. (1440-1457), king of Hungary and Bohemia, the only son of
+Albert, king of Hungary, and Elizabeth, daughter of the emperor
+Sigismund, was born at Komárom on the 22nd of February 1440, four months
+after his father's death, and was hence called Ladislaus Posthumus. The
+estates of Hungary had already elected Wladislaus III. of Poland their
+king, but Ladislaus's mother caused the holy crown to be stolen from its
+guardians at Visegrad, and compelled the primate to crown the infant
+king at Székesfejérvár on the 15th of May 1440; whereupon, for safety's
+sake, she placed the child beneath the guardianship of his uncle the
+emperor Frederick III. On the death of Wladislaus III. (Nov. 10th,
+1444), Ladislaus V. was elected king by the Hungarian estates, though
+not without considerable opposition, and a deputation was sent to Vienna
+to induce the emperor to surrender the child and the holy crown; but it
+was not till 1452 that Frederick was compelled to relinquish both. The
+child was then transferred to the pernicious guardianship of his
+maternal grandfather Ulrich Cillei, who corrupted him soul and body and
+inspired him with a jealous hatred of the Hunyadis. On the 28th of
+October 1453 he was crowned king of Bohemia, and henceforth spent most
+of his time at Prague and Vienna. He remained supinely indifferent to
+the Turkish peril; at the instigation of Cillei did his best to hinder
+the defensive preparations of the great Hunyadi, and fled from the
+country on the tidings of the siege of Belgrade. On the death of Hunyadi
+he made Cillei governor of Hungary at the diet of Futtak (October 1456),
+and when that traitor paid with his life for his murderous attempt on
+Laszló Hunyadi at Belgrade, Ladislaus procured the decapitation of young
+Hunyadi (16th of March 1457), after a mock trial which raised such a
+storm in Hungary that the king fled to Prague, where he died suddenly
+(Nov. 23rd, 1457), while making preparations for his marriage with
+Magdalena, daughter of Charles VII. of France. He is supposed to have
+been poisoned by his political opponents in Bohemia.
+
+ See F. Palacky, _Zeugenverhör über den Tod König Ladislaus von Ungarn
+ u. Böhmen_ (Prague, 1856); Ignacz Acsády, _History of the Hungarian
+ State_ (Hung.), vol. i. (Budapest, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE (c. 1730-1791), French man of letters,
+was born at Lamothe (Haute-Marne). While still young he removed to
+Paris, where the rest of his life was spent in literary activity. He
+died on the 26th of November 1791. His numerous works include _Contes
+philosophiques et moraux_ (1765), _Les Deux Âges du goût et du génie
+sous Louis XIV. et sous Louis XV._ (1769), a parallel and contrast, in
+which the decision is given in favour of the latter; _L'Espagne
+littéraire_ (1774); _Éloge de Voltaire_ (1779) and _Éloge de Montaigne_
+(1781).
+
+
+
+
+LADO ENCLAVE, a region of the upper Nile formerly administered by the
+Congo Free State, but since 1910 a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
+It has an area of about 15,000 sq. m., and a population estimated at
+250,000 and consisting of Bari, Madi, Kuku and other Nilotic Negroes.
+The enclave is bounded S.E. by the north-west shores of Albert
+Nyanza--as far south as the port of Mahagi--E. by the western bank of
+the Nile (Bahr-el-Jebel) to the point where the river is intersected by
+5° 30´ N., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the Nile
+westward to 30° E. This meridian forms the west frontier to 4° N., the
+frontier thence being the Nile-Congo watershed to the point nearest to
+Mahagi and from that point direct to Albert Nyanza.
+
+The country is a moderately elevated plateau sloping northward from the
+higher ground marking the Congo-Nile watershed. The plains are mostly
+covered with bush, with stretches of forest in the northern districts.
+Traversing the plateau are two parallel mountainous chains having a
+general north to south direction. One chain, the Kuku Mountains (average
+height 2000 ft.), approaches close to the Nile and presents, as seen
+from the river, several apparently isolated peaks. At other places these
+mountains form precipices which stretch in a continuous line like a huge
+wall. From Dufile in 3° 34´ N. to below the Bedden Rapids in 4° 40´ N.
+the bed of the Nile is much obstructed and the river throughout this
+reach is unnavigable (see Nile). Below the Bedden Rapids rises the
+conical hill of Rejaf, and north of that point the Nile valley becomes
+flat. Ranges of hill, however, are visible farther westwards, and a
+little north of 5° N. is Jebel Lado, a conspicuous mountain 2500 ft.
+high and some 12 m. distant from the Nile. It has given its name to the
+district, being the first hill seen from the Nile in the ascent of some
+1000 m. from Khartum. On the river at Rejaf, at Lado, and at Kiro, 28 m.
+N. of Lado, are government stations and trading establishments. The
+western chain of hills has loftier peaks than those of Kuku, Jebel Loka
+being about 3000 ft. high. This western chain forms a secondary
+watershed separating the basin of the Yei, a large river, some 400 m. in
+length, which runs almost due north to join the Nile, from the other
+streams of the enclave, which have an easterly or north-easterly
+direction and join the Nile after comparatively short courses.
+
+The northern part of the district was first visited by Europeans in
+1841-1842, when the Nile was ascended by an expedition despatched by
+Mehemet Ali to the foot of the rapids at Bedden. The neighbouring posts
+of Gondokoro, on the east bank of the Nile, and Lado, soon became
+stations of the Khartum ivory and slave traders. After the discovery of
+Albert Nyanza by Sir Samuel Baker in 1864, the whole country was overrun
+by Arabs, Levantines, Turks and others, whose chief occupation was slave
+raiding. The region was claimed as part of the Egyptian Sudan, but it
+was not until the arrival of Sir Samuel Baker at Gondokoro in 1870 as
+governor of the equatorial provinces, that any effective control of the
+slave traders was attempted. Baker was succeeded by General C. G.
+Gordon, who established a separate administration for the
+Bahr-el-Ghazal. In 1878 Emin Pasha became governor of the Equatorial
+Province, a term henceforth confined to the region adjoining the main
+Nile above the Sobat confluence, and the region south of the
+Bahr-el-Ghazal province. (The whole of the Lado Enclave thus formed part
+of Emin's old province.) Emin made his headquarters at Lado, whence he
+was driven in 1885 by the Mahdists. He then removed to Wadelai, a
+station farther south, but in 1889 the pasha, to whose aid H. M. Stanley
+had conducted an expedition from the Congo, evacuated the country and
+with Stanley made his way to the east coast. While the Mahdists remained
+in possession at Rejaf, Great Britain in virtue of her position in
+Uganda claimed the upper Nile region as within the British sphere; a
+claim admitted by Germany in 1890. In February 1894 the union jack was
+hoisted at Wadelai, while in May of the same year Great Britain granted
+to Leopold II., as sovereign of the Congo State, a lease of large areas
+lying west of the upper Nile inclusive of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and
+Fashoda. Pressed however by France, Leopold II. agreed to occupy only
+that part of the leased area east of 30° E. and south of 5° 30´ N., and
+in this manner the actual limits of the Lado Enclave, as it was
+thereafter called, were fixed. Congo State forces had penetrated to the
+Nile valley as early as 1891, but it was not until 1897, when on the
+17th of February Commandant Chaltin inflicted a decisive defeat on the
+Mahdists at Rejaf, that their occupation of the Lado Enclave was
+assured. After the withdrawal of the French from Fashoda, Leopold II.
+revived (1899) his claim to the whole of the area, leased to him in
+1894. In this claim he was unsuccessful, and the lease, by a new
+agreement made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see AFRICA, §
+5). The king however retained the enclave, with the stipulation that six
+months after the termination of his reign it should be handed over to
+the Anglo-Sudanese government (see _Treaty Series_, No. 4, 1906).
+
+ See _Le Mouvement géographique_ (Brussels) _passim_, and especially
+ articles in the 1910 issues.
+
+
+
+
+LADOGA (formerly NEVO), a lake of northern Russia, between 59° 56´ and
+61° 46´ N., and 29° 53´ and 32° 50´ E., surrounded by the governments of
+St Petersburg and Olonets, and of Viborg in Finland. It has the form of
+a quadrilateral, elongated from N.W. to S.E. Its eastern and southern
+shores are flat and marshy, the north-western craggy and fringed by
+numerous small rocky islands, the largest of which are Valamo and
+Konnevitz, together having an area of 14 sq. m. Ladoga is 7000 sq. m. in
+area, that is, thirty-one times as large as the Lake of Geneva; but, its
+depth being less, it contains only nineteen times as much water as the
+Swiss lake. The greatest depth, 730 ft., is in a trough in the
+north-western part, the average depth not exceeding 250 to 350 ft. The
+level of Lake Ladoga is 55 ft. above the Gulf of Finland, but it rises
+and falls about 7 ft., according to atmospheric conditions, a phenomenon
+very similar to the _seiches_ of the Lake of Geneva being observed in
+connexion with this.
+
+ The western and eastern shores consist of boulder clay, as well as a
+ narrow strip on the southern shore, south of which runs a ridge of
+ crags of Silurian sandstones. The hills of the north-western shore
+ afford a variety of granites and crystalline slates of the Laurentian
+ system, whilst Valamo island is made up of a rock which Russian
+ geologists describe as orthoclastic hypersthenite. The granite and
+ marble of Serdobol, and the sandstone of Putilovo, are much used for
+ buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkäranta mine
+ are exported.
+
+ No fewer than seventy rivers enter Ladoga, pouring into it the waters
+ of numberless smaller lakes which lie at higher levels round it. The
+ Volkhov, which conveys the waters of Lake Ilmen, is the largest; Lake
+ Onega discharges its waters by the Svir; and the Saima system of lakes
+ of eastern Finland contributes the Vuoxen and Taipale rivers; the Syas
+ brings the waters from the smaller lakes and marshes of the Valdai
+ plateau. Ladoga discharges its surplus water by means of the Neva,
+ which flows from its south-western corner into the Gulf of Finland,
+ rolling down its broad channel 104,000 cubic ft. of water per second.
+
+ The water of Ladoga is very pure and cold; in May the surface
+ temperature does not exceed 36° Fahr., and even in August it reaches
+ only 50° and 53°, the average yearly temperature of the air at Valamo
+ being 36.8°. The lake begins to freeze in October, but it is only
+ about the end of December that it is frozen in its deeper parts; and
+ it remains ice-bound until the end of March, though broad icefields
+ continue to float in the middle of the lake until broken up by gales.
+ Only a small part of the Ladoga ice is discharged by the Neva; but it
+ is enough to produce in the middle of June a return of cold in the
+ northern capital. The thickness of the ice does not exceed 3 or 4 ft.;
+ but during the alternations of cold and warm weather, with strong
+ gales, in winter, stacks of ice, 70 and 80 ft. high, are raised on the
+ shores and on the icefields. The water is in continuous rotatory
+ motion, being carried along the western shore from north to south, and
+ along the eastern from south to north. The vegetation on the shores is
+ poor; immense forests, which formerly covered them, are now mostly
+ destroyed. But the fauna of the lake is somewhat rich; a species of
+ seal which inhabits its waters, as well as several species of arctic
+ crustaceans, recall its former connexion with the Arctic Ocean. The
+ sweet water _Diatomaceae_ which are found in great variety in the ooze
+ of the deepest parts of the lake also have an arctic character.
+
+ Fishing is very extensively carried on. Navigation, which is
+ practicable for only one hundred and eighty days in the year, is
+ rather difficult owing to fogs and gales, which are often accompanied,
+ even in April and September, with snow-storms. The prevailing winds
+ blow from N.W. and S.W.; N.E. winds cause the water to rise in the
+ south-western part, sometimes 3 to 5 ft. Steamers ply regularly in two
+ directions from St Petersburg--to the monasteries of Konnevitz and
+ Valamo, and to the mouth of the Svir, whence they go up that river to
+ Lake Onega and Petrozavodsk; and small vessels transport timber,
+ firewood, planks, iron, kaolin, granite, marble, fish, hay and various
+ small wares from the northern shore to Schlüsselburg, and thence to St
+ Petersburg. Navigation on the lake being too dangerous for small
+ craft, canals with an aggregate length of 104 m. were dug in
+ 1718-1731, and others in 1861-1886 having an aggregate length of 101
+ m. along its southern shore, uniting with the Neva at Schlüsselburg
+ the mouths of the rivers Volkhov, Syas and Svir, all links in the
+ elaborate system of canals which connect the upper Volga with the Gulf
+ of Finland.
+
+ The population (35,000) on the shores of the lake is sparse, and the
+ towns--Schlüsselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga (4144);
+ Kexholm (1325) and Serdobol--are small. The monasteries of Valamo,
+ founded in 992, on the island of the same name, and Konnevskiy, on
+ Konnevitz island, founded in 1393, are visited every year by many
+ thousands of pilgrims. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
+
+
+
+
+LADY (O. Eng. _hlaéfdige_, Mid. Eng. _láfdi_, _lavedi_; the first part
+of the word is _hláf_, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding _hláford_,
+lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to
+knead, seen also in "dough"; the sense development from bread-kneader,
+bread-maker, to the ordinary meaning, though not clearly to be traced
+historically, may be illustrated by that of "lord"), a term of which the
+main applications are two, (1) as the correlative of "lord" (q.v.) in
+certain of the usages of that word, (2) as the correlative of
+"gentleman" (q.v.). The primary meaning of mistress of a household is,
+if not obsolete, in present usage only a vulgarism. The special use of
+the word as a title of the Virgin Mary, usually "Our Lady," represents
+the Lat. _Domina Nostra_. In Lady Day and Lady Chapel the word is
+properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. _hlaéfdigan_. As a title
+of nobility the uses of "lady" are mainly paralleled by those of "lord."
+It is thus a less formal alternative to the full title giving the
+specific rank, of marchioness, countess, viscountess or baroness,
+whether as the title of the husband's rank by right or courtesy, or as
+the lady's title in her own right. In the case of the younger sons of a
+duke or marquess, who by courtesy have lord prefixed to their Christian
+and family name, the wife is known by the husband's Christian and family
+name with Lady prefixed, e.g. Lady John B.; the daughters of dukes,
+marquesses and earls are by courtesy Ladies; here that title is prefixed
+to the Christian and family name of the lady, e.g. Lady Mary B., and
+this is preserved if the lady marry a commoner, e.g. Mr and Lady Mary C.
+"Lady" is also the customary title of the wife of a baronet or knight;
+the proper title, now only used in legal documents or on sepulchral
+monuments, is "dame" (q.v.); in the latter case the usage is to prefix
+Dame to the Christian name of the wife followed by the surname of the
+husband, thus Dame Eleanor B., but in the former, Lady with the surname
+of the husband only, Sir A. and Lady B. During the 15th and 16th
+centuries "princesses" or daughters of the blood royal were usually
+known by their Christian names with "the Lady" prefixed, e.g. the Lady
+Elizabeth.
+
+While "lord" has retained its original application as a title of
+nobility or rank without extension, an example which has been followed
+in Spanish usage by "don," "lady" has been extended in meaning to be the
+feminine correlative of "gentleman" throughout its sense developments,
+and in this is paralleled by _Dame_ in German, _madame_ in French,
+_donna_ in Spanish, &c. It is the general word for any woman of a
+certain social position (see GENTLEMAN).
+
+
+
+
+LADYBANK, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 5½ m. S.W. of Cupar by
+the North British railway, ½ m. from the left bank of the Eden. Pop.
+(1901) 1340. Besides having a station on the main line to Dundee, it is
+also connected with Perth and Kinross and is a railway junction of some
+importance and possesses a locomotive depot. It is an industrial centre,
+linen weaving, coal mining and malting being the principal industries.
+KETTLE, a village 1 m. S., has prehistoric barrows and a fort. At
+COLLESSIE, 2½ m. N. by W., a standing stone, a mound and traces of
+ancient camps exist, while urns and coins have been found. Between the
+parishes of Collessie and Monimail the boundary line takes the form of a
+crescent known as the Bow of Fife. MONIMAIL contains the Mount, the
+residence of Sir David Lindsay the poet (1490-1555). Its lofty site is
+now marked by a clump of trees. Here, too, is the Doric pillar, 100 ft.
+high, raised to the memory of John Hope, 4th earl of Hopetoun. Melville
+House, the seat of the earls of Leven, lies amidst beautiful woods.
+
+
+
+
+LADYBRAND, a town of the Orange Free State, 80 m. E. of Bloemfontein by
+rail. Another railway connects it with Natal via Harrismith. Pop. (1904)
+3862, of whom 2334 were whites. The town is pleasantly situated at the
+foot of a flat-topped hill (the Platberg), about 4 m. W. of the Caledon
+river, which separates the province from Basutoland. Ladybrand is the
+centre of a rich arable district, has a large wheat market and is also a
+health resort, the climate, owing to the proximity of the Maluti
+Mountains, being bracing even during the summer months (November-March).
+Coal and petroleum are found in the neighbourhood. It is named after the
+wife of Sir J. H. Brand, president of the Orange Free State.
+
+
+
+
+LADY-CHAPEL, the chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin and attached to
+churches of large size. Generally the chapel was built eastward of the
+high altar and formed a projection from the main building, as in
+Winchester, Salisbury, Exeter, Wells, St Albans, Chichester,
+Peterborough and Norwich cathedrals,--in the two latter cases now
+destroyed. The earliest Lady-chapel built was that in the Saxon
+cathedral of Canterbury; this was transfered in the rebuilding by
+Archbishop Lanfranc to the west end of the nave, and again shifted in
+1450 to the chapel on the east side of the north transept. The
+Lady-chapel at Ely cathedral is a distinct building attached to the
+north transept; at Rochester the Lady-chapel is west of the south
+transept. Probably the largest Lady-chapel was that built by Henry III.
+in 1220 at Westminster Abbey, which was 30 ft. wide, much in excess of
+any foreign example, and extended to the end of the site now occupied by
+Henry VII.'s chapel. Among other notable English examples of
+Lady-chapels are those at Ottery-St-Mary, Thetford, Bury St Edmund's,
+Wimborne, Christ-church, Hampshire; in Compton Church, Surrey, and
+Compton Martin, Somersetshire, and Darenth, Kent, it was built over the
+chancel. At Croyland Abbey there were two Lady-chapels. Lady-chapels
+exist in most of the French cathedrals and churches, where they form
+part of the chevet; in Belgium they were not introduced before the 14th
+century; in some cases they are of the same size as the other chapels of
+the chevet, but in others, probably rebuilt at a later period, they
+became much more important features, and in Italy and Spain during the
+Renaissance period constitute some of its best examples.
+
+
+
+
+LADY DAY, originally the name for all the days in the church calendar
+marking any event in the Virgin Mary's life, but now restricted to the
+feast of the Annunciation, held on the 25th of March in each year. Lady
+Day was in medieval and later times the beginning of the legal year in
+England. In 1752 this was altered to the 1st of January, but the 25th of
+March remains one of the Quarter Days; though in some parts old Lady
+Day, on the 6th of April, is still the date for rent paying. See
+Annunciation.
+
+
+
+
+LADYSMITH, a town of Natal, 189 m. N.W. of Durban by rail, on the left
+bank of the Klip tributary of the Tugela. Pop. (1904) 5568, of whom 2269
+were whites. It lies 3284 ft. above the sea and is encircled by hills,
+while the Drakensberg are some 30 m. distant to the N.W. Ladysmith is
+the trading centre of northern Natal, and is the chief railway junction
+in the province, the main line from the south dividing here. One line
+crosses Van Reenen's pass into the Orange Free State, the other runs
+northwards to the Transvaal. There are extensive railway workshops.
+Among the public buildings are the Anglican church and the town hall.
+The church contains tablets with the names of 3200 men who perished in
+the defence and relief of the town in the South African War (see below),
+while the clock tower of the town hall, partially destroyed by a Boer
+shell, is kept in its damaged condition.
+
+Ladysmith, founded in 1851, is named after Juana, Lady Smith, wife of
+Sir Harry Smith, then governor of Cape Colony. It stands near the site
+of the camp of the Dutch farmers who in 1848 assembled for the purpose
+of trekking across the Drakensberg. Here they were visited by Sir Harry
+Smith, who induced the majority of the farmers to remain in Natal. The
+growth of the town, at first slow, increased with the opening of the
+railway from Durban in 1886 and the subsequent extension of the line to
+Johannesburg.
+
+In the first and most critical stage of the South African War of
+1899-1902 (see TRANSVAAL) Ladysmith was the centre of the struggle.
+During the British concentration on the town there were fought the
+actions of Talana (or Dundee) on the 20th, Elandslaagte on the 21st and
+Rietfontein on the 24th of October 1899. On the 30th of October the
+British sustained a serious defeat in the general action of Lombard's
+Kop or Farquhar's Farm, and Sir George White decided to hold the town,
+which had been fortified, against investment and siege until he was
+relieved directly or indirectly by Sir Redvers Buller's advance. The
+greater portion of Buller's available troops were despatched to Natal in
+November, with a view to the direct relief of Ladysmith, which meantime
+the Boers had closely invested. His first attempt was repelled on the
+15th of December in the battle of Colenso, his second on the 24th of
+January 1900 by the successful Boer counterstroke against Spion Kop, and
+his third was abandoned without serious fighting (Vaalkranz, Feb. 5).
+But two or three days after Vaalkranz, almost simultaneously with Lord
+Roberts's advance on Bloemfontein Sir Redvers Buller resumed the
+offensive in the hills to the east of Colenso, which he gradually
+cleared of the enemy, and although he was checked after reaching the
+Tugela below Colenso (Feb. 24) he was finally successful in carrying the
+Boer positions (Pieter's Hill) on the 27th and relieving Ladysmith,
+which during these long and anxious months (Nov. 1-Feb. 28) had suffered
+very severely from want of food, and on one occasion (Caesar's Camp,
+Jan. 6, 1900) had only with heavy losses and great difficulty repelled a
+powerful Boer assault. The garrison displayed its unbroken resolution on
+the last day of the investment by setting on foot a mobile column,
+composed of all men who were not too enfeebled to march out, in order to
+harass the Boer retreat. This expedition was however countermanded by
+Buller.
+
+
+
+
+LAELIUS, the name of a Roman plebeian family, probably settled at Tibur
+(Tivoli). The chief members were:--
+
+GAIUS LAELIUS, general and statesman, was a friend of the elder Scipio,
+whom he accompanied on his Spanish campaign (210-206 B.C.). In Scipio's
+consulship (205), Laelius went with him to Sicily, whence he conducted
+an expedition to Africa. In 203 he defeated the Massaesylian prince
+Syphax, who, breaking his alliance with Scipio, had joined the
+Carthaginians, and at Zama (202) rendered considerable service in
+command of the cavalry. In 197 he was plebeian aedile and in 196 praetor
+of Sicily. As consul in 190 he was employed in organizing the recently
+conquered territory in Cisalpine Gaul. Placentia and Cremona were
+repeopled, and a new colony founded at Bononia. He is last heard of in
+170 as ambassador to Transalpine Gaul. Though little is known of his
+personal qualities, his intimacy with Scipio is proof that he must have
+been a man of some importance. Silius Italicus (_Punica_, xv. 450)
+describes him as a man of great endowments, an eloquent orator and a
+brave soldier.
+
+ See Index to Livy; Polybius x. 3. 9, 39, xi. 32, xiv. 4. 8, xv. 9. 12,
+ 14; Appian, _Hisp._ 25-29; Cicero, _Philippica_, xi. 7.
+
+His son, GAIUS LAELIUS, is known chiefly as the friend of the younger
+Scipio, and as one of the speakers in Cicero's _De senectute_, _De
+amicitia_ (or _Laelius_) and _De Republica_. He was surnamed _Sapiens_
+("the wise"), either from his scholarly tastes or because, when tribune,
+he "prudently" withdrew his proposal (151 B.C.) for the relief of the
+farmers by distributions of land, when he saw that it was likely to
+bring about disturbances. In the third Punic War (147) he accompanied
+Scipio to Africa, and distinguished himself at the capture of the
+Cothon, the military harbour of Carthage. In 145 he carried on
+operations with moderate success against Viriathus in Spain; in 140 he
+was elected consul. During the Gracchan period, as a staunch supporter
+of Scipio and the aristocracy, Laelius became obnoxious to the
+democrats. He was associated with P. Popillius Laenas in the prosecution
+of those who had supported Tiberius Gracchus, and in 131 opposed the
+bill brought forward by C. Papirius Carbo to render legal the election
+of a tribune to a second year of office. The attempts of his enemies,
+however, failed to shake his reputation. He was a highly accomplished
+man and belonged to the so-called "Scipionic circle." He studied
+philosophy under the Stoics Diogenes Babylonius and Panaetius of Rhodes;
+he was a poet, and the plays of Terence, by reason of their elegance of
+diction, were sometimes attributed to him. With Scipio he was mainly
+instrumental in introducing the study of the Greek language and
+literature into Rome. He was a gifted orator, though his refined
+eloquence was perhaps less suited to the forum than to the senate. He
+delivered speeches _De Collegiis_ (145) against the proposal of the
+tribune C. Licinius Crassus to deprive the priestly colleges of their
+right of co-optation and to transfer the power of election to the
+people; _Pro Publicanis_ (139), on behalf of the farmers of the revenue;
+against the proposal of Carbo noticed above; _Pro Se_, a speech in his
+own defence, delivered in answer to Carbo and Gracchus; funeral
+orations, amongst them two on his friend Scipio. Much information is
+given concerning him in Cicero, who compares him to Socrates.
+
+ See Index to Cicero; Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_, 8; Appian, _Punica_,
+ 126; Horace, _Sat._ ii. 1. 72; Quintilian, _Instit._ xii. 10. 10;
+ Suetonius, _Vita Terentii_; Terence, _Adelphi_, Prol. 15, with the
+ commentators.
+
+
+
+
+LAENAS, the name of a plebeian family in ancient Rome, notorious for
+cruelty and arrogance. The two most famous of the name[1] are:--
+
+GAIUS POPILLIUS LAENAS, consul in 172 B.C. He was sent to Greece in 174
+to allay the general disaffection, but met with little success. He took
+part in the war against Perseus, king of Macedonia (Livy xliii. 17, 22).
+When Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, invaded Egypt, Laenas was sent
+to arrest his progress. Meeting him near Alexandria, he handed him the
+decree of the senate, demanding the evacuation of Egypt. Antiochus
+having asked time for consideration, Laenas drew a circle round him with
+his staff, and told him he must give an answer before he stepped out of
+it. Antiochus thereupon submitted (Livy xlv. 12; Polybius xxix. 11;
+Cicero, _Philippica_, viii. 8; Vell. Pat. i. 10).
+
+PUBLIUS POPILLIUS LAENAS, son of the preceding. When consul in 132 B.C.
+he incurred the hatred of the democrats by his harsh measures as head of
+a special commission appointed to take measures against the accomplices
+of Tiberius Gracchus. In 123 Gaius Gracchus brought in a bill
+prohibiting all such commissions, and declared that, in accordance with
+the old laws of appeal, a magistrate who pronounced sentence of death
+against a citizen, without the people's assent, should be guilty of
+high treason. It is not known whether the bill contained a retrospective
+clause against Laenas, but he left Rome and sentence of banishment from
+Italy was pronounced against him. After the restoration of the
+aristocracy the enactments against him were cancelled, and he was
+recalled (121).
+
+ See Cicero, _Brutus_, 25. 34, and _De domo sua_, 31; Vell. Pat. ii. 7;
+ Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 4.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+ [1] The name is said by Cicero to be derived from _laena_, the
+ sacerdotal cloak carried by Marcus Popillius (consul 359) when he
+ went to the forum to quell a popular rising.
+
+
+
+
+LAER (or LAAR), PIETER VAN (1613-c. 1675), Dutch painter, was born at
+Laaren in Holland. The influence of a long stay in Rome begun at an
+early age is seen in his landscape and backgrounds, but in his subjects
+he remained true to the Dutch tradition, choosing generally lively
+scenes from peasant life, as markets, feasts, bowling scenes, farriers'
+shops, robbers, hunting scenes and peasants with cattle. From this
+taste, or from his personal deformity, he was nicknamed Bamboccio by the
+Italians. On his return to Holland about 1639, he lived chiefly at
+Amsterdam and Haarlem, in which latter city he died in 1674 or 1675. His
+pictures are marked by skilful composition and good drawing; he was
+especially careful in perspective. His colouring, according to Crowe, is
+"generally of a warm, brownish tone, sometimes very clear, but oftener
+heavy, and his execution broad and spirited." Certain etched plates are
+also attributed to him.
+
+
+
+
+LAESTRYGONES, a mythical race of giants and cannibals. According to the
+_Odyssey_ (x. 80) they dwelt in the farthest north, where the nights
+were so short that the shepherd who was driving out his flock met
+another driving it in. This feature of the tale contains some hint of
+the long nightless summer in the Arctic regions, which perhaps reached
+the Greeks through the merchants who fetched amber from the Baltic
+coasts. Odysseus in his wanderings arrived at the coast inhabited by the
+Laestrygones, and escaped with only one ship, the rest being sunk by the
+giants with masses of rock. Their chief city was Telepylus, founded by a
+former king Lamus, their ruler at that time being Antiphates. This is a
+purely fanciful name, but Lamus takes us into a religious world where we
+can trace the origin of the legend, and observe the god of an older
+religion becoming the subject of fairy tales (see LAMIA) in a later
+period.
+
+ The later Greeks placed the country of the Laestrygones in Sicily, to
+ the south of Aetna, near Leontini; but Horace (_Odes_, iii. 16. 34)
+ and other Latin authors speak of them as living in southern Latium,
+ near Formiae, which was supposed to have been founded by Lamus.
+
+
+
+
+LAETUS, JULIUS POMPONIUS [Giulio Pomponio Leto], (1425-1498), Italian
+humanist, was born at Salerno. He studied at Rome under Laurentius
+Valla, whom he succeeded (1457) as professor of eloquence in the
+Gymnasium Romanum. About this time he founded an academy, the members of
+which adopted Greek and Latin names, met on the Quirinal to discuss
+classical questions and celebrated the birthday of Romulus. Its
+constitution resembled that of an ancient priestly college, and Laetus
+was styled pontifex maximus. The pope (Paul II.) viewed these
+proceedings with suspicion, as savouring of paganism, heresy and
+republicanism. In 1468 twenty of the academicians were arrested during
+the carnival; Laetus, who had taken refuge in Venice, was sent back to
+Rome, imprisoned and put to the torture, but refused to plead guilty to
+the charges of infidelity and immorality. For want of evidence, he was
+acquitted and allowed to resume his professorial duties; but it was
+forbidden to utter the name of the academy even in jest. Sixtus IV.
+permitted the resumption of its meetings, which continued to be held
+till the sack of Rome (1527) by Constable Bourbon during the papacy of
+Clement VII. Laetus continued to teach in Rome until his death on the
+9th of June 1498. As a teacher, Laetus, who has been called the first
+head of a philological school, was extraordinarily successful; in his
+own words, like Socrates and Christ, he expected to live on in the
+person of his pupils, amongst whom were many of the most famous scholars
+of the period. His works, written in pure and simple Latin, were
+published in a collected form (_Opera Pomponii Laeti varia_, 1521). They
+contain treatises on the Roman magistrates, priests and lawyers, and a
+compendium of Roman history from the death of the younger Gordian to
+the time of Justin III. Laetus also wrote commentaries on classical
+authors, and promoted the publication of the editio princeps of Virgil
+at Rome in 1469.
+
+ See _The Life of Leto_ by Sabellicus (Strassburg, 1510); G. Voigt,
+ _Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Alterthums_, ii.; F. Gregorovius,
+ _Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_, vii. (1894), p. 576, for an
+ account of the academy; Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_
+ (1908), ii. 92.
+
+
+
+
+LAEVIUS (? c. 80 B.C.), a Latin poet of whom practically nothing is
+known. The earliest reference to him is perhaps in Suetonius (_De
+grammaticis_, 3), though it is not certain that the Laevius Milissus
+there referred to is the same person. Definite references do not occur
+before the 2nd century (Fronto, _Ep. ad M. Caes._ i. 3; Aulus Gellius,
+_Noct. Att._ ii. 24, xii. 10, xix. 9; Apuleius, _De magia_, 30;
+Porphyrion, _Ad Horat. carm._ iii. 1, 2). Some sixty miscellaneous lines
+are preserved (see Bährens, _Fragm. poët. rom._ pp. 287-293), from which
+it is difficult to see how ancient critics could have regarded him as
+the master of Ovid or Catullus. Gellius and Ausonius state that he
+composed an _Erotopaegnia_, and in other sources he is credited with
+_Adonis_, _Alcestis_, _Centauri_, _Helena_, _Ino_, _Protesilaudamia_,
+_Sirenocirca_, _Phoenix_, which may, however, be only the parts of the
+_Erotopaegnia_. They were not serious poems, but light and often
+licentious skits on the heroic myths.
+
+ See O. Ribbeck, _Geschichte der römischen Dichtung_, i.; H. de la
+ Ville de Mirmont, _Étude biographique et littéraire sur le poète
+ Laevius_ (Paris, 1900), with critical ed. of the fragments, and
+ remarks on vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, _Poëtarum latinorum
+ reliquiae_ (Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen
+ Litteratur_ (2nd ed.), pt. i. p. 163; W. Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman
+ Literature_ (Eng. tr.), § 150, 4; a convenient summary in F. Plessis,
+ _La Poésie latine_ (1909), pp. 139-142.
+
+
+
+
+LAEVULINIC ACID ([beta]-acetopropionic acid), C5H8O3 or
+CH3CO·CH2·CH2·CO2H, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose, inulin,
+starch, &c., by boiling them with dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric
+acids. It may be synthesized by condensing sodium acetoacetate with
+monochloracetic ester, the acetosuccinic ester produced being then
+hydrolysed with dilute hydrochloric acid (M. Conrad, _Ann._, 1877, 188,
+p. 222).
+
+ CH3·CO·CH·Na CH3·CO·CH·CH2·CO2R
+ | --> | -->CH3COCH2·CH2·CO2OH.
+ CO2R CO2R
+
+It may also be prepared by heating the anhydride of
+[gamma]-methyloxy-glutaric acid with concentrated sulphuric acid, and by
+oxidation of methyl heptenone and of geraniol. It crystallizes in
+plates, which melt at 32.5-33° C. and boil at 148-149° (15 mm.) (A.
+Michael, _Jour. prak. Chem._, 1891 [2], 44, p. 114). It is readily
+soluble in alcohol, ether and water. The acid, when distilled slowly, is
+decomposed and yields [alpha]- and [beta]-angelica lactones. When heated
+with hydriodic acid and phosphorus, it yields n-valeric acid; and with
+iodine and caustic soda solution it gives iodoform, even in the cold.
+With hydroxylamine it yields an oxime, which by the action of
+concentrated sulphuric acid rearranges itself to N-methylsuccinimide
+[CH2·CO]2N·CH3.
+
+
+
+
+LA FARGE, JOHN (1835-1910), American artist, was born in New York, on
+the 31st of March 1835, of French parentage. He received instruction in
+drawing from his grandfather, Binsse de St Victor, a painter of
+miniatures; studied law and architecture; entered the atelier of Thomas
+Couture in Paris, where he remained a short time, giving especial
+attention to the study and copying of old masters at the Louvre; and
+began by making illustrations to the poets (1859). An intimacy with the
+artist William M. Hunt had a strong influence on him, the two working
+together at Newport, Rhode Island. La Farge painted landscape, still
+life and figure alike in the early sixties. But from 1866 on he was for
+some time incapacitated for work, and when he regained strength he did
+some decorative work for Trinity church, Boston, in 1876, and turned his
+attention to stained glass, becoming president of the Society of Mural
+Painters. Some of his important commissions include windows for St
+Thomas's church (1877), St Peter's church, the Paulist church, the Brick
+church (1882), the churches of the Incarnation (1885) and the Ascension
+(1887), New York; Trinity church, Buffalo, and the "Battle Window" in
+Memorial Hall at Harvard; ceilings and windows for the house of
+Cornelius Vanderbilt, windows for the houses of W. H. Vanderbilt and D.
+O. Mills, and panels for the house of Whitelaw Reid, New York; panels
+for the Congressional Library, Washington; Bowdoin College, the Capitol
+at St Paul, Minn., besides designs for many stained glass windows. He
+was also a prolific painter in oil and water colour, the latter seen
+notably in some water-colour sketches, the result of a voyage in the
+South Seas, shown in 1895. His influence on American art was powerfully
+exhibited in such men as Augustus St Gaudens, Wilton Lockwood, Francis
+Lathrop and John Humphreys Johnston. He became president of the Society
+of American Artists, a member of the National Academy of Design in 1869;
+an officer of the Legion of Honour of France; and received many medals
+and decorations. He published _Considerations on Painting_ (New York,
+1895), _Hokusai: A Talk about Hokusai_ (New York, 1897), and _An
+Artist's Letters from Japan_ (New York, 1897).
+
+ See Cecilia Waern, _John La Farge, Artist and Writer_ (London, 1896,
+ No. 26 of _The Portfolio_).
+
+
+
+
+LA FARINA, GIUSEPPE (1815-1863), Italian author and politician, was born
+at Messina. On account of the part he took in the insurrection of 1837
+he had to leave Sicily, but returning in 1839 he conducted various
+newspapers of liberal tendencies, until his efforts were completely
+interdicted, when he removed to Florence. In 1840 he had published
+_Messina ed i suoi monumenti_, and after his removal to Florence he
+brought out _La Germania coi suoi monumenti_ (1842), _L' Italia coi suoi
+monumenti_ (1842), _La Svizzera storica ed artistica_ (1842-1843), La
+China, 4 vols. (1843-1847), and _Storia d' Italia_, 7 vols. (1846-1854).
+In 1847 he established at Florence a democratic journal, _L' Alba_, in
+the interests of Italian freedom and unity, but on the outbreak of the
+revolution in Sicily in 1848 he returned thither and was elected deputy
+and member of the committee of war. In August of that year he was
+appointed minister of public instruction and later of war and marine.
+After vigorously conducting a campaign against the Bourbon troops, he
+was forced into exile, and repaired to France in 1849. In 1850 he
+published his _Storia documentata della Rivoluzione Siciliana del
+1848-1849_, and in 1851-1852 his _Storia d' Italia dal 1815 al 1848_, in
+6 vols. He returned to Italy in 1854 and settled at Turin, and in 1856
+he founded the _Piccolo Corriere d' Italia_, an organ which had great
+influence in propagating the political sentiments of the Società
+Nazionale Italiana, of which he ultimately was chosen president. With
+Daniele Manin (q.v.), one of the founders of that society, he advocated
+the unity of Italy under Victor Emmanuel even before Cavour, with whom
+at one time he had daily interviews, and organized the emigration of
+volunteers from all parts of Italy into the Piedmontese army. He also
+negotiated an interview between Cavour and Garibaldi, with the result
+that the latter was appointed commander of the Cacciatori delle Alpi in
+the war of 1859. Later he supported Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily,
+where he himself went soon after the occupation of Palermo, but he
+failed to bring about the immediate annexation of the island to Piedmont
+as Cavour wished. In 1860 he was chosen a member of the first Italian
+parliament and was subsequently made councillor of state. He died on the
+5th of September 1863.
+
+ See A. Franchi, _Epistolario di Giuseppe La Farina_ (2 vols., 1869)
+ and L. Carpi, _Il Risorgimento Italiano_, vol. i. (Milan, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+LA FAYETTE, GILBERT MOTIER DE (1380-1462), marshal of France, was
+brought up at the court of Louis II., 3rd duke of Bourbon. He served
+under Marshal Boucicaut in Italy, and on his return to France after the
+evacuation of Genoa in 1409 became seneschal of the Bourbonnais. In the
+English wars he was with John I., 4th duke of Bourbon, at the capture of
+Soubise in 1413, and of Compiègne in 1415. The duke then made him
+lieutenant-general in Languedoc and Guienne. He failed to defend Caen
+and Falaise in the interest of the dauphin (afterwards Charles VII.)
+against Henry V. in 1417 and 1418, but in the latter year he held Lyons
+for some time against Jean sans Peur, duke of Burgundy. A series of
+successes over the English and Burgundians on the Loire was rewarded in
+1420 with the government of Dauphiny and the office of marshal of
+France. La Fayette commanded the Franco-Scottish troops at the battle of
+Baugé (1422), though he did not, as has been sometimes stated, slay
+Thomas, duke of Clarence, with his own hand. In 1424 he was taken
+prisoner by the English at Verneuil, but was released shortly
+afterwards, and fought with Joan of Arc at Orleans and Patay in 1429.
+The marshal had become a member of the grand council of Charles VII.,
+and with the exception of a short disgrace about 1430, due to the
+ill-will of Georges de la Trémouille, he retained the royal favour all
+his life. He took an active part in the army reform initiated by Charles
+VII., and the establishment of military posts for the suppression of
+brigandage. His last campaign was against the English in Normandy in
+1449. He died on the 23rd of February 1462. His line was continued by
+Gilbert IV. de La Fayette, son of his second marriage with Jeanne de
+Joyeuse.
+
+
+
+
+LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE (c. 1616-1665), was one of the fourteen children
+of John, comte de La Fayette, and Marguerite de Bourbon-Busset. Louise
+became maid of honour to Anne of Austria, and Richelieu sought to
+attract the attention of Louis XIII. to her in the hope that she might
+counterbalance the influence exercised over him by Marie de Hautefort.
+The affair did not turn out as the minister wished. The king did indeed
+make her the confidante of his affairs and of his resentment against the
+cardinal, but she, far from repeating his confidences to the minister,
+set herself to encourage the king in his resistance to Richelieu's
+dominion. She refused, nevertheless, to become Louis's mistress, and
+after taking leave of the king in Anne of Austria's presence retired to
+the convent of the Filles de Sainte-Marie in 1637. Here she was
+repeatedly visited by Louis, with whom she maintained a correspondence.
+Richelieu intercepted the letters, and by omissions and falsifications
+succeeded in destroying their mutual confidence. The cessation of their
+intercourse was regretted by the queen, who had been reconciled with her
+husband through the influence of Louise. At the time of her death in
+January 1665 Mlle de La Fayette was superior of a convent of her order
+which she had founded at Chaillot.
+
+ See _Mémoires de Madame de Motteville_; Victor Cousin, _Madame de
+ Hautefort_ (Paris, 1868); L'Abbé Sorin, _Louise-Angèle de La Fayette_
+ (Paris, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+LA FAYETTE, MARIE JOSEPH PAUL YVES ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER. MARQUIS DE
+(1757-1834), was born at the château of Chavaniac in Auvergne, France,
+on the 6th of September 1757. His father[1] was killed at Minden in
+1759, and his mother and his grandfather died in 1770, and thus at the
+age of thirteen he was left an orphan with a princely fortune. He
+married at sixteen Marie Adrienne Françoise de Noailles (d. 1807),
+daughter of the duc d'Ayen and granddaughter of the duc de Noailles,
+then one of the most influential families in the kingdom. La Fayette
+chose to follow the career of his father, and entered the Guards.
+
+La Fayette was nineteen and a captain of dragoons when the English
+colonies in America proclaimed their independence. "At the first news of
+this quarrel," he afterwards wrote in his memoirs, "my heart was
+enrolled in it." The count de Broglie, whom he consulted, discouraged
+his zeal for the cause of liberty. Finding his purpose unchangeable,
+however, he presented the young enthusiast to Johann Kalb, who was also
+seeking service in America, and through Silas Deane, American agent in
+Paris, an arrangement was concluded, on the 7th of December 1776, by
+which La Fayette was to enter the American service as major-general. At
+this moment the news arrived of grave disasters to the American arms. La
+Fayette's friends again advised him to abandon his purpose. Even the
+American envoys, Franklin and Arthur Lee, who had superseded Deane,
+withheld further encouragement and the king himself forbade his leaving.
+At the instance of the British ambassador at Versailles orders were
+issued to seize the ship La Fayette was fitting out at Bordeaux, and La
+Fayette himself was arrested. But the ship was sent from Bordeaux to a
+neighbouring port in Spain, La Fayette escaped from custody in disguise,
+and before a second _lettre de cachet_ could reach him he was afloat
+with eleven chosen companions. Though two British cruisers had been sent
+in pursuit of him, he landed safely near Georgetown, S.C., after a
+tedious voyage of nearly two months, and hastened to Philadelphia, then
+the seat of government of the colonies.
+
+When this lad of nineteen, with the command of only what little English
+he had been able to pick up on his voyage, presented himself to Congress
+with Deane's authority to demand a commission of the highest rank after
+the commander-in-chief, his reception was a little chilly. Deane's
+contracts were so numerous, and for officers of such high rank, that it
+was impossible for Congress to ratify them without injustice to
+Americans who had become entitled by their service to promotion. La
+Fayette appreciated the situation as soon as it was explained to him,
+and immediately expressed his desire to serve in the American army upon
+two conditions--that he should receive no pay, and that he should act as
+a volunteer. These terms were so different from those made by other
+foreigners, they had been attended with such substantial sacrifices, and
+they promised such important indirect advantages, that Congress passed a
+resolution, on the 31st of July 1777, "that his services be accepted,
+and that, in consideration of his zeal, illustrious family and
+connexions, he have the rank and commission of major-general of the
+United States." Next day La Fayette met Washington, whose lifelong
+friend he became. Congress intended his appointment as purely honorary,
+and the question of giving him a command was left entirely to
+Washington's discretion. His first battle was Brandywine (q.v.) on the
+11th of September 1777, where he showed courage and activity and
+received a wound. Shortly afterwards he secured what he most desired,
+the command of a division--the immediate result of a communication from
+Washington to Congress of November 1, 1777, in which he said:--
+
+ "The marquis de La Fayette is extremely solicitous of having a command
+ equal to his rank. I do not know in what light Congress will view the
+ matter, but it appears to me, from a consideration of his illustrious
+ and important connexions, the attachment which he has manifested for
+ our cause, and the consequences which his return in disgust might
+ produce, that it will be advisable to gratify his wishes, and the more
+ so as several gentlemen from France who came over under some
+ assurances have gone back disappointed in their expectations. His
+ conduct with respect to them stands in a favourable point of
+ view--having interested himself to remove their uneasiness and urged
+ the impropriety of their making any unfavourable representations upon
+ their arrival at home. Besides, he is sensible, discreet in his
+ manners, has made great proficiency in our language, and from the
+ disposition he discovered at the battle of Brandywine possesses a
+ large share of bravery and military ardour."
+
+Of La Fayette's military career in the United States there is not much
+to be said. Though the commander of a division, he never had many troops
+in his charge, and whatever military talents he possessed were not of
+the kind which appeared to conspicuous advantage on the theatre to which
+his wealth and family influence rather than his soldierly gifts had
+called him. In the first months of 1778 he commanded troops detailed for
+the projected expedition against Canada. His retreat from Barren Hill
+(May 28, 1778) was commended as masterly; and he fought at the battle of
+Monmouth (June 28,) and received from Congress a formal recognition of
+his services in the Rhode Island expedition (August 1778).
+
+The treaties of commerce and defensive alliance, signed by the
+insurgents and France on the 6th of February 1778, were promptly
+followed by a declaration of war by England against the latter, and La
+Fayette asked leave to revisit France and to consult his king as to the
+further direction of his services. This leave was readily granted; it
+was not difficult for Washington to replace the major-general, but it
+was impossible to find another equally competent, influential and
+devoted champion of the American cause near the court of Louis XVI. In
+fact, he went on a mission rather than a visit. He embarked on the 11th
+of January 1779, was received with enthusiasm, and was made a colonel in
+the French cavalry. On the 4th of March following Franklin wrote to the
+president of Congress: "The marquis de La Fayette ... is infinitely
+esteemed and beloved here, and I am persuaded will do everything in his
+power to merit a continuance of the same affection from America." He won
+the confidence of Vergennes.
+
+La Fayette was absent from America about six months, and his return was
+the occasion of a complimentary resolution of Congress. From April until
+October 1781 he was charged with the defence of Virginia, in which
+Washington gave him the credit of doing all that was possible with the
+forces at his disposal; and he showed his zeal by borrowing money on his
+own account to provide his soldiers with necessaries. The battle of
+Yorktown, in which La Fayette bore an honourable if not a distinguished
+part, was the last of the war, and terminated his military career in the
+United States. He immediately obtained leave to return to France, where
+it was supposed he might be useful in negotiations for a general peace.
+He was also occupied in the preparations for a combined French and
+Spanish expedition against some of the British West India Islands, of
+which he had been appointed chief of staff, and a formidable fleet
+assembled at Cadiz, but the armistice signed on the 20th of January 1783
+between the belligerents put a stop to the expedition. He had been
+promoted (1781) to the rank of _maréchal de camp_ (major-general) in the
+French army, and he received every token of regard from his sovereign
+and his countrymen. He visited the United States again in 1784, and
+remained some five months as the guest of the nation.
+
+La Fayette did not appear again prominently in public life until 1787,
+though he did good service to the French Protestants, and became
+actively interested in plans to abolish slavery. In 1787 he took his
+seat in the Assembly of Notables. He demanded, and he alone signed the
+demand, that the king convoke the states-general, thus becoming a leader
+in the French Revolution. He showed Liberal tendencies both in that
+assembly and after its dispersal, and in 1788 was deprived, in
+consequence, of his active command. In 1789 La Fayette was elected to
+the states-general, and took a prominent part in its proceedings. He was
+chosen vice-president of the National Assembly, and on the 11th of July
+1789 presented a declaration of rights, modelled on Jefferson's
+Declaration of Independence in 1776. On the 15th of July, the second day
+of the new régime, La Fayette was chosen by acclamation colonel-general
+of the new National Guard of Paris. He also proposed the combination of
+the colours of Paris, red and blue, and the royal white, into the famous
+tricolour cockade of modern France (July 17). For the succeeding three
+years, until the end of the constitutional monarchy in 1792, his history
+is largely the history of France. His life was beset with very great
+responsibility and perils, for he was ever the minister of humanity and
+order among a frenzied people who had come to regard order and humanity
+as phases of treason. He rescued the queen from the hands of the
+populace on the 5th and 6th of October 1789, saved many humbler victims
+who had been condemned to death, and he risked his life in many
+unsuccessful attempts to rescue others. Before this, disgusted with
+enormities which he was powerless to prevent, he had resigned his
+commission; but so impossible was it to replace him that he was induced
+to resume it. In the Constituent Assembly he pleaded for the abolition
+of arbitrary imprisonment, for religious tolerance, for popular
+representation, for the establishment of trial by jury, for the gradual
+emancipation of slaves, for the freedom of the press, for the abolition
+of titles of nobility, and the suppression of privileged orders. In
+February 1790 he refused the supreme command of the National Guard of
+the kingdom. In May he founded the "Society of 1789" which afterwards
+became the Feuillants Club. He took a prominent part in the celebration
+of July 14, 1790, the first anniversary of the destruction of the
+Bastille. After suppressing an _émeute_ in April 1791 he again resigned
+his commission, and was again compelled to retain it. He was the friend
+of liberty as well as of order, and when Louis XVI. fled to Varennes he
+issued orders to stop him. Shortly afterwards he was made
+lieutenant-general in the army. He commanded the troops in the
+suppression of another _émeute_, on the occasion of the proclamation of
+the constitution (September 18, 1791), after which, feeling that his
+task was done, he retired into private life. This did not prevent his
+friends from proposing him for the mayoralty of Paris in opposition to
+Pétion.
+
+When, in December 1791, three armies were formed on the western frontier
+to attack Austria, La Fayette was placed in command of one of them. But
+events moved faster than La Fayette's moderate and humane republicanism,
+and seeing that the lives of the king and queen were each day more and
+more in danger, he definitely opposed himself to the further advance of
+the Jacobin party, intending eventually to use his army for the
+restoration of a limited monarchy. On the 19th of August 1792 the
+Assembly declared him a traitor. He was compelled to take refuge in the
+neutral territory of Liége, whence as one of the prime movers in the
+Revolution he was taken and held as a prisoner of state for five years,
+first in Prussian and afterwards in Austrian prisons, in spite of the
+intercession of America and the pleadings of his wife. Napoleon,
+however, though he had a low opinion of his capacities, stipulated in
+the treaty of Campo Formio (1797) for La Fayette's release. He was not
+allowed to return to France by the Directory. He returned in 1799; in
+1802 voted against the life consulate of Napoleon; and in 1804 he voted
+against the imperial title. He lived in retirement during the First
+Empire, but returned to public affairs under the First Restoration and
+took some part in the political events of the Hundred Days. From 1818 to
+1824 he was deputy for the Sarthe, speaking and voting always on the
+Liberal side, and even becoming a _carbonaro_. He then revisited America
+(July 1824-September 1825) where he was overwhelmed with popular
+applause and voted the sum of $200,000 and a township of land. From 1825
+to his death he sat in the Chamber of Deputies for Meaux. During the
+revolution of 1830 he again took command of the National Guard and
+pursued the same line of conduct, with equal want of success, as in the
+first revolution. In 1834 he made his last speech--on behalf of Polish
+political refugees. He died at Paris on the 20th of May 1834. In 1876 in
+the city of New York a monument was erected to him, and in 1883 another
+was erected at Puy.
+
+Few men have owed more of their success and usefulness to their family
+rank than La Fayette, and still fewer have abused it less. He never
+achieved distinction in the field, and his political career proved him
+to be incapable of ruling a great national movement; but he had strong
+convictions which always impelled him to study the interests of
+humanity, and a pertinacity in maintaining them, which, in all the
+strange vicissitudes of his eventful life, secured him a very unusual
+measure of public respect. No citizen of a foreign country has ever had
+so many and such warm admirers in America, nor does any statesman in
+France appear to have ever possessed uninterruptedly for so many years
+so large a measure of popular influence and respect. He had what
+Jefferson called a "canine appetite" for popularity and fame, but in him
+the appetite only seemed to make him more anxious to merit the fame
+which he enjoyed. He was brave to rashness; and he never shrank from
+danger or responsibility if he saw the way open to spare life or
+suffering, to protect the defenceless, to sustain the law and preserve
+order.
+
+His son, GEORGES WASHINGTON MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1779-1849), entered
+the army and was aide-de-camp to General Grouchy through the Austrian,
+Prussian and Polish (1805-07) campaigns. Napoleon's distrust of his
+father rendering promotion improbable, Georges de La Fayette retired
+into private life in 1807 until the Restoration, when he entered the
+Chamber of Representatives and voted consistently on the Liberal side.
+He was away from Paris during the revolution of July 1830, but he took
+an active part in the "campaign of the banquets," which led up to that
+of 1848. He died in December of the next year. His son, OSCAR THOMAS
+GILBERT MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1815-1881), was educated at the École
+Polytechnique, and served as an artillery officer in Algeria. He entered
+the Chamber of Representatives in 1846 and voted, like his father, with
+the extreme Left. After the revolution of 1848 he received a post in the
+provisional government, and as a member of the Constituent Assembly he
+became secretary of the war committee. After the dissolution of the
+Legislative Assembly in 1851, he retired from public life, but emerged
+on the establishment of the third republic, becoming a life senator in
+1875. His brother EDMOND MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1818-1890) shared his
+political opinions. He was one of the secretaries of the Constituent
+Assembly, and a member of the senate from 1876 to 1888.
+
+ See _Mémoires historiques et pièces authentiques sur M. de La Fayette
+ pour servir à l'histoire des révolutions_ (Paris, An II., 1793-1794);
+ B. Sarrans, _La Fayette et la Révolution de 1830, histoire des choses
+ et des hommes de Juillet_ (Paris, 1834); _Mémoires, correspondances et
+ manuscrits de La Fayette_, published by his family (6 vols., Paris,
+ 1837-1838); Regnault Warin, _Mémoires pour servir à la vie du général
+ La Fayette_ (Paris, 1824); A. Bardoux, _La jeunesse de La Fayette_
+ (Paris, 1892); _Les Dernières années de La Fayette_ (Paris, 1893); E.
+ Charavaray, _Le Général La Fayette_ (Paris, 1895); A. Levasseur, _La
+ Fayette en Amérique_ 1824 (Paris, 1829); J. Cloquet, _Souvenirs de la
+ vie privée du général La Fayette_ (Paris, 1836); Max Büdinger, _La
+ Fayette in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1898); and M. M. Crawford, _The Wife
+ of Lafayette_ (1908); Bayard Tuckerman, _Life of Lafayette_ (New York,
+ 1889); Charlemagne Tower, _The Marquis de La Fayette in the American
+ Revolution_ (Philadelphia, 1895).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+ [1] The family of La Fayette, to the cadet branch of which he
+ belonged, received its name from an estate in Aix, Auvergne, which
+ belonged in the 13th century to the Motier family.
+
+
+
+
+LA FAYETTE, MARIE-MADELEINE PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE, COMTESSE DE
+(1634-1692), French novelist, was baptized in Paris, on the 18th of
+March 1634. Her father, Marc Pioche de la Vergne, commandant of Havre,
+died when she was sixteen, and her mother seems to have been more
+occupied with her own than her daughter's interests. Mme de la Vergne
+married in 1651 the chevalier de Sévigné, and Marie thus became
+connected with Mme de Sévigné, who was destined to be a lifelong friend.
+She studied Greek, Latin and Italian, and inspired in one of her tutors,
+Gilles de Ménage, an enthusiastic admiration which he expressed in verse
+in three or four languages. Marie married in 1655 François Motier, comte
+de La Fayette. They lived on the count's estates in Auvergne, according
+to her own account (in a letter to Ménage) quite happily; but after the
+birth of her two sons her husband disappeared so effectually that it was
+long supposed that he died about 1660, though he really lived until
+1683. Mme de La Fayette had returned to Paris, and about 1665 contracted
+an intimacy with the duc de la Rochefoucauld, then engaged on his
+_Maximes_. The constancy and affection that marked this liaison on both
+sides justified it in the eyes of society, and when in 1680 La
+Rochefoucauld died Mme de La Fayette received the sincerest sympathy.
+Her first novel, _La Princesse de Montpensier_, was published
+anonymously in 1662; _Zayde_ appeared in 1670 under the name of J. R. de
+Segrais; and in 1678 her masterpiece, _La Princesse de Clèves_, also
+under the name of Segrais. The history of the modern novel of sentiment
+begins with the _Princesse de Clèves_. The interminable pages of Mlle de
+Scudéry with the _Précieuses_ and their admirers masquerading as
+Persians or ancient Romans had already been discredited by the
+burlesques of Paul Scarron and Antoine Furetière. It remained for Mme de
+La Fayette to achieve the more difficult task of substituting something
+more satisfactory than the disconnected episodes of the _roman comique_.
+This she accomplished in a story offering in its shortness and
+simplicity a complete contrast to the extravagant and lengthy romances
+of the time. The interest of the story depends not on incident but on
+the characters of the personages. They act in a perfectly reasonable way
+and their motives are analysed with the finest discrimination. No doubt
+the semi-autobiographical character of the material partially explains
+Mme de La Fayette's refusal to acknowledge the book. Contemporary
+critics, even Mme de Sévigné amongst them, found fault with the avowal
+made by Mme de Clèves to her husband. In answer to these criticisms,
+which her anonymity prevented her from answering directly, Mme de La
+Fayette wrote her last novel, the _Comtesse de Tende_.
+
+The character of her work and her history have combined to give an
+impression of melancholy and sweetness that only represents one side of
+her character, for a correspondence brought to light comparatively
+recently showed her as the acute diplomatic agent of Jeanne de Nemours,
+duchess of Savoy, at the court of Louis XIV. She had from her early days
+also been intimate with Henrietta of England, duchess of Orleans, under
+whose immediate direction she wrote her _Histoire de Madame Henriette
+d'Angleterre_, which only appeared in 1720. She wrote memoirs of the
+reign of Louis XIV., which, with the exception of two chapters, for the
+years 1688 and 1689 (published at Amsterdam, 1731), were lost through
+her son's carelessness. Madame de La Fayette died on the 25th of May
+1692.
+
+ See Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits de femmes_; the comte d'Haussonville,
+ _Madame de La Fayette_ (1891), in the series of _Grands écrivains
+ français_; M. de Lescure's notice prefixed to an edition of the
+ _Princesse de Clèves_ (1881); and a critical edition of the historical
+ memoirs by Eugène Asse (1890). See also L. Rea, _Marie Madeleine,
+ comtesse de La Fayette_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+LAFAYETTE, a city and the county-seat of Tippecanoe county, Indiana,
+U.S.A., situated at the former head of navigation on the Wabash river,
+about 64 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1900) 18,116, of whom 2266 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,081. It is served by the Chicago,
+Indianapolis & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St
+Louis, the Lake Erie & Western, and the Wabash railways, and by the
+Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern (electric), and the Fort Wayne &
+Wabash Valley (electric) railways. The river is not now navigable at
+this point. Lafayette is in the valley of the Wabash river, which is
+sunk below the normal level of the plain, the surrounding heights being
+the walls of the Wabash basin. The city has an excellent system of
+public schools, a good public library, two hospitals, the Wabash Valley
+Sanitarium (Seventh Day Adventist), St Anthony's Home for old people and
+two orphan asylums. It is the seat of Purdue University, a
+co-educational, technical and agricultural institution, opened in 1874
+and named in honour of John Purdue (1802-1876), who gave it $150,000.
+This university is under state control, and received the proceeds of the
+Federal agricultural college grant of 1862 and of the second Morrill Act
+of 1890; in connexion with it there is an agricultural experiment
+station. It had in 1908-1909 180 instructors, 1900 students, and a
+library of 25,000 volumes and pamphlets. Just outside the city is the
+State Soldiers' Home, where provision is also made for the wives and
+widows of soldiers; in 1908 it contained 553 men and 700 women. The city
+lies in the heart of a rich agricultural region, and is an important
+market for grain, produce and horses. Among its manufactures are beer,
+foundry and machine shop products (the Chicago, Indianapolis &
+Louisville railway has shops here), straw board, telephone apparatus,
+paper, wagons, packed meats, canned goods, flour and carpets; the value
+of the factory product increased from $3,514,276 in 1900 to $4,631,415
+in 1905, or 31.8%. The municipality owns its water works.
+
+Lafayette is about 5 m. N.E. of the site of the ancient Wea (Miami)
+Indian village known as Ouiatanon, where the French established a post
+about 1720. The French garrison gave way to the English about 1760; the
+stockade fort was destroyed during the conspiracy of Pontiac, and was
+never rebuilt. The headquarters of Tecumseh and his brother, the
+"Prophet," were established 7 m. N. of Lafayette near the mouth of the
+Tippecanoe river, and the settlement there was known as the "Prophet's
+Town." Near this place, and near the site of the present village of
+Battle Ground (where the Indiana Methodists now have a summer encampment
+and a camp meeting in August), was fought on the 7th of November 1811
+the battle of Tippecanoe, in which the Indians were decisively defeated
+by Governor William Henry Harrison, the whites losing 188 in killed and
+wounded and the Indians about an equal number. The battle ground is
+owned by the state; in 1907 the state legislature and the United States
+Congress each appropriated $12,500 for a monument, which took the form
+of a granite shaft 90 ft. high. The first American settlers on the site
+of Lafayette appeared about 1820, and the town was laid out in 1825, but
+for many years its growth was slow. The completion of the Wabash and
+Erie canal marked a new era in its development, and in 1854 Lafayette
+was incorporated.
+
+
+
+
+LA FERTÉ, the name of a number of localities in France, differentiated
+by agnomens. La Ferté Imbault (department of Loir-et-Cher) was in the
+possession of Jacques d'Étampes (1590-1668), marshal of France and
+ambassador in England, who was known as the marquis of La Ferté
+Imbault. La Ferté Nabert (the modern La Ferté Saint Aubin, department of
+Loiret) was acquired in the 16th century by the house of Saint Nectaire
+(corrupted to Senneterre), and erected into a duchy in the peerage of
+France (_duché-pairie_) in 1665 for Henri de Saint Nectaire, marshal of
+France. It was called La Ferté Lowendal after it had been acquired by
+Marshal Lowendal in 1748.
+
+
+
+
+LA FERTÉ-BERNARD, a town of western France, in the department of Sarthe,
+on the Huisne, 27 m. N.E. of Le Mans, on the railway from Paris to that
+town. Pop. (1906) 4358. La Ferté carries on cloth manufacture and
+flour-milling and has trade in horses and cattle. Its church of Nôtre
+Dame has a choir (16th century) with graceful apse-chapels of
+Renaissance architecture and remarkable windows of the same period; the
+remainder of the church is in the Flamboyant Gothic style. The town hall
+occupies the superstructure and flanking towers of a fortified gateway
+of the 15th century.
+
+La Ferté-Bernard owes its origin and name to a stronghold (_fermeté_)
+built about the 11th century and afterwards held by the family of
+Bernard. In 1424 it did not succumb to the English troops till after a
+four months' siege. It belonged in the 16th century to the family of
+Guise and supported the League, but was captured by the royal forces in
+1590.
+
+
+
+
+LA FERTÉ-MILON, a town of northern France in the department of Aisne on
+the Ourcq, 47 m. W. by S. of Reims by rail. Pop. (1906) 1563. The town
+has imposing remains comprising one side flanked by four towers of an
+unfinished castle built about the beginning of the 15th century by Louis
+of Orleans, brother of Charles VI. The churches of St Nicholas and
+Notre-Dame, chiefly of the 16th century, both contain fine old stained
+glass. Jean Racine, the poet, was born in the town, and a statue by
+David d'Augers has been erected to him.
+
+
+
+
+LAFFITTE, JACQUES (1767-1844), French banker and politician, was born at
+Bayonne on the 24th of October 1767, one of the ten children of a
+carpenter. He became clerk in the banking house of Perregaux in Paris,
+was made a partner in the business in 1800, and in 1804 succeeded
+Perregaux as head of the firm. The house of Perregaux, Laffitte et Cie.
+became one of the greatest in Europe, and Laffitte became regent (1809),
+then governor (1814) of the Bank of France and president of the Chamber
+of Commerce (1814). He raised large sums of money for the provisional
+government in 1814 and for Louis XVIII. during the Hundred Days, and it
+was with him that Napoleon deposited five million francs in gold before
+leaving France for the last time. Rather than permit the government to
+appropriate the money from the Bank he supplied two million from his own
+pocket for the arrears of the imperial troops after Waterloo. He was
+returned by the department of the Seine to the Chamber of Deputies in
+1816, and took his seat on the Left. He spoke chiefly on financial
+questions; his known Liberal views did not prevent Louis XVIII. from
+insisting on his inclusion on the commission on the public finances. In
+1818 he saved Paris from a financial crisis by buying a large amount of
+stock, but next year, in consequence of his heated defence of the
+liberty of the press and the electoral law of 1867, the governorship of
+the Bank was taken from him. One of the earliest and most determined of
+the partisans of a constitutional monarchy under the duke of Orleans, he
+was deputy for Bayonne in July 1830, when his house in Paris became the
+headquarters of the revolutionary party. When Charles X., after
+retracting the hated ordinances, sent the comte d'Argout[1] to Laffitte
+to negotiate a change of ministry, the banker replied, "It is too late.
+There is no longer a Charles X.," and it was he who secured the
+nomination of Louis Philippe as lieutenant-general of the kingdom. On
+the 3rd of August he became president of the Chamber of Deputies, and on
+the 9th he received in this capacity Louis Philippe's oath to the new
+constitution. The clamour of the Paris mob for the death of the
+imprisoned ministers of Charles X., which in October culminated in
+riots, induced the more moderate members of the government--including
+Guizot, the duc de Broglie and Casimir-Périer--to hand over the
+administration to a ministry which, possessing the confidence of the
+revolutionary Parisians, should be in a better position to save the
+ministers from their fury. On the 5th of November, accordingly, Laffitte
+became minister-president of a government pledged to progress
+(_mouvement_), holding at the same time the portfolio of finance. The
+government was torn between the necessity for preserving order and the
+no less pressing necessity (for the moment) of conciliating the Parisian
+populace; with the result that it succeeded in doing neither one nor the
+other. The impeached ministers were, indeed, saved by the courage of the
+Chamber of Peers and the attitude of the National Guard; but their
+safety was bought at the price of Laffitte's popularity. His policy of a
+French intervention in favour of the Italian revolutionists, by which he
+might have regained his popularity, was thwarted by the diplomatic
+policy of Louis Philippe. The resignation of Lafayette and Dupont de
+l'Eure still further undermined the government, which, incapable even of
+keeping order in the streets of Paris, ended by being discredited with
+all parties. At length Louis Philippe, anxious to free himself from the
+hampering control of the agents of his fortune, thought it safe to
+parade his want of confidence in the man who had made him king.
+Thereupon, in March 1831, Laffitte resigned, begging pardon of God and
+man for the part he had played in raising Louis Philippe to the throne.
+He left office politically and financially a ruined man. His affairs
+were wound up in 1836, and next year he created a credit bank, which
+prospered as long as he lived, but failed in 1848. He died in Paris on
+the 26th of May 1844.
+
+ See P. Thureau-Dangin, _La Monarchie de Juillet_ (vol. i. 1884).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+ [1] Apollinaire Antoine Maurice, comte d'Argout (1782-1858),
+ afterwards reconciled to the July monarchy, and a member of the
+ Laffitte Casimir-Périer and Thiers cabinets.
+
+
+
+
+LAFFITTE, PIERRE (1823-1903), French Positivist, was born on the 21st of
+February 1823 at Béguey (Gironde). Residing at Paris as a teacher of
+mathematics, he became a disciple of Comte, who appointed him his
+literary executor. On the schism of the Positivist body which followed
+Comte's death, he was recognized as head of the section which accepted
+the full Comtian doctrine; the other section adhering to Littré, who
+rejected the religion of humanity as inconsistent with the materialism
+of Comte's earlier period. From 1853 Laffitte delivered Positivist
+lectures in the room formerly occupied by Comte in the rue Monsieur le
+Prince. He published _Les Grands Types de l'humanité_ (1875) and _Cours
+de philosophie première_ (1889). In 1893 he was appointed to the new
+chair founded at the Collège de France for the exposition of the general
+history of science, and it was largely due to his inspiration that a
+statue to Comte was erected in the Place de la Sorbonne in 1902. He died
+on the 4th of January 1903.
+
+
+
+
+LA FLÈCHE, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Sarthe on the Loire, 31 m. S.S.W. of Le Mans by rail. Pop.
+(1906) town 7800; commune 10,663. The chief interest of the town lies in
+the Prytanée, a famous school for the sons of officers, originally a
+college founded for the Jesuits in 1607 by Henry IV. The buildings,
+including a fine chapel, were erected from 1620 to 1653 and are
+surrounded by a park. A bronze statue of Henry IV. stands in the
+marketplace. La Flèche is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of
+first instance, and carries on tanning, flour-milling, and the
+manufacture of paper, starch, wooden shoes and gloves. It is an
+agricultural market.
+
+The lords of La Flèche became counts of Maine about 1100, but the
+lordship became separate from the county and passed in the 16th century
+to the family of Bourbon and thus to Henry IV.
+
+
+
+
+LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI (1797-1873), French actor, was born at Bordeaux on
+the 15th of May 1797. Abandoning his profession as assistant ship's
+doctor in the navy, he went to Paris to study singing and acting. He had
+some experience at a small theatre, and was preparing to appear at the
+Opéra Comique when the director of the Vaudeville offered him an
+engagement. Here he made his _début_ in 1821 in _La Somnambule_, and his
+good looks and excellent voice soon brought him into public favour.
+After several years at the Nouveautés and the Vaudeville, on the burning
+of the latter in 1838 he went to England, and married, at Gretna Green,
+Jenny Colon, from whom he was soon divorced. On his return to Paris he
+joined the Variétés, where he acted for fifteen years in such plays as
+_Le Chevalier de Saint Georges_, _Le Lion empaillé_, _Une dernière
+conquête_, &c. Another engagement at the Vaudeville followed, and one at
+the Gaiété, and he ended his brilliant career at the Gymnase in the part
+of the noble father in such plays as Les _Vieux Garçons_ and _Nos bons
+villageois_. He died in Paris on the 19th of April 1873.
+
+
+
+
+LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE (1621-1695), French poet, was born at Château
+Thierry in Champagne, probably on the 8th of July 1621. His father was
+Charles de La Fontaine, "maître des eaux et forêts"--a kind of
+deputy-ranger--of the duchy of Château Thierry; his mother was Françoise
+Pidoux. On both sides his family was of the highest provincial middle
+class, but was not noble; his father was also fairly wealthy. Jean, the
+eldest child, was educated at the _collège_ (grammar-school) of Reims,
+and at the end of his school days he entered the Oratory in May 1641,
+and the seminary of Saint-Magloire in October of the same year; but a
+very short sojourn proved to him that he had mistaken his vocation. He
+then apparently studied law, and is said to have been admitted as
+_avocat_, though there does not seem to be actual proof of this. He was,
+however, settled in life, or at least might have been so, somewhat
+early. In 1647 his father resigned his rangership in his favour, and
+arranged a marriage for him with Marie Héricart, a girl of sixteen, who
+brought him twenty thousand livres, and expectations. She seems to have
+been both handsome and intelligent, but the two did not get on well
+together. There appears to be absolutely no ground for the vague scandal
+as to her conduct, which was, for the most part long afterwards, raised
+by gossips or personal enemies of La Fontaine. All that is positively
+said against her is that she was a negligent housewife and an inveterate
+novel reader; La Fontaine himself was constantly away from home, was
+certainly not strict in point of conjugal fidelity, and was so bad a man
+of business that his affairs became involved in hopeless difficulty, and
+a _séparation de biens_ had to take place in 1658. This was a perfectly
+amicable transaction for the benefit of the family; by degrees, however,
+the pair, still without any actual quarrel, ceased to live together, and
+for the greater part of the last forty years of La Fontaine's life he
+lived in Paris while his wife dwelt at Château Thierry, which, however,
+he frequently visited. One son was born to them in 1653, and was
+educated and taken care of wholly by his mother.
+
+Even in the earlier years of his marriage La Fontaine seems to have been
+much at Paris, but it was not till about 1656 that he became a regular
+visitor to the capital. The duties of his office, which were only
+occasional, were compatible with this non-residence. It was not till he
+was past thirty that his literary career began. The reading of Malherbe,
+it is said, first awoke poetical fancies in him, but for some time he
+attempted nothing but trifles in the fashion of the time--epigrams,
+ballades, rondeaux, &c. His first serious work was a translation or
+adaptation of the _Eunuchus of Terence_ (1654). At this time the
+Maecenas of French letters was the Superintendant Fouquet, to whom La
+Fontaine was introduced by Jacques Jannart, a connexion of his wife's.
+Few people who paid their court to Fouquet went away empty-handed, and
+La Fontaine soon received a pension of 1000 livres (1659), on the easy
+terms of a copy of verses for each quarter's receipt. He began too a
+medley of prose and poetry, entitled _Le Songe de Vaux_, on Fouquet's
+famous country house. It was about this time that his wife's property
+had to be separately secured to her, and he seems by degrees to have had
+to sell everything of his own; but, as he never lacked powerful and
+generous patrons, this was of small importance to him. In the same year
+he wrote a ballad, _Les Rieurs du Beau-Richard_, and this was followed
+by many small pieces of occasional poetry addressed to various
+personages from the king downwards. Fouquet soon incurred the royal
+displeasure, but La Fontaine, like most of his literary protégés, was
+not unfaithful to him, the well-known elegy _Pleurez, nymphes de Vaux_,
+being by no means the only proof of his devotion. Indeed it is thought
+not improbable that a journey to Limoges in 1663 in company with
+Jannart, and of which we have an account written to his wife, was not
+wholly spontaneous, as it certainly was not on Jannart's part. Just at
+this time his affairs did not look promising. His father and himself had
+assumed the title of esquire, to which they were not strictly entitled,
+and, some old edicts on the subject having been put in force, an
+informer procured a sentence against the poet fining him 2000 livres. He
+found, however, a new protector in the duke and still more in the
+duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors at Château Thierry, and
+nothing more is heard of the fine. Some of La Fontaine's liveliest
+verses are addressed to the duchess, Anne Mancini, the youngest of
+Mazarin's nieces, and it is even probable that the taste of the duke and
+duchess for Ariosto had something to do with the writing of his first
+work of real importance, the first book of the _Contes_, which appeared
+in 1664. He was then forty-three years old, and his previous printed
+productions had been comparatively trivial, though much of his work was
+handed about in manuscript long before it was regularly published. It
+was about this time that the quartette of the Rue du Vieux Colombier, so
+famous in French literary history, was formed. It consisted of La
+Fontaine, Racine, Boileau and Molière, the last of whom was almost of
+the same age as La Fontaine, the other two considerably younger.
+Chapelle was also a kind of outsider in the coterie. There are many
+anecdotes, some pretty obviously apocryphal, about these meetings. The
+most characteristic is perhaps that which asserts that a copy of
+Chapelain's unlucky _Pucelle_ always lay on the table, a certain number
+of lines of which was the appointed punishment for offences against the
+company. The coterie furnished under feigned names the personages of La
+Fontaine's version of the Cupid and Psyche story, which, however, with
+_Adonis_, was not printed till 1669. Meanwhile the poet continued to
+find friends. In 1664 he was regularly commissioned and sworn in as
+gentleman to the duchess dowager of Orleans, and was installed in the
+Luxembourg. He still retained his rangership, and in 1666 we have
+something like a reprimand from Colbert suggesting that he should look
+into some malpractices at Château Thierry. In the same year appeared the
+second book of the _Contes_, and in 1668 the first six books of the
+_Fables_, with more of both kinds in 1671. In this latter year a curious
+instance of the docility with which the poet lent himself to any
+influence was afforded by his officiating, at the instance of the
+Port-Royalists, as editor of a volume of sacred poetry dedicated to the
+prince de Conti. A year afterwards his situation, which had for some
+time been decidedly flourishing, showed signs of changing very much for
+the worse. The duchess of Orleans died, and he apparently had to give up
+his rangership, probably selling it to pay debts. But there was always a
+providence for La Fontaine. Madame de la Sablière, a woman of great
+beauty, of considerable intellectual power and of high character,
+invited him to make his home in her house, where he lived for some
+twenty years. He seems to have had no trouble whatever about his affairs
+thenceforward; and could devote himself to his two different lines of
+poetry, as well as to that of theatrical composition.
+
+In 1682 he was, at more than sixty years of age, recognized as one of
+the first men of letters of France. Madame de Sévigné, one of the
+soundest literary critics of the time, and by no means given to praise
+mere novelties, had spoken of his second collection of _Fables_
+published in the winter of 1678 as divine; and it is pretty certain that
+this was the general opinion. It was not unreasonable, therefore, that
+he should present himself to the Academy, and, though the subjects of
+his _Contes_ were scarcely calculated to propitiate that decorous
+assembly, while his attachment to Fouquet and to more than one
+representative of the old Frondeur party made him suspect to Colbert and
+the king, most of the members were his personal friends. He was first
+proposed in 1682, but was rejected for Dangeau. The next year Colbert
+died and La Fontaine was again nominated. Boileau was also a candidate,
+but the first ballot gave the fabulist sixteen votes against seven only
+for the critic. The king, whose assent was necessary, not merely for
+election but for a second ballot in case of the failure of an absolute
+majority, was ill-pleased, and the election was left pending. Another
+vacancy occurred, however, some months later, and to this Boileau was
+elected. The king hastened to approve the choice effusively, adding,
+"Vous pouvez incessamment recevoir La Fontaine, il a promis d'être
+sage." His admission was indirectly the cause of the only serious
+literary quarrel of his life. A dispute took place between the Academy
+and one of its members, Antoine Furetière, on the subject of the
+latter's French dictionary, which was decided to be a breach of the
+Academy's corporate privileges. Furetière, a man of no small ability,
+bitterly assailed those whom he considered to be his enemies, and among
+them La Fontaine, whose unlucky _Contes_ made him peculiarly vulnerable,
+his second collection of these tales having been the subject of a police
+condemnation. The death of the author of the _Roman Bourgeois_, however,
+put an end to this quarrel. Shortly afterwards La Fontaine had a share
+in a still more famous affair, the celebrated Ancient-and-Modern
+squabble in which Boileau and Perrault were the chiefs, and in which La
+Fontaine (though he had been specially singled out by Perrault for
+favourable comparison with Aesop and Phaedrus) took the Ancient side.
+About the same time (1685-1687) he made the acquaintance of the last of
+his many hosts and protectors, Monsieur and Madame d'Hervart, and fell
+in love with a certain Madame Ulrich, a lady of some position but of
+doubtful character. This acquaintance was accompanied by a great
+familiarity with Vendôme, Chaulieu and the rest of the libertine coterie
+of the Temple; but, though Madame de la Sablière had long given herself
+up almost entirely to good works and religious exercises, La Fontaine
+continued an inmate of her house until her death in 1693. What followed
+is told in one of the best known of the many stories bearing on his
+childlike nature. Hervart on hearing of the death, had set out at once
+to find La Fontaine. He met him in the street in great sorrow, and
+begged him to make his home at his house. "J'y allais" was La Fontaine's
+answer. He had already undergone the process of conversion during a
+severe illness the year before. An energetic young priest, M. Poucet,
+had brought him, not indeed to understand, but to acknowledge the
+impropriety of the _Contes_, and it is said that the destruction of a
+new play of some merit was demanded and submitted to as a proof of
+repentance. A pleasant story is told of the young duke of Burgundy,
+Fénelon's pupil, who was then only eleven years old, sending 50 louis to
+La Fontaine as a present of his own motion. But, though La Fontaine
+recovered for the time, he was broken by age and infirmity, and his new
+hosts had to nurse rather than to entertain him, which they did very
+carefully and kindly. He did a little more work, completing his _Fables_
+among other things; but he did not survive Madame de la Sablière much
+more than two years, dying on the 13th of April 1695, at the age of
+seventy-three. He was buried in the cemetery of the Holy Innocents. His
+wife survived him nearly fifteen years.
+
+The curious personal character of La Fontaine, like that of some other
+men of letters, has been enshrined in a kind of legend by literary
+tradition. At an early age his absence of mind and indifference to
+business gave a subject to Tallemant des Réaux. His later contemporaries
+helped to swell the tale, and the 18th century finally accepted it,
+including the anecdotes of his meeting his son, being told who he was,
+and remarking, "Ah, yes, I thought I had seen him somewhere!" of his
+insisting on fighting a duel with a supposed admirer of his wife, and
+then imploring him to visit at his house just as before; of his going
+into company with his stockings wrong side out, &c., with, for a
+contrast, those of his awkwardness and silence, if not positive
+rudeness, in company. It ought to be remembered, as a comment on the
+unfavourable description by La Bruyère, that La Fontaine was a special
+friend and ally of Benserade, La Bruyère's chief literary enemy. But
+after all deductions much will remain, especially when it is remembered
+that one of the chief authorities for these anecdotes is Louis Racine, a
+man who possessed intelligence and moral worth, and who received them
+from his father, La Fontaine's attached friend for more than thirty
+years. Perhaps the best worth recording of all these stories is one of
+the Vieux Colombier quartette, which tells how Molière, while Racine and
+Boileau were exercising their wits upon "le bonhomme" or "le bon" (by
+both which titles La Fontaine was familiarly known), remarked to a
+bystander, "Nos beaux esprits ont beau faire, ils n'effaceront pas le
+bonhomme." They have not.
+
+ The works of La Fontaine, the total bulk of which is considerable,
+ fall no less naturally than traditionally into three divisions, the
+ _Fables_, the _Contes_ and the miscellaneous works. Of these the first
+ may be said to be known universally, the second to be known to all
+ lovers of French literature, the third to be with a few exceptions
+ practically forgotten. This distribution of the judgment of posterity
+ is as usual just in the main, but not wholly. There are excellent
+ things in the _Oeuvres Diverses_, but their excellence is only
+ occasional, and it is not at the best equal to that of the _Fables_ or
+ the _Contes_. It was thought by contemporary judges who were both
+ competent and friendly that La Fontaine attempted too many styles, and
+ there is something in the criticism. His dramatic efforts are
+ especially weak. The best pieces usually published under his
+ name--_Ragotin_, _Le Florentin_, _La Coupe enchantée_, were originally
+ fathered not by him but by Champmeslé, the husband of the famous
+ actress who captivated Racine and Charles de Sévigné. His avowed work
+ was chiefly in the form of opera, a form of no great value at its
+ best. _Psyche_ has all the advantages of its charming story and of La
+ Fontaine's style, but it is perhaps principally interesting nowadays
+ because of the framework of personal conversation already alluded to.
+ The mingled prose and verse of the _Songe de Vaux_ is not
+ uninteresting, but its best things, such as the description of night--
+
+ "Laissant tomber les fleurs et ne les semant pas,"
+
+ which has enchanted French critics, are little more than conceits,
+ though as in this case sometimes very beautiful conceits. The elegies,
+ the epistles, the epigrams, the ballades, contain many things which
+ would be very creditable to a minor poet or a writer of vers de
+ société, but even if they be taken according to the wise rule of
+ modern criticism, each in its kind, and judged simply according to
+ their rank in that kind, they fall far below the merits of the two
+ great collections of verse narratives which have assured La Fontaine's
+ immortality.
+
+ Between the actual literary merits of the two there is not much to
+ choose, but the change of manners and the altered standard of literary
+ decency have thrown the _Contes_ into the shade. These tales are
+ identical in general character with those which amused Europe from the
+ days of the early _fabliau_ writers. Light love, the misfortunes of
+ husbands, the cunning of wives, the breach of their vows by
+ ecclesiastics, constitute the staple of their subject. In some
+ respects La Fontaine is the best of such tale-tellers, while he is
+ certainly the latest who deserves such excuse as may be claimed by a
+ writer who does not choose indecent subjects from a deliberate
+ knowledge that they are considered indecent, and with a deliberate
+ desire to pander to a vicious taste. No one who followed him in the
+ style can claim this excuse; he can, and the way in which
+ contemporaries of stainless virtue such as Madame de Sévigné speak of
+ his work shows that, though the new public opinion was growing up, it
+ was not finally accepted. In the _Contes_ La Fontaine for the most
+ part attempts little originality of theme. He takes his stories
+ (varying them, it is true, in detail not a little) from Boccaccio,
+ from Marguerite, from the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_, &c. He applies
+ to them his marvellous power of easy sparkling narration, and his
+ hardly less marvellous faculty of saying more or less outrageous
+ things in the most polite and gentlemanly manner. These _Contes_ have
+ indeed certain drawbacks. They are not penetrated by the half pagan
+ ardour for physical beauty and the delights of sense which animates
+ and excuses the early Italian Renaissance. They have not the subtle
+ mixture of passion and sensuality, of poetry and appetite, which
+ distinguishes the work of Marguerite and of the Pléiade. They are
+ emphatically _contes pour rire_, a genuine expression of the _esprit
+ gaulois_ of the fabliau writers and of Rabelais, destitute of the
+ grossness of envelope which had formerly covered that spirit. A
+ comparison of "La Fiancée du roi de Garbe" with its original in
+ Boccaccio (especially if the reader takes M. Émile Montégut's
+ admirable essay as a commentary) will illustrate better than anything
+ else what they have and what they have not. Some writers have pleaded
+ hard for the admission of actual passion of the poetical sort in such
+ pieces as "La Courtisane amoureuse," but as a whole it must be
+ admitted to be absent.
+
+ The _Fables_, with hardly less animation and narrative art than the
+ _Contes_, are free from disadvantages (according to modern notions) of
+ subject, and exhibit the versatility and fecundity of the author's
+ talent perhaps even more fully. La Fontaine had many predecessors in
+ the fable and especially in the beast fable. In his first issue,
+ comprising what are now called the first six books, he adhered to the
+ path of these predecessors with some closeness; but in the later
+ collections he allowed himself far more liberty, and it is in these
+ parts that his genius is most fully manifested. The boldness of the
+ politics is as much to be considered as the ingenuity of the
+ moralizing, as the intimate knowledge of human nature displayed in the
+ substance of the narratives, or as the artistic mastery shown in
+ their form. It has sometimes been objected that the view of human
+ character which La Fontaine expresses is unduly dark, and resembles
+ too much that of La Rochefoucauld, for whom the poet certainly had a
+ profound admiration. The discussion of this point would lead us too
+ far here. It may only be said that satire (and La Fontaine is
+ eminently a satirist) necessarily concerns itself with the darker
+ rather than with the lighter shades. Indeed the objection has become
+ pretty nearly obsolete with the obsolescence of what may be called the
+ sentimental-ethicalschool of criticism. Its last overt expression was
+ made by Lamartine, excellently answered by Sainte-Beuve. Exception has
+ also been taken to the _Fables_ on more purely literary, but hardly
+ less purely arbitrary grounds by Lessing. Perhaps the best criticism
+ ever passed upon La Fontaine's _Fables_ is that of Silvestre de Sacy,
+ to the effect that they supply three several delights to three several
+ ages: the child rejoices in the freshness and vividness of the story,
+ the eager student of literature in the consummate art with which it is
+ told, the experienced man of the world in the subtle reflections on
+ character and life which it conveys. Nor has any one, with the
+ exception of a few paradoxers like Rousseau and a few sentimentalists
+ like Lamartine, denied that the moral tone of the whole is as fresh
+ and healthy as its literary interest is vivid. The book has therefore
+ naturally become the standard reading book of French both at home and
+ abroad, a position which it shares in verse with the _Télémaque_ of
+ Fénelon in prose. It is no small testimony to its merit that not even
+ this use or misuse has interfered with its popularity.
+
+ The general literary character of La Fontaine is, with allowance made
+ for the difference of subject, visible equally in the _Fables_ and in
+ the _Contes_. Perhaps one of the hardest sayings in French literature
+ for an English student is the dictum of Joubert to the effect that
+ "_Il y a dans La Fontaine une plénitude de poésie qu'on ne trouve
+ nulle part dans les autres auteurs français._" The difficulty arises
+ from the ambiguity of the terms. For inventiveness of fancy and for
+ diligent observation of the rules of art La Fontaine deserves, if not
+ the first, almost the first place among French poets. In his hands the
+ oldest story becomes novel, the most hackneyed moral piquant, the most
+ commonplace details fresh and appropriate. As to the second point
+ there has not been such unanimous agreement. It used to be considered
+ that La Fontaine's ceaseless diversity of metre, his archaisms, his
+ licences in rhyme and orthography, were merely ingenious devices for
+ the sake of easy writing, intended to evade the trammels of the
+ stately couplet and _rimes difficiles_ enjoined by Boileau. Lamartine
+ in the attack already mentioned affects contempt of the "vers boiteux,
+ disloqués, inégaux, sans symmétrie ni dans l'oreille ni sur la page."
+ This opinion may be said to have been finally exploded by the most
+ accurate metrical critic and one of the most skilful metrical
+ practitioners that France has ever had, Théodore de Banville; and it
+ is only surprising that it should ever have been entertained by any
+ professional maker of verse. La Fontaine's irregularities are strictly
+ regulated, his cadences carefully arranged, and the whole effect may
+ be said to be (though, of course, in a light and tripping measure
+ instead of a stately one) similar to that of the stanzas of the
+ English pindaric ode in the hands of Dryden or Collins. There is
+ therefore nothing against La Fontaine on the score of invention and
+ nothing on the score of art. But something more, at least according to
+ English standards, is wanted to make up a "plenitude of poesy," and
+ this something more La Fontaine seldom or never exhibits. In words
+ used by Joubert himself elsewhere, he never "transports." The faculty
+ of transporting is possessed and used in very different manners by
+ different poets. In some it takes the form of passion, in some of half
+ mystical enthusiasm for nature, in some of commanding eloquence, in
+ some of moral fervour. La Fontaine has none of these things: he is
+ always amusing, always sensible, always clever, sometimes even
+ affecting, but at the same time always more or less prosaic, were it
+ not for his admirable versification. He is not a great poet, perhaps
+ not even a great humorist; but he is the most admirable teller of
+ light tales in verse that has ever existed in any time or country; and
+ he has established in his verse-tale a model which is never likely to
+ be surpassed.
+
+ La Fontaine did not during his life issue any complete edition of his
+ works, nor even of the two greatest and most important divisions of
+ them. The most remarkable of his separate publications have already
+ been noticed. Others were the _Poëme de la captivité de St Malc_
+ (1673), one of the pieces inspired by the Port-Royalists, the _Poëme
+ du Quinquina_ (1692), a piece of task work also, though of a very
+ different kind, and a number of pieces published either in small
+ pamphlets or with the works of other men. Among the latter may be
+ singled out the pieces published by the poet with the works of his
+ friend Maucroix (1685). The year after his death some posthumous works
+ appeared, and some years after his son's death the scattered poems,
+ letters, &c., with the addition of some unpublished work bought from
+ the family in manuscript, were carefully edited and published as
+ _Oeuvres diverses_ (1729). During the 18th century two of the most
+ magnificent illustrated editions ever published of any poet reproduced
+ the two chief works of La Fontaine. The _Fables_ were illustrated by
+ Oudry (1755-1759), the _Contes_ by Eisen (1762). This latter under the
+ title of "Edition des Fermiers-Généraux" fetches a high price. During
+ the first thirty years of the 19th century Walckenaer, a great student
+ of French 17th-century classics, published for the house of Didot
+ three successive editions of La Fontaine, the last (1826-1827) being
+ perhaps entitled to the rank of the standard edition, as his _Histoire
+ de la vie et des ouvrages de La Fontaine_ is the standard biography
+ and bibliography. The later editions of M. Marty-Laveaux in the
+ _Bibliothèque elzévirienne_, A. Pauly in the _Collection des
+ classiques françaises_ of M. Lemerre and L. Moland in that of M.
+ Garnier supply in different forms all that can be wished. The second
+ is the handsomest, the third, which is complete, perhaps the most
+ generally useful. Editions, selections, translations, &c., of the
+ _Fables_, especially for school use, are innumerable; but an
+ illustrated edition published by the _Librairie des Bibliophiles_
+ (1874) deserves to be mentioned as not unworthy of its 18th-century
+ predecessors. The works of M. Grouchy, _Documents inédits sur La
+ Fontaine_ (1893); of G. Lafenestre, _Jean de La Fontaine_ (1895); and
+ of Émile Faguet, _Jean de La Fontaine_ (1900), should be mentioned.
+ (G. Sa.)
+
+
+
+
+LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE, BART. (1807-1864), Canadian statesman
+and judge, third son of Antoine Ménard LaFontaine (1772-1813) and
+Marie-J-Fontaine Bienvenue, was born at Boucherville in the province of
+Quebec on the 4th of October 1807. LaFontaine was educated at the
+Collège de Montréal under the direction of the Sulpicians, and was
+called to the bar of the province of Lower Canada on the 18th of August
+1829. He married firstly Adèle, daughter of A. Berthelot of Quebec; and,
+secondly, Jane, daughter of Charles Morrison, of Berthier, by whom he
+had two sons. In 1830 he was elected a member of the House of Assembly
+for the county of Terrebonne, and became an ardent supporter of Louis
+Joseph Papineau in opposing the administration of the governor-in-chief,
+which led to the rebellion of 1837. LaFontaine, however, did not approve
+the violent methods of his leader, and after the hostilities at Saint
+Denis he presented a petition to Lord Gosford requesting him to summon
+the assembly and to adopt measures to stem the revolutionary course of
+events in Lower Canada. The rebellion broke out afresh in the autumn of
+1838; the constitution of 1791 was suspended; LaFontaine was imprisoned
+for a brief period; and Papineau, who favoured annexation by the United
+States, was in exile. At this crisis in Lower Canada the French
+Canadians turned to LaFontaine as their leader, and under his direction
+maintained their opposition to the special council, composed of nominees
+of the crown. In 1839 Lord Sydenham, the governor-general, offered the
+solicitor generalship to LaFontaine, which he refused; and after the
+Union of 1841 LaFontaine was defeated in the county of Terrebonne
+through the governor's influence. During the next year he obtained a
+seat in the assembly of the province of Canada, and on the death of
+Sydenham he was called by Sir Charles Bagot to form an administration
+with Robert Baldwin. The ministry resigned in November 1843, as a
+protest against the actions of Lord Metcalfe, who had succeeded Bagot.
+In 1848 LaFontaine formed a new administration with Baldwin, and
+remained in office until 1851, when he retired from public life. It was
+during the ministry of LaFontaine-Baldwin that the Amnesty Bill was
+passed, which occasioned grave riots in Montreal, personal violence to
+Lord Elgin and the destruction of the parliament buildings. After the
+death of Sir James Stuart in 1853 LaFontaine was appointed chief justice
+of Lower Canada and president of the seigneurial court, which settled
+the vexed question of land tenure in Canada; and in 1854 he was created
+a baronet. He died at Montreal on the 26th of February 1864.
+
+ LaFontaine was well versed in constitutional history and French law;
+ he reasoned closely and presented his conclusions with directness. He
+ was upright in his conduct, sincerely attached to the traditions of
+ his race, and laboured conscientiously to establish responsible
+ government in Canada. His principal works are: _L'Analyse de
+ l'ordonnance du conseil spécial sur les bureaux d'hypothèques_
+ (Montreal, 1842); _Observations sur les questions seigneuriales_
+ (Montreal, 1854); see _LaFontaine_, by A. DeCelles (Toronto, 1906).
+ (A. G. D.)
+
+
+
+
+LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE (1640-1716), French painter, was born in Paris. He
+was one of the most noted and least servile pupils of Le Brun, under
+whose direction he shared in the chief of the great decorative works
+undertaken in the reign of Louis XIV. Leaving France in 1662, he spent
+two years in Rome and three in Venice, and the influence of his
+prolonged studies of Veronese is evident in his "Finding of Moses"
+(Louvre), and in his "Rape of Proserpine" (Louvre), which he presented
+to the Royal Academy as his diploma picture in 1673. He was at once
+named assistant professor, and in 1674 the full responsibilities of the
+office devolved on him, but his engagements did not prevent his
+accepting in 1689 the invitation of Lord Montagu to decorate Montagu
+House. He visited London twice, remaining on the second
+occasion--together with Rousseau and Monnoyer--more than two years.
+William III. vainly strove to detain him in England by the proposal that
+he should decorate Hampton Court, for Le Brun was dead, and Mansart
+pressed Lafosse to return to Paris to take in hand the cupola of the
+Invalides. The decorations of Montagu House are destroyed, those of
+Versailles are restored, and the dome of the Invalides (engraved, Picart
+and Cochin) is now the only work existing which gives a full measure of
+his talent. During his latter years Lafosse executed many other
+important decorations in public buildings and private houses, notably in
+that of Crozat, under whose roof he died on the 13th of December 1716.
+
+
+
+
+LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE (1827-1891), German biblical scholar and
+orientalist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of November 1827. His real
+name was Bötticher, Lagarde being his mother's name. At Berlin
+(1844-1846) and Halle (1846-1847) he studied theology, philosophy and
+oriental languages. In 1852 his studies took him to London and Paris. In
+1854 he became a teacher at a Berlin public school, but this did not
+interrupt his biblical studies. He edited the _Didascalia apostolorum
+syriace_ (1854), and other Syriac texts collected in the British Museum
+and in Paris. In 1866 he received three years' leave of absence to
+collect fresh materials, and in 1869 succeeded Heinrich Ewald as
+professor of oriental languages at Göttingen. Like Ewald, Lagarde was an
+active worker in a variety of subjects and languages; but his chief aim,
+the elucidation of the Bible, was almost always kept in view. He edited
+the Aramaic translation (known as the Targum) of the Prophets according
+to the Codex Reuchlinianus preserved at Carlsruhe, _Prophetae chaldaice_
+(1872), the _Hagiographa chaldaice_ (1874), an Arabic translation of the
+Gospels, _Die vier Evangelien, arabisch aus der Wiener Handschrift
+herausgegeben_ (1864), a Syriac translation of the Old Testament
+Apocrypha, _Libri V. T. apocryphi syriace_ (1861), a Coptic translation
+of the Pentateuch, _Der Pentateuch koptisch_ (1867), and a part of the
+Lucianic text of the Septuagint, which he was able to reconstruct from
+manuscripts for nearly half the Old Testament. He devoted himself
+ardently to oriental scholarship, and published _Zur Urgeschichte der
+Armenier_ (1854) and _Armenische Studien_ (1877). He was also a student
+of Persian, publishing _Isaias persice_ (1883) and _Persische Studien_
+(1884). He followed up his Coptic studies with _Aegyptiaca_ (1883), and
+published many minor contributions to the study of oriental languages in
+_Gesammelte Abhandlungen_ (1866), _Symmicta_ (i. 1877, ii. 1880),
+_Semitica_ (i. 1878, ii. 1879), _Orientalia_ (1879-1880) and
+_Mittheilungen_ (1884). Mention should also be made of the valuable
+_Onomastica sacra_ (1870; 2nd ed., 1887). Lagarde also took some part in
+politics. He belonged to the Prussian Conservative party, and was a
+violent anti-Semite. The bitterness which he felt appeared in his
+writings. He died at Göttingen on the 22nd of December 1891.
+
+ See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_; and cf. Anna de
+ Lagarde, _Paul de Lagarde_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+LAGASH, or SIRPURLA, one of the oldest centres of Sumerian civilization
+in Babylonia. It is represented by a rather low, long line of ruin
+mounds, along the dry bed of an ancient canal, some 3 m. E. of the
+Shatt-el-Hai and a little less than 10 m. N. of the modern Turkish town
+of Shatra. These ruins were discovered in 1877 by Ernest de Sarzec, at
+that time French consul at Basra, who was allowed, by the Montefich
+chief, Nasir Pasha, the first Wali-Pasha, or governor-general, of Basra,
+to excavate at his pleasure in the territories subject to that official.
+At the outset on his own account, and later as a representative of the
+French government, under a Turkish firman, de Sarzec continued
+excavations at this site, with various intermissions, until his death in
+1901, after which the work was continued under the supervision of the
+Commandant Cros. The principal excavations were made in two larger
+mounds, one of which proved to be the site of the temple, E-Ninnu, the
+shrine of the patron god of Lagash, Nin-girsu or Ninib. This temple had
+been razed and a fortress built upon its ruins, in the Greek or Seleucid
+period, some of the bricks found bearing the inscription in Aramaic and
+Greek of a certain Hadad-nadin-akhe, king of a small Babylonian kingdom.
+It was beneath this fortress that the numerous statues of Gudea were
+found, which constitute the gem of the Babylonian collections at the
+Louvre. These had been decapitated and otherwise mutilated, and thrown
+into the foundations of the new fortress. From this stratum came also
+various fragments of bas reliefs of high artistic excellence. The
+excavations in the other larger mound resulted in the discovery of the
+remains of buildings containing objects of all sorts in bronze and
+stone, dating from the earliest Sumerian period onward, and enabling us
+to trace the art history of Babylonia to a date some hundreds of years
+before the time of Gudea. Apparently this mound had been occupied
+largely by store houses, in which were stored not only grain, figs, &c.,
+but also vessels, weapons, sculptures and every possible object
+connected with the use and administration of palace and temple. In a
+small outlying mound de Sarzec discovered the archives of the temple,
+about 30,000 inscribed clay tablets, containing the business records,
+and revealing with extraordinary minuteness the administration of an
+ancient Babylonian temple, the character of its property, the method of
+farming its lands, herding its flocks, and its commercial and industrial
+dealings and enterprises; for an ancient Babylonian temple was a great
+industrial, commercial, agricultural and stock-raising establishment.
+Unfortunately, before these archives could be removed, the galleries
+containing them were rifled by the Arabs, and large numbers of the
+tablets were sold to antiquity dealers, by whom they have been scattered
+all over Europe and America. From the inscriptions found at Tello, it
+appears that Lagash was a city of great importance in the Sumerian
+period, some time probably in the 4th millennium B.C. It was at that
+time ruled by independent kings, Ur-Nina and his successors, who were
+engaged in contests with the Elamites on the east and the kings of Kengi
+and Kish on the north. With the Semitic conquest it lost its
+independence, its rulers becoming _patesis_, dependent rulers, under
+Sargon and his successors; but it still remained Sumerian and continued
+to be a city of much importance, and, above all, a centre of artistic
+development. Indeed, it was in this period and under the immediately
+succeeding supremacy of the kings of Ur, Ur-Gur and Dungi, that it
+reached its highest artistic development. At this period, also, under
+its _patesis_, Ur-bau and Gudea, Lagash had extensive commercial
+communications with distant realms. According to his own records, Gudea
+brought cedars from the Amanus and Lebanon mountains in Syria, diorite
+or dolorite from eastern Arabia, copper and gold from central and
+southern Arabia and from Sinai, while his armies, presumably under his
+overlord, Ur-Gur, were engaged in battles in Elam on the east. His was
+especially the era of artistic development. Some of the earlier works of
+Ur-Nina, En-anna-tum, Entemena and others, before the Semitic conquest,
+are also extremely interesting, especially the famous stele of the
+vultures and a great silver vase ornamented with what may be called the
+coat of arms of Lagash, a lion-headed eagle with wings outspread,
+grasping a lion in each talon. After the time of Gudea, Lagash seems to
+have lost its importance; at least we know nothing more about it until
+the construction of the Seleucid fortress mentioned, when it seems to
+have become part of the Greek kingdom of Characene. The objects found at
+Tello are the most valuable art treasures up to this time discovered in
+Babylonia.
+
+ See E. de Sarzec, _Découvertes en Chaldée_ (1887 foll.).
+ (J. P. Pe.)
+
+
+
+
+LAGHMAN, a district of Afghanistan, in the province of Jalalabad,
+between Jalalabad and Kabul, on the northern side of the Peshawar road,
+one of the richest and most fertile tracts in Afghanistan. It is the
+valley of the Kabul river between the Tagao and the Kunar and merges on
+the north into Kafiristan. The inhabitants, Ghilzais and Tajiks, are
+supposed to be the cleverest business people in the country. Sugar,
+cotton and rice are exported to Kabul. The Laghman route between Kabul
+and India crossing the Kunar river into the Mohmand country is the
+route followed by Alexander the Great and Baber; but it has now been
+supplanted by the Khyber.
+
+
+
+
+LAGOON (Fr. _lagune_, Lat. _lacuna_, a pool), a term applied to (1) a
+sheet of salt or brackish water near the sea, (2) a sheet of fresh water
+of no great depth or extent, (3) the expanse of smooth water enclosed by
+an atoll. Sea lagoons are formed only where the shores are low and
+protected from wave action. Under these conditions a bar may be raised
+above sea-level or a spit may grow until its end touches the land. The
+enclosed shallow water is then isolated in a wide stretch, the seaward
+banks broaden, and the lagoon becomes a permanent area of still shallow
+water with peculiar faunal features. In the old lake plains of Australia
+there are occasional wide and shallow depressions where water collects
+permanently. Large numbers of aquatic birds, black swans, wild duck,
+teal, migrant spoon-bills or pelicans, resort to these fresh-water
+lagoons.
+
+
+
+
+LAGOS, the western province of Southern Nigeria, a British colony and
+protectorate in West Africa. The province consists of three divisions:
+(1) the coast region, including Lagos Island, being the former colony of
+Lagos; (2) small native states adjacent to the colony; and (3) the
+Yoruba country, farther inland. The total area is some 27,000 sq. m., or
+about the size of Scotland. The province is bounded S. by the Gulf of
+Guinea, (from 2° 46´ 55´´ to 4° 30´ E.); W. by the French colony of
+Dahomey; N. and E. by other provinces of Nigeria.
+
+ _Physical Features._--The coast is low, marshy and malarious, and all
+ along the shore the great Atlantic billows cause a dangerous surf.
+ Behind the coast-line stretches a series of lagoons, in which are
+ small islands, that of Lagos having an area of 3¾ sq. m. Beyond the
+ lagoons and mangrove swamps is a broad zone of dense primeval
+ forest--"the bush"--which completely separates the arable lands from
+ the coast lagoons. The water-parting of the streams flowing north to
+ the Niger, and south to the Gulf of Guinea, is the main physical
+ feature. The general level of Yorubaland is under 2000 ft. But towards
+ the east, about the upper course of the river Oshun, the elevation is
+ higher. Southward from the divide the land, which is intersected by
+ the nearly parallel courses of the rivers Ogun, Omi, Oshun, Oni and
+ Oluwa, falls in continuous undulations to the coast, the open
+ cultivated ground gradually giving place to forest tracts, where the
+ most characteristic tree is the oil-palm. Flowering trees, certain
+ kinds of rubber vines, and shrubs are plentiful. In the northern
+ regions the shea-butter tree is found. The fauna resembles that of the
+ other regions of the Guinea coast, but large game is becoming scarce.
+ Leopards, antelopes and monkeys are common, and alligators infest the
+ rivers.
+
+ The lagoons, lying between the outer surf-beaten beach and the inner
+ shore line, form a navigable highway of still waters, many miles in
+ extent. They are almost entirely free from rock, though they are often
+ shallow, with numerous mud banks. The most extensive are Lekki in the
+ east, and Ikoradu (Lagos) in the west. At its N.W. extremity the Lagos
+ lagoon receives the Ogun, the largest river in Yorubaland, whose
+ current is strong enough to keep the seaward channel open throughout
+ the year. Hence the importance of the port of Lagos, which lies in
+ smooth water at the northern end of this channel. The outer entrance
+ is obstructed by a dangerous sand bar.
+
+ _Climate and Health._--The climate is unhealthy, especially for
+ Europeans. The rainfall has not been ascertained in the interior. In
+ the northern districts it is probably considerably less than at Lagos,
+ where it is about 70 in. a year. The variation is, however, very
+ great. In 1901 the rainfall was 112 in., in 1902 but 47, these figures
+ being respectively the highest and lowest recorded in a period of
+ seventeen years. The mean temperature at Lagos is 82.5° F., the range
+ being from 68° to 91°. At certain seasons sudden heavy squalls of wind
+ and rain that last for a few hours are common. The hurricane and
+ typhoon are unknown. The principal diseases are malarial fever,
+ smallpox, rheumatism, peripheral neuritis, dysentery, chest diseases
+ and guinea-worm. Fever not unfrequently assumes the dangerous form
+ known as "black-water fever." The frequency of smallpox is being much
+ diminished outside the larger towns in the interior, in which
+ vaccination is neglected. The absence of plague, yellow fever,
+ cholera, typhoid fever and scarlatina is noteworthy. A mild form of
+ yaws is endemic.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The population is estimated at 1,750,000. The Yoruba
+people, a Negro race divided into many tribes, form the majority of the
+inhabitants. Notwithstanding their political feuds and their proved
+capacity as fighting men, the Yoruba are distinguished above all the
+surrounding races for their generally peaceful disposition, industry,
+friendliness, courtesy and hospitality towards strangers. They are also
+intensely patriotic. Physically they resemble closely their Ewe and
+Dahomey neighbours, but are of somewhat lighter complexion, taller and
+of less pronounced Negro features. They exhibit high administrative
+ability, possess a marked capacity for trade, and have made remarkable
+progress in the industrial arts. The different tribes are distinguished
+by tattoo markings, usually some simple pattern of two or more parallel
+lines, disposed horizontally or vertically on the cheeks or other parts
+of the face. The feeling for religion is deeply implanted among the
+Yoruba. The majority are pagans, or dominated by pagan beliefs, but
+Islam has made great progress since the cessation of the Fula wars,
+while Protestant and Roman Catholic missions have been at work since
+1848 at Abeokuta, Oyo, Ibadan and other large towns. Samuel Crowther,
+the first Negro bishop in the Anglican church, who was distinguished as
+an explorer, geographer and linguist, was a native of Yorubaland,
+rescued (1822) by the English from slavery and educated at Sierra Leone
+(see YORUBAS).
+
+_Towns._--Besides Lagos (q.v.), pop. about 50,000, the chief towns in
+the colony proper are Epe, pop. 16,000, on the northern side of the
+lagoons, and Badagry (a notorious place during the slave-trade period)
+and Lekki, both on the coast. Inland the chief towns are Abeokuta
+(q.v.), pop. about 60,000, and Ibadan (q.v.), pop. estimated at 150,000.
+
+_Agriculture and Trade._--The chief wealth of the country consists in
+forest produce, the staple industries being the collection of
+palm-kernels and palm oil. Besides the oil-palm forests large areas are
+covered with timber trees, the wood chiefly cut for commercial purposes
+being a kind of mahogany. The destruction of immature trees and the
+fluctuations in price render this a very uncertain trade. The rubber
+industry was started in 1894, and in 1896 the rubber exported was valued
+at £347,000. In 1899, owing to reckless methods of tapping the vines,
+75% of the rubber plants died. Precautions were then taken to preserve
+the remainder and allow young plants to grow. The collection of rubber
+recommenced in 1904 and the industry again became one of importance. A
+considerable area is devoted to cocoa plantations, all owned by native
+cultivators. Coffee and tobacco of good quality are cultivated and
+shea-butter is largely used as an illuminant. The Yoruba country is the
+greatest agricultural centre in West Africa. For home consumption the
+Yoruba grow yams, maize and millet, the chief articles of food, cassava,
+sweet potatoes, sesame and beans. Model farms have been established for
+experimental culture and for the tuition of the natives. A palatable
+wine is obtained from the _Raphia vinifera_ and native beers are also
+brewed. Imported spirits are largely consumed. There are no manufactures
+on a large scale save the making of "country cloths" (from cotton grown,
+spun and woven in the country) and mats. Pottery and agricultural
+implements are made, and tanning, dyeing and forging practised in the
+towns, and along the rivers and lagoons boats and canoes are built.
+Fishing is extensively engaged in, the fish being dried and sent up
+country. Except iron there are no valuable minerals in the country.
+
+The cotton plant from which the "country cloths" are made is native to
+the country, the soil of which is capable of producing the very finest
+grades of cotton. The Egba branch of the Yoruba have always grown the
+plant. In 1869 the cotton exported was valued at £76,957, but owing to
+low prices the natives ceased to grow cotton for export, so that in 1879
+the value of exported cotton was only £526. In 1902 planting for export
+was recommenced by the Egba on scientific lines, and was started in the
+Abeokuta district with encouraging results.
+
+The Yoruba profess to be unable to alienate land in perpetuity, but
+native custom does not preclude leasing, and land concessions have been
+taken up by Europeans on long leases. Some concessions are only for
+cutting and removing timber; others permit of cultivation. The northern
+parts of the protectorate are specially suitable for stock raising and
+poultry culture.
+
+The chief exports are palm-kernels, palm-oil, timber, rubber and cocoa.
+Palm-kernels alone constitute more than a half in value of the total
+exports, and with palm-oil over three-fourths. The trade in these
+products is practically confined to Great Britain and Germany, the share
+of the first-named being 25% to Germany's 75%. Minor exports are coffee,
+"country cloths," maize, shea-butter and ivory.
+
+Cotton goods are the most important of the imports, spirits coming next,
+followed by building material, haberdashery and hardware and tobacco.
+Over 90% of the cotton goods are imported from Great Britain, whilst
+nearly the same proportion of the spirit imports come from Germany.
+Nearly all the liquors consist of "Trade Spirits," chiefly gin, rum and
+a concoction called "alcohol," introduced (1901) to meet the growing
+taste of the people for stronger liquor. This stuff contained 90% of
+pure alcohol and sometimes over 4% of fusel oil. To hinder the sale of
+this noxious compound legislation was passed in 1903 prohibiting the
+import of liquor containing more than ½% of fusel oil, whilst the states
+of Abeokuta and Ibadan prohibited the importation of liquor stronger
+than proof. The total trade of the country in 1905 was valued at
+£2,224,754, the imports slightly exceeding the exports. There is a large
+transit trade with Dahomey.
+
+ _Communications._--Lagos is well supplied with means of communication.
+ A 3 ft. 6 in. gauge railway starts from Iddo Island, and extends past
+ Abeokuta, 64 m. from Lagos, Ibadan (123 m.), Oshogbo (175 m.), to
+ Illorin (247 m.) in Northern Nigeria, whence the line is continued to
+ Jebba and Zunguru (see NIGERIA). Abeokuta is served by a branch line,
+ 1½ m. long, from Aro on the main line. Railway bridges connect Iddo
+ Island both with the mainland and with Lagos Island (see Lagos, town).
+ This line was begun in 1896 and opened to Ibadan in 1901. In 1905 the
+ building of the section Ibadan-Illorin was undertaken. The railway was
+ built by the government and cost about £7000 per mile. The lagoons
+ offer convenient channels for numerous small craft, which, with the
+ exception of steam-launches, are almost entirely native-built canoes.
+ Branch steamers run between the Forcados mouth of the Niger and Lagos,
+ and also between Lagos and Porto Novo, in French territory, and do a
+ large transit trade. Various roads through the bush have been made by
+ the government. There is telegraphic communication with Europe,
+ Northern Nigeria and South Africa, and steamships ply regularly
+ between Lagos and Liverpool, and Lagos and Hamburg (see LAGOS, town).
+
+ _Administration, Justice, Education, &c._--The small part of the
+ province which constitutes "the colony of Southern Nigeria" is
+ governed as a crown colony. Elsewhere the native governments are
+ retained, the chiefs and councils of elders receiving the advice and
+ support of British commissioners. There is also an advisory native
+ central council which meets at Lagos. The great majority of the civil
+ servants are natives of the country, some of whom have been educated
+ in England. The legal status of slavery is not recognized by the law
+ courts and dealing in slaves is suppressed. As an institution slavery
+ is dying out, and only exists in a domestic form.
+
+ The cost of administration is met, mainly, by customs, largely derived
+ from the duties on imported spirits. From the railways, a government
+ monopoly, a considerable net profit is earned. Expenditure is mainly
+ under the heads of railway administration, other public works,
+ military and police, health, and education. The revenue increased in
+ the ten years 1895-1905 from £142,049 to £410,250. In the same period
+ the expenditure rose from £144,484 to £354,254.
+
+ The defence of the province is entrusted to the Lagos battalion of the
+ West African Frontier Force, a body under the control of the Colonial
+ Office in London and composed of Hausa (four-fifths) and Yoruba. It is
+ officered from the British army.
+
+ The judicial system in the colony proper is based on that of England.
+ The colonial supreme court, by agreement with the rulers of Abeokuta,
+ Ibadan and other states in the protectorate, tries, with the aid of
+ native assessors, all cases of importance in those countries. Other
+ cases are tried by mixed courts, or, where Yoruba alone are concerned,
+ by native courts.
+
+ There is a government board of education which maintains a few schools
+ and supervises those voluntarily established. These are chiefly those
+ of various missionary societies, who, besides primary schools, have a
+ few secondary schools. The Mahommedans have their own schools. Grants
+ from public funds are made to the voluntary schools. Considerable
+ attention is paid to manual training, the laws of health and the
+ teaching of English, which is spoken by about one-fourth of the native
+ population.
+
+_History._--Lagos Island was so named by the Portuguese explorers of the
+15th century, because of the numerous lagoons or lakes on this part of
+the coast. The Portuguese, and after them the French, had settlements
+here at various points. In the 18th century Lagos Lagoon became the
+chief resort of slavers frequenting the Bight of Benin, this portion of
+the Gulf of Guinea becoming known pre-eminently as the Slave Coast.
+British traders established themselves at Badagry, 40 m. W. of Lagos,
+where in 1851 they were attacked by Kosoko, the Yoruba king of Lagos
+Island. As a result a British naval force seized Lagos after a sharp
+fight and deposed the king, placing his cousin, Akitoye, on the throne.
+A treaty was concluded under which Akitoye bound himself to put down the
+slave trade. This treaty was not adhered to, and in 1861 Akitoye's son
+and successor, King Docemo, was induced to give up his territorial
+jurisdiction and accept a pension of 1200 bags of cowries, afterwards
+commuted to £1000 a year, which pension he drew until his death in 1885.
+Immediately after the proclamation of the British annexation, a steady
+current of immigration from the mainland set in, and a flourishing town
+arose on Lagos Island. Iddo Island was acquired at the same time as
+Lagos Island, and from 1862 to 1894 various additions by purchase or
+cession were made to the colony. In 1879 the small kingdom of Kotonu was
+placed under British protection. Kotonu lies south and east of the
+Denham Lagoon (see DAHOMEY). In 1889 it was exchanged with the French
+for the kingdom of Pokra which is to the north of Badagry. In the early
+years of the colony Sir John Glover, R.N., who was twice governor
+(1864-1866 and 1871-1872), did much pioneer work and earned the
+confidence of the natives to a remarkable degree. Later Sir C. A.
+Moloney (governor 1886-1890) opened up relations with the Yoruba and
+other tribes in the hinterland. He despatched two commissioners whose
+duty it was to conclude commercial treaties and use British influence to
+put a stop to inter-tribal fighting and the closing of the trade routes.
+In 1892 the Jebu, who acted as middlemen between the colony and the
+Yoruba, closed several trade routes. An expedition sent against them
+resulted in their subjugation and the annexation of part of their
+country. An order in council issued in 1899 extended the protectorate
+over Yorubaland. The tribes of the hinterland have largely welcomed the
+British protectorate and military expeditions have been few and
+unimportant. (For the history of the Yoruba states see YORUBAS.)
+
+Lagos was made a separate government in 1863; in 1866 it was placed in
+political dependence upon Sierra Leone; in 1874 it became (politically)
+an integral part of the Gold Coast Colony, whilst in 1886 it was again
+made a separate government, administered as a crown colony. In Sir
+William Macgregor, M.D., formerly administrator of British New Guinea,
+governor 1899-1904, the colony found an enlightened ruler. He
+inaugurated the railway system, and drew much closer the friendly ties
+between the British and the tribes of the protectorate. Meantime, since
+1884, the whole of the Niger delta, lying immediately east of Lagos, as
+well as the Hausa states and Bornu, had been acquired by Great Britain.
+Unification of the British possessions in Nigeria being desirable, the
+delta regions and Lagos were formed in 1906 into one government (see
+NIGERIA).
+
+ See C. P. Lucas, _Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, vol.
+ iii. _West Africa_ (Oxford, 1896); the annual _Reports_ issued by the
+ Colonial Office, London; A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples_
+ (London, 1894); Lady Glover, _The Life of Sir John Hawley Glover_
+ (London, 1897). Consult also the works cited under NIGERIA and
+ DAHOMEY.
+
+
+
+
+LAGOS, a seaport of West Africa, capital of the British colony and
+protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in 6° 26´ N., 3° 23´ E. on an island
+in a lagoon named Lagos also. Between Lagos and the mainland is Iddo
+Island. An iron bridge for road and railway traffic 2600 ft. long
+connects Lagos and Iddo Islands, and another iron bridge, 917 ft. long,
+joins Iddo Island to the mainland. The town lies but a foot or two above
+sea-level. The principal buildings are a large government house, the law
+courts, the memorial hall erected to commemorate the services of Sir
+John Glover, used for public meetings and entertainments, an elaborate
+club-house provided from public funds, and the police quarters. There
+are many substantial villas that serve as quarters for the officers of
+the civil service, as well as numerous solidly-built handsome private
+buildings. The streets are well kept; the town is supplied with electric
+light, and there is a good water service. The chief stores and depôts
+for goods are all on the banks of the lagoon. The swamps of which
+originally Lagos Island entirely consisted have been reclaimed. In
+connexion with this work a canal, 25 ft. wide, has been cut right
+through the island and a sea-wall built round its western half. There is
+a commodious public hospital, of the cottage type, on a good site. There
+is a racecourse, which also serves as a general public recreation
+ground. Shifting banks of sand form a bar at the sea entrance of the
+lagoon. Extensive works were undertaken in 1908 with a view to making
+Lagos an open port. A mole has been built at the eastern entrance to the
+harbour and dredgers are at work on the bar, which can be crossed by
+vessels drawing 13 ft. Large ocean-going steamers anchor not less than 2
+m. from land, and goods and passengers are there transhipped into
+smaller steamers for Lagos. Heavy cargo is carried by the large steamers
+to Forcados, 200 m. farther down the coast, transhipped there into
+branch boats, and taken via the lagoons to Lagos. The port is 4279 m.
+from Liverpool, 1203 from Freetown, Sierra Leone (the nearest safe port
+westward), and 315 from Cape Coast.
+
+The inhabitants, about 50,000, include, besides the native tribes,
+Sierra Leonis, Fanti, Krumen and the descendants of some 6000 Brazilian
+_emancipados_ who were settled here in the early days of British rule.
+The Europeans number about 400. Rather more than half the populace are
+Moslems.
+
+
+
+
+LAGOS, a seaport of southern Portugal, in the district of Faro (formerly
+the province of Algarve); on the Atlantic Ocean, and on the estuary of
+the small river Lagos, here spanned by a fine stone bridge. Pop. (1900)
+8291. The city is defended by fortifications erected in the 17th
+century. It is supplied with water by an aqueduct 800 yds. long. The
+harbour is deep, capacious, and completely sheltered on the north and
+west; it is frequently visited by the British Channel fleet. Vines and
+figs are extensively cultivated in the neighbourhood, and Lagos is the
+centre of important sardine and tunny fisheries. Its trade is chiefly
+carried on by small coasting vessels, as there is no railway. Lagos is
+on or near the site of the Roman _Lacobriga_. Since the 15th century it
+has held the formal rank and title of city. Cape St Vincent, the ancient
+_Promontorium Sacrum_, and the south-western extremity of the kingdom,
+is 22 m. W. It is famous for its connexion with Prince Henry (q.v.), the
+Navigator, who here founded the town of Sagres in 1421; and for several
+British naval victories, the most celebrated of which was won in 1797 by
+Admiral Jervis (afterwards Earl St Vincent) over a larger Spanish
+squadron. In 1759 Admiral Boscawen defeated a French fleet off Lagos.
+The great earthquake of 1755 destroyed a large part of the city.
+
+
+
+
+LA GRÂCE, or LES GRÂCES, a game invented in France during the first
+quarter of the 19th century and called there _le jeu des Grâces_. It is
+played with two light sticks about 16 in. long and a wicker ring, which
+is projected into the air by placing it over the sticks crossed and then
+separating them rapidly. The ring is caught upon the stick of another
+player and thrown back, the object being to prevent it from falling to
+the ground.
+
+
+
+
+LA GRAND' COMBE, a town of southern France, in the department of Gard on
+the Gardon, 39 m. N.N.W. of Nîmes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 6406;
+commune, 11,292. There are extensive coal mines in the vicinity.
+
+
+
+
+LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS (1736-1813), French mathematician, was born at
+Turin, on the 25th of January 1736. He was of French extraction, his
+great grandfather, a cavalry captain, having passed from the service of
+France to that of Sardinia, and settled in Turin under Emmanuel II. His
+father, Joseph Louis Lagrange, married Maria Theresa Gros, only daughter
+of a rich physician at Cambiano, and had by her eleven children, of whom
+only the eldest (the subject of this notice) and the youngest survived
+infancy. His emoluments as treasurer at war, together with his wife's
+fortune, provided him with ample means, which he lost by rash
+speculations, a circumstance regarded by his son as the prelude to his
+own good fortune; for had he been rich, he used to say, he might never
+have known mathematics.
+
+The genius of Lagrange did not at once take its true bent. His earliest
+tastes were literary rather than scientific, and he learned the
+rudiments of geometry during his first year at the college of Turin,
+without difficulty, but without distinction. The perusal of a tract by
+Halley (_Phil. Trans._ xviii. 960) roused his enthusiasm for the
+analytical method, of which he was destined to develop the utmost
+capabilities. He now entered, unaided save by his own unerring tact and
+vivid apprehension, upon a course of study which, in two years, placed
+him on a level with the greatest of his contemporaries. At the age of
+nineteen he communicated to Leonhard Euler his idea of a general method
+of dealing with "isoperimetrical" problems, known later as the Calculus
+of Variations. It was eagerly welcomed by the Berlin mathematician, who
+had the generosity to withhold from publication his own further
+researches on the subject, until his youthful correspondent should have
+had time to complete and opportunity to claim the invention. This
+prosperous opening gave the key-note to Lagrange's career. Appointed, in
+1754, professor of geometry in the royal school of artillery, he formed
+with some of his pupils--for the most part his seniors--friendships
+based on community of scientific ardour. With the aid of the marquis de
+Saluces and the anatomist G. F. Cigna, he founded in 1758 a society
+which became the Turin Academy of Sciences. The first volume of its
+memoirs, published in the following year, contained a paper by Lagrange
+entitled _Recherches sur la nature et la propagation du son_, in which
+the power of his analysis and his address in its application were
+equally conspicuous. He made his first appearance in public as the
+critic of Newton, and the arbiter between d'Alembert and Euler. By
+considering only the particles of air found in a right line, he reduced
+the problem of the propagation of sound to the solution of the same
+partial differential equations that include the motions of vibrating
+strings, and demonstrated the insufficiency of the methods employed by
+both his great contemporaries in dealing with the latter subject. He
+further treated in a masterly manner of echoes and the mixture of
+sounds, and explained the phenomenon of grave harmonics as due to the
+occurrence of beats so rapid as to generate a musical note. This was
+followed, in the second volume of the _Miscellanea Taurinensia_ (1762)
+by his "Essai d'une nouvelle méthode pour déterminer les maxima et les
+minima des formules intégrales indéfinies," together with the
+application of this important development of analysis to the solution of
+several dynamical problems, as well as to the demonstration of the
+mechanical principle of "least action." The essential point in his
+advance on Euler's mode of investigating curves of maximum or minimum
+consisted in his purely analytical conception of the subject. He not
+only freed it from all trammels of geometrical construction, but by the
+introduction of the symbol [delta] gave it the efficacy of a new
+calculus. He is thus justly regarded as the inventor of the "method of
+variations"--a name supplied by Euler in 1766.
+
+By these performances Lagrange found himself, at the age of twenty-six,
+on the summit of European fame. Such a height had not been reached
+without cost. Intense application during early youth had weakened a
+constitution never robust, and led to accesses of feverish exaltation
+culminating, in the spring of 1761, in an attack of bilious
+hypochondria, which permanently lowered the tone of his nervous system.
+Rest and exercise, however, temporarily restored his health, and he gave
+proof of the undiminished vigour of his powers by carrying off, in 1764,
+the prize offered by the Paris Academy of Sciences for the best essay on
+the libration of the moon. His treatise was remarkable, not only as
+offering a satisfactory explanation of the coincidence between the lunar
+periods of rotation and revolution, but as containing the first
+employment of his radical formula of mechanics, obtained by combining
+with the principle of d'Alembert that of virtual velocities. His success
+encouraged the Academy to propose, in 1766, as a theme for competition,
+the hitherto unattempted theory of the Jovian system. The prize was
+again awarded to Lagrange; and he earned the same distinction with
+essays on the problem of three bodies in 1772, on the secular equation
+of the moon in 1774, and in 1778 on the theory of cometary
+perturbations.
+
+He had in the meantime gratified a long felt desire by a visit to Paris,
+where he enjoyed the stimulating delight of conversing with such
+mathematicians as A. C. Clairault, d'Alembert, Condorcet and the Abbé
+Marie. Illness prevented him from visiting London. The post of director
+of the mathematical department of the Berlin Academy (of which he had
+been a member since 1759) becoming vacant by the removal of Euler to St
+Petersburg, the latter and d'Alembert united to recommend Lagrange as
+his successor. Euler's eulogium was enhanced by his desire to quit
+Berlin, d'Alembert's by his dread of a royal command to repair thither;
+and the result was that an invitation, conveying the wish of the
+"greatest king in Europe" to have the "greatest mathematician" at his
+court, was sent to Turin. On the 6th of November 1766, Lagrange was
+installed in his new position, with a salary of 6000 francs, ample
+leisure for scientific research, and royal favour sufficient to secure
+him respect without exciting envy. The national jealousy of foreigners,
+was at first a source of annoyance to him; but such prejudices were
+gradually disarmed by the inoffensiveness of his demeanour. We are told
+that the universal example of his colleagues, rather than any desire for
+female society, impelled him to matrimony; his choice being a lady of
+the Conti family, who, by his request, joined him at Berlin. Soon after
+marriage his wife was attacked by a lingering illness, to which she
+succumbed, Lagrange devoting all his time, and a considerable store of
+medical knowledge, to her care.
+
+The long series of memoirs--some of them complete treatises of great
+moment in the history of science--communicated by Lagrange to the Berlin
+Academy between the years 1767 and 1787 were not the only fruits of his
+exile. His _Mécanique analytique_, in which his genius most fully
+displayed itself, was produced during the same period. This great work
+was the perfect realization of a design conceived by the author almost
+in boyhood, and clearly sketched in his first published essay.[1] Its
+scope may be briefly described as the reduction of the theory of
+mechanics to certain general formulae, from the simple development of
+which should be derived the equations necessary for the solution of each
+separate problem.[2] From the fundamental principle of virtual
+velocities, which thus acquired a new significance, Lagrange deduced,
+with the aid of the calculus of variations, the whole system of
+mechanical truths, by processes so elegant, lucid and harmonious as to
+constitute, in Sir William Hamilton's words, "a kind of scientific
+poem." This unification of method was one of matter also. By his mode of
+regarding a liquid as a material system characterized by the unshackled
+mobility of its minutest parts, the separation between the mechanics of
+matter in different forms of aggregation finally disappeared, and the
+fundamental equation of forces was for the first time extended to
+hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.[3] Thus a universal science of matter
+and motion was derived, by an unbroken sequence of deduction, from one
+radical principle; and analytical mechanics assumed the clear and
+complete form of logical perfection which it now wears.
+
+A publisher having with some difficulty been found, the book appeared at
+Paris in 1788 under the supervision of A. M. Legendre. But before that
+time Lagrange himself was on the spot. After the death of Frederick the
+Great, his presence was competed for by the courts of France, Spain and
+Naples, and a residence in Berlin having ceased to possess any
+attraction for him, he removed to Paris in 1787. Marie Antoinette warmly
+patronized him. He was lodged in the Louvre, received the grant of an
+income equal to that he had hitherto enjoyed, and, with the title of
+"veteran pensioner" in lieu of that of "foreign associate" (conferred in
+1772), the right of voting at the deliberations of the Academy. In the
+midst of these distinctions, a profound melancholy seized upon him. His
+mathematical enthusiasm was for the time completely quenched, and during
+two years the printed volume of his _Mécanique_, which he had seen only
+in manuscript, lay unopened beside him. He relieved his dejection with
+miscellaneous studies, especially with that of chemistry, which, in the
+new form given to it by Lavoisier, he found "aisée comme l'algèbre." The
+Revolution roused him once more to activity and cheerfulness. Curiosity
+impelled him to remain and watch the progress of such a novel
+phenomenon; but curiosity was changed into dismay as the terrific
+character of the phenomenon unfolded itself. He now bitterly regretted
+his temerity in braving the danger. "Tu l'as voulu" he would repeat
+self-reproachfully. Even from revolutionary tribunals, however, the name
+of Lagrange uniformly commanded respect. His pension was continued by
+the National Assembly, and he was partially indemnified for the
+depreciation of the currency by remunerative appointments. Nominated
+president of the Academical commission for the reform of weights and
+measures, his services were retained when its "purification" by the
+Jacobins removed his most distinguished colleagues. He again sat on the
+commission of 1799 for the construction of the metric system, and by his
+zealous advocacy of the decimal principle largely contributed to its
+adoption.
+
+Meanwhile, on the 31st of May 1792 he married Mademoiselle Lemonnier,
+daughter of the astronomer of that name, a young and beautiful girl,
+whose devotion ignored disparity of years, and formed the one tie with
+life which Lagrange found it hard to break. He had no children by either
+marriage. Although specially exempted from the operation of the decree
+of October 1793, imposing banishment on foreign residents, he took alarm
+at the fate of J. S. Bailly and A. L. Lavoisier, and prepared to resume
+his former situation in Berlin. His design was frustrated by the
+establishment of and his official connexion with the École Normale, and
+the École Polytechnique. The former institution had an ephemeral
+existence; but amongst the benefits derived from the foundation of the
+École Polytechnique one of the greatest, it has been observed,[4] was
+the restoration of Lagrange to mathematics. The remembrance of his
+teachings was long treasured by such of his auditors--amongst whom were
+J. B. J. Delambre and S. F. Lacroix--as were capable of appreciating
+them. In expounding the principles of the differential calculus, he
+started, as it were, from the level of his pupils, and ascended with
+them by almost insensible gradations from elementary to abstruse
+conceptions. He seemed, not a professor amongst students, but a learner
+amongst learners; pauses for thought alternated with luminous
+exposition; invention accompanied demonstration; and thus originated his
+_Théorie des fonctions analytiques_ (Paris, 1797). The leading idea of
+this work was contained in a paper published in the _Berlin Memoirs_ for
+1772.[5] Its object was the elimination of the, to some minds,
+unsatisfactory conception of the infinite from the metaphysics of the
+higher mathematics, and the substitution for the differential and
+integral calculus of an analogous method depending wholly on the serial
+development of algebraical functions. By means of this "calculus of
+derived functions" Lagrange hoped to give to the solution of all
+analytical problems the utmost "rigour of the demonstrations of the
+ancients";[6] but it cannot be said that the attempt was successful. The
+validity of his fundamental position was impaired by the absence of a
+well-constituted theory of series; the notation employed was
+inconvenient, and was abandoned by its inventor in the second edition of
+his _Mécanique_; while his scruples as to the admission into analytical
+investigations of the idea of limits or vanishing ratios have long since
+been laid aside as idle. Nowhere, however, were the keenness and
+clearness of his intellect more conspicuous than in this brilliant
+effort, which, if it failed in its immediate object, was highly
+effective in secondary results. His purely abstract mode of regarding
+functions, apart from any mechanical or geometrical considerations, led
+the way to a new and sharply characterized development of the higher
+analysis in the hands of A. Cauchy, C. G. Jacobi, and others.[7] The
+_Théorie des fonctions_ is divided into three parts, of which the first
+explains the general doctrine of functions, the second deals with its
+application to geometry, and the third with its bearings on mechanics.
+
+On the establishment of the Institute, Lagrange was placed at the head
+of the section of geometry; he was one of the first members of the
+Bureau des Longitudes; and his name appeared in 1791 on the list of
+foreign members of the Royal Society. On the annexation of Piedmont to
+France in 1796, a touching compliment was paid to him in the person of
+his aged father. By direction of Talleyrand, then minister for foreign
+affairs, the French commissary repaired in state to the old man's
+residence in Turin, to congratulate him on the merits of his son, whom
+they declared "to have done honour to mankind by his genius, and whom
+Piedmont was proud to have produced, and France to possess." Bonaparte,
+who styled him "la haute pyramide des sciences mathématiques," loaded
+him with personal favours and official distinctions. He became a
+senator, a count of the empire, a grand officer of the legion of honour,
+and just before his death received the grand cross of the order of
+réunion.
+
+The preparation of a new edition of his _Mécanique_ exhausted his
+already falling powers. Frequent fainting fits gave presage of a speedy
+end, and on the 8th of April 1813 he had a final interview with his
+friends B. Lacépède, G. Monge and J. A. Chaptal. He spoke with the
+utmost calm of his approaching death; "c'est une dernière fonction," he
+said, "qui n'est ni pénible ni désagréable." He nevertheless looked
+forward to a future meeting, when he promised to complete the
+autobiographical details which weakness obliged him to interrupt. They
+remained untold, for he died two days later on the 10th of April, and
+was buried in the Pantheon, the funeral oration being pronounced by
+Laplace and Lacépède.
+
+ Amongst the brilliant group of mathematicians whose magnanimous
+ rivalry contributed to accomplish the task of generalization and
+ deduction reserved for the 18th century, Lagrange occupies an eminent
+ place. It is indeed by no means easy to distinguish and apportion the
+ respective merits of the competitors. This is especially the case
+ between Lagrange and Euler on the one side, and between Lagrange and
+ Laplace on the other. The calculus of variations lay undeveloped in
+ Euler's mode of treating isoperimetrical problems. The fruitful
+ method, again, of the variation of elements was introduced by Euler,
+ but adopted and perfected by Lagrange, who first recognized its
+ supreme importance to the analytical investigation of the planetary
+ movements. Finally, of the grand series of researches by which the
+ stability of the solar system was ascertained, the glory must be
+ almost equally divided between Lagrange and Laplace. In analytical
+ invention, and mastery over the calculus, the Turin mathematician was
+ admittedly unrivalled. Laplace owned that he had despaired of
+ effecting the integration of the differential equations relative to
+ secular inequalities until Lagrange showed him the way. But Laplace
+ unquestionably surpassed his rival in practical sagacity and the
+ intuition of physical truth. Lagrange saw in the problems of nature so
+ many occasions for analytical triumphs; Laplace regarded analytical
+ triumphs as the means of solving the problems of nature. One mind
+ seemed the complement of the other; and both, united in honourable
+ rivalry, formed an instrument of unexampled perfection for the
+ investigation of the celestial machinery. What may be called
+ Lagrange's first period of research into planetary perturbations
+ extended from 1774 to 1784 (see ASTRONOMY: _History_). The notable
+ group of treatises communicated, 1781-1784, to the Berlin Academy was
+ designed, but did not prove to be his final contribution to the theory
+ of the planets. After an interval of twenty-four years the subject,
+ re-opened by S. D. Poisson in a paper read on the 20th of June 1808,
+ was once more attacked by Lagrange with all his pristine vigour and
+ fertility of invention. Resuming the inquiry into the invariability of
+ mean motions, Poisson carried the approximation, with Lagrange's
+ formulae, as far as the squares of the disturbing forces, hitherto
+ neglected, with the same result as to the stability of the system. He
+ had not attempted to include in his calculations the orbital
+ variations of the disturbing bodies; but Lagrange, by the happy
+ artifice of transferring the origin of coordinates from the centre of
+ the sun to the centre of gravity of the sun and planets, obtained a
+ simplification of the formulae, by which the same analysis was
+ rendered equally applicable to each of the planets severally. It
+ deserves to be recorded as one of the numerous coincidences of
+ discovery that Laplace, on being made acquainted by Lagrange with his
+ new method, produced analogous expressions, to which his independent
+ researches had led him. The final achievement of Lagrange in this
+ direction was the extension of the method of the variation of
+ arbitrary constants, successfully used by him in the investigation of
+ periodical as well as of secular inequalities, to any system whatever
+ of mutually interacting bodies.[8] "Not without astonishment," even
+ to himself, regard being had to the great generality of the
+ differential equations, he reached a result so wide as to include, as
+ a particular case, the solution of the planetary problem recently
+ obtained by him. He proposed to apply the same principles to the
+ calculation of the disturbances produced in the rotation of the
+ planets by external action on their equatorial protuberances, but was
+ anticipated by Poisson, who gave formulae for the variation of the
+ elements of rotation strictly corresponding with those found by
+ Lagrange for the variation of the elements of revolution. The revision
+ of the _Mécanique analytique_ was undertaken mainly for the purpose of
+ embodying in it these new methods and final results, but was
+ interrupted, when two-thirds completed, by the death of its author.
+
+ In the advancement of almost every branch of pure mathematics Lagrange
+ took a conspicuous part. The calculus of variations is indissolubly
+ associated with his name. In the theory of numbers he furnished
+ solutions of many of P. Fermat's theorems, and added some of his own.
+ In algebra he discovered the method of approximating to the real roots
+ of an equation by means of continued fractions, and imagined a general
+ process of solving algebraical equations of every degree. The method
+ indeed fails for equations of an order above the fourth, because it
+ then involves the solution of an equation of higher dimensions than
+ they proposed. Yet it possesses the great and characteristic merit of
+ generalizing the solutions of his predecessors, exhibiting them all as
+ modifications of one principle. To Lagrange, perhaps more than to any
+ other, the theory of differential equations is indebted for its
+ position as a science, rather than a collection of ingenious artifices
+ for the solution of particular problems. To the calculus of finite
+ differences he contributed the beautiful formula of interpolation
+ which bears his name; although substantially the same result seems to
+ have been previously obtained by Euler. But it was in the application
+ to mechanical questions of the instrument which he thus helped to form
+ that his singular merit lay. It was his just boast to have transformed
+ mechanics (defined by him as a "geometry of four dimensions") into a
+ branch of analysis, and to have exhibited the so-called mechanical
+ "principles" as simple results of the calculus. The method of
+ "generalized coordinates," as it is now called, by which he attained
+ this result, is the most brilliant achievement of the analytical
+ method. Instead of following the motion of each individual part of a
+ material system, he showed that, if we determine its configuration by
+ a sufficient number of variables, whose number is that of the degrees
+ of freedom to move (there being as many equations as the system has
+ degrees of freedom), the kinetic and potential energies of the system
+ can be expressed in terms of these, and the differential equations of
+ motion thence deduced by simple differentiation. Besides this most
+ important contribution to the general fabric of dynamical science, we
+ owe to Lagrange several minor theorems of great elegance,--among which
+ may be mentioned his theorem that the kinetic energy imparted by given
+ impulses to a material system under given constraints is a maximum. To
+ this entire branch of knowledge, in short, he successfully imparted
+ that character of generality and completeness towards which his
+ labours invariably tended.
+
+ His share in the gigantic task of verifying the Newtonian theory would
+ alone suffice to immortalize his name. His co-operation was indeed
+ more indispensable than at first sight appears. Much as was done _by_
+ him, what was done _through_ him was still more important. Some of his
+ brilliant rival's most conspicuous discoveries were implicitly
+ contained in his writings, and wanted but one step for completion. But
+ that one step, from the abstract to the concrete, was precisely that
+ which the character of Lagrange's mind indisposed him to make. As
+ notable instances may be mentioned Laplace's discoveries relating to
+ the velocity of sound and the secular acceleration of the moon, both
+ of which were led close up to by Lagrange's analytical demonstrations.
+ In the _Berlin Memoirs_ for 1778 and 1783 Lagrange gave the first
+ direct and theoretically perfect method of determining cometary
+ orbits. It has not indeed proved practically available; but his system
+ of calculating cometary perturbations by means of "mechanical
+ quadratures" has formed the starting-point of all subsequent
+ researches on the subject. His determination[9] of maximum and minimum
+ values for the slowly varying planetary eccentricities was the
+ earliest attempt to deal with the problem. Without a more accurate
+ knowledge of the masses of the planets than was then possessed a
+ satisfactory solution was impossible; but the upper limits assigned by
+ him agreed closely with those obtained later by U. J. J.
+ Leverrier.[10] As a mathematical writer Lagrange has perhaps never
+ been surpassed. His treatises are not only storehouses of ingenious
+ methods, but models of symmetrical form. The clearness, elegance and
+ originality of his mode of presentation give lucidity to what is
+ obscure, novelty to what is familiar, and simplicity to what is
+ abstruse. His genius was one of generalization and abstraction; and
+ the aspirations of the time towards unity and perfection received, by
+ his serene labours, an embodiment denied to them in the troubled world
+ of politics.
+
+ BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lagrange's numerous scattered memoirs have been
+ collected and published in seven 4to volumes, under the title
+ _Oeuvres de Lagrange, publiées sous les soins de M. J. A. Serret_
+ (Paris, 1867-1877). The first, second and third sections of this
+ publication comprise respectively the papers communicated by him to
+ the Academies of Sciences of Turin, Berlin and Paris; the fourth
+ includes his miscellaneous contributions to other scientific
+ collections, together with his additions to Euler's _Algebra_, and his
+ _Leçons élémentaires_ at the École Normale in 1795. Delambre's notice
+ of his life, extracted from the _Mém. de l'Institut_, 1812, is
+ prefixed to the first volume. Besides the separate works already named
+ are _Résolution des équations numériques_ (1798, 2nd ed., 1808, 3rd
+ ed., 1826), and _Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions_ (1805, 2nd ed.,
+ 1806), designed as a commentary and supplement to the first part of
+ the _Théorie des fonctions_. The first volume of the enlarged edition
+ of the _Mécanique_ appeared in 1811, the second, of which the revision
+ was completed by MM Prony and Binet, in 1815. A third edition, in 2
+ vols., 4to, was issued in 1853-1855, and a second of the _Théorie des
+ fonctions_ in 1813.
+
+ See also J. J. Virey and Potel, _Précis historique_ (1813); Th.
+ Thomson's _Annals of Philosophy_ (1813-1820), vols. ii. and iv.; H.
+ Suter, _Geschichte der math. Wiss._ (1873); E. Dühring, _Kritische
+ Gesch. der allgemeinen Principien der Mechanik_ (1877, 2nd ed.); A.
+ Gautier, _Essai historique sur le problème des trois corps_ (1817); R.
+ Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_, &c.; Pietro Cossali, _Éloge_
+ (Padua, 1813); L. Martini, _Cenni biográfici_ (1840); _Moniteur du 26
+ Février_ (1814); W. Whewell, _Hist. of the Inductive Sciences_, ii.
+ _passim_; J. Clerk Maxwell, _Electricity and Magnetism_, ii. 184; A.
+ Berry, _Short Hist. of Astr._, p. 313; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr.
+ moderne_, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit.
+ Handwörterbuch_. (A. M. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+ [1] _Oeuvres_, i. 15.
+
+ [2] _Méc. An._, Advertisement to 1st ed.
+
+ [3] E. Dühring, _Kritische Gesch. der Mechanik_, 220, 367; Lagrange,
+ _Méc. An._ i. 166-172, 3rd ed.
+
+ [4] Notice by J. Delambre, _Oeuvres de Lagrange_, i. p. xlii.
+
+ [5] _Oeuvres_, iii. 441.
+
+ [6] _Théorie des fonctions_, p. 6.
+
+ [7] H. Suter, _Geschichte der math. Wiss._ ii. 222-223.
+
+ [8] _Oeuvres_, vi. 771.
+
+ [9] _Oeuvres_, v. 211 seq.
+
+ [10] Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_, p. 117.
+
+
+
+
+LAGRANGE-CHANCEL [CHANCEL], FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (1677-1758), French
+dramatist and satirist, was born at Périgueux on the 1st of January
+1677. He was an extremely precocious boy, and at Bordeaux, where he was
+educated, he produced a play when he was nine years old. Five years
+later his mother took him to Paris, where he found a patron in the
+princesse de Conti, to whom he dedicated his tragedy of _Jugurtha_ or,
+as it was called later, _Adherbal_ (1694). Racine had given him advice
+and was present at the first performance, although he had long lived in
+complete retirement. Other plays followed: _Oreste et Pylade_ (1697),
+_Méléagre_ (1699), _Amasis_ (1701), and _Ino et Mélicerte_ (1715).
+Lagrange hardly realized the high hopes raised by his precocity,
+although his only serious rival on the tragic stage was Campistron, but
+he obtained high favour at court, becoming _maître d'hôtel_ to the
+duchess of Orleans. This prosperity ended with the publication in 1720
+of his _Philippiques_, odes accusing the regent, Philip, duke of
+Orleans, of the most odious crimes. He might have escaped the
+consequences of this libel but for the bitter enmity of a former patron,
+the duc de La Force. Lagrange found sanctuary at Avignon, but was
+enticed beyond the boundary of the papal jurisdiction, when he was
+arrested and sent as a prisoner to the isles of Sainte Marguerite. He
+contrived, however, to escape to Sardinia and thence to Spain and
+Holland, where he produced his fourth and fifth _Philippiques_. On the
+death of the Regent he was able to return to France. He was part author
+of a _Histoire de Périgord_ left unfinished, and made a further
+contribution to history, or perhaps, more exactly, to romance, in a
+letter to Élie Fréron on the identity of the Man with the Iron Mask.
+Lagrange's family life was embittered by a long lawsuit against his son.
+He died at Périgueux at the end of December 1758.
+
+ He had collected his own works (5 vols., 1758) some months before his
+ death. His most famous work, the _Philippiques_, was edited by M. de
+ Lescure in 1858, and a sixth philippic by M. Diancourt in 1886.
+
+
+
+
+LA GRANJA, or SAN ILDEFONSO, a summer palace of the kings of Spain; on
+the south-eastern border of the province of Segovia, and on the western
+slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama, 7 m. by road S.E. of the city of
+Segovia. The royal estate is 3905 ft. above sea-level. The scenery of
+this region, especially in the gorge of the river Lozoya, with its
+granite rocks, its dense forest of pines, firs and birches, and its
+red-tiled farms, more nearly resembles the highlands of northern Europe
+than any other part of Spain. La Granja has an almost alpine climate,
+with a clear, cool atmosphere and abundant sunshine. Above the palace
+rise the wooded summits of the Guadarrama, culminating in the peak of
+Peñalara (7891 ft.); in front of it the wide plains of Segovia extend
+northwards. The village of San Ildefonso, the oldest part of the estate,
+was founded in 1450 by Henry IV., who built a hunting lodge and chapel
+here. In 1477 the chapel was presented by Ferdinand and Isabella to the
+monks of the Parral, a neighbouring Hieronymite monastery. The original
+_granja_ (i.e. grange or farm), established by the monks, was purchased
+in 1719 by Philip V., after the destruction of his summer palace at
+Valsain, the ancient _Vallis Sapinorum_, 2 m. S. Philip determined to
+convert the estate into a second Versailles. The palace was built
+between 1721 and 1723. Its façade is fronted by a colonnade in which the
+pillars reach to the roof. The state apartments contain some valuable
+18th-century furniture, but the famous collection of sculptures was
+removed to Madrid in 1836, and is preserved there in the Museo del
+Prado. At La Granja it is represented by facsimiles in plaster. The
+collegiate church adjoining the palace dates from 1724, and contains the
+tombs of Philip V. and his consort Isabella Farnese. An artificial lake
+called El Mar, 4095 ft. above sea-level, irrigates the gardens, which
+are imitated from those of Versailles, and supplies water for the
+fountains. These, despite the antiquated and sometimes tasteless style
+of their ornamentation, are probably the finest in the world; it is
+noteworthy that, owing to the high level of the lake, no pumps or other
+mechanism are needed to supply pressure. There are twenty-six fountains
+besides lakes and waterfalls. Among the most remarkable are the group of
+"Perseus, Andromeda and the Sea-Monster," which sends up a jet of water
+110 ft. high, the "Fame," which reaches 125 ft., and the very elaborate
+"Baths of Diana." It is of the last that Philip V. is said to have
+remarked, "It has cost me three millions and amused me three minutes."
+Most of the fountains were made by order of Queen Isabella in 1727,
+during the king's absence. The glass factory of San Ildefonso was
+founded by Charles III.
+
+ It was in La Granja that Philip V. resigned the crown to his son in
+ January 1724, to resume it after his son's death seven months later;
+ that the treaties of 1777, 1778, 1796 and 1800 were signed (see SPAIN:
+ _History_); that Ferdinand VII. summoned Don Carlos to the throne in
+ 1832, but was induced to alter the succession in favour of his own
+ infant daughter Isabella, thus involving Spain in civil war; and that
+ in 1836 a military revolt compelled the Queen-regent Christina to
+ restore the constitution of 1812.
+
+
+
+
+LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS (1724-1805), French painter, was a pupil
+of Carle Vanloo. Born at Paris on the 30th of December 1724, in 1755 he
+became a member of the Royal Academy, presenting as his diploma picture
+the "Rape of Deianira" (Louvre). He visited St Petersburg at the call of
+the empress Elizabeth, and on his return was named in 1781 director of
+the French Academy at Rome; he there painted the "Indian Widow," one of
+his best-known works. In 1804 Napoleon conferred on him the cross of the
+legion of honour, and on the 19th of June 1805 he died in the Louvre, of
+which he was honorary keeper.
+
+
+
+
+LA GUAIRA, or LA GUAYRA (sometimes LAGUAIRA, &c.), a town and port of
+Venezuela, in the Federal district, 23 m. by rail and 6½ m. in a direct
+line N. of Caracas. Pop. (1904, estimate) 14,000. It is situated between
+a precipitous mountain side and a broad, semicircular indentation of the
+coast line which forms the roadstead of the port. The anchorage was long
+considered one of the most dangerous on the Caribbean coast, and landing
+was attended with much danger. The harbour has been improved by the
+construction of a concrete breakwater running out from the eastern shore
+line 2044 ft., built up from an extreme depth of 46 ft. or from an
+average depth of 29½ ft., and rising 19½ ft. above sea-level. This
+encloses an area of 76½ acres, having an average depth of nearly 28 ft.
+The harbour is further improved by 1870 ft. of concrete quays and 1397
+ft. of retaining sea-wall, with several piers (three covered) projecting
+into deep water. These works were executed by a British company, known
+as the La Guaira Harbour Corporation, Ltd., and were completed in 1891
+at a cost of about one million sterling. The concession is for 99 years
+and the additional charges which the company is authorized to impose are
+necessarily heavy. These improvements and the restrictions placed upon
+the direct trade between West Indian ports and the Orinoco have greatly
+increased the foreign trade of La Guaira, which in 1903 was 52% of that
+of the four _puertos habilitados_ of the republic. The shipping entries
+of that year numbered 217, of which 203 entered with general cargo and
+14 with coal exclusively. The exports included 152,625 bags coffee,
+114,947 bags cacao and 152,891 hides. For 1905-1906 the imports at La
+Guaira were valued officially at £767,365 and the exports at £663,708.
+The city stands on sloping ground stretching along the circular coast
+line with a varying width of 130 to 330 ft. and having the appearance of
+an amphitheatre. The port improvements added 18 acres of reclaimed land
+to La Guaira's area, and the removal of old shore batteries likewise
+increased its available breadth. In this narrow space is built the town,
+composed in great part of small, roughly-made cabins, and narrow,
+badly-paved streets, but with good business houses on its principal
+street. From the mountain side, reddish-brown in colour and bare of
+vegetation, the solar heat is reflected with tremendous force, the mean
+annual temperature being 84° F. The seaside towns of Maiquetia, 2 m. W.
+and Macuto, 3 m. E., which have better climatic and sanitary conditions
+and are connected by a narrow-gauge railway, are the residences of many
+of the wealthier merchants of La Guaira.
+
+La Guaira was founded in 1588, was sacked by filibusters under Amias
+Preston in 1595, and by the French under Grammont in 1680, was destroyed
+by the great earthquake of the 26th of March 1812, and suffered severely
+in the war for independence. In 1903, pending the settlement of claims
+of Great Britain, Germany and Italy against Venezuela, La Guaira was
+blockaded by a British-German-Italian fleet.
+
+
+
+
+LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, LOUIS ÉTIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HÉLION, VICOMTE DE
+(1816-1875), French politician, was the scion of a noble Poitevin
+family. Although by birth and education attached to Legitimist
+principles, he became closely associated with Lamartine, to whose organ,
+_Le Bien Public_, he was a principal contributor. After the stoppage of
+this paper he wrote for _La Presse_, and in 1850 edited _Le Pays_. A
+character sketch of Louis Napoleon in this journal caused differences
+with Lamartine, and La Guéronnière became more and more closely
+identified with the policy of the prince president. Under the Empire he
+was a member of the council of state (1853), senator (1861), ambassador
+at Brussels (1868), and at Constantinople (1870), and grand officer of
+the legion of honour (1866). He died in Paris on the 23rd of December
+1875. Besides his _Études et portraits politiques contemporains_ (1856)
+his most important works are those on the foreign policy of the Empire:
+_La France, Rome et Italie_ (1851), _L'Abandon de Rome_ (1862), _De la
+politique intérieure et extérieure de la France_ (1862).
+
+His elder brother, ALFRED DUBREUIL HÉLION, Comte de La Guéronnière
+(1810-1884), who remained faithful to the Legitimist party, was also a
+well-known writer and journalist. He was consistent in his opposition to
+the July Monarchy and the Empire, but in a series of books on the crisis
+of 1870-1871 showed a more favourable attitude to the Republic.
+
+
+
+
+LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES (1858- ), French lawyer and politician, was
+born in Paris on the 24th of June 1858. Called to the bar in 1879, he
+distinguished himself by brilliant pleadings in favour of socialist and
+anarchist leaders, defending Prince Kropotkine at Lyons in 1883, Louise
+Michel in the same year; and in 1886, with A. Millerand as colleague he
+defended Ernest Roche and Duc Quercy, the instigators of the Decazeville
+strike. His strictures on the _procureur de la République_ on this
+occasion being declared libellous he was suspended for six months and in
+1890 he again incurred suspension for an attack on the attorney-general,
+Quesnay de Beaurepaire. He also pleaded in the greatest criminal cases
+of his time, though from 1893 onwards exclusively in the provinces, his
+exclusion from the Parisian bar having been secured on the pretext of
+his connexion with _La Presse_. He entered the Chamber of Deputies for
+Apt in 1883 as a representative of the extreme revisionist programme,
+and was one of the leaders of the Boulangist agitation. He had formerly
+written for Georges Clemenceau's organ _La Justice_, but when Clemenceau
+refused to impose any shibboleth on the radical party he became director
+of _La Presse_. He rallied to the republican party in May 1801, some
+months before General Boulanger's suicide. He was not re-elected to the
+Chamber in 1893. Laguerre was an excellent lecturer on the revolutionary
+period of French history, concerning which he had collected many
+valuable and rare documents. He interested himself in the fate of the
+"Little Dauphin" (Louis XVII.), whose supposed remains, buried at Ste
+Marguerite, he proved to be those of a boy of fourteen.
+
+
+
+
+LAGUNA, or LA LAGUNA, an episcopal city and formerly the capital of the
+island of Teneriffe, in the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands.
+Pop. (1900) 13,074. Laguna is 4 m. N. by W. of Santa Cruz, in a plain
+1800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by mountains. Snow is unknown here,
+and the mean annual temperature exceeds 63° F.; but the rainfall is very
+heavy, and in winter the plain is sometimes flooded. The humidity of the
+atmosphere, combined with the warm climate and rich volcanic soil,
+renders the district exceptionally fertile; wheat, wine and tobacco,
+oranges and other fruits, are produced in abundance. Laguna is the
+favourite summer residence of the wealthier inhabitants of Santa Cruz.
+Besides the cathedral, the city contains several picturesque convents,
+now secularized, a fine modern town hall, hospitals, a large public
+library and some ancient palaces of the Spanish nobility. Even the
+modern buildings have often an appearance of antiquity, owing to the
+decay caused by damp, and the luxuriant growth of climbing plants.
+
+
+
+
+LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE (1739-1803), French critic, was born in Paris
+of poor parents on the 20th of November 1739. His father, who signed
+himself Delharpe, was a descendant of a noble family originally of Vaud.
+Left an orphan at the age of nine, La Harpe was taken care of for six
+months by the sisters of charity, and his education was provided for by
+a scholarship at the Collège d'Harcourt. When nineteen he was imprisoned
+for some months on the charge of having written a satire against his
+protectors at the college. La Harpe always denied his guilt, but this
+culminating misfortune of an early life spent entirely in the position
+of a dependent had possibly something to do with the bitterness he
+evinced in later life. In 1763 his tragedy of _Warwick_ was played
+before the court. This, his first play, was perhaps the best he ever
+wrote. The many authors whom he afterwards offended were always able to
+observe that the critic's own plays did not reach the standard of
+excellence he set up. _Timoléon_ (1764), _Pharamond_ (1765) and _Gustave
+Wasa_ (1766) were failures. _Mélanie_ was a better play, but was never
+represented. The success of _Warwick_ led to a correspondence with
+Voltaire, who conceived a high opinion of La Harpe, even allowing him to
+correct his verses. In 1764 La Harpe married the daughter of a coffee
+house keeper. This marriage, which proved very unhappy and was
+dissolved, did not improve his position. They were very poor, and for
+some time were guests of Voltaire at Ferney. When, after Voltaire's
+death, La Harpe in his praise of the philosopher ventured on some
+reasonable, but rather ill-timed, criticism of individual works, he was
+accused of treachery to one who had been his constant friend. In 1768 he
+returned from Ferney to Paris, where he began to write for the
+_Mercure_. He was a born fighter and had small mercy on the authors
+whose work he handled. But he was himself violently attacked, and
+suffered under many epigrams, especially those of Lebrun-Pindare. No
+more striking proof of the general hostility can be given than his
+reception (1776) at the Academy, which Sainte-Beuve calls his
+"execution." Marmontel, who received him, used the occasion to eulogize
+La Harpe's predecessor, Charles Pierre Colardeau, especially for his
+pacific, modest and indulgent disposition. The speech was punctuated by
+the applause of the audience, who chose to regard it as a series of
+sarcasms on the new member. Eventually La Harpe was compelled to resign
+from the _Mercure_, which he had edited from 1770. On the stage he
+produced _Les Barmécides_ (1778), _Philoctète_, _Jeanne de Naples_
+(1781), _Les Brames_ (1783), _Coriolan_ (1784), _Virginie_ (1786). In
+1786 he began a course of literature at the newly-established Lycée. In
+these lectures, published as the _Cours de littérature ancienne et
+moderne_, La Harpe is at his best, for he found a standpoint more or
+less independent of contemporary polemics. He is said to be inexact in
+dealing with the ancients, and he had only a superficial knowledge of
+the middle ages, but he is excellent in his analysis of 17th-century
+writers. Sainte-Beuve found in him the best critic of the French school
+of tragedy, which reached its perfection in Racine. La Harpe was a
+disciple of the "_philosophes_"; he supported the extreme party through
+the excesses of 1792 and 1793. In 1793 he edited the _Mercure de France_
+which adhered blindly to the revolutionary leaders. But in April 1794 he
+was nevertheless seized as a "suspect." In prison he underwent a
+spiritual crisis which he described in convincing language, and he
+emerged an ardent Catholic and a reactionist in politics. When he
+resumed his chair at the Lycée, he attacked his former friends in
+politics and literature. He was imprudent enough to begin the
+publication (1801-1807) of his _Correspondance littéraire_ (1774-1791)
+with the grand-duke, afterwards the emperor Paul of Russia. In these
+letters he surpassed the brutalities of the _Mercure_. He contracted a
+second marriage, which was dissolved after a few weeks by his wife. He
+died on the 11th of February 1803 in Paris, leaving in his will an
+incongruous exhortation to his fellow countrymen to maintain peace and
+concord. Among his posthumous works was a _Prophétie de Cazotte_ which
+Sainte-Beuve pronounces his best work. It is a sombre description of a
+dinner-party of notables long before the Revolution, when Jacques
+Cazotte is made to prophesy the frightful fates awaiting the various
+individuals of the company.
+
+ Among his works not already mentioned are:--_Commentaire sur Racine_
+ (1795-1796), published in 1807; _Commentaire sur le théâtre de
+ Voltaire_ of earlier date (published posthumously in 1814), and an
+ epic poem _La Religion_ (1814). His _Cours de littérature_ has been
+ often reprinted. To the edition of 1825-1826 is prefixed a notice by
+ Pierre Daunou. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. v.;
+ G. Peignot, _Recherches historiques, bibliographiques et littéraires
+ ... sur La Harpe_ (1820).
+
+
+
+
+LAHIRE, LAURENT DE (1606-1656), French painter, was born at Paris on the
+27th of February 1606. He became a pupil of Lallemand, studied the works
+of Primaticcio at Fontainebleau, but never visited Italy, and belongs
+wholly to that transition period which preceded the school of Simon
+Vouet. His picture of Nicolas V. opening the crypt in which he discovers
+the corpse of St Francis of Assisi standing (Louvre) was executed in
+1630 for the Capuchins of the Marais; it shows a gravity and sobriety of
+character which marked Lahire's best work, and seems not to have been
+without influence on Le Sueur. The Louvre contains eight other works,
+and paintings by Lahire are in the museums of Strasburg, Rouen and Le
+Mans. His drawings, of which the British Museum possesses a fine
+example, "Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple," are treated as
+seriously as his paintings, and sometimes show simplicity and dignity of
+effect. The example of the Capuchins, for whom he executed several other
+works in Paris, Rouen and Fécamp, was followed by the goldsmiths'
+company, for whom he produced in 1635 "St Peter healing the Sick"
+(Louvre) and the "Conversion of St Paul" in 1637. In 1646, with eleven
+other artists, he founded the French Royal Academy of Painting and
+Sculpture. Richelieu called Lahire to the Palais Royal; Chancellor
+Séguier, Tallemant de Réaux and many others entrusted him with important
+works of decoration; for the Gobelins he designed a series of large
+compositions. Lahire painted also a great number of portraits, and in
+1654 united in one work for the town-hall of Paris those of the
+principal dignitaries of the municipality. He died on the 28th of
+December 1656.
+
+
+
+
+LAHN, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Rhine. Its
+source is on the Jagdberg, a summit of the Rothaar Mountains, in the
+cellar of a house (Lahnhof), at an elevation of 1975 ft. It flows at
+first eastward and then southward to Giessen, then turns south-westward
+and with a winding course reaches the Rhine between the towns of
+Oberlahnstein and Niederlahnstein. Its valley, the lower part of which
+divides the Taunus hills from the Westerwald, is often very narrow and
+picturesque; among the towns and sites of interest on its banks are
+Marburg and Giessen with their universities, Wetzlar with its cathedral,
+Runkel with its castle, Limburg with its cathedral, the castles of
+Schaumburg, Balduinstein, Laurenburg, Langenau, Burgstein and Nassau,
+and the well-known health resort of Ems. The Lahn is about 135 m. long;
+it is navigable from its mouth to Giessen, and is partly canalized. A
+railway follows the valley practically throughout. In 1796 there were
+here several encounters between the French under General Jourdan and the
+troops of the archduke Johan, which resulted in the retreat of the
+French across the Rhine.
+
+
+
+
+LAHNDA (properly _Lahnda_ or _Lahinda_, western, or _Lahnde-di boli_,
+the language of the West), an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the western
+Punjab. In 1901 the number of speakers was 3,337,917. Its eastern
+boundary is very indefinite as the language gradually merges into the
+Panjabi immediately to the east, but it is conventionally taken as the
+river Chenab from the Kashmir frontier to the town of Ramnagar, and
+thence as a straight line to the south-west corner of the district of
+Montgomery. Lahnda is also spoken in the north of the state of
+Bahawalpur and of the province of Sind, in which latter locality it is
+known as Siraiki. Its western boundary is, roughly speaking, the river
+Indus, across which the language of the Afghan population is Pashto
+(Pushtu), while the Hindu settlers still speak Lahnda. In the Derajat,
+however, Lahnda is the principal language of all classes in the plains
+west of the river.
+
+Lahnda is also known as Western Panjabi and as Jatki, or the language of
+the Jats, who form the bulk of the population whose mother-tongue it is.
+In the Derajat it is called Hindko or the language of Hindus. In 1819
+the Serampur missionaries published a Lahnda version of the New
+Testament. They called the language Uchchi, from the important town of
+Uch near the confluence of the Jhelam and the Chenab. This name is
+commonly met with in old writings. It has numerous dialects, which fall
+into two main groups, a northern and a southern, the speakers of which
+are separated by the Salt Range. The principal varieties of the northern
+group are Hindki (the same in meaning as Hindko) and Pothwari. In the
+southern group the most important are Khetrani, Multani, and the dialect
+of Shahpur. The language possesses no literature.
+
+ Lahnda belongs to the north-western group of the outer band of
+ Indo-Aryan languages (q.v.), the other members being Kashmiri (q.v.)
+ and Sindhi, with both of which it is closely connected. See SINDHI;
+ also HINDOSTANI. (G. A. Gr.)
+
+
+
+
+LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF, the name now given to a series of encounters which
+took place from the 19th to the 23rd (O.S.) of May 1692, between an
+allied British and Dutch fleet and a French force, on the northern and
+eastern sides of the Cotentin in Normandy. A body of French troops, and
+a number of Jacobite exiles, had been collected in the Cotentin. The
+government of Louis XIV. prepared a naval armament to cover their
+passage across the Channel. This force was to have been composed of the
+French ships at Brest commanded by the count of Tourville, and of a
+squadron which was to have joined him from Toulon. But the Toulon ships
+were scattered by a gale, and the combination was not effected. The
+count of Tourville, who had put to sea to meet them, had with him only
+45 or 47 ships of the line. Yet when the reinforcement failed to join
+him, he steered up Channel to meet the allies, who were known to be in
+strength. On the 15th of May the British fleet of 63 sail of the line,
+under command of Edward Russell, afterwards earl of Orford, was joined
+at St Helens by the Dutch squadron of 36 sail under Admiral van
+Allemonde. The apparent rashness of the French admiral in seeking an
+encounter with very superior numbers is explained by the existence of a
+general belief that many British captains were discontented, and would
+pass over from the service of the government established by the
+Revolution of 1688 to their exiled king, James II. It is said that
+Tourville had orders from Louis XIV. to attack in any case, but the
+story is of doubtful authority. The British government, aware of the
+Jacobite intrigues in its fleet, and of the prevalence of discontent,
+took the bold course of appealing to the loyalty and patriotism of its
+officers. At a meeting of the flag-officers on board the "Britannia,"
+Russell's flag-ship, on the 15th of May, they protested their loyalty,
+and the whole allied fleet put to sea on the 18th. On the 19th of May,
+when Cape Barfleur, the north-eastern point of the Cotentin, was 21 m.
+S.W. of them, they sighted Tourville, who was then 20 m. to the north of
+Cape La Hague, the north-western extremity of the peninsula, which must
+not be confounded with La Houque, or La Hogue, the place at which the
+fighting ended. The allies were formed in a line from S.S.W. to N.N.E.
+heading towards the English coast, the Dutch forming the White or van
+division, while the Red or centre division under Russell, and the Blue
+or rear under Sir John Ashby, were wholly composed of British ships. The
+wind was from the S.W. and the weather hazy. Tourville bore down and
+attacked about mid-day, directing his main assault on the centre of the
+allies, but telling off some ships to watch the van and rear of his
+enemy. As this first encounter took place off Cape Barfleur, the battle
+was formerly often called by the name. On the centre, where Tourville
+was directly opposed to Russell, the fighting was severe. The British
+flag-ship the "Britannia" (100), and the French, the "Soleil Royal"
+(100), were both completely crippled. After several hours of conflict,
+the French admiral, seeing himself outnumbered, and that the allies
+could outflank him and pass through the necessarily wide intervals in
+his extended line, drew off without the loss of a ship. The wind now
+fell and the haze became a fog. Till the 23rd, the two fleets remained
+off the north coast of the Cotentin, drifting west with the ebb tide or
+east with the flood, save when they anchored. During the night of the
+19th/20th some British ships became entangled, in the fog, with the
+French, and drifted through them on the tide, with loss. On the 23rd
+both fleets were near La Hague. About half the French, under
+D'Amfreville, rounded the cape, and fled to St Malo through the
+dangerous passage known as the Race of Alderney (le Ras Blanchard). The
+others were unable to get round the cape before the flood tide set in,
+and were carried to the eastward. Tourville now transferred his own
+flag, and left his captains free to save themselves as they best could.
+He left the "Soleil Royal," and sent her with two others to Cherbourg,
+where they were destroyed by Sir Ralph Delaval. The others now ran round
+Cape Barfleur, and sought refuge on the east side of the Cotentin at the
+anchorage of La Houque, called by the English La Hogue, where the troops
+destined for the invasion were encamped. Here 13 of them were burnt by
+Sir George Rooke, in the presence of the French generals and of the
+exiled king James II. From the name of the place where the last blow was
+struck, the battle has come to be known by the name of La Hogue.
+
+ Sufficient accounts of the battle may be found in Lediard's _Naval
+ History_ (London, 1735), and for the French side in Tronde's
+ _Batailles navales de la France_ (Paris, 1867). The escape of
+ D'Amfreville's squadron is the subject of Browning's poem "Hervé
+ Riel." (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+LAHORE, an ancient city of British India, the capital of the Punjab,
+which gives its name to a district and division. It lies in 31° 35' N.
+and 74° 20' E. near the left bank of the River Ravi, 1706 ft. above the
+sea, and 1252 m. by rail from Calcutta. It is thus in about the same
+latitude as Cairo, but owing to its inland position is considerably
+hotter than that city, being one of the hottest places in India in the
+summer time. In the cold season the climate is pleasantly cool and
+bright. The native city is walled, about 1¼ m. in length W. to E. and
+about ¾ m. in breadth N. to S. Its site has been occupied from early
+times, and much of it stands high above the level of the surrounding
+country, raised on the remains of a succession of former habitations.
+Some old buildings, which have been preserved, stand now below the
+present surface of the ground. This is well seen in the mosque now
+called Masjid Niwin (or sunken) built in 1560, the mosque of Mullah
+Rahmat, 7 ft. below, and the Shivali, a very old Hindu temple, about 12
+ft. below the surrounding ground. Hindu tradition traces the origin of
+Lahore to Loh or Lava, son of Rama, the hero of the _Ramayana_. The
+absence of mention of Lahore by Alexander's historians, and the fact
+that coins of the Graeco-Bactrian kings are not found among the ruins,
+lead to the belief that it was not a place of any importance during the
+earliest period of Indian history. On the other hand, Hsüan Tsang, the
+Chinese Buddhist, notices the city in his _Itinerary_ (A.D. 630); and it
+seems probable, therefore, that Lahore first rose into prominence
+between the 1st and 7th centuries A.D. Governed originally by a family
+of Chauhan Rajputs, a branch of the house of Ajmere, Lahore fell
+successively under the dominion of the Ghazni and Ghori sultans, who
+made it the capital of their Indian conquests, and adorned it with
+numerous buildings, almost all now in ruins. But it was under the Mogul
+empire that Lahore reached its greatest size and magnificence. The
+reigns of Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb form the
+golden period in the annals and architecture of the city. Akbar enlarged
+and repaired the fort, and surrounded the town with a wall, portions of
+which remain, built into the modern work of Ranjit Singh. Lahore formed
+the capital of the Sikh empire of that monarch. At the end of the second
+Sikh War, with the rest of the Punjab, it came under the British
+dominion.
+
+The architecture of Lahore cannot compare with that of Delhi. Jahangir
+in 1622-1627 erected the Khwabgah or "sleeping-place," a fine palace
+much defaced by the Sikhs but to some extent restored in modern times;
+the Moti Masjid or "pearl mosque" in the fort, used by Ranjit Singh and
+afterwards by the British as a treasure-house; and also the tomb of
+Anarkali, used formerly as the station church and now as a library. Shah
+Jahan erected a palace and other buildings near the Khwabgah, including
+the beautiful pavilion called the Naulakha from its cost of nine lakhs,
+which was inlaid with precious stones. The mosque of Wazir Khan (1634)
+provides the finest example of _kashi_ or encaustic tile work.
+Aurangzeb's Jama Masjid, or "great mosque," is a huge bare building,
+stiff in design, and lacking the detailed ornament typical of buildings
+at Delhi. The buildings of Ranjit Singh, especially his mausoleum, are
+common and meretricious in style. He was, moreover, responsible for much
+of the despoiling of the earlier buildings. The streets of the native
+city are narrow and tortuous, and are best seen from the back of an
+elephant. Two of the chief features of Lahore lie outside its walls at
+Shahdara and Shalamar Gardens respectively. Shahdara, which contains the
+tomb of the emperor Jahangir, lies across the Ravi some 6 m. N. of the
+city. It consists of a splendid marble cenotaph surrounded by a grove of
+trees and gardens. The Shalamar Gardens, which were laid out in A.D.
+1637 by Shah Jahan, lie 6 m. E. of the city. They are somewhat neglected
+except on festive occasions, when the fountains are playing and the
+trees are lit up by lamps at night.
+
+The modern city of Lahore, which contained a population of 202,964 in
+1901, may be divided into four parts: the native city, already
+described; the civil station or European quarter, known as Donald Town;
+the Anarkali bazaar, a suburb S. of the city wall; and the cantonment,
+formerly called Mian Mir. The main street of the civil station is a
+portion of the grand trunk road from Calcutta to Peshawar, locally known
+as the Mall. The chief modern buildings along this road, west to east,
+are the Lahore museum, containing a fine collection of Graeco-Buddhist
+sculptures, found by General Cunningham in the Yusufzai country, and
+arranged by Mr Lockwood Kipling, a former curator of the museum; the
+cathedral, begun by Bishop French, in Early English style, and
+consecrated in 1887; the Lawrence Gardens and Montgomery Halls,
+surrounded by a garden that forms the chief meeting-place of Europeans
+in the afternoon; and opposite this government house, the official
+residence of the lieutenant-governor of the Punjab; next to this is the
+Punjab club for military men and civilians. Three miles beyond is the
+Lahore cantonment, where the garrison is stationed, except a company of
+British infantry, which occupies the fort. It is the headquarters of the
+3rd division of the northern army. Lahore is an important junction on
+the North-Western railway system, but has little local trade or
+manufacture. The chief industries are silk goods, gold and silver lace,
+metal work and carpets which are made in the Lahore gaol. There are also
+cotton mills, flour mills, an ice-factory, and several factories for
+mineral waters, oils, soap, leather goods, &c. Lahore is an important
+educational centre. Here are the Punjab University with five colleges,
+medical and law colleges, a central training college, the Aitchison
+Chiefs' College for the sons of native noblemen, and a number of other
+high schools and technical and special schools.
+
+The DISTRICT OF LAHORE has an area of 3704 sq. m., and its population in
+1901 was 1,162,109, consisting chiefly of Punjabi Mahommedans with a
+large admixture of Hindus and Sikhs. In the north-west the district
+includes a large part of the barren Rechna Doab, while south of the Ravi
+is a desolate alluvial tract, liable to floods. The Manjha plateau,
+however, between the Ravi and the Beas, has been rendered fertile by the
+Bari Doab canal. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, millets, maize,
+oil-seeds and cotton. There are numerous factories for ginning and
+pressing cotton. Irrigation is provided by the main line of the Bari
+Doab canal and its branches, and by inundation-cuts from the Sutlej. The
+district is crossed in several directions by lines of the North-Western
+railway. Lahore, Kasur, Chunian and Raiwind are the chief trade centres.
+
+The DIVISION OF LAHORE extends along the right bank of the Sutlej from
+the Himalayas to Multan. It comprises the six districts of Sialkot,
+Gujranwala, Montgomery, Lahore, Amritsar and Gurdaspur. Total area,
+17,154 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 5,598,463. The commissioner for the division
+also exercises political control over the hill slate of Chamba. The
+common language of the rural population and of artisans is Punjabi;
+while Urdu or Hindustani is spoken by the educated classes. So far from
+the seaboard, the range between extremes of winter and summer
+temperature in the sub-tropics is great. The mean temperature in the
+shade in June is about 92° F., in January about 50°. In midsummer the
+thermometer sometimes rises to 115° in the shade, and remains on some
+occasions as high as 105° throughout the night. In winter the morning
+temperature is sometimes as low as 20°. The rainfall is uncertain,
+ranging from 8 in. to 25, with an average of 15 in. The country as a
+whole is parched and arid, and greatly dependent on irrigation.
+
+
+
+
+LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE (1630?-1710?), Spanish dramatist, was
+born in Madrid. He became a knight of Santiago in 1653, and soon
+afterwards succeeded his father as _regidor_ of Burgos. In 1665 he was
+nominated to an important post at the Treasury, and in his later years
+acted as official censor of the Madrid theatres. On the 13th of August
+1709 he signed his play entitled _Josef, salvador de Egipto_, and is
+presumed to have died in the following year. Hoz is not remarkable for
+originality of conception, but his recasts of plays by earlier writers
+are distinguished by an adroitness which accounts for the esteem in
+which he was held by his contemporaries. _El Montañés Juan Pascal_ and
+_El castigo de la miseria_, reprinted in the _Biblioteca de Autores
+Españoles_, give a just idea of his adaptable talent.
+
+
+
+
+LAHR, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the Schutter, about 9 m. S.
+of Offenburg, and on the railway Dinglingen-Lahr. Pop. (1900) 13,577.
+One of the busiest towns in Baden, it carries on manufactures of tobacco
+and cigars, woollen goods, chicory, leather, pasteboard, hats and
+numerous other articles, has considerable trade in wine, while among its
+other industries are printing and lithography. Lahr first appears as a
+town in 1278, and after several vicissitudes it passed wholly to Baden
+in 1803.
+
+ See Stein, _Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Lahr_ (Lahr, 1827);
+ and Sütterlin, _Lahr und seine Umgebung_ (Lahr, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+LAIBACH (Slovenian, _Ljubljana_), capital of the Austrian duchy of
+Carniola, 237 m. S.S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 36,547, mostly
+Slovene. It is situated on the Laibach, near its influx into the Save,
+and consists of the town proper and eight suburbs. Laibach is an
+episcopal see, and possesses a cathedral in the Italian style, several
+beautiful churches, a town hall in Renaissance style and a castle, built
+in the 15th century, on the Schlossberg, an eminence which commands the
+town. Laibach is the principal centre of the national Slovenian
+movement, and it contains a Slovene theatre and several societies for
+the promotion of science and literature in the native tongue. The
+Slovenian language is in general official use, and the municipal
+administration is purely Slovenian. The industries include manufactures
+of pottery, bricks, oil, linen and woollen cloth, fire-hose and paper.
+
+ Laibach is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Emona or Aemona,
+ founded by the emperor Augustus in 34 B.C. It was besieged by Alaric
+ in 400, and in 451 it was desolated by the Huns. In 900 Laibach
+ suffered much from the Magyars, who were, however, defeated there in
+ 914. In the 12th century the town passed into the hands of the dukes
+ of Carinthia; in 1270 it was taken by Ottocar of Bohemia; and in 1277
+ it came under the Habsburgs. In the early part of the 15th century the
+ town was several times besieged by the Turks. The bishopric was
+ founded in 1461. On the 17th of March 1797 and again on the 3rd of
+ June 1809 Laibach was taken by the French, and from 1809 to 1813 it
+ became the seat of their general government of the Illyrian provinces.
+ From 1816 to 1849 Laibach was the capital of the kingdom of Illyria.
+ The town is also historically known from the congress of Laibach,
+ which assembled here in 1821 (see below). Laibach suffered severely on
+ the 14th of April 1895 from an earthquake.
+
+_Congress or Conference of Laibach._--Before the break-up of the
+conference of Troppau (q.v.), it had been decided to adjourn it till the
+following January, and to invite the attendance of the king of Naples,
+Laibach being chosen as the place of meeting. Castlereagh, in the name
+of Great Britain, had cordially approved this invitation, as "implying
+negotiation" and therefore as a retreat from the position taken up in
+the Troppau Protocol. Before leaving Troppau, however, the three
+autocratic powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, had issued, on the 8th
+of December 1820, a circular letter, in which they reiterated the
+principles of the Protocol, i.e. the right and duty of the powers
+responsible for the peace of Europe to intervene to suppress any
+revolutionary movement by which they might conceive that peace to be
+endangered (Hertslet, No. 105). Against this view Castlereagh once more
+protested in a circular despatch of the 19th of January 1821, in which
+he clearly differentiated between the objectionable general principles
+advanced by the three powers, and the particular case of the unrest in
+Italy, the immediate concern not of Europe at large, but of Austria and
+of any other Italian powers which might consider themselves endangered
+(Hertslet, No. 107).
+
+The conference opened on the 26th of January 1821, and its constitution
+emphasized the divergences revealed in the above circulars. The emperors
+of Russia and Austria were present in person, and with them were Counts
+Nesselrode and Capo d'Istria, Metternich and Baron Vincent; Prussia and
+France were represented by plenipotentiaries. But Great Britain, on the
+ground that she had no immediate interest in the Italian question, was
+represented only by Lord Stewart, the ambassador at Vienna, who was not
+armed with full powers, his mission being to watch the proceedings and
+to see that nothing was done beyond or in violation of the treaties. Of
+the Italian princes, Ferdinand of Naples and the duke of Modena came in
+person; the rest were represented by plenipotentiaries.
+
+It was soon clear that a more or less open breach between Great Britain
+and the other powers was inevitable, Metternich was anxious to secure an
+apparent unanimity of the powers to back the Austrian intervention in
+Naples, and every device was used to entrap the English representative
+into subscribing a formula which would have seemed to commit Great
+Britain to the principles of the other allies. When these devices
+failed, attempts were made unsuccessfully to exclude Lord Stewart from
+the conferences on the ground of defective powers. Finally he was forced
+to an open protest, which he caused to be inscribed on the journals, but
+the action of Capo d'Istria in reading to the assembled Italian
+ministers, who were by no means reconciled to the large claims implied
+in the Austrian intervention, a declaration in which as the result of
+the "intimate union established by solemn acts between all the European
+powers" the Russian emperor offered to the allies "the aid of his arms,
+should new revolutions threaten new dangers," an attempt to revive that
+idea of a "universal union" based on the Holy Alliance (q.v.) against
+which Great Britain had consistently protested.
+
+The objections of Great Britain were, however, not so much to an
+Austrian intervention in Naples as to the far-reaching principles by
+which it was sought to justify it. King Ferdinand had been invited to
+Laibach, according to the circular of the 8th of December, in order
+that he might be free to act as "mediator between his erring peoples and
+the states whose tranquillity they threatened." The cynical use he made
+of his "freedom" to repudiate obligations solemnly contracted is
+described elsewhere (see NAPLES, _History_). The result of this action
+was the Neapolitan declaration of war and the occupation of Naples by
+Austria, with the sanction of the congress. This was preceded, on the
+10th of March, by the revolt of the garrison of Alessandria and the
+military revolution in Piedmont, which in its turn was suppressed, as a
+result of negotiations at Laibach, by Austrian troops. It was at
+Laibach, too, that, on the 19th of March, the emperor Alexander received
+the news of Ypsilanti's invasion of the Danubian principalities, which
+heralded the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence, and from Laibach
+Capo d'Istria addressed to the Greek leader the tsar's repudiation of
+his action.
+
+The conference closed on the 12th of May, on which date Russia, Austria
+and Prussia issued a declaration (Hertslet, No. 108) "to proclaim to the
+world the principles which guided them" in coming "to the assistance of
+subdued peoples," a declaration which once more affirmed the principles
+of the Troppau Protocol. In this lay the European significance of the
+Laibach conference, of which the activities had been mainly confined to
+Italy. The issue of the declaration without the signatures of the
+representatives of Great Britain and France proclaimed the disunion of
+the alliance, within which--to use Lord Stewart's words--there existed
+"a triple understanding which bound the parties to carry forward their
+own views in spite of any difference of opinion between them and the two
+great constitutional governments."
+
+ No separate history of the congress exists, but innumerable references
+ are to be found in general histories and in memoirs, correspondence,
+ &c., of the time. See Sir E. Hertslet, _Map of Europe_ (London, 1875);
+ Castlereagh, _Correspondence_; Metternich, _Memoirs_; N. Bianchi,
+ _Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia_ (8 vols.,
+ Turin, 1865-1872); Gentz's correspondence (see GENTZ, F. VON).
+ Valuable unpublished correspondence is preserved at the Record Office
+ in the volumes marked F. O., Austria, Lord Stewart, January to
+ February 1821, and March to September 1821. (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+LAIDLAW, WILLIAM (1780-1845), friend and amanuensis of Sir Walter Scott,
+was born at Blackhouse, Selkirkshire, on the 19th of November 1780, the
+son of a sheep farmer. After an elementary education in Peebles he
+returned to work upon his father's farm. James Hogg, the shepherd poet,
+who was employed at Blackhouse for some years, became Laidlaw's friend
+and appreciative critic. Together they assisted Scott by supplying
+material for his _Border Minstrelsy_, and Laidlaw, after two failures as
+a farmer in Midlothian and Peebleshire, became Scott's steward at
+Abbotsford. He also acted as Scott's amanuensis at different times,
+taking down a large part of _The Bride of Lammermoor_, _The Legend of
+Montrose_ and _Ivanhoe_ from the author's dictation. He died at Contin
+near Dingwall, Ross-shire, on the 18th of May 1845. Of his poetry,
+little is known except _Lucy's Flittin'_ in Hogg's _Forest Minstrel_.
+
+
+
+
+LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON (1793-1826), Scottish explorer, the first
+European to reach Timbuktu, was born at Edinburgh on the 27th of
+December 1793. He was educated by his father, William Laing, a private
+teacher of classics, and at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he went to
+Barbados as clerk to his maternal uncle Colonel (afterwards General)
+Gabriel Gordon. Through General Sir George Beckwith, governor of
+Barbados, he obtained an ensigncy in the York Light Infantry. He was
+employed in the West Indies, and in 1822 was promoted to a company in
+the Royal African Corps. In that year, while with his regiment at Sierra
+Leone, he was sent by the governor, Sir Charles MacCarthy, to the
+Mandingo country, with the double object of opening up commerce and
+endeavouring to abolish the slave trade in that region. Later in the
+same year Laing visited Falaba, the capital of the Sulima country, and
+ascertained the source of the Rokell. He endeavoured to reach the source
+of the Niger, but was stopped by the natives. He was, however, enabled
+to fix it with approximate accuracy. He took an active part in the
+Ashanti War of 1823-24, and was sent home with the despatches
+containing the news of the death in action of Sir Charles MacCarthy.
+Henry, 3rd Earl Bathurst, then secretary for the colonies, instructed
+Captain Laing to undertake a journey, via Tripoli and Timbuktu, to
+further elucidate the hydrography of the Niger basin. Laing left England
+in February 1825, and at Tripoli on the 14th of July following he
+married Emma Warrington, daughter of the British consul. Two days later,
+leaving his bride behind, he started to cross the Sahara, being
+accompanied by a sheikh who was subsequently accused of planning his
+murder. Ghadames was reached, by an indirect route, in October 1825, and
+in December Laing was in the Tuat territory, where he was well received
+by the Tuareg. On the 10th of January 1826 he left Tuat, and made for
+Timbuktu across the desert of Tanezroft. Letters from him written in May
+and July following told of sufferings from fever and the plundering of
+his caravan by Tuareg, Laing being wounded in twenty-four places in the
+fighting. Another letter dated from Timbuktu on the 21st of September
+announced his arrival in that city on the preceding 18th of August, and
+the insecurity of his position owing to the hostility of the Fula
+chieftain Bello, then ruling the city. He added that he intended leaving
+Timbuktu in three days' time. No further news was received from the
+traveller. From native information it was ascertained that he left
+Timbuktu on the day he had planned and was murdered on the night of the
+26th of September 1826. His papers were never recovered, though it is
+believed that they were secretly brought to Tripoli in 1828. In 1903 the
+French government placed a tablet bearing the name of the explorer and
+the date of his visit on the house occupied by him during his
+thirty-eight days' stay in Timbuktu.
+
+ While in England in 1824 Laing prepared a narrative of his earlier
+ journeys, which was published in 1825 and entitled _Travels in the
+ Timannee, Kooranko and Soolima Countries, in Western Africa_.
+
+
+
+
+LAING, DAVID (1793-1878), Scottish antiquary, the son of William Laing,
+a bookseller in Edinburgh, was born in that city on the 20th of April
+1793. Educated at the Canongate Grammar School, when fourteen he was
+apprenticed to his father. Shortly after the death of the latter in
+1837, Laing was elected to the librarianship of the Signet Library,
+which post he retained till his death. Apart from an extraordinary
+general bibliographical knowledge, Laing was best known as a lifelong
+student of the literary and artistic history of Scotland. He published
+no original volumes, but contented himself with editing the works of
+others. Of these, the chief are--_Dunbar's Works_ (2 vols., 1834), with
+a supplement added in 1865; _Robert Baillie's Letters and Journals_ (3
+vols., 1841-1842); _John Knox's Works_ (6 vols., 1846-1864); _Poems and
+Fables of Robert Henryson_ (1865); _Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale
+Cronykil of Scotland_ (3 vols., 1872-1879); _Sir David Lyndsay's
+Poetical Works_ (3 vols., 1879). Laing was for more than fifty years a
+member of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and he contributed
+upwards of a hundred separate papers to their _Proceedings_. He was also
+for more than forty years secretary to the Bannatyne Club, many of the
+publications of which were edited by him. He was struck with paralysis
+in 1878 while in the Signet Library, and it is related that, on
+recovering consciousness, he looked about and asked if a proof of
+Wyntoun had been sent from the printers. He died a few days afterwards,
+on the 18th of October, in his eighty-sixth year. His library was sold
+by auction, and realized £16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he
+bequeathed his collection of MSS.
+
+ See the Biographical Memoir prefixed to _Select Remains of Ancient,
+ Popular and Romance Poetry of Scotland_, edited by John Small
+ (Edinburgh, 1885); also T. G. Stevenson, _Notices of David Laing with
+ List of his Publications, &c._ (privately printed 1878).
+
+
+
+
+LAING, MALCOLM (1762-1818), Scottish historian, son of Robert Laing, and
+elder brother of Samuel Laing the elder, was born on his paternal estate
+on the Mainland of Orkney. Having studied at the grammar school of
+Kirkwall and at Edinburgh University, he was called to the Scotch bar in
+1785, but devoted his time mainly to historical studies. In 1793 he
+completed the sixth and last volume of Robert Henry's _History of Great
+Britain_, the portion which he wrote being in its strongly liberal tone
+at variance with the preceding part of the work; and in 1802 he
+published his _History of Scotland from the Union of the Crowns to the
+Union of the Kingdoms_, a work showing considerable research. Attached
+to the _History_ was a dissertation on the Gowrie conspiracy, and
+another on the supposed authenticity of Ossian's poems. In another
+dissertation, prefixed to a second and corrected edition of the
+_History_ published in 1804, Laing endeavoured to prove that Mary, queen
+of Scots, wrote the Casket Letters, and was partly responsible for the
+murder of Lord Darnley. In the same year he edited the _Life and
+Historie of King James VI._, and in 1805 brought out in two volumes an
+edition of Ossian's poems. Laing, who was a friend of Charles James Fox,
+was member of parliament for Orkney and Shetland from 1807 to 1812. He
+died on the 6th of November 1818.
+
+
+
+
+LAING, SAMUEL (1810-1897), British author and railway administrator, was
+born at Edinburgh on the 12th of December 1810. He was the nephew of
+Malcolm Laing, the historian of Scotland; and his father, Samuel Laing
+(1780-1868), was also a well-known author, whose books on Norway and
+Sweden attracted much attention. Samuel Laing the younger entered St
+John's College, Cambridge, in 1827, and after graduating as second
+wrangler and Smith's prizeman, was elected a fellow, and remained at
+Cambridge temporarily as a coach. He was called to the bar in 1837, and
+became private secretary to Mr Labouchere (afterwards Lord Taunton), the
+president of the Board of Trade. In 1842 he was made secretary to the
+railway department, and retained this post till 1847. He had by then
+become an authority on railway working, and had been a member of the
+Dalhousie Railway Commission; it was at his suggestion that the
+"parliamentary" rate of a penny a mile was instituted. In 1848 he was
+appointed chairman and managing director of the London, Brighton & South
+Coast Railway, and his business faculty showed itself in the largely
+increased prosperity of the line. He also became chairman (1852) of the
+Crystal Palace Company, but retired from both posts in 1855. In 1852 he
+entered parliament as a Liberal for Wick, and after losing his seat in
+1857, was re-elected in 1859, in which year he was appointed financial
+secretary to the Treasury; in 1860 he was made finance minister in
+India. On returning from India, he was re-elected to parliament for Wick
+in 1865. He was defeated in 1868, but in 1873 he was returned for Orkney
+and Shetland, and retained his seat till 1885. Meanwhile he had been
+reappointed chairman of the Brighton line in 1867, and continued in that
+post till 1894, being generally recognized as an admirable
+administrator. He was also chairman of the Railway Debenture Trust and
+the Railway Share Trust. In later life he became well known as an
+author, his _Modern Science and Modern Thought_ (1885), _Problems of the
+Future_ (1889) and _Human Origins_ (1892) being widely read, not only by
+reason of the writer's influential position, experience of affairs and
+clear style, but also through their popular and at the same time
+well-informed treatment of the scientific problems of the day. Laing
+died at Sydenham on the 6th of August 1897.
+
+
+
+
+LAING'S [or LANG'S] NEK, a pass through the Drakensberg, South Africa,
+immediately north of Majuba (q.v.), at an elevation of 5400 to 6000 ft.
+It is the lowest part of a ridge which slopes from Majuba to the Buffalo
+river, and before the opening of the railway in 1891 the road over the
+nek was the main artery of communication between Durban and Pretoria.
+The railway pierces the nek by a tunnel 2213 ft. long. When the Boers
+rose in revolt in December 1880 they occupied Laing's Nek to oppose the
+entry of British reinforcements into the Transvaal. On the 28th of
+January 1881 a small British force endeavoured to drive the Boers from
+the pass, but was forced to retire.
+
+
+
+
+LAIRD, MACGREGOR (1808-1861), Scottish merchant, pioneer of British
+trade on the Niger, was born at Greenock in 1808, the younger son of
+William Laird, founder of the Birkenhead firm of shipbuilders of that
+name. In 1831 Laird and certain Liverpool merchants formed a company for
+the commercial development of the Niger regions, the lower course of the
+Niger having been made known that year by Richard and John Lander. In
+1832 the company despatched two small ships to the Niger, one, the
+"Alburkah," a paddle-wheel steamer of 55 tons designed by Laird, being
+the first iron vessel to make an ocean voyage. Macgregor Laird went with
+the expedition, which was led by Richard Lander and numbered forty-eight
+Europeans, of whom all but nine died from fever or, in the case of
+Lander, from wounds. Laird went up the Niger to the confluence of the
+Benue (then called the Shary or Tchadda), which he was the first white
+man to ascend. He did not go far up the river but formed an accurate
+idea as to its source and course. The expedition returned to Liverpool
+in 1834, Laird and Surgeon R. A. K. Oldfield being the only surviving
+officers besides Captain (then Lieut.) William Allen, R.N., who
+accompanied the expedition by order of the Admiralty to survey the
+river. Laird and Oldfield published in 1837 in two volumes the
+_Narrative of an Expedition into the Interior of Africa by the River
+Niger ... in 1832, 1833, 1834_. Commercially the expedition had been
+unsuccessful, but Laird had gained experience invaluable to his
+successors. He never returned to Africa but henceforth devoted himself
+largely to the development of trade with West Africa and especially to
+the opening up of the countries now forming the British protectorates of
+Nigeria. One of his principal reasons for so doing was his belief that
+this method was the best means of stopping the slave trade and raising
+the social condition of the Africans. In 1854 he sent out at his own
+charges, but with the support of the British government, a small
+steamer, the "Pleiad," which under W. B. Baikie made so successful a
+voyage that Laird induced the government to sign contracts for annual
+trading trips by steamers specially built for navigation of the Niger
+and Benue. Various stations were founded on the Niger, and though
+government support was withdrawn after the death of Laird and Baikie,
+British traders continued to frequent the river, which Laird had opened
+up with little or no personal advantage. Laird's interests were not,
+however, wholly African. In 1837 he was one of the promoters of a
+company formed to run steamships between England and New York, and in
+1838 the "Sirius," sent out by this company, was the first ship to cross
+the Atlantic from Europe entirely under steam. Laird died in London on
+the 9th of January 1861.
+
+His elder brother, JOHN LAIRD (1805-1874), was one of the first to use
+iron in the construction of ships; in 1829 he made an iron lighter of 60
+tons which was used on canals and lakes in Ireland; in 1834 he built the
+paddle steamer "John Randolph" for Savannah, U.S.A., stated to be the
+first iron ship seen in America. For the East India Company he built in
+1839 the first iron vessel carrying guns and he was also the designer of
+the famous "Birkenhead." A Conservative in politics, he represented
+Birkenhead in the House of Commons from 1861 to his death.
+
+
+
+
+LAÏS, the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distinguished as
+follows. (1) The elder, a native of Corinth, born _c._ 480 B.C., was
+famous for her greed and hardheartedness, which gained her the nickname
+of _Axine_ (the axe). Among her lovers were the philosophers Aristippus
+and Diogenes, and Eubatas (or Aristoteles) of Cyrene, a famous runner.
+In her old age she became a drunkard. Her grave was shown in the
+Craneion near Corinth, surmounted by a lioness tearing a ram. (2) The
+younger, daughter of Timandra the mistress of Alcibiades, born at
+Hyccara in Sicily _c._ 420 B.C., taken to Corinth during the Sicilian
+expedition. The painter Apelles, who saw her drawing water from the
+fountain of Peirene, was struck by her beauty, and took her as a model.
+Having followed a handsome Thessalian to his native land, she was slain
+in the temple of Aphrodite by women who were jealous of her beauty. Many
+anecdotes are told of a Laïs by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she
+forms the subject of many epigrams in the Greek Anthology; but, owing to
+the similarity of names, there is considerable uncertainty to whom they
+refer. The name itself, like Phryne, was used as a general term for a
+courtesan.
+
+ See F. Jacobs, _Vermischte Schriften_, iv. (1830).
+
+
+
+
+LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE (1841- ), French politician, was born at Nantes
+on the 1st of November 1841, and was educated at the École Polytechnique
+as a military engineer. He defended the fort of Issy at the siege of
+Paris, and served in Corsica and in Algeria in 1873. In 1876 he resigned
+his commission to enter the Chamber as deputy for Nantes in the
+republican interest, and in 1879 he became director of the _Petit
+Parisien_. For alleged libel on General Courtot de Cissey in this paper
+he was heavily fined. In the Chamber he spoke chiefly on army questions;
+and was chairman of a commission appointed to consider army legislation,
+resigning in 1887 on the refusal of the Chamber to sanction the
+abolition of exemptions of any kind. He then became an adherent of the
+revisionist policy of General Boulanger and a member of the League of
+Patriots. He was elected Boulangist deputy for the 18th Parisian
+arrondissement in 1889. He did not seek re-election in 1893, but devoted
+himself thenceforward to mathematics, helping to make known in France
+the theories of Giusto Bellavitis. He was attached to the staff of the
+École Polytechnique, and in 1903-1904 was president of the French
+Association for the Advancement of Science.
+
+ In addition to his political pamphlets _Pourquoi et comment je suis
+ Boulangiste_ (1887) and _L'Anarchie bourgeoise_ (1887), he published
+ mathematical works, among them _Introduction à l'étude des
+ quarternions_ (1881) and _Théorie et applications des équipollences_
+ (1887).
+
+
+
+
+LAI-YANG, a city in the Chinese province of Shan-tung, in 37° N., 120°
+55' E., about the middle of the eastern peninsula, on the highway
+running south from Chi-fu to Kin-Kia or Ting-tsu harbour. It is
+surrounded by well-kept walls of great antiquity, and its main streets
+are spanned by large _pailous_ or monumental arches, some dating from
+the time of the emperor Tai-ting-ti of the Yuan dynasty (1324). There
+are extensive suburbs both to the north and south, and the total
+population is estimated at 50,000. The so-called Ailanthus silk produced
+by _Saturnia cynthia_ is woven at Lai-yang into a strong fabric; and the
+manufacture of the peculiar kind of wax obtained from the la-shu or
+wax-tree insect is largely carried on in the vicinity.
+
+
+
+
+LAKANAL, JOSEPH (1762-1845), French politician, was born at Serres
+(Ariège) on the 14th of July 1762. His name, originally Lacanal, was
+altered to distinguish him from his Royalist brothers. He joined one of
+the teaching congregations, and for fourteen years taught in their
+schools. When elected by his native department to the Convention in 1792
+he was acting as vicar to his uncle Bernard Font (1723-1800), the
+constitutional bishop of Pamiers. In the Convention he held apart from
+the various party sections, although he voted for the death of Louis
+XVI. He rendered great service to the Revolution by his practical
+knowledge of education. He became a member of the Committee of Public
+Instruction early in 1793, and after carrying many useful decrees on the
+preservation of national monuments, on the military schools, on the
+reorganization of the Museum of Natural History and other matters, he
+brought forward on the 26th of June his _Projet d'éducation nationale_
+(printed at the Imprimerie Nationale), which proposed to lay the burden
+or primary education on the public funds, but to leave secondary
+education to private enterprise. Provision was also made for public
+festivals, and a central commission was to be entrusted with educational
+questions. The scheme, in the main the work of Sieyès, was refused by
+the Convention, who submitted the whole question to a special commission
+of six, which under the influence of Robespierre adopted a report by
+Michel le Peletier de Saint Fargeau shortly before his tragic death.
+Lakanal, who was a member of the commission, now began to work for the
+organization of higher education, and abandoning the principle of his
+_Projet_ advocated the establishment of state-aided schools for primary,
+secondary and university education. In October 1793 he was sent by the
+Convention to the south-western departments and did not return to Paris
+until after the revolution of Thermidor. He now became president of the
+Education Committee and promptly abolished the system which had had
+Robespierre's support. He drew up schemes for departmental normal
+schools, for primary schools (reviving in substance the _Projet_) and
+central schools. He presently acquiesced in the supersession of his own
+system, but continued his educational reports after his election to the
+Council of the Five Hundred. In 1799 he was sent by the Directory to
+organize the defence of the four departments on the left bank of the
+Rhine threatened by invasion. Under the Consulate he resumed his
+professional work, and after Waterloo retired to America, where he
+became president of the university of Louisiana. He returned to France
+in 1834, and shortly afterwards, in spite of his advanced age, married a
+second time. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1845; his widow
+survived till 1881. Lakanal was an original member of the Institute of
+France. He published in 1838 an _Exposé sommaire des travaux de Joseph
+Lakanal_.
+
+ His _éloge_ at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which he
+ was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Rémusat (February 16,
+ 1845), and a _Notice historique_ by F. A. M. Mignet was read on the
+ 2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Émile Darnaud (Paris, 1874),
+ "Marcus" (Paris, 1879), P. Legendre in _Hommes de la révolution_
+ (Paris, 1882), E. Guillon, _Lakanal et l'instruction publique_ (Paris,
+ 1881). For details of the reports submitted by him to the government
+ see M. Tourneux, "Histoire de l'instruction publique, actes et
+ déliberations de la convention, &c." in _Bibliog. de l'hist. de Paris_
+ (vol. iii., 1900); also A. Robert and G. Cougny, _Dictionnaire des
+ parlementaires_ (vol. ii., 1890).
+
+
+
+
+LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808), British general, was born
+on the 27th of July 1744. He entered the foot guards in 1758, becoming
+lieutenant (captain in the army) 1762, captain (lieut.-colonel) in 1776,
+major 1784, and lieut.-colonel in 1792, by which time he was a general
+officer in the army. He served with his regiment in Germany in 1760-1762
+and with a composite battalion in the Yorktown campaign of 1781. After
+this he was equerry to the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. In
+1790 he became a major-general, and in 1793 was appointed to command the
+Guards Brigade in the duke of York's army in Flanders. He was in command
+at the brilliant affair of Lincelles, on the 18th of August 1793, and
+served on the continent (except for a short time when seriously ill)
+until April 1794. He had now sold his lieut.-colonelcy in the guards,
+and had become colonel of the 53rd foot and governor of Limerick. In
+1797 he was promoted lieut.-general. In the following year the Irish
+rebellion broke out. Lake, who was then serving in Ireland, succeeded
+Sir Ralph Abercromby in command of the troops in April 1798, issued a
+proclamation ordering the surrender of all arms by the civil population
+of Ulster, and on the 21st of June routed the rebels at Vinegar Hill
+(near Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford). He exercised great, but perhaps not
+unjustified, severity towards all rebels found in arms. Lord Cornwallis
+now assumed the chief command in Ireland, and in August sent Lake to
+oppose the French expedition which landed at Killala Bay. On the 29th of
+the same month Lake arrived at Castlebar, but only in time to witness
+the disgraceful rout of the troops under General Hely-Hutchinson
+(afterwards 2nd earl of Donoughmore); but he retrieved this disaster by
+compelling the surrender of the French at Ballinamuck, near Cloone, on
+the 8th of September. In 1799 Lake returned to England, and soon
+afterwards obtained the command in chief in India. He took over his
+duties at Calcutta in July 1801, and applied himself to the improvement
+of the Indian army, especially in the direction of making all arms,
+infantry, cavalry and artillery, more mobile and more manageable. In
+1802 he was made a full general.
+
+On the outbreak of war with the Mahratta confederacy in 1803 General
+Lake took the field against Sindhia, and within two months defeated the
+Mahrattas at Coel, stormed Aligahr, took Delhi and Agra, and won the
+great victory of Laswari (November 1st, 1803), where the power of
+Sindhia was completely broken, with the loss of thirty-one disciplined
+battalions, trained and officered by Frenchmen, and 426 pieces of
+ordnance. This defeat, followed a few days later by Major-General Arthur
+Wellesley's victory at Argaum, compelled Sindhia to come to terms, and a
+treaty with him was signed in December 1803. Operations were, however,
+continued against his confederate, Holkar, who, on the 17th of November
+1804, was defeated by Lake at Farrukhabad. But the fortress of Bhurtpore
+held out against four assaults early in 1805, and Cornwallis, who
+succeeded Wellesley as governor-general in July of that
+year--superseding Lake at the same time as
+commander-in-chief--determined to put an end to the war. But after the
+death of Cornwallis in October of the same year, Lake pursued Holkar
+into the Punjab and compelled him to surrender at Amritsar in December
+1805. Wellesley in a despatch attributed much of the success of the war
+to Lake's "matchless energy, ability and valour." For his services Lake
+received the thanks of parliament, and was rewarded by a peerage in
+September 1804. At the conclusion of the war he returned to England, and
+in 1807 he was created a viscount. He represented Aylesbury in the House
+of Commons from 1790 to 1802, and he also was brought into the Irish
+parliament by the government as member for Armagh in 1799 to vote for
+the Union. He died in London on the 20th of February 1808.
+
+ See H. Pearse, _Memoir of the Life and Services of Viscount Lake_
+ (London, 1908); G. B. Malleson, _Decisive Battles of India_ (1883); J.
+ Grant Duff, _History of the Mahrattas_ (1873); short memoir in _From
+ Cromwell to Wellington_, ed. Spenser Wilkinson.
+
+
+
+
+LAKE. Professor Forel of Switzerland, the founder of the science of
+limnology (Gr. [Greek: limnê], a lake), defines a lake (Lat. _lacus_) as
+a mass of still water situated in a depression of the ground, without
+direct communication with the sea. The term is sometimes applied to
+widened parts of rivers, and sometimes to bodies of water which lie
+along sea-coasts, even at sea-level and in direct communication with the
+sea. The terms _pond_, _tarn_, _loch_ and _mere_ are applied to smaller
+lakes according to size and position. Some lakes are so large that an
+observer cannot see low objects situated on the opposite shore, owing to
+the lake-surface assuming the general curvature of the earth's surface.
+Lakes are nearly universally distributed, but are more abundant in high
+than in low latitudes. They are abundant in mountainous regions,
+especially in those which have been recently glaciated. They are
+frequent along rivers which have low gradients and wide flats, where
+they are clearly connected with the changing channel of the river. Low
+lands in proximity to the sea, especially in wet climates, have numerous
+lakes, as, for instance, Florida. Lakes may be either fresh or salt,
+according to the nature of the climate, some being much more salt than
+the sea itself. They occur in all altitudes; Lake Titicaca in South
+America is 12,500 ft. above sea-level, and Yellowstone Lake in the
+United States is 7741 ft. above the sea; on the other hand, the surface
+of the Caspian Sea is 86 ft., the Sea of Tiberias 682 ft. and the Dead
+Sea 1292 ft. below the level of the ocean.
+
+The primary source of lake water is atmospheric precipitation, which may
+reach the lakes through rain, melting ice and snow, springs, rivers and
+immediate run-off from the land-surfaces. The surface of the earth, with
+which we are directly in touch, is composed of lithosphere, hydrosphere
+and atmosphere, and these interpenetrate. Lakes, rivers, the
+water-vapour of the atmosphere and the water of hydration of the
+lithosphere, must all be regarded as outlying portions of the
+hydrosphere, which is chiefly made up of the great oceans. Lakes may be
+compared to oceanic islands. Just as an oceanic island presents many
+peculiarities in its rocks, soil, fauna and flora, due to its isolation
+from the larger terrestrial masses, so does a lake present peculiarities
+and an individuality in its physical, chemical and biological features,
+owing to its position and separation from the waters of the great
+oceans.
+
+ _Origin of Lakes._--From the geological point of view, lakes may be
+ arranged into three groups: (A) Rock-Basins, (B) Barrier-Basins and
+ (C) Organic Basins.
+
+ A. ROCK-BASINS have been formed in several ways:--
+
+ 1. _By slow movements of the earth's crust_, during the formation of
+ mountains; the Lake of Geneva in Switzerland and the Lake of Annecy in
+ France are due to the subsidence or warping of part of the Alps; on
+ the other hand, Lakes Stefanie, Rudolf, Albert Nyanza, Tanganyika and
+ Nyasa in Africa, and the Dead Sea in Asia Minor, are all believed to
+ lie in a great rift or sunken valley.
+
+ 2. _By Volcanic Agencies._--Crater-lakes formed on the sites of
+ dormant volcanoes may be from a few yards to several miles in width,
+ have generally a circular form, and are often without visible outlet.
+ Excellent examples of such lakes are to be seen in the province of
+ Rome (Italy) and in the central plateau of France, where M. Delebecque
+ found the Lake of Issarlès 329 ft. in depth. The most splendid
+ crater-lake is found on the summit of the Cascade range of Southern
+ Oregon (U.S.A.). This lake is 2000 ft. in depth.
+
+ 3. _By Subsidence due to Subterranean Channels and Caves in Limestone
+ Rocks._--When the roofs of great limestone caves or underground lakes
+ fall in, they produce at the surface what are called _limestone
+ sinks_. Lakes similar to these are also found in regions abounding in
+ rock-salt deposits; the Jura range offers many such lakes.
+
+ 4. _By Glacier Erosion._--A. C. Ramsay has shown that innumerable
+ lakes of the northern hemisphere do not lie in fissures produced by
+ underground disturbances, nor in areas of subsidence, nor in synclinal
+ folds of strata, but are the results of glacial erosion. Many flat
+ alluvial plains above gorges in Switzerland, as well as in the
+ Highlands of Scotland, were, without doubt, what Sir Archibald Geikie
+ calls glen-lakes, or true rock-basins, which have been filled up by
+ sand and mud brought into them by their tributary streams.
+
+ B. BARRIER-BASINS.--These may be due to the following causes:--
+
+ 1. _A landslip_ often occurs in mountainous regions, where strata,
+ dipping towards the valley, rest on soft layers; the hard rocks slip
+ into the valley after heavy rains, damming back the drainage, which
+ then forms a barrier-basin. Many small lakes high up in the Alps and
+ Pyrenees are formed by a river being dammed back in this way.
+
+ 2. _By a Glacier._--In Alaska, in Scandinavia and in the Alps a
+ glacier often bars the mouth of a tributary valley, the stream flowing
+ therein is dammed back, and a lake is thus formed. The best-known lake
+ of this kind is the Märjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great Aletsch
+ Glacier. Lake Castain in Alaska is barred by the Malaspina Glacier; it
+ is 2 or 3 m. long and 1 m. in width when at its highest level; it
+ discharges through a tunnel 9 m. in length beneath the ice-sheet. The
+ famous parallel roads of Glen Roy in Scotland are successive terraces
+ formed along the shores of a glacial lake during the waning glacial
+ epoch. Lake Agassiz, which during the glacial period occupied the
+ valley of the Red River, and of which the present Lake Winnipeg is a
+ remnant, was formed by an ice-dam along the margin of two great
+ ice-sheets. It is estimated to have been 700 m. in length, and to have
+ covered an area of 110,000 sq. m., thus exceeding the total area of
+ the five great North American lakes: Superior (31,200), Michigan
+ (22,450), Huron with Georgian Bay (23,800), Erie (9960) and Ontario
+ (7240).
+
+ 3. _By the Lateral Moraine of an Actual Glacier._--These lakes
+ sometimes occur in the Alps of Central Europe and in the Pyrenees
+ Mountains.
+
+ 4. _By the Frontal Moraine of an Ancient Glacier._--The barrier in
+ this case consists of the last moraine left by the retreating glacier.
+ Such lakes are abundant in the northern hemisphere, especially in
+ Scotland and the Alps.
+
+ 5. _By Irregular Deposition of Glacial Drift._--After the retreat of
+ continental glaciers great masses of glacial drift are left on the
+ land-surfaces, but, on account of the manner in which these masses
+ were deposited, they abound in depressions that become filled with
+ water. Often these lakes are without visible outlets, the water
+ frequently percolating through the glacial drift. These lakes are so
+ numerous in the north-eastern part of North America that one can trace
+ the southern boundary of the great ice-sheet by following the southern
+ limit of the lake-strewn region, where lakes may be counted by tens of
+ thousands, varying from the size of a tarn to that of the great
+ Laurentian lakes above mentioned.
+
+ 6. _By Sand drifted into Dunes._--It is a well-known fact that sand
+ may travel across a country for several miles in the direction of the
+ prevailing winds. When these sand-dunes obstruct a valley a lake may
+ be formed. A good example of such a lake is found in Moses Lake in the
+ state of Washington; but the sand-dunes may also fill up or submerge
+ river-valleys and lakes, for instance, in the Sahara, where the Shotts
+ are like vast lakes in the early morning, and in the afternoon, when
+ much evaporation has taken place, like vast plains of white salt.
+
+ 7. _By Alluvial Matter deposited by Lateral Streams._--If the current
+ of a main river be not powerful enough to sweep away detrital matter
+ brought down by a lateral stream, a dam is formed causing a lake.
+ These lakes are frequently met with in the narrow valleys of the
+ Highlands of Scotland.
+
+ 8. _By Flows of Lava._--Lakes of this kind are met with in volcanic
+ regions.
+
+ C. ORGANIC BASINS.--In the vast tundras that skirt the Arctic Ocean in
+ both the old and the new world, a great number of frozen ponds and
+ lakes are met with, surrounded by banks of vegetation. Snow-banks are
+ generally accumulated every season at the same spots. During summer
+ the growth of the tundra vegetation is very rapid, and the snow-drifts
+ that last longest are surrounded by luxuriant vegetation. When such
+ accumulations of snow finally melt, the vegetation on the place they
+ occupied is much less than along their borders. Year after year such
+ places become more and more depressed, comparatively to the general
+ surface, where vegetable growth is more abundant, and thus give origin
+ to lakes.
+
+ It is well known that in coral-reef regions small bays are cut off
+ from the ocean by the growth of corals, and thus ultimately
+ fresh-water basins are formed.
+
+_Life History of Lakes._--From the time of its formation a lake is
+destined to disappear. The historical period has not been long enough to
+enable man to have watched the birth, life and death of any single lake
+of considerable size, still by studying the various stages of
+development a fairly good idea of the course they run can be obtained.
+
+In humid regions two processes tend to the extinction of a lake, viz.
+the deposition of detrital matter in the lake, and the lowering of the
+lake by the cutting action of the outlet stream on the barrier. These
+outgoing streams, however, being very pure and clear, all detrital
+matter having been deposited in the lake, have less eroding power than
+inflowing streams. One of the best examples of the action of the
+filling-up process is presented by Lochs Doine, Voil and Lubnaig in the
+Callander district of Scotland. In post-glacial times these three lochs
+formed, without doubt, one continuous sheet of water, which subsequently
+became divided into three different basins by the deposition of
+sediment. Loch Doine has been separated from Loch Voil by alluvial cones
+laid down by two opposite streams. At the head of Loch Doine there is an
+alluvial flat that stretches for 1½ m., formed by the Lochlarig river
+and its tributaries. The long stretch of alluvium that separates Loch
+Voil from Loch Lubnaig has been laid down by Calair Burn in Glen Buckie,
+by the Kirkton Burn at Balquhidder, and by various streams on both sides
+of Strathyre. Loch Lubnaig once extended to a point ¾ m. beyond its
+present outlet, the level of the loch being lowered about 20 ft. by the
+denuding action of the river Leny on its rocky barrier.
+
+In arid regions, where the rainfall is often less than 10 ins. in the
+year, the action of winds in the transport of sand and dust is more in
+evidence than that of rivers, and the effects of evaporation greater
+than of precipitation. Salt and bitter lakes prevail in these regions.
+Many salt lakes, such as the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake, are
+descended from fresh-water ancestors, while others, like the Caspian and
+Aral Seas, are isolated portions of the ocean. Lakes of the first group
+have usually become salt through a decrease in the rainfall of the
+region in which they occur. The water begins to get salt when the
+evaporation from the lake exceeds the inflow. The inflowing waters bring
+in a small amount of saline and alkaline matter, which becomes more and
+more concentrated as the evaporation increases. In lakes of the second
+group the waters were salt at the outset. If inflow exceeds evaporation
+they become fresher, and may ultimately become quite fresh. If the
+evaporation exceeds the inflow they diminish in size, and their waters
+become more and more salt and bitter. The first lake which occupied the
+basin of the Great Salt Lake of Utah appears to have been fresh, then
+with a change of climate to have become a salt lake. Another change of
+climate taking place, the level of the lake rose until it overflowed,
+the outlet being by the Snake river; the lake then became fresh. This
+expanded lake has been called Lake Bonneville, which covered an area of
+about 17,000 sq. m. Another change of climate in the direction of
+aridity reduced the level of the lake below the level of the outlet, the
+waters became gradually salt, and the former great fresh-water lake has
+been reduced gradually to the relatively small Great Salt Lake of the
+present day. The sites of extinct salt lakes yield salt in commercial
+quantities.
+
+ _The Water of Lakes._--(a) _Composition._--It is interesting to
+ compare the quantity of solid matter in, and the chemical composition
+ of, the water of fresh and salt lakes:--
+
+ Total Solids by Evaporation
+ expressed in Grams per Litre.
+ Great Salt Lake (Russell) 238.12
+ Lake of Geneva (Delebecque) 0.1775
+
+ The following analysis of a sample of the water of the Great Salt Lake
+ (Utah, U.S.A.) is given by I. C. Russell:--
+
+ Grams per Litre. Probable Combination.
+
+ Na 75.825 NaCl 192.860
+ K 3.925 K2SO4 8.756
+ Li 0.021 Li2SO4 0.166
+ Mg 4.844 MgCl2 15.044
+ Ca 2.424 MgSO4 5.216
+ Cl 128.278 CaSO4 8.240
+ SO3 12.522 Fe2O3 + Al2O3 0.004
+ O in sulphate 2.494 SiO2 0.018
+ Fe2O3 + Al2O3 0.004 Surplus SO_3 0.051
+ SiO2 0.018
+ Bo2O3 trace
+ Br3 faint trace
+
+ The following analyses of the waters of other salt lakes are given by
+ Mr J. Y. Buchanan (Art. "Lake," _Ency. Brit._, 9th Ed.), an analysis
+ of sea-water from the Suez Canal being added for comparison:--
+
+ +-----------------------+---------+--------+-------------------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
+ | | | | Caspian Sea. | | | |Suez Canal,|
+ | |Koko-nor.|Aral Sea+--------+----------+Urmia Sea.|Dead Sea.|Lake Van.| Ismailia. |
+ | | | | Open. |Karabugas.| | | | |
+ +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
+ | Specific Gravity | 1.00907 | .. | 1.01106| 1.26217 | 1.17500 | .. | 1.01800| 1.03898 |
+ | Percentage of Salt | 1.11 | 1.09 | 1.30 | 28.5 |22.28 | 22.13 | 1.73 | 5.1 |
+ +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
+ | Name of Salt. | Grams of Salt per 1000 Grams of Water. |
+ +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
+ | Bicarbonate of Lime | 0.6804 | 0.2185 | 0.1123 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.0072 |
+ | " Iron | 0.0053 | .. | 0.0014 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.0069 |
+ | " Magnesia | 0.6598 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.4031 | .. |
+ | Carbonate of Soda | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 5.3976 | .. |
+ | Phosphate of Lime | 0.0028 | .. | 0.0021 | .. | .. | .. | 5.3976 | 0.0029 |
+ | Sulphate of Lime | .. | 1.3499 | 0.9004 | .. | 0.7570 | 0.8600 | .. | 1.8593 |
+ | " Magnesia | 0.9324 | 2.9799 | 3.0855 | 61.9350 | 13.5460 | .. | 0.2592 | 3.2231 |
+ | " Soda | 1.7241 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 2.5673 | .. |
+ | " Potash | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.5363 | .. |
+ | Chloride of Sodium | 6.9008 | 6.2356 | 8.1163 | 83.2840 |192.4100 | 76.5000 | 8.0500 | 40.4336 |
+ | " Potassium | 0.2209 | 0.1145 | 0.1339 | 9.9560 | .. | 23.3000 | .. | 0.6231 |
+ | " Rubidium | 0.0055 | .. | 0.0034 | 0.2510 | .. | .. | .. | 0.0265 |
+ | " Magnesium | .. | 0.0003 | 0.6115 |129.3770 | 15.4610 | 95.6000 | .. | 4.7632 |
+ | " Calcium | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.5990 | 22.4500 | .. | .. |
+ | Bromide of Magnesium | 0.0045 | .. | 0.0081 | 0.1930 | .. | 2.3100 | .. | 0.0779 |
+ | Silica | 0.0098 | .. | 0.0024 | .. | .. | 0.2400 | 0.0761 | 0.0027 |
+ +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
+ | Total Solid Matter |11.1463 |10.8987 |12.9773 |284.9960 |222.2600 |221.2600 | 17.2899 | 51.0264 |
+ +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
+
+ This table embraces examples of several types of salt lakes. In the
+ Koko-nor, Aral and open Caspian Seas we have examples of the
+ moderately salt, non-saturated waters. In the Karabugas, a branch gulf
+ of the Caspian, Urmia and the Dead Seas we have examples of saturated
+ waters containing principally chlorides. Lake Van is an example of the
+ alkaline seas which also occur in Egypt, Hungary and other countries.
+ Their peculiarity consists in the quantity of carbonate of soda
+ dissolved in their waters, which is collected by the inhabitants for
+ domestic and commercial purposes.
+
+ The following analyses by Dr Bourcart give an idea of the chemical
+ composition of the water of fresh-water lakes in grams per litre:--
+
+ +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
+ | | Tanay. | Bleu. |Märjelen.|St Gothard.|
+ +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
+ | SiO2 | 0.003 | 0.0042 | 0.0014 | 0.0008 |
+ | Fe2O3 + Al2O3 | 0.0012 | 0.0006 | 0.0008 | trace |
+ | NaCl | 0.0017 | .. | .. | .. |
+ | Na2SO4 | 0.0011 | 0.0038 | 0.0031 | 0.00085 |
+ | Na2CO3 | .. | .. | .. | 0.00128 |
+ | K2SO4 | 0.0021 | 0.0028 | 0.0044 | .. |
+ | K2CO3 | .. | .. | 0.0003 | 0.00130 |
+ | MgSO4 | 0.006 | 0.0305 | .. | .. |
+ | MgCO3 | 0.0046 | 0.0158 | 0.0008 | 0.00015 |
+ | CaSO4 | .. | .. | .. | .. |
+ | CaCO3 | 0.107 | 0.1189 | 0.0061 | 0.00178 |
+ | MnO | 0.001 | .. | .. | .. |
+ +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
+
+ (b) _Movements and Temperature of Lake-Waters._--(1) In addition to
+ the rise and fall of the surface-level of lakes due to rainfall and
+ evaporation, there is a transference of water due to the action of
+ wind which results in raising the level at the end to which the wind
+ is blowing. In addition to the well-known progressive waves there are
+ also stationary waves or "seiches" which are less apparent. A seiche
+ is a standing oscillation of a lake, usually in the direction of the
+ longest diameter, but occasionally transverse. In a motion of this
+ kind every particle of the water of the lake oscillates synchronously
+ with every other, the periods and phases being the same for all, and
+ the orbits similar but of different dimensions and not similarly
+ situated. Seiches were first discovered in 1730 by Fatio de Duillier,
+ a well-known Swiss engineer, and were first systematically studied by
+ Professor Forel in the Lake of Geneva. Large numbers of observations
+ have been made by various observers in lakes in many parts of the
+ world. Henry observed a fifteen-hour seiche in Lake Erie, which is 396
+ kilometres in length, and Endros recorded a seiche of fourteen seconds
+ in a small pond only 111 metres in length. Although these waves cause
+ periodical rising and falling of the water-level, they are generally
+ inconspicuous, and can only be recorded by a registering apparatus, a
+ limnograph. Standard work has been done in the study of seiches by the
+ Lake Survey of Scotland under the immediate direction of Professor
+ Chrystal, who has given much attention to the hydrodynamical theories
+ of the phenomenon. Seiches are probably due to several factors acting
+ together or separately, such as sudden variations of atmospheric
+ pressure, changes in the strength or direction of the wind.
+ Explanations such as lunar attraction and earthquakes have been shown
+ to be untenable as a general cause of seiches.
+
+ 2. _The water temperature of lakes_ may change with the season from
+ place to place and from layer to layer; these changes are brought
+ about by insolation, by terrestrial radiation, by contract with the
+ atmosphere, by rain, by the inflow of rivers and other factors, but
+ the most important of all these are insolation and terrestrial
+ radiation. Fresh water has its greatest density at a temperature of
+ 39.2° F., so that water both above and below this temperature floats
+ to the surface, and this physical fact largely determines the water
+ stratification in a lake. In salt lakes the maximum density point is
+ much lower, and does not come into play. In the tropical type of
+ fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39° F., and the
+ temperature decreases as the depth increases. In the polar type the
+ temperature is always lower than 39° F., and the temperature increases
+ from the surface downwards. In the temperate type the distribution of
+ temperature in winter resembles the polar type, and in summer the
+ tropical type. In Loch Ness and other deep Scottish lochs the
+ temperature in March and April is 41° to 42° F., and is then nearly
+ uniform from top to bottom. As the sun comes north, and the mean air
+ temperature begins to be higher than the surface temperature, the
+ surface waters gain heat, and this heating goes on till the month of
+ August. About this time the mean air temperature falls below the
+ surface temperature, and the loch begins to part with its heat by
+ radiation and conduction. The temperature of the deeper layers beyond
+ 300 ft. is only slightly affected throughout the whole year. In the
+ autumn the waters of the loch are divided into two compartments, the
+ upper having a temperature from 49° to 55° F., the deeper a
+ temperature from 41° to 45°. Between these lies the
+ discontinuity-layer (_Sprungschicht_ of the Germans), where there is a
+ rapid fall of temperature within a very short distance. In August this
+ discontinuity-layer is well marked, and lies at a depth of about 150
+ ft.; as the season advances this layer gradually sinks deeper, and the
+ layer of uniform temperature above it increases in depth, and slowly
+ loses heat, until finally the whole loch assumes a nearly uniform
+ temperature. Many years ago Sir John Murray showed by means of
+ temperature observations the manner in which large bodies of water
+ were transferred from the windward to the leeward end of a loch, and
+ subsequent observations seem to show that, before the
+ discontinuity-layer makes its appearance, the currents produced by
+ winds are distributed through the whole mass of the loch. When,
+ however, this layer appears, the loch is divided into two
+ current-systems, as shown in the following diagram:--
+
+ [Illustration: Current systems in a loch induced by wind at the
+ surface. (After Wedderburn.)
+
+ AB, Discontinuity layer.
+ C, Surface current.
+ D, Primary return current.
+ E, Secondary surface current.
+ F, Secondary return current.]
+
+ Another effect of the separation of the loch into two compartments by
+ the surface of discontinuity is to render possible the
+ temperature-seiche. The surface-current produced by the wind transfers
+ a large quantity of warm water to the lee end of the loch, with the
+ result that the surface of discontinuity is deeper at the lee than at
+ the windward end. When the wind ceases, a temperature-seiche is
+ started, just as an ordinary seiche is started in a basin of water
+ which has been tilted. This temperature-seiche has been studied
+ experimentally and rendered visible by superimposing a layer of
+ paraffin on a layer of water.
+
+ Wedderburn estimates the quantity of heat that enters Loch Ness and is
+ given out again during the year to be approximately sufficient to
+ raise about 30,000 million gallons of water from freezing-point to
+ boiling-point. Lakes thus modify the climate of the region in which
+ they occur, both by increasing its humidity and by decreasing its
+ range of temperature. They cool and moisten the atmosphere by
+ evaporation during summer, and when they freeze in winter a vast
+ amount of latent heat is liberated, and moderates the fall of
+ temperature.
+
+ Lakes act as reservoirs for water, and so tend to restrain floods, and
+ to promote regularity of flow. They become sources of mechanical
+ power, and as their waters are purified by allowing the sediment which
+ enters them to settle, they become valuable sources of water-supply
+ for towns and cities. In temperate regions small and shallow lakes are
+ likely to freeze all over in winter, but deep lakes in similar regions
+ do not generally freeze, owing to the fact that the low temperature of
+ the air does not continue long enough to cool down the entire body of
+ water to the maximum density point. Deep lakes are thus the best
+ sources of water-supply for cities, for in summer they supply
+ relatively cool water and in winter relatively warm water. Besides,
+ the number of organisms in deep lakes is less than in small shallow
+ lakes, in which there is a much higher temperature in summer, and
+ consequently much greater organic growth. The deposits, which are
+ formed along the shores and on the floors of lakes, depend on the
+ geological structure and nature of the adjacent shores.
+
+_Biology._--Compared with the waters of the ocean those of lakes may
+safely be said to contain relatively few animals and plants. Whole
+groups of organisms--the Echinoderms, for instance--are unrepresented.
+In the oceans there is a much greater uniformity in the physical and
+chemical conditions than obtains in lakes. In lakes the temperature
+varies widely. To underground lakes light does not penetrate, and in
+these some of the organisms may be blind, for example, the blind
+crayfish (_Cambarus pellucidus_) and the blind fish (_Amblyopsis
+spelaeus_) of the Kentucky caves. The majority of lakes are fresh, while
+some are so salt that no organisms have been found in them. The peaty
+matter in other lakes is so abundant that light does not penetrate to
+any great depth, and the humic acids in solution prevent the development
+of some species. Indeed, every lake has an individuality of its own,
+depending upon climate, size, nature of the bottom, chemical composition
+and connexion with other lakes. While the ocean contains many families
+and genera not represented in lakes, almost every genus in lakes is
+represented in the ocean.
+
+ The vertebrates, insects and flowering plants inhabiting lakes vary
+ much according to latitude, and are comparatively well known to
+ zoologists and botanists. The micro-fauna and flora have only recently
+ been studied in detail, and we cannot yet be said to know much about
+ tropical lakes in this respect. Mr James Murray, who has studied the
+ Scottish lakes, records in over 400 Scottish lochs 724 species (the
+ fauna including 447 species, all invertebrates, and the flora
+ comprising 277 species) belonging to the following groups; the list
+ must not be regarded as in any way complete:--
+
+ _Fauna._ _Flora._
+
+ Mollusca 7 species Phanerogamia 65 species
+ Hydrachnida 17 " Equisetaceae 1 "
+ Tardigrada 30 " Selaginellaceae 1 "
+ Insecta 7 " Characeae 6 "
+ Crustacea 78 " Musci 18 "
+ Bryozoa 7 " Hepaticae 2 "
+ Worms 25 " Florideae 2 "
+ Rotifera 181 " Chlorophyceae 142 "
+ Gastrotricha 2 " Bacillariaceae 26 "
+ Coelenterata 1 " Myxophyceae 10 "
+ Porifera 1 " Peridiniaceae 4 "
+ Protozoa 91 "
+ ----------- -----------
+ 447 " 277 "
+
+ These organisms are found along the shores, in the deep waters, and in
+ the surface waters of the lakes.
+
+ The _littoral region_ is the most populous part of lakes; the
+ existence of a rooted vegetation is only possible there, and this in
+ turn supports a rich littoral fauna. The greater heat of the water
+ along the margins also favours growth. The great majority of the
+ species in Scottish lochs are met with in this region. Insect larvae
+ of many kinds are found under stones or among weeds. Most of the
+ Cladocera, and the Copepoda of the genus _Cyclops_, and the
+ Harpacticidae are only found in this region. Water-mites, nearly all
+ the Rotifers, Gastrotricha, Tardigrada and Molluscs are found here,
+ and Rhizopods are abundant. A large number of the littoral species in
+ Loch Ness extends down to a depth of about 300 ft.
+
+ _The abyssal region_, in Scottish lochs, lies, as a rule, deeper than
+ 300 ft., and in this deep region a well-marked association of animals
+ appears in the muds on the bottom, but none of them are peculiar to
+ it: they all extend into the littoral zone, from which they were
+ originally derived. In Loch Ness the following sparse population was
+ recorded:--
+
+ 1 Mollusc: _Pisidium pusillum_ (Gmel).
+ 3 Crustacea: _Cyclops viridis_, Jurine.
+ _Candona candida_ (Müll).
+ _Cypria ophthalmica_, Jurine.
+ 3 Worms: _Stylodrilus gabreteae_, Vejd.
+ Oligochaete, not determined.
+ _Automolos morgiensis_ (Du Plessis).
+ 1 Insect: _Chironomus_ (larva).
+ Infusoria: Several, ectoparasites on _Pisidium_ and _Cyclops_,
+ not determined.
+
+ In addition, the following were found casually at great depths in Loch
+ Ness: _Hydra_, _Limnaea peregra_, _Proales daphnicola_ and _Lynceus
+ affinis_.
+
+ The _pelagic region_ of the Scottish lakes is occupied by numerous
+ microscopic organisms, belonging to the Zooplankton and Phytoplankton.
+ Of the former group 30 species belonging to the Crustacea, Rotifera
+ and Protozoa were recorded in Loch Ness. Belonging to the second group
+ 150 species were recorded, of which 120 were Desmids. Some of these
+ species of plankton organisms are almost universal in the Scottish
+ lochs, while others are quite local. Some of the species occur all the
+ year through, while others have only been recorded in summer or in
+ winter. The great development of Algae in the surface waters, called
+ "flowering of the water" (_Wasserblüthe_), was observed in August in
+ Loch Lomond; a distinct "flowering," due to Chlorophyceae, has been
+ observed in shallow lochs as early as July. It is most common in
+ August and September, but has also been observed in winter.
+
+ The plankton animals which are dominant or common, both over Scotland
+ and the rest of Europe, are:--
+
+ _Diaptomus gracilis._
+ _Daphnia kyalina._
+ _Diaphanosoma brachyurum._
+ _Leptodora kindtii._
+ _Conochilus unicornis._
+ _Asplanchna priodonta._
+ _Polyarthra platyptera._
+ _Anuraea cochlearis._
+ _Notholca longispina._
+ _Ceratium hirundinella._
+ _Asterionella._
+
+ All of these, according to Dr Lund, belong to the general plankton
+ association of the European plain, or are even cosmopolitan.
+
+ The Scottish plankton on the whole differs from the plankton of the
+ central European plateau, and from the cosmopolitan fresh-water
+ plankton, in the extraordinary richness of the Phytoplankton in
+ species of Desmids, in the conspicuous arctic element among the
+ Crustacea, in the absence or comparative rarity of the species
+ commonest in the general European plankton. Another peculiarity is the
+ local distribution of some of the Crustacea and many of the Desmids.
+
+ The derivation of the whole lacustrine population of the Scottish
+ lochs does not seem to present any difficulty. The abyssal forms have
+ been traced to the littoral zone without any perceptible
+ modifications. The plankton organisms are a mingling of European and
+ arctic species. The cosmopolitan species may enter the lochs by
+ ordinary migration. It is probable that if the whole plankton could be
+ annihilated, it would be replaced by ordinary migration within a few
+ years. The eggs and spores of many species can be dried up without
+ injury, and may be carried through the air as dust from one lake to
+ another; others, which would not bear desiccation, might be carried in
+ mud adhering to the feet of aquatic birds and in various other ways.
+ The arctic species may be survivors from a period when arctic
+ conditions prevailed over a great part of Europe. What are known as
+ "relicts" of a marine fauna have not been found in the Scottish
+ fresh-water lochs.
+
+ It is somewhat remarkable that none of the organisms living in
+ fresh-water lochs has been observed to exhibit the phenomenon of
+ phosphorescence, although similar organisms in the salt-water lochs a
+ few miles distant exhibit brilliant phosphorescence. At similar depths
+ in the sea-lochs there is usually a great abundance of life when
+ compared with that found in fresh-water lochs.
+
+_Length, Depth, Area and Volume of Lakes._--In the following table will
+be found the length, depth, area and volume of some of the principal
+lakes of the world.[1] Sir John Murray estimates The volume of water in
+the 560 Scottish lochs recently surveyed at 7 cub. m., and the
+approximate volume of water in all the lakes of the world at about 2000
+cub. m., so that this last number is but a small fraction of the volume
+of the ocean, which he previously estimated at 324 million cub. m. It
+may be recalled that the total rainfall on the land of the globe is
+estimated at 29,350 cub. m., and the total discharge from the rivers of
+the globe at 6524 cub. m.
+
+ BRITISH LAKES
+
+ +--------------------+-------+---------------+--------+-----------+
+ | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in |
+ | | in | in | in | million |
+ | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. |
+ +--------------------+-------+------+--------+--------+-----------+
+ |I. _England_-- | | Max. | Mean. | | |
+ | Windermere | 10.50 | 219 | 78.5 | 5.69 | 12,250 |
+ | Ullswater | 7.35 | 205 | 83 | 3.44 | 7,870 |
+ | Wastwater | 3.00 | 258 | 134.5 | 1.12 | 4,128 |
+ | Coniston Water | 5.41 | 184 | 79 | 1.89 | 4,000 |
+ | Crummock Water | 2.50 | 144 | 87.5 | 0.97 | 2,343 |
+ | Ennerdale Water | 2.40 | 148 | 62 | 1.12 | 1,978 |
+ | Bassenthwaite | | | | | |
+ | Water | 3.83 | 70 | 18 | 2.06 | 1,023 |
+ | Derwentwater | 2.87 | 72 | 18 | 2.06 | 1,010 |
+ | Haweswater | 2.33 | 103 | 39.5 | 0.54 | 589 |
+ | Buttermere | 1.26 | 94 | 54.5 | 0.36 | 537 |
+ |II. _Wales_-- | | | | | |
+ | Llyn Cawlyd | 1.62 | 222 | 109.1 | 0.18 | 941 |
+ | Llyn Cwellyn | 1.20 | 122 | 74.1 | 0.35 | 713 |
+ | Llyn Padarn | 2.00 | 94 | 52.4 | 0.43 | 632 |
+ | Llyn Llydaw | 1.11 | 190 | 77.4 | 0.19 | 409 |
+ | Llyn Peris | 1.10 | 114 | 63.9 | 0.19 | 344 |
+ | Llyn Dulyn | 0.31 | 189 | 104.2 | 0.05 | 156 |
+ |III. _Scotland_-- | | | | | |
+ | Ness | 24.23 | 754 | 433.02 | 21.78 | 263,162 |
+ | Lomond | 22.64 | 623 | 121.29 | 27.45 | 92,805 |
+ | Morar | 11.68 | 1017 | 284.00 | 10.30 | 81,482 |
+ | Tay | 14.55 | 508 | 199.08 | 10.19 | 56,550 |
+ | Awe | 25.47 | 307 | 104.95 | 14.85 | 43,451 |
+ | Maree | 13.46 | 367 | 125.30 | 11.03 | 38,539 |
+ | Lochy | 9.78 | 531 | 228.95 | 5.91 | 37,726 |
+ | Rannoch | 9.70 | 440 | 167.46 | 7.37 | 34,387 |
+ | Shiel | 17.40 | 420 | 132.73 | 7.56 | 27,986 |
+ | Arkaig | 12.00 | 359 | 152.71 | 6.24 | 26,573 |
+ | Earn | 6.46 | 287 | 137.83 | 3.91 | 14,421 |
+ | Treig | 5.10 | 436 | 207.37 | 2.41 | 13,907 |
+ | Shin | 17.22 | 162 | 51.04 | 8.70 | 12,380 |
+ | Fannich | 6.92 | 282 | 108.76 | 3.60 | 10,920 |
+ | Assynt | 6.36 | 282 | 101.10 | 3.10 | 8,731 |
+ | Quoich | 6.95 | 281 | 104.60 | 2.86 | 8,345 |
+ | Glass | 4.03 | 365 | 159.07 | 1.86 | 8,265 |
+ | Fionn (Carnmore) | 5.76 | 144 | 57.79 | 3.52 | 5,667 |
+ | Laggan | 7.04 | 174 | 67.68 | 2.97 | 5,601 |
+ | Loyal | 4.46 | 217 | 65.21 | 2.55 | 4,628 |
+ |IV. _Ireland_-- | | | | | |
+ | Neagh | 17 | 102 | 40 |153 | 161,000 |
+ | Erne (Lower) | 24 | 226 | 43 | 43 | 62,000 |
+ | Erne (Upper) | 13 | 89 | 10 | 15 | 5,000 |
+ | Corrib | 27 | 152 | 30 | 68 | 59,000 |
+ | Mask | 10 | 191 | 52 | 35 | 55,000 |
+ | Derg | 24 | 119 | 30 | 49 | 47,000 |
+ +--------------------+-------+---------------+--------+-----------+
+
+ EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL LAKES
+
+ +------------+-------+--------------+--------+------------+
+ | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in |
+ | | in | in | in | million |
+ | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. |
+ +------------+-------+------+-------+--------+------------+
+ | | | Max. | Mean. | | |
+ | Ladoga | 125 | 732 | 300 | 7000 | 43,200,000 |
+ | Onega | 145 | 740 | 200 | 3800 | 21,000,000 |
+ | Vener | 93 | 292 | 108 | 2149 | 6,357,000 |
+ | Geneva | 45 | 1015 | 506 | 225 | 3,175,000 |
+ | Vetter | 68 | 413 | 128 | 733 | 2,543,000 |
+ | Mjösen | 57 | 1483 | .. | 139 | 2,882,000 |
+ | Garda | 38 | 1124 | 446 | 143 | 1,766,000 |
+ | Constance | 42 | 827 | 295 | 208 | 1,711,000 |
+ | Ochrida | 19 | 942 | 479 | 105 | 1,391,000 |
+ | Maggiore | 42 | 1220 | 574 | 82 | 1,310,000 |
+ | Como | 30 | 1345 | 513 | 56 | 794,000 |
+ | Hornafvan | 7 | 1391 | 253 | 93 | 777,000 |
+ +------------+-------+--------------+--------+------------+
+
+ AFRICAN LAKES
+
+ +----------------+------+-------------+--------+-------------+
+ | |Length| Depth | Area | Volume in |
+ | | in | in | in | million |
+ | |Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. |
+ +----------------+------+------+------+--------+-------------+
+ | | | Max. | Mean.| | |
+ | Victoria Nyanza| 200 | 240 | .. | 26,200 | 5,800,000 |
+ | Nyasa | 350 | 2580 | .. | 14,200 | 396,000,000 |
+ | Tanganyika | 420 | 2100 | .. | 12,700 | 283,000,000 |
+ +----------------+------+------+------+--------+-------------+
+
+ ASIATIC LAKES
+
+ +----------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+
+ | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in |
+ | | in | in | in | million |
+ | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. |
+ +----------+-------+------+------+--------+------------+
+ | | | Max. | Mean.| | |
+ | Aral | 265 | 222 | 52 | 24,400 | 43,600,000 |
+ | Baikal | 330 | 5413 | .. | 11,580 |274,000,000 |
+ | Balkash | 323 | 33 | .. | 7,000 | 4,880,000 |
+ | Urmia | 80 | 50 | 15 | 1,750 | 732,000 |
+ +----------+-------+------+------+--------+------------+
+
+ AMERICAN LAKES
+
+ +------------+-------+-------------+--------+-------------+
+ | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in |
+ | | in | in | in | million |
+ | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. |
+ +------------+-------+------+------+--------+-------------+
+ | | | Max. | Mean.| | |
+ | Superior | 412 | 1008 | 475 | 31,200 | 413,000,000 |
+ | Huron | 263 | 730 | 250 | 23,800 | 166,000,000 |
+ | Michigan | 335 | 870 | 325 | 22,450 | 203,000,000 |
+ | Erie | 240 | 210 | 70 | 9,960 | 19,500,000 |
+ | Ontario | 190 | 738 | 300 | 7,240 | 61,000,000 |
+ | Titicaca | 120 | 924 | 347 | 3,200 | 30,900,000 |
+ +------------+-------+------+------+--------+-------------+
+
+ NEW ZEALAND LAKES
+
+ +--------------+-------+-------------+--------+-----------+
+ | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in |
+ | | in | in | in | million |
+ | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. |
+ +--------------+-------+------+------+--------+-----------+
+ | | | Max. | Mean.| | |
+ | Taupo | 25 | 534 | 367 | 238.0 | 2,435,000 |
+ | Wakatipu | 49 | 1242 | 707 | 112.3 | 2,205,000 |
+ | Manapouri | 19 | 1458 | 328 | 56.0 | 512,000 |
+ | Rotorua | 7.5 | 120 | 39 | 31.6 | 34,000 |
+ | Waikarimoana | 7.25 | 846 | 397 | 14.7 | 166,000 |
+ | Wairaumoana | 5.25 | 375 | 175 | 6.1 | 30,000 |
+ | Rotoiti | 10.7 | 230 | 69 | 14.2 | 27,000 |
+ +--------------+-------+------+------+--------+-----------+
+
+ AUTHORITIES.--F. A. Forel, "Handbuch der Seenkunde: allgemeine
+ Limnologie," _Bibliothek geogr. Handbücher_ (Stuttgart, 1901), _Le
+ Léman, monographie limnologique_ (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1901); A.
+ Delebecque, _Les Lacs français_, text and plates (Paris, 1898); H. R.
+ Mill, "Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes," _Geogr. Journ._
+ vol. vi. pp. 46 and 135 (1895); Jehu, "Bathymetrical and Geological
+ Study of the Lakes of Snowdonia," _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. xl. p.
+ 419 (1902); Sir John Murray and Laurence Pullar, "Bathymetrical Survey
+ of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland," _Geogr. Journ._ (1900 to 1908,
+ re-issued in six volumes, Edinburgh, 1910); W. Halbfass, "Die
+ Morphometrie der europäischen Seen," _Zeitschr. Gesell. Erdkunde
+ Berlin_ (Jahrg. 1903, p. 592; 1904, p. 204); I. C. Russell, _Lakes of
+ North America_ (Boston and London, 1895); O. Zacharias,
+ "Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station zu Plön" (Stuttgart);
+ F. E. Bourcart, _Les Lacs alpins suisses: étude chimique et physique_
+ (Geneva, 1906); G. P. Magrini, _Limnologia_ (Milan, 1907). (J. Mu.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+ [1] Divergence between certain of these figures and those quoted
+ elsewhere in this work may be accounted for by the slightly different
+ results arrived at by various authorities.
+
+
+
+
+LAKE CHARLES, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Calcasieu Parish,
+30 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and about 218 m. (by rail) W. of New
+Orleans. Pop. (1889) 838, (1890) 3442, (1900) 6680 (2407 negroes);
+(1910) 11,449. It is served by the Louisiana & Texas (Southern Pacific
+System), the St Louis, Watkins & Gulf, the Louisiana & Pacific and the
+Kansas City Southern railways. The city is charmingly situated on the
+shore of Lake Charles, and on the Calcasieu river, which with some
+dredging can be made navigable for large vessels for 132 m. from the
+Gulf. It is a winter resort. Among the principal buildings are a
+Carnegie library, the city hall, the Government building, the court
+house, St Patrick's sanatorium, the masonic temple and the Elks' club.
+Lake Charles is in the prairie region of southern Louisiana, to the N.
+of which, covering a large part of the state, are magnificent forests of
+long-leaf pine, and lesser lowland growths of oak, ash, magnolia,
+cypress and other valuable timber. The Watkins railway extending to the
+N.E. and the Kansas City Southern extending to the N.W. have opened up
+the very best of the forest. The country to the S. and W. is largely
+given over to rice culture. Lake Charles is the chief centre of lumber
+manufacture in the state, and has rice mills, car shops and an important
+trade in wool. Ten miles W. are sulphur mines (product in 1907 about
+362,000 tons), which with those of Sicily produce a large part of the
+total product of the world. Jennings, about 34 m. to the E., is the
+centre of oil fields, once very productive but now of diminishing
+importance. Welsh, 23 m. E., is the centre of a newer field; and others
+lie to the N. Lake Charles was settled about 1852, largely by people
+from Iowa and neighbouring states, was incorporated as a town in 1857
+under the name of Charleston and again in 1867 under its present name,
+and was chartered as a city in 1886. The city suffered severely by fire
+in April 1910.
+
+
+
+
+LAKE CITY, a town and the county-seat of Columbia county, Florida,
+U.S.A., 59 m. by rail W. by S. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1900) 4013, of
+whom 2159 were negroes; (1905) 6509; (1910) 5032. Lake City is served by
+the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and the Georgia Southern
+& Florida railways. There are ten small lakes in the neighbourhood, and
+the town is a winter and health resort. It is the seat of Columbia
+College (Baptist, 1907); the Florida Agricultural College was opened
+here in 1883, became the university of Florida in 1903, and in 1905 was
+abolished by the Buckman Law. Vegetables and fruits grown for the
+northern markets, sea-island cotton and tobacco are important products
+of the surrounding country, and Lake City has some trade in cotton,
+lumber, phosphates and turpentine. The town was first settled about 1826
+as Alligator; it was incorporated in 1854; adopted the present name in
+1859; and in 1901, with an enlarged area, was re-incorporated.
+
+
+
+
+LAKE DISTRICT, in England, a district containing all the principal
+English lakes, and variously termed the Lake Country, Lakeland and "the
+Lakes." It falls within the north-western counties of Cumberland,
+Westmorland and Lancashire (Furness district), about one-half being
+within the first of these. Although celebrated far outside the confines
+of Great Britain as a district of remarkable and strongly individual
+physical beauty, its area is only some 700 sq. m., a circle with radius
+of 15 m. from the central point covering practically the whole. Within
+this circle, besides the largest lake, Windermere, is the highest point
+in England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but 10½ m. in length, and
+covers an area of 5.69 sq. m., while Scafell Pike is only 3210 ft. in
+height. But the lakes show a wonderful variety of character, from open
+expanse and steep rock-bound shores to picturesque island-groups and
+soft wooded banks; while the mountains have always a remarkable dignity,
+less from the profile of their summits than from the bold sweeping lines
+of their flanks, unbroken by vegetation, and often culminating in sheer
+cliffs or crags. At their feet, the flat green valley floors of the
+higher elevations give place in the lower parts to lovely woods. The
+streams are swift and clear, and numerous small waterfalls are
+characteristic of the district. To the north, west and south, a flat
+coastal belt, bordering the Irish Sea, with its inlets Morecambe Bay and
+Solway Firth, and broadest in the north, marks off the Lake District,
+while to the east the valleys of the Eden and the Lune divide it from
+the Pennine mountain system. Geologically, too, it is individual. Its
+centre is of volcanic rocks, complex in character, while the
+Coal-measures and New Red Sandstone appear round the edges. The district
+as a whole is grooved by a main depression, running from north to south
+along the valleys of St John, Thirlmere, Grasmere and Windermere,
+surmounting a pass (Dunmail Raise) of only 783 ft.; while a secondary
+depression, in the same direction, runs along Derwentwater, Borrowdale,
+Wasdale and Wastwater, but here Sty Head Pass, between Borrowdale and
+Wasdale, rises to 1600 ft. The centre of the 15-m. radius lies on the
+lesser heights between Langstrath and Dunmail Raise, which may, however,
+be the crown of an ancient dome of rocks, "the dissected skeleton of
+which, worn by the warfare of air and rain and ice, now alone remains"
+(Dr H. R. Mill, "Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes,"
+_Geographical Journal_, vi. 48). The principal features of the district
+may be indicated by following this circle round from north, by west,
+south and east.
+
+ The river Derwent (q.v.), rising in the tarns and "gills" or "ghylls"
+ (small streams running in deeply-grooved clefts) north of Sty Head
+ Pass and the Scafell mass flows north through the wooded Borrowdale
+ and forms Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite. These two lakes are in a
+ class apart from all the rest, being broader for their length, and
+ quite shallow (about 18 ft. average and 70 ft. maximum), as distinct
+ from the long, narrow and deep troughs occupied by the other chief
+ lakes, which average from 40 to 135 ft. deep. Derwentwater (q.v.),
+ studded with many islands, is perhaps the most beautiful of all.
+ Borrowdale is joined on the east by the bare wild dale of Langstrath,
+ and the Greta joins the Derwent immediately below Derwentwater; the
+ town of Keswick lying near the junction. Derwentwater and
+ Bassenthwaite occupy a single depression, a flat alluvial plain
+ separating them. From Seatoller in Borrowdale a road traverses
+ Honister Pass (1100 ft.), whence it descends westward, beneath the
+ majestic Honister Crags, where green slate is quarried, into the
+ valley containing Buttermere (94 ft. max. depth) and Crummock Water
+ (144 ft.), drained by the Cocker. Between this and the Derwent valley
+ the principal height is Grasmoor (2791 ft.); southward a steep narrow
+ ridge (High Style, 2643) divides it from Ennerdale, containing
+ Ennerdale Water (148 ft. max. depth), which is fed by the Liza and
+ drained by the Ehen. A splendid range separates this dale from Wasdale
+ and its tributary Mosedale, including Great Gable (2949 ft.), Pillar
+ (2927), with the precipitous Pillar Rock on the Ennerdale flank and
+ Steeple (2746). Wasdale Head, between Gable and the Scafell range, is
+ peculiarly grand, with dark grey screes and black crags frowning above
+ its narrow bottom. On this side of Gable is the fine detached rock,
+ Napes Needle. Wastwater, 3 m. in length, is the deepest lake of all
+ (258 ft.), its floor, like those of Windermere and Ullswater, sinking
+ below sea-level. Its east shore consists of a great range of screes.
+ East of Wasdale lies the range of Scafell (q.v.), its chief points
+ being Scafell (3162 ft.), Scafell Pike (3210), Lingmell (2649) and
+ Great End (2984), while the line is continued over Esk Hause Pass
+ (2490) along a fine line of heights (Bow Fell, 2960; Crinkle Crags,
+ 2816), to embrace the head of Eskdale. The line then descends to
+ Wrynose Pass (1270 ft.), from which the Duddon runs south through a
+ vale of peculiar richness in its lower parts; while the range
+ continues south to culminate in the Old Man of Coniston (2633) with
+ the splendid Dow Crags above Goats Water. The pleasant vale of Yewdale
+ drains south to Coniston Lake (5½ m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), east
+ of which a lower, well-wooded tract, containing two beautiful lesser
+ lakes, Tarn Hows and Esthwaite Water, extends to Windermere (q.v.).
+ This lake collects waters by the Brathay from Langdale, the head of
+ which, between Bow Fell and Langdale Pikes (2401 ft.), is very fine;
+ and by the Rothay from Dunmail Raise and the small lakes of Grasmere
+ and Rydal Water, embowered in woods. East of the Rothay valley and
+ Thirlmere lies the mountain mass including Helvellyn (3118 ft.),
+ Fairfield (2863) and other points, with magnificent crags at several
+ places on the eastern side towards Grisedale and Patterdale. These
+ dales drain to Ullswater (205 ft. max., second to Windermere in area),
+ and so north-east to the Eden. To the east and south-east lies the
+ ridge named High Street (2663 ft.), from the Roman road still
+ traceable from south to north along its summit, and sloping east again
+ to the sequestered Hawes Water (103 ft. max.), a curiously shaped lake
+ nearly divided by the delta of the Measand Beck. There remains the
+ Thirlmere valley. Thirlmere itself was raised in level, and adapted by
+ means of a dam at the north end, as a reservoir for the water-supply
+ of Manchester in 1890-1894. It drains north by St John's Vale into the
+ Greta, north of which again rises a mountain-group of which the chief
+ summits are Saddleback or Blencathra (2847 ft.) and the graceful peak
+ of Skiddaw (3054). The most noteworthy waterfalls are--Scale Force
+ (Dano-Norwegian _fors_, _foss_), beside Crummock, Lodore near
+ Derwentwater, Dungeon Gill Force, beside Langdale, Dalegarth Force in
+ Eskdale, Aira near Ullswater, sung by Wordsworth, Stock Gill Force and
+ Rydal Falls near Ambleside.
+
+ The principal centres in the Lake District are Keswick (Derwentwater),
+ Ambleside, Bowness, Windermere and Lakeside (Windermere), Coniston and
+ Boot (Eskdale), all of which, except Ambleside and Bowness (which
+ nearly joins Windermere) are accessible by rail. The considerable
+ village of Grasmere lies beautifully at the head of the lake of that
+ name; and above Esthwaite is the small town of Hawkshead, with an
+ ancient church, and picturesque houses curiously built on the
+ hill-slope and sometimes spanning the streets. There are regular
+ steamer services on Windermere and Ullswater. Coaches and cars
+ traverse the main roads during the summer, but many of the finest
+ dales and passes are accessible only on foot or by ponies. All the
+ mountains offer easy routes to pedestrians, but some of them, as
+ Scafell, Pillar, Gable (Napes Needle), Pavey Ark above Langdale and
+ Dow Crags near Coniston, also afford ascents for experienced climbers.
+
+ This mountainous district, having the sea to the west, records an
+ unusually heavy rainfall. Near Seathwaite, below Styhead Pass, the
+ largest annual rainfall in the British Isles is recorded, the average
+ (1870-1899) being 133.53 in., while 173.7 was measured in 1903 and
+ 243.98 in. in 1872. At Keswick the annual mean is 60.02, at Grasmere
+ about 80 ins. The months of maximum rainfall at Seathwaite are
+ November, December and January and September.
+
+ Fish taken in the lakes include perch, pike, char and trout in
+ Windermere, Ennerdale, Bassenthwaite, Derwentwater, &c., and the
+ gwyniad or fresh-water herring in Ullswater. The industries of the
+ Lake District include slate quarrying and some lead and zinc mining,
+ and weaving, bobbin-making and pencil-making.
+
+ Setting aside London and Edinburgh, no locality in the British Isles
+ is so intimately associated with the history of English literature as
+ the Lake District. In point of time the poet whose name is first
+ connected with the region is Gray, who wrote a journal of his tour in
+ 1769. But it was Wordsworth, a native of Cumberland, born on the
+ outskirts of the Lake District itself, who really made it a Mecca for
+ lovers of English poetry. Out of his long life of eighty years, sixty
+ were spent amid its lakes and mountains, first as a schoolboy at
+ Hawkshead, and afterwards as a resident at Grasmere (1799-1813) and
+ Rydal Mount (1813-1850). In the churchyard of Grasmere the poet and
+ his wife lie buried; and very near to them are the remains of Hartley
+ Coleridge (son of the poet), who himself lived many years at Keswick,
+ Ambleside and Grasmere. Southey, the friend of Wordsworth, was a
+ resident of Keswick for forty years (1803-1843), and was buried in
+ Crosthwaite churchyard. Samuel Taylor Coleridge lived some time at
+ Keswick, and also with the Wordsworths at Grasmere. From 1807 to 1815
+ Christopher North (John Wilson) was settled at Windermere. De Quincey
+ spent the greater part of the years 1809 to 1828 at Grasmere, in the
+ first cottage which Wordsworth had inhabited. Ambleside, or its
+ environs, was also the place of residence of Dr Arnold (of Rugby), who
+ spent there the vacations of the last ten years of his life; and of
+ Harriet Martineau, who built herself a house there in 1845. At Keswick
+ Mrs Lynn Linton was born in 1822. Brantwood, a house beside Coniston
+ Lake, was the home of Ruskin during the last years of his life. In
+ addition to these residents or natives of the locality, Shelley,
+ Scott, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Clough, Crabb Robinson, Carlyle, Keats,
+ Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, Mrs Hemans, Gerald Massey and others of less
+ reputation made longer or shorter visits, or were bound by ties of
+ friendship with the poets already mentioned. The Vale of St John, near
+ Keswick, recalls Scott's _Bridal of Triermain_. But there is a deeper
+ connexion than this between the Lake District and English letters.
+ German literature tells of several literary schools, or groups of
+ writers animated by the same ideas, and working in the spirit of the
+ same principles and by the same poetic methods. The most notable
+ instance--indeed it is almost the only instance--of the kind in
+ English literature is the Lake School of Poets. Of this school the
+ acknowledged head and founder was Wordsworth, and the tenets it
+ professed are those laid down by the poet himself in the famous
+ preface to the edition of _The Lyrical Ballads_ which he published in
+ 1800. Wordsworth's theories of poetry--the objects best suited for
+ poetic treatment, the characteristics of such treatment and the choice
+ of diction suitable for the purpose--may be said to have grown out of
+ the soil and substance of the lakes and mountains, and out of the
+ homely lives of the people, of Cumberland and Westmoreland.
+
+ See CUMBERLAND, LANCASHIRE, WESTMORLAND. The following is a selection
+ from the literature of the subject: Harriet Martineau, _The English
+ Lakes_ (Windermere, 1858); Mrs Lynn Linton, _The Lake Country_
+ (London, 1864); E. Waugh, _Rambles in the Lake Country_ (1861) and _In
+ the Lake Country_ (1880); W. Knight, _Through the Wordsworth Country_
+ (London, 1890); H. D. Rawnsley, _Literary Associations of the English
+ Lakes_ (2 vols., Glasgow, 1894) and _Life and Nature of the English
+ Lakes_ (Glasgow, 1899); Stopford Brooke, _Dove Cottage, Wordsworth's
+ Home from 1800 to 1808_; A. G. Bradley, _The Lake District, its
+ Highways and Byeways_ (London, 1901); Sir John Harwood, _History of
+ the Thirlmere Water Scheme_ (1895); for mountain-climbing, Col. J.
+ Brown, _Mountain Ascents in Westmorland and Cumberland_ (London,
+ 1888); Haskett-Smith, _Climbing in the British Isles_, part, i.; Owen
+ G. Jones, _Rock-climbing in the English Lake District_, 2nd ed. by W.
+ M. Crook (Keswick, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+LAKE DWELLINGS, the term employed in archaeology for habitations
+constructed, not on the dry land, but within the margins of lakes or
+creeks at some distance from the shore.
+
+The villages of the Guajiros in the Gulf of Maracaibo are described by
+Goering as composed of houses with low sloping roofs perched on lofty
+piles and connected with each other by bridges of planks. Each house
+consisted of two apartments; the floor was formed of split stems of
+trees set close together and covered with mats; they were reached from
+the shore by dug-out canoes poled over the shallow waters, and a notched
+tree trunk served as a ladder. The custom is also common in the
+estuaries of the Orinoco and Amazon. A similar system prevails in New
+Guinea. Dumont d'Urville describes four such villages in the Bay of
+Dorei, containing from eight to fifteen blocks or clusters of houses,
+each block separately built on piles, and consisting of a row of
+distinct dwellings. C. D. Cameron describes three villages thus built on
+piles in Lake Mohrya, or Moria, in Central Africa, the motive here being
+to prevent surprise by bands of slave-catchers. Similar constructions
+have been described by travellers, among the Dyaks of Borneo, in
+Celebes, in the Caroline Islands, on the Gold Coast of Africa, and in
+other places.
+
+Hippocrates, writing in the 5th century B.C., says of the people of the
+Phasis that their country is hot and marshy and subject to frequent
+inundations, and that they live in houses of timber and reeds
+constructed in the midst of the waters, and use boats of a single tree
+trunk. Herodotus, writing also in the 5th century B.C., describes the
+people of Lake Prasias as living in houses constructed on platforms
+supported on piles in the middle of the lake, which are approached from
+the land by a single narrow bridge. Abulfeda the geographer, writing in
+the 13th century, notices the fact that part of the Apamaean Lake was
+inhabited by Christian fishermen who lived on the lake in wooden huts
+built on piles, and Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) mentions that the
+Rumelian fishermen on Lake Prasias "still inhabit wooden cottages built
+over the water, as in the time of Herodotus."
+
+The records of the wars in Ireland in the 16th century show that the
+petty chieftains of that time had their defensive strongholds
+constructed in the "freshwater lochs" of the country, and there is
+record evidence of a similar system in the western parts of Scotland.
+The archaeological researches of the past fifty years have shown that
+such artificial constructions in lakes were used as defensive dwellings
+by the Celtic people from an early period to medieval times (see
+CRANNOG). Similar researches have also established the fact that in
+prehistoric times nearly all the lakes of Switzerland, and many in the
+adjoining countries--in Savoy and the north of Italy, in Austria and
+Hungary and in Mecklenburg and Pomerania--were peopled, so to speak, by
+lake-dwelling communities, living in villages constructed on platforms
+supported by piles at varying distances from the shores. The principal
+groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget, Geneva, Neuchâtel, Bienne,
+Zürich and Constance lying to the north of the Alps, and in the Lakes
+Maggiore, Varese, Iseo and Garda lying to the south of that mountain
+range. Many smaller lakes, however, contain them, and they are also
+found in peat moors on the sites of ancient lakes now drained or silted
+up, as at Laibach in Carniola. In some of the larger lakes the number of
+settlements has been very great. Fifty are enumerated in the Lake of
+Neuchâtel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four in the Lake
+of Geneva, and twenty in the Lake of Bienne. The site of the lake
+dwelling of Wangen, in the Untersee, Lake of Constance, forms a
+parallelogram more than 700 paces in length by about 120 paces in
+breadth. The settlement at Morges, one of the largest in the Lake of
+Geneva, is 1200 ft. long by 150 ft. in breadth. The settlement of Sutz,
+one of the largest in the Lake of Bienne, extends over six acres, and
+was connected with the shore by a gangway nearly 100 yds. long and about
+40 ft. wide.
+
+The substructure which supported the platforms on which the dwellings
+were placed was most frequently of piles driven into the bottom of the
+lake. Less frequently it consisted of a stack of brushwood or fascines
+built up from the bottom and strengthened by stakes penetrating the mass
+so as to keep it from spreading. When piles were used they were the
+rough stems of trees of a length proportioned to the depth of the water,
+sharpened sometimes by fire and at other times chopped to a point by
+hatchets. On their level tops the beams supporting the platforms were
+laid and fastened by wooden pins, or inserted in mortices cut in the
+heads of the piles. In some cases the whole construction was further
+steadied and strengthened by cross beams, notched into the piles below
+the supports of the platform. The platform itself was usually composed
+of rough layers of unbarked stems, but occasionally it was formed of
+boards split from larger stems. When the mud was too soft to afford
+foothold for the piles they were mortised into a framework of tree
+trunks placed horizontally on the bottom of the lake. On the other hand,
+when the bottom was rocky so that the piles could not be driven, they
+were steadied at their bases by being enveloped in a mound of loose
+stones, in the manner in which the foundations of piers and breakwaters
+are now constructed. In cases where piles have not been used, as at
+Niederwil and Wauwyl, the substructure is a mass of fascines or faggots
+laid parallel and crosswise upon one another with intervening layers of
+brushwood or of clay and gravel, a few piles here and there being fixed
+throughout the mass to serve as guides or stays. At Niederwil the
+platform was formed of split boards, many of which were 2 ft. broad and
+2 or 3 in. in thickness.
+
+On these substructures were the huts composing the settlement; for the
+peculiarity of these lake dwellings is that they were pile villages, or
+clusters of huts occupying a common platform. The huts themselves were
+quadrilateral in form. The size of each dwelling is in some cases marked
+by boards resting edgeways on the platform, like the skirting boards
+over the flooring of the rooms in a modern house. The walls, which were
+supported by posts, or by piles of greater length, were formed of
+wattle-work, coated with clay. The floors were of clay, and in each
+floor there was a hearth constructed of flat slabs of stone. The roofs
+were thatched with bark, straw, reeds or rushes. As the superstructures
+are mostly gone, there is no evidence as to the position and form of the
+doorways, or the size, number and position of the windows, if there were
+any. In one case, at Schussenried, the house, which was of an oblong
+quadrangular form, about 33 by 23 ft., was divided into two rooms by a
+partition. The outer room, which was the smaller of the two, was entered
+by a doorway 3 ft. in width facing the south. The access to the inner
+room was by a similar door through the partition. The walls were formed
+of split tree-trunks set upright and plastered with clay; and the
+flooring of similar timbers bedded in clay. In other cases the remains
+of the gangways or bridges connecting the settlements with the shore
+have been discovered, but often the village appears to have been
+accessible only by canoes. Several of these single-tree canoes have been
+found, one of which is 43 ft. in length and 4 ft. 4 in. in its greatest
+width. It is impossible to estimate with any degree of certainty the
+number of separate dwellings of which any of these villages may have
+consisted, but at Niederwil they stood almost contiguously on the
+platform, the space between them not exceeding 3 ft. in width. The size
+of the huts also varied considerably. At Niederwil they were 20 ft. long
+and 12 ft. wide, while at Robenhausen they were about 27 ft. long by
+about 22 ft. wide.
+
+The character of the relics shows that in some cases the settlements
+have been the dwellings of a people using no materials but stone, bone
+and wood for their implements, ornaments and weapons; in others, of a
+people using bronze as well as stone and bone; and in others again the
+occasional use of iron is disclosed. But, though the character of the
+relics is thus changed, there is no corresponding change in the
+construction and arrangements of the dwellings. The settlement in the
+Lake of Moosseedorf, near Bern, affords the most perfect example of a
+lake dwelling of the Stone age. It was a parallelogram 70 ft. long by 50
+ft. wide, supported on piles, and having a gangway built on faggots
+connecting it with the land. The superstructure had been destroyed by
+fire. The implements found in the relic bed under it were axe-heads of
+stone, with their haftings of stag's horn and wood; a flint saw, set in
+a handle of fir wood and fastened with asphalt; flint flakes and
+arrow-heads; harpoons of stag's horn with barbs; awls, needles, chisels,
+fish-hooks and other implements of bone; a comb of yew wood 5 in. long;
+and a skate made out of the leg bone of a horse. The pottery consisted
+chiefly of roughly-made vessels, some of which were of large size,
+others had holes under the rims for suspension, and many were covered
+with soot, the result of their use as culinary vessels. Burnt wheat,
+barley and linseed, with many varieties of seeds and fruits, were
+plentifully mingled with the bones of the stag, the ox, the swine, the
+sheep and the goat, representing the ordinary food of the inhabitants,
+while remains of the beaver, the fox, the hare, the dog, the bear, the
+horse, the elk and the bison were also found.
+
+The settlement of Robenhausen, in the moor which was formerly the bed of
+the ancient Lake of Pfäffikon, seems to have continued in occupation
+after the introduction of bronze. The site covers nearly 3 acres, and is
+estimated to have contained 100,000 piles. In some parts three distinct
+successions of inhabited platforms have been traced. The first had been
+destroyed by fire. It is represented at the bottom of the lake by a
+layer of charcoal mixed with implements of stone and bone and other
+relics highly carbonized. The second is represented above the bottom by
+a series of piles with burnt heads, and in the bottom by a layer of
+charcoal mixed with corn, apples, cloth, bones, pottery and implements
+of stone and bone, separated from the first layer of charcoal by 3 ft.
+of peaty sediment intermixed with relics of the occupation of the
+platform. The piles of the third settlement do not reach down to the
+shell marl, but are fixed in the layers representing the first and
+second settlements. They are formed of split oak trunks, while those of
+the two first settlements are round stems chiefly of soft wood. The huts
+of this last settlement appear to have had cattle stalls between them,
+the droppings and litter forming heaps at the lake bottom. The bones of
+the animals consumed as food at this station were found in such numbers
+that 5 tons were collected in the construction of a watercourse which
+crossed the site. Among the wooden objects recovered from the relic beds
+were tubs, plates, ladles and spoons, a flail for threshing corn, a last
+for stretching shoes of hide, celt handles, clubs, long-bows of yew,
+floats and implements of fishing and a dug-out canoe 12 ft. long. No
+spindle-whorls were found, but there were many varieties of cloth,
+platted and woven, bundles of yarn and balls of string. Among the tools
+of bone and stag's horn were awls, needles, harpoons, scraping tools and
+haftings for stone axe-heads. The implements of stone were chiefly
+axe-heads and arrow-heads. Of clay and earthenware there were many
+varieties of domestic dishes, cups and pipkins, and crucibles or melting
+pots made of clay and horse dung and still retaining the drossy coating
+of the melted bronze.
+
+The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchâtel is one of the
+richest and most considerable stations of the Bronze age. It has yielded
+four bronze swords, ten socketed spear-heads, forty celts or axe-heads
+and sickles, fifty knives, twenty socketed chisels, four hammers and an
+anvil, sixty rings for the arms and legs, several highly ornate torques
+or twisted neck rings, and upwards of two hundred hair pins of various
+sizes up to 16 in. in length, some having spherical heads in which
+plates of gold were set. Moulds for sickles, lance-heads and bracelets
+were found cut in stone or made in baked clay. From four to five hundred
+vessels of pottery finely made and elegantly shaped are indicated by the
+fragments recovered from the relic bed. The Lac de Bourget, in Savoy,
+has eight settlements, all of the Bronze age. These have yielded upwards
+of 4000 implements, weapons and ornaments of bronze, among which were a
+large proportion of moulds and founders' materials. A few stone
+implements suggest the transition from stone to bronze; and the
+occasional occurrence of iron weapons and pottery of Gallo-Roman origin
+indicates the survival of some of the settlements to Roman times.
+
+The relative antiquity of the earlier settlements of the Stone and
+Bronze ages is not capable of being deduced from existing evidence. "We
+may venture to place them," says Dr F. Keller, "in an age when iron and
+bronze had been long known, but had not come into our districts in such
+plenty as to be used for the common purposes of household life, at a
+time when amber had already taken its place as an ornament and had
+become an object of traffic." It is now considered that the people who
+erected the lake dwellings of Central Europe were also the people who
+were spread over the mainland. The forms and the ornamentation of the
+implements and weapons of stone and bronze found in the lake dwellings
+are the same as those of the implements and weapons in these materials
+found in the soil of the adjacent regions, and both groups must
+therefore be ascribed to the industry of one and the same people.
+Whether dwelling on the land or dwelling in the lake, they have
+exhibited so many indications of capacity, intelligence, industry and
+social organization that they cannot be considered as presenting, even
+in their Stone age, a very low condition of culture or civilization.
+Their axes were made of tough stones, sawn from the block and ground to
+the fitting shape. They were fixed by the butt in a socket of stag's
+horn, mortised into a handle of wood. Their knives and saws of flint
+were mounted in wooden handles and fixed with asphalt. They made and
+used an endless variety of bone tools. Their pottery, though roughly
+finished, is well made, the vessels often of large size and capable of
+standing the fire as cooking utensils. For domestic dishes they also
+made wooden tubs, plates, spoons, ladles and the like. The industries of
+spinning and weaving were largely practised. They made nets and fishing
+lines, and used canoes. They practised agriculture, cultivating several
+varieties of wheat and barley, besides millet and flax. They kept
+horses, cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Their clothing was partly of
+linen and partly of woollen fabrics and the skins of their beasts. Their
+food was nutritious and varied, their dwellings neither unhealthy nor
+incommodious. They lived in the security and comfort obtained by social
+organization, and were apparently intelligent, industrious and
+progressive communities.
+
+There is no indication of an abrupt change from the use of stone to the
+use of metal such as might have occurred had the knowledge of copper and
+bronze, and the methods of working them, been introduced through the
+conquest of the original inhabitants by an alien race of superior
+culture and civilization. The improved cultural conditions become
+apparent in the multiplication of the varieties of tools, weapons and
+ornaments made possible by the more adaptable qualities of the new
+material; and that the development of the Bronze age culture in the lake
+dwellings followed the same course as in the surrounding regions where
+the people dwelt on the dry land is evident from the correspondence of
+the types of implements, weapons, ornaments and utensils common to both
+these conditions of life.
+
+Other classes of prehistoric pile-structures akin to the lake dwellings
+are the Terremare of Italy and the Terpen of Holland. Both of these are
+settlements of wooden huts erected on piles, not over the water, but on
+flat land subject to inundations. The terremare (so named from the marly
+soil of which they are composed) appear as mounds, sometimes of very
+considerable extent, which when dug into disclose the remains and relic
+beds of the ancient settlements. They are most abundant in the plains of
+northern Italy traversed by the Po and its tributaries, though similar
+constructions have been found in Hungary in the valley of the Theiss.
+These pile-villages were often surrounded by an earthen rampart within
+which the huts were erected in more or less regular order. Many of them
+present evidence of having been more than once destroyed by fire and
+reconstructed, while others show one or more reconstructions at higher
+levels on the same site. The contents of the relic beds indicate that
+they belong for the most part to the age of bronze, although in some
+cases they may be referred to the latter part of the Stone age. Their
+inhabitants practised agriculture and kept the common domestic animals,
+while their tools, weapons and ornaments were mainly of similar
+character to those of the contemporary lake dwellers of the adjoining
+regions. Some of the Italian terremare show quadrangular constructions
+made like the modern log houses, of undressed tree trunks superposed
+longitudinally and overlapping at the ends, as at Castione in the
+province of Parma. A similar mode of construction is found in the
+pile-village on the banks of the Save, near Donja Dolina in Bosnia,
+described in 1904 by Dr Truhelka. Here the larger houses had platforms
+in front of them forming terraces at different levels descending towards
+the river. There was a cemetery adjacent to the village in which both
+unburnt and cremated interments occurred, the former predominating. From
+the general character of the relics this settlement appeared to belong
+to the early Iron age. The Terpen of Holland appear as mounds somewhat
+similar to those of the terremare, and were also pile structures, on low
+or marshy lands subject to inundations from the sea. Unlike the
+terremare and the lake dwellings they do not seem to belong to the
+prehistoric ages, but yield indications of occupation in post-Roman and
+medieval times.
+
+ AUTHORITIES.--The materials for the investigation of this singular
+ phase of prehistoric life were first collected and systematized by Dr
+ Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zürich, and printed in _Mittheilungen
+ der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zürich_, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to
+ (1855-1886). The substance of these reports has been issued as a
+ separate work in England, _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other
+ parts of Europe_, by Dr Ferdinand Keller, translated and arranged by
+ John Edward Lee, 2nd ed. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1878). Other works on
+ the same subject are Frédéric Troyon, _Habitations lacustres des temps
+ anciens et modernes_ (Lausanne, 1860); E. Desor, _Les Palafittes ou
+ constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchâtel_ (Paris, 1865); E. Desor
+ and L. Favre, _Le Bel Âge du bronze lacustre en Suisse_ (Paris, 1874);
+ A. Perrin, _Étude préhistorique sur la Savoie spécialement à l'époque
+ lacustre_ (_Les Palafittes du lac de Bourget_, Paris, 1870); Ernest
+ Chantre, _Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Paladru_
+ (Chambery, 1871); Bartolomeo Gastaldi, _Lake Habitations and
+ prehistoric Remains in the Turbaries and Marl-beds of Northern and
+ Central Italy_, translated by C. H. Chambers (London, 1865); Sir John
+ Lubbock (Lord Avebury), _Prehistoric Times_ (4th ed., London, 1878);
+ Robert Munro, _The Lake-Dwellings of Europe_ (London, 1890), with a
+ bibliography of the subject. (J. An.)
+
+
+
+
+LAKE GENEVA, a city of Walworth county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of
+Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom 468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449;
+(1910) 3079. It is served by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The
+city is picturesquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long
+and 1½ to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by
+springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick groves of
+hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer resort, particularly
+for Chicago people. The city is the seat of Oakwood Sanitarium, and at
+Williams Bay, 6 m. distant, is the Yerkes Observatory of the University
+of Chicago. Dairying is the most important industrial interest. The
+first settlement on Lake Geneva was made about 1833. The city was
+chartered in 1893.
+
+
+
+
+LAKE OF THE WOODS, a lake in the south-west of the province of Ontario,
+Canada, bordering west on the province of Manitoba, and south on the
+state of Minnesota. It is of extremely irregular shape, and contains
+many islands. Its length is 70 m., breadth 10 to 50 m., area 1500 sq. m.
+It lies in the centre of the Laurentian region between Lakes Winnipeg
+and Superior, and an area of 36,000 sq. m. drains to it. It collects the
+waters of many rivers, the chief being Rainy river from the east,
+draining Rainy Lake. By the Winnipeg river on the north-east it
+discharges into Lake Winnipeg. At its source Winnipeg river is 1057 ft.
+above the sea, and drops 347 ft. in its course of 165 m. The scenery
+both on and around the lake is exceedingly beautiful, and the islands
+are largely occupied by the summer residences of city merchants. Kenora,
+a flourishing town at the source of the Winnipeg river, is the centre of
+the numerous lumbering and mining enterprises of the vicinity.
+
+
+
+
+LAKE PLACID, a village in Essex county, New York, U.S.A., on the W.
+shore of Mirror Lake, near the S. end of Lake Placid, about 42 m. N.W.
+of Ticonderoga. Pop. (1905) 1514; (1910) 1682. The village is served by
+the Delaware & Hudson railway. The region is one of the most attractive
+in the Adirondacks, and is a much frequented summer resort. There are
+four good golf courses here, and the village has a well-built club
+house, called the "Neighborhood House." The village lies on the narrow
+strip of land (about 1/3 m.) between Mirror Lake (about 1 m. long, N.
+and S., and 1/3 m. wide), and Lake Placid, about 5 m. long (N.N.E. by
+S.S.W.), and about 1½ m. (maximum) broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. The
+lake is roughly divided, from N. to S. by three islands--Moose, the
+largest, and Hawk, both privately owned, and Buck--and is a beautiful
+sheet of water in a picturesque setting of forests and heavily wooded
+hills and mountains. Among the principal peaks in the vicinity are
+Whiteface Mountain (4871 ft.), about 3 m. N.W. of the N. end of the
+lake; McKenzie Mountain (3872 ft.), about 1 m. to the W., and Pulpit
+Mountain (2658 ft.), on the E. shore. The summit of Whiteface Mountain
+commands a fine view, with Gothic (4738 ft.), Saddleback (4530 ft.),
+Basin (4825 ft.), Marcy (5344 ft.), and McIntyre (5210 ft.) mountains
+about 10 m. to the S. and Lake Champlain to the E., and to the N.E. may
+be seen, on clear days, the spires of Montreal. In the valleys E. and S.
+are the headwaters of the famous Ausable river. About 2 m. E. of the
+village, at North Elba, is the grave of the abolitionist, John Brown,
+with its huge boulder monument, and near it is another monument which
+bears the names of the 20 persons who bought the John Brown farm and
+gave it to the state. The railway to the village was completed in 1893.
+The village was incorporated in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+LAKEWOOD, a village of Ocean county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the township
+of Lakewood, 59 m. S. by W. of New York city, and 8 m. from the coast,
+on the Central Railroad of New Jersey. Pop. (1900) of the township,
+including the village, 3094; (1905) 4265; (1910) 5149. Lakewood is a
+fashionable health and winter resort, and is situated in the midst of a
+pine forest, with two small lakes, and many charming walks and drives.
+In the village there are a number of fine residences, large hotels, a
+library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12° F. warmer than
+in New York. The township of Lakewood was incorporated in 1892.
+
+
+
+
+LAKH (from the Sans. _laksha_, one hundred thousand), a term used in
+British India, in a colloquial sense to signify a lakh of rupees
+(written 1,00,000), which at the face value of the rupee would be worth
+£10,000, but now is worth only £6666. The term is also largely used in
+trade returns. A hundred lakhs make a crore.
+
+
+
+
+LAKHIMPUR, a district of British India in the extreme east of the
+province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 4529 sq. m. It lies along
+both banks of the Brahmaputra for about 400 m.; it is bounded N. by the
+Daphla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills, E. by the Mishmi and Kachin hills,
+S. by the watershed of the Patkai range and the Lohit branch of the
+Brahmaputra, and W. by the districts of Darrang and Sibsagar. The
+Brahmaputra is navigable for steamers in all seasons as far as
+Dibrugarh, in the rainy season as far as Sadiya; its navigable
+tributaries within the district are the Subansiri, Dibru and Dihing. The
+deputy-commissioner in charge exercises political control over numerous
+tribes beyond the inner surveyed border. The most important of these
+tribes are the Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis, Kachins and Nagas. In
+1901 the population was 371,396, an increase of 46% in the decade. The
+district has enjoyed remarkable and continuous prosperity. At each
+successive census the percentage of increase has been over 40, the
+present population being more than three times as great as that of 1872.
+This increase is chiefly due to the numerous tea gardens and to the coal
+mines and other enterprises of the Assam Railways and Trading Company.
+Lakhimpur was the first district into which tea cultivation was
+introduced by the government, and the Assam Company began operations
+here in 1840. The railway, known as the Dibru-Sadiya line, runs from
+Dibrugarh to Makum, with two branches to Talap and Margherita, and has
+been connected across the hills with the Assam-Bengal railway. The coal
+is of excellent quality, and is exported by river as far as Calcutta.
+The chief oil-wells are at Digboi. The oil is refined at Margherita,
+producing a good quality of kerosene oil and first-class paraffin, with
+wax and other by-products. The company also manufactures bricks and
+pipes of various kinds. Another industry is cutting timber, for the
+manufacture of tea-chests, &c.
+
+ Lakhimpur figures largely in the annals of Assam as the region where
+ successive invaders from the east first reached the Brahmaputra. The
+ Bara Bhuiyas, originally from the western provinces of India, were
+ driven out by the Chutias (a Shan race), and these in their turn gave
+ place to their more powerful brethren, the Ahoms, in the 13th century.
+ The Burmese, who had ruined the native kingdoms, at the end of the
+ 18th century, were in 1825 expelled by the British, who placed the
+ southern part of the country, together with Sibsagar under the rule of
+ Raja Purandhar Singh; but it was not till 1838 that the whole was
+ taken under direct British administration. The headquarters are at
+ Dibrugarh.
+
+ See _Lakhimpur District Gazetteer_ (Calcutta, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+LAKSHMI (Sans. for "mark," "sign," generally used in composition with
+_punya_, "prosperous"; hence "good sign," "good fortune"), in Hindu
+mythology, the wife of Vishnu worshipped as the goddess of love, beauty
+and prosperity. She has many other names, the chief being _Loka mata_
+("mother of the world"), _Padma_ ("the lotus"), _Padma laya_ ("she who
+dwells on a lotus") and _Jaladhija_ ("the ocean-born"). She is
+represented as of a bright golden colour and seated on a lotus. She is
+said to have been born from the sea of milk when it was churned from
+ambrosia. Many quaint myths surround her birth. In the Rig Veda her name
+does not occur as a goddess.
+
+
+
+
+LALAING, JACQUES DE (c. 1420-1453), Flemish knight, was originally in
+the service of the duke of Cleves and afterwards in that of the duke of
+Burgundy, Philip III., the Good, gaining great renown by his prowess in
+the tiltyard. The duke of Burgundy entrusted him with embassies to the
+pope and the king of France (1451), and subsequently sent him to put
+down the revolt of the inhabitants of Ghent, in which expedition he was
+killed. His biography, _Le Livre des faits de messire Jacques de
+Lalaing_, which has been published several times, is mainly the work of
+the Burgundian herald and chronicler Jean le Fèvre, better known as
+_Toison d'or_; the Flemish historiographer Georges Chastellain and the
+herald Charolais also took part in its compilation.
+
+
+
+
+LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE (1732-1807), French astronomer, was
+born at Bourg (department of Ain), on the 11th of July 1732. His parents
+sent him to Paris to study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hôtel
+Cluny, where J. N. Delisle had his observatory, drew him to astronomy,
+and he became the zealous and favoured pupil of both Delisle and Pierre
+Lemonnier. He, however, completed his legal studies, and was about to
+return to Bourg to practise there as an advocate, when Lemonnier
+obtained permission to send him to Berlin, to make observations on the
+lunar parallax in concert with those of N. L. Lacaille at the Cape of
+Good Hope. The successful execution of his task procured for him, before
+he was twenty-one, admission to the Academy of Berlin, and the post of
+adjunct astronomer to that of Paris. He now devoted himself to the
+improvement of the planetary theory, publishing in 1759 a corrected
+edition of Halley's tables, with a history of the celebrated comet whose
+return in that year he had aided Clairault to calculate. In 1762 J. N.
+Delisle resigned in his favour the chair of astronomy in the Collège de
+France, the duties of which were discharged by Lalande for forty-six
+years. His house became an astronomical seminary, and amongst his pupils
+were J. B. J. Delambre, G. Piazzi, P. Mechain, and his own nephew Michel
+Lalande. By his publications in connexion with the transit of 1769 he
+won great and, in a measure, deserved fame. But his love of notoriety
+and impetuous temper compromised the respect due to his scientific zeal,
+though these faults were partially balanced by his generosity and
+benevolence. He died on the 4th of April 1807.
+
+ Although his investigations were conducted with diligence rather than
+ genius, the career of Lalande must be regarded as of eminent service
+ to astronomy. As a lecturer and writer he gave to the science
+ unexampled popularity; his planetary tables, into which he introduced
+ corrections for mutual perturbations, were the best available up to
+ the end of the 18th century; and the Lalande prize, instituted by him
+ in 1802 for the chief astronomical performance of each year, still
+ testifies to his enthusiasm for his favourite pursuit. Amongst his
+ voluminous works are _Traité d'astronomie_ (2 vols., 1764; enlarged
+ edition, 4 vols., 1771-1781; 3rd ed., 3 vols., 1792); _Histoire
+ céleste française_ (1801), giving the places of 50,000 stars;
+ _Bibliographie astronomique_ (1803), with a history of astronomy from
+ 1781 to 1802; _Astronomie des dames_ (1785); _Abrégé de navigation_
+ (1793); _Voyage d'un françois en Italie_ (1769), a valuable record of
+ his travels in 1765-1766. He communicated above one hundred and fifty
+ papers to the Paris Academy of Sciences, edited the _Connoissance des
+ temps_ (1759-1774), and again (1794-1807), and wrote the concluding 2
+ vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla's _Histoire des mathématiques_
+ (1802).
+
+ See _Mémoires de l'Institut_, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre);
+ Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siècle_, p. 547; _Magazin
+ encyclopédique_, ii. 288 (1810) (Mme de Salm); J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de
+ l'astr. moderne_, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Mädler, _Geschichte der
+ Himmelskunde_, ii. 141; R. Wolf, _Gesch. der Astronomie_; J. J.
+ Lalande, _Bibl. astr._ p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit.
+ Handwörterbuch_; M. Marie, _Hist. des sciences_, ix. 35.
+
+
+
+
+LALÍN, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Pontevedra.
+Pop. (1900) 16,238. Lalín is the centre of the trade in agricultural
+products of the fertile highlands between the Deza and Arnego rivers.
+The local industries are tanning and the manufacture of paper. Near
+Lalín are the ruins of the Gothic abbey of Carboeiro.
+
+
+
+
+LA LINEA, or LA LINEA DE LA CONCEPCION, a town of Spain, in the province
+of Cadiz, between Gibraltar and San Roque. Pop. (1900) 31,802. La Linea,
+which derives its name from the _line_ or boundary dividing Spanish
+territory from the district of Gibraltar, is a town of comparatively
+modern date and was formerly looked upon as a suburb of San Roque. It is
+now a distinct frontier post and headquarters of the Spanish commandant
+of the lines of Gibraltar. The fortifications erected here in the 16th
+century were dismantled by the British in 1810, to prevent the landing
+of French invaders, and all the existing buildings are modern. They
+include barracks, casinos, a theatre and a bull-ring, much frequented by
+the inhabitants and garrison of Gibraltar. La Linea has some trade in
+cereals, fruit and vegetables; it is the residence of large numbers of
+labourers employed in Gibraltar.
+
+
+
+
+LALITPUR, a town of British India, in Jhansi district, United Provinces.
+Pop. (1901) 11,560. It has a station on the Great Indian Peninsula
+railway, and a large trade in oil-seeds, hides and _ghi_. It contains
+several beautiful Hindu and Jain temples. It was formerly the
+headquarters of a district of the same name, which was incorporated with
+that of Jhansi in 1891. The Bundela chiefs of Lalitpur were among those
+who most eagerly joined the Mutiny, and it was only after a severe
+struggle that the district was pacified.
+
+
+
+
+LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR, COMTE DE, Baron de Tollendal (1702-1766), French
+general, was born at Romans, Dauphiné, in January 1702, being the son of
+Sir Gerard O'Lally, an Irish Jacobite who married a French lady of noble
+family, from whom the son inherited his titles. Entering the French army
+in 1721 he served in the war of 1734 against Austria; he was present at
+Dettingen (1743), and commanded the regiment de Lally in the famous
+Irish brigade at Fontenoy (May 1745). He was made a brigadier on the
+field by Louis XV. He had previously been mixed up in several Jacobite
+plots, and in 1745 accompanied Charles Edward to Scotland, serving as
+aide-de-camp at the battle of Falkirk (January 1746). Escaping to
+France, he served with Marshal Saxe in the Low Countries, and at the
+capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a _maréchal de camp_. When war
+broke out with England in 1756 Lally was given the command of a French
+expedition to India. He reached Pondicherry in April 1758, and at the
+outset met with some trifling military success. He was a man of courage
+and a capable general; but his pride and ferocity made him disliked by
+his officers and hated by his soldiers, while he regarded the natives as
+slaves, despised their assistance, and trampled on their traditions of
+caste. In consequence everything went wrong with him. He was
+unsuccessful in an attack on Tanjore, and had to retire from the siege
+of Madras (1758) owing to the timely arrival of the British fleet. He
+was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Wandiwash (1760), and besieged in
+Pondicherry and forced to capitulate (1761). He was sent as a prisoner
+of war to England. While in London, he heard that he was accused in
+France of treachery, and insisted, against advice, on returning on
+parole to stand his trial. He was kept prisoner for nearly two years
+before the trial began; then, after many painful delays, he was
+sentenced to death (May 6, 1766), and three days later beheaded. Louis
+XV. tried to throw the responsibility for what was undoubtedly a
+judicial murder on his ministers and the public, but his policy needed a
+scapegoat, and he was probably well content not to exercise his
+authority to save an almost friendless foreigner.
+
+ See G. B. Malleson, _The Career of Count Lally_ (1865); "Z's" (the
+ marquis de Lally-Tollendal) article in the _Biographie Michaud_; and
+ Voltaire's _Oeuvres complètes_. The legal documents are preserved in
+ the Bibliothèque Nationale.
+
+
+
+
+LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD, MARQUIS DE (1751-1830), was born at
+Paris on the 5th of March 1751. He was the legitimized son of the comte
+de Lally and only discovered the secret of his birth on the day of his
+father's execution, when he resolved to devote himself to clearing his
+father's memory. He was supported by Voltaire, and in 1778 succeeded in
+persuading Louis XVI. to annul the decree which had sentenced the comte
+de Lally; but the parlement of Rouen, to which the case was referred
+back, in 1784 again decided in favour of Lally's guilt. The case was
+retried by other courts, but Lally's innocence was never fully admitted
+by the French judges. In 1779 Lally-Tollendal bought the office of
+_Grand bailli_ of Étampes, and in 1789 was a deputy to the
+states-general for the _noblesse_ of Paris. He played some part in the
+early stages of the Revolution, but was too conservative to be in
+sympathy with all even of its earlier developments. He threw himself
+into opposition to the "tyranny" of Mirabeau, and condemned the epidemic
+of renunciation which in the session of the 4th of August 1789 destroyed
+the traditional institutions of France. Later in the year he emigrated
+to England. During the trial of Louis XVI. by the National Convention
+(1793) he offered to defend the king, but was not allowed to return to
+France. He did not return till the time of the Consulate. Louis XVIII.
+created him a peer of France, and in 1816 he became a member of the
+French Academy. From that time until his death, on the 11th of March
+1830, he devoted himself to philanthropic work, especially identifying
+himself with prison reform.
+
+ See his _Plaidoyer pour Louis XVI._ (London, 1793); Lally-Tollendal
+ was also in part responsible for the _Mémoires_, attributed to Joseph
+ Weber, concerning Marie Antoinette (1804); he further edited the
+ article on his father in the _Biographie Michaud_; see also Arnault,
+ _Discours prononcé aux funérailles de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal
+ le 13 mars 1830_ (Paris); Gauthier de Brecy, _Nécrologie de M. le
+ marquis de Lally-Tollendal_ (Paris, undated); Voltaire, _Oeuvres
+ complètes_ (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of
+ contents, vol. ii.
+
+
+
+
+LALO, EDOUARD (1823-1892), French composer, was born at Lille, on the
+27th of January 1823. He began his musical studies at the conservatoire
+at Lille, and in Paris attended the violin classes of Habeneck. For
+several years Lalo led a modest and retired existence, playing the viola
+in the quartet party organized by Armingaud and Jacquard, and in
+composing chamber music. His early works include two trios, a quartet,
+and several pieces for violin and pianoforte. In 1867 he took part in an
+operatic competition, an opera from his pen, entitled _Fiesque_,
+obtaining the third place out of forty-three. This work was accepted for
+production at the Paris Opéra, but delays occurred, and nothing was
+done. _Fiesque_ was next offered to the Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels,
+and was about to be produced there when the manager became bankrupt.
+Thus, when nearly fifty years of age, Lalo found himself in
+difficulties. _Fiesque_ was never performed, but the composer published
+the pianoforte score, and eventually employed some of the music in other
+works. After the Franco-German war French composers found their
+opportunity in the concert-room. Lalo was one of these, and during the
+succeeding ten years several interesting works from his pen were
+produced, among them a sonata for violoncello, a "divertissement" for
+orchestra, a violin concerto and the _Symphonie Espagnole_ for violin
+and orchestra, one of his best-known compositions. In the meanwhile he
+had written a second opera, _Le Roi d'Ys_, which he hoped would be
+produced at the Opéra. The administration offered him the "scenario" of
+a ballet instead. Lalo was obliged to be content with this, and set to
+work with so much energy that he fell ill, the last scenes of the ballet
+being orchestrated by Gounod. _Namouna_, the ballet in question, was
+produced at the Opéra in 1882. Six years later, on the 7th of May 1888,
+_Le Roi d'Ys_ was brought out at the Opéra Comique, and Lalo was at last
+enabled to taste the sweets of success. Unfortunately, fame came to him
+too late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to _Néron_, a
+pantomimic piece played at the Hippodrome in 1891, were his last two
+works. He had begun a new opera, but had only written the first act
+when, on the 23rd of April 1892, he died. This opera, _La Jacquerie_,
+was finished by Arthur Coquard, and was produced in 1895 at Monte Carlo,
+Aix-les-Bains and finally in Paris. Lalo had distinct originality,
+discernible in his employment of curious rhythmic devices. His music is
+ever ingenious and brilliantly effective.
+
+
+
+
+LA MADDALENA, an island 2½ m. from the N.E. coast of Sardinia. Pop.
+(1901) 8361. Napoleon bombarded it in 1793 without success, and Nelson
+made it his headquarters for some time. It is now an important naval
+station of the Italian fleet, the anchorage being good, and is strongly
+fortified. A bridge and an embankment connect it with Caprera. It
+appears to have been inhabited in Roman times.
+
+
+
+
+LAMAISM, a system of doctrine partly religious, partly political.
+Religiously it is the corrupt form of Buddhism prevalent in Tibet and
+Mongolia. It stands in a relationship to primitive Buddhism similar to
+that in which Roman Catholicism, so long as the temporal power of the
+pope was still in existence, stood to primitive Christianity. The
+ethical and metaphysical ideas most conspicuous in the doctrines of
+Lamaism are not confined to the highlands of central Asia, they are
+accepted in great measure also in Japan and China. It is the union of
+these ideas with a hierarchical system, and with the temporal
+sovereignty of the head of that system in Tibet, which constitutes what
+is distinctively understood by the term Lamaism. Lamaism has acquired a
+special interest to the student of comparative history through the
+instructive parallel which its history presents to that of the Church of
+Rome.
+
+
+ The "Great Vehicle."
+
+The central point of primitive Buddhism was the doctrine of
+"Arahatship"--a system of ethical and mental self-culture, in which
+deliverance was found from all the mysteries and sorrows of life in a
+change of heart to be reached here on earth. This doctrine seems to have
+been held very nearly in its original purity from the time when it was
+propounded by Gotama in the 6th century B.C. to the period in which
+northern India was conquered by the Huns about the commencement of the
+Christian era. Soon after that time there arose a school of Buddhist
+teachers who called their doctrine the "Great Vehicle." It was not in
+any contradiction to the older doctrine, which they contemptuously
+called the "Little Vehicle," but included it all, and was based upon it.
+The distinguishing characteristic of the newer school was the importance
+which it attached to "Bodhisatship." The older school had taught that
+Gotama, who had propounded the doctrine of Arahatship, was a Buddha,
+that only a Buddha is capable of discovering that doctrine, and that a
+Buddha is a man who by self-denying efforts, continued through many
+hundreds of different births, has acquired the so-called _Ten Paramitas_
+or cardinal virtues in such perfection that he is able, when sin and
+ignorance have gained the upper hand throughout the world, to save the
+human race from impending ruin. But until the process of perfection has
+been completed, until the moment when at last the sage, sitting under
+the Wisdom tree acquires that particular insight or wisdom which is
+called Enlightenment or Buddhahood, he is still only a Bodhisat. The
+link of connexion between the various Bodhisats in the future Buddha's
+successive births is not a soul which is transferred from body to body,
+but the _karma_, or character, which each successive Bodhisat inherits
+from his predecessors in the long chain of existences. Now the older
+school also held, in the first place, that, when a man had, in this
+life, attained to Arahatship, his karma would not pass on to any other
+individual in another life--or in other words, that after Arahatship
+there would be no rebirth; and, secondly, that four thousand years after
+the Buddha had proclaimed the _Dhamma_ or doctrine of Arahatship, his
+teaching would have died away, and another Buddha would be required to
+bring mankind once more to a knowledge of the truth. The leaders of the
+Great Vehicle urged their followers to seek to attain, not so much to
+Arahatship, which would involve only their own salvation, but to
+Bodhisatship, by the attainment of which they would be conferring the
+blessings of the Dhamma upon countless multitudes in the long ages of
+the future. By thus laying stress upon Bodhisatship, rather than upon
+Arahatship, the new school, though they doubtless merely thought
+themselves to be carrying the older orthodox doctrines to their logical
+conclusion, were really changing the central point of Buddhism, and were
+altering the direction of their mental vision. It was of no avail that
+they adhered in other respects in the main to the older teaching, that
+they professed to hold to the same ethical system, that they adhered,
+except in a few unimportant details, to the old regulations of the order
+of the Buddhist mendicant recluses. The ancient books, preserved in the
+_Pali Pitakas_, being mainly occupied with the details of Arahatship,
+lost their exclusive value in the eyes of those whose attention was
+being directed to the details of Bodhisatship. And the opinion that
+every leader in their religious circles, every teacher distinguished
+among them for his sanctity of life, or for his extensive learning, was
+a Bodhisat, who might have and who probably had inherited the karma of
+some great teacher of old, opened the door to a flood of superstitious
+fancies.
+
+It is worthy of note that the new school found its earliest professors
+and its greatest expounders in a part of India outside the districts to
+which the personal influence of Gotama and of his immediate followers
+had been confined. The home of early Buddhism was round about Kosala and
+Magadha; in the district, that is to say, north and south of the Ganges
+between where Allahabad now lies on the west and Rajgir on the east. The
+home of the Great Vehicle was, at first, in the countries farther to the
+north and west. Buddhism arose in countries where Sanskrit was never
+more than a learned tongue, and where the exclusive claims of the
+Brahmins had never been universally admitted. The Great Vehicle arose in
+the very stronghold of Brahminism, and among a people to whom Sanskrit,
+like Latin in the middle ages in Europe, was the literary _lingua
+franca_. The new literature therefore, which the new movement called
+forth, was written, and has been preserved, in Sanskrit--its principal
+books of _Dharma_, or doctrine, being the following nine: (1)
+_Prajña-paramita_; (2) _Ganda-vyuha_; (3) _Dasa-bhumis-vara_; (4)
+_Samadhi-raja_; (5) _Lankavatara_; (6) _Saddharma-pundarika_; (7)
+_Tathagata-guhyaka_; (8) _Lalita-vistara_; (9) _Suvarna-prabhasa_. The
+date of none of these works is known with any certainty, but it is
+highly improbable that any one of them is older than the 6th century
+after the death of Gotama. Copies of all of them were brought to Europe
+by Mr B. H. Hodgson, and other copies have been received since then; but
+only one of them has as yet been published in Europe (the _Lalita
+Vistara_, edited by Lofmann), and only two have been translated into any
+European language. These are the _Lalita Vistara_, translated into
+French, through the Tibetan, by M. Foucaux, and the _Saddharma
+Pundarika_, translated into English by Professor Kern. The former is
+legendary work, partly in verse, on the life of Gotama, the historical
+Buddha; and the latter, also partly in verse, is devoted to proving the
+essential identity of the Great and the Little Vehicles, and the equal
+authenticity of both as doctrines enunciated by the master himself.
+
+Of the authors of these nine works, as of all the older Buddhist works
+with one or two exceptions, nothing has been ascertained. The founder of
+the system of the Great Vehicle is, however, often referred to under the
+name of Nagarjuna, whose probable date is about A.D. 200.
+
+Together with Nagarjuna, other early teachers of the Great Vehicle whose
+names are known are Vasumitra, Vasubandhu, Aryadeva, Dharmapala and
+Gunamati--all of whom were looked upon as Bodhisats. As the newer school
+did not venture so far as to claim as Bodhisats the disciples stated in
+the older books to have been the contemporaries of Gotama (they being
+precisely the persons known as Arahats), they attempted to give the
+appearance of age to the Bodhisat theory by representing the Buddha as
+being surrounded, not only by his human companions the Arahats, but also
+by fabulous beings, whom they represented as the Bodhisats existing at
+that time. In the opening words of each Mahayana treatise a list is
+given of such Bodhisats, who were beginning, together with the
+historical Bodhisats, to occupy a position in the Buddhist church of
+those times similar to that occupied by the saints in the corresponding
+period of the history of Christianity in the Church of Rome. And these
+lists of fabulous Bodhisats have now a distinct historical importance.
+For they grow in length in the later works; and it is often possible by
+comparing them one with another to fix, not the date, but the
+comparative age of the books in which they occur. Thus it is a fair
+inference to draw from the shortness of the list in the opening words of
+the _Lalita Vistara_, as compared with that in the first sections of the
+_Saddharma Pundarika_, that the latter work is much the younger of the
+two, a conclusion supported also by other considerations.
+
+Among the Bodhisats mentioned in the _Saddharma Pundarika_, and not
+mentioned in the _Lalita Vistara_, as attendant on the Buddha are
+Mañju-sri and Avalokitesvara. That these saints were already
+acknowledged by the followers of the Great Vehicle at the beginning of
+the 5th century is clear from the fact that Fa Hien, who visited India
+about that time, says that "men of the Great Vehicle" were then
+worshipping them at Mathura, not far from Delhi (F. H., chap. xvi.).
+These were supposed to be celestial beings who, inspired by love of the
+human race, had taken the so-called Great Resolve to become future
+Buddhas, and who therefore descended from heaven when the actual Buddha
+was on earth, to pay reverence to him, and to learn of him. The belief
+in them probably arose out of the doctrine of the older school, which
+did not deny the existence of the various creations of previous
+mythology and speculation, but allowed of their actual existence as
+spiritual beings, and only deprived them of all power over the lives of
+men, and declared them to be temporary beings liable, like men, to sin
+and ignorance, and requiring, like men, the salvation of Arahatship.
+Among them the later Buddhists seem to have placed their numerous
+Bodhisats; and to have paid especial reverence to Mañju-sri as the
+personification of wisdom, and to Avalokiteswara as the personification
+of overruling love. The former was afterwards identified with the
+mythical first Buddhist missionary, who is supposed to have introduced
+civilization into Tibet about two hundred and fifty years after the
+death of the Buddha.
+
+
+ The five mystic trinities.
+
+The way was now open to a rapid fall from the simplicity of early
+Buddhism, in which men's attention was directed to the various parts of
+the system of self-culture, to a belief in a whole pantheon of saints or
+angels, which appealed more strongly to the half-civilized races among
+whom the Great Vehicle was now professed. A theory sprang up which was
+supposed to explain the marvellous powers of the Buddhas by representing
+them as only the outward appearance, the reflection, as it were, or
+emanation, of ethereal Buddhas dwelling in the skies. These were called
+_Dhyani Buddhas_, and their number was supposed to be, like that of the
+Buddhas, innumerable. Only five of them, however, occupied any space in
+the speculative world in which the ideas of the later Buddhists had now
+begun to move. But, being Buddhas, they were supposed to have their
+Bodhisats; and thus out of the five last Buddhas of the earlier teaching
+there grew up five mystic trinities, each group consisting of one of
+these five Buddhas, his prototype in heaven the Dhyani Buddha, and his
+celestial Bodhisat. Among these hypothetical beings, the creations of a
+sickly scholasticism, hollow abstractions without life or reality, the
+particular trinity in which the historical Gotama was assigned a
+subordinate place naturally occupied the most exalted rank. Amitabha,
+the Dhyani-Buddha of this trinity, soon began to fill the largest place
+in the minds of the new school; and Avalokiteswara, his Bodhisat, was
+looked upon with a reverence somewhat less than his former glory. It is
+needless to add that, under the overpowering influence of these vain
+imaginations, the earnest moral teachings of Gotama became more and more
+hidden from view. The imaginary saints grew and flourished. Each new
+creation, each new step in the theory, demanded another, until the whole
+sky was filled with forgeries of the brain, and the nobler and simpler
+lessons of the founder of the religion were hidden beneath the
+glittering stream of metaphysical subtleties.
+
+Still worse results followed on the change of the earlier point of view.
+The acute minds of the Buddhist pandits, no longer occupied with the
+practical lessons of Arahatship, turned their attention, as far as it
+was not engaged upon their hierarchy of mythological beings, to
+questions of metaphysical speculation, which, in the earliest Buddhism,
+are not only discouraged but forbidden. We find long treatises on the
+nature of being, idealistic dreams which have as little to do with the
+Bodhisatship that is concerned with the salvation of the world as with
+the Arahatship that is concerned with the perfect life. Only one lower
+step was possible, and that was not long in being taken. The animism
+common alike to the untaught Huns and to their Hindu conquerors, but
+condemned in early Buddhism, was allowed to revive. As the stronger side
+of Gotama's teaching was neglected, the debasing belief in rites and
+ceremonies, and charms and incantations, which had been the especial
+object of his scorn, began to spread like the Birana weed warmed by a
+tropical sun in marsh and muddy soil. As in India, after the expulsion
+of Buddhism, the degrading worship of Siva and his dusky bride had been
+incorporated into Hinduism from the savage devil worship of Aryan and of
+non-Aryan tribes, so, as pure Buddhism died away in the north, the
+_Tantra_ system, a mixture of magic and witchcraft and sorcery, was
+incorporated into the corrupted Buddhism.
+
+
+ The Tantra system.
+
+The founder of this system seems to have been Asanga, an influential
+monk of Peshawar, who wrote the first text-book of the creed, the
+_Yogachchara Bhumi Sastra_, in the 6th century A.D. Hsüan Tsang, who
+travelled in the first half of the 7th, found the monastery where Asanga
+had lived in ruins, and says that he had lived one thousand years after
+the Buddha.[1] Asanga managed with great dexterity to reconcile the two
+opposing systems by placing a number of Saivite gods or devils, both
+male and female, in the inferior heavens of the then prevalent Buddhism,
+and by representing them as worshippers and supporters of the Buddha and
+of Avalokitesvara. He thus made it possible for the half-converted and
+rude tribes to remain Buddhists while they brought offerings, and even
+bloody offerings, to these more congenial shrines, and while their
+practical belief had no relation at all to the Truths or the Noble
+Eightfold Path, but busied itself almost wholly with obtaining magic
+powers (_Siddhi_), by means of magic phrases (_Dharani_), and magic
+circles (_Mandala_). Asanga's happy idea bore but too ample fruit. In
+his own country and Nepal, the new wine, sweet and luscious to the taste
+of savages, completely disqualified them from enjoying any purer drink;
+and now in both countries Saivism is supreme, and Buddhism is even
+nominally extinct, except in some outlying districts of Nepal. But this
+full effect has only been worked out in the lapse of ages; the Tantra
+literature has also had its growth and its development, and some unhappy
+scholar of a future age may have to trace its loathsome history. The
+nauseous taste repelled even the self-sacrificing industry of Burnouf,
+when he found the later Tantra books to be as immoral as they are
+absurd. "The pen," he says, "refuses to transcribe doctrines as
+miserable in respect of form as they are odious and degrading in respect
+of meaning."
+
+Such had been the decline and fall of Buddhism considered as an ethical
+system before its introduction into Tibet. The manner in which its order
+of mendicant recluses, at first founded to afford better opportunities
+to those who wished to carry out that system in practical life,
+developed at last into a hierarchical monarchy will best be understood
+by a sketch of the history of Tibet.
+
+
+ Early political history.
+
+Its real history commences with Srong Tsan Gampo, who was born a little
+after 600 A.D., and who is said in the Chinese chronicles to have
+entered, in 634, into diplomatic relationship with Tai Tsung, one of the
+emperors of the Tang dynasty. He was the founder of the present capital
+of Tibet, now known as Lhasa; and in the year 622 (the same year as that
+in which Mahomet fled from Mecca) he began the formal introduction of
+Buddhism into Tibet. For this purpose he sent the minister Thumi
+Sambhota, afterwards looked upon as an incarnation of Mañju-sri, to
+India, there to collect the sacred books, and to learn and translate
+them. Thumi Sambhota accordingly invented an alphabet for the Tibetan
+language on the model of the Indian alphabets then in use. And, aided by
+the king, who is represented to have been an industrious student and
+translator, he wrote the first books by which Buddhism became known in
+his native land. The most famous of the works ascribed to him is the
+_Mani Kambum_, "the Myriad of Precious Words"--a treatise chiefly on
+religion, but which also contains an account of the introduction of
+Buddhism into Tibet, and of the closing part of the life of Srong Tsan
+Gampo. He is also very probably the author of another very ancient
+standard work of Tibetan Buddhism, the _Samatog_, a short digest of
+Buddhist morality, on which the civil laws of Tibet have been founded.
+It is said in the _Mani Kambum_ to have fallen from heaven in a casket
+(Tibetan, _samatog_), and, like the last-mentioned work, is only known
+to us in meagre abstract.
+
+King Srong Tsan Gampo's zeal for Buddhism was shared and supported by
+his two queens, Bribsun, a princess from Nepal, and Wen Ching, a
+princess from China. They are related to have brought with them sacred
+relics, books and pictures, for whose better preservation two large
+monasteries were erected. These are the cloisters of La Brang (Jokhang)
+and Ra Moché, still, though much changed and enlarged, the most sacred
+abbeys in Tibet, and the glory of Lhasa. The two queens have become
+semi-divine personages, and are worshipped under the name of the two
+_Dara-Eke_, the "glorious mothers," being regarded as incarnations of
+the wife of Siva, representing respectively two of the qualities which
+she personifies, divine vengeance and divine love. The former is
+worshipped by the Mongolians as _Okkin Tengri_, "the Virgin Goddess";
+but in Tibet and China the rôle of the divine virgin is filled by _Kwan
+Yin_, a personification of Avalokitesvara as the heavenly word, who is
+often represented with a child in her arms. Srong Tsan Gampo has also
+become a saint, being looked upon as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara;
+and the description in the ecclesiastical historians of the measures he
+took for the welfare of his subjects do great credit to their ideal of
+the perfect Buddhist king. He is said to have spent his long reign in
+the building of reservoirs, bridges and canals; in the promotion of
+agriculture, horticulture and manufactures; in the establishment of
+schools and colleges; and in the maintenance of justice and the
+encouragement of virtue. But the degree of his success must have been
+slight. For after the death of himself and of his wives Buddhism
+gradually decayed, and was subjected by succeeding kings to cruel
+persecutions; and it was not till more than half a century afterwards,
+under King Kir Song de Tsan, who reigned 740-786, that true religion is
+acknowledged by the ecclesiastical historians to have become firmly
+established in the land.
+
+
+ The Tibetan sacred books.
+
+This monarch again sent to India to replace the sacred books that had
+been lost, and to invite Buddhist pandits to translate them. The most
+distinguished of those who came were Santa Rakshita, Padma Sambhava and
+Kamala Sila, for whom, and for their companions, the king built a
+splendid monastery still existing, at Samje, about three days' journey
+south-east of Lhasa. It was to them that the Tibetans owed the great
+collection of what are still regarded as their sacred books--the
+_Kandjur_. It consists of 100 volumes containing 689 works, of which
+there are two or three complete sets in Europe, one of them in the India
+Office library. A detailed analysis of these scriptures has been
+published by the celebrated Hungarian scholar Csoma de Körös, whose
+authoritative work has been republished in French with complete indices
+and very useful notes by M. Léon Feer. These volumes contain about a
+dozen works of the oldest school of Buddhism, the Hinayana, and about
+300 works, mostly very short, belonging to the Tantra school. But the
+great bulk of the collection consists of Mahayana books, belonging to
+all the previously existing varieties of that widely extended Buddhist
+sect; and, as the Sanskrit originals of many of these writings are now
+lost, the Tibetan translations will be of great value, not only for the
+history of Lamaism, but also for the history of the later forms of
+Indian Buddhism.
+
+The last king's second son, Lang Darma, concluded in May 822 a treaty
+with the then emperor of China (the twelfth of the Tang dynasty), a
+record of which was engraved on a stone put up in the above-mentioned
+great convent of La Brang (Jokhang), and is still to be seen there.[2]
+He is described in the church chronicles as an incarnation of the evil
+spirit, and is said to have succeeded in suppressing Buddhism throughout
+the greater part of the land. The period from Srong Tsan Gampo down to
+the death of Lang Darma, who was murdered about A.D. 850, in a civil
+war, is called in the Buddhist books "the first introduction of
+religion." It was followed by more than a century of civil disorder and
+wars, during which the exiled Buddhist monks attempted unsuccessfully
+again and again to return. Many are the stories of martyrs and
+confessors who are believed to have lived in these troublous times, and
+their efforts were at last crowned with success, for in the century
+commencing with the reign of Bilamgur in 971 there took place "the
+second introduction of religion" into Tibet, more especially under the
+guidance of the pandit Atisha, who came to Tibet in 1041, and of his
+famous native pupil and follower Brom Ston. The long period of
+depression seems not to have been without a beneficial influence on the
+persecuted Buddhist church, for these teachers are reported to have
+placed the Tantra system more in the background, and to have adhered
+more strongly to the purer forms of the Mahayana development of the
+ancient faith.
+
+
+ The temporal sovereignty of the Lamas.
+
+For about three hundred years the Buddhist church of Tibet was left in
+peace, subjecting the country more and more completely to its control,
+and growing in power and in wealth. During this time it achieved its
+greatest victory, and underwent the most important change in its
+character and organization. After the reintroduction of Buddhism into
+the "kingdom of snow," the ancient dynasty never recovered its power.
+Its representatives continued for some time to claim the sovereignty;
+but the country was practically very much in the condition of Germany at
+about the same time--chieftains of almost independent power ruled from
+their castles on the hill-tops over the adjacent valleys, engaged in
+petty wars, and conducted plundering expeditions against the
+neighbouring tenants, whilst the great abbeys were places of refuge for
+the studious or religious, and their heads were the only rivals to the
+barons in social state, and in many respects the only protectors and
+friends of the people. Meanwhile Jenghiz Khan had founded the Mongol
+empire, and his grandson Kublai Khan became a convert to the Buddhism of
+the Tibetan Lamas. He granted to the abbot of the Sakya monastery in
+southern Tibet the title of tributary sovereign of the country, head of
+the Buddhist church, and overlord over the numerous barons and abbots,
+and in return was officially crowned by the abbot as ruler over the
+extensive domain of the Mongol empire. Thus was the foundation laid at
+one and the same time of the temporal sovereignty of the Lamas of Tibet,
+and of the suzerainty over Tibet of the emperors of China. One of the
+first acts of the "head of the church" was the printing of a carefully
+revised edition of the Tibetan Scriptures--an undertaking which occupied
+altogether nearly thirty years and was not completed till 1306.
+
+Under Kublai's successors in China the Buddhist cause flourished
+greatly, and the Sakya Lamas extended their power both at home and
+abroad. The dignity of abbot at Sakya became hereditary, the abbots
+breaking so far the Buddhist rule of celibacy that they remained married
+until they had begotten a son and heir. But rather more than half a
+century afterwards their power was threatened by a formidable rival at
+home, a Buddhist reformer.
+
+
+ The Luther of Tibet.
+
+Tsongkapa, the Luther of Tibet, was born about 1357 on the spot where
+the famous monastery of Kunbum now stands. He very early entered the
+order, and studied at Sakya, Brigung and other monasteries. He then
+spent eight years as a hermit in Takpo in southern Tibet, where the
+comparatively purer teaching of Atisha (referred to above) was still
+prevalent. About 1390 he appeared as a public teacher and reformer in
+Lhasa, and before his death in 1419 there were three huge monasteries
+there containing 30,000 of his disciples, besides others in other parts
+of the country. His voluminous works, of which the most famous are the
+_Sumbun_ and the _Lam Nim Tshenpo_, exist in printed Tibetan copies in
+Europe, but have not yet been translated or analysed. But the principal
+lines on which his reformation proceeded are sufficiently attested. He
+insisted in the first place on the complete carrying out of the ancient
+rules of the order as to the celibacy of its members, and as to
+simplicity in dress. One result of the second of these two reforms was
+to make it necessary for every monk openly to declare himself either in
+favour of or against the new views. For Tsongkapa and his followers wore
+the yellow or orange-coloured garments which had been the distinguishing
+mark of the order in the lifetime of its founder, and in support of the
+ancient rules Tsongkapa reinstated the fortnightly rehearsal of the
+_Patimokkha_ or "disburdenment" in regular assemblies of the order at
+Lhasa--a practice which had fallen into desuetude. He also restored the
+custom of the first disciples to hold the so-called _Vassa_ or yearly
+retirement, and the public meeting of the order at its close. In all
+these respects he was simply following the directions of the Vinaya, or
+regulations of the order, as established probably in the time of Gotama
+himself, and as certainly handed down from the earliest times in the
+pitakas or sacred books. Further, he set his face against the Tantra
+system, and against the animistic superstitions which had been allowed
+to creep into life again. He laid stress on the self-culture involved in
+the practice of the paramitas or cardinal virtues, and established an
+annual national fast or week of prayer to be held during the first days
+of each year. This last institution indeed is not found in the ancient
+Vinaya, but was almost certainly modelled on the traditional account of
+the similar assemblies convoked by Asoka and other Buddhist sovereigns
+in India every fifth year. Laymen as well as monks take part in the
+proceedings, the details of which are unknown to us except from the
+accounts of the Catholic missionaries--Fathers Huc and Gabet--who
+describe the principal ceremonial as, in outward appearance, wonderfully
+like the high mass. In doctrine the great Tibetan teacher, who had no
+access to the Pali Pitakas, adhered in the main to the purer forms of
+the Mahayana school; in questions of church government he took little
+part, and did not dispute the titular supremacy of the Sakya Lamas. But
+the effects of his teaching weakened their power. The "orange-hoods," as
+his followers were called, rapidly gained in numbers and influence,
+until they so overshadowed the "red-hoods," as the followers of the
+older sect were called, that in the middle of the 15th century the
+emperor of China acknowledged the two leaders of the new sect at that
+time as the titular overlords of the church and tributary rulers over
+the realm of Tibet. These two leaders were then known as the _Dalai
+Lama_ and the _Pantshen Lama_, and were the abbots of the great
+monasteries at Gedun Dubpa, near Lhasa, and at Tashi Lunpo, in Farther
+Tibet, respectively. Since that time the abbots of these monasteries
+have continued to exercise the sovereignty over Tibet.
+
+
+ Constitution of Lamaism.
+
+As there has been no further change in the doctrine, and no further
+reformation in discipline, we may leave the ecclesiastical history of
+Lamaism since that date unnoticed, and consider some principal points on
+the constitution of the Lamaism of to-day. And first as to the mode of
+electing successors to the two Great Lamas. It will have been noticed
+that it was an old idea of the northern Buddhists to look upon
+distinguished members of the order as incarnations of Avalokitesvara, of
+Mañju-sri, or of Amitabha. These beings were supposed to possess the
+power, whilst they continued to live in heaven, of appearing on earth in
+a _Nirmana-kaya_, or apparitional body. In the same way the Pantshen
+Lama is looked upon as an incarnation, the Nirmana-kaya, of Amitabha,
+who had previously appeared under the outward form of Tshonkapa himself;
+and the Dalai Lama is looked upon as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara.
+Theoretically, therefore, the former, as the spiritual successor of the
+great teacher and also of Amitabha, who occupies the higher place in the
+mythology of the Great Vehicle, would be superior to the latter, as the
+spiritual representative of Avalokitesvara. But practically the Dalai
+Lama, owing to his position in the capital,[3] has the political
+supremacy, and is actually called the _Gyalpo Rinpotshe_, "the glorious
+king"--his companion being content with the title _Pantshen Rinpotshe_,
+"the glorious teacher." When either of them dies it is necessary for the
+other to ascertain in whose body the celestial being whose outward form
+has been dissolved has been pleased again to incarnate himself. For that
+purpose the names of all male children born just after the death of the
+deceased Great Lama are laid before his survivor. He chooses three out
+of the whole number; their names are thrown into a golden casket
+provided for that purpose by a former emperor of China. The Chutuktus,
+or abbots of the great monasteries, then assemble, and after a week of
+prayer, the lots are drawn in their presence and in presence of the
+surviving Great Lama and of the Chinese political resident. The child
+whose name is first drawn is the future Great Lama; the other two
+receive each of them 500 pieces of silver. The Chutuktus just mentioned
+correspond in many respects to the Roman cardinals. Like the Great
+Lamas, they bear the title of Rinpotshe or Glorious, and are looked upon
+as incarnations of one or other of the celestial Bodhisats of the Great
+Vehicle mythology. Their number varies from ten to a hundred; and it is
+uncertain whether the honour is inherent in the abbacy of certain of the
+greatest cloisters, or whether the Dalai Lama exercises the right of
+choosing them. Under these high officials of the Tibetan hierarchy there
+come the Chubil Khans, who fill the post of abbot to the lesser
+monasteries, and are also incarnations. Their number is very large;
+there are few monasteries in Tibet or in Mongolia which do not claim to
+possess one of these living Buddhas. Besides these mystical persons
+there are in the Tibetan church other ranks and degrees, corresponding
+to the deacon, full priest, dean and doctor of divinity in the West. At
+the great yearly festival at Lhasa they make in the cathedral an
+imposing array, not much less magnificent than that of the clergy in
+Rome; for the ancient simplicity of dress has disappeared in the growing
+differences of rank, and each division of the spiritual army is
+distinguished in Tibet, as in the West, by a special uniform. The
+political authority of the Dalai Lama is confined to Tibet itself, but
+he is the acknowledged head also of the Buddhist church throughout
+Mongolia and China. He has no supremacy over his co-religionists in
+Japan, and even in China there are many Buddhists who are not
+practically under his control or influence.
+
+ The best work on Lamaism is still Köppen's _Die Lamaische Hierarchie
+ und Kirche_ (Berlin, 1859). See also Bushell, "The Early History of
+ Tibet," in the _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1879-1880, vol.
+ xii.; Sanang Setzen's _History of the East Mongols_ (in Mongolian,
+ translated into German by J. Schmidt, _Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen_);
+ "Analyse du Kandjur," by M. Léon Feer, in _Annales du Musée Gaimet_
+ (1881); Schott, _Ueber den Buddhismus in Hoch-Asien_; Gutzlaff,
+ _Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches_; Hue and Gabet, _Souvenirs d'un
+ voyage dans la Tartarie, le Tibet, et la Chine_ (Paris, 1858);
+ Pallas's _Sammlung historischer Nachrichten über die Mongolischen
+ Völkerschaften_; Babu Sarat Chunder Das's "Contributions on the
+ Religion and History of Tibet," in the _Journal of the Bengal Asiatic
+ Society_, 1881; L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895);
+ A. H. Francke, _History of Western Tibet_ (London, 1907); A.
+ Grünwedel, _Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei_
+ (Berlin, 1900). (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+ [1] Watters's _Yuan Chwang_, edited by Rhys Davids and Bushell, i.
+ 210, 356, 271.
+
+ [2] Published with facsimile and translation and notes in the
+ _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_ for 1879-1880, vol. xii.
+
+ [3] This statement representing the substantial and historical
+ position, is retained, in spite of the crises of March 1910, when the
+ Dalai Lama took refuge from the Chinese in India, and of 1904, when
+ the British expedition occupied Lhasa and the Dalai Lama fled to
+ China (see TIBET).
+
+
+
+
+LAMALOU-LES-BAINS, a watering-place of southern France in the department
+of Hérault, 53½ m. W. of Montpellier by rail, in a valley of the
+southern Cévennes. Pop. (1906) 720. The waters, which are both hot and
+cold, are used in cases of rheumatism, sciatica, locomotor ataxy and
+nervous maladies.
+
+
+
+
+LAMA-MIAO, or DOLON-NOR, a city of the province of Chih-li, China, 150
+m. N. of Peking, in a barren sandy plain watered by the Urtingol, a
+tributary of the Shang-tu-ko. The town proper, almost exclusively
+occupied by Chinese, is about a mile in length by half a mile in
+breadth, has narrow and dirty streets, and contains a population of
+about 26,000. Unlike the ordinary Chinese town of the same rank, it is
+not walled. A busy trade is carried on between the Chinese and the
+Mongolians, who bring in their cattle, sheep, camels, hides and wool to
+barter for tea, tobacco, cotton and silk. At some distance from the
+Chinese town lies the Mongolian quarter, with two groups of lama temples
+and villages occupied by about 2300 priests. Dr Williamson (_Journeys in
+North China_, 1870) described the chief temple as a huge oblong building
+with an interior not unlike a Gothic church. Lama-miao is the seat of a
+manufactory of bronze idols and other articles of ritual, which find
+their way to all parts of Mongolia and Tibet. The craftsmen work in
+their own houses.
+
+
+
+
+LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS (1825-1893), American statesman and
+judge, was born at the old "Lamar Homestead," in Putnam county, Georgia,
+on the 17th of September 1825. His father, Lucius Q. C. Lamar
+(1797-1834), was an able lawyer, a judge of the superior court of
+Georgia, and the compiler of the _Laws of Georgia from 1810 to 1819_
+(1821). In 1845 young Lamar graduated from Emory College (Oxford, Ga.),
+and in 1847 was admitted to the bar. In 1849 he removed to Oxford,
+Mississippi, and in 1850-1852 was adjunct professor of mathematics in
+the state university. In 1852 he removed to Covington, Ga., to practise
+law, and in 1853 was elected a member of the Georgia House of
+Representatives. In 1855 he returned to Mississippi, and two years later
+became a member of the National House of Representatives, where he
+served until December 1860, when he withdrew to become a candidate for
+election to the "secession" convention of Mississippi. He was elected to
+the convention, and drafted for it the Mississippi ordinance of
+secession. In the summer of 1860 he had accepted an appointment to the
+chair of ethics and metaphysics in the university of Mississippi, but,
+having been appointed a lieutenant-colonel in the Confederate Army in
+the spring of 1861, he resigned his professorship. The colonel of his
+regiment (Nineteenth Mississippi) was killed early in the battle of
+Williamsburg, on the 5th of May 1862, and the command then fell to
+Lamar, but in October he resigned from the army. In November 1862 he was
+appointed by President Jefferson Davis special commissioner of the
+Confederacy to Russia; but he did not proceed farther than Paris, and
+his mission was soon terminated by the refusal of the Confederate Senate
+to confirm his appointment. In 1866 he was again appointed to the chair
+of ethics and metaphysics in the university of Mississippi, and in the
+next year was transferred to the chair of law, but in 1870, Republicans
+having become trustees of the university upon the readmission of the
+state into the Union, he resigned. From 1873 to 1877 he was again a
+Democratic representative in Congress; from 1877 to 1885 he was a United
+States senator; from 1885 to January 1888 he was secretary of the
+interior; and from 1888 until his death at Macon, Ga., on the 23rd of
+January 1893, he was an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the
+United States. In Congress Lamar fought the silver and greenback craze
+and argued forcibly against the protective tariff; in the department of
+the interior he introduced various reforms; and on the Supreme Court
+bench his dissenting opinion in the _Neagle Case_ (based upon a denial
+that certain powers belonging to Congress, but not exercised, were by
+implication vested in the department of justice) is famous. But he is
+perhaps best known for the part he took after the Civil War in helping
+to effect a reconciliation between the North and the South. During the
+early secession movement he strove to arouse the white people of the
+South from their indifference, declaring that secession alone could save
+them from a doom similar to that of the former whites of San Domingo. He
+probably never changed his convictions as to the righteousness of the
+"lost cause"; but he accepted the result of the war as a final
+settlement of the differences leading to it, and strove to restore the
+South in the Union, and to effect the reunion of the nation in feeling
+as well as in government. This is in part seen from such speeches as his
+eulogy on Charles Sumner (27th of April 1874), his leadership in
+reorganizing the Democratic party of his own state, and his counsels of
+peace in the disputed presidential election of 1876.
+
+ See Edward Mayes, _Lucius Q. C. Lamar: His Life, Times and Speeches_
+ (Nashville, Tenn., 1896).
+
+
+
+
+LAMARCK, JEAN BAPTISTE PIERRE ANTOINE DE MONET, CHEVALIER DE
+(1744-1829), French naturalist, was born on the 1st of August 1744, at
+Bazantin, a village of Picardy. He was an eleventh child; and his
+father, lord of the manor and of old family, but of limited means,
+having placed three sons in the army, destined this one for the church,
+and sent him to the Jesuits at Amiens, where he continued till his
+father's death. After this he would remain with the Jesuits no longer,
+and, not yet seventeen years of age, started for the seat of war at
+Bergen-op-Zoom, before which place one of his brothers had already been
+killed. Mounted on an old horse, with a boy from the village as
+attendant, and furnished by a lady with a letter of introduction to a
+colonel, he reached his destination on the evening before a battle. Next
+morning the colonel found that the new and very diminutive volunteer had
+posted himself in the front rank of a body of grenadiers, and could not
+be induced to quit the position. In the battle, the company which he had
+joined became exposed to the fire of the enemy's artillery, and in the
+confusion of retreat was forgotten. All the officers and subalterns were
+killed, and not more than fourteen men were left, when the oldest
+grenadiers seeing there were no more French in sight proposed to the
+young volunteer so soon become commandant to withdraw his men. This he
+refused to do without orders. These at last arrived; and for his bravery
+he was made an officer on the spot, and soon after was named to a
+lieutenancy.
+
+After the peace, the regiment was sent to Monaco. There one of his
+comrades playfully lifted him by the head, and to this it was imputed
+that he was seized with disease of the glands of the neck, so severe as
+to put a stop to his military career. He went to Paris and began the
+study of medicine, supporting himself by working in a banker's office.
+He early became interested in meteorology and in physical and chemical
+speculations of a chimerical kind, but happily threw his main strength
+into botany, and in 1778 published his _Flore française_, a work in
+which by a dichotomous system of contrasting characters he enabled the
+student with facility to determine species. This work, which went
+through several editions and long kept the field, gained for its author
+immediate popularity as well as admission to the Academy of Sciences.
+
+In 1781 and 1782, under the title of botanist to the king, an
+appointment obtained for him by Buffon, whose son accompanied him, he
+travelled through various countries of Europe, extending his knowledge
+of natural history; and on his return he began those elaborate
+contributions to botany on which his reputation in that science
+principally rests, namely, the _Dictionnaire de Botanique_ and the
+_Illustrations de Genres_, voluminous works contributed to the
+_Encyclopédie Méthodique_ (1785). In 1793, in consequence of changes in
+the organization of the natural history department at the Jardin du Roi,
+where he had held a botanical appointment since 1788, Lamarck was
+presented to a zoological chair, and called on to lecture on the
+_Insecta_ and _Vermes_ of Linnaeus, the animals for which he introduced
+the term _Invertebrata_. Thus driven, comparatively late in life, to
+devote his principal attention to zoology instead of botany, he had the
+misfortune soon after to suffer from impaired vision; and the malady
+resulted subsequently in total blindness. Yet his greatest zoological
+work, the _Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres_, was published
+from 1815 to 1822, with the assistance, in the last two volumes, of his
+eldest daughter and of P. A. Latreille (1762-1833). A volume of plates
+of the fossil shells of the neighbourhood of Paris was collected in 1823
+from his memoirs in the _Annales des Muséums_. He died on the 18th of
+December 1829.
+
+The character of Lamarck as a naturalist is remarkable alike for its
+excellences and its defects. His excellences were width of scope,
+fertility of ideas and a pre-eminent faculty of precise description,
+arising not only from a singularly terse style, but from a clear insight
+into both the distinctive features and the resemblances of forms. That
+part of his zoological work which constitutes his solid claim to the
+highest honour as a zoologist is to be found in his extensive and
+detailed labours in the departments of living and fossil _Invertebrata_.
+His endeavours at classification of the great groups were necessarily
+defective on account of the imperfect knowledge possessed in his time in
+regard to many of them, e.g. echinoderms, ascidians and intestinal
+worms; yet they are not without interest, particularly on account of the
+comprehensive attempt to unite in one great division as _Articulata_ all
+those groups that appeared to present a segmented construction.
+Moreover, Lamarck was the first to distinguish vertebrate from
+invertebrate animals by the presence of a vertebral column, and among
+the Invertebrata to found the groups _Crustacea_, _Arachnida_ and
+_Annelida_. In 1785 (_Hist. del' Acad._) he evinced his appreciation of
+the necessity of natural orders in botany by an attempt at the
+classification of plants, interesting, though crude and falling
+immeasurably short of the system which grew in the hands of his intimate
+friend A. L. de Jussieu. The problem of taxonomy has never been put more
+philosophically than he subsequently put it in his _Animaux sans
+vertèbres_: "What arrangement must be given to the general distribution
+of animals to make it conformable to the order of nature in the
+production of these beings?"
+
+The most prominent defect in Lamarck must be admitted to have been want
+of control in speculation. Doubtless the speculative tendency furnished
+a powerful incentive to work, but it outran the legitimate deductions
+from observation, and led him into the production of volumes of
+worthless chemistry without experimental basis, as well as into spending
+much time on fruitless meteorological predictions. His _Annuaires
+Météorologiques_ were published yearly from 1800 to 1810, and were not
+discontinued until after an unnecessarily public and brutal tirade from
+Napoleon, administered on the occasion of being presented with one of
+his works on natural history.
+
+To the general reader the name of Lamarck is chiefly interesting on
+account of his theory of the origin of life and of the diversities of
+animal forms. The idea, which appears to have been favoured by Buffon
+before him, that species were not through all time unalterable, and that
+the more complex might have been developed from pre-existent simpler
+forms, became with Lamarck a belief or, as he imagined, a demonstration.
+Spontaneous generation, he considered, might be easily conceived as
+resulting from such agencies as heat and electricity causing in small
+gelatinous bodies an utricular structure, and inducing a "singular
+tension," a kind of "éréthisme" or "orgasme"; and, having thus accounted
+for the first appearance of life, he explained the whole organization of
+animals and formation of different organs by four laws (introduction to
+his _Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres_, 1815):--
+
+ 1. "Life by its proper forces tends continually to increase the volume
+ of every body possessing it, and to enlarge its parts, up to a limit
+ which it brings about.
+
+ 2. "The production of a new organ in an animal body results from the
+ supervention of a new want (_besoin_) continuing to make itself felt,
+ and a new movement which this want gives birth to and encourages.
+
+ 3. "The development of organs and their force of action are constantly
+ in ratio to the employment of these organs.
+
+ 4. "All which has been acquired, laid down, or changed in the
+ organization of individuals in the course of their life is conserved
+ by generation and transmitted to the new individuals which proceed
+ from those which have undergone those changes."
+
+The second law is often referred to as Lamarck's hypothesis of the
+evolution of organs in animals by appetence or longing, although he does
+not teach that the animal's desires affect its conformation directly,
+but that altered wants lead to altered habits, which result in the
+formation of new organs as well as in modification, growth or dwindling
+of those previously existing. Thus, he suggests that, ruminants being
+pursued by carnivora, their legs have grown slender; and, their legs
+being only fit for support, while their jaws are weak, they have made
+attack with the crown of the head, and the determination of fluids
+thither has led to the growth of horns. So also the stretching of the
+giraffe's neck to reach the foliage he supposes to have led to its
+elongation; and the kangaroo, sitting upright to support the young in
+its pouch, he imagines to have had its fore-limbs dwarfed by disuse, and
+its hind legs and tail exaggerated by using them in leaping. The fourth
+law expresses the inheritance of acquired characters, which is denied by
+August Weismann and his followers. For a more detailed account of
+Lamarck's place in the history of the doctrine of evolution, see
+EVOLUTION.
+
+
+
+
+LA MARGHERITA, CLEMENTE SOLARO, COUNT DEL (1792-1869), Piedmontese
+statesman, was born at Mondovi. He studied law at Siena and Turin, but
+Piedmont was at that time under French domination, and being devoted to
+the house of Savoy he refused to take his degree, as this proceeding
+would have obliged him to recognize the authority of the usurper; after
+the restoration of the Sardinian kingdom, however, he graduated. In 1816
+he entered the diplomatic service. Later he returned to Turin, and
+succeeded in gaining the confidence and esteem of King Charles Albert,
+who in 1835 appointed him minister of foreign affairs. A fervent Roman
+Catholic, devoted to the pope and to the Jesuits, friendly to Austria
+and firmly attached to the principles of autocracy, he strongly opposed
+every attempt at political innovation, and was in consequence bitterly
+hated by the liberals. When the popular agitation in favour of
+constitutional reform first broke out the king felt obliged to dispense
+with La Margherita's services, although he had conducted public affairs
+with considerable ability and absolute loyalty, even upholding the
+dignity of the kingdom in the face of the arrogant attitude of the
+cabinet of Vienna. He expounded his political creed and his policy as
+minister to Charles Albert (from February 1835 to October 1847) in his
+_Memorandum storico-politico_, published in 1851, a document of great
+interest for the study of the conditions of Piedmont and Italy at that
+time. In 1853 he was elected deputy for San Quirico, but he persisted in
+regarding his mandate as derived from the royal authority rather than as
+an emanation of the popular will. As leader of the Clerical Right in the
+parliament he strongly opposed Cavour's policy, which was eventually to
+lead to Italian unity, and on the establishment of the kingdom of Italy
+he retired from public life.
+
+
+
+
+LA MARMORA, ALFONSO FERRERO (1804-1878), Italian general and statesman,
+was born at Turin on the 18th of November 1804. He entered the Sardinian
+army in 1823, and was a captain in March 1848, when he gained
+distinction and the rank of major at the siege of Peschiera. On the 5th
+of August 1848 he liberated Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, from the
+Milan revolutionaries, and in October was promoted general and appointed
+minister of war. After suppressing the revolt of Genoa in 1849, he again
+assumed in November 1849 the portfolio of war, which, save during the
+period of his command of the Crimean expedition, he retained until 1859.
+Having reconstructed the Piedmontese army, he took part in the war of
+1859 against Austria; and in July of that year succeeded Cavour in the
+premiership. In 1860 he was sent to Berlin and St Petersburg to arrange
+for the recognition of the kingdom of Italy, and subsequently he held
+the offices of governor of Milan and royal lieutenant at Naples, until,
+in September 1864, he succeeded Minghetti as premier. In this capacity
+he modified the scope of the September Convention by a note in which he
+claimed for Italy full freedom of action in respect of national
+aspirations to the possession of Rome, a document of which Visconti
+Venosta afterwards took advantage when justifying the Italian occupation
+of Rome in 1870. In April 1866 La Marmora concluded an alliance with
+Prussia against Austria, and, on the outbreak of war in June, took
+command of an army corps, but was defeated at Custozza on the 23rd of
+June. Accused of treason by his fellow-countrymen, and of duplicity by
+the Prussians, he eventually published in defence of his tactics (1873)
+a series of documents entitled _Un po' più di luce sugli eventi dell'
+anno_ 1866 (More light on the events of 1866) a step which caused
+irritation in Germany, and exposed him to the charge of having violated
+state secrets. Meanwhile he had been sent to Paris in 1867 to oppose the
+French expedition to Rome, and in 1870, after the occupation of Rome by
+the Italians, had been appointed lieutenant-royal of the new capital. He
+died at Florence on the 5th of January 1878. La Marmora's writings
+include _Un episodio del risorgimento italiano_ (Florence, 1875); and _I
+segreti di stato nel governo constituzionale_ (Florence, 1877).
+
+ See G. Massani, _Il generale Alfonso La Marmora_ (Milan, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE LOUIS DE PRAT DE (1790-1869), French poet,
+historian and statesman, was born at Mâcon on the 21st of October 1790.
+The order of his surnames is a controversial matter, and they are
+sometimes reversed. The family of Lamartine was good, and the title of
+Prat was taken from an estate in Franche Comté. His father was
+imprisoned during the Terror, and only released owing to the events of
+the 9th Thermidor. Lamartine's early education was received from his
+mother. He was sent to school at Lyons in 1805, but not being happy
+there was transferred to the care of the Pères de la Foi at Belley,
+where he remained until 1809. For some time afterwards he lived at home,
+reading romantic and poetical literature, but in 1811 he set out for
+Italy, where he seems to have sojourned nearly two years. His family
+having been steady royalists, he entered the Gardes du corps at the
+return of the Bourbons, and during the Hundred Days he sought refuge
+first in Switzerland and then at Aix-en-Savoie, where he fell in love,
+with abundant results of the poetical kind. After Waterloo he returned
+to Paris. In 1818-1819 he revisited Switzerland, Savoy and Italy, the
+death of his beloved affording him new subjects for verse. After some
+difficulties he had his first book, the _Méditations, poétiques et
+religieuses_, published (1820). It was exceedingly popular, and helped
+him to make a position. He had left the army for some time; he now
+entered the diplomatic service and was appointed secretary to the
+embassy at Naples. On his way to his post he married, in 1823, at Geneva
+a young English lady, Marianne Birch, who had both money and beauty, and
+in the same year his _Nouvelles méditations poétiques_ appeared.
+
+In 1824 he was transferred to Florence, where he remained five years.
+His _Last Canto of Childe Harold_ appeared in 1825, and he had to fight
+a duel (in which he was wounded) with an Italian officer, Colonel Pepe,
+in consequence of a phrase in it. Charles X., on whose coronation he
+wrote a poem, gave him the order of the Legion of Honour. The _Harmonies
+poétiques et religieuses_ appeared in 1829, when he had left Florence.
+Having refused an appointment in Paris under the Polignac ministry, he
+went on a special mission to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In the same
+year he was elected to the Academy. Lamartine was in Switzerland, not in
+Paris, at the time of the Revolution of July, and, though he put forth a
+pamphlet on "Rational Policy," he did not at that crisis take any active
+part in politics, refusing, however, to continue his diplomatic services
+under the new government. In 1832 he set out with his wife and daughter
+for Palestine, having been unsuccessful in his candidature for a seat in
+the chamber. His daughter Julia died at Beirut, and before long he
+received the news of his election by a constituency (Bergues) in the
+department of the Nord. He returned through Turkey and Germany, and made
+his first speech shortly after the beginning of 1834. Thereafter he
+spoke constantly, and acquired considerable reputation as an
+orator,--bringing out, moreover, many books in prose and verse. His
+Eastern travels (_Voyage en Orient_) appeared in 1835, his _Chute d'un
+ange_ and _Jocelyn_ in 1837, and his _Recueillements_, the last
+remarkable volume of his poetry, in 1839. As the reign of Louis Philippe
+went on, Lamartine, who had previously been a liberal royalist,
+something after the fashion of Chateaubriand, became more and more
+democratic in his opinions. He set about his greatest prose work, the
+_Histoire des Girondins_, which at first appeared periodically, and was
+published as a whole in 1847. Like many other French histories, it was a
+pamphlet as well as a chronicle, and the subjects of Lamartine's pen
+became his models in politics.
+
+At the revolution of February Lamartine was one of the first to declare
+for a provisional government, and became a member of it, with the post
+of minister for foreign affairs. He was elected for the new constituent
+assembly in ten different departments, and was chosen one of the five
+members of the Executive Committee. For a few months indeed Lamartine,
+from being a distinguished man of letters, an official of inferior rank
+in diplomacy, and an eloquent but unpractical speaker in parliament,
+became one of the foremost men in Europe. His inexperience in the
+routine work of government, the utterly unpractical nature of his
+colleagues, and the turbulence of the Parisian mob, proved fatal to his
+chances. He gave some proofs of statesmanlike ability, and his eloquence
+was repeatedly called into requisition to pacify the Parisians. But no
+one can permanently carry on the government of a great country by
+speeches from the balcony of a house in the capital, and Lamartine found
+himself in a dilemma. So long as he held aloof from Ledru-Rollin and the
+more radical of his colleagues, the disunion resulting weakened the
+government; as soon as he effected an approximation to them the middle
+classes fell off from him. The quelling of the insurrection of the 15th
+of May was his last successful act. A month later the renewal of active
+disturbances brought on the fighting of June, and Lamartine's influence
+was extinguished in favour of Cavaignac. Moreover, his chance of renewed
+political pre-eminence was gone. He had been tried and found wanting,
+having neither the virtues nor the vices of his situation. In January
+1849, though he was nominated for the presidency, only a few thousand
+votes were given to him, and three months later he was not even elected
+to the Legislative Assembly.
+
+The remaining story of Lamartine's life is somewhat melancholy. He had
+never been a rich man, nor had he been a saving one, and during his
+period of popularity and office he had incurred great expenses. He now
+set to work to repair his fortune by unremitting literary labour. He
+brought out in the _Presse_ (1849) a series of _Confidences_, and
+somewhat later a kind of autobiography, entitled _Raphael_. He wrote
+several historical works of more or less importance, the _History of the
+Revolution of 1848_, _The History of the Restoration_, _The History of
+Turkey_, _The History of Russia_, besides a large number of small
+biographical and miscellaneous works. In 1858 a subscription was opened
+for his benefit. Two years afterwards, following the example of
+Chateaubriand, he supervised an elaborate edition of his own works in
+forty-one volumes. This occupied five years, and while he was engaged on
+it his wife died (1863). He was now over seventy; his powers had
+deserted him, and even if they had not the public taste had entirely
+changed. His efforts had not succeeded in placing him in a position of
+independence; and at last, in 1867, the government of the Empire (from
+which he had perforce stood aloof, though he never considered it
+necessary to adopt the active protesting attitude of Edgar Quinet and
+Victor Hugo) came to his assistance, a vote of £20,000 being proposed in
+April of that year for his benefit by Émile Ollivier. This was
+creditable to both parties, for Lamartine, both as a distinguished man
+of letters and as a past servant of the state, had every claim to the
+bounty of his country. But he was reproached for accepting it by the
+extreme republicans and irreconcilables. He did not enjoy it long, dying
+on the 28th of February 1869.
+
+ As a statesman Lamartine was placed during his brief tenure of office
+ in a position from which it would have been almost impossible for any
+ man, who was not prepared and able to play the dictator, to emerge
+ with credit. At no time in history were unpractical crotchets so rife
+ in the heads of men as in 1848. But Lamartine could hardly have guided
+ the ship of state safely even in much calmer weather. He was amiable
+ and even estimable, the chief fault of his character being vanity and
+ an incurable tendency towards theatrical effect, which makes his
+ travels, memoirs and other personal records as well as his historical
+ works radically untrustworthy. Nor does it appear that he had any
+ settled political ideas. He did good by moderating the revolutionary
+ and destructive ardour of the Parisian populace in 1848; but he had
+ been perhaps more responsible than any other single person for
+ bringing about the events of that year by the vague and frothy
+ republican declamation of his _Histoire des Girondins_.
+
+ More must be said of his literary position. Lamartine had the
+ advantage of coming at a time when the literary field, at least in the
+ departments of belles lettres, was almost empty. The feeble school of
+ descriptive writers, epic poets of the extreme decadence, fabulists
+ and miscellaneous verse-makers, which the Empire had nourished could
+ satisfy no one. Madame de Staël was dead; Chateaubriand, though alive,
+ was something of a classic, and had not effected a full revolution.
+ Lamartine did not himself go the complete length of the Romantic
+ revival, but he went far in that direction. He availed himself of the
+ reviving interest in legitimism and Catholicism which was represented
+ by Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, of the nature worship of Rousseau and
+ Bernardin de Saint Pierre, of the sentimentalism of Madame de Staël,
+ of the medievalism and the romance of Chateaubriand and Scott, of the
+ _maladie du siècle_ of Chateaubriand and Byron. Perhaps if his matter
+ be very closely analysed it will be found that he added hardly
+ anything of his own. But if the parts of the mixture were like other
+ things the mixture itself was not. It seemed indeed to the immediate
+ generation so original that tradition has it that the _Méditations_
+ were refused by a publisher because they were in none of the accepted
+ styles. They appeared when Lamartine was nearly thirty years old. The
+ best of them, and the best thing that Lamartine ever did, is the
+ famous _Lac_, describing his return to the little mountain tarn of Le
+ Bourget after the death of his mistress, with whom he had visited it
+ in other days. The verse is exquisitely harmonious, the sentiments
+ conventional but refined and delicate, the imagery well chosen and
+ gracefully expressed. There is an unquestionable want of vigour, but
+ to readers of that day the want of vigour was entirely compensated by
+ the presence of freshness and grace. Lamartine's chief misfortune in
+ poetry was not only that his note was a somewhat weak one, but that he
+ could strike but one. The four volumes of the _Méditations_, the
+ _Harmonies_ and the _Recueillements_, which contained the prime of his
+ verse, are perhaps the most monotonous reading to be found anywhere in
+ work of equal bulk by a poet of equal talent. They contain nothing but
+ meditative lyrical pieces, almost any one of which is typical of the
+ whole, though there is considerable variation of merit. The two
+ narrative poems which succeeded the early lyrics, _Jocelyn_ and the
+ _Chute d'un ange_, were, according to Lamartine's original plan, parts
+ of a vast "Epic of the Ages," some further fragments of which survive.
+ _Jocelyn_ had at one time more popularity in England than most French
+ verse. _La Chute d'un ange_, in which the Byronic influence is more
+ obvious than in any other of Lamartine's works, and in which some have
+ also seen that of Alfred de Vigny, is more ambitious in theme, and
+ less regulated by scrupulous conditions of delicacy in handling, than
+ most of its author's poetry. It does, however, little more than prove
+ that such audacities were not for him.
+
+ As a prose writer Lamartine was very fertile. His characteristics in
+ his prose fiction and descriptive work are not very different from
+ those of his poetry. He is always and everywhere sentimental, though
+ very frequently, as in his shorter prose tales (_The Stone Mason of
+ Saint-Point_, _Graziella_, &c.), he is graceful as well as
+ sentimental. In his histories the effect is worse. It has been hinted
+ that Lamartine's personal narratives are doubtfully trustworthy; with
+ regard to his Eastern travels some of the episodes were stigmatized as
+ mere inventions. In his histories proper the special motive for
+ embellishment disappears, but the habit of inaccuracy remains. As an
+ historian he belongs exclusively to the rhetorical school as
+ distinguished from the philosophical on the one hand and the
+ documentary on the other.
+
+ It is not surprising when these characteristics of Lamartine's work
+ are appreciated to find that his fame declined with singular rapidity
+ in France. As a poet he had lost his reputation many years before he
+ died. He was entirely eclipsed by the brilliant and vigorous school
+ who succeeded him with Victor Hugo at their head. His power of
+ initiative in poetry was very small, and the range of poetic ground
+ which he could cover strictly limited. He could only carry the
+ picturesque sentimentalism of Rousseau, Bernardin de Saint Pierre and
+ Chateaubriand a little farther, and clothe it in language and verse a
+ little less antiquated than that of Chênedollé and Millevoye. He has
+ been said to be a French Cowper, and the parallel holds good in
+ respect of versification and of his relative position to the more
+ daringly innovating school that followed, though not in respect of
+ individual peculiarities. Lamartine in short occupied a kind of
+ half-way house between the 18th century and the Romantic movement, and
+ he never got any farther. When Matthew Arnold questioned his
+ importance in conversation with Sainte-Beuve, the answer was, "He is
+ important to _us_," and it was a true answer; but the limitation is
+ obvious. In more recent years, however, efforts have been made by
+ Brunetière and others to remove it. The usual revolution of critical
+ as of other taste, the oblivion of personal and political
+ unpopularity, and above all the reaction against Hugo and the extreme
+ Romantics, have been the main agents in this. Lamartine has been
+ extolled as a pattern of combined passion and restraint, as a model of
+ nobility of sentiment, and as a harmonizer of pure French classicism
+ in taste and expression with much, if not all, the better part of
+ Romanticism itself. These oscillations of opinion are frequent, if not
+ universal, and it is only after more than one or two swings that the
+ pendulum remains at the perpendicular. The above remarks are an
+ attempt to correct extravagance in either direction. But it is
+ difficult to believe that Lamartine can ever permanently take rank
+ among the first order of poets.
+
+ The edition mentioned is the most complete one of Lamartine, but there
+ are many issues of his separate works. After his death some poems and
+ _Mémoires inédits_ of his youth were published, and also two volumes
+ of correspondence, while in 1893 Mlle V. de Lamartine added a volume
+ of _Lettres_ to him. The change of views above referred to may be
+ studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetière, Faguet, Lemaître,
+ &c., and in the more substantive work of Ch. de Pomairols, _Lamartine_
+ (1889); E. Deschanel, _Lamartine_ (1893); E. Zyrowski, _Lamartine_
+ (1896); and perhaps best of all in the Preface to Emile Legouis'
+ Clarendon Press edition of _Jocelyn_ (1906), where a vigorous effort
+ is made to combat the idea of Lamartine's sentimentality and
+ femininity as a poet. (G. Sa.)
+
+
+
+
+LAMB, CHARLES (1775-1834), English essayist and critic, was born in
+Crown Office Row, Inner Temple, London, on the 10th of February 1775.
+His father, John Lamb, a Lincolnshire man, who filled the situation of
+clerk and servant-companion to Samuel Salt, a member of parliament and
+one of the benchers of the Inner Temple, was successful in obtaining for
+Charles, the youngest of three surviving children, a presentation to
+Christ's Hospital, where the boy remained from his eighth to his
+fifteenth year (1782-1789). Here he had for a schoolfellow Samuel Taylor
+Coleridge, his senior by rather more than two years, and a close and
+tender friendship began which lasted for the rest of the lives of both.
+When the time came for leaving school, where he had learned some Greek
+and acquired considerable facility in Latin composition, Lamb, after a
+brief stay at home (probably spent, as his school holidays had often
+been, over old English authors in Salt's library) was condemned to the
+labours of the desk--"an inconquerable impediment" in his speech
+disqualifying him for the clerical profession, which, as the school
+exhibitions were usually only given to those preparing for the church,
+thus deprived him of the only means by which he could have obtained a
+university education. For a short time he was in the office of Joseph
+Paice, a London merchant, and then for twenty-three weeks, until the 8th
+of February 1792, he held a small post in the Examiner's Office of the
+South Sea House, where his brother John was established, a period which,
+although his age was but sixteen, was to provide him nearly thirty years
+later with materials for the first of the _Essays of Elia_. On the 5th
+of April 1792, he entered the Accountant's Office in the East India
+House, where during the next three and thirty years the hundred official
+folios of what he used to call his true "works" were produced.
+
+Of the years 1792-1795 we know little. At the end of 1794 he saw much of
+Coleridge and joined him in writing sonnets in the _Morning Post_,
+addressed to eminent persons: early in 1795 he met Southey and was much
+in the company of James White, whom he probably helped in the
+composition of the _Original Letters of Sir John Falstaff_; and at the
+end of the year for a short time he became so unhinged mentally as to
+necessitate confinement in an asylum. The cause, it is probable, was an
+unsuccessful love affair with Ann Simmons, the Hertfordshire maiden to
+whom his first sonnets are addressed, whom he would have seen when on
+his visits as a youth to Blakesware House, near Widford, the country
+home of the Plumer family, of which Lamb's grandmother, Mary Field, was
+for many years, until her death in 1792, sole custodian.
+
+It was in the late summer of 1796 that a dreadful calamity came upon the
+Lambs, which seemed to blight all Lamb's prospects in the very morning
+of life. On the 22nd of September his sister Mary, "worn down to a state
+of extreme nervous misery by attention to needlework by day and to her
+mother at night," was suddenly seized with acute mania, in which she
+stabbed her mother to the heart. The calm self-mastery and loving
+self-renunciation which Charles Lamb, by constitution excitable, nervous
+and self-mistrustful, displayed at this crisis in his own history and in
+that of those nearest him, will ever give him an imperishable claim to
+the reverence and affection of all who are capable of appreciating the
+heroisms of common life. With the help of friends he succeeded in
+obtaining his sister's release from the lifelong restraint to which she
+would otherwise have been doomed, on the express condition that he
+himself should undertake the responsibility for her safe keeping. It
+proved no light charge: for though no one was capable of affording a
+more intelligent or affectionate companionship than Mary Lamb during her
+periods of health, there was ever present the apprehension of the
+recurrence of her malady; and when from time to time the premonitory
+symptoms had become unmistakable, there was no alternative but her
+removal, which took place in quietness and tears. How deeply the whole
+course of Lamb's domestic life must have been affected by his singular
+loyalty as a brother needs not to be pointed out.
+
+Lamb's first appearance as an author was made in the year of the great
+tragedy of his life (1796), when there were published in the volume of
+_Poems on Various Subjects_ by Coleridge four sonnets by "Mr Charles
+Lamb of the India House." In the following year he contributed, with
+Charles Lloyd, a pupil of Coleridge, some pieces in blank verse to the
+second edition of Coleridge's _Poems_. In 1797 his short summer holiday
+was spent with Coleridge at Nether Stowey, where he met the Wordsworths,
+William and Dorothy, and established a friendship with both which only
+his own death terminated. In 1798, under the influence of Henry
+Mackenzie's novel _Julie de Roubigné_, he published a short and pathetic
+prose tale entitled _Rosamund Gray_, in which it is possible to trace
+beneath disguised conditions references to the misfortunes of the
+author's own family, and many personal touches; and in the same year he
+joined Lloyd in a volume of _Blank Verse_, to which Lamb contributed
+poems occasioned by the death of his mother and his aunt Sarah Lamb,
+among them being his best-known lyric, "The Old Familiar Faces." In this
+year, 1798, he achieved the unexpected publicity of an attack by the
+_Anti-Jacobin_ upon him as an associate of Coleridge and Southey (to
+whose _Annual Anthology_ he had contributed) in their Jacobin
+machinations. In 1799, on the death of her father, Mary Lamb came to
+live again with her brother, their home then being in Pentonville; but
+it was not until 1800 that they really settled together, their first
+independent joint home being at Mitre Court Buildings in the Temple,
+where they lived until 1809. At the end of 1801, or beginning of 1802,
+appeared Lamb's first play _John Woodvil_, on which he set great store,
+a slight dramatic piece written in the style of the earlier Elizabethan
+period and containing some genuine poetry and happy delineation of the
+gentler emotions, but as a whole deficient in plot, vigour and
+character; it was held up to ridicule by the _Edinburgh Review_ as a
+specimen of the rudest condition of the drama, a work by "a man of the
+age of Thespis." The dramatic spirit, however, was not thus easily
+quenched in Lamb, and his next effort was a farce, _Mr H----_, the point
+of which lay in the hero's anxiety to conceal his name "Hogsflesh"; but
+it did not survive the first night of its appearance at Drury Lane, in
+December 1806. Its author bore the failure with rare equanimity and good
+humour--even to joining in the hissing--and soon struck into new and
+more successful fields of literary exertion. Before, however, passing to
+these it should be mentioned that he made various efforts to earn money
+by journalism, partly by humorous articles, partly as dramatic critic,
+but chiefly as a contributor of sarcastic or funny paragraphs, "sparing
+neither man nor woman," in the _Morning Post_, principally in 1803.
+
+In 1807 appeared _Tales founded on the Plays of Shakespeare_, written by
+Charles and Mary Lamb, in which Charles was responsible for the
+tragedies and Mary for the comedies; and in 1808, _Specimens of English
+Dramatic Poets who lived about the time of Shakespeare_, with short but
+felicitous critical notes. It was this work which laid the foundation of
+Lamb's reputation as a critic, for it was filled with imaginative
+understanding of the old playwrights, and a warm, discerning and novel
+appreciation of their great merits. In the same year, 1808, Mary Lamb,
+assisted by her brother, published _Poetry for Children_, and a
+collection of short school-girl tales under the title _Mrs Leicester's
+School_; and to the same date belongs _The Adventures of Ulysses_,
+designed by Lamb as a companion to _The Adventures of Telemachus_. In
+1810 began to appear Leigh Hunt's quarterly periodical, _The Reflector_,
+in which Lamb published much (including the fine essays on the tragedies
+of Shakespeare and on Hogarth) that subsequently appeared in the first
+collective edition of his _Works_, which he put forth in 1818.
+
+Between 1811, when _The Reflector_ ceased, and 1820, he wrote almost
+nothing. In these years we may imagine him at his most social period,
+playing much whist and entertaining his friends on Wednesday or Thursday
+nights; meanwhile gathering that reputation as a conversationalist or
+inspirer of conversation in others, which Hazlitt, who was at one time
+one of Lamb's closest friends, has done so much to celebrate. When in
+1818 appeared the _Works_ in two volumes, it may be that Lamb considered
+his literary career over. Before coming to 1820, and an event which was
+in reality to be the beginning of that career as it is generally
+known--the establishment of the _London Magazine_--it should be recorded
+that in the summer of 1819 Lamb, with his sister's full consent,
+proposed marriage to Fanny Kelly, the actress, who was then in her
+thirtieth year. Miss Kelly could not accept, giving as one reason her
+devotion to her mother. Lamb bore the rebuff with characteristic humour
+and fortitude.
+
+The establishment of the _London Magazine_ in 1820 stimulated Lamb to
+the production of a series of new essays (the _Essays of Elia_) which
+may be said to form the chief corner-stone in the small but classic
+temple of his fame. The first of these, as it fell out, was a
+description of the old South Sea House, with which Lamb happened to have
+associated the name of a "gay light-hearted foreigner" called Elia, who
+was a clerk in the days of his service there. The pseudonym adopted on
+this occasion was retained for the subsequent contributions, which
+appeared collectively in a volume of essays called _Elia_, in 1823.
+After a career of five years the _London Magazine_ came to an end; and
+about the same period Lamb's long connexion with the India House
+terminated, a pension of £450 (£441 net) having been assigned to him.
+The increased leisure, however, for which he had long sighed, did not
+prove favourable to literary production, which henceforth was limited to
+a few trifling contributions to the _New Monthly_ and other serials, and
+the excavation of gems from the mass of dramatic literature bequeathed
+to the British Museum by David Garrick, which Lamb laboriously read
+through in 1827, an occupation which supplied him for a time with the
+regular hours of work he missed so much. The malady of his sister, which
+continued to increase with ever shortening intervals of relief, broke in
+painfully on his lettered ease and comfort; and it is unfortunately
+impossible to ignore the deteriorating effects of an over-free
+indulgence in the use of alcohol, and, in early life, tobacco, on a
+temperament such as his. His removal on account of his sister to the
+quiet of the country at Enfield, by tending to withdraw him from the
+stimulating society of the large circle of literary friends who had
+helped to make his weekly or monthly "at homes" so remarkable, doubtless
+also tended to intensify his listlessness and helplessness. One of the
+brightest elements in the closing years of his life was the friendship
+and companionship of Emma Isola, whom he and his sister had adopted, and
+whose marriage in 1833 to Edward Moxon, the publisher, though a source
+of unselfish joy to Lamb, left him more than ever alone. While living at
+Edmonton, whither he had moved in 1833 so that his sister might have the
+continual care of Mr and Mrs Walden, who were accustomed to patients of
+weak intellect, Lamb was overtaken by an attack of erysipelas brought on
+by an accidental fall as he was walking on the London road. After a few
+days' illness he died on the 27th of December, 1834. The sudden death of
+one so widely known, admired and beloved, fell on the public as well as
+on his own attached circle with all the poignancy of a personal calamity
+and a private grief. His memory wanted no tribute that affection could
+bestow, and Wordsworth commemorated in simple and solemn verse the
+genius, virtues and fraternal devotion of his early friend.
+
+Charles Lamb is entitled to a place as an essayist beside Montaigne, Sir
+Thomas Browne, Steele and Addison. He unites many of the characteristics
+of each of these writers--refined and exquisite humour, a genuine and
+cordial vein of pleasantry and heart-touching pathos. His fancy is
+distinguished by great delicacy and tenderness; and even his conceits
+are imbued with human feeling and passion. He had an extreme and almost
+exclusive partiality for earlier prose writers, particularly for Fuller,
+Browne and Burton, as well as for the dramatists of Shakespeare's time;
+and the care with which he studied them is apparent in all he ever
+wrote. It shines out conspicuously in his style, which has an antique
+air and is redolent of the peculiarities of the 17th century. Its
+quaintness has subjected the author to the charge of affectation, but
+there is nothing really affected in his writings. His style is not so
+much an imitation as a reflexion of the older writers; for in spirit he
+made himself their contemporary. A confirmed habit of studying them in
+preference to modern literature had made something of their style
+natural to him; and long experience had rendered it not only easy and
+familiar but habitual. It was not a masquerade dress he wore, but the
+costume which showed the man to most advantage. With thought and meaning
+often profound, though clothed in simple language, every sentence of his
+essays is pregnant.
+
+He played a considerable part in reviving the dramatic writers of the
+Shakesperian age; for he preceded Gifford and others in wiping the dust
+of ages from their works. In his brief comments on each specimen he
+displays exquisite powers of discrimination: his discernment of the true
+meaning of his author is almost infallible. His work was a departure in
+criticism. Former editors had supplied textual criticism and alternative
+readings: Lamb's object was to show how our ancestors felt when they
+placed themselves by the power of imagination in trying situations, in
+the conflicts of duty or passion or the strife of contending duties;
+what sorts of loves and enmities theirs were.
+
+As a poet Lamb is not entitled to so high a place as that which can be
+claimed for him as essayist and critic. His dependence on Elizabethan
+models is here also manifest, but in such a way as to bring into all the
+greater prominence his native deficiency in "the accomplishment of
+verse." Yet it is impossible, once having read, ever to forget the
+tenderness and grace of such poems as "Hester," "The Old Familiar
+Faces," and the lines "On an infant dying as soon as born" or the quaint
+humour of "A Farewell to Tobacco." As a letter writer Lamb ranks very
+high, and when in a nonsensical mood there is none to touch him.
+
+ Editions and memoirs of Lamb are numerous. The _Letters_, with a
+ sketch of his life by Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd, appeared in 1837; the
+ _Final Memorials of Charles Lamb_ by the same hand, after Mary Lamb's
+ death, in 1848; Barry Cornwall's _Charles Lamb: A Memoir_, in 1866. Mr
+ P. Fitzgerald's _Charles Lamb: his Friends, his Haunts and his Books_
+ (1866); W. Carew Hazlitt's _Mary and Charles Lamb_ (1874). Mr
+ Fitzgerald and Mr Hazlitt have also both edited the _Letters_, and Mr
+ Fitzgerald brought Talfourd to date with an edition of Lamb's works in
+ 1870-1876. Later and fuller editions are those of Canon Ainger in 12
+ volumes, Mr Macdonald in 12 volumes and Mr E. V. Lucas in 7 volumes,
+ to which in 1905 was added _The Life of Charles Lamb_, in 2 volumes.
+ (E. V. L.)
+
+
+
+
+LAMB (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Lamm_), the young
+of sheep. The Paschal Lamb or Agnus Dei is used as a symbol of Jesus
+Christ, the Lamb of God (John i. 29), and "lamb," like "flock," is often
+used figuratively of the members of a Christian church or community,
+with an allusion to Jesus' charge to Peter (John xxi. 15). The "lamb and
+flag" is an heraldic emblem, the dexter fore-leg of the lamb supporting
+a staff bearing a banner charged with the St George's cross. This was
+one of the crests of the Knights Templars, used on seals as early as
+1241; it was adopted as a badge or crest by the Middle Temple, the Inner
+Temple using another crest of the Templars, the winged horse or Pegasus.
+The old Tangier regiment, now the Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment,
+bore a Paschal Lamb as its badge. From their colonel, Percy Kirke
+(q.v.), they were known as Kirke's Lambs. The exaggerated reputation of
+the regiment for brutality, both in Tangier and in England after
+Sedgmoor, lent irony to the nickname.
+
+
+
+
+LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO, PRINCESSE DE
+(1749-1792), fourth daughter of Louis Victor of Carignano (d. 1774)
+(great-grandfather of King Charles Albert of Sardinia), and of Christine
+Henriette of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rothenburg, was born at Turin on the 8th of
+September 1749. In 1767 she was married to Louis Alexandre Stanislaus de
+Bourbon, prince of Lamballe, son of the duke of Penthièvre, a grandson
+of Louis XIV.'s natural son the count of Toulouse. Her husband dying the
+following year, she retired with her father-in-law to Rambouillet, where
+she lived until the marriage of the dauphin, when she returned to court.
+Marie Antoinette, charmed by her gentle and naïve manners, singled her
+out for a companion and confidante. The impetuous character of the
+dauphiness found in Madame de Lamballe that submissive temperament which
+yields to force of environment, and the two became fast friends. After
+her accession Marie Antoinette, in spite of the king's opposition, had
+her appointed superintendent of the royal household. Between 1776 and
+1785 the comtesse de Polignac succeeded in supplanting her; but when the
+queen tired of the avarice of the Polignacs, she turned again to Madame
+de Lamballe. From 1785 to the Revolution she was Marie Antoinette's
+closest friend and the pliant instrument of her caprices. She came with
+the queen to the Tuileries and as her salon served as a meeting-place
+for the queen and the members of the Assembly whom she wished to gain
+over, the people believed her to be the soul of all the intrigues. After
+a visit to England in 1791 to appeal for help for the royal family she
+made her will and returned to the Tuileries, where she continued her
+services to the queen until the 10th of August, when she shared her
+imprisonment in the Temple. On the 19th of August she was transferred to
+La Force, and having refused to take the oath against the monarchy, she
+was on the 3rd of September delivered over to the fury of the populace,
+after which her head was placed on a pike and carried before the windows
+of the queen.
+
+ See George Bertin, _Madame de Lamballe_ (Paris, 1888); Austin Dobson,
+ _Four Frenchwomen_ (1890); B. C. Hardy, _Princesse de Lamballe_
+ (1908); Comte de Lescure, _La Princesse de Lamballe ... d'après des
+ documents inédits_ (1864); some letters of the princess published by
+ Ch. Schmidt in _La Révolution française_ (vol. xxxix., 1900); L.
+ Lambeau, _Essais sur la mort de madame la princesse de Lamballe_
+ (1902); Sir F. Montefiore, _The Princesse de Lamballe_ (1896). _The
+ Secret Memoirs of the Royal Family of France ... now first published
+ from the Journal, Letters and Conversations of the Princesse de
+ Lamballe_ (London, 2 vols., 1826) have since appeared in various
+ editions in English and in French. They are attributed to Catherine
+ Hyde, Marchioness Govion-Broglio-Solari, and are apocryphal.
+
+
+
+
+LAMBALLE, a town of north-western France, in the department of
+Côtes-du-Nord, on the Gouessant 13 m. E.S.E. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop.
+(1906) 4347. Crowning the eminence on which the town is built is a
+beautiful Gothic church (13th and 14th centuries), once the chapel of
+the castle of the counts of Penthièvre. La Noue, the famous Huguenot
+leader, was mortally wounded in 1591 in the siege of the castle, which
+was dismantled in 1626 by Richelieu. Of the other buildings, the church
+of St Martin (11th, 15th and 16th centuries) is the chief. Lamballe has
+an important _haras_ (depot for stallions) and carries on trade in
+grain, tanning and leather-dressing; earthenware is manufactured in the
+environs. Lamballe was the capital of the territory of the counts of
+Penthièvre, who in 1569 were made dukes.
+
+
+
+
+LAMBAYEQUE, a coast department of northern Peru, bounded N. by Piura, E.
+and S. by Cajamarca and Libertad. Area, 4614 sq. m. Pop. (1906 estimate)
+93,070. It belongs to the arid region of the coast, and is settled along
+the river valleys where irrigation is possible. It is one of the chief
+sugar-producing departments of Peru, and in some valleys, especially
+near Ferreñafe, rice is largely produced. Four railways connect its
+principal producing centres with the small ports of Eten and Pimentel,
+viz.: Eten to Ferreñafe, 27 m.; Eten to Cayalti, 23 m.; Pimentel to
+Lambayeque, 15 m.; and Chiclayo to Pátapo, 15 m. The principal towns are
+Chiclayo, the departmental capital, with a population (1906 estimate) of
+10,500, Ferreñafe 6000, and Lambayeque 4500.
+
+
+
+
+LAMBEAUX, JEF (JOSEPH MARIE THOMAS), (1852-1908), Belgian sculptor, was
+born at Antwerp. He studied at the Antwerp Academy of Fine Arts, and was
+a pupil of Jean Geefs. His first work, "War," was exhibited in 1871, and
+was followed by a long series of humorous groups, including "Children
+dancing," "Say 'Good Morning,'" "The Lucky Number" and "An Accident"
+(1875). He then went to Paris, where he executed for the Belgian salons
+"The Beggar" and "The Blind Pauper," and produced "The Kiss" (1881),
+generally regarded as his masterpiece. After visiting Italy, where he
+was much impressed by the works of Jean Bologne, he showed a strong
+predilection for effects of force and motion. Other notable works are
+his fountain at Antwerp (1886), "Robbing the Eagle's Eyrie" (1890),
+"Drunkenness" (1893), "The Triumph of Woman," "The Bitten Faun" (which
+created a great stir at the Exposition Universelle at Liége in 1905),
+and "The Human Passions," a colossal marble bas-relief, elaborated from
+a sketch exhibited in 1889. Of his numerous busts may be mentioned those
+of Hendrik Conscience, and of Charles Bals, the burgomaster of Brussels.
+He died on the 6th of June 1908.
+
+
+
+
+LAMBERMONT, AUGUSTE, BARON (1819-1905), Belgian statesman, was born at
+Dion-le-Val in Brabant on the 25th of March 1819. He came of a family of
+small farmer proprietors, who had held land during three centuries. He
+was intended for the priesthood and entered the seminary of Floreffe,
+but his energies claimed a more active sphere. He left the monastery for
+Louvain University. Here he studied law, and also prepared himself for
+the military examinations. At that juncture the first Carlist war broke
+out, and Lambermont hastened to the scene of action. His services were
+accepted (April 1838) and he was entrusted with the command of two small
+cannon. He also acted as A.D.C. to Colonel Durando. He greatly
+distinguished himself, and for his intrepidity on one occasion he was
+decorated with the Cross of the highest military Order of St Ferdinand.
+Returning to Belgium he entered the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in
+1842. He served in this department sixty-three years. He was closely
+associated with several of the most important questions in Belgian
+history during the last half of the 19th century--notably the freeing of
+the Scheldt. He was one of the very first Belgians to see the importance
+of developing the trade of their country, and at his own request he was
+attached to the commercial branch of the foreign office. The tolls
+imposed by the Dutch on navigation on the Scheldt strangled Belgian
+trade, for Antwerp was the only port of the country. The Dutch had the
+right to make this levy under treaties going back to the treaty of
+Munster in 1648, and they clung to it still more tenaciously after
+Belgium separated herself in 1830-1831 from the united kingdom of the
+Netherlands--the London conference in 1839 fixing the toll payable to
+Holland at 1.50 florins (3s.) per ton. From 1856 to 1863 Lambermont
+devoted most of his energies to the removal of this impediment. In 1856
+he drew up a plan of action, and he prosecuted it with untiring
+perseverance until he saw it embodied in an international convention
+seven years later. Twenty-one powers and states attended a conference
+held on the question at Brussels in 1863, and on the 15th of July the
+treaty freeing the Scheldt was signed. For this achievement Lambermont
+was made a baron. Among other important conferences in which Lambermont
+took a leading part were those of Brussels (1874) on the usages of war,
+Berlin (1884-1885) on Africa and the Congo region, and Brussels (1890)
+on Central African Affairs and the Slave Trade. He was joint reporter
+with Baron de Courcel of the Berlin conference in 1884-1885, and on
+several occasions he was chosen as arbitrator by one or other of the
+great European powers. But his great achievement was the freeing of the
+Scheldt, and in token of its gratitude the city of Antwerp erected a
+fine monument to his memory. He died on the 7th of March 1905.
+
+
+
+
+LAMBERT, DANIEL (1770-1809), an Englishman famous for his great size,
+was born near Leicester on the 13th of March 1770, the son of the keeper
+of the jail, to which post he succeeded in 1791. About this time his
+size and weight increased enormously, and though he had led an active
+and athletic life he weighed in 1793 thirty-two stone (448 lb.). In 1806
+he resolved to profit by his notoriety, and resigning his office went up
+to London and exhibited himself. He died on the 21st of July 1809, and
+at the time measured 5 ft. 11 in. in height and weighed 52¾ stone (739
+lb.). His waistcoat, now in the Kings Lynn Museum, measures 102 in.
+round the waist. His coffin contained 112 ft. of elm and was built on
+wheels. His name has been used as a synonym for immensity. George
+Meredith describes London as the "Daniel Lambert of cities," and Herbert
+Spencer uses the phrase "a Daniel Lambert of learning." His enormous
+proportions were depicted on a number of tavern signs, but the best
+portrait of him, a large mezzotint, is preserved at the British Museum
+in Lyson's _Collectanea_.
+
+
+
+
+LAMBERT, FRANCIS (c. 1486-1530), Protestant reformer, was the son of a
+papal official at Avignon, where he was born between 1485 and 1487. At
+the age of 15 he entered the Franciscan monastery at Avignon, and after
+1517 he was an itinerant preacher, travelling through France, Italy and
+Switzerland. His study of the Scriptures shook his faith in Roman
+Catholic theology, and by 1522 he had abandoned his order, and became
+known to the leaders of the Reformation in Switzerland and Germany. He
+did not, however, identify himself either with Zwinglianism or
+Lutheranism; he disputed with Zwingli at Zürich in 1522, and then made
+his way to Eisenach and Wittenberg, where he married in 1523. He
+returned to Strassburg in 1524, being anxious to spread the doctrines of
+the Reformation among the French-speaking population of the
+neighbourhood. By the Germans he was distrusted, and in 1526 his
+activities were prohibited by the city of Strassburg. He was, however,
+befriended by Jacob Sturm, who recommended him to the Landgraf Philip of
+Hesse, the most liberal of the German reforming princes. With Philip's
+encouragement he drafted that scheme of ecclesiastical reform for which
+he is famous. Its basis was essentially democratic and congregational,
+though it provided for the government of the whole church by means of a
+synod. Pastors were to be elected by the congregation, and the whole
+system of canon-law was repudiated. This scheme was submitted by Philip
+to a synod at Homburg; but Luther intervened and persuaded the Landgraf
+to abandon it. It was far too democratic to commend itself to the
+Lutherans, who had by this time bound the Lutheran cause to the support
+of princes rather than to that of the people. Philip continued to favour
+Lambert, who was appointed professor and head of the theological faculty
+in the Landgraf's new university of Marburg. Patrick Hamilton (q.v.),
+the Scottish martyr, was one of his pupils; and it was at Lambert's
+instigation that Hamilton composed his _Loci communes_, or _Patrick's
+Pleas_ as they were popularly called in Scotland. Lambert was also one
+of the divines who took part in the great conference of Marburg in 1529;
+he had long wavered between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian view of the
+Lord's Supper, but at this conference he definitely adopted the
+Zwinglian view. He died of the plague on the 18th of April 1530, and was
+buried at Marburg.
+
+ A catalogue of Lambert's writings is given in Haag's _La France
+ protestante_. See also lives of Lambert by Baum (Strassburg, 1840); F.
+ W. Hessencamp (Elberfeld, 1860), Stieve (Breslau, 1867) and Louis
+ Ruffet (Paris, 1873); Lorimer, _Life of Patrick Hamilton_ (1857); A.
+ L. Richter, _Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrh_.
+ (Weimar, 1846); Hessencamp, _Hessische Kirchenordnungen im Zeitalter
+ der Reformation_; Philip of _Hesse's Correspondence with Bucer_, ed.
+ M. Lenz; Lindsay, _Hist. Reformation_; _Allgemeine deutsche
+ Biographie_. (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH (1728-1777), German physicist, mathematician
+and astronomer, was born at Mulhausen, Alsace, on the 26th of August
+1728. He was the son of a tailor; and the slight elementary instruction
+he obtained at the free school of his native town was supplemented by
+his own private reading. He became book-keeper at Montbéliard ironworks,
+and subsequently (1745) secretary to Professor Iselin, the editor of a
+newspaper at Basel, who three years later recommended him as private
+tutor to the family of Count A. von Salis of Coire. Coming thus into
+virtual possession of a good library, Lambert had peculiar opportunities
+for improving himself in his literary and scientific studies. In 1759,
+after completing with his pupils a tour of two years' duration through
+Göttingen, Utrecht, Paris, Marseilles and Turin, he resigned his
+tutorship and settled at Augsburg. Munich, Erlangen, Coire and Leipzig
+became for brief successive intervals his home. In 1764 he removed to
+Berlin, where he received many favours at the hand of Frederick the
+Great and was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of
+Berlin, and in 1774 edited the Berlin _Ephemeris_. He died of
+consumption on the 25th of September 1777. His publications show him to
+have been a man of original and active mind with a singular facility in
+applying mathematics to practical questions.
+
+His mathematical discoveries were extended and overshadowed by his
+contemporaries. His development of the equation x^m + px = q in an
+infinite series was extended by Leonhard Euler, and particularly by
+Joseph Louis Lagrange. In 1761 he proved the irrationality of [pi]; a
+simpler proof was given somewhat later by Legendre. The introduction of
+hyperbolic functions into trigonometry was also due to him. His
+geometrical discoveries are of great value, his _Die freie Perspective_
+(1759-1774) being a work of great merit. Astronomy was also enriched by
+his investigations, and he was led to several remarkable theorems on
+conics which bear his name. The most important are: (1) To express the
+time of describing an elliptic arc under the Newtonian law of
+gravitation in terms of the focal distances of the initial and final
+points, and the length of the chord joining them. (2) A theorem relating
+to the apparent curvature of the geocentric path of a comet.
+
+ Lambert's most important work, _Pyrometrie_ (Berlin, 1779), is a
+ systematic treatise on heat, containing the records and full
+ discussion of many of his own experiments. Worthy of special notice
+ also are _Photometria_ (Augsburg, 1760), _Insigniores orbitae
+ cometarum proprietates_ (Augsburg, 1761), and _Beiträge zum Gebrauche
+ der Mathematik und deren Anwendung_ (4 vols., Berlin, 1765-1772).
+
+ The _Memoirs_ of the Berlin Academy from 1761 to 1784 contain many of
+ his papers, which treat of such subjects as resistance of fluids,
+ magnetism, comets, probabilities, the problem of three bodies,
+ meteorology, &c. In the _Acta Helvetica_ (1752-1760) and in the _Nova
+ acta erudita_ (1763-1769) several of his contributions appear. In
+ Bode's _Jahrbuch_ (1776-1780) he discusses nutation, aberration of
+ light, Saturn's rings and comets; in the _Nova acta Helvetica_ (1787)
+ he has a long paper "Sur le son des corps élastiques," in Bernoulli
+ and Hindenburg's _Magazin_ (1787-1788) he treats of the roots of
+ equation and of parallel lines; and in Hindenburg's _Archiv_
+ (1798-1799) he writes on optics and perspective. Many of these pieces
+ were published posthumously. Recognized as among the first
+ mathematicians of his day, he was also widely known for the
+ universality and depth of his philological and philosophical
+ knowledge. The most valuable of his logical and philosophical memoirs
+ were published collectively in 2 vols. (1782).
+
+ See Huber's _Lambert nach seinem Leben und Wirken_; M. Chasles,
+ _Geschichte der Geometrie_; and Baensch, Lamberts _Philosophie und
+ seine Stellung zu Kant_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+LAMBERT [_alias_ NICHOLSON], JOHN (d. 1538), English Protestant martyr,
+was born at Norwich and educated at Cambridge, where he graduated B.A.
+and was admitted in 1521 a fellow of Queen's College on the nomination
+of Catherine of Aragon. After acting for some years as a "mass-priest,"
+his views were unsettled by the arguments of Bilney and Arthur; and
+episcopal persecution compelled him, according to his own account, to
+assume the name Lambert instead of Nicholson. He likewise removed to
+Antwerp, where he became chaplain to the English factory, and formed a
+friendship with Frith and Tyndale. Returning to England in 1531, he came
+under the notice of Archbishop Warham, who questioned him closely on his
+religious beliefs. Warham's death in August 1532 relieved Lambert from
+immediate danger, and he earned a living for some years by teaching
+Latin and Greek near the Stocks Market in London. The duke of Norfolk
+and other reactionaries accused him of heresy in 1536, but reforming
+tendencies were still in the ascendant, and Lambert escaped. In 1538,
+however, the reaction had begun, and Lambert was its first victim. He
+singled himself out for persecution by denying the Real Presence: and
+Henry VIII., who had just rejected the Lutheran proposals for a
+theological union, was in no mood to tolerate worse heresies. Lambert
+had challenged some views expressed by Dr John Taylor, afterwards bishop
+of Lincoln; and Cranmer as archbishop condemned Lambert's opinions. He
+appealed to the king as supreme head of the Church, and on the 16th of
+November Henry heard the case in person before a large assembly of
+spiritual and temporal peers. For five hours Lambert disputed with the
+king and ten bishops; and then, as he boldly denied that the Eucharist
+was the body of Christ, he was condemned to death by Cromwell as
+vicegerent. Henry's condescension and patience produced a great
+impression on his Catholic subjects; but Cromwell is said by Foxe to
+have asked Lambert's pardon before his execution, and Cranmer eventually
+adopted the views he condemned in Lambert. Lambert was burnt at
+Smithfield on the 22nd of November.
+
+ See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._; Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_;
+ Froude, _History_; Dixon, _Church History_; Gairdner, _Lollardy and
+ the Reformation_, _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ and authorities there cited.
+ (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+LAMBERT, JOHN (1619-1694), English general in the Great Rebellion, was
+born at Calton Hall, Kirkby Malham, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. His
+family was of ancient lineage, and long settled in the county. He
+studied law, but did not make it his profession. In 1639 he married
+Frances, daughter of Sir William Lister. At the opening of the Civil War
+he took up arms for the parliament, and in September 1642 was appointed
+a captain of horse in the army commanded by Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax. A
+year later he had become colonel of a regiment of horse, and he
+distinguished himself at the siege of Hull in October, 1643. Early in
+1644 he did good service at the battles of Nantwich and Bradford. At
+Marston Moor Lambert's own regiment was routed by the charge of Goring's
+horse; but he cut his way through with a few troops and joined Cromwell
+on the other side of the field. When the New Model army was formed in
+the beginning of 1645, Colonel Lambert was appointed to succeed Fairfax
+in command of the northern forces. General Poyntz, however, soon
+replaced him, and under this officer he served in the Yorkshire campaign
+of 1645, receiving a wound before Pontefract. In 1646 he was given a
+regiment in the New Model, serving with Fairfax in the west of England,
+and he was a commissioner, with Cromwell and others, for the surrender
+of Oxford in the same year. "It is evident," says C. H. Firth (_Dict.
+Nat. Biog._), "that he was from the first regarded as an officer of
+exceptional capacity and specially selected for semi-political
+employments."
+
+When the quarrel between the army and the parliament began, Lambert
+threw himself warmly into the army's cause. He assisted Ireton in
+drawing up the several addresses and remonstrances issued by the army,
+both men having had some experience in the law, and being "of a subtle
+and working brain." Early in August 1647 Lambert was sent by Fairfax as
+major-general to take charge of the forces in the northern counties. His
+wise and just managing of affairs in those parts is commended by
+Whitelocke. He suppressed a mutiny among his troops, kept strict
+discipline and hunted down the moss-troopers who infested the moorland
+country.
+
+When the Scottish army under the marquis of Hamilton invaded England in
+the summer of 1648, Lambert was engaged in suppressing the Royalist
+rising in his district. The arrival of the Scots obliged him to retreat;
+but Lambert displayed the greatest energy and did not cease to harass
+the invaders till Cromwell came up from Wales and with him destroyed the
+Scottish army in the three days' fighting from Preston to Warrington.
+After the battle Lambert's cavalry headed the chase, pursuing the
+defeated army _à outrance_, and finally surrounded it at Uttoxeter,
+where Hamilton surrendered to Lambert on the 25th of August. He then led
+the advance of Cromwell's army into Scotland, where he was left in
+charge on Cromwell's return. From December 1648 to March 1649 he was
+engaged in the siege of Pontefract Castle; Lambert was thus absent from
+London at the time of Pride's Purge and the trial and execution of the
+king.
+
+When Cromwell was appointed to the command of the war in Scotland (July
+1650), Lambert went with him as major-general and second in command. He
+was wounded at Musselburgh, but returned to the front in time to take a
+conspicuous share in the victory of Dunbar. He himself defeated the
+"Protesters" or "Western Whigs" at Hamilton, on the 1st of December
+1650. In July 1651 he was sent into Fife to get in the rear and flank of
+the Scottish army near Falkirk, and force them to decisive action by
+cutting off their supplies. This mission, in the course of which Lambert
+won an important victory at Inverkeithing, was executed with entire
+success, whereupon Charles II., as Lambert had foreseen, made for
+England. For the events of the Worcester campaign, which quickly
+followed, see GREAT REBELLION. Lambert's part in the general plan was
+carried out most brilliantly, and in the crowning victory of Worcester
+he commanded the right wing of the English army, and had his horse shot
+under him. Parliament now conferred on him a grant of lands in Scotland
+worth £1000 per annum.
+
+In October 1651 Lambert was made a commissioner to settle the affairs of
+Scotland, and on the death of Ireton he was appointed lord deputy of
+Ireland (January 1652). He accepted the office with pleasure, and made
+magnificent preparations; parliament, however, soon afterwards
+reconstituted the Irish administration and Lambert refused to accept
+office on the new terms. Henceforward he began to oppose the Rump. In
+the council of officers he headed the party desiring representative
+government, as opposed to Harrison who favoured a selected oligarchy of
+"God-fearing" men, but both hated what remained of the Long parliament,
+and joined in urging Cromwell to dissolve it by force. At the same time
+Lambert was consulted by the parliamentary leaders as to the possibility
+of dismissing Cromwell from his command, and on the 15th of March 1653
+Cromwell refused to see him, speaking of him contemptuously as
+"bottomless Lambert." On the 20th of April, however, Lambert accompanied
+Cromwell when he dismissed the council of state, on the same day as the
+forcible expulsion of the parliament. Lambert now favoured the formation
+of a small executive council, to be followed by an elective parliament
+whose powers should be limited by a written instrument of government.
+Being at this time the ruling spirit in the council of state, and the
+idol of the army, there were some who looked on him as a possible rival
+of Cromwell for the chief executive power, while the royalists for a
+short time had hopes of his support. He was invited, with Cromwell,
+Harrison and Desborough, to sit in the nominated parliament of 1653; and
+when the unpopularity of that assembly increased, Cromwell drew nearer
+to Lambert. In November 1653 Lambert presided over a meeting of
+officers, when the question of constitutional settlement was discussed,
+and a proposal made for the forcible expulsion of the nominated
+parliament. On the 1st of December he urged Cromwell to assume the title
+of king, which the latter refused. On the 12th the parliament resigned
+its powers into Cromwell's hands, and on the 13th Lambert obtained the
+consent of the officers to the Instrument of Government (q.v.), in the
+framing of which he had taken a leading part. He was one of the seven
+officers nominated to seats in the council created by the Instrument. In
+the foreign policy of the protectorate he was the most clamorous of
+those who called for alliance with Spain and war with France in 1653,
+and he firmly withstood Cromwell's design for an expedition to the West
+Indies.
+
+In the debates in parliament on the Instrument of Government in 1654
+Lambert proposed that the office of protector should be made hereditary,
+but was defeated by a majority which included members of Cromwell's
+family. In the parliament of this year, and again in 1656, Lord Lambert,
+as he was now styled, sat as member for the West Riding. He was one of
+the major-generals appointed in August 1655 to command the militia in
+the ten districts into which it was proposed to divide England, and who
+were to be responsible for the maintenance of order and the
+administration of the law in their several districts. Lambert took a
+prominent part in the committee of council which drew up instructions to
+the major-generals, and he was probably the originator, and certainly
+the organizer, of the system of police which these officers were to
+control. Gardiner conjectures that it was through divergence of opinion
+between the protector and Lambert in connexion with these "instructions"
+that the estrangement between the two men began. At all events, although
+Lambert had himself at an earlier date requested Cromwell to take the
+royal dignity, when the proposal to declare Oliver king was started in
+parliament (February 1657) he at once declared strongly against it. A
+hundred officers headed by Fleetwood and Lambert waited on the
+protector, and begged him to put a stop to the proceedings. Lambert was
+not convinced by Cromwell's arguments, and their complete estrangement,
+personal as well as political, followed. On his refusal to take the oath
+of allegiance to the protector, Lambert was deprived of his commissions,
+receiving, however, a pension of £2000 a year. He retired to his garden
+at Wimbledon, and appeared no more in public during Oliver Cromwell's
+lifetime; but shortly before his death Cromwell sought a reconciliation,
+and Lambert and his wife visited him at Whitehall.
+
+When Richard Cromwell was proclaimed protector his chief difficulty lay
+with the army, over which he exercised no effective control. Lambert,
+though holding no military commission, was the most popular of the old
+Cromwellian generals with the rank and file of the army, and it was very
+generally believed that he would instal himself in Oliver's seat of
+power. Richard's adherents tried to conciliate him, and the royalist
+leaders made overtures to him, even proposing that Charles II. should
+marry Lambert's daughter. Lambert at first gave a lukewarm support to
+Richard Cromwell, and took no part in the intrigues of the officers at
+Fleetwood's residence, Wallingford House. He was a member of the
+parliament which met in January 1659, and when it was dissolved in April
+under compulsion of Fleetwood and Desborough, he was restored to his
+commands. He headed the deputation to Lenthall in May inviting the
+return of the Rump, which led to the tame retirement of Richard Cromwell
+into obscurity; and he was appointed a member of the committee of safety
+and of the council of state. When the parliament, desirous of
+controlling the power of the army, withheld from Fleetwood the right of
+nominating officers, Lambert was named one of a council of seven charged
+with this duty. The parliament's evident distrust of the soldiers caused
+much discontent in the army; while the entire absence of real authority
+encouraged the royalists to make overt attempts to restore Charles II.,
+the most serious of which, under Sir George Booth and the earl of Derby,
+was crushed by Lambert near Chester on the 19th of August. He promoted a
+petition from his army that Fleetwood might be made lord-general and
+himself major-general. The republican party in the House took offence.
+The Commons (October 12th, 1659) cashiered Lambert and other officers,
+and retained Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the
+authority of the speaker. On the next day Lambert caused the doors of
+the House to be shut and the members kept out. On the 26th a "committee
+of safety" was appointed, of which he was a member. He was also
+appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland,
+Fleetwood being general. Lambert was now sent with a large force to meet
+Monk, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either
+negotiate with him or force him to terms. Monk, however, set his army in
+motion southward. Lambert's army began to melt away, and he was kept in
+suspense by Monk till his whole army fell from him and he returned to
+London almost alone. Monk marched to London unopposed. The "excluded"
+Presbyterian members were recalled. Lambert was sent to the Tower (March
+3rd, 1660), from which he escaped a month later. He tried to rekindle
+the civil war in favour of the Commonwealth, but was speedily recaptured
+and sent back to the Tower (April 24th). On the Restoration he was
+exempted from danger of life by an address of both Houses to the king,
+but the next parliament (1662) charged him with high treason.
+Thenceforward for the rest of his life Lambert remained in custody in
+Guernsey. He died in 1694.
+
+ Lambert would have left a better name in history if he had been a
+ cavalier. His genial, ardent and excitable nature, easily raised and
+ easily depressed, was more akin to the royalist than to the puritan
+ spirit. Vain and sometimes overbearing, as well as ambitious, he
+ believed that Cromwell could not stand without him; and when Cromwell
+ was dead, he imagined himself entitled and fitted to succeed him. Yet
+ his ambition was less selfish than that of Monk. Lambert is accused of
+ no ill faith, no want of generosity, no cold and calculating policy.
+ As a soldier he was far more than a fighting general and possessed
+ many of the qualities of a great general. He was, moreover, an able
+ writer and speaker, and an accomplished negotiator and took pleasure
+ in quiet and domestic pursuits. He learnt his love of gardening from
+ Lord Fairfax, who was also his master in the art of war. He painted
+ flowers, besides cultivating them, and incurred the blame of Mrs
+ Hutchinson by "dressing his flowers in his garden and working at the
+ needle with his wife and his maids." He made no special profession of
+ religion; but no imputation is cast upon his moral character by his
+ detractors. It has been said that he became a Roman Catholic before
+ his death.
+
+
+
+
+LAMBERT OF HERSFELD (d. c. 1088), German chronicler, was probably a
+Thuringian by birth and became a monk in the Benedictine abbey of
+Hersfeld in 1058. As he was ordained priest at Aschaffenburg he is
+sometimes called Lambert of Aschaffenburg, or Schafnaburg. He made a
+pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and visited various monasteries of his
+order; but he is famous as the author of some _Annales_. From the
+creation of the world until about 1040 these _Annales_ are a jejune copy
+of other annals, but from 1040 to their conclusion in 1077 they are
+interesting for the history of Germany and the papacy. The important
+events during the earlier part of the reign of the emperor Henry IV.,
+including the visit to Canossa and the battle of Hohenburg, are vividly
+described. Their tone is hostile to Henry IV. and friendly to the
+papacy; their Latin style is excellent. The _Annales_ were first
+published in 1525 and are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae
+historica_, Bände iii. and v. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). Formerly
+Lambert's reputation for accuracy and impartiality was very high, but
+both qualities have been somewhat discredited.
+
+ Lambert is also regarded as the author of the _Historia
+ Hersfeldensis_, the extant fragments of which are published in Band v.
+ of the _Monumenta_ of a _Vita Lulli_, Lullus, archbishop of Mainz,
+ being the founder of the abbey of Hersfeld; and of a _Carmen de bello
+ Saxonico_. His _Opera_ have been edited with an introduction by O.
+ Holder-Egger (Hanover, 1894).
+
+ See H. Delbrück, _Über die Glaubwürdigkeit Lamberts von Hersfeld_
+ (Bonn, 1873); A. Eigenbrodt, _Lampert von Hersfeld und die neuere
+ Quellenforschung_ (Cassel, 1896); L. von Ranke, _Zur Kritik
+ frankisch-deutscher Reichsannalisten_ (Berlin, 1854); W. Wattenbach,
+ _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_ Band ii. (Berlin, 1906) and A.
+ Potthast, _Bibliotheca Historica_ (Berlin, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+LAMBESSA, the ancient Lambaesa, a village of Algeria, in the
+arrondissement of Batna and department of Constantine, 7 m. S.E. of
+Batna and 17 W. of Timgad. The modern village, the centre of an
+agricultural colony founded in 1848, is noteworthy for its great convict
+establishment (built about 1850). The remains of the Roman town, and
+more especially of the Roman camp, in spite of wanton vandalism, are
+among the most interesting ruins in northern Africa. They are now
+preserved by the _Service des Monuments historiques_ and excavations
+have resulted in many interesting discoveries. The ruins are situated on
+the lower terraces of the Jebel Aures, and consist of triumphal arches
+(one to Septimius Severus, another to Commodus), temples, aqueducts,
+vestiges of an amphitheatre, baths and an immense quantity of masonry
+belonging to private houses. To the north and east lie extensive
+cemeteries with the stones standing in their original alignments; to the
+west is a similar area, from which, however, the stones have been
+largely removed for building the modern village. Of the temple of
+Aesculapius only one column is standing, though in the middle of the
+19th century its façade was entire. The capitol or temple dedicated to
+Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which has been cleared of débris, has a
+portico with eight columns. On level ground about two-thirds of a mile
+from the centre of the ancient town stands the camp, its site now partly
+occupied by the penitentiary and its gardens. It measures 1640 ft. N. to
+S. by 1476 ft. E. to W., and in the middle rise the ruins of a building
+commonly called, but incorrectly, the praetorium. This noble building,
+which dates from A.D. 268, is 92 ft. long by 66 ft. broad and 49 ft.
+high; its southern façade has a splendid peristyle half the height of
+the wall, consisting of a front row of massive Ionic columns and an
+engaged row of Corinthian pilasters. Behind this building (which was
+roofed), is a large court giving access to other buildings, one being
+the arsenal. In it have been found many thousands of projectiles. To the
+S.E. are the remains of the baths. The ruins of both city and camp have
+yielded many inscriptions (Renier edited 1500, and there are 4185 in the
+_Corpus Inscr. Lat._ vol. viii.); and, though a very large proportion
+are epitaphs of the barest kind, the more important pieces supply an
+outline of the history of the place. Over 2500 inscriptions relating to
+the camp have been deciphered. In a museum in the village are objects of
+antiquity discovered in the vicinity. Besides inscriptions, statues,
+&c., are some fine mosaics found in 1905 near the arch of Septimius
+Severus. The statues include those of Aesculapius and Hygieia, taken
+from the temple of Aesculapius.
+
+ Lambaesa was a military foundation. The camp of the third legion
+ (Legio III. Augusta), to which it owes its origin, appears to have
+ been established between A.D. 123 and 129, in the time of Hadrian,
+ whose address to his soldiers was found inscribed on a pillar in a
+ second camp to the west of the great camp still extant. By 166 mention
+ is made of the decurions of a vicus, 10 curiae of which are known by
+ name; and the vicus became a municipium probably at the time when it
+ was made the capital of the newly founded province of Numidia. The
+ legion was removed by Gordianus, but restored by Valerianus and
+ Gallienus; and its final departure did not take place till after 392.
+ The town soon afterwards declined. It never became the seat of a
+ bishop, and no Christian inscriptions have been found among the ruins.
+
+ About 2 m. S. of Lambessa are the ruins of Markuna, the ancient
+ Verecunda, including two triumphal arches.
+
+ See S. Gsell, _Les Monuments antiques de l'Algérie_ (Paris, 1901) and
+ _L'Algérie dans l'antiquité_ (Algiers, 1903); L. Renier, _Inscriptions
+ romaines de l'Algérie_ (Paris, 1855); Gustav Wilmann, "Die röm.
+ Lagerstadt Afrikas," in _Commentationes phil. in honorem Th. Mommseni_
+ (Berlin, 1877); Sir L. Playfair, _Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce_
+ (London, 1877); A. Graham, _Roman Africa_ (London, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+LAMBETH, a southern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded
+N.W. by the river Thames, N.E. by Southwark, E. by Camberwell and W. by
+Wandsworth and Battersea, and extending S. to the boundary of the county
+of London. Pop. (1901) 301,895. The name is commonly confined to the
+northern part of the borough, bordering the river; but the principal
+districts included are Kennington and Vauxhall (north central), Brixton
+(central) and part of Norwood (south). Four road-bridges cross the
+Thames within the limits of the borough, namely Waterloo, Westminster,
+Lambeth and Vauxhall, of which the first, a fine stone structure, dates
+from 1817, and is the oldest Thames bridge standing within the county of
+London. The main thoroughfare runs S. from Westminster Bridge Road as
+Kennington Road, continuing as Brixton Road and Brixton Hill, Clapham
+Road branching S.W. from it at Kennington. Several thoroughfares also
+converge upon Vauxhall Bridge, and from a point near this down to
+Westminster Bridge the river is bordered by the fine Albert Embankment.
+
+Early records present the name _Lamb-hythe_ in various forms. The suffix
+is common along the river in the meaning of a haven, but the prefix is
+less clear; a Saxon word signifying mud is suggested. Brixton and
+Kennington are mentioned in Domesday; and in Vauxhall is concealed the
+name of Falkes de Breauté, an unscrupulous adventurer of the time of
+John and Henry III. exiled in 1225. The manor of North Lambeth was given
+to the bishopric of Rochester in the time of Edward the Confessor, and
+the bishops had a house here till the 16th century. They did not,
+however, retain the manor beyond the close of the 12th century, when it
+was acquired by the see of Canterbury. The palace of the archbishops is
+still here, and forms, with the parish church, a picturesque group of
+buildings, lying close to the river opposite the majestic Houses of
+Parliament, and to some extent joining with them to make of this reach
+of the Thames one of the finest prospects in London. The oldest part of
+the palace remaining is the Early English chapel. The so-called
+Lollard's Tower, which retains evidence of its use as a prison, dates c.
+1440. There is a fine Tudor gatehouse of brick, and the hall is dated
+1663. The portion now inhabited by the archbishops was erected in 1834
+and fronts a spacious quadrangle. Among the portraits of the archbishops
+here are examples by Holbein, Van Dyck, Hogarth and Reynolds. There is a
+valuable library. The church of St Mary was rebuilt c. 1850, though the
+ancient monuments preserved give it an appearance of antiquity. Here are
+tombs of some of the archbishops, including Bancroft (d. 1610), and of
+the two Tradescants, collectors, and a memorial to Elias Ashmole, whose
+name is preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University, to which
+he presented the collections of his friend the younger Tradescant (d.
+1662). In the present Westminster Bridge Road was a circus, well known
+in the later 18th and early 19th centuries as Astley's, and near
+Vauxhall Bridge were the celebrated Vauxhall Gardens.
+
+ The principal modern pleasure grounds are Kennington Park (20 acres),
+ and Brockwell Park (127 acres) south of Brixton, and near the southern
+ end of Kennington Road is Kennington Oval, the ground of the Surrey
+ County Cricket Club, the scene of its home matches and of other
+ important fixtures. Among institutions the principal is St Thomas'
+ Hospital, the extensive buildings of which front the Albert
+ Embankment. The original foundation dated from 1213, was situated in
+ Southwark, and was connected with the priory of Bermondsey. The
+ existing buildings, subsequently enlarged, were opened in 1871, are
+ divided into a series of blocks, and include a medical school. Other
+ hospitals are the Royal, for children and women, Waterloo Road, the
+ Lying-in Hospital, York Road, and the South-western fever hospital in
+ Stockwell. There are technical institutes in Brixton and Norwood; and
+ on Brixton Hill is Brixton Prison. In the northern part of the borough
+ are numerous factories, including the great Doulton pottery works. The
+ parliamentary borough of Lambeth has four divisions, North,
+ Kennington, Brixton and Norwood, each returning one member. The
+ borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors.
+ Area, 4080.4 acres.
+
+
+
+
+LAMBETH CONFERENCES, the name given to the periodical assemblies of
+bishops of the Anglican Communion (Pan-Anglican synods), which since
+1867 have met at Lambeth Palace, the London residence of the archbishop
+of Canterbury. The idea of these meetings was first suggested in a
+letter to the archbishop of Canterbury by Bishop Hopkins of Vermont in
+1851, but the immediate impulse came from the colonial Church in Canada.
+In 1865 the synod of that province, in an urgent letter to the
+archbishop of Canterbury (Dr Longley), represented the unsettlement of
+members of the Canadian Church caused by recent legal decisions of the
+Privy Council, and their alarm lest the revived action of Convocation
+"should leave us governed by canons different from those in force in
+England and Ireland, and thus cause us to drift into the status of an
+independent branch of the Catholic Church." They therefore requested him
+to call a "national synod of the bishops of the Anglican Church at home
+and abroad," to meet under his leadership. After consulting both houses
+of the Convocation of Canterbury, Archbishop Longley assented, and
+convened all the bishops of the Anglican Communion (then 144 in number)
+to meet at Lambeth in 1867. Many Anglican bishops (amongst them the
+archbishop of York and most of his suffragans) felt so doubtful as to
+the wisdom of such an assembly that they refused to attend it, and Dean
+Stanley declined to allow Westminster Abbey to be used for the closing
+service, giving as his reasons the partial character of the assembly,
+uncertainty as to the effect of its measures and "the presence of
+prelates not belonging to our Church." Archbishop Longley said in his
+opening address, however, that they had no desire to assume "the
+functions of a general synod of all the churches in full communion with
+the Church of England," but merely to "discuss matters of practical
+interest, and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may
+serve as safe guides to future action." Experience has shown how
+valuable and wise this course was. The resolutions of the Lambeth
+Conferences have never been regarded as synodical decrees, but their
+weight has increased with each conference. Apprehensions such as those
+which possessed the mind of Dean Stanley have long passed away.
+
+Seventy-six bishops accepted the primate's invitation to the first
+conference, which met at Lambeth on the 24th of September 1867, and sat
+for four days, the sessions being in private. The archbishop opened the
+conference with an address: deliberation followed; committees were
+appointed to report on special questions; resolutions were adopted, and
+an encyclical letter was addressed to the faithful of the Anglican
+Communion. Each of the subsequent conferences has been first received in
+Canterbury cathedral and addressed by the archbishop from the chair of
+St Augustine. It has then met at Lambeth, and after sitting for five
+days for deliberation upon the fixed subjects and appointment of
+committees, has adjourned, to meet again at the end of a fortnight and
+sit for five days more, to receive reports, adopt resolutions and to put
+forth the encyclical letter.
+
+ I. _First Conference_ (September 24-28, 1867), convened and presided
+ over by Archbishop Longley. The proposed order of subjects was
+ entirely altered in view of the Colenso case, for which urgency was
+ claimed; and most of the time was spent in discussing it. Of the
+ thirteen resolutions adopted by the conference, two have direct
+ reference to this case; the rest have to do with the creation of new
+ sees and missionary jurisdictions, commendatory letters, and a
+ "voluntary spiritual tribunal" in cases of doctrine and the due
+ subordination of synods. The reports of the committees were not ready,
+ and were carried forward to the conference of 1878.
+
+ II. _Second Conference_ (July 2-27, 1878), convened and presided over
+ by Archbishop Tait. On this occasion no hesitation appears to have
+ been felt; 100 bishops were present, and the opening sermon was
+ preached by the archbishop of York. The reports of the five special
+ committees (based in part upon those of the committee of 1867) were
+ embodied in the encyclical letter, viz. on the best mode of
+ maintaining union, voluntary boards of arbitration, missionary bishops
+ and missionaries, continental chaplains and the report of a committee
+ on difficulties submitted to the conference.
+
+ III. _Third Conference_ (July 3-27, 1888), convened and presided over
+ by Archbishop Benson; 145 bishops present; the chief subject of
+ consideration being the position of communities which do not possess
+ the historic episcopate. In addition to the encyclical letter,
+ nineteen resolutions were put forth, and the reports of twelve special
+ committees are appended upon which they are based, the subjects being
+ intemperance, purity, divorce, polygamy, observance of Sunday,
+ socialism, care of emigrants, mutual relations of dioceses of the
+ Anglican Communion, home reunion, Scandinavian Church, Old Catholics,
+ &c., Eastern Churches, standards of doctrine and worship. Perhaps the
+ most important of these is the famous "Lambeth Quadrilateral," which
+ laid down a fourfold basis for home reunion--the Holy Scriptures, the
+ Apostles' and Nicene creeds, the two sacraments ordained by Christ
+ himself and the historic episcopate.
+
+ IV. _Fourth Conference_ (July 5-31, 1897), convened by Archbishop
+ Benson, presided over by Archbishop Temple; 194 bishops present. One
+ of the chief subjects for consideration was the creation of a
+ "tribunal of reference"; but the resolutions on this subject were
+ withdrawn, owing, it is said, to the opposition of the American
+ bishops, and a more general resolution in favour of a "consultative
+ body" was substituted. The encyclical letter is accompanied by
+ sixty-three resolutions (which include careful provision for
+ provincial organization and the extension of the title "archbishop" to
+ all metropolitans, a "thankful recognition of the revival of
+ brotherhoods and sisterhoods, and of the office of deaconess," and a
+ desire to promote friendly relations with the Eastern Churches and the
+ various Old Catholic bodies), and the reports of the eleven committees
+ are subjoined.
+
+ V. _Fifth Conference_ (July 6-August 5, 1908), convened by Archbishop
+ Randall Davidson, who presided; 241 bishops were present. The chief
+ subjects of discussion were: the relations of faith and modern
+ thought, the supply and training of the clergy, education, foreign
+ missions, revision and "enrichment" of the Prayer-Book, the relation
+ of the Church to "ministries of healing" (Christian Science, &c.), the
+ questions of marriage and divorce, organization of the Anglican
+ Church, reunion with other Churches. The results of the deliberations
+ were embodied in seventy-eight resolutions, which were appended to the
+ encyclical issued, in the name of the conference, by the Archbishop of
+ Canterbury on the 8th of August.
+
+ The fifth Lambeth conference, following as it did close on the great
+ Pan-Anglican congress, is remarkable mainly as a proof of the growth
+ of the influence and many-sided activity of the Anglican Church, and
+ as a conspicuous manifestation of her characteristic principles. Of
+ the seventy-eight resolutions none is in any sense epoch-making, and
+ their spirit is that of the traditional Anglican _via media_. In
+ general they are characterized by a firm adherence to the fundamental
+ articles of Catholic orthodoxy, tempered by a tolerant attitude
+ towards those not of "the household of the faith." The report of the
+ committee on faith and modern thought is "a faithful attempt to show
+ how the claim of our Lord Jesus Christ, which the Church is set to
+ present to each generation, may, under the characteristic conditions
+ of our time, best command allegiance." On the question of education
+ (Res. 11-19) the conference reaffirmed strongly the necessity for
+ definite Christian teaching in schools, "secular systems" being
+ condemned as "educationally as well as morally unsound, since they
+ fail to co-ordinate the training of the whole nature of the child"
+ (Res. 11). The resolutions on questions affecting foreign missions
+ (20-26) deal with e.g. the overlapping of episcopal jurisdictions (22)
+ and the establishment of Churches on lines of race or colour, which is
+ condemned (20). The resolutions on questions of marriage and divorce
+ (37-43) reaffirm the traditional attitude of the Church; it is,
+ however, interesting to note that the resolution (40) deprecating the
+ remarriage in church of the innocent party to a divorce was carried
+ only by eighty-seven votes to eighty-four. In resolutions 44 to 53 the
+ conference deals with the duty of the Church towards modern democratic
+ ideals and social problems; affirms the responsibility of investors
+ for the character and conditions of the concerns in which their money
+ is placed (49); "while frankly acknowledging the moral gains sometimes
+ won by war" strongly supports the extension of international
+ arbitration (52); and emphasizes the duty of a stricter observance of
+ Sunday (53). On the question of reunion, the ideal of corporate unity
+ was reaffirmed (58). It was decided to send a deputation of bishops
+ with a letter of greeting to the national council of the Russian
+ Church about to be assembled (60) and certain conditions were laid
+ down for inter-communion with certain of the Churches of the Orthodox
+ Eastern Communion (62) and the "ancient separated Churches of the
+ East" (63-65). Resolution 67 warned Anglicans from contracting
+ marriages, under actual conditions, with Roman Catholics. By
+ resolution 68 the conference stated its desire to "maintain and
+ strengthen the friendly relations" between the Churches of the
+ Anglican Communion and "the ancient Church of Holland" (Jansenist, see
+ UTRECHT) and the old Catholic Churches; and resolutions 70-73 made
+ elaborate provisions for a projected corporate union between the
+ Anglican Church and the _Unitas Fratrum_ (Moravian Brethren). As to
+ "home reunion," however, it was made perfectly clear that this would
+ only be possible "on lines suggested by such precedents as those of
+ 1610," i.e. by the Presbyterian Churches accepting the episcopal
+ model. So far as the organization of the Anglican Church is concerned,
+ the most important outcome of the conference was the reconstruction of
+ the Central Consultative Body on representative lines (54-56); this
+ body to consist of the archbishop of Canterbury and seventeen bishops
+ appointed by the various Churches of the Anglican Communion throughout
+ the world. A notable feature of the conference was the presence of the
+ Swedish bishop of Kalmar, who presented a letter from the archbishop
+ of Upsala, as a tentative advance towards closer relations between the
+ Anglican Church and the Evangelical Church of Sweden.
+
+ See Archbishop R. T. Davidson, _The Lambeth Conferences of 1867, 1878
+ and 1888_ (London, 1896); _Conference of Bishops of the Anglican
+ Communion, Encyclical Letter_, &c. (London, 1897 and 1908).
+
+
+
+
+LAMBINUS, DIONYSIUS, the Latinized name of DENIS LAMBIN (1520-1572),
+French classical scholar, born at Montreuil-sur-mer in Picardy. Having
+devoted several years to classical studies during a residence in Italy,
+he was invited to Paris in 1650 to fill the professorship of Latin in
+the Collège de France, which he soon afterwards exchanged for that of
+Greek. His lectures were frequently interrupted by his ill-health and
+the religious disturbances of the time. His death (September 1572) is
+said to have been caused by his apprehension that he might share the
+fate of his friend Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramée), who had been killed
+in the massacre of St Bartholomew. Lambinus was one of the greatest
+scholars of his age, and his editions of classical authors are still
+useful. In textual criticism he was a conservative, but by no means a
+slavish one; indeed, his opponents accused him of rashness in
+emendation. His chief defect is that he refers vaguely to his MSS.
+without specifying the source of his readings, so that their relative
+importance cannot be estimated. But his commentaries, with their wealth
+of illustration and parallel passages, are a mine of information. In the
+opinion of the best scholars, he preserved the happy mean in his
+annotations, although his own countrymen have coined the word _lambiner_
+to express trifling and diffuseness.
+
+ His chief editions are: Horace (1561); Lucretius (1564), on which see
+ H. A. J. Munro's preface to his edition; Cicero (1566); Cornelius
+ Nepos (1569); Demosthenes (1570), completing the unfinished work of
+ Guillaume Morel; Plautus (1576).
+
+ See Peter Lazer, _De Dionysio Lambino narratio_, printed in Orelli's
+ _Onomasticon Tullianum_ (i. 1836), and _Trium disertissimorum virorum
+ praefationes ac epistolae familiares aliquot: Mureti, Lambini, Regii_
+ (Paris, 1579); also Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_ (1908,
+ ii. 188), and A. Horawitz in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+ Encyclopädie_.
+
+
+
+
+LAMBOURN, a market town in the Newbury parliamentary division of
+Berkshire, England, 65 m. W. of London, the terminus of the Lambourn
+Valley light railway from Newbury. Pop. (1901) 2071. It lies high up the
+narrow valley of the Lambourn, a tributary of the Kennet famous for its
+trout-fishing, among the Berkshire Downs. The church of St Michael is
+cruciform and principally late Norman, but has numerous additions of
+later periods and has been considerably altered by modern restoration.
+The inmates of an almshouse founded by John Estbury, _c._ 1500, by his
+desire still hold service daily at his tomb in the church. A
+Perpendicular market-cross stands without the church. The town has
+agricultural trade, but its chief importance is derived from large
+training stables in the neighbourhood. To the north of the town is a
+large group of _tumuli_ known as the Seven Barrows, ascertained by
+excavation to be a British burial-place.
+
+
+
+
+LAMECH [Hebrew: Lemech], the biblical patriarch, appears in each of the
+antediluvian genealogies, Gen. iv. 16-24 J., and Gen. v. P. In the
+former he is a descendant of Cain, and through his sons the author of
+primitive civilization; in the latter he is the father of Noah. But it
+is now generally held that these two genealogies are variant adaptations
+of the Babylonian list of primitive kings (see ENOCH). It is doubtful
+whether Lamech is to be identified with the name of any one of these
+kings; he may have been introduced into the genealogy from another
+tradition.
+
+In the older narrative in Gen. iv. Lamech's family are the originators
+of various advances in civilization; he himself is the first to marry
+more than one wife, 'Adah ("ornament," perhaps specially "dawn") and
+Zillah ("shadow"). He has three sons Jabal, Jubal, and Tubal, the
+last-named qualified by the addition of Cain (= "smith"[1]). The
+assonance of these names is probably intentional, cf. the brothers Hasan
+and Hosein of early Mahommedan history. Jabal institutes the life of
+nomadic shepherds, Jubal is the inventor of music, Tubal-Cain the first
+smith. Jabal and Jubal may be forms of a root used in Hebrew and
+Phoenician for ram and ram's horn (i.e. trumpet), and underlying our
+"jubilee." Tubal may be the eponymous ancestor of the people of that
+name mentioned in Ezekiel in connexion with "vessels of bronze."[2] All
+three names are sometimes derived from [Hebrew: yuval] in the sense of
+offspring, so that they would be three different words for "son," and
+there are numerous other theories as to their etymology. Lamech has also
+a daughter Naamah ("gracious," "pleasant," "comely"; cf. No'mân, a name
+of the deity Adonis). This narrative clearly intends to account for the
+origin of these various arts as they existed in the narrator's time; it
+is not likely that he thought of these discoveries as separated from his
+own age by a universal flood; nor does the tone of the narrative suggest
+that the primitive tradition thought of these pioneers of civilization
+as members of an accursed family. Probably the passage was originally
+independent of the document which told of Cain and Abel and of the
+Flood; Jabal may be a variant of Abel. An ancient poem is connected with
+this genealogy:
+
+ "Adah and Zillah, hear my voice;
+ Ye wives of Lamech, give ear unto my speech.
+ I slay a man for a wound,
+ A young man for a stroke;
+ For Cain's vengeance is sevenfold,
+ But Lamech's seventy-fold and seven."
+
+In view of the connexion, the poem is interpreted as expressing Lamech's
+exultation at the advantage he expects to derive from Tubal-Cain's new
+inventions; the worker in bronze will forge for him new and formidable
+weapons, so that he will be able to take signal vengeance for the least
+injury. But the poem probably had originally nothing to do with the
+genealogy. It may have been a piece of folk-song celebrating the prowess
+of the tribe of Lamech; or it may have had some relation to a story of
+Cain and Abel in which Cain was a hero and not a villain.
+
+The genealogy in Gen. v. belongs to the Priestly Code, _c._ 450 B.C.,
+and may be due to a revision of ancient tradition in the light of
+Babylonian archaeology. It is noteworthy that according to the numbers
+in the Samaritan MSS. Lamech dies in the year of the Flood.
+
+ The origin of the name Lamech and its original meaning are doubtful.
+ It was probably the name of a tribe or deity, or both. According to C.
+ J. Ball,[3] Lamech is an adaptation of the Babylonian _Lamga_, a title
+ of Sin the moon god, and synonymous with _Ubara_ in the name
+ Ubara-Tutu, the Otiartes of Berossus, who is the ninth of the ten
+ primitive Babylonian kings, and the father of the hero of the
+ Babylonian flood story, just as Lamech is the ninth patriarch, and the
+ father of Noah. Spurrell[4] states that Lamech cannot be explained
+ from the Hebrew, but may possibly be connected with the Arabic
+ _yalmakun_, "a strong young man."
+
+ Outside of Genesis, Lamech is only mentioned in the Bible in 1 Chron.
+ i. 3, Luke iii. 36. Later Jewish tradition expanded and interpreted
+ the story in its usual fashion. (W. H. Be.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+ [1] The text of Gen. iv. 22 is partly corrupt; and it is possible
+ that the text used by the Septuagint did not contain Cain.
+
+ [2] Gen. x. 2, Ezek. xxvii. 13.
+
+ [3] _Genesis_, in Haupt's _Sacred Books of the Old Testament_ on iv.
+ 19, cf. also the notes on 20-22, for Lamech's family. The
+ identification of Lamech with _Lamga_ is also suggested by Sayce,
+ _Expository Times_, vii. 367. Cf. also Cheyne, "Cainites" in _Encyc.
+ Biblica_.
+
+ [4] _Notes on the Hebrew Text of Genesis, in loco._
+
+
+
+
+LAMEGO, a city of northern Portugal, in the district of Vizeu and
+formerly included in the province of Beira; 6 m. by road S. of the river
+Douro and 42 m. E. of Oporto. Pop. (1900) 9471. The nearest railway
+station is Peso da Regoa, on the opposite side of the Douro and on the
+Barca d'Alva-Oporto railway. Lamego is an ancient and picturesque city,
+in the midst of a beautiful mountain region. Its principal buildings are
+the 14th-century Gothic cathedral, Moorish citadel, Roman baths and a
+church which occupies the site of a mosque, and, though intrinsically
+commonplace, is celebrated in Portugal as the seat of the legendary
+cortes of 1143 or 1144 (see PORTUGAL, _History_). The principal
+industries are viticulture and the rearing of swine, which furnish the
+so-called "Lisbon hams." Lamego was a Moorish frontier fortress of some
+importance in the 9th and 10th centuries. It was captured in 1057 by
+Ferdinand I. of Castile and Leon.
+
+
+
+
+LAMELLIBRANCHIA (Lat. _lamella_, a small or thin plate, and Gr. [Greek:
+branchia], gills), the fourth of the five classes of animals
+constituting the phylum Mollusca (q.v.). The Lamellibranchia are mainly
+characterized by the rudimentary condition of the head, and the
+retention of the primitive bilateral symmetry, the latter feature being
+accentuated by the lateral compression of the body and the development
+of the shell as two bilaterally symmetrical plates or valves covering
+each one side of the animal. The foot is commonly a simple cylindrical
+or ploughshare-shaped organ, used for boring in sand and mud, and more
+rarely presents a crawling disk similar to that of Gastropoda; in some
+forms it is aborted. The paired ctenidia are very greatly developed
+right and left of the elongated body, and form the most prominent organ
+of the group. Their function is chiefly not respiratory but nutritive,
+since it is by the currents produced by their ciliated surface that
+food-particles are brought to the feebly-developed mouth and buccal
+cavity.
+
+The Lamellibranchia present as a whole a somewhat uniform structure. The
+chief points in which they vary are--(1) in the structure of the
+ctenidia or branchial plates; (2) in the presence of one or of two chief
+muscles, the fibres of which run across the animal's body from one valve
+of the shell to the other (adductors); (3) in the greater or less
+elaboration of the posterior portion of the mantle-skirt so as to form a
+pair of tubes, by one of which water is introduced into the sub-pallial
+chamber, whilst by the other it is expelled; (4) in the perfect or
+deficient symmetry of the two valves of the shell and the connected soft
+parts, as compared with one another; (5) in the development of the foot
+as a disk-like crawling organ (_Arca_, _Nucula_, _Pectunculus_,
+_Trigonia_, _Lepton_, _Galeomma_), as a simple plough-like or
+tongue-shaped organ (_Unionidae_, &c.), as a re-curved saltatory organ
+(_Cardium_, &c.), as a long burrowing cylinder (_Solenidae_, &c.), or
+its partial (Mytilacea) or even complete abortion (Ostraeacea).
+
+The essential Molluscan organs are, with these exceptions, uniformly
+well developed. The mantle-skirt is always long, and hides the rest of
+the animal from view, its dependent margins meeting in the middle line
+below the ventral surface when the animal is retracted; it is, as it
+were, slit in the median line before and behind so as to form two flaps,
+a right and a left; on these the right and the left calcareous valves of
+the shell are borne respectively, connected by an uncalcified part of
+the shell called the ligament. In many embryo Lamellibranchs a
+centro-dorsal primitive shell-gland or follicle has been detected. The
+mouth lies in the median line anteriorly, the anus in the median line
+posteriorly.
+
+Both ctenidia, right and left, are invariably present, the axis of each
+taking origin from the side of the body as in the schematic
+archi-Mollusc (see fig. 15). A pair of renal tubes opening right and
+left, rather far forward on the sides of the body, are always present.
+Each opens by its internal extremity into the pericardium. A pair of
+genital apertures, connected by genital ducts with the paired gonads,
+are found right and left near the nephridial pores, except in a few
+cases where the genital duct joins that of the renal organ
+(_Spondylus_). The sexes are often, but not always, distinct. No
+accessory glands or copulatory organs are ever present in
+Lamellibranchs. The ctenidia often act as brood-pouches.
+
+A dorsal contractile heart, with symmetrical right and left auricles
+receiving aerated blood from the ctenidia and mantle-skirt, is present,
+being unequally developed only in those few forms which are inequivalve.
+The typical pericardium is well developed. It, as in other Mollusca, is
+not a blood-space but develops from the coelom, and it communicates with
+the exterior by the pair of renal tubes. As in Cephalopoda (and possibly
+other Mollusca) water can be introduced through the nephridia into this
+space. The alimentary canal keeps very nearly to the median vertical
+plane whilst exhibiting a number of flexures and loopings in this plane.
+A pair of large glandular outgrowths, the so-called "liver" or great
+digestive gland, exists as in other Molluscs. A pair of pedal otocysts,
+and a pair of osphradia at the base of the gills, appear to be always
+present. A typical nervous system is present (fig. 19), consisting of a
+cerebro-pleural ganglion-pair, united by connectives to a pedal
+ganglion-pair and a visceral ganglion-pair (parieto-splanchnic).
+
+A pyloric caecum connected with the stomach is commonly found,
+containing a tough flexible cylinder of transparent cartilaginous
+appearance, called the "crystalline style" (_Mactra_). In many
+Lamellibranchs a gland is found on the hinder surface of the foot in the
+mid line, which secretes a substance which sets into the form of
+threads--the so-called "byssus"--by means of which the animal can fix
+itself. Sometimes this gland is found in the young and not in the adult
+(_Anodonta_, _Unio_, _Cyclas_). In some Lamellibranchs (_Pecten_,
+_Spondylus_, _Pholas_, _Mactra_, _Tellina_, _Pectunculus_, _Galeomma_,
+&c.), although cephalic eyes are generally absent, special eyes are
+developed on the free margin of the mantle-skirt, apparently by the
+modification of tentacles commonly found there. There are no pores in
+the foot or elsewhere in Lamellibranchia by which water can pass into
+and out of the vascular system, as formerly asserted.
+
+The Lamellibranchia live chiefly in the sea, some in fresh waters. A
+very few have the power of swimming by opening and shutting the valves
+of the shell (_Pecten_, _Lima_); most can crawl slowly or burrow
+rapidly; others are, when adult, permanently fixed to stones or rocks
+either by the shell or the byssus. In development some Lamellibranchia
+pass through a free-swimming trochosphere stage with pre-oral ciliated
+band; other fresh-water forms which carry the young in brood-pouches
+formed by the ctenidia have suppressed this larval phase.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagrams of the external form and anatomy of
+_Anodonta cygnea_, the Pond-Mussel; in figures 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 the animal
+is seen from the left side, the centro-dorsal region uppermost. (1)
+Animal removed from its shell, a probe g passed into the sub-pallial
+chamber through the excurrent siphonal notch. (2) View from the ventral
+surface of an Anodon with its foot expanded and issuing from between the
+gaping shells. (3) The left mantle-flap reflected upwards so as to
+expose the sides of the body. (4) Diagrammatic section of Anodon to show
+the course of the alimentary canal. (5) The two gill-plates of the left
+side reflected upwards so as to expose the fissure between foot and gill
+where the probe g passes. (6) Diagram to show the positions of the
+nerve-ganglia, heart and nephridia.
+
+ Letters in all the figures as follows:
+
+ a, Centro-dorsal area.
+ b, Margin of the left mantle-flap.
+ c, Margin of the right mantle-flap.
+ d, Excurrent siphonal notch of the mantle margin.
+ e, Incurrent siphonal notch of the mantle margin.
+ f, Foot.
+ g, Probe passed into the superior division of the sub-pallial chamber
+ through the excurrent siphonal notch, and issuing by the side of the
+ foot into the inferior division of the sub-pallial chamber.
+ h, Anterior (pallial) adductor muscle of the shells.
+ i, Anterior retractor muscle of the foot.
+ k, Protractor muscle of the foot.
+ l, Posterior (pedal) adductor muscle of the shells.
+ m, Posterior retractor muscle of the foot.
+ n, Anterior labial tentacle.
+ o, Posterior labial tentacle.
+ p, Base-line of origin of the reflected mantle-flap from the side of
+ the body.
+ q, Left external gill-plate.
+ r, Left internal gill-plate.
+ rr, Internal lamella of the right inner gill-plate.
+ rg, Right outer gill-plate.
+ s, Line of concrescence of the outer lamella of the left outer
+ gill-plate with the left mantle-flap.
+ t, Pallial tentacles.
+ u, The thickened muscular pallial margin which adheres to the shell
+ and forms the pallial line of the left side.
+ v, That of the right side.
+ w, The mouth.
+ x, Aperture of the left organ of Bojanus (nephridium) exposed by
+ cutting the attachment of the inner lamella of the inner gill-plate.
+ y, Aperture of the genital duct.
+ z, Fissure between the free edge of the inner lamella of the inner
+ gill-plate and the side of the foot, through which the probe g passes
+ into the upper division of the sub-pallial space.
+ aa, Line of concrescence of the inner lamella of the right inner
+ gill-plate with the inner lamella of the left inner gill-plate.
+ ab, ac, ad, Three pit-like depressions in the median line of the foot
+ supposed by some writers to be pores admitting water into the vascular
+ system.
+ ae, Left shell valve.
+ af, Space occupied by liver.
+ ag, Space occupied by gonad.
+ ah, Muscular substance of the foot.
+ ai, Duct of the liver on the wall of the stomach.
+ ak, Stomach.
+ al, Rectum traversing the ventricle of the heart.
+ am, Pericardium.
+ an, Glandular portion of the left nephridium.
+ ap, Ventricle of the heart.
+ aq, Aperture by which the left auricle joins the ventricle.
+ ar, Non-glandular portion of the left nephridium.
+ as, Anus.
+ at, Pore leading from the pericardium into the glandular sac of the
+ left nephridium.
+ au, Pore leading from the glandular into the non-glandular portion of
+ the left nephridium.
+ av, Internal pore leading from the non-glandular portion of the left
+ nephridium to the external pore x.
+ aw, Left cerebro-pleuro-visceral ganglion.
+ ax, Left pedal ganglion.
+ ay, Left otocyst.
+ az, Left olfactory ganglion (parieto-splanchnic).
+ bb, Floor of the pericardium separating that space from the
+ non-glandular portion of the nephridia.]
+
+As an example of the organization of a Lamellibranch, we shall review
+the structure of the common pond-mussel or swan mussel (_Anodonta
+cygnea_), comparing it with other Lamellibranchia.
+
+ The swan-mussel has superficially a perfectly developed bilateral
+ symmetry. The left side of the animal is seen as when removed from its
+ shell in fig. 1 (1). The valves of the shell have been removed by
+ severing their adhesions to the muscular areae h, i, k, l, m, u. The
+ free edge of the left half of the mantle-skirt b is represented as a
+ little contracted in order to show the exactly similar free edge of
+ the right half of the mantle-skirt c. These edges are not attached to,
+ although they touch, one another; each flap (right or left) can be
+ freely thrown back in the way carried out in fig. 1 (3) for that of
+ the left side. This is not always the case with Lamellibranchs; there
+ is in the group a tendency for the corresponding edges of the
+ mantle-skirt to fuse together by concrescence, and so to form a more
+ or less completely closed bag, as in the Scaphopoda (_Dentalium_). In
+ this way the notches d, e of the hinder part of the mantle-skirt of
+ _Anodonta_ are in the siphonate forms converted into two separate
+ holes, the edges of the mantle being elsewhere fused together along
+ this hinder margin. Further than this, the part of the mantle-skirt
+ bounding the two holes is frequently drawn out so as to form a pair of
+ tubes which project from the shell (figs. 8, 29). In such
+ Lamellibranchs as the oysters, scallops and many others which have the
+ edges of the mantle-skirt quite free, there are numerous tentacles
+ upon those edges. In _Anodonta_ these pallial tentacles are confined
+ to a small area surrounding the inferior siphonal notch (fig. 1 [3],
+ t). When the edges of the mantle ventral to the inhalant orifice are
+ united, an anterior aperture is left for the protrusion of the foot,
+ and thus there are three pallial apertures altogether, and species in
+ this condition are called "Tripora." This is the usual condition in
+ the Eulamellibranchia and Septibranchia. When the pedal aperture is
+ small and far forward there may be a fourth aperture in the region of
+ the fusion behind the pedal aperture. This occurs in _Solen_, and such
+ forms are called "Quadrifora."
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 2.--View of the two Valves of the Shell of
+ _Cytherea_ (one of the Sinupalliate Isomya), from the dorsal aspect.]
+
+ The centro-dorsal point a of the animal of _Anodonta_ (fig. 1 [1]) is
+ called the umbonal area; the great anterior muscular surface h is that
+ of the anterior adductor muscle, the posterior similar surface i is
+ that of the posterior adductor muscle; the long line of attachment u
+ is the simple "pallial muscle,"--a thickened ridge which is seen to
+ run parallel to the margin of the mantle-skirt in this Lamellibranch.
+ In siphonate forms the pallial muscle is not simple, but is indented
+ posteriorly by a sinus formed by the muscles which retract the
+ siphons.
+
+ It is the approximate equality in the size of the anterior and
+ posterior adductor muscles which led to the name Isomya for the group
+ to which _Anodonta_ belongs. The hinder adductor muscle is always
+ large in Lamellibranchs, but the anterior adductor may be very small
+ (Heteromya), or absent altogether (Monomya). The anterior adductor
+ muscle is in front of the mouth and alimentary tract altogether, and
+ must be regarded as a special and peculiar development of the median
+ anterior part of the mantle-flap. The posterior adductor is ventral
+ and anterior to the anus. The former classification based on these
+ differences in the adductor muscles is now abandoned, having proved to
+ be an unnatural one. A single family may include isomyarian,
+ anisomyarian and monomyarian forms, and the latter in development pass
+ through stages in which they resemble the first two. In fact all
+ Lamellibranchs begin with a condition in which there is only one
+ adductor, and that not the posterior but the anterior. This is called
+ the protomonomyarian stage. Then the posterior adductor develops, and
+ becomes equal to the anterior, and finally in some cases the anterior
+ becomes smaller or disappears. The single adductor muscle of the
+ Monomya is separated by a difference of fibre into two portions, but
+ neither of these can be regarded as possibly representing the anterior
+ adductor of the other Lamellibranchs. One of these portions is more
+ ligamentous and serves to keep the two shells constantly attached to
+ one another, whilst the more fleshy portion serves to close the shell
+ rapidly when it has been gaping.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Right Valve of the same Shell from the Outer
+ Face.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Left Valve of the same Shell from the Inner
+ Face. (Figs. 2, 3, 4 from Owen.)]
+
+ In removing the valves of the shell from an _Anodonta_, it is
+ necessary not only to cut through the muscular attachments of the
+ body-wall to the shell but to sever also a strong elastic ligament, or
+ spring resembling india-rubber, joining the two shells about the
+ umbonal area. The shell of _Anodonta_ does not present these parts in
+ the most strongly marked condition, and accordingly our figures (figs.
+ 2, 3, 4) represent the valves of the sinupalliate genus _Cytherea_.
+ The corresponding parts are recognizable in _Anodonta_. Referring to
+ the figures (2, 3) for an explanation of terms applicable to the parts
+ of the valve and the markings on its inner surface--corresponding to
+ the muscular areas already noted on the surface of the animal's
+ body--we must specially note here the position of that denticulated
+ thickening of the dorsal margin of the valve which is called the hinge
+ (fig. 4). By this hinge one valve is closely fitted to the other.
+ Below this hinge each shell becomes concave, above it each shell rises
+ a little to form the umbo, and it is into this ridge-like upgrowth of
+ each valve that the elastic ligament or spring is fixed (fig. 4). As
+ shown in the diagram (fig. 5) representing a transverse section of the
+ two valves of a Lamellibranch, the two shells form a double lever, of
+ which the toothed-hinge is the fulcrum. The adductor muscles placed in
+ the concavity of the shells act upon the long arms of the lever at a
+ mechanical advantage; their contraction keeps the shells shut, and
+ stretches the ligament or spring h. On the other hand, the ligament h
+ acts upon the short arm formed by the umbonal ridge of the shells;
+ whenever the adductors relax, the elastic substance of the ligament
+ contracts, and the shells gape. It is on this account that the valves
+ of a dead Lamellibranch always gape; the elastic ligament is no longer
+ counteracted by the effort of the adductors. The state of closure of
+ the valves of the shell is not, therefore, one of rest; when it is at
+ rest--that is, when there is no muscular effort--the valves of a
+ Lamellibranch are slightly gaping, and are closed by the action of the
+ adductors when the animal is disturbed. The ligament is simple in
+ _Anodonta_; in many Lamellibranchs it is separated into two layers, an
+ outer and an inner (thicker and denser). That the condition of gaping
+ of the shell-valves is essential to the life of the Lamellibranch
+ appears from the fact that food to nourish it, water to aerate its
+ blood, and spermatozoa to fertilize its eggs, are all introduced into
+ this gaping chamber by currents of water, set going by the
+ highly-developed ctenidia. The current of water enters into the
+ sub-pallial space at the spot marked e in fig. 1 (1), and, after
+ passing as far forward as the mouth w in fig. 1 (5), takes an outward
+ course and leaves the sub-pallial space by the upper notch d. These
+ notches are known in _Anodonta_ as the afferent and efferent siphonal
+ notches respectively, and correspond to the long tube-like afferent
+ inferior and efferent superior "siphons" formed by the mantle in many
+ other Lamellibranchs (fig. 8).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Diagram of a section of a Lamellibranch's
+ shells, ligament and adductor muscle. a, b, right and left valves of
+ the shell; c, d, the umbones or short arms of the lever; e, f, the
+ long arms of the lever; g, the hinge; h, the ligament; i, the adductor
+ muscle.]
+
+ Whilst the valves of the shell are equal in _Anodonta_ we find in many
+ Lamellibranchs (_Ostraea_, _Chama_, _Corbula_, &c.) one valve larger,
+ and the other smaller and sometimes flat, whilst the larger shell may
+ be fixed to rock or to stones (_Ostraea_, &c.). A further variation
+ consists in the development of additional shelly plates upon the
+ dorsal line between the two large valves (_Pholadidae_). In _Pholas
+ dactylus_ we find a pair of umbonal plates, a dors-umbonal plate and a
+ dorsal plate. It is to be remembered that the whole of the cuticular
+ hard product produced on the dorsal surface and on the mantle-flaps is
+ to be regarded as the "shell," of which a median band-like area, the
+ ligament, usually remains uncalcified, so as to result in the
+ production of two valves united by the elastic ligament. But the
+ shelly substance does not always in boring forms adhere to this form
+ after its first growth. In _Aspergillum_ the whole of the tubular
+ mantle area secretes a continuous shelly tube, although in the young
+ condition two valves were present. These are seen (fig. 7) set in the
+ firm substance of the adult tubular shell, which has even replaced the
+ ligament, so that the tube is complete. In _Teredo_ a similar tube is
+ formed as the animal elongates (boring in wood), the original
+ shell-valves not adhering to it but remaining movable and provided
+ with a special muscular apparatus in place of a ligament. In the shell
+ of Lamellibranchs three distinct layers can be distinguished: an
+ external chitinous, non-calcified layer, the periostracum; a middle
+ layer composed of calcareous prisms perpendicular to the surface, the
+ prismatic layer; and an internal layer composed of laminae parallel to
+ the surface, the nacreous layer. The last is secreted by the whole
+ surface of the mantle except the border, and additions to its
+ thickness continue to be made through life. The periostracum is
+ produced by the extreme edge of the mantle border, the prismatic layer
+ by the part of the border within the edge. These two layers,
+ therefore, when once formed cannot increase in thickness; as the
+ mantle grows in extent its border passes beyond the formed parts of
+ the two outer layers, and the latter are covered internally by a
+ deposit of nacreous matter. Special deposits of the nacreous matter
+ around foreign bodies form pearls, the foreign nucleus being usually
+ of parasitic origin (see PEARL).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Shell of _Aspergillum vaginiferum_. (From
+ Owen.)]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Shell of _Aspergillum vaginiferum_ to show the
+ original valves a, now embedded in a continuous calcification of
+ tubular form. (From Owen.)]
+
+ Let us now examine the organs which lie beneath the mantle-skirt of
+ _Anodonta_, and are bathed by the current of water which circulates
+ through it. This can be done by lifting up and throwing back the left
+ half of the mantle-skirt as is represented in fig. 1 (3). We thus
+ expose the plough-like foot (f), the two left labial tentacles, and
+ the two left gill-plates or left ctenidium. In fig. 1 (5), one of the
+ labial tentacles n is also thrown back to show the mouth w, and the
+ two left gill-plates are reflected to show the gill-plates of the
+ right side (rr, rq) projecting behind the foot, the inner or median
+ plate of each side being united by concrescence to its fellow of the
+ opposite side along a continuous line (aa). The left inner gill-plate
+ is also snipped to show the subjacent orifices of the left renal organ
+ x, and of the genital gland (testis or ovary) y. The foot thus exposed
+ in _Anodonta_ is a simple muscular tongue-like organ. It can be
+ protruded between the flaps of the mantle (fig. 1 [1] [2]) so as to
+ issue from the shell, and by its action the _Anodonta_ can slowly
+ crawl or burrow in soft mud or sand. Other Lamellibranchs may have a
+ larger foot relatively than has _Anodonta_. In _Arca_ it has a
+ sole-like surface. In _Arca_ too and many others it carries a
+ byssus-forming gland and a byssus-cementing gland. In the cockles, in
+ _Cardium_ and in _Trigonia_, it is capable of a sudden stroke, which
+ causes the animal to jump when out of the water, in the latter genus
+ to a height of four feet. In _Mytilus_ the foot is reduced to little
+ more than a tubercle carrying the apertures of these glands. In the
+ oyster it is absent altogether.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Psammobia florida_, right side, showing
+ expanded foot e, and g incurrent and g´ excurrent siphons. (From
+ Owen.)]
+
+ The labial tentacles or palps of _Anodonta_ (n, o in fig. 1 [3], [5])
+ are highly vascular flat processes richly supplied with nerves. The
+ left anterior tentacle (seen in the figure) is joined at its base in
+ front of the mouth (w) to the right anterior tentacle, and similarly
+ the left (o) and right posterior tentacles are joined behind the
+ mouth. Those of _Arca_ (i, k in fig. 9) show this relation to the
+ mouth (a). These organs are characteristic of all Lamellibranchs; they
+ do not vary except in size, being sometimes drawn out to streamer-like
+ dimensions. Their appearance and position suggest that they are in
+ some way related morphologically to the gill-plates, the anterior
+ labial tentacle being a continuation of the outer gill-plate, and the
+ posterior a continuation of the inner gill-plate. There is no
+ embryological evidence to support this suggested connexion, and, as
+ will appear immediately, the history of the gill-plates in various
+ forms of Lamellibranchs does not directly favour it. The palps are
+ really derived from part of the velar area of the larva.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 9.--View from the ventral (pedal) aspect of the
+ animal of _Arca noae_, the mantle-flap and gill-filaments having been
+ cut away. (Lankester.)
+
+ a, Mouth.
+ b, Anus.
+ c, Free spirally turned extremity of the gill-axis or ctenidial axis
+ of the right side.
+ d, Do. of the left side.
+ e, f, Anterior portions of these axes fused by concrescence to the
+ wall of the body.
+ g, Anterior adductor muscle.
+ h, Posterior adductor.
+ i, Anterior labial tentacle.
+ k, Posterior labial tentacle.
+ l, Base line of the foot.
+ m, Sole of the foot.
+ n, Callosity.]
+
+ The gill-plates have a structure very different from that of the
+ labial tentacles, and one which in _Anodonta_ is singularly
+ complicated as compared with the condition presented by these organs
+ in some other Lamellibranchs, and with what must have been their
+ original condition in the ancestors of the whole series of living
+ Lamellibranchia. The phenomenon of "concrescence" which we have
+ already had to note as showing itself so importantly in regard to the
+ free edges of the mantle-skirt and the formation of the siphons, is
+ what, above all things, has complicated the structure of the
+ Lamellibranch ctenidium. Our present knowledge of the interesting
+ series of modifications through which the Lamellibranch gill-plates
+ have developed to their most complicated form is due to R. H. Peck, K.
+ Mitsukuri and W. G. Ridewood. The Molluscan ctenidium is typically a
+ plume-like structure, consisting of a vascular axis, on each side of
+ which is set a row of numerous lamelliform or filamentous processes.
+ These processes are hollow, and receive the venous blood from, and
+ return it again aerated into, the hollow axis, in which an afferent
+ and an efferent blood-vessel may be differentiated. In the genus
+ _Nucula_ (fig. 10) we have an example of a Lamellibranch retaining
+ this plume-like form of gill. In the Arcacea (e.g. _Arca_ and
+ _Pectunculus_) the lateral processes which are set on the axis of the
+ ctenidium are not lamellae, but are slightly flattened, very long
+ tubes or hollow filaments. These filaments are so fine and are set so
+ closely together that they appear to form a continuous membrane until
+ examined with a lens. The microscope shows that the neighbouring
+ filaments are held together by patches of cilia, called "ciliated
+ junctions," which interlock with one another just as two brushes may
+ be made to do. In fig. 11, A a portion of four filaments of a
+ ctenidium of the sea-mussel (_Mytilus_) is represented, having
+ precisely the same structure as those of _Arca_. The filaments of the
+ gill (ctenidium) of _Mytilus_ and _Arca_ thus form two closely set
+ rows which depend from the axis of the gill like two parallel plates.
+ Further, their structure is profoundly modified by the curious
+ condition of the free ends of the depending filaments. These are
+ actually reflected at a sharp angle--doubled on themselves in
+ fact--and thus form an additional row of filaments (see fig. 11 B).
+ Consequently, each primitive filament has a descending and an
+ ascending ramus, and instead of each row forming a simple plate, the
+ plate is double, consisting of a descending and an ascending lamella.
+ As the axis of the ctenidium lies by the side of the body, and is very
+ frequently connate with the body, as so often happens in Gastropods
+ also, we find it convenient to speak of the two plate-like structures
+ formed on each ctenidial axis as the outer and the inner gill-plate;
+ each of these is composed of two lamellae, an outer (the reflected)
+ and an adaxial in the case of the outer gill-plate, and an adaxial and
+ an inner (the reflected) in the case of the inner gill-plate. This is
+ the condition seen in _Arca_ and _Mytilus_, the so-called plates
+ dividing upon the slightest touch into their constituent filaments,
+ which are but loosely conjoined by their "ciliated junctions."
+ Complications follow upon this in other forms. Even in _Mytilus_ and
+ _Arca_ a connexion is here and there formed between the ascending and
+ descending rami of a filament by hollow extensible outgrowths called
+ "interlamellar junctions" (_il._ j in B, fig. 11). Nevertheless the
+ filament is a complete tube formed of chitinous substance and clothed
+ externally by ciliated epithelium, internally by endothelium and
+ lacunar tissue--a form of connective tissue--as shown in fig. 11, C.
+ Now let us suppose as happens in the genus _Dreissensia_--a genus not
+ far removed from _Mytilus_--that the ciliated inter-filamentar
+ junctions (fig. 12) give place to solid permanent inter-filamentar
+ junctions, so that the filaments are converted, as it were, into a
+ trellis-work. Then let us suppose that the interlamellar junctions
+ already noted in _Mytilus_ become very numerous, large and irregular;
+ by them the two trellis-works of filaments would be united so as to
+ leave only a sponge-like set of spaces between them. Within the
+ trabeculae of the sponge-work blood circulates, and between the
+ trabeculae the water passes, having entered by the apertures left in
+ the trellis-work formed by the united gill-filaments (fig. 14). The
+ larger the intralamellar spongy growth becomes, the more do the
+ original gill-filaments lose the character of blood-holding tubes, and
+ tend to become dense elastic rods for the simple purpose of supporting
+ the spongy growth. This is seen both in the section of _Dreissensia_
+ gill (fig. 12) and in those of _Anodonta_ (fig. 13, A, B, C). In the
+ drawing of _Dreissensia_ the individual filaments f, f, f are cut
+ across in one lamella at the horizon of an inter-filamentar junction,
+ in the other (lower in the figure) at a point where they are free. The
+ chitinous substance ch is observed to be greatly thickened as compared
+ with what it is in fig. 11, C, tending in fact to obliterate
+ altogether the lumen of the filament. And in _Anodonta_ (fig. 13, C)
+ this obliteration is effected. In _Anodonta_, besides being thickened,
+ the skeletal substance of the filament develops a specially dense,
+ rod-like body on each side of each filament. Although the structure of
+ the ctenidium is thus highly complicated in _Anodonta_, it is yet more
+ so in some of the siphonate genera of Lamellibranchs. The filaments
+ take on a secondary grouping, the surface of the lamella being thrown
+ into a series of half-cylindrical ridges, each consisting of ten or
+ twenty filaments; a filament of much greater strength and thickness
+ than the others may be placed between each pair of groups. In
+ _Anodonta_, as in many other Lamellibranchs, the ova and hatched
+ embryos are carried for a time in the ctenidia or gill apparatus, and
+ in this particular case the space between the two lamellae of the
+ outer gill-plate is that which serves to receive the ova (fig. 13, A).
+ The young are nourished by a substance formed by the cells which cover
+ the spongy interlamellar outgrowths.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Structure of the Ctenidia of _Nucula_. (After
+ Mitsukuri.) See also fig. 2.
+
+ A. Section across the axis of a ctenidium with a pair of
+ plates--flattened and shortened filaments--attached.
+ i, j, k, g, Are placed on or near the membrane which attaches the
+ axis of the ctenidium to the side of the body.
+ a, b, Free extremities of the plates (filaments).
+ d, Mid-line of the inferior border.
+ e, Surface of the plate.
+ t, Its upper border.
+ h, Chitinous lining of the plate.
+ r, Dilated blood-space.
+ u, Fibrous tract.
+ o, Upper blood-vessel of the axis.
+ n, Lower blood-vessel of the axis.
+ s, Chitinous framework of the axis.
+ cp, Canal in the same.
+ A, B, Line along which the cross-section C of the plate is taken.
+ B. Animal of a male _Nucula proxima_, Say, as seen when the left
+ valve of the shell and the left half of the mantle-skirt are
+ removed.
+ a, a, Anterior adductor muscle.
+ p.a, Posterior adductor muscle.
+ v.m, Visceral mass.
+ f, Foot.
+ g, Gill.
+ l, Labial Tentacle.
+ l.a, Filamentous appendage of the labial tentacle.
+ lb, Hood-like appendage of the labial tentacle.
+ m, Membrane suspending the gill and attached to the body along the
+ line x, y, z, w.
+ p, Posterior end of the gill (ctenidium).
+ C. Section across one of the gill-plates (A, B, in A) comparable
+ with fig. 11 C.
+ i.a, Outer border.
+ d.a, Axial border.
+ l.f, Latero-frontal epithelium.
+ e, Epithelium of general surface.
+ r, Dilated blood-space.
+ h, Chitinous lining (compare A).]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Filaments of the Ctenidium of _Mytilus
+ edulis_. (After R. H. Peck.)
+
+ A, Part of four filaments seen from the outer face in order to show
+ the ciliated junctions c.j.
+ B, Diagram of the posterior face of a single complete filament with
+ descending ramus and ascending ramus ending in a hook-like process;
+ ep., ep., the ciliated junctions; il, j., interlamellar junction.
+ C, Transverse section of a filament taken so as to cut neither a
+ ciliated junction nor an interlamellar junction. f.e., Frontal
+ epithelium; l.f.e´., l.f.e´´., the two rows of latero-frontal
+ epithelial cells with long cilia; ch, chitinous tubular lining of
+ the filament; lac., blood lacuna traversed by a few processes of
+ connective tissue cells; b.c., blood-corpuscle.]
+
+ Other points in the modification of the typical ctenidium must be
+ noted in order to understand the ctenidium of _Anodonta_. The axis of
+ each ctenidium, right and left, starts from a point well forward near
+ the labial tentacles, but it is at first only a ridge, and does not
+ project as a free cylindrical axis until the back part of the foot is
+ reached. This is difficult to see in _Anodonta_, but if the
+ mantle-skirt be entirely cleared away, and if the dependent lamellae
+ which spring from the ctenidial axis be carefully cropped so as to
+ leave the axis itself intact, we obtain the form shown in fig. 15,
+ where g and h are respectively the left and the right ctenidial axes
+ projecting freely beyond the body. In _Arca_ this can be seen with far
+ less trouble, for the filaments are more easily removed than are the
+ consolidated lamellae formed by the filaments of _Anodonta_, and in
+ _Arca_ the free axes of the ctenidia are large and firm in texture
+ (fig. 9, c, d).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Transverse Section of the Outer Gill-plate of
+ _Dreissensia polymorpha_. (After R. H. Peck.)
+
+ f, Constituent gill-filaments.
+ ff, Fibrous sub-epidermic tissue.
+ ch, Chitonous substance of the filaments.
+ nch, Cells related to the chitonous substance.
+ lac, Lacunar tissue.
+ pig, Pigment-cells.
+ bc, Blood-corpuscles.
+ fe, Frontal epithelium.
+ lfe´, lfe´´, Two rows of latero-frontal epithelial cells with long
+ cilia.
+ lrf, Fibrous, possibly muscular, substance of the inter-filamentar
+ junctions.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Transverse Sections of Gill-plates of
+ _Anodonta_. (After R. H. Peck.)
+
+ A, Outer gill-plate.
+ B, Inner gill-plate.
+ C, A portion of B more highly magnified.
+ o.l, Outer lamella.
+ i.l, Inner lamella.
+ v, Blood-vessel.
+ f, Constituent filaments.
+ lac, Lacunar tissue.
+ ch, Chitonous substance of the filament.
+ chr, Chitonous rod embedded in the softer substance ch.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Gill-lamellae of _Anodonta_. (After R. H.
+ Peck.)
+
+ Diagram of a block cut from the outer lamella of the outer gill-plate
+ and seen from the interlamellar surface. f, Constituent filaments;
+ trf, fibrous tissue of the transverse inter-filamentar junctions; v,
+ blood-vessel _ilj_, Inter-lamellar junction. The series of oval holes
+ on the back of the lamella are the water-pores which open between the
+ filaments in irregular rows separated horizontally by the transverse
+ inter-filamentar junctions.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Diagram of a view from the left side of the
+ animal of _Anodonta cygnaea_, from which the mantle-skirt, the labial
+ tentacles and the gill-filaments have been entirely removed so as to
+ show the relations of the axis of the gill-plumes or ctenidia g, h.
+ (Original.)
+
+ a, Centro-dorsal area.
+ b, Anterior adductor muscle.
+ c, Posterior adductor muscle.
+ d, Mouth.
+ e, Anus.
+ f, Foot.
+ g, Free portion of the axis of left ctenidium.
+ h, Axis of right ctenidium.
+ k, Portion of the axis of the left ctenidium which is fused with the
+ base of the foot, the two dotted lines indicating the origins of the
+ two rows of gill-filaments.
+ m, Line of origin of the anterior labial tentacle.
+ n, Nephridial aperture.
+ o, Genital aperture.
+ r, Line of origin of the posterior labial tentacle.]
+
+ If we were to make a vertical section across the long axis of a
+ Lamellibranch which had the axis of its ctenidium free from its origin
+ onwards, we should find such relations as are shown in the diagram
+ fig. 16, A. The gill axis d is seen lying in the sub-pallial chamber
+ between the foot b and the mantle c. From it depend the gill-filaments
+ or lamellae--formed by united filaments--drawn as black lines f. On
+ the left side these lamellae are represented as having only a small
+ reflected growth, on the right side the reflected ramus or lamella is
+ complete (fr and er). The actual condition in _Anodonta_ at the region
+ where the gills begin anteriorly is shown in fig. 16, B. The axis of
+ the ctenidium is seen to be adherent to, or fused by concrescence
+ with, the body-wall, and moreover on each side the outer lamella of
+ the outer gill-plate is fused to the mantle, whilst the inner lamella
+ of the inner gill-plate is fused to the foot. If we take another
+ section nearer the hinder margin of the foot, we get the arrangement
+ shown diagrammatically in fig. 16, C, and more correctly in fig. 17.
+ In this region the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates are no
+ longer affixed to the foot. Passing still farther back behind the
+ foot, we find in _Anodonta_ the condition shown in the section D, fig.
+ 16. The axes i are now free; the outer lamellae of the outer
+ gill-plates (er) still adhere by concrescence to the mantle-skirt,
+ whilst the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates meet one another
+ and fuse by concrescence at g. In the lateral view of the animal with
+ reflected mantle-skirt and gill-plates, the line of concrescence of
+ the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates is readily seen; it is
+ marked aa in fig. 1 (5). In the same figure the free part of the inner
+ lamella of the inner gill-plate resting on the foot is marked z,
+ whilst the attached part--the most anterior--has been snipped with
+ scissors so as to show the genital and nephridial apertures x and y.
+ The concrescence, then, of the free edge of the reflected lamellae of
+ the gill-plates of Anodon is very extensive. It is important, because
+ such a concrescence is by no means universal, and does not occur, for
+ example, in _Mytilus_ or in _Arca_; further, because when its
+ occurrence is once appreciated, the reduction of the gill-plates of
+ _Anodonta_ to the plume-type of the simplest ctenidium presents no
+ difficulty; and, lastly, it has importance in reference to its
+ physiological significance. The mechanical result of the concrescence
+ of the outer lamellae to the mantle-flap, and of the inner lamellae to
+ one another as shown in section D, fig. 16, is that the sub-pallial
+ space is divided into two spaces by a horizontal septum. The upper
+ space (i) communicates with the outer world by the excurrent or
+ superior siphonal notch of the mantle (fig. 1, d); the lower space
+ communicates by the lower siphonal notch (e in fig. 1). The only
+ communication between the two spaces, excepting through the
+ trellis-work of the gill-plates, is by the slit (z in fig. 1 (5)) left
+ by the non-concrescence of a part of the inner lamella of the inner
+ gill-plate with the foot. A probe (g) is introduced through this
+ slit-like passage, and it is seen to pass out by the excurrent
+ siphonal notch. It is through this passage, or indirectly through the
+ pores of the gill-plates, that the water introduced into the lower
+ sub-pallial space must pass on its way to the excurrent siphonal
+ notch. Such a subdivision of the pallial chamber, and direction of the
+ currents set up within it do not exist in a number of Lamellibranchs
+ which have the gill-lamellae comparatively free (_Mytilus_, _Arca_,
+ _Trigonia_, &c.), and it is in these forms that there is least
+ modification by concrescence of the primary filamentous elements of
+ the lamellae.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Diagrams of Transverse Sections of a
+ Lamellibranch to show the Adhesion, by Concrescence, of the
+ Gill-Lamellae to the Mantle-flaps, to the foot and to one another.
+ (Lankester.)
+
+ A, Shows two conditions with free gill-axis.
+ B, Condition at foremost region in _Anodonta_.
+ C, Hind region of foot in _Anodonta_.
+ D, Region altogether posterior to the foot in _Anodonta_.
+ a, Visceral mass.
+ b, Foot.
+ c, Mantle flap.
+ d, Axis of gill or ctenidium.
+ e, Adaxial lamella of outer gill-plate.
+ er, Reflected lamella of outer gill-plate.
+ f, Adaxial lamella of inner gill-plate.
+ fr, Reflected lamella of inner gill-plate.
+ g, Line of concrescence of the reflected lamellae of the two inner
+ gill-plates.
+ h, Rectum.
+ i, Supra-branchial space of the sub-pallial chamber.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Vertical Section through an _Anodonta_, about
+ the mid-region of the Foot.
+
+ m, Mantle-flap.
+ br, Outer, b´r´, inner gill-plate--each composed of two lamellae.
+ f, Foot.
+ v, Ventricle of the heart.
+ a, Auricle.
+ p, p´, Pericardial cavity.
+ i, Intestine.]
+
+ In the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia Professor (Sir) E. R.
+ Lankester suggested that these differences of gill-structure would
+ furnish characters of classificatory value, and this suggestion has
+ been followed out by Dr Paul Pelseneer in the classification now
+ generally adopted.
+
+ The alimentary canal of _Anodonta_ is shown in fig. 1 (4). The mouth
+ is placed between the anterior adductor and the foot; the anus opens
+ on a median papilla overlying the posterior adductor, and discharges
+ into the superior pallial chamber along which the excurrent stream
+ passes. The coil of the intestine in _Anodonta_ is similar to that of
+ other Lamellibranchs. The rectum traverses the pericardium, and has
+ the ventricle of the heart wrapped, as it were, around it. This is not
+ an unusual arrangement in Lamellibranchs, and a similar disposition
+ occurs in some Gastropoda (_Haliotis_). A pair of ducts (ai) lead from
+ the first enlargement of the alimentary tract called stomach into a
+ pair of large digestive glands, the so-called liver, the branches of
+ which are closely packed in this region (af). The food of the
+ _Anodonta_, as of other Lamellibranchs, consists of microscopic animal
+ and vegetable organisms, brought to the mouth by the stream which sets
+ into the sub-pallial chamber at the lower siphonal notch (e in fig.
+ 1). Probably a straining of water from solid particles is effected by
+ the lattice-work of the ctenidia or gill-plates.
+
+ The heart of _Anodonta_ consists of a median ventricle embracing the
+ rectum (fig. 18, A), and giving off an anterior and a posterior
+ artery, and of two auricles which open into the ventricle by orifices
+ protected by valves.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Diagrams showing the Relations of Pericardium
+ and Nephridia in a Lamellibranch such as _Anodonta_.
+
+ A, Pericardium opened dorsally so as to expose the heart and the
+ floor of the pericardial chamber d.
+ B, Heart removed and floor of the pericardium cut away on the left
+ side so as to open the non-glandular sac of the nephridium,
+ exposing the glandular sac b, which is also cut into so as to show
+ the probe f.
+ C, Ideal pericardium and nephridium viewed laterally.
+ D, Lateral view showing the actual relation of the glandular and
+ non-glandular sacs of the nephridium. The arrows indicate the
+ course of fluid from the pericardium outwards.
+ a, Ventricle of the heart.
+ b, Auricle.
+ bb, Cut remnant of the auricle.
+ c, Dorsal wall of the pericardium cut and reflected.
+ e, Reno-pericardial orifice.
+ f, Probe introduced into the left reno-pericardial orifice.
+ g, Non-glandular sac of the left nephridium.
+ h, Glandular sac of the left nephridium.
+ i, Pore leading from the glandular into the non-glandular sac of
+ the left nephridium.
+ k, Pore leading from the non-glandular sac to the exterior.
+ ac, Anterior.
+ ab, Posterior, cut remnants of the intestine and ventricle.]
+
+ The blood is colourless, and has colourless amoeboid corpuscles
+ floating in it. In _Ceratisolen legumen_, various species of _Arca_
+ and a few other species the blood is crimson, owing to the presence of
+ corpuscles impregnated with haemoglobin. In _Anodonta_ the blood is
+ driven by the ventricle through the arteries into vessel-like spaces,
+ which soon become irregular lacunae surrounding the viscera, but in
+ parts--e.g. the labial tentacles and walls of the gut--very fine
+ vessels with endothelial cell-lining are found. The blood makes its
+ way by large veins to a venous sinus which lies in the middle line
+ below the heart, having the paired renal organs (nephridia) placed
+ between it and that organ. Hence it passes through the vessels of the
+ glandular walls of the nephridia right and left into the
+ gill-lamellae, whence it returns through many openings into the
+ widely-stretched auricles. In the filaments of the gill of
+ Protobranchia and many Filibranchia the tubular cavity is divided by a
+ more or less complete fibrous septum into two channels, for an
+ afferent and efferent blood-current. The ventricle and auricles of
+ _Anodonta_ lie in a pericardium which is clothed with a pavement
+ endothelium (d, fig. 18). It does not contain blood or communicate
+ directly with the blood-system; this isolation of the pericardium we
+ have noted already in Gastropods and Cephalopods. A good case for the
+ examination of the question as to whether blood enters the pericardium
+ of Lamellibranchs, or escapes from the foot, or by the renal organs
+ when the animal suddenly contracts, is furnished by the _Ceratisolen
+ legumen_, which has red blood-corpuscles. According to observations
+ made by Penrose on an uninjured _Ceratisolen legumen_, no red
+ corpuscles are to be seen in the pericardial space, although the heart
+ is filled with them, and no such corpuscles are ever discharged by the
+ animal when it is irritated.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Nerve-ganglia and Cords of three
+ Lamellibranchs. (From Gegenbaur.)
+
+ A, Of _Teredo_.
+ B, Of _Anodonta_.
+ C, Of _Pecten_.
+ a, Cerebral ganglion-pair (= cerebro-pleuro-visceral).
+ b, Pedal ganglion-pair.
+ c, Olfactory (osphradial) ganglion-pair.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Otocyst of _Cyclas_. (From Gegenbaur.)
+
+ c, Capsule.
+ e, Ciliated cells lining the same.
+ o, Otolith.]
+
+ The pair of renal organs of _Anodonta_, called in Lamellibranchs the
+ organs of Bojanus, lie below the membranous floor of the pericardium,
+ and open into it by two well-marked apertures (e and f in fig. 18).
+ Each nephridium, after being bent upon itself as shown in fig. 18, C,
+ D, opens to the exterior by a pore placed at the point marked x in
+ fig. 1 (5) (6). One half of each nephridium is of a dark-green colour
+ and glandular (h in fig. 18). This opens into the reflected portion
+ which overlies it as shown in the diagram fig. 18, D, i; the latter
+ has non-glandular walls, and opens by the pore k to the exterior. The
+ renal organs may be more ramified in other Lamellibranchs than they
+ are in _Anodonta_. In some they are difficult to discover. That of the
+ common oyster was described by Hoek. Each nephridium in the oyster is
+ a pyriform sac, which communicates by a narrow canal with the
+ urino-genital groove placed to the front of the great adductor muscle;
+ by a second narrow canal it communicates with the pericardium. From
+ all parts of the pyriform sac narrow stalk-like tubes are given off,
+ ending in abundant widely-spread branching glandular caeca, which form
+ the essential renal secreting apparatus. The genital duct opens by a
+ pore into the urino-genital groove of the oyster (the same arrangement
+ being repeated on each side of the body) close to but distinct from
+ the aperture of the nephridial canal. Hence, except for the formation
+ of a urino-genital groove, the apertures are placed as they are in
+ _Anodonta_. Previously to Hoek's discovery a brown-coloured investment
+ of the auricles of the heart of the oyster had been supposed to
+ represent the nephridia in a rudimentary state. This investment, which
+ occurs also in many Filibranchia, forms the pericardial glands,
+ comparable to the pericardial accessory glandular growths of
+ Cephalopoda. In _Unionidae_ and several other forms the pericardial
+ glands are extended into diverticula of the pericardium which
+ penetrate the mantle and constitute the organ of Heber. The glands
+ secrete hippuric acid which passes from the pericardium into the renal
+ organs.
+
+ _Nervous System and Sense-Organs._--In _Anodonta_ there are three
+ well-developed pairs of nerve ganglia (fig. 19, B, and fig. 1 (6)). An
+ anterior pair, lying one on each side of the mouth (fig. 19, B, a) and
+ connected in front of it by a commissure, are the representatives of
+ the cerebral and pleural ganglia of the typical Mollusc, which are not
+ here differentiated as they are in Gastropods. A pair placed close
+ together in the foot (fig. 19, B, b, and fig. 1 (6), ax) are the
+ typical pedal ganglia; they are joined to the cerebro-pleural ganglia
+ by connectives.
+
+ Posteriorly beneath the posterior adductors, and covered only by a
+ thin layer of elongated epidermal cells, are the visceral ganglia.
+ United with these ganglia on the outer sides are the osphradial
+ ganglia, above which the epithelium is modified to form a pair of
+ sense-organs, corresponding to the osphradia of other Molluscs. In
+ some Lamellibranchs the osphradial ganglia receive nerve-fibres, not
+ from the visceral ganglia, but from the cerebral ganglia along the
+ visceral commissure. Formerly the posterior pair of ganglia were
+ identified as simply the osphradial ganglia, and the anterior pair as
+ the cerebral, pleural and visceral ganglia united into a single pair.
+ But it has since been discovered that in the Protobranchia the
+ cerebral ganglia and the pleural are distinct, each giving origin to
+ its own connective which runs to the pedal ganglion. The cerebro-pedal
+ and pleuro-pedal connectives, however, in these cases are only
+ separate in the initial parts of their course, and unite together for
+ the lower half of their length, or for nearly the whole length.
+ Moreover, in many forms, in which in the adult condition there is only
+ a single pair of anterior ganglia and a single pedal connective, a
+ pleural ganglion distinct from the cerebral has been recognized in the
+ course of development. There is, however, no evidence of the union of
+ a visceral pair with the cerebro-pleural.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Pallial Eye of _Spondylus_. (From Hickson.)
+
+ a, Prae-corneal epithelium.
+ b, Cellular lens.
+ c, Retinal body.
+ d, Tapetum.
+ e, Pigment.
+ f, Retinal nerve.
+ g, Complementary nerve.
+ h, Epithelial cells filled with pigment.
+ k, Tentacle.]
+
+ The sense-organs of _Anodonta_ other than the osphradia consist of a
+ pair of otocysts attached to the pedal ganglia (fig. 1 (6), ay). The
+ otocysts of _Cyclas_ are peculiarly favourable for study on account of
+ the transparency of the small foot in which they lie, and may be taken
+ as typical of those of Lamellibranchs generally. The structure of one
+ is exhibited in fig. 20. A single otolith is present as in the veliger
+ embryos of Opisthobranchia. In Filibranchia and many Protobranchia the
+ otocyst (or statocyst) contains numerous particles (otoconia). The
+ organs are developed as invaginations of the epidermis of the foot,
+ and in the majority of the Protobranchia the orifice of invagination
+ remains open throughout life; this is also the case in _Mytilus_
+ including the common mussel.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Two Stages in the Development of _Anodonta_.
+ (From Balfour.) Both figures represent the glochidium stage.
+
+ A, When free swimming, shows the two dentigerous valves widely open.
+ B, A later stage, after fixture to the fin of a fish.
+ sh, Shell.
+ ad, Adductor muscle.
+ s, Teeth of the shell.
+ by, Byssus.
+ a.ad, Anterior adductor.
+ p.ad, Posterior adductor.
+ mt, Mantle-flap.
+ f, Foot.
+ br, Branchial filaments.
+ au.v, Otocyst.
+ al, Alimentary canal.]
+
+ _Anodonta_ has no eyes of any sort, and the tentacles on the mantle
+ edge are limited to its posterior border. This deficiency is very
+ usual in the class; at the same time, many Lamellibranchs have
+ tentacles on the edge of the mantle supplied by a pair of large
+ well-developed nerves, which are given off from the cerebro-pleural
+ ganglion-pair, and very frequently some of these tentacles have
+ undergone a special metamorphosis converting them into
+ highly-organized eyes. Such eyes on the mantle-edge are found in
+ _Pecten_, _Spondylus_, _Lima_, _Pinna_, _Pectunculus_, _Modiola_,
+ _Cardium_, _Tellina_, _Mactra_, _Venus_, _Solen_, _Pholas_ and
+ _Galeomma_. They are totally distinct from the cephalic eyes of
+ typical Mollusca, and have a different structure and historical
+ development. They have originated not as pits but as tentacles. They
+ agree with the dorsal eyes of _Oncidium_ (Pulmonata) in the curious
+ fact that the optic nerve penetrates the capsule of the eye and passes
+ in front of the retinal body (fig. 21), so that its fibres join the
+ anterior faces of the nerve-end cells as in Vertebrates, instead of
+ their posterior faces as in the cephalic eyes of Mollusca and
+ Arthropoda; moreover, the lens is not a cuticular product but a
+ cellular structure, which, again, is a feature of agreement with the
+ Vertebrate eye. It must, however, be distinctly borne in mind that
+ there is a fundamental difference between the eye of Vertebrates and
+ of all other groups in the fact that in the Vertebrata the retinal
+ body is itself a part of the central nervous system, and not a
+ separate modification of the epidermis--myelonic as opposed to
+ epidermic. The structure of the reputed eyes of several of the
+ above-named genera has not been carefully examined. In _Pecten_ and
+ _Spondylus_, however, they have been fully studied (see fig. 21, and
+ explanation). Rudimentary cephalic eyes occur in the _Mytilidae_ and
+ in _Avicula_ at the base of the first filament of the inner gill, each
+ consisting of a pigmented epithelial fossa containing a cuticular
+ lens. In the _Arcidae_ the pallial eyes are compound or faceted
+ somewhat like those of Arthropods.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Development of the Oyster, _Ostrea edulis_.
+ (Modified from Horst.)
+
+ A, Blastula stage (one-cell-layered sac), with commencing
+ invagination of the wall of the sac at bl, the blastopore.
+ B, Optical section of a somewhat later stage, in which a second
+ invagination has begun--namely, that of the shell-gland sk.
+ bl, Blastopore.
+ en, Invaginated endoderm (wall of the future arch-enteron).
+ ec, Ectoderm.
+ C, Similar optical section at a little later stage. The
+ invagination connected with the blastopore is now more contracted,
+ d; and cells, me, forming the mesoblast from which the coelom and
+ muscular and skeleto-trophic tissues develop, are separated.
+ D, Similar section of a later stage. The blastopore, bl, has
+ closed; the anus will subsequently perforate the corresponding
+ area. A new aperture, m, the mouth, has eaten its way into the
+ invaginated endodermal sac, and the cells pushed in with it
+ constitute the stomodaeum. The shell-gland, sk, is flattened out,
+ and a delicate shell, s, appears on its surface. The ciliated velar
+ ring is cut in the section, as shown by the two projecting cilia on
+ the upper part of the figure. The embryo is now a Trochosphere.
+ E, Surface view of an embryo at a period almost identical with that
+ of D.
+ F, Later embryo seen as a transparent object.
+ m, Mouth.
+ ft, Foot.
+ a, Anus.
+ e, Intestine.
+ st, Stomach.
+ tp, Velar area of the prostomium. The extent of the shell and
+ commencing upgrowth of the mantle-skirt is indicated by a line
+ forming a curve from a to F.
+
+ _N.B._--In this development, as in that of _Pisidium_ (fig. 25), no
+ part of the blastopore persists either as mouth or as anus, but the
+ aperture closes--the pedicle of invagination, or narrow neck of the
+ invaginated arch-enteron, becoming the intestine. The mouth and the
+ anus are formed as independent in-pushings, the mouth with
+ stomodaeum first, and the short anal proctodaeum much later. This
+ interpretation of the appearances is contrary to that of Horst, from
+ whom our drawings of the oyster's development are taken. The account
+ given by the American William K. Brooks differs greatly as to matter
+ of fact from that of Horst, and appears to be erroneous in some
+ respects.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Embryo of _Pisidium pusillum_ in the
+ diblastula stage, surface view (after Lankester). The embryo has
+ increased in size by accumulation of liquid between the outer and the
+ invaginated cells. The blastopore has closed.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 25.--B, Same embryo as fig. 24, in optical median
+ section, showing the invaginated cells hy which form the arch-enteron,
+ and the mesoblastic cells me which are budded off from the surface of
+ the mass hy, and apply themselves to the inner surface of the
+ epiblastic cell-layer ep. C. The same embryo focused so as to show the
+ mesoblastic cells which immediately underlie the outer cell-layer.]
+
+ _Generative Organs._--The gonads of _Anodonta_ are placed in distinct
+ male and female individuals. In some Lamellibranchs--for instance, the
+ European Oyster and the _Pisidium pusillum_--the sexes are united in
+ the same individual; but here, as in most hermaphrodite animals, the
+ two sexual elements are not ripe in the same individual at the same
+ moment. It has been conclusively shown that the _Ostrea edulis_ does
+ not fertilize itself. The American Oyster (_O. virginiana_) and the
+ Portuguese Oyster (_O. angulata_) have the sexes separate, and
+ fertilization is effected in the open water after the discharge of the
+ ova and the spermatozoa from the females and males respectively. In
+ the _Ostrea edulis_ fertilization of the eggs is effected at the
+ moment of their escape from the uro-genital groove, or even before, by
+ means of spermatozoa drawn into the sub-pallial chamber by the
+ incurrent ciliary stream, and the embryos pass through the early
+ stages of development whilst entangled between the gill-lamellae of
+ the female parent (fig. 23). In _Anodonta_ the eggs pass into the
+ space between the two lamellae of the outer gill-plate, and are there
+ fertilized, and advance whilst still in this position to the
+ glochidium phase of development (fig. 22). They may be found here in
+ thousands in the summer and autumn months. The gonads themselves are
+ extremely simple arborescent glands which open to the exterior by two
+ simple ducts, one right and one left, continuous with the tubular
+ branches of the gonads. In the most primitive Lamellibranchs there is
+ no separate generative aperture but the gonads discharge into the
+ renal cavity, as in _Patella_ among Gastropods. This is the case in
+ the Protobranchia, e.g. _Solenomya_, in which the gonad opens into the
+ reno-pericardial duct. But the generative products do not pass through
+ the whole length of the renal tube: there is a direct opening from the
+ pericardial end of the tube to the distal end, and the ova or sperms
+ pass through this. In _Arca_, in _Anomiidae_ and in _Pectinidae_ the
+ gonad opens into the external part of the renal tube. The next stage
+ of modification is seen in _Ostraea_, _Cyclas_ and some _Lucinidae_,
+ in which the generative and renal ducts open into a cloacal slit on
+ the surface of the body. In _Mytilus_ the two apertures are on a
+ common papilla, in other cases the two apertures are as in _Anodonta_.
+ The Anatinacea and _Poromya_ among the Septibranchia are, however,
+ peculiar in having two genital apertures on each side, one male and
+ one female. These forms are hermaphrodite, with an ovary and testis
+ completely separate from each other on each side of the body, each
+ having its own duct and aperture.
+
+ The development of _Anodonta_ is remarkable for the curious larval
+ form known as _glochidium_ (fig. 22). The glochidium quits the
+ gill-pouch of its parent and swims by alternate opening and shutting
+ of the valves of its shell, as do adult _Pecten_ and _Lima_, trailing
+ at the same time a long byssus thread. This byssus is not homologous
+ with that of other Lamellibranchs, but originates from a single
+ glandular epithelial cell embedded in the tissues on the dorsal
+ anterior side of the adductor muscle. By this it is brought into
+ contact with the fin of a fish, such as perch, stickleback or others,
+ and effects a hold thereon by means of the toothed edge of its shells.
+ Here it becomes encysted, and is nourished by the exudations of the
+ fish. It remains in this condition for a period of two to six weeks,
+ and during this time the permanent organs are developed from the cells
+ of two symmetrical cavities behind the adductor muscle. The early
+ larva of _Anodonta_ is not unlike the trochosphere of other
+ Lamellibranchs, but the mouth is wanting. The glochidium is formed by
+ the precocious development of the anterior adductor and the
+ retardation of all the other organs except the shell. Other
+ Lamellibranchs exhibit either a trochosphere larva which becomes a
+ veliger differing only from the Gastropod's and Pteropod's veliger in
+ having bilateral shell-calcifications instead of a single central one;
+ or, like _Anodonta_, they may develop within the gill-plates of the
+ mother, though without presenting such a specialized larva as the
+ glochidium. An example of the former is seen in the development of the
+ European oyster, to the figure of which and its explanation the reader
+ is specially referred (fig. 23). An example of the latter is seen in a
+ common little fresh-water bivalve, the _Pisidium pusillum_, which has
+ been studied by Lankester. The gastrula is formed in this case by
+ invagination. The embryonic cells continue to divide, and form an oval
+ vesicle containing liquid (fig. 24); within this, at one pole, is seen
+ the mass of invaginated cells (fig. 25, hy). These invaginated cells
+ are the arch-enteron; they proliferate and give off branching cells,
+ which apply themselves (fig. 25, C) to the inner face of the vesicle,
+ thus forming the mesoblast. The outer single layer of cells which
+ constitutes the surface of the vesicle is the ectoderm or epiblast.
+ The little mass of hypoblast or enteric cell-mass now enlarges, but
+ remains connected with the cicatrix of the blastopore or orifice of
+ invagination by a stalk, the rectal peduncle. The enteron itself
+ becomes bilobed and is joined by a new invagination, that of the mouth
+ and stomodaeum. The mesoblast multiplies its cells, which become
+ partly muscular and partly skeleto-trophic. Centro-dorsally now
+ appears the embyronic shell-gland. The pharynx or stomodaeum is still
+ small, the foot not yet prominent. A later stage is seen in fig. 26,
+ where the pharynx is widely open and the foot prominent. No ciliated
+ velum or pre-oral (cephalic) lobe ever develops. The shell-gland
+ disappears, the mantle-skirt is raised as a ridge, the paired
+ shell-valves are secreted, the anus opens by a proctodaeal ingrowth
+ into the rectal peduncle, and the rudiments of the gills (br) and of
+ the renal organs (B) appear (fig. 26, lateral view), and thus the
+ chief organs and general form of the adult are acquired. Later changes
+ consist in the growth of the shell-valves over the whole area of the
+ mantle-flaps, and in the multiplication of the gill-filaments and
+ their consolidation to form gill-plates. It is important to note that
+ the gill-filaments are formed one by one _posteriorly_. The labial
+ tentacles are formed late. In the allied genus _Cyclas_, a byssus
+ gland is formed in the foot and subsequently disappears, but no such
+ gland occurs in _Pisidium_.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Diagram of Embryo of _Pisidium_. The unshaded
+ area gives the position of the shell-valve. (After Lankester.)
+
+ m, Mouth.
+ x, Anus.
+ f, Foot.
+ br, Branchial filaments.
+ mn, Margin of the mantle-skirt.
+ B, Organ of Bojanus.]
+
+ [Illustration: After Drew, in Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. (A. &
+ C. Black.)
+
+ FIG. 27.--Surface view of a forty-five hour embryo of _Yoldia
+ limatula_. a.c, Apical cilia. bl, Blastopore. x, Depression where the
+ cells that form the cerebral ganglia come to the surface.]
+
+ An extraordinary modification of the veliger occurs in the development
+ of _Nucula_ and _Yoldia_ and probably other members of the same
+ families. After the formation of the gastrula by epibole the larva
+ becomes enclosed by an ectodermic test covering the whole of the
+ original surface of the body, including the shell-gland, and leaving
+ only a small opening at the posterior end in which the stomodaeum and
+ proctodaeum are formed. In _Yoldia_ and _Nucula proxima_ the test
+ consists of five rows of flattened cells, the three median rows
+ bearing circlets of long cilia. At the anterior end of the test is the
+ apical plate from the centre of which projects a long flagellum as in
+ many other Lamellibranch larvae. In _Nucula delphinodonta_ the test is
+ uniformly covered with short cilia, and there is no flagellum. When
+ the larval development is completed the test is cast off, its cells
+ breaking apart and falling to pieces leaving the young animal with a
+ well-developed shell exposed and the internal organs in an advanced
+ state. The test is really a ciliated velum developed in the normal
+ position at the apical pole but reflected backwards in such a way as
+ to cover the original ectoderm except at the posterior end. In
+ _Yoldia_ and _Nucula proxima_ the ova are set free in the water and
+ the test-larvae are free-swimming, but in _Nucula delphinodonta_ the
+ female forms a thin-walled egg-case of mucus attached to the posterior
+ end of the shell and in communication with the pallial chamber; in
+ this case the eggs develop and the test-larva is enclosed. A similar
+ modification of the velum occurs in _Dentalium_ and in _Myzomenia_
+ among the Amphineura.
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF LAMELLIBRANCHIA
+
+The classification originally based on the structure of the gills by P.
+Pelseneer included five orders, viz.: the Protobranchia in which the
+gill-filaments are flattened and not reflected; the Filibranchia in
+which the filaments are long and reflected, with non-vascular junctions;
+the Pseudolamellibranchia in which the gill-lamellae are vertically
+folded, the inter-filamentar and interlamellar junctions being vascular
+or non-vascular; the Eulamellibranchia in which the inter-filamentar and
+interlamellar junctions are vascular; and lastly the Septibranchia in
+which the gills are reduced to a horizontal partition. The
+Pseudolamellibranchia included the oyster, scallop and their allies
+which formerly constituted the order Monomyaria, having only a single
+large adductor muscle or in addition a very small anterior adductor. The
+researches of W. G. Ridewood have shown that in gill-structure the
+Pectinacea agree with the Filibranchia and the Ostraeacea with the
+Eulamellibranchia, and accordingly the order Pseudolamellibranchia is
+now suppressed and its members divided between the two other orders
+mentioned. The four orders now retained exhibit successive stages in the
+modification of the ctenidia by reflection and concrescence of the
+filament, but other organs, such as the heart, adductors, renal organs,
+may not show corresponding stages. On the contrary considerable
+differences in these organs may occur within any single order. The
+Protobranchia, however, possess several primitive characters besides
+that of the branchiae. In them the foot has a flat ventral surface used
+for creeping, as in Gastropods, the byssus gland is but slightly
+developed, the pleural ganglia are distinct, there is a relic of the
+pharyngeal cavity, in some forms with a pair of glandular sacs, the
+gonads retain their primitive connexion with the renal cavities, and the
+otocysts are open.
+
+
+Order I. PROTOBRANCHIA
+
+In addition to the characters given above, it may be noted that the
+mantle is provided with a hypobranchial gland on the outer side of each
+gill, the auricles are muscular, the kidneys are glandular through their
+whole length, the sexes are separate.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Solenomyidae._--One row of branchial filaments is directed
+ dorsally, the other ventrally; the mantle has a long postero-ventral
+ suture and a single posterior aperture; the labial palps of each side
+ are fused together; shell elongate; hinge without teeth; periostracum
+ thick. _Solenomya._
+
+ Fam. 2. _Nuculidae._--Labial palps free, very broad, and provided with
+ a posterior appendage; branchial filaments transverse; shell has an
+ angular dorsal border; mantle open along its whole border. _Nucula.
+ Acila. Pronucula._
+
+ Fam. 3. _Ledidae._--Like the _Nuculidae_, but mantle has two posterior
+ sutures and two united siphons. _Leda. Yoldia. Malletia._
+
+ Fam. 4. _Ctenodontidae._--Extinct; Silurian.
+
+ The fossil group Palaeoconcha is connected with the Protobranchia
+ through the Solenomyidae. It contains the following extinct families.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Praecardiidae._--Shell equivalve with hinge dentition as in
+ _Arca. Praecardium_; Silurian and Devonian.
+
+ Fam. 2. _Antipleuridae._--Shell inequivalve. _Antipleura_; Silurian.
+
+ Fam. 3. _Cardiolidae._--Shell equivalve and ventricose; hinge without
+ teeth. _Cardiola_; Silurian and Devonian.
+
+ Fam. 4. _Grammysiidae._--Shell thin, equivalve, oval or elongate;
+ hinge without teeth. _Grammysia_; Silurian and Devonian. _Protomya_;
+ Devonian. _Cardiomorpha_; Silurian to Carboniferous.
+
+ Fam. 5. _Vlastidae._--Shell very inequivalve; hinge without teeth.
+ _Vlasta_; Silurian.
+
+ Fam. 6. _Solenopsidae._--Shell equivalve, greatly elongated, umbones
+ very far forward. _Solenopsis_; Devonian to Trias.
+
+
+Order II. FILIBRANCHIA
+
+Gill-filament ventrally directed and reflected, connected by ciliated
+junctions. Foot generally provided with a highly developed byssogenous
+apparatus.
+
+ Sub-order I.--_Anomiacea._
+
+ Very asymmetrical, with a single large posterior adductor. The heart
+ is not contained in the pericardium, lies dorsad of the rectum and
+ gives off a single aorta anteriorly. The reflected borders of the
+ inner gill-plates of either side are fused together in the middle
+ line. The gonads open into the kidneys and the right gonad extends
+ into the mantle. Shell thin; animal fixed.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Anomiidae._--Foot small; inferior (right) valve of adult
+ perforated to allow passage of the byssus. _Anomia_; byssus large
+ and calcified; British. _Placuna_; byssus atrophied in adult.
+ _Hypotrema_. _Carolia_. _Ephippium_. _Placunanomia_.
+
+ Sub-order II.--_Arcacea._
+
+ Symmetrical; mantle open throughout its extent; generally with well
+ developed anterior and posterior adductors. The heart lies in the
+ pericardium and gives off two aortae. Gills without interlamellar
+ junctions. Renal and genital apertures separate.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Arcidae._--Borders of the mantle bear compound pallial
+ eyes. The labial palps are direct continuations of the lips. Hinge
+ pliodont, that is to say, it has numerous teeth on either side of
+ the umbones and the teeth are perpendicular to the edge. _Arca_;
+ foot byssiferous; British. _Pectunculus_; foot without byssus;
+ British. _Scaphula_; freshwater; India. _Argina. Bathyarca.
+ Barbatia. Senilia. Anadara. Adacnarca._
+
+ Fam. 2. _Parallelodontidae._--Shell as in _Arca_, but the posterior
+ hinge teeth elongated and parallel to the cardinal border.
+ _Cucullaea_; recent and fossil from the Jurassic. All the other
+ genera are fossil: _Parallelodon_; Devonian to Tertiary.
+ _Carbonaria_; Carboniferous, &c.
+
+ Fam. 3. _Limopsidae._--Shell orbicular, hinge curved, ligament
+ longer transversely than antero-posteriorly; foot elongate, pointed
+ anteriorly and posteriorly. _Limopsis. Trinacria_; Tertiary.
+
+ Fam. 4. _Philobryidae._--Shell thin, very inequilateral, anterior
+ part atrophied, umbones projecting. _Philobrya._
+
+ Fam. 5. _Cyrtodontidae._--Extinct; shell equivalve and
+ inequilateral, short, convex. _Cyrtodonta_; Silurian and Devonian.
+ _Cypricardites_, Silurian. _Vanuxemia_; Silurian.
+
+ Fam. 6. _Trigoniidae._--Shell thick; foot elongated, pointed in
+ front and behind, ventral border sharp; byssus absent. _Trigonia_;
+ shell sub-triangular, umbones directed backwards. This genus was
+ very abundant in the Secondary epoch, especially in Jurassic seas.
+ There are six living species, all in Australian seas. Living
+ specimens were first discovered in 1827. _Schizodus_; Permian.
+ _Myophoria_; Trias.
+
+ Fam. 7. _Lyrodesmidae._--Extinct; shell inequilateral, posterior
+ side shorter; hinge short, teeth in form of a fan. _Lyrodesma_;
+ Silurian.
+
+ Sub-order III.--_Mytilacea._
+
+ Symmetrical, the anterior adductor small or absent. Heart gives off
+ only an anterior aorta. Surface of gills smooth, gill-filaments all
+ similar, with interlamellar junctions. Gonads generally extend into
+ mantle and open at sides of kidneys. Foot linguiform and byssiferous.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Mytilidae._--Shell inequilateral, anterior end short; hinge
+ without teeth; ligament external. Mantle has a posterior suture.
+ Cephalic eyes present. _Mytilus_; British. _Modiola_; British.
+ _Lithodomus. Modiolaria_; British. _Crenella. Stavelia. Dacrydium.
+ Myrina. Idas. Septifer._
+
+ Fam. 2. _Modiolopsidae._--Extinct; Silurian to Cretaceous; adductor
+ muscles sub-equal. _Modiolopsis.--Modiomorpha. Myoconcha._
+
+ Fam. 3. _Pernidae._--Shell very inequilateral; ligament subdivided;
+ mantle open throughout; anterior adductor absent. _Perna.
+ Crenatula_; inhabits sponges. _Bakewellia. Gervilleia_; Trias to
+ Eocene. _Odontoperna_; Trias. _Inoceramus_; Jurassic to Cretaceous.
+
+ Sub-order IV.--_Pectinacea._
+
+ Monomyarian, with open mantle. Gills folded and the filaments at
+ summits and bases of the folds are different from the others. Gonads
+ contained in the visceral mass and generally open into renal cavities.
+ Foot usually rudimentary.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Vulsellidae._--Shell high; hinge toothless; foot without
+ byssus. _Vulsella._
+
+ Fam. 2. _Aviculidae._--Shell very inequilateral; cardinal border
+ straight with two auriculae, the posterior the longer. Foot with a
+ very stout byssus. Gills fused to the mantle. _Avicula_; British.
+ _Meleagrina._ Pearls are obtained from a species of this genus in
+ the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, &c. _Malleus._ Several extinct
+ genera.
+
+ Fam. 3. _Prasinidae._--Shell inequilateral, with anterior umbones
+ and prominent anterior auricula; cardinal border arched. _Prasina._
+
+ Fam. 4. _Pterineidae._--Extinct; Palaeozoic.
+
+ Fam. 5. _Lunulicardiidae._--Extinct; Silurian and Devonian.
+
+ Fam. 6. _Conocardiidae._--Extinct; Silurian to Carboniferous.
+
+ Fam. 7. _Ambonychiidae._--Extinct; Silurian and Devonian. The last
+ two families are dimyarian, with small anterior adductor.
+
+ Fam. 8. _Myalinidae._--Extinct; Silurian to Cretaceous; adductors
+ sub-equal.
+
+ Fam. 9. _Amussiidae._--Shell orbicular, smooth externally with
+ radiating costae internally. Gills without interlamellar junctions.
+ _Amussium._
+
+ Fam. 10. _Spondylidae._--Shell very inequivalve, fixed by the right
+ valve which is the larger. No byssus. _Spondylus_; shell with spiny
+ ribs, adherent by the spines. _Plicatula._
+
+ Fam. 11. _Pectinidae._--Shell with radiating ribs; dorsal border
+ with two auriculae. Foot byssiferous. Mantle borders with well
+ developed eyes. _Pecten_; shell orbicular, with equal auriculae;
+ without a byssal sinus; British. _Chlamys_; anterior auricula the
+ larger and with a byssal sinus; British. _Pedum. Hinnites.
+ Pseudamussium. Camptonectes. Hyalopecten_; abyssal.
+
+ Sub-order V.--_Dimyacea._
+
+ Dimyarian, with orbicular and almost equilateral shell; adherent;
+ hinge without teeth and ligament internal. Gills with free
+ non-reflected filaments.
+
+ Fam. _Dimyidae._--Characters of the sub-order. _Dimya_; recent in
+ abyssal depths and fossil since the Jurassic.
+
+
+Order III. EULAMELLIBRANCHIA
+
+Edges of the mantle generally united by one or two sutures. Two
+adductors usually present. Branchial filaments united by vascular
+inter-filamentar junctions and vascular interlamellar junctions; the
+latter contain the afferent vessels. The gonads always have their own
+proper external apertures.
+
+ Sub-order I.--_Ostraeacea._
+
+ Monomyarian or with a very small anterior adductor. Mantle open; foot
+ rather small; branchiae folded; shell inequivalve.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Limidae._--Shell with auriculae. Foot digitiform, with
+ byssus. Borders of mantle with long and numerous tentacles. Gills
+ not united with mantle. _Lima_; members of this genus form a nest by
+ means of the byssus, or swim by clapping the valves of the shell
+ together. _Limaea._
+
+ Fam. 2. _Ostraeidae._--Foot much reduced and without byssus. Heart
+ usually on the ventral side of the rectum. Gills fused to the
+ mantle. Shell irregular, fixed in the young by the left and larger
+ valve. _Ostraea_; foot absent in the adult; edible and cultivated;
+ some species, as the British _O. edulis_, are hermaphrodite.
+
+ Fam. 3. _Eligmidae._--Extinct; Jurassic.
+
+ Fam. 4. _Pinnidae._--Shell elongated, truncated and gaping
+ posteriorly. Dimyarian, with a very small anterior adductor. Foot
+ with byssus. _Pinna_; British. _Cyrtopinna. Aviculopinna_; fossil,
+ Carboniferous and Permian. _Pinnigena_; Jurassic and Cretaceous.
+ _Atrina_; fossil and recent, from Carboniferous to present day.
+
+ Sub-order II.--_Submytilacea._
+
+ Mantle only slightly closed; usually there is only a single suture.
+ Siphons absent or very short. Gills smooth. Nearly always dimyarian.
+ Shell equivalve, with an external ligament.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Dreissensiidae._--Shell elongated; hinge without teeth;
+ summits of valves with an internal septum. Siphons short.
+ _Dreissensia_; lives in fresh water, but originated from the Caspian
+ Sea; introduced into England about 1824.
+
+ Fam. 2. _Modiolarcidae._--Foot with a plantar surface; the two
+ branchial plates serve as incubatory pouches. _Modiolarca._
+
+ Fam. 3. _Astartidae._--Shell concentrically striated; foot elongate,
+ without byssus. _Astarte_; British. _Woodia. Opis_; Secondary.
+ _Prosocoelus_; Devonian.
+
+ Fam. 4. _Crassatellidae._--Shell thick, with concentric striae,
+ ligament external; foot short. _Crassatella. Cuna._
+
+ Fam. 5. _Carditidae._--Shell thick, with radiating costae; foot
+ carinated, often byssiferous. _Cardita. Thecalia. Milneria._
+ _Venericardia._
+
+ Fam. 6. _Condylocardiidae._--Like _Carditidae_, but with an external
+ ligament. _Condylocardia. Carditella. Carditopsis._
+
+ Fam. 7. _Cyprinidae._--Mantle open in front, with two pallial
+ sutures; external gill-plates smaller than the internal. _Cyprina_;
+ British. _Cypricardia. Pleurophorus_; Devonian to Trias.
+ _Anisocardia_; Jurassic to Tertiary. _Veniella_; Cretaceous to
+ Tertiary.
+
+ Fam. 8. _Isocardiidae._--Mantle largely closed, pedal orifice small;
+ gill-plates of equal size; shell globular, with prominent and coiled
+ umbones. _Isocardia_; British.
+
+ Fam. 9. _Callocardiidae._--Siphons present; external gill-plate
+ smaller than the internal; umbones not prominent. _Callocardia_;
+ abyssal.
+
+ Fam. 10. _Lucinidae._--Labial palps very small; gills without an
+ external plate. _Lucina_; British. _Montacuta_; British.
+ _Cryptodon._
+
+ Fam. 11. _Corbidae._--Shell thick, with denticulated borders; anal
+ aperture with valve but no siphon; foot elongated and pointed.
+ _Corbis. Gonodon_; Trias and Jurassic. _Mutiella_; Upper Cretaceous.
+
+ Fam. 12. _Ungulinidae._--Foot greatly elongated, vermiform, ending
+ in a glandular enlargement. _Ungulina. Diplodonta_; British.
+ _Axinus_; British.
+
+ Fam. 13. _Cyrenellidae._--Two elongated, united, non-retractile
+ siphons; freshwater. _Cyrenella. Joanisiella._
+
+ Fam. 14. _Tancrediidae._--Shell elongate, sub-triangular. Extinct.
+ _Tancredia_; Trias to Cretaceous. _Meekia_; Cretaceous.
+
+ Fam. 15. _Unicardiidae._--Shell sub-orbicular, nearly equilateral,
+ with concentric striae. Extinct, Carboniferous to Cretaceous.
+ _Unicardium. Scaldia. Pseudedmondia._
+
+ Fam. 16. _Leptonidae._--Shell thin; no siphons; foot long and
+ byssiferous; marine; hermaphrodite and incubatory. _Kellya_;
+ British. _Lepton_; commensal with the Crustacean _Gebia_; British.
+ _Erycina_; Tertiary. _Pythina. Scacchia. Sportella. Cyamium._
+
+ Fam. 17. _Galeommidae._--Mantle reflected over shell; shell thin,
+ gaping; adductors much reduced. _Galeomma_; British. _Scintilla.
+ Hindsiella. Ephippodonta_; commensal with shrimp _Axius_. The three
+ following genera with an internal shell probably belong to this
+ family:--_Chlamydoconcha_. _Scioberetia_; commensal with a
+ Spatangid. _Entovalva_; parasitic in _Synapta_.
+
+ Fam. 18. _Kellyellidae._--Shell ovoid; anal aperture with very short
+ siphon; foot elongated. _Kellyella. Turtonia_; British. _Allopagus_;
+ Eocene. _Lutetia_; Eocene.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Lateral view of a _Mactra_, the right valve
+ of the shell and right mantle-flap removed, and the siphons retracted.
+ (From Gegenbaur.)
+
+ br, br´, Outer and inner gill-plates.
+ t, Labial tentacle.
+ ta, tr, Upper and lower siphons.
+ ms, Siphonal muscle of the mantle-flap.
+ ma, Anterior adductor muscle.
+ mp, Posterior adductor muscle.
+ p, Foot.
+ c, Umbo.]
+
+ Fam. 19. _Cyrenidae._--Two siphons, more or less united, with
+ papillose orifices; pallial line with a sinus; freshwater. _Cyrena.
+ Corbicula. Batissa. Velorita. Galatea. Fischeria._
+
+ Fam. 20. _Cycladidae._--One siphon or two free siphons with simple
+ orifices; pallial line simple; hermaphrodite, embryos incubated in
+ external gill-plate; freshwater, _Cyclas_; British. _Pisidium_;
+ British.
+
+ Fam. 21. _Rangiidae._--Two short siphons, shell with prominent
+ umbones and internal ligament. _Rangia_; brackish water, Florida.
+
+ Fam. 22. _Cardiniidae._--Shell elongated, inequilateral. Extinct.
+ _Cardinia_; Trias and Jurassic. _Anthracosia_; Carboniferous and
+ Permian. _Anoplophora_; Trias. _Pachycardia_; Trias.
+
+ Fam. 23. _Megalodontidae._--Shell inequilateral, thick; posterior
+ adductor impression on a myophorous apophysis. Extinct. _Megalodon_;
+ Devonian to Jurassic. _Pachyrisma_; Trias and Jurassic. _Durga_;
+ Jurassic. _Dicerocardium_; Jurassic.
+
+ Fam. 24. _Unionidae._--Shell equilateral; mantle with a single
+ pallial suture and no siphons; freshwater; larva a glochidium.
+ _Unio_; British. _Anodonta_; British. _Pseudodon. Quadrula.
+ Arconaia. Monocondylea. Solenaia. Mycetopus._
+
+ Fam. 25. _Mutelidae._--Differs from _Unionidae_ in having two
+ pallial sutures; freshwater. _Muleta. Pliodon. Spatha. Iridina.
+ Hyria. Castalia. Aplodon. Plagiodon._
+
+ Fam. 26. _Aetheriidae._--Shell irregular, generally fixed in the
+ adult; foot absent; freshwater. _Aetheria. Mulleria. Bartlettia._
+
+ Sub-order III.--_Tellinacea._
+
+ Mantle not extensively closed; two pallial sutures and two
+ well-developed siphons. Gills smooth. Foot compressed and elongated.
+ Labial palps very large. Dimyarian; pallial line with a deep sinus.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Tellinidae._--External gill-plate directed upwards; siphons
+ separate and elongated; foot with byssus; palps very large; ligament
+ external. _Tellina_; British. _Gastrana_; British. _Capsa. Macoma._
+
+ Fam. 2. _Scrobiculariidae._--External gill-plates directed upwards;
+ siphons separate and excessively long; foot without byssus.
+ _Scrobicularia_; estuarine; British. _Syndosmya_; British.
+ _Cumingia_.
+
+ Fam. 3. _Donacidae._--External gill-plate directed ventrally;
+ siphons separate, of moderate length, anal siphon the longer.
+ _Donax_; British. _Iphigeneia._
+
+ Fam. 4. _Mesodesmatidae._--External gill-plate directed ventrally;
+ siphons separate and equal. _Mesodesma. Ervilia_; British.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 29.--The same animal as fig. 28, with its foot
+ and siphons expanded. Letters as in fig. 28. (From Gegenbaur.)]
+
+ Fam. 5. _Cardiliidae._--Shell very high and short; dimyarian;
+ posterior adductor impression on a prominent apophysis. _Cardilia._
+
+ Fam. 6. _Mactridae._--External gill-plate directed ventrally;
+ siphons united, invested by a chitinous sheath; foot long, bent at
+ an angle, without byssus. _Mactra_; British (figs. 28, 29).
+ _Mulinia. Harvella. Raeta. Eastonia. Heterocardia. Vanganella._
+
+ Sub-order IV.--_Veneracea._
+
+ Two pallial sutures, siphons somewhat elongated and partially or
+ wholly united. Gills slightly folded. A bulb on the posterior aorta.
+ Ligament external.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Veneridae._--Foot well developed; pallial sinus shallow or
+ absent. _Venus_; British. _Dosinia_; British. _Tapes_; British.
+ _Cyclina. Lucinopsis_; British. _Meretrix. Circe_; British.
+ _Venerupis._
+
+ Fam. 2. _Petricolidae._--Boring forms with a reduced foot; shell
+ elongated, with deep pallial sinus. _Petricola. P. pholadiformis_,
+ originally an inhabitant of the coast of the United States, has been
+ acclimatized for some years in the North Sea.
+
+ Fam. 3. _Glaucomyidae._--Siphons very long and united; foot small;
+ shell thin, with deep pallial sinus; fresh or brackish water.
+ _Glaucomya. Tanysiphon._
+
+ Sub-order V.--_Cardiacea._
+
+ Two pallial sutures. Siphons generally short. Foot cylindrical, more
+ or less elongated, byssogenous. Gills much folded. Shell equivalve,
+ with radiating costae and external ligament.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Cardiidae._--Mantle slightly closed; siphons very short,
+ surrounded by papillae which often bear eyes; foot very long,
+ geniculated; pallial line without sinus; two adductors, _Cardium_;
+ British. _Pseudo-kellya. Byssocardium_; Eocene. _Lithocardium_;
+ Eocene.
+
+ Fam. 2. _Limnocardiidae._--Siphons very long, united throughout;
+ shell gaping; two adductors; brackish waters. _Limnocardium_;
+ Caspian Sea and fossil from the Tertiary. _Archicardium_; Tertiary.
+
+ Fam. 3. _Tridacnidae._--Mantle closed to a considerable extent;
+ apertures distant from each other; no siphons; a single adductor;
+ shell thick. _Tridacna. Hippopus._
+
+ Sub-order VI.--_Chamacea._
+
+ Asymmetrical, inequivalve, fixed, with extensive pallial sutures; no
+ siphons. Two adductors. Foot reduced and without byssus. Shell thick,
+ without pallial sinus.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Chamidae._--Shell with sub-equal valves and prominent
+ umbones more or less spirally coiled; ligament external. _Chama.
+ Diceras_; Jurassic. _Requienia_; Cretaceous. _Matheronia_;
+ Cretaceous.
+
+ Fam. 2. _Caprinidae._--Shell inequivalve; fixed valve spiral or
+ conical; free valve coiled or spiral; Cretaceous. _Caprina._
+ _Caprotina. Caprinula_, &c.
+
+ Fam. 3. _Monopleuridae._--Shell very inequivalve; fixed valve
+ conical or spiral; free valve operculiform; Cretaceous.
+ _Monopleuron. Baylea._ The two following families, together known
+ as Rudistae, are closely allied to the preceding; they are extinct
+ marine forms from Secondary deposits. They were fixed by the conical
+ elongated right valve; the free left valve is not spiral, and is
+ furnished with prominent apophyses to which the adductors were
+ attached.
+
+ Fam. 4. _Radiolitidae._--Shell conical or biconvex, without canals
+ in the external layer. _Radiolites. Biradiolites._
+
+ Fam. 5. _Hippuritidae._--Fixed valve long, cylindro-conical, with
+ three longitudinal furrows which correspond internally to two
+ pillars for support of the siphons. _Hippurites. Arnaudia._
+
+ Sub-order VII.--_Myacea._
+
+ Mantle closed to a considerable extent; siphons well developed; gills
+ much folded and frequently prolonged into the branchial siphon. Foot
+ compressed and generally byssiferous. Shell gaping, with a pallial
+ sinus.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Psammobiidae._--Siphons very long and quite separate; foot
+ large; shell oval, elongated, ligament external. _Psammobia_;
+ British. _Sanguinolaria. Asaphis. Elizia. Solenotellina._
+
+ Fam. 2. _Myidae._--Siphons united for the greater part of their
+ length, and with a circlet of tentacles near their extremities; foot
+ reduced; shell gaping; ligament internal. _Mya_; British. _Sphenia_;
+ British. _Tugonia. Platyodon. Cryptomya._
+
+ Fam. 3. _Corbulidae._--Shell sub-trigonal, inequivalve; pallial
+ sinus shallow; siphons short, united, completely retractile; foot
+ large, pointed, often byssiferous. _Corbulomya. Paramya. Erodona_
+ and _Himella_ are fluviatile forms from South America.
+
+ Fam. 4. _Lutrariidae._--Mantle extensively closed; a fourth pallial
+ aperture behind the foot; siphons long and united; shell elongated,
+ a spoon-shaped projection for the ligament on each valve.
+ _Lutraria_; British. _Tresus. Standella._
+
+ Fam. 5. _Solenidae._--Elongated burrowing forms; foot cylindrical,
+ powerful, without byssus; shell long, truncated and gaping at each
+ end. _Solenocurtus_; British. _Tagelus_; estuarine. _Ceratisolen_;
+ British. _Cultellus_; British. _Siliqua. Solen_; British. _Ensis_;
+ British.
+
+ Fam. 6. _Saxicavidae._--Mantle extensively closed, with a small
+ pedal orifice; siphons long, united, covered by a chitinous sheath;
+ gills prolonged into the branchial siphon; foot small; shell gaping.
+ _Saxicava_; British. _Glycimeris. Cyrtodaria._
+
+ Fam. 7. _Gastrochaenidae._--Shell thin, gaping widely at the
+ posterior end; anterior adductor much reduced; mantle extensively
+ closed; siphons long, united. _Gastrochaena_; British. _Fistulana._
+
+ Sub-order VIII.--_Adesmacea._
+
+ Ligament wanting; shell gaping, with a styloid apophysis in the
+ umbonal cavities. Gills prolonged into the branchial siphon. Mantle
+ largely closed, siphons long, united. Foot short, truncated, discoid,
+ without byssus.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Pholadidae._--Shell containing all the organs; heart
+ traversed by the rectum; two aortae. Shell with a pallial sinus;
+ dorsal region protected by accessory plates. _Pholas_; British.
+ _Pholadidea_; British. _Jouannetia. Xylophaga_; British. _Martesia._
+
+ Fam. 2. _Teredinidae._--Shell globular, covering only a small
+ portion of the vermiform body; heart on ventral side of rectum; a
+ single aorta; siphons long, united and furnished with two posterior
+ calcareous "pallets." _Teredo_; British. _Xylotrya._
+
+ Sub-order IX.--_Anatinacea._
+
+ Hermaphrodite, the ovaries and testes distinct, with separate
+ apertures. Foot rather small. Mantle frequently presents a fourth
+ orifice. External gill-plate directed dorsally and without reflected
+ lamella. Hinge without teeth.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Thracidae._--Mantle with a fourth aperture; siphons long,
+ quite separate, completely retractile and invertible. _Thracia_;
+ British. _Asthenothaerus._
+
+ Fam. 2. _Periplomidae._--Siphons separate, naked, completely
+ retractile but not invertible. _Periploma. Cochlodesma. Tyleria._
+
+ Fam. 3. _Anatinidae._--Siphons long, united, covered by a chitinous
+ sheath, not completely retractile. _Anatina. Plectomya_; Jurassic
+ and Cretaceous.
+
+ Fam. 4. _Pholadomyidae._--Mantle with fourth aperture; siphons very
+ long, completely united, naked, incompletely retractile; foot small,
+ with posterior appendage. _Pholadomya._
+
+ Fam. 5. _Arcomyidae._--Extinct; Secondary and Tertiary. _Arcomya._
+ _Goniomya._
+
+ Fam. 6. _Pholadellidae._--Extinct; Palaeozoic. _Pholadella.
+ Phytimya. Allorisma._
+
+ Fam. 7. _Pleuromyidae._--Extinct; Secondary. _Pleuromya. Gresslya._
+ _Ceromya._
+
+ Fam. 8. _Pandoridae._--Shell thin, inequivalve, free; ligament
+ internal; siphons very short. _Pandora_; British. _Coelodon._
+ _Clidiophora._
+
+ Fam. 9. _Myochamidae._--Shell very inequivalve, solid, with a
+ pallial sinus; siphons short; foot small. _Myochama. Myodora._
+
+ Fam. 10. _Chamostraeidae._--A fourth pallial aperture present; pedal
+ aperture small; siphons very short and separate; shell fixed by the
+ right valve, irregular. _Chamostraea._
+
+ Fam. 11. _Clavagellidae._--Pedal aperture very small, foot
+ rudimentary; valves continued backwards into a calcareous tube
+ secreted by the siphons. _Clavagella. Brechites (Aspergillum)._
+
+ Fam. 12. _Lyonsiidae._--Foot byssiferous; siphons short, invertible.
+ _Lyonsia_; British. _Entodesma. Mytilimeria._
+
+ Fam. 13. _Verticordiidae._--Siphons short, gills papillose; foot
+ small; shell globular. Many species abyssal. _Verlicordia._
+ _Euciroa. Lyonsiella. Halicardia._
+
+
+Order IV. SEPTIBRANCHIA
+
+Gills have lost their respiratory function, and are transformed into a
+muscular septum on each side between mantle and foot. All marine, live
+at considerable depths, and are carnivorous.
+
+ Fam. 1. _Poromyidae._--Siphons short and separate; branchial siphon
+ with a large valve; branchial septum bears two groups of orifices on
+ either side; hermaphrodite. _Poromya_; British. _Dermatomya.
+ Liopistha_; Cretaceous.
+
+ Fam. 2. _Cetoconchidae._--Branchial septum with three groups of
+ orifices on each side; siphons short, separate, branchial siphon with
+ a valve. _Cetoconcha (Silenia)._
+
+ Fam. 3. _Cuspidariidae._--Branchial septum with four or five pairs of
+ very narrow symmetrical orifices; siphons long, united, their
+ extremities surrounded by tentacles; sexes separate. _Cuspidaria_;
+ British.
+
+ AUTHORITIES.--T. Barrois, "Le Stylet crystallin des Lamellibranches,"
+ _Revue biol. Nord France_, i. (1890); Jameson, "On the Origin of
+ Pearls," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London, 1902); R. H. Peck, "The Minute
+ Structure of the Gills of Lamellibranch Mollusca," _Quart. Journ.
+ Micr. Sci._ xvii. (1877); W. G. Ridewood, "On the Structure of the
+ Gills of the Lamellibranchia," _Phil. Trans. B._ cxcv. (1903); K.
+ Mitsukuri, "On the Structure and Significance of some aberrant forms
+ of Lamellibranchiate Gills," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xxi. (1881);
+ A. H. Cooke, "Molluscs," _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. iii.; Paul
+ Pelseneer, "Mollusca," _Treatise on Zoology_, edited by E. Ray
+ Lankester, pt. v. (E. R. L.; J. T. C.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 16, Slice 1, by Various
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41902 ***
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